*- - *** - . - - --- v.--> !, S -- . - - ~ : - - , ----------—-----------...-------- - * §s “. . . ... . . ; - * * , * - - - - sº º 3. ', '' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - - . , .** - - - * - • J – - _ºr. - -- * ~ ! '-. § * - t - - - r" * * - \ : s J & * | Jº" | - t tº-: le i - . . ºxy' - - *, !, i! | t - - re.” - --- - 3, ' , — — — . - * * —- PS *, - *2- - - * º ºrs' ...sº - ..ºgº *s 2 . " A -- - -, ^ - j."º.’ º º ..i Y —f Fa r - -: * f 2, 3 º Kºłº-hºt ºf a 3, cº-ºº!, .* * Rathbun’s Oil Data Leaflets COPYRIGHTED 1921 1922, 1923, 1924, 1925 PETROLEUM AGE 28 East Jackson Blvd. Chicago, Ill., U.S.A. “Car Foundry.” Tank Cars For over fifty years the standard for dependable operation, low cost of upkeep, and durability, as proven by users' service records. Always get a “Car Foundry” Quotation American Car and Foundry Company 165 Broadway Railway Exchange Building 915 Olive St. New York Chicago St. Louis Data received too late for printing in serial order appears in last 20 pages. ſk==== º §§eº-E:=#6)×(Gæ= 22&sºs S-S-S- º, #| | * lºg, º º | º ºrg f º / .4 ſ Úpecifications We cordially invite jobbers everywhere to get abreast of the specialized service we have carefully developed in their sales inter- ests—a service possessing many unique features of co-operation that spells better, more profitable business for you. Backed by our now complete and unexcelled lubricant com- pounding plant facilities we solicit your inquiries and specifications for JEWELINE Oils and Greases in light, medium and heavy bodies. Whatever your requirements in lubricants we can meet them satisfactorily in quality, grade and price. Send for samples. Straight Run Gasoline Distillates Kerosene Naphthas Fuel Oil Road Oil The Jewett & Sowers Oil Co. 633 W. Pershing Road CHICAGO, ILLINOIS Manufacturers of f & * Put up in any quan- | | Our Painting Depart- tities under your own EW ment will prepare your design or duplicate brand name if desired. your present one. ſſe Câhºſeez J/my O||_S and GREASES Sºtº - PREFACE rººf, , , , * -- ºr sº. ' ". . . . . . . . Lºvr ºff- * |-- 3 ºf . , "º There has been and is now demand for a reference work in which the more important factors of the oil industry are given in condensed form; a kind of “pocket companion” of tables and Other data as to petroleum engineering, sales, production and the like. - - PETROLEUM AGE intends thus to cover every branch of the industry— lubrication, fuel oil, motor fuels, road making material, refinery practice, sales data, Service station notes, drilling and locating Operations, elements of geology, et Çetera. The data, sheets will be so arranged that they will be of value not Only to the engineer and Superintendent but to the sales department, office manager, garage operator, consumer and chemist. Owing to their compact form the data sheets make it possible for the traveling engineer or salesman to carry the essen- tials of a library with him. t As far as possible, graphical charts will be used in place of numérical calcula- tions, for the graphs not only save time but also reduce the liability of error. With each graph will be given the rule or formula by means of which it is computed so that quantities that lie beyond the range of the charts may calculated. In addition to the graphs will be many tables, covering the specifications for the various petroleum products—conversion tables for density, temperature and metric units; state laws, governmental requirements, tank capacities, basic unit prices, heat contents of fuels, specific gravities, still and condenser proportions, chemical properties and composi- tion, et cetera. A glossary will be an important feature of the work; in this part of the data sheets will be found approved definitions of various items related to oil production, lubrication and combustion. These data sheets will give all divisions like representation. For example, PETROLEUM AGE will not run a lubrication series until that subject is ex- hausted. Data as to fuel or conversion tables, for instance, would follow. INDEXING AND CLASSIFICATION. Owing to the many branches and subdivisions of petroleum products a compre- hensive index is difficult. Much study was given to this subject before a system was determined. It was considered best to classify the general heads, each being given a characteristic letter for identification. These heads are listed alphabetically for convenience. By turning to a letter you will be able to immediately find the subject in which you are interested. In nearly every instance, subdivisions will be necessary. These sufbheads will be indicated by a number. Thus, for example, the subject * of GASOLINE PRODUCTION.—we have the class letter (K) and a number of minor subjects such as Distillation, Manufacturing Operations, Cracking Processes which would be represented by numerals. Following the brief index given the index character for Gasoline Production, Synthetic Gasolines, would read: (K5). If thefe is more than one sheet under this subhead (5) the sheet number would be adde as in (K5-2) where 2 is the sheet number. * , l/ While this arrangement may seem complicated it is easy to understand and is very flexible. It permits addition to or subtraction from the number of sheets in the book without disturbing the sequence. In filing first locate under the class letter and then after the next lower subdivision number and them after the last sheet number. Each data sheet will bear its index symbol plainly marked in a con- spicuous place so that it may be easily located. Owing to the necessity for expansion, for supplementary sheets, it will be necessary to allow for ‘‘ expansion gaps” between the various sets of sheets. Thus, there must be room for supplementary sheets so that future developments may be recorded without destroying continuity. If you receive sheets (H2-1, H2-2, H2-3, H2-4), for example, then sheets such as (H2-6, H2-7, H2-8, H2-9), do not think that you have missed the intermediate sheets (H2-5) for this has been “skipped’’ to provide for future development or addition. * With the data sheets referring to lubricating oils will be included recommenda- tions for different classes and makes of machinery, analysis of the troubles en- countered because of improper oils and suggestions for betterment. Unless one is thoroughly acquainted with the machine under operation “trouble shooting” is difficult and tedious; this is obviated when one is provided with a guide or “trouble’’’ chart in which the method of procedure is arranged in order. As an example, if a bearing is found to be heating turn to the chart describing that type of bearing and find the principal derangements, even though they are of a mechanical nature and have nothing to do directly with the lubricant or lubricating system. If you have rules, formulae or cost sheets on any subject related to the petroleum industry send your data to PETROLEUM AGE for publication. Fig- ures relating to refinery engineering, cost systems, properties of lubricating oils and greases or fuel oils would be especially acceptable. The success of a plan like this depends to a great extent on the co-operation of manufacturers and their technical staffs. Credit will be given to all contributors. f | O (A) SALES ORGANIZATION, Sales- men's Data, Markets For Oils, Price Lists, Condensed Sales Information. INDEX (B) CHEMISTRY of Petroleum, Composition, Chemical Analysis, General Chemical Properties of Hydröcarbons. (C) PHYSICAL Properties, Density, * Wiscosity, Basic Physical Units, et cetera. (D) COMMERCIAL Products, Gasoline, Naphtha, Kerosene, Gas oil, et cetera, General Properties, Derivation, Per- centages and Quantities in Various Crudes. (E) CRUDE OIL, Properties of Oil from Various Fields, Commercial Contents, Heat Values, et cetera. \ (F) FIELD NOTES, Wells, Drilling Equipment, Derricks, Storage, Cas- ing, Spudding In, Operation in Gen- eral. (G) GEOLOGY, Formations, Oil Sands, General Geological Data. (H) NATURAL GAs, Properties of Gas, Heat Contents, Composition, et cetera. (HH) SPINNING MACHINE LUBRI. / CATING OIL, Miscellaneous Lubri- cating Oils. (I) CRUDE STORAGE, Pipe Lines, Losses, . Protection, Tank Construc- tion, Pumping, Costs, Estimates. (II) SHIPPING, Routing, Tariff, et Q /2 c ( 7 -º-; ' '... . . . - (J) REFINERY OPERATIONS, Gen. eral Notes, Elements of Contrue- tion, Flow Sheets, Equipment, Capac- ity, Operation, et cetera. (JJ) REFINERY ENGINEERING, Calculations and Design, Still Ca- pacity, Condenser Calculations, Stacks, Power Plant, Estimates and Costs. (K) GASOLINE PRODUCTION, Dis- tillation, Manufacturing Operations, Cracking Processes, Synthetic Gaso- lines, Burton and Rittmann Proc- esses, et cetera. (KK) GASOLINE AND NAPHTHA Properties and Specifications, Test- ing, Gravity, End Point, Laboratory Processes, et cetera, Naphtha and other Light Distillates. (L) KEROSENE, Properties, Specifica- tions, Laws, Tests, Gas Oil, et cetera. (LL) FUEL OIL, Boiler Fuels, Burn- ers, Specifications, Heating Value, ‘Compositions, Origin, Tests. (M) DIESEL FUEL OIL, Specifications, Tests, General Notes. (MM) ROAD OIL, Specifications for Road Oil, Estimates, Costs. (N) ASPHALT, PARAFFIN, PETR). LEUM COKE, Heavy Residuals, Specifications, Uses and Tests. (NN) CUTTING OILS, TEXTILE OILS, NEUTRALS, Miscellaneous cetera. Oils and Derivatives. - (O) VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL OILS, Castor Oil, Neatsfoot Oil, et cetera. (OO) COMBUSTION, Theory of Com- bustion, Products of Combustion, Air Required, Thermal Calculations, Heat Units, Power and Heat, Tests. (P) STEAM PLANTS, Types of Boilers, Burners, Settings, Stacks, Storage, Costs, Economics. (PP) INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES, Principles, Cycles, Com- bustion, Thermodynamics, Carbure- tion, Injection, Compression, Notes on Engines. (Q) DIESEL ENGINES, Special Notes. (QQ) B E A R IN G LUBRICATION PRINCIPLES, The Bearing, Pro- jected Area, Journals, Rubbing Speed, Bearings Practice, Unit Pres- sures, Calculations. (R) LUBRICATING OIL PROPER- TIES, Wiscosity, , Density, Flash, Test, Commercial Grading, Specifica- tions for Tests, Brands. (RR) STEAM ENGINE LUBRICAT- ING OIL, Cylinder Conditions, Su- perheat, Compounds, Various Speci- fications for Steam Cylinder Oils, Oiling Systems. (S) STEAM TURBINE OILS. Service, Requirements, General Specifications and Tests, Oiling Systems. (SS) AIR COMPRESSOR AND AIR MOTOR Lubricating Oils, Conditions in Compressor Cylinder, Specifica- tions and Choice of Oil, Oils for Air Motors. f O (T) REFRIGERATION LU BRIC A. TION OILS, Ammonia Systems, Carbon Dioxide Systems, Lubrication | Requirements. (TT) GAS ENGINE LUBRICATION, Oils for Gas, Gasoline, Kerosene, and Fuel Oil Engines, Tractors, Auto- mobiles, et cetera. ' (U) ELECTRICAL OILS, Transformer Oil, Switch Oil, et cetera. (UU) RAILWAY OILS, for Lubrica- tion, Car Oils, Loco Oil, et cetera. (V) MENSURATION, Units of Meas. ure, Conversion Tables, Various Arithmetical Rules and Calculations. (VV) GREASES AND SOLID LUBRI- CANTS, Cup Grease, Transmission | Greases, Graphite, Oildag, et cetera. (W) OIL AND GASOLINE STORAGE. AND SERVICE, Tanks for Storage, Pumps, Service Stations, Service Sta tion Data, Location, Costs, Opera tion, calculators on Base Price. (WW) TANK WAGON DATA, Trucks, Tanks, Haulage Cost, Routing, Sales, et cetera. (X) OIL ECONOMICS, Production and Demand by Years, Distribution, Unit Costs, et cetera. (XX) LUBRICATING O IL CON- SERVATION, Filters, Purifiers, et Cetera. (Y) FUEL CONSERVATION, saving of fuel in plant, storage waste, leak. age, evaporation, et cetera. SALES AND SALES ORGANIZATION (A-1-1) (Personnel) petroleum products, but he must also be well versed in the application of the oils and the devices on which they are to be used. It is not sufficient to be informed simply as to the different grades produced by his firm and the prices, but he must also be capable of recommending the proper product for some special service or to meet some Condition that may arise. To a certain extent he must be versed in oil technology, the meaning and derivation of the units used in specifications and the general scheme of Operation of the machines in which the oil is to be used. In reality, the efficient of 1 Salesman is a Sales engineer and must be capable of analyzing conditions as well as reciting the sales “talk” ordinarily imparted to him by his firm. All this means study, Systematic study of the various oil trade journals and textbooks. Gº: REQUIREMENTS—An oil salesman is not concerned alone with oil or It is not necessary that the salesman train himself in the finer engineering details nor enter extensively the development of Scientific data, but rather to train himself to a broad and general idea, as to the manufacture and application of petroleum products. In days past a knowledge of oil technology was not considered necessary nor desirable; the principal endeavor was to create a pleasing personality and to enter- tain the trade. In recent years there have been so many mechanical developments and so much development in the application of oils that rigid specifications are issued by all large buyers and a thorough understanding of these specifications calls for a certain knowledge of the composition of oils and their physical characteristics. The modern salesman should be conversant with such terms as Specific gravity. Baumé gravity, flash point, chill point, viscosity, end point, fractional distillation et cetera; not only that, but he should be able to use this knowledge in explaining the merits of his wares to those persons not informed in the technic of the oil industry. There has not been enough accurate and definite information given to the public on the Subject of oils and their uses; the salesman should be the factor in educating the public to the proper use of petroleum products. There has been so much confusion and mis- understanding caused by the primary knowledge of the average oil salesman that he is looked at Suspiciously by those who have not thoroughly studied the subject of oil. A man selling fuel oil should understand the general principles of combustion, the production of heat energy from the fuel, the furnace arrangement best adapted for the fuel, draft, and the physical properties of the oils handled by his firm as well as those of his competitors. In other words, he should be well informed in a general way as to furnace construction and boiler room economics. When handling lubricating oils the salesman should understand the elementary functions of a number of the more common machines such as the automobile, tractor, Steam engine and steam turbine. His knowledge should embrace the elements of mechanics as well as the technical side of the oil industry. Oil sales are a diversified science and requires constant application to keep abreast of the times. In addition to selling oil it is usually expected that the salesman sells a certain amount of personal service; that is, is able to detect the cause of lubrication troubles and to suggest remedies for them. A Salesman with no knowledge of lubrication is at a disadvantage when selling against a competing Salesman who knows lubrication. In the same way a man is at a disadvantage in Selling fuel oil or gasoline unless he supply proof of his statements in engineering terms and according to standard practice. This is not “theoretical”; it is becoming most practical. In selling electrical generators or steam engines the sales engineer representing the manufacturer must be able to speak in terms of volts, kilowatts, frequency, horsepower et cetera, and must give his prospective patron a definite idea as to what would be furnished. This should be true when selling oil but unfortunately it is not. * Copyright 1922 COMPILED BY Peščišūmī’ſſae J. B. RATHE UN A-1-1 SALES AND SALEs of GANIZATION (A-1-2) (Personnel) ELECTION OF SALESMEN- In the mechanical and electrical industries, especially with firms building heavy and expensive machinery, the salesmen are selected With regard to their technical knowledge rather than their commercial or sales experience; the line that they handle is complicated and in most cases must be built to meet some service. Thus, in such industries the salesmen are usually taken from the engineering department and hence are called “sales engineers.” While their opinion on a new project is not by any means final or binding, yet they have had experience and training enough to open negotiations along the proper channels. They can Suggest the proper class of equipment to be installed, make preliminary estimates as to the layout and approximate expense and in many other ways be of considerable service to the prospective customer. A contrary practice is in the automobile industry and oil trades, for there it is common to find that a salesman is selected for his sales experience and knowledge rather than his knowledge of the product that he is about to sell. There are some exceptions Of course, but in the main this is true. In both of the industries mentioned the new salesman starts with not much more than a catalogue knowledge of the wares that he is selling; when he “gets up against” some unusual problem he must refer the matter to the Company experts, thus causing loss of time and trouble to the buyer. While it is too much to expect of a salesman that he have a complete technical knowl- edge of cars or oils, yet at the same time it would not take much effort on his part to gain sufficient information to solve the greater number of unusual problems. Oil is at least a semitechnical product and should not be handled with the price book as a basis of argument. Motor truck manufacturers have long since departed from the practice so common annong the makers of pleasure cars in respect to the employment of Salesmen. A motor truck salesman must thoroughly understand the economics of traffic and truck- ing problems, the technical characteristics of the trucks on the market and the selection of proper types to obtain the most economical results. It is not a question of selling a truck at any cost, at least with the reputable builders, for such sales generally destroy opportunities for “repeat” orders. I have often seen a truck salesman refuse to sell a truck Of the type desired by his proSpect for the reason that he knew that Such a Sale would lead to trouble and would discredit his line. Manufacturers of power appliances such as Westinghouse, General Electric company, Allis-Chalmers and others only sell what they know would prove serviceable under certain conditions. They are building for the future. To discriminate in this way means that the salesman must know what he is talking about from a technical standpoint. Salesmanship has been defined as “the ability to inspire the confidence of the pros- pective purchaser in the goods, the company in the service offered.” Such confidence is inspired only when the salesman is thoroughly acquainted with his line and its applica- tion. New and interesting facts regarding the characteristics and use of a product and novel applications of a product to the requirements of the prospective purchaser create a favorable impression and indicate to the prospect that an attempt is being made to serve his interests as well as to make a sale. Such suggestions and, interesting facts are of course possible only when the salesman is thoroughly “at home” on the subject of his product. To the writer's mind far too much attention has been paid to the social and oratorical end of the sales profession and not enough to the vital facts concerning the subject of the conference. It is difficult to believe that lasting trade could be built on personal appeal and the generalities of a purely Sales talk. To begin, the salesman should thoroughly inform himself as to the working princi- ples of the most common mechanisms, the automobile, gas engine, steam engine, electric generators, steam turbines and air compressors. Such information is easily and tluickly obtained by direct association and from various and excellent primary books. Copyright 1921 COMPILED BY A 1 2 PETRO LEUM J. B. RATHEUN sº ºr - { f \ SALES AND SALES ORGANIZATION (A-10-1) *3 (Notes for Salesmen) - OTE–The following vital points in the conduct and practice of oil salesmen have N been compiled from many addresses and articles by the sales managers of Inany well known oil companies. ... Of course they are general in nature but in many cases are capable of practical appäcation by the beginner in oil sales. Most everyone likes to talk and learn, hence the “prospect” should be encouraged to ask questions and to become informed as to the details of your firm and the “line” that you are handling. Avoid advising a man as to the method of conducting his business. For every man that would welcome such suggestions there are 10 who would be affronted. If you expect to interest a prospect you must be interested in what he has to Say. Often a good listener is more successful than a good talker. Avoid arguments over trivial matters or things which are not concerned with the business at hand. Better no arguments at all. If the prospect believes the White Sox will win the pennant, he's happy with his expectation—don't disturb him. No sale is ever consummated without inspiring confidence in the buyer. The buyer must be confident that the line is right, that the price is right and that your product is the one he needs. To be valuable in any sales force the salesman must possess initiative. He must create jobs for himself, keep busy and be an inspiration to others. Don't be a “knocker.” Every competitor must have some merit or he would not keep you working so hard for Orders. Be a salesman and create a demand. Don’t degenerate into an order-taker. Study your product and that of your competitors, always look for some point of superiority by which you could increase the interest in your visits. There is always some difference between what are apparently identical products. t -- Study methods of using your product, study the market for new fields or appliances by which your product may be used more effectively and economically. • A Successful salesman must have, self-esteem and confidence if he merits his Vocation. - One must be in love with one’s profession and the job. We must not harbor thoughts of better lines and better jobs if we are to succeed in our present work. Don’t depend on your price book to “pull you through,” as is done by salesmen in so many other lines. It is not a Bible on which you may depend to “put across” your Sales. Confidence is the basis of salesmanship. A salesman must have confidence in him- self, his firm and the product that he is handling. . * Don’t neglect a purchasing agent or customer simply because he iS COnnected with or operates a small company. These men often develop an unexpected capacity for growth. * & Don't assume an air of pompous dignity in an attempt to club the prospect into silence or to have him adopt your viewpoint. Copyright 1921 • COMPILED BY PETRO LEU M J. B. RATHE UN A-10–1 sALEs AND SALEs of GANIZATION (A-5-1) (Sales Talks) TEREOTYPED SALES TALKS-By this is meant a fixed form of sales talk conn- mitted to memory which covers all of the salient points of approach and argument. In general it is the sort of oration delivered by book salesmen, Insurance men, and those in other “one call” lines where only a single sale may be expected. While the Stereotyped sales talk may be commended for certain reasons, yet all of its virtues are lost if it is delivered in a parrot-like sing-song tone. A talk prepared according to a form and carefully rehearsed will sometimes produce a better impression than the haphazard talk delivered by an inexperienced salesman, providing that it is given in such a way that the preparation is not too apparent. It must be presented as if it Were the first time the salesman had offered it and as if the talk were prompted entirely by the prospective purchaser’s conditions and needs. Unless care is taken it will pro- duce the Same effect as a printed circular letter and in many instances will be resented by the recipient. This form most certainly should not be used where “repeat” orders are expected nor where the “prospect” indicates extensive knowledge of the subject under discus- sion. There is nothing more discouraging to a salesman than to have a well informed prospect “tear into the middle” of his recitation with a few pertinent questions. This is not applicable to firms employing purchasing agents, the latter having an almost uncanny instinct in picking fixed recitations from the voluntary and inspired original Sales talk. In the preparation of the one-call sales talk it is the best plan to write it carefüIly according to a schedule of leading points. Writing always impresses more firmly a sub- ject on the mind and at the same time enables one to pick more easily weak spots In an argument and analyze more carefully methods and means of approach. With this written argument complete the salesman should practice it until it is part of himself and may be entered or discontinued at any point without confusion or apparent contra- diction. After a few experiments with this first draft the salesman may easily find portions which have the greater appeal and “punch” and then revise his talk accord- ingly. ONE-CALL SALES TALKS-One of the first and most important steps in planning a one-call sales talk or an introduction to any call for that matter is first to obtain the whole attention of the prospect without awaking combativeness or boredom. In the preliminary stages this is of course most quickly and effectively performed by a fixed form of introduction, just mentioned. When properly prepared this would present the most important factors with the least loss of time and with the best possible construc- tion and “punch.” From this point the fixed form may be continued if considered advisable or may be varied to Suit the apparent trend of the purchaser’s mind. It is always possible to arouse interest that would later lead to arguments and antagonism, but it is not so simple to introduce novel topics without the ultimate danger of “tread- ing on someone's toes.” To arouse interest means a departure from the convêntional order of things; when one once drops conventional belief he is likely later to butt into a stone wall of someone’s prejudice. Unless one is thoroughly informed as to local condi- tions and the business connections of the prospect it is rather a dangerous proceeding to carry the idea of originality too far. Emphasize the merits of the product you are Selling, its merits and its leading characteristics. Follow with a commentary on the reputation for service enjoyed by your firm or lead with this factors if selling a Standard marketable product. In other words, sell your company to the bitiyer, always placing his interests in the foreground. Prices and the obligations of the purchaser are the last items to be considered. When the buyer is impressed with the quality of your product, its adaptability to his purposes and the reliability and service offered by your firm it is far easier to broach the matter of price than if the price were considered one of the leading topics. Copyright 1921 COMPILED BY A-5 WPETROLEUM J. B. RATHEUN –5–1 . * } * * ºr | PETROLEUM CHEMISTRY (B-1-1) * (General Chemistry) 1DEFINITIONS. Chemistry is that branch of natural science which treats of the kinds and properties of matter, the changes that the matter undergoes when two or more forms of matter enter into eombination to form a third form of matter, and the laws and theories governing the action and changes in matter. Petroleum Chemistry treats more particularly of the composition and laws governing petroleum and its products. MATTER may be defined as being anything that occupies space and is popularly known as a “Material” or “Substance.” Matter also possesses the property of weight, and of resistance to deformation of form, as well as many other properties which are to be described later. Matter or substance is not considered as being a continuous or homogeneous structure but is built up of aggregations of Smaller masses of matter called “molecules” and “atoms.” The molecules exhibit the same properties as the bulk of the matter under consideration, but these molecules may be further subdivided into “Elements” or “Atoms,” which may possess entirely different characteristics than the molecules. The atom in turn may be further subdivided into still smaller particles called “Electrons,” but the latter have no particular interest to us in ordinary chemical operations. Matter is therefore an aggregation of molecules, which is appreciable to the senses or which may be made appreciable to the senses through indirect means. Matter is recognized and distinguished by its PROPERTIES, or such evidences offered to the senses as taste, color, weight, impenetrability, odor, resistance, or to its behavior under the influence of heat, light or electricity, or to its effects upon dissimilar masses of matter. Matter exists in a multitude of forms, each form being distinguishable by some difference in color, taste, weight, etc. Thus, water, iron, gasoline, lubricating oil, and brass are different forms of matter easily distinguished from one another by some peculiarity of form, taste, resistance, or other “Property.” When we speak of the “Properties” of a given form of matter we consider the peculiar features which distinguish it from other forms of matter. Matter is subject to two classes of change—physical and chemical. Thus, a PHYSICAL change denotes a change in color, hardness, melting temperature, density, etc., or a change produeed by some physical agency such as heat or electricity which does not affect the actual composition or the characteristic features of the molecule. Thus, a physical change is accomplished when ice is melted or when steel is hardened. In such a case, the original properties of the matter reappear after the cause of the change has been removed or the cause is reversed. A CHEMICAL change affects the essential features of the substance, a change in the essential properties, and a change in the number of atoms contained in the molecule. A removal of the cause of chemical change does not restore the original properties of the matter. Physical and chemical changes often accompany one another and are closely related. Sometimes they are inseparable and again they may accompany one another only under Special conditions. As an example, a physical change takes place when ordinary salt, is dissolved in water, the solid salt in this case being converted into a liquid, but with the essential properties of the salt. and water unchanged. They both may be restored to their original form by the application of heat. If, however, the salt is poured into sulphuric acid we have a chemical change as well as a physical change, for in this case the sulphuric acid chemically combines with the salt to. form hydrochloric acid and sodium sulphate, two substances which have entirely different properties than the originals and which are not changed back into their original form by the appli- cation of a physical agent such as heat. , Similarly, a petroleum product suffers both a chemical and physical change when it is burned, the result of the combustion being two products called carbon dioxide and water, the first being a gas and the latter a liquid. The carbon dioxide and water, are not easily recombined by simple agents to produce the original petroleum product, this indicating a chemical change as well as a physical change. Copyright 1921 . COMPILED BY PETROLEU M AGE J. B. RATRIBUTN B-1-1 PETROLEUM chemistry (B-1-2) (General Chemistry) ATOMS AND ELEMENTS. An atom is the smallest particle of matter that can enter into a chemical combination or change. . It is the smallest mass that can be produced by Subdivision without producing a substance lighter or different than itself. The atom remains unchanged in character when entering into chemical changes or physical changes. It retains its identity under all conditions although this identity may not be externally evident after a chemical change. The atom is considered as being built of Small charged particles, all particles (Electrons) being of identical form. The distinguishing properties of the various forms of atoms are determined by the arrangement or distribution of these minute electrons. The atom is extremely small, altho measurable by computation, and is far too small to be directly seen by the most oowerful microscope. Matter or Substance containing only similar atoms, or matter built up of aggrega- tions of one form of atoms, is called an ELEMENT or an ELEMENTARY SUBSTANCE. Thus, hydrogen, oxygen, and carbon are elements since they contain only the hydrogen, oxygen, and carbon atoms. In other words, an element possesses the same char- acteristics and general properties as its atoms. When a substance contains two or more varieties of atoms it is a COMPOUND and is no longer an element but is a combination of elements. Thus, water is a compound as it is built up of both hydrogen and oxygen atoms forming the water molecule. Certain atoms will enter into chemical combination with one another to form molecules or compounds while others will not. There are over fifty elementary Substances known to date which contain only a single definite atom, but the number of compounds which can be formed by combinations of these elements is almost limitless. All atoms have a certain relative weight varying with the character of the atom. This is called too “ATOMIC WEIGHT.” Since the atom is indestructible (for our purpose), these atomic Weights remain unchanged under all conditions, whether alone or combined with other atoms. The weight of a given compound or molecule is invariably equal to the sums of the weights of the atoms entering into combination. These atomic weights are given as relative quantities in which the atom of hydrogen or oxygen is taken at unity (1.0000). Tables will be given later on which show the atomic weights of the better known elements. The elements and atoms are designated by letters such as C, H, Ca, Pb, etc. MOLECULES AND COMPOUNDS. A molecule consists of a group of atoms held in place by a force known as “Chemism.” A Compound is built up of these molecular groups, the compound possessing the same properties as the molecule. The properties of a molecule are determined by the number of atoms held into combination, and by the arrangement of the atoms within the molecule. Certain atoms combine in definite proportions to form definite molecules and compounds, and conversely, definite com- pounds consist of definite numbers and arrangements of atoms. Certain atoms, not- ably those of hydrogen and carbon, are capable of combining in a number of different proportions producing different compounds__having different characteristics. Com- pounds of hydrogen and carbon are called “Hydrocarbons,” and there are many hun- dreds of these different combinations of hydrogen and carbon atoms. The nature of a compound is not only determined by the proportions in which the atoms are combined but is also affected by the arrangement of the atoms within the molecule. Thus we may have “Chain, Compounds” in which the hydrogen atoms are bound to the carbon atoms in straight line formation like the links of a chain, or we may have “Ring” or “Cyclic” compounds in which the carbon atoms are arranged in a connected ring with the hydrogen atoms connected radially to each of the carbon atoms. Each arrangement results in a certain fixed property of the compound or molecule. Heptylene and hexahydrotoluene, both contain seven atoms of carbon and 14 atoms of hydrogen and yet their properties are entirely different owing to the dif- ference in the arrangement of the atoms. The “Law of Definite Proportions” states that the proportion by weight, accord- ing to which elements combine, are invariable for , the same compound. This is' related to Avogadro's law which states that equal volumes of all Substances contain an equal number of molecules at the same pressure and temperature. The “Law of Multiple Proportions” states that when two elements form more than one compound, the different weights of the elements bear a simple numerical relation. opyright 1921 COMPILED BY º tº Pātīotſ=UMAGE J. B. RATHEUN B-1-2 C º D ſº PETROLEUM chEMISTRY (B-1-3) (General Chemistry) CHEMICAL ACTION. The atons that form a compound or molecule are held together by “Chemism” or “Affinity.” The action of the atoms on one another in forming a molecule through their affinity is termed “Chemical Change,” “Reaction,” or “Chemical Action.” Chemical action may also relate to the destruction or breaking up of a molecule into its elements, or into simpler molecules, as well as to the building up of a molecule from elements or from simpler compounds. In a molecule, the atoms are bonded together so firmly as to require the application or the withdrawal of energy to break up the molecular group. Heat energy may be either given out or absorbed during a change in a molecule, thus indicating that changes in the potential energy of the molecule are also taking place. Thus in combustion, the oxygen of the air enters into combination with the fuel producing a new molecule and at the same time liberating vast quantities of heat. An equivalent amount of heat will be required to break up the molecule formed by the combustion and to return it to its original form. Heat is also given out or absorbed when a change of physical form takes place. When Water is poured on lime much heat is given off, but when water is poured on common salt heat is absorbed. In certain cases, electrical energy is created by molecular changes as well as heat. When heat is produced by a change in Imolecular composition, the amount of heat liberated is a fixed quantity for that given change. When carbon is completely burned in oxygen to form carbon dioxide gas, 14,500 British thermal heat units are liberated per pound of carbon. When incompletely burned to carbon monoxide, only about one-third as much heat is produced. The relation of chemical action and heat evolu- tion is of the greatest importance in combustion and fuel study. Chemical action is of four general kinds: (1) Analysis or Decomposition; (2) Synthesis or Combination; (3) Substitution, and (4) Metathesis or Double Decomposi- tion. All of these actions are in evidence in the various petroleum operations, either in manufacture or in use. Thus, analysis or decomposition (1) is met with in the manufacture of gasoline by the “cracking process” where heavy hydrocarbon com- pounds are broken down into simpler compounds by the action of heat. “Combination” is met with when hydrogen combines with water to form the single product-water, as explained under (2). Double decomposition is met with (3) in the combustion of fuel oil where the combination of the Oxygen produces carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, and water vapor. Analysis and combination can also be produced physically as well as mechanically. Thus water can be resolved or analyzed back into its two elements, oxygen and hydrogen, by passing an electric current through the fluid or by heating the water to a high temperature. A compound may be “Stable” or “Unstable,” according to whether the molecule is broken up with difficulty or with ease. Thus water requires a very considerable amount of energy to convert it into hydrogen and oxygen, while dynamite Only requires a slight shock to cause the molecule to completely disintegrate. Water is therefore “Stable,” while nitroglycerine is “Unstable.” There is little chémism or bonding force between the atoms of an unstable molecule. Some molecules are so unstable or possess so little chemism that they decompose Spontaneously by internal changes, and with- out any apparent external force being applied. Examples of this sort are met with in decaying vegetation. A chemical change may be due to a change in the proportions of the atoms within the molecule or to changes in the arrangement of the atoms. f MOLECULES CLASSIFIED. Primarily, the molecules of compounds may be classi- fied according to the number of atoms united by the chemism. Thus, a COMPOUND MOLECULE is cornposed of dissimilar atoms united according to the laws of “Valence” or to the combining power of the atoms, the valence giving the proportion in which one atom can combine with another. The number of atoms that such a molecule can contain is apparently unlimited. A compound molecule may be Subdivided into BINARY MOLECULES AND TERNARY MOLECULES.. A binary molecule never contains more than two kinds of atoms, directly united, although the total number of atoms Reay be unlimited. A ternary molecule contains atoms which are united by the aid of a third atom. Copyright 1921 COMPILED BY PETROL EU M AO E J. B. RATHE UN B-1-3 PETROLEUM CHEMISTRY (B-1-4) (General Chemistry) VALENCE. Valence signifies the combining power possessed by an atom, gener- ally in terms of the number of hydrogen atons with which the given atom may com- bine or for Which it may be exchanged. As certain atoms are capable of combining with others in different proportions, this atom may have a number of “valences” or combining factors. The valence is not a single absolutely fixed quantity as is the atomic weight. The valence generally increases or decreases by 2.000. According as their valence is 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 or 7, atoms are called MONADS, DYADS, TRIADS, TETRADS, PENTADS, HEXADS, or HEPTADS, words derived from the Greek numerals. When referred to as adjectives, the Latin numerals are used as in: UNIVALENT, . BIVALENT, TRIVALENT, QUADRIVALENT, QUINQUVALENT, SEXIVALENT and SEPTIVALENT. The valence of the various elemental atoms Will be found in a following table in which the atomic weights are also given. The abbrevi- ation of the Valency is generally given in Roman numerals; hence a monald is indi- cated by I, a triad by III, or a tetrad by IV, etc., or, in an equation, the valence may be indicated by “ticks,” as in (H' O”) and (C""H"). The valence of several common elements or atoms is as follows, it being noted that a few of the atoms have a great number of valences: Hydrogen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .I Manganese. . . . . . II, III, IV, VI, VII Oxygen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . II Sulphur. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .II, IV, VI Carbon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..IV Iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... II, IV, VI Sodium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I Nitrogen. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I, III, V Iodine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I, III, V, VII Copper. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I, II Bromine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . I, III, V, VII In molecular diagrams, in which the arrangement of the atoms is indicated graph- ically, the valence is indicated by short lines or dashes placed between the atoms. A single dash for a univalent bond, a double dash for a bivalent bond, and so on. Thus where the atoms of carbon _(C) are bonded together in terms of single valence with hydrogen (H) atoms, this is indicated by: C – C – C — C — C, etc. When in double valence bond we have: C = C = C = C = C, etc. In a complete “chain” compound of hydrocarbon type, the construction of the molecule may be shown by: H H H H H H H H H } 8-8-8-8-8-8-8-8-8 # # # # # # # IHere the carbon atoms are connected in double valence, while two hydrogen atoms are connected with each Carbon atom in Single Valence, as indicated by the dashes. The number of atoms composing any elemental molecule may be obtained by dividing the molecular weight by the atomic weight. The number thus obtained is the ATOMICITY, and shows that an element may be composed of more than one atom, all atoms, of course, being similar. RADICALS. A radical is an atom or group of atoms forming the chief constituent of a compound or molecule. A SIMPLE RADICAL is composed of a single atom, while a COMPOUND RADICAL is composed of a group of atoms. Molecules containing a compound radical united to an atom are BINARIES. The names of compound radicals with the exception of amidogen, cyanogen and almmonium terminate with the letters “yl.” Thus we have the compound radicals hydroxyl, phosphoryl, etc. ISOMERIC COMPOUNDS. There are a great number of compounds having the same composition, or the same number of atoms to the molecule, which have entirely different properties. These are called “Isomeric Compounds,” and the difference is due to the difference of the arrangement of the atoms Within the molecule. Thus we have the white of eggs (albumen) and rattlesnake poison, both of which have the same number of carbon, and hydrogen atoms but which, have widely , different properties. Molecular or atomic arrangement is of great importance, particularly in hydrocarbon compounds. CATALYSIS. A chemical action in which a substance exerts a chemical effect without itself changing in composition or properties. A “catalytic” controls the com- bination of other elements or compounds without undergoing change. Copyright 1921 COMPILED BY Peščnºse J. B. RATHEUN B-1-4 8. * PETROLEUM CHEMISTRY (B-1-5) (General Chemistry and Theory of Reactions) º MOLECULAR WEIGHT. Since a molecule is built up of atoms, it is evident that the weight of the molecule is equal to the total weight of all the atoms of which it is Composed. The molecular weight is the sum of the atomic weights. If we know the Chemical composition of a compound and the proportion in which the atoms are com- bined, We can determine the weight of the molecule from the weight of the atoms or the Sum of the atomic weights. Thus with Common Salt (Sodium Chloride) we have a chemical combination of the elemental metal sodium and the elemental gas chlorine. The molecular weight of the Sodium chloride molecule is equal to the surn of the weights of the sodium and chlorine atoms. We find from the table of atomic Weights that the atomic weight of chlorine is 35.5 and that the atomic weight of Sodium is 23.0. Since one atom of each element enters into combination we have the weight of the salt molecule expressed by: 35.5 + 23.0 = 58.5 = Molecular weight. ATOMICITY. A great number of elements contain more than one atom, although the atoms of course are all identical in nature. The number of similar atoms forming the molecule of an element is called the “atomicity” of that element. The numerical value of the atomicity may be obtained by dividing the molecular weight by the atomic weight, and we thus obtain a series of classifications of the elements according to the number of atoms in the molecule. Thus an elemental molecule is monatomic, diatomic, triatomic, tetratomic, or hexatomic, according to whether it contains one, two, three, four or six atoms. Certain elements have One atomicity below a given critical tempera- ture and another above this temperature. The values are contained in a following table of atomic weights. ACIDS. This is an important group of bodies which contain hydrogen, and in which the hydrogen is displaced by the chemical action of the acid on a metal or a group of elements equivalent to a metal. In general, the acids are sour, are active chemical agents, and are characterized by their property of turning blue litmus to red. Acids are generally of a corrosive nature, attacking metals and other elements to form compounds called “Salts.” The acids may be organic or in organic, depending upon whether they are derived from animal and vegetable SOurces Or are Synthesized from elements or inorganic minerals. The action of a simple acid may be illustrated by the action of hydrochloric acid on sodium in which the salt “sodium chloride” is produced. Hydrochloric acid (HCl) is a compound of hydrogen and chlorine. As this acid has a strong chemism for metallic sodium, it dissolves the sodium, during which time the chlorine enters into chemical combination with the metal, and the hydrogen constituent of the acid is set free in the form of a gas. In this case, the hydrogen of the acid is replaced by the metallic sodium since the chlorine has a stronger affinity for the sodium than for the hydrogen with which it was originally combined. Sulphuric acid is a compound of sulphur, hydrogen, and oxygen, and in acting on sodium or other metals the hydrogen is again set free, while the sulphur enters into chemical combination with the metal to form a salt. The Tatty acids of animal and vegetable oils combine with certain metals to form salts of a slippery nature commonly called “soaps.” Thus, Stearic acid combines with sodium to form the soapy salt called sodium Stearate. The names of the acids (inorganic) are derived from their principal constituents, sulphuric acid, hydrochloric acid, and manganic acid getting, their names from the sulphur, chlorine and manganese that form their principal constituent. Some acids con- tain oxygen in addition to the hydrogen and principal element, while others do not. An “oxygen acid” is of course an acid which contains oxygen. Sulphuric and nitric acids are examples of oxygen acids, while hydrochloric, and hydroflouric acids contain no oxygen. All of them contain hydrogen, combined with some other distinguishing element. The principal acid of a series is given the suffix (ic), and if the principal element forms two acids, the acid containing the greater amount of oxygen terminates in (ic), while the one having the least oxygen ends in (ous). Thus we have Sulphuric and Sul- phurous acids, the latter having the least oxygen of the two. COPYRIGHT 1922 COMPILED BY — 1 - 5 PETROLEUM AGE J. B. RATHE UN B-1-5 PETROLEUm CHEMISTRY (B-1-6) (General Chemistry and Theory of Reactions) ACIDS CONTINUED. In some series of acids, as with the sulphur acids, more than two acids are formed. When the third acid contains less oxygen than the others, it is prefixed by the word “Hypo,” which is the Greek for “under,” and is also terminated by the suffix (ous). Thus we have “Hyposulphurous Acid,” an acid which contains less oxygen than either sulphuric or sulphurous acid. When the third acid of the series Con- tains more oxygen than the principal acid ending in (ic), it is prefixed by “Per’’ and suffixed by (ic). Thus an acid which contains more oxygen than the principal acid, chloric acid, becomes ‘‘Perchloric Acid,” while the acid containing less than chloric acid is “Chlorous Acid” or “Hypochlorous Acid,” depending upon the relative amounts of oxygen. This refers to the greater number of oxygen acids, but obviously cannot cover all of the multitudes of complicated compounds. The “Hydracids” contain no oxygen and are prefixed by “Hydro’’ and suffixed by (ic). Thus we have Hydrochloric Acid, Hydroflouric Acid, Hydroiodic Acid, Hydrobromic Acid, Hydrosulphuric Acid, etc. $ There are a great number of organic acids called the “fatty acids” which occur in vegetable and animal oils. Examples are: Stearic Acid, Palmitic Acid, Oleic Acid, Myristic Acid, Caproic Acid, etc. Chemically, these acids are often quite complex and as a general rule contain oxygen. They gain their name from the principal fats or Com- pounds with which they are found associated, such as Stearine, Olein, etc. These acids are of great importance in vegetable and animal lubricating oils and in the manufacture of Soap based greases. BASES. A base is a compound (usually an oxide or a hydrate of a metal), or a group of elements equivalent to a metal. In entering into chemical combination With a base, the base displaces the hydrogen atoms of the combining acid. A base and an acid combine to form a “Salt,” the salt having different properties than either the acid or the base. Thus in producing the salt called sodium chloride, the base is sodium and the acid is hydrochloric acid. The number of salts thus formed is practically unlimited. They “Neutralize” acids. * ALKALIS are bases of particularly active character. They are soluble in Water, impart a soapy taste and feeling, and also turn red litmus to blue. Litmus when turned red by acid will be restored to its original blue color by an alkali. The bases which are oxides or hydrates of metals, such as calcium hydrate, potassium hydrate, calcium oxide, etc., are in the form of hydroxyls (-O-H). Some metals form two sets of bases having different degrees of oxidization and are distinguished by changing the name of the metal to the adjective ending in (ic) where the oxygen is a maximum, and in (ous) where the Oxygen is a minimum. SALTS. A salt is the product of an acid and a base when the hydrogen of the acid is displaced by the metal of the base. These salts may be classed as normal, acid or basic, depending upon the relation of the base and the acid in the reaction. A normal salt is one in which the properties of the acid are exactly neutralized by the base, and in which all of the hydrogen in the acid has been displaced without leaving unchanged remains of the base. It contains neither free acid nor base. An acid salt is one in which the base has not entirely displaced all of the hydrogen in the acid, or one in which the quantity of base is insufficient. This salt has acid properties and will generally redden blue litmus. A basic salt is one in which all of the acid hydrogen has been displaced with an excess of base, or one in which some of the unchanged base still remains. This possesses certain characteristics of the base such as all-alinity and will usually turn red litmus to a blue Color. Theoretically, every acid can form a salt with every base, and in some cases acids can form many different salts with a given base. They are named by placing the name of the metal before the general name of the acid, the term for the acid being modified by prefixes or suffixes as already explained. If the acid ends in (ic) then the salt will end in (ate). Thus sulphuric acid and sodium produces sodium sulphate. Nitric acid produces nitrates, chloric acids chlorates, etc. * coPYRIGHT 1922 COMPILED BY * B 1 6 PETRO LEU M AGE J. B. RATHEUN g gº * PETROLEUM CHEMISTRY (B-1-7) \ (General Chemistry and Theory of Reactions) SALTS CONTINUED. If the name of the acid ends in (ous) then the name of the salt will end in (ite). Thus sulphurous acid and sodium produces sodium sulphite. Prefixes added to the names of the acids also appear in the names of the salts as in sodium hyposulphite (From Hyposulphurous acid), and in sodium perchlorate which is produced by perchloric acid, Some metals form two salts with the same acid. In this case the salt in which the metal acts with the lowest valence is designated by the suffix (ous), and with a higher valence by (ic). We may have both ferric and ferrous sulphate, or cupric and cuprous sulphate, depending upon the valency. If the salts formed by hydrochloric acid were named by the principles just given they would be called “Hydrochlorates", but owing to the fact that the salts formed by hydrochloric acid have the same composition as those formed by the direct union of chlorine with the metal they are termed “Chlorides.” This is a notable exception to the general rule and should be observed. The same rule applies to other HYDRACIDS such as hydrobromic acid, which forms bromides and hydroiodic acid which forms iodides. SYMBOLS All ot the elements are given a “Shorthand” abbreviation for simplicity in working out chemical equaticrs This symbol may consist of a letter or a group of two letters. The letters may correspond to the first letter of the common name of the element or it may be the initial letter of the Latin or Greek name. Thus the element carbon is designated by the symbol (C), hydrogen by (H), boron by (B), etc. These are standard and understood the world over. Owing to the great number of elements, one letter has not been found sufficient so that two letters are often used, the last letter being a “small letter" or “lower case letter.” Thus we have, Chromium given as (Cr), Cobalt as (Co), Bromine as (Br), and Arsenic as (As). This is all very well when the symbolis taken from the English name, but often it is taken from the Latin. For example, the symbol for Iron is (Fe), which comes from the Latin Ferrum, and the symbol for Copper (Cu), which comes from the Latin word Cuprum. Gold has the symbol (Au), taken from Aurum, and the symbol for Antimony is (Sb), from stibium. Similarly lead has the symbol (Pb), from the Latin word Plumbum, and so on. The last letter is always a small letter. The symbols of compounds are built up of the symbols of the elements entering into the compounds. Thus, carbon monoxide which is a compound of carbon and oxygen is written: (CO). Iron Sulphide consisting of iron (Fe) and sulphur (S) becomes: (FeS). In these cases one atom of each element enters into the combination. There are a great many com- pounds in which two or more atoms enter into combination as with water which consists of two atoms of hydrogen combined with one atom of oxygen. The two atoms of hydrogen are indicated by a “Subscript" number placed below and to the right of the designated element. The two atoms of hydrogen are thus shown by (H2), which in the formula for water becomes (H2O). Similarly, there are two atoms of oxygen and one of carbon in the gaseous compound called “Carbon dioxide.” The symbol read : (CO2). The subscript number is always below and to the right of the element to which it refers. In showing general relations for a series of compounds where there are a number of numerical values for each of the compounds a letter subscript (n) is used. Hence we may have: (CnH2n) which shows that there are twice as many hydrogen atoms (an) as there are carbon atoms (n). A more complicated molecule is that of sulphuric acid which contains sulphur, hydrogen and oxygen in the following proportions: (H2SO4). There are two atoms of hydrogen, one of sulphur and four of oxygen. The expressions for certain hydrocarbon compounds are exceedingly complex as is the case with Organic compounds. An example of the latter is Olein which bears the expression:Cabis(CisBagO2)s. This shows the possibilities of combinations of hydrogen and carbon. COPYRIGHT 1923 COMPILED BY - - - B-1-7 PET RO L E U M AGE J. B. RATHE UN sº / PETROLEUM CHEMISTRY (B-1-8) (General Chemistry and Theory of Reactions) CHEMICAL EQUATIONS (STOICHIOMETRY). A chemical equation shows briefly the result of chemical action . between two or more elements or compounds. It is the basis of chemical calculations by which we determine the percentage and quantities of substances entering into chemical combination. On one side of the equality sign (=) are the origina Components combined, while on the other side is the resulting compound or salt produced by the action. Thus, when an acid is added to a base we have: Acid-HBase=Salt. Since matter cannot be either created nor destroyed during a reaction it is evident that the sum of the atomic weights on the right of the equality sign must be equal to the sum of the atomic weights on the left of the sign. Let us take for example he result of combining sodium (Na) with Chlorine (Cl), the salt being sodium chloride (NaCl). Written out in long hand we have: Sodium-HChlorine=Sodium Chloride. This is made more brief and much clearer by the use of symbols: Na+–Cl–NaCl. Adding the atomic weights of sodium and chlorine on the left, we obtain the molecular weight of the sodium chloride on the right. In this case the problem is very simple, and with the atomic weight of sodium equal to 23.0 and that of chlorine equal to 35.5 we have: 23.0+35.5=58.5 Since the total atomic weight (Molecular weight) is equal to 58.5, it is evident that the sodium constituent amounts to 23.0/58.5 of the total compound and that the chlorine composes 35.5/58.5 of the total. By this means we can work out the quantities of sodium and chlorine required to produce a given weight of sodium chloride. This is simple, and to enlarge on the subject we will take the case where potassium nitrate (KNO3)2 and zinc carbonate (ZnCO2) are produced by the chemical action between zinc nitrate Zn(NO3)2 and potassium carbonate (K2CO3). The equation reads: | Zn(NO3)2+K2CO3=ZnCO3-H(KNO3)2 Here we have a case where the two compounds at the left combine to form the two compounds at the right. The atomic or molecular weights on the left are equal to those on the right since no matter disappears during the process. Here two salts produce two salts. The subscript attached to the various elements, such as (K2) show the number of atoms to be taken. If the atomic weight of potassium (K) is 39.0, then the atomic weight of (K2)=2x39=78. In the same way, the quantity (O3) has an atomic weight of 3x16=48 if the atomic weight of oxygen (O) is 16. This may be worked out for the compound potassium chlorate (KClO3) in the following manner: KClO2 = K -- Ci + 0.2 = KCIO: 39 35.5 (3x16) 122.5 The production of sodium carbonate (Na2CO2) from sodium sulphide (Na2S) and calcium carbonate (CaCOs) is shown below, the atomic weight of sodium = 23, Sulphur = 32, Calcium = 40, Carbon = 12, Oxygen = 16. Na2S = CaCOs =3 Na2CO2 + CaS (2x23) + 32 T 40+12+(3x16) = (2x23)+12+(3x16) (40-H.32) = 78 = 100 = 106 =72 Combining these we have: 78-F100-106-1-72, or 178–178, balancing the equation COPYRIGHT 1923 COMPILED BY B 1 8 PETRO LEU M A GE J. B. RATEHBUN’ ū- ſº *. PETROLEUM CHEMISTRY (B-1-9) ſ O (General Chemistry and Theory of Reactions) ATOMIC WEIGHT TABLES AND PROPERTIES OF ELEMENTS. The following table gives the principal properties of the more important elements. Very rare ele- -ments or those having only a theoretic existence have been omitted for simplicity. ATOMIC. WEIGHTS AND PROPERTIES OF THE EI.EMENTS º ATOMIC. WEIGHTS Specific Atomicity Walance NAME Symbol || Gravity H–1 O—16 Approx. |No. Atoms Factors Aluminum............ Al 2.6620 26.90 27.10 27.00 2 III. Antimony. . . . . . . . . . . . Sb 6.6200 119.30 120.20 120.00 1 III, W Arsenic.............. As 5.7300 74.40 74.96 75.00 4 III, W Barium............... Ba 3.7500 136.36 137.37 137.00 1 II. BISMUTH. . . . . . . . . . . Bi 9.8000 206.46 208.00 208.00 1 III, V Boron..... . . . . . . . . . . . B 2.4500 10.90 11.00 11. - III. Bromine.............. Br 3.1500 79.33 79.92 80. 2 I,III, V, VII Cadmium... . . . . . . . . . . Có 8.6400 111.60 112.40 112. 1 II. Calcium.............. Ca 1.5500 39.70 40.07 40. 1 II. Carbon (Amorphous). . C 1.5700° 11.91 12.00 12. º IV. Cerium...... . . . . . . . . . Ce 7.0400 139.20 140.250 140. º III, IV. *Chlorine........... . . . Cl 1.4400 35.19 35.46 35.5 2 I, III, IV, V, VII Chromium............ Cr 6.9000 || 51.60 52,000 52 II, III, WI Cobalt. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Co 8.7000 58.53 58.97 59 II, III. Copper...... . . . . . . . . . Cu 8.9500 63. 10 63.57 63.5 1 I, II *Fluorine... . . . . . . . . . . . F | . . . . . . . 18.90 19.00 19 2 I, III. Glucinum......... 4 * * * Gl 1.9300 9.03 || A 1 * II. Old. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Au 19.3000 195.70 197.20 197 1 I IIl *Helium.... . . . . . . . . . . . He . . . . . . . 3.96 3.99 f *Hydrogen. . . . . . . . . . . . H . . . . . . . . 1.00 1,008 2 I. IndlūID. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . In 7. 1200 113.90 114.80 114 2 III. Iodine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I 4.9500 125.98 126.92 127 2 I, III, V, VII Iridium. . . . . . . . . . . Ir 22.4000 191.70 193.10 193 II, IV, VI. Iron. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fe 7.8600 55.43 55.84 56 II, IV, VI. ton. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Kr i . . . . . . . 82 30 82.92 83 Lanthanum........... La 150 137.97 139.00 139 - III. ead. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pb 11.3800 205,57 207. 10 207 1 II, IV. Lithium... . . . . . . . . . . Li 0,5900 || 6.89 6.94 6.9 1 e f Magnesium. . . . . . . . . . . Mg 1, 7400 24. 14 24.32 24. 1 II. Manganese. . . . . . . . . Mn 7,4000 54.52 54.93 55. - II, III, IV, VI, VII Mercury. . . . . . . . . . . . Hg 13,5500 199.10 200,60 200. 1 - Molybdenum. . . . . . . . . Mo 8,6000 95.30 96.00 96. - if, iii, IV, VI. ickel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ni 8.8000 58.25 58.68 59 1. II, III. *Nitrogen. . . . . . . . . . . . . N - - a tº e - 13.91 14,01 14. - I, III, W. Osmium... . . . . . . . . . . . OS 22,4800 189.49 190.90 | 190. - if, iv. VI, VIII *Oxygen... . . . . . . . . . . . . O | . . . . . . . 15.88 16.00 16. - II. Palladium... . . . . . . . . Pd 11,4000 105 90 106,70 106.5 1. II, IV. Phosphorous (Yell.).... P 1.8300 30.80 31,04 31. * III, W. Platinum. . . . . . . . . . . . . Pt 21.5000 193.76 - || 195.20 195. º II, IV. Potassium............ K 0.8750 38.81 39.10 39. 1 Slenium.............. Se 4.5000 78.60 79.20 79. 3 II, IV, VI Silicon. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Si 2.3900 28.10 28.30 28. - IV. Silver. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ag 10,4500 107.80 107.88 107.8 1 I. Sodium.... . . . . . . . . . . . Na 0.9700 22.83 23.00 23. 1 I. Strontium............ Sr 2.5400 86.00 87.63 87.5 I II. ulphur. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.9800 32,07 32 6 II, IV, VI. Tantalum........ . . . . Ta 14.1000 180.20 181.50 181.5 - º Tellurium. . . . . . . . . . . . Te 6.2500 126.60 127,50 127.5 2 II, IV, VI S Thorium. . . . . . . . . . . . . Th 11.0000 230.70 232.40 232 º IV. in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sn 7.2900 118.10 119.00 119 II, IV Titanium.... . . . . . . . . . 3.5400 47.70 48.10 48 III, IV Tungsten... . . . . . . . . . . W 19.1000 182.60 184.00 184 II, IV, VI Uranium. . . . . . . . . . . . . U 18.7000 236.70 238.50 238.5 II, IV, VI Vanadium.... . . . . . . . . W 5.5000 50.60 51.00 51 y --~~ ; ln G. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Zn 6,9000 64.88 65.37 65 1 (*) Gas, specific gravity of air—1.0000. Copyright 1923 COMPILED BY PeščğüMºse J. B. RATHE UN B-1-9 PETROLEUM CHEMISTRY (B-1-10) (General Chemistry and Theory of Reactions) PETROLEUM CHEMISTRY (B-1-10) *. *. * (General Chemistry and Theory of Reactions) PRESENCE OF COMPOSITION. Knowing the molecular weight of any sub- stance, the number of atoms it contains, and the atomic weight of each constituent atom, the percentage of composition may be easily found, that is, the composition of 100 parts of a substance. The first steps have already been described, that is, the determination of the molecular weight from the atomic weights and the general formula for the substance, but it remains to compute che percentages. Let m = molecular Weight of compound. a = atomic weight of each constituent atom. n = number of atoms of a constituent element as given by Subscript. x = percentage of that constituent element. $ 100 an Then: m : an = 100 : x, from which x = — II) To find the number of atoms in a constituent of a compound, we have from the In X IIl X. above: n = and the atomic weight of the constituent becomes: a = - 100 a. 100 n The molecular weight can be found from the following when the atomic weight of any constituent, percentage and number of atoms of the constituent are known. This general rule is given as follows: 100 an IY) = X EXAMPLE. Let us determine the percentage of potassium (PC) in potassium sulphate. This compound contains potassium, sulphur and oxygen in the proportions shown by the formula: K2SO4. Here we see that there are two atoms of potassium (P<2), hence n = 2. The atomic weights used in these calculations will be the “Approximate” atomic weights given in the tables. According to principles already described, we will first determine the molecular weight of the compound: K2 + S + O4 = R2SO4 e (2 x 39) 32 (4 x 16) 174 Thus the molecular weight is m = 174. We can now compute the percentage of the potassium from the first equation: 100 an 100 x 39 x 2 - == = 44.83 per cent. X = ..II] 174 Similarly, we can compute the sulphur in which n = 1. 100 x 32 x 1 — = 18.39 per cent. 174 Finally we can compute the percentage of the oxygen: 100 x 16 x 4 174 To produce 100 pounds of potassium sulphate (K2SO4) we will need, 44.83 pounds of potassium, 18.39 pounds of sulphur, and 36.78 pounds of oxygen. Thus to get the weight of the constituents we multiply the percentage of the constituent by the total weight of the compound. ſ We can calculate the molecular weight of a compound When a, n and x are known by “transposing” the equation already used. For example, let us use the quantities a, n and x already used and use this to check back for the molecular weight of 174 obtained for the above compound. * 100 an 100 x 39 x 2 II] = *— E —r 44.83 = 174 = molecular weight of compound. In this X & equation we have used the atomic weights and percentages for potassium, but those for any of the other elements may be used as well. == 36.78 per cent. } Copyright 1923 COMPILED BY PETROL EU M AGE J. : B. RATHE UN t B-1-10 O CHEMISTRY (B-3-50) Sulphuric Acid - GRAVITY AND PERCENTAGE. The following table gives the relative Baumé and specific gravities of aqueous solutions of sulphuric acid, and also gives the corresponding percentages of H2SO4 iñ these solutions. It was adopted as a standard by the Manufacturing Chemists' Association of the United States, June 23, 1904. The temperature at which the specific gravity readings apply is 60°/60°F. An auxiliary table of corrections for temperature follows the main table. *. PROPERTIES OF SULPEIURIC ACID IN AQUEOUS SOLUTION Degrees Specific Percent Degrees Specific Percent Baumé Gravity H2SO4 Baumé Gravity H2SO4 0 1.0000 0.00 37 1.3426 * 43.99 1 1.0069 1.02 38 1.3551 45.35 2 1.0140 2.08 39 1.3679 46, 72 3 1,0211 3.13 : # # A 1,0357, & 40 1.3810, 48, 10 6 1.0432 6.37 41 1.3942 49.47 7 1.0507 7,45 42 1.4078 50.87 8 1.0584 8.55 43 1.4216 , 52.26 9 1.0662 9 66 44 1.4356 53.66 \ ^ 45 1.4500 55.07 10 1.0741 10.77 46 1.4646 56.48 47 1.4796 57.90 11 1,0821 11 89 48 1.4948 59.32 12 1.0902 13.01 49 1.5104 60.7 13 1.0985 14. 13 * * # 1 #; 15.25 ; #: #: 50 1.5263 62. 18 17 I, 1328 18.71 51 1.5462 63. 36 18 1. 1417 19.89 : # §§ 19 1 1508 21.07 54 1.5934 68.13 # #; ; 20 . 1600 22 25 * 71. 21 #. 23.43 57 1.6477 72.75 22 1.1789 24.61 58 1.6666 74.36 23 1. 1885 25,81 59 1.6860 75.99 24 1. 1983 27,03 25 1,2083 28.28 26 1.2185 29.53 60 1,7059. 77.67 27 1.2288 30.79 61 1,7262 79.43 28 1,2393 32.05 62 1,7470 81.30 29 1 2500 33.33 63 1, 7683 83 34 30 1.2609 34.63 64 1,7901 85,66 64% 1 7957 86.33 64% 1,8012 87.04 31 1.2719 35 93 64% 1.8068, 87.81 32 ° 1,2832 37,26 65 1.8125 * 88 65 * 3 1.2946 38,58 65% 1 8182 89.55 34 1.3063 39.92 65% 1 8239 90.60 35 1.3182 41.27 65% 1 8297 91 80 36 1.3303 42.63 66 ° 1,8354 93.19 NOTE For temperature corrections see following table. & COPYRIGHT 1923 COMPULED BY B 3 50 PETRO LEU M A GE J. B. RATRIBUN tº a ºn cHEMISTRY OF PETROLEUM (B-30-2) (Hydrocarbons) (HYDROCARBONS Continued)—The paraffine series may be projected from methane (CH,) as far as pentatriacontane (C.H.) in steps of one carbon atom. The number of carbon atoms in the molecule is indicated by the name, pentane (C5H12), hexane (CºH14), pentane (C7H10), actane (CsIHis), et cetera. The hydrogen contents may be computed by means of the carbon atoms by the general formula; (CnH2n+2) in which (a) is the number of carbon atoms. The general formula for the olefines is (CAH,n) showing that the olefines have two less hydrogen atoms for the same number of carbon atoms. All of these hydrocarbon compounds have different boiling points and Specific gravities hence the petroleum which is built of a large number of these compounds has no definite boiling point or gravity and gives off different vapors through a long range of temperatures, each vapor having a different gravity. Thus at a low tern- perature the more volatile and lighter compounds are vaporized and eliminated, the vapors growing heavier and heavier as the temperature of the petroleum is increased. We may therefore distill off any hydrocarbon compound independently by collecting the vapor that passes off at a temperature corresponding to its boiling point. This is known as “FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION” and each of the independent corn- pounds thus obtained are “FRACTIONS.” The lightest and most volatile portions are the “light ends” while the heaviest compounds are the “heavy ends.” The following table gives the general properties of the compounds contained in the paraffine series: ISIYDROCARBON COMPOUNDS OF THE PARAEEINE SEEIES Beaumé Gravity Molecular - e° Weight * Name of Fraction Formula. Specific Boiling Beat Commercial or Compound O Gravity Point Contents Designation Molecule (Sp. G.) (C*) IB. T. U. or grade Methane . . . . . . . . . . . . CHA 0.4150 | . . . . . —160 ° 16.03 || 1009.2 [*Natural Gas Ethane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C2H6 .4460 | . . . . . —93.0 30.05 || 1764.4 68 46 Propane . . . . . . . . . . . . . C3H8 .5360 ! . . . . . —45.0 44.07 1521.0 & 4 & & Butane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CAH10 .5850 . . . . . *1.0 58.08 || 3274.0 & & & Cº Pentarie . . . . . . . . . . . . C5H12 6300 92.2 36.3 72.10 ! . . . . . Gasoline Hexane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CaFI14 6700 78.9 69.0 86.12 | . . . . . 6 4. Heptane . . . . . . . . . . . . C7H16 697 0 || 70.9 98.4 100.13 | . . . . . & 4 Octane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CsIIIs 7180 || 65.0 125.5 114.15 ! . . . . . & & Nonane . . . . . . . . . . . . . Colizo 7400 59.2 150.0 128.16 • * * * * 4 & Decame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C10H22 .7500 || 56.7 173.0 142.18 . . . . . s" Undecane . . . . . . . . . . . . C11H24 .7600 54.2 195.0 156.20 * & 4 Duodecane . . . . . . . . . . C12H26 .7700 51.8 214.0 | 170.22 | . . . . . Rerosene, E Tridecane . . . . . . . . . . C18H28 .7920 || 46.8 234.0 | 184.24 | . . . . . 4 & Tetra decane . . . . . . . . C14Hao .8000 || 45.0 252.0 | 198.25 | . . . . . 4 & 6 & Pentadecane . . . . . . . . | C15H52 .807 0 || 43.5 270.0 ſ 212.26 | . . . . . * & &g Hexadecane . . . . . . . . . C18H34 .8150 || 41.8 287.0 226.27 | . . . . . & 4 14 Heptadecane . . . . . . . . CitH36 .8222 40.3 295.0 240.28 . . . . . & 6 & 4 Octadecane . . . . . . . . . . C18Has .8300 38.6 3.17.0 254.30 49 & 4 4 & Eicosane . . . . . . . . . . . . C20H12 .8370 37.2 | f 117.5 282.34 . . . . . Lub.-Resid. Tricosane . . . . . . . . . . . C23H48 * * * * . . . . f 138.0 325.38 | . . . . . & 4 & 4 Tetracosane . . . . . . . . . 24H80 a e º 'º * f 145.5 || 338.39 || . . . . . & 4 & 4 Pentacosane . . . . . . . . . C25H52 • * * * . . . . t152.5 || 352.41 | . . . . . 6 º' & 4 Hexacosane . . . . . . . . . 26-F-154 • * * * º f 160.0 || 366.43 e e gº & 4 & Mericyl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C27H5s e - f 167.0 370.45 e & & & 4 OctoCOSane . . . . . . . . . . C28Hss • * > †173.5 || 384.47 | . . . . . & 4 & 4 Nonocosane . . . . . . . . . . C23H60 f 179.0 398.48 . . . . . 6 (; & 4 Ceryl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . | CaoHº f 186.0 || 422.49 | . . . . . & 4 &g Pentria,COntane . . . . . . | Ca1H64 193.5 || 436.52 | . . . . . & 4 4 & Duotria contane . . . . . Ca2H66 † 201.0 || 450.53 | . . . . . g & “ , Tetratriacosane . . . . . 34Hao f 215.0 478.56 . . . . . é & & 4 Pentatriacosane . . . . . . Ca5HT2 f 222.0 || 492.58 • * & 4 & 4 * Contained in casing head and straight-run gasoline. f Heavy oils are boiled under vacuum for commercial reasons hence the heavier boiling points are specified as taking place under Vacuum. Copyright 1921 COMPILED BY B-30-2 PETROL EU M A GE J. B. RATHEUN *~ COMMERCIAL PRODUCTs (D-20-20) (Definitions of Commercial Petroleum Products) PETROLEUM PRODUCTS CONTINUED. Next to the light gasolines come the naphthas, fluids which in some cases “overlap” the heavier gasolines or which may Overlap the next heavier fraction known as kerosene. The naphthas are intermediates but are more strictly defined than the gasolines. Thus when heavy cuts are being made for gasoline, the lighter naphthas may be lighter than the heavier gasblines, and under certain circumstances the heavy naphthas may be heavier than the lighter kerosenes. However, the naphthals are taken as being those products which lie between com- mercial gasolines and kerosenes (illuminating oils). The kerosenes are used principally for burning in wick lamps, and as their flash or fire test is generally regulated by law to insure Safety, the range of the kerosenes is much more strictly defined than the majority of the other petroleum distillates. For safety, the vapor of kerosene must not take fire at temperatures lower than about 150° F. and this at once places a limit as to the lower boiling point and gravity of a kerosene. Because of the ratio of demand and supply, the naphthas and kerosenes sell for a lower price per gallon than the gasolines. The next “cut” or commercial fraction to kerosene is “Solar Oil” or ‘‘distillate oil,” commonly used for certain classes of internal combustion engines. This is not ordinarily refined but is taken direct from the first distillation of the crude. In some cases, where there is little demand for this grade of fuel, it is incorporated in the next fraction called “Gas Oil.” That is, gas oil may or may not contain solar oil depending upon the state of the market, and hence gas oil may follow kerosene instead of solar oil, although in the latter case the gas oil will contain those hydrocarbons ordinarily classed aS solar oil. The temperature at which gas Oil is distilled is so high that it is decom- posed during the distillation and therefore contains many compounds not included in the crude fractions of equivalent gravity. The oil is used for enriching and giving illuminating power to water gas, is used in heavy oil engines and is used as a fuel oil for burning under boilers. This, however, is a very high grade fuel for boilers and is usually quite expensive. Next come the “Heavy Distillates” from which the lubricating oils—vaselene, light waxes, and Silimar oils—are obtained. When lubricants are separated the heavy dis- tillates are redistilled and broken up into Smaller sub-divisions of various gravities and viscosities. Where this distillate is not productive of high grade lubricants, as is Often the case with certain asphaltic crudes, then it is used as a fuel oil for burning under boilers and no further distillation or refining is performed, except, perhaps, to remove the excess tar and wax. The heavy distillates of nearly all paraffine base crudes contain valuable lubricants and therefore are nearly always redistilled and refined. They are usually too valuable to be burned as fuel oil. Oils containing heavy deposits of asphaltuna or other compounds of similar nature are not so easily handled in the production of lubricating oil and are therefore commonly used as fuel oils. The handling of the heavy distllates and the products obtained therefrom depends to a great extent upon the nature of the crude oil. The term “Heavy Distillates” is purely a relative one, as is the case with so many petroleum products. In the case of topping plants where gasoline and kerosene are the main objectives and where the heavier fractions are not treated for lubricants, anything of lower gravity than the gasoline and kerosene is called a “Heavy Distillate” although it may contain some kerosene, gas oil, etc. It is what is left after the lighter oils are distilled. This “topping” is a wasteful process with the vast majority of oils. In refineries where the lubricants are extracted and the crude is more Completely analyzed, a heavy distillate is usually taken as that distillate which passes off after the gas oil or the distillate which contains the viscous hydrocarbons from which lubricants and waxes are made. Further distillation with asphaltic crudes gives the “Liquid Residuals” from which asphalts, road oils and waterproofing compounds are obtained. These are very heavy viscous compounds. The final production is the semi-solid residue from which asphaltum and certain mineral waxes are obtained and finally petroleum coke. COPYRIGHT 1923 COMPILED BY - Z mº PETROL EU M AGE J. B. RATHEUN D 20 20 comMERCIAL PRODUCTs (D-20-21) (Definitions of Commercial Petroleum Products) PETROLEUM FRACTIONS. The very complex structure of crude petroleum gives rise to a great variety of manufactured products such as gasoline, kerosene, solar oil, gas oil, road oil, etc. They vary from fluids so light that they exist as a vapor at ordinary temperatures, to heavy, tarry residues that can almost be classed as solids, In the first case we have the vaporous methane, propane and butane; while in the latter class are the heavy lubricating oils, paraffines and asphalts. Internmediate fluids may be had in almost any degree of density, volatility or degree of fluidity. The number of separate compounds are almost numberless. As a rule, each commercially graded COmponent is Composed of a number of distinctly separate chemical compounds. and as the various commercial gradings are not strictly defined nor standardized, a commercial grading has no particular significance from a chemical standpoint. Trade classifications are very elastic to say the least and admit of a wide range of interpreta- tion. As the various components are separated from the crude by a system of fractional distillation by which the various compounds are given off in the order of their boiling temperatures, it will be seen that the character of any one grade of distillate is entirely Controlled by the applied temperature. The crude may be “cut” up into a comparatively great number of commercial grades, varying as little from each other as desired, or the crude may be “topped” or separated into only two components, “light” and “heavy.” It all depends on the methods of distillation by which the various compounds are grouped and collected while coming Off from the still. If the principal objective is a motor gasoline, then the stillman will continue to collect all of the lighter vapors until he gets down to some arbitrarily selected “end point” or final temperature and at this point he will cut off the stream into the gasoline storage tank and will distribute the remaining heavy distillate to other collecting vessels. The gasoline distillation and collection may be discontinued when the increasing density shows a maximum tem- perature of 350° F. or it may be continued to 450° F., depending upon the grade specified. It will be seen from this that the word “gasoline” covers a great variety of products. Again, if the gasoline is of far the greater importance “cracking” or heat decomposition of the crude may be resorted to by which more of the light product is produced than is naturally contained in the crude. Much also depends upon the composition of the crude oil and this is an extremely variable factor in the different fields. Crude oil is a natural product and therefore variable in the extreme. With crudes which are deficient in lubricating oils of value, the crude will be cracker down lower to obtain a greater yield of gasolines and light burning oils than will be the case where the oil contains valuable lubricants. The annount of any one commercial grade obtained from a crude oil depends largely upon economic consideration. In certain asphaltic base crudes which have but little value in producing lubricating oil, the light gasolne may be distilled off and the remaining heavier oils may be sold as “fuel oil” or burning under boilers. This would be an economic crime with paraffine base oils containing even a fair grade of lubricating oil. Some oils are so deficient in either natural gasoline or lubyicants that they are not refined at all but are sold for burning just as they come from the well. Other heavy crudes deficient in natural gasoline are “cracked” so as to increase this yield, or else the lighter fractions of these heavy oils such as the naphthas are reserved for compounding with casinghead gasoline. A third condition affecting the composition of motor gasoline is that of supply and demand or the state of the market. When crude is comparatively scarce and the demand for motor gasoline is heavy, the refiners cut more deeply into the crude and market a heavier gasoline than when the market is light or when the demand is reduced. Since there is only a limited supply of natural gasoline in the crude it is absolutely necessary to cut deeper when the demand exceeds the supply of natural gasoline in the crude. Every year sees a greater increase in the demand and a corre- spondingly less increase in the supply. There is Only one answer to this problem— heavier motor gasoline, or higher prices for equivalent grades. COPYRIGHT 1923 COMPILED BY D 20 21 PETRO LEU M AGE J. B. RATHEUN tº Az . . . . ; sis O { ** DIESEL ENGINEs (D1-24) DIESEL ENGINE FUELS COAL TAR FUELS. Dehydrated coal tar is a complex mixture, consisting princi- pally of a great number of aromatic hydrocarbons, and a much smaller percentage of oxygen compounds (phenols), and also small amounts of nitrogenous bodies of the pyridine order and aromatic sulphur compounds. With the compounds enumerated, there is also an ingredient referred to as “Free carbon” which may or may not be pure carbon in a solid form. Very little distillate is obtained from dehydrated tar at temperature below 160°C. At 350°C, from 30 to 40 percent distils, and this distillate is the commercial product known as “coal-tar pitch.” This is a form of bituminous aggregate which requires some treatment before it is suitable for use in an engine. Distilling the coal tar produces two fuels which are suitable for the internal com- bustion engine; (1) A liquid fuel, and (2) A fuel which is solid at ordinary temperatures. The greater proportion of the distillate is liquid and this is frequently used in Europe as a fuel for Diesel engines. The solid fuel precipitate, deposited below 270°F, is prin- cipally crystalline naphthalene. Further refinement of the solid naphthalene by recrystal- lization, gives a product which has been used with some success in Europe as a motor car fuel, but of course this would ordinarily be too expensive for the Diesel engine. The refined naphthalene has also been used as a “doctor” for motor gasoline. Above 270°C, the solid obtained by cooling the coal tar distillates is called crude anthracene. This contains true anthracene and many other similar compounds which have not been used extensively in engines. After the removal of the naphthalene and anthracene, a liquid oil is obtained which has a very low vapor pressure and which has not proved successful with even Diesel engines until very recently. At the present time, these fuels show an increasing importance as Suitable means are developed for their use, and will undoubtedly prove the most important of the coal tar distillates for use with the Diesel engine. In general the coal tar distillates are chiefly ring type aromatic hydrocarbons of low hydrogen content and therefore are more stable than petroleum oils of the same general physical characteristics. The hydrogen content for the coal tar distillates aver- ages about 7 percent against the 11.5 to 12 percent for petroleum oils. The ignition temperature of the coal tar distillates is of course greater than that of the petroleum fuels, and the compression pressure of a coal tar distillate engine must be considerably higher than that for an engine intended for use with petroleum products. Starting is particularly difficult and it is frequently necessary to start on a petroleum oil until the engine has become sufficiently warmed up to operate on the coal tar distillate. At light loads and low compression pressures, both petroleum and coal tar fuels may be used at one time to insure proper firing of the charge. At no load, the proportion of the petroleum oil may be as high as 20 percent of the total charge, but this can be cut ‘down automatically by the governor as the load increases. COPYRIGHT 1924 COWIPILED BY PETRO LEU M AG E J. B. RATHE UN D1-24 DIESEL ENGINES (Di-25) (Diesel Engine Fuels) CRUDE COAL TARS. As the crude coal tars can be obtained for about half the price of refined tars or their distillates there have been many attempts to utilize these fuels in the Diesel engine, but as yet without any marked degree of success. Such Crude tars have very high ignition temperatures which are difficult to maintain under all degrees of load and compression, they form gummy deposits in the pumps and other parts of the fuel feed system, and frequently contain so much ash and Other Solid abrasive matter that they cause excessive wear on the pumps and injec- tion valves. Their extremely high viscosity leads to trouble with the atomization Of the tars and unless perfectly atomized they are not burned either efficiently nor Cleanly. Tars from horizontal and inclined retorts are not usually satisfactory fuels and Coke Oven tar is not Well adapted to the Diesel engine in its present stage of de- velopment. Tars from vertical retorts are more suitable for they contain less free carbon and give smaller deposits and their viscosity is considerably lower than the previous type. The vertical retort tars can be used directly with or without an auxiliary ignition oil, and oil gas tars are also generally suited for the purpose. As about 88 per cent of the coal tar produced in the United States is coke oven tar, which in its raw State is not Suitable for use directly in the Diesel engine, it is evident that the greater part of the tar now available must be distilled or otherwise treated before it is suitable as an engine ſuel in a commercial sense. Upon dis- tillation, from 50 to 70 per cent of the tar charged into the still is converted into coal tar “Pitch” leaving only from 30 to 50 per cent of the total production as alm engine fuel. The pitch is a commercial commodity having a variety of uses, but as a fuel it is only applicable to furnace burning upon grates Or Stokers in a manner similar to solid coal or fuel oil. Solid pitch may be burned directly upon specially designed grates. Liquid pitch as used in Open hearth steel furnaces is sprayed from a burner under about 50 pounds oressure and is extensively used in this way in many Steel plants. To make coal tar distillates a commercial proposition. We must first be able to dispose of all the pitch produced before the producers of the tar will seriously con– sider the sale of the distillates as an engine fuel. It is too much to expect of a tar producer to cut into his crude product in such a way that only 50 per cent is salable. Promotion of pitch as a boiler or furnace fuel is almost a necessity before coal tar distillates are a practical source of power for the Diesel engine. Continuous stills have recently been developed by which a uniform grade of pitch and Diesel distillate can be obtained economically, and this is a great step forward toward the utilization of tars. Since such distillation produces Cresol and phenol as valuable by-products, the sales of the phenol and cresol will be effective in re- ducing the price of the engine fuel. At present there is a decided shortage in phenol and cresol and owing to the demand it is not likely that the increased production due to distillation of tar for motor fuels would very materially reduce, the price. COPYRIGHT 1924 COMPILED BY D1-25 PETRO LEU M AG E J. B. RATHEUN “ a- CRUDE OIL (E-10-1) t | Distribution of American Crude Oils NATURE OF FORMATIONS AND OIL OBTAINED. The geologic features of the Seven principal producing fields in the United States have been carefully studied by geologists and their principal characteristics are known in detail. In the following table an attempt is made to give the average general features of the principal fields and the nature of the oil produced in each. It should be understood that this data is simply representative of the fields as a whole and does not include certain deviations that take place in all fields. It is interesting to note the change in the character of the oil as We move West from the Appalachian district: CHARACTERISTICS OF OIL PRODUCING REGIONS OF THE UNITED STATES ey Nature of Oils * * Field Geologic Geologic Nature Depth of Base Be° Structure Age of rock Pay Sand Appalachian... Paraffin . . . . . . 45° Pa.. Geo-syncline, with Ordovician to Sandstone...[2-3000' Pa. wº 40° Ky. | minor anticlines, carboniferous 2-400' [y. Lima-Indiana. . . Paraffin . . . . . . [38° 0...|Anticlines ........] Ordovician ....|Limestone..];-600' Ind. g 36° Ind. 2-3000' Ohio Illinois. . . . . . . . . Paraffin . . . . . . 38° N. . .] Anticlines ........! Carboniferous...|Sandstone.. [2-300' North Semi-Para. . . . .36° S. . . 1-2000' South Mid-Continent. |Paraffin . . . . . . 45°. . . . . Anticlines . . . . . . . . Carboniferous...|Sandstone. . [2-300' East Semi-Para. . . . .30°. . . . . * 3500 ° West Rocky Mount... Para. & Assym. anticline..] Cretaceous to Sandstone Asphalt . . . . . . .31° Av. (Faulted) Pennsylvanian. & shales. California. . . . . . Asphalt . . . . . . . 12°. . . . . . Folds and faults...] Tertiary . . . . . . sº & SilºllèS. Gulf Coast. . . . . Asphalt . . . . . . 124°. . . . .] Domes . . . . . © e & & © e Tertiary and ||Dolomite & * Cretaceous...] sandstone Here we see that the oil changes progressively from a pure paraffin base in the Appalachian or eastern district to a paraffin and semi-paraffin base in Illinois and the Mid-Continent fields, and then to a semi-asphalt and asphaltic base as we arrive at the Rocky Mountain district and California fields, respectively. When we get west of Illinois the percentage of asphaltun becomes greater and greater until the residual of the California, and Gulf crudes consist almost entirely of asphalt and with a very Small trace of paraffin. The predominating rock in the oil bearing fields of the United States is sand- Stone, this being a general average taken from all fields. It will be noted that strictly paraffin base oils occur in the Ordovician geologic age, and that the pure asphaltic base oils lie in the Tertiary series. Fields producing mixed oils, such as indicated by “semi-paraffin,” usually have structures of the carboniferous age. According to geologic age, oil is found principally in the Upper Devonian rock in the Appalachian district, Ordovician in the Lima-Indiana field, Upper Devonian in Illinois, Carboniferous in the Mid-Continent fields, Upper Cretaceous in the Rocky Mountain district, and in the Tertiary rocks in the California and Gulf Coast fields. Here it will also be noted that the Baumé gravity of the pure paraffin base oils is greater (specific gravity less) than the asphaltic base or mixed base oils of the cen- tral west. The Gulf Coast and California asphaltic base oils are particularly heavy. Copyright 1922 COMPILED BY E. 10 1 PETRO LEU M AGE J. B. RATHEUN * tº sº CRUDE OIL (E-10-2) (Production) PETROLEUM MARKETED IN UNITED STATES (Estimated, by years and by states, in barrels, starting with the first commercial production) Pa. Ky and Year and N. Y. Ohio W. Va. Calif Tenn Colo Ind. III. 1859 2,000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * s = e < e º e < * * * * * s s e e s e º sº º e * 1860 500,000 * * * * * * * * * * * * * * e º s e º 'º e e g g g is a & * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * g e '. * * * * g & # tº 1861 2,111,609 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * * * * * * * * * * * * * * s s e e s is a s a s a e s = e s e e s ∈ e. e. e. e. g. e 9 e º 'º e º 'º º 1862 3,058,690 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº e e º ºs & 1863 2,611,309 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * = c e º e s s sº a tº £ tº tº e º 'º º * * * 1864 2,116,109 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * * * * * e º e e s e s e e ". . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . gº º e º e a tº º § ºt 1865 2,497,700 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * e e º e a s tº º 1866 8,597,700 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * 1867 3,347,300 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . © tº 2 g º ºs e º e º & $ tº a tº ſº º º º is º a $ tº * * * * * * * * * * * g º e e e º 'º e º e º e s tº & 1868 3,646,117 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . to $ tº e = * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * s a s g g g º ºs e º in a tº º 4 1869 4,215,000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * * * s e e e i e s e e º e e s s a e = e º a s & e º a g º e g º ºs e º in tº is 1870 5,260,745 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº $ tº e º 'º tº e º g ſº tº tº e s ∈ a • * e s e º e s is a e º ºs & a tº a tº a s = e º e º is e º e s is tº tº 1871 5,205,234 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº e s e º is tº e º 'º º º a º & tº & gº º 2 & © tº gº tº a tº e g tº it tº gº & © R & tº 1872 6,293,194 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * I s a s a s is s is is e s & s & & a s a s a tº e º sº a s g g g g g is e s a º e 1873 9,893,786 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * * * * * * * * * * 1874 10,926,945 . . . . . . . . . . & ſº tº tº e g gº * * * * * * * * * * * * tº e º is a s is s º a s e º a s is tº º s e s is e º e º a s a s a * * * * * * * * * jº 1875 8,787,514 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1876 S,968,906 31,763 120,000 12,000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1877 13,135,475 29,888 172,000 3,000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . }s • * * * * * * * * * * 1878 15,163,462 8,17 180,000 5,227 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . g e º sº e º e º $ tº 4 1879 19,685,176 - 29, 112 180,000 19,858 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * ſº 1880 26,027,631 38,940 179,000 40,552 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº gº e º s is sº º e º ºs º ºs e e º e is 1881 27,376,509 ,867 151,000 99,862 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * * * * * e º e s m º º g 1882 30,053,500 ,761 128,000 128,636 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1883 23,128,389 47,632 126,000 142,857 4,755 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº e º 'º º & 1884 23,772,209 90,081 90,000 262,000 4,148 . . . . . . . . . e * * * © tº º tº $ tº dº º tº º 1885 20,776,041 661,580 ,000 ,000 5,164 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº e g º e s is © º e 1886 25,798,000 1,782,970 102,000 . 377,145 4,726 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº e º ºs e º e º e º ſº tº º 1887 22,356, 193 5,022,632 145,000 678,572 4,791 76,295 tº º e º ºs º ºs © g º e & tº e º e 1888 16,488,668 10,010,868 119,448 690,333 5,09 297,612 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . e tº te g 1889 21,487,435 12,471,466 544,113 303,220 5,400 316,476 33,375 1,460 1890 28,458,208 6,124,65 492,578 307,360 6,000 368,842 63,49 900 1891 33,009,236 7,740,301 2,406,218 323,600 9,000 655,482 136,634 675 1892 28,422,377 16,362,921 3,810,086 385,049 6,500 824,000 \ 136,634 521 1893 20,314,513 16,249,769 8,445,412, 470,179 3,000 594,890 2,335,293 400 1894 19,019,990 16,792,154 8,577,624 705,969 1,500 515,746 3,688,666 300 1895 19,144,390 19,545,233 8,120,125 1,208,482 1,500 438,232 4,386,132 200 1896 20,584,421 23,941,169 10,019,770 1,252,777 1,680 361,450 4,680,732 259 1897 19,262,066 21,560,515 13,090,045 1,903,411 5,568 444,383 3,730,907 360 1898 15,948,464 18,738,708 13,615,101 2,257,207 322 384,934 4,122,356 500 1899 14,374,512 21,142,108 3,910,630 2,642,095 18,280 390,278 3,848,182 360 1900 14,559,127 22,382,730 16,195,675 4,324,484 62,259 317,385 4,874,392 200 1901 13,831 996 21,648,083 14,177,126 8,786,330 137,259 460,510 5,757,086 250 1902 13,183,610 21,014,231 3,513,345 13,984,268 185,331 396,901 ,480,896 200 1903 12,518,134 20,480,286 2,899,395 24,382,372 554,28 83,925 9,186,411 . . . . . . . . . . 1904 12,239,026 18,876,631 12,644,688 29,649,434 998,284 501,763 11,339,124 . . . . . . . . º 1905 11,554,777 16,346,660 11,578,110 33,427,473 1,217,337 76,2 10,964,247 181,084 1908 11,500,410 14,787,763 10,120,935 33,098,598 *; 327,58 ,673, 4,397,050 1907 11,211,606 12,207,448 9,095,296 39,748,375 820,844 331,851 5,128,037 24,281,973 1908 10,584,453 10,858,797 9,523,176 44,854,737 $727,767 370,653 3,283,629 33,686,238 1909 10,434,300 10,632,793 10,745,092 55,471,601 , §639,016 310,861 2,296,086 30,898,339 1910 9,848,500 ,916,3 11,753,071 73,010,560 $468,774 239,794 2,159,7 33,143,362 1911 9,200,673 8,817,112 9,795,464 81,134,391 $472,458 226,926 1,695,289 31,317,038 1912 8,712,076 °8,969,007 12,128,962 f87,272,593 $848,368 206,052 970,009 28,601,308 1913 8,865,493 8,781,468 11,567,299 97,788,525 $524,568 188,568 956,095 23,893,899 1914 9,109,309 8,536,352 9,680,033 99,775,327 §502,441 222,773 1,335,456 21,919,749 1915 8,726,483 7.335.3% 9,264,798 86,591,535 $437,274 208,475 875,758 19,041,695 1916 8,466,481 7,744,511 8,731,184 90,951,936 1,203,246 197,235 769,036 17,714,235 1917 8,612,885 7,750,540 8,379,285 93,877,549 3,100,356 121,231 759,432 15,776,860 1918 8,216,655 7:235,005 7,866,628 97,531,977 4,376,342 143,286 877,558 13 ,974 1919 9,441,936 8,243,592 9,032,688 101,221,784 5,027,904 241,680 929,780 12,436,000 1920 8,360,400 ,412,000 ,173,050 105,668,000 8,692,600 110,000 932,00ſ 10,772,000 1921 8,410,000 ,314,000 7,945,000 114,267,000 ,092,300 08,200 1,165,000 10,085,000 1922 8,506,500 ,775,000 ,025,600 138.900,000 9,600,000 00,000 ,090,000 9,600,000 1923 8,859,000 7,085,000 6,358,000 262,876,000 8,077,000 86,000 1,043,000 2,707,000 1924 8,901,000 6,825,000 5,927,000 230,064,000 7,416,000 404,000 935,000 8,065,000 Total . . . . . . . 850,681,553 507,021,978 338,935,398 2,063,223,360 66,108,992 12,369,250. 112,200,364 351,890,380 *Includes Michigan. Copyright 1923 , PETROL EU M A *Includes Alaska. §No Tennessee production. COMPILED BY J. B. RATHEUN E-10-2 CRUDE OIL (E-10-3) f (Production) PETROLEUM MARKETED IN UNITED (Estimated, by years and by states, in barrels, starting with the first (Continued from preceding form) STATES commercial production) Wyoming Year Kansas Texas Missouri Oklahoma and Montana Louisiana United States Total Value 1859 tº $ tº e º e º e e º ºs e e s ∈ & B e. g. º © tº a s e e º e º 'º e º 'º w w tº e º 'º º ºs º º e º e º e º a e e º e º & 2,000 $ 32,000 1860 . . . . . . . . . . © tº $ tº $ tº $ tº $ & 4 tº e g tº * e º e g º 'º e º 'º p tº s e º e s a s e a s * * * * * * * * * 500,000 4,800,000 1861 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... • * * * * * g e º e s e s a s e e s e s a a e º º is a sº e < 2,113,609 1,035,668 1863 * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * e º e º e g » º ºs e º a s g tº º e g e º is a e e s a s is e s is a s is e e º ſº º 3,056,690 ,209,525 1863 # * * * * * * * * g e º & © & tº it tº $ tº ſe e º 'º © & * * * * g º e º gº º e º s s tº e º e 6 & s & e º us e e s w e º º 2,611,309 8,225,663 1864 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . e e s is a e º ºs e g º a s e e s m e º a s = e e is e º & e º a 2,116,109 20,896,576 1865 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº e º e º e g º e º e º e s m e º is e º º tº e e s e < * 2,497,700 16,459,853 1866 . . . . . . . . . * @ e g tº º 'º e º 'º $ tº $ tº $ tº tº tº 8 & 8 º e º 'º e is • e º e e s e º e s a • * * * * * * * * * * 3,597,700 30,455,398 1867 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . © g e e = e º e º e º g º e s is e s e º e a e º a s = e s e º e s 3,347,300 8,066,993 1868 . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº e g º e º 'º e º e º 'º º e g º e º e º 'º e s s s a e s is e a e e º e º e º e s ∈ s 3,646,117 13,217,174 1869 tº tº ſº e º 'º & tº $ e s e s e e s e s e e s = * * * * tº e º 'º & ſº º e º e º is º e e º is a s e º e s e º ºs º is a tº 4, 215,000 23,730,450 1870 . . . . . . . . . e º e º ºs e º s e º 'º * * * * * B e. e. e. e 2 e º e s s a e < * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 5,260,745 20,503,754 1871 . . . . . & g º 'º e < * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * tº a dº e º 'º º ſº e e º e º e º a tº s is a s s s is s is tº e º 'º & a 5,205,234 22,591,180 1872 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * g g º s e º e º 'º e º te e s a w ś is a tº a º & 6,293,194 21,440,503 1873 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * & a g º e g º sº e º & e # 9,983,786 18,100,464 1874 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * e º e º is sº s º & & º e º e º º º º ºs e e º e º s is a t e º a º e º e º 'º 10,926,945 12,647,527 1875 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . e s e e g c s e s a • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 8,787,514 7,368,133 1876 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . " * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 9,132,669 22,982,822 1877 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • * * * * e s e s s a • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 13,350,363 31,788,566 1878 . . . . . . . . . . & e e s m e º 'º & * * • * * * is e º º gº e e s a e º e º e º sº e º a º º e º e º 15,396,868 18,044,620 1879 . . . . . . . . . . tº a s a tº e < * * * & e s e º 'º º º e e s e e º e º e = * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 19,914,146 17,210,708 1880 . . . . . . . . . . e & P & e s p * * * • * * g e s e º s = * * * e e º sº e s e º e s is e s e º 'º a e < * * * * * 26,286,123 24,600,638 1881 * * * * * * * s = e e s e e s a s = * * * * * * * * a e º e º u e e < e = * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 61,238 25,448,339 1882 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * e e e a e s e e g c s e < * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 30,349,897 ,631, 1888 . . . . . . . . . . . . e e s , , s = e s - e. e s e s s = * * * * * * * * * * * * * s e º e a e º s e < * * * * * * 23,499,663 25,790,252 1884 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . g & © tº e º e s tº $ tº º • * * * * * * * g s e º ºs e º s e º e e s s tº e º e º e s 24,218,438 20,595,966 1885 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 21,858,785 19, 198,243 1886 . . . . . . . . . . s a e º e º is is tº e s e e s tº a * * * * * * tº e º º & e º e º e º e < * * * * 28,064,841 19,996,313 1887 e & © tº t tº tº e º 'º ſº * & • e e s s a s a s e s tº gº e s = e < e < e < e < e a e º e s is & e e 28,283,483 18,877,094 ..S88 g tº e º is tº $ $ tº º tº ºn s e s is a º • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 27,612,025 17,947,620 1889 500 48 20 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35,163,513 26,963,340 1890 1,200 54 278 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45,823,572 35,365,105 1891 1,400 54 25 30 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54,292,655 30,529,553 1892 5,000 45 10 80 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50,514,657 25,906,463 1893 18,000 50 50 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48,431,066 28,950,326 1894 40,000 60 8 130 2,869 . . . . . . . . . . 49,344,516 35,522,095 1895 44,43 50 10 37 3,455 . . . . . . . . . . 52,892,276 57,632,296 1896 113,571 1,450 43 170 ,878 . . . . . . . . . . 60,960,361 58,518,709 1897 81,098 55,975 19 625 3,650 . . . . . . . . . . 60,475,516 40,874,072 1898 71,980 546,070 10 * e tº * - © & 5,475 . . . . . . . . . . 55,364,233 44,193,359 1899 69,700 669,013 132 . . . . . . . . . . . . 5,560 . . . . . . . . . . 57,070,850 64,603,904 1900 74,714 836,039 fl,602 6,472 5,450 . . . . . . . . . . 63,620,529 75,989,313 1901 179,151 4,393,658 f2,335 10,000 5,400 . . . . . . . . . . ,389,194 66,417,335 1902 331,7 18,083,658 #757 37,100 6,253 548,617 88,766,916 1,178,910 1903 932,214 7,955,572 f$,000 138,911 8,960 917,771 I00,461,337 94,694,050 1904 4,250,770 22,241,413 f2,572 1,366,748 11,542 2,958,958 117,080,960 101,175,455 1995 *12,013,495 28,136,189 f$,100 . . . . . . . . . . . . 8,454 8,910,416 134,717,580 34,157,399 1906 *21,718,648 12,567,897 ,500 . . . . . . . . . . . . 7,000 9,077,528 126,493,936 92,444,735 1907 2,409,521 12,322,696 f4,000 43,524,128 9,339 5,000,221 166,095,335 120,106,749 1908 1,801,781 11,206,464 flā,246 45,798,765 17,775 5,788,874 178,527,355 129,079,184 1909 1,263,764 9,534,467 ff,750 47,859,218 20,056 3,059,531 183,170,874 128,328,487 1910 1,128,668 8,899,266 f$,615 52,028,718 115,430 6,841,395 209,557,248 127,899,688 1911 1,278,819 9,526,474 f",995 56,069,637 186,695 10,720,420 220,449,391 134,044,752 1912 1,592,796 11,735,057 . . . . . . . 51,427,071 1,572,306 9,263,439 222,935,044 164,213,247 1913 2,375,029 15,009,478 flo,843 63,579,384 2,406,522 12,498,828 248,446,230 237,121,388 1914 3,103,585 20,068,184 f",792 73,631,724 3,560,375 14,309,435 265,762,535 214,125,215 1915 2,823,487 24,942,701 flá,265 97,915,243 4,245,525 18,191,539 281,104,104 179,462,89 1916 8,738,077 27,644,605 ..... 107,071,715 6,234,137 15,248,138 300,767,158 330,899,868 1917 36,536,125 32,413,287 . . . . . . 107,507,471 8,978,680 11,392,201 t335,315,601 522,635,213 1918 45,451,017 38,750,031 ... . . . 103,347,070 12,596,287 16,042,600 £355,927,716 703,943,961 1919 34,769,100 85,312,000 ..... . 81,127,900' 13,342,320 16,250,000 377,719,000 867,753,379 1920 38,500,000. 96,000,000 . . . . . 105,725,000 17,407,000 35,649,000 443,402,000 1,360,000.000 1921 34,312,586 111,969,575 . . . . . . 111,256,160 20,473,800 27,814,380 474,858,216 950,620,547 1922 31.890,000 117,000,000 .. e 147,414,000 29, 177,265 33,889,480 557,000,000 1,100,000,000 1923 28,250,000. 131,023,000 * 160,929,000 47,567,000 24,919,000 689,779,000 ------, 1924 28,483,000. 132,071,000 . . . . . 170,895,000 42,269,000 20,718,000 662,968,000 & otal . . . . . . 344,426,984 1,001,025,580 ,977 1,628,667,517 200,255,958 310,004,771 7,814,297,935 . . . . . . . . . . . Arkansas, 1921, 5,090,000; 1922, 8,000,000; 1923, 36,610,000; 1924, 44,209,000. New Mexico, 1924, 88,000. *Includes Oklahoma. #Includes Michigan. $Lncludes Alaska and Michigan. J. , PETROLEUM Copyright 1923 E-10–3 COMPILED AGE B. RATHEUN BY cRUDE oil (E-10-4) Distribution of American Crude Oils PRODUCING FIELDS IN THE UNITED STATES. While Crude Oil exists in lim- ited quantities in nearly every State in the Union, yet its commercial production is confined to seven principal districts or major territories. This main division contains the fields commonly known as the Appalachian, Lima-Indiana, Illinois, Mid-Continent, Gulf Coast, Rocky Mountain and California, fields. These districts are, of course, built up of a number of minor fields or pools, often given separate names because of their prominence as producers but which are really simply extensions of the seven main divisions named. Thus the north central Texas and the northern Louisiana pools are extensions of the Mid-Continent group. PRINCI PAL PRODUCING FI ELDS OF THE UNITED STATES Central City More Prominent Pools or Name of Field | Location by States of District Sub - Districts t Appalachiàn S. W. New York Salamanca, W. Pennsylvania. Oil City Shinnston, Speechly E. Ohio Canton Gore, Jackson Ridge N. W. West Virginia. | Parkersburg | Cabin Creek E. Cent. PCentucky Lexington Ragland Lima-Indiana. N. W. Ohio Lima. E. Cent. Indiana, Fort Wayne gº Illinois S. Illinois Centralia. Carlyle, Colmar, Dennison, John- SOIl - S. W. Indiana. Vincennes Mid-Continent | S. E. P.Cansas Fredonia, Beaumont, Humboldt, Independ- § Neodesha, El Dorado, FOX- UIS 75% Oklahoma. Tulsa. Garber, Olney, Billings, Burbank, Cushing, Lyons, Glen, Osage N. Cent. Texas Fort Worth Mexia, Burkburnett, Ranger, East- land, Breckenridge, Corsicana, N. Louisiana, Shreveport Homer, Monroe, Pine Island, Caddo, Haynesville S. Arkansas El Dorado Gulf Coast S. Texas (Coastal) | Houston Spindletop, Goose Creek, Humble, West Columbia, Hull, Orange S. Louisiana (Coast)|Lake Charles | Edgerly, Jennings, Terry, Vinton Rocky Mountain S. Cent. Montana. Billings Cat Creek 90% Wyoming Casper Greybull, Osage, Powder River, Sweet-Water, Salt Creek N. Cent. Colorado Ft. Collins Boulder California. W. California, Bakersfield Rern River, McKittrick, Belridge Coalinga. Coalinga, % Los Angeles | Salt Lake, Fullerton, Long Beach, Signal Hill, Santa Fe Springs f The various pools or sub-districts, of course, change from time to time, and only the better known out of a great number are listed here. To list the pools and Wells in each field would take much more room than available here. The Appalachian field is the oldest of the American fields, dating back to 1859 on the Drake Farm at Titusville, Pa. The Lima-Indiana field is the second oldest, being discovered in 1886. The Gulf Coast field was discovered in 1900, and the Illinois field in 1905. Both of these fields reached their prime five years after their discovery and since then have been steadily declining, with little chance of revival in sight. . In 1898 the California fields were brought in, and have been steadily increasing in im- portance since that time. Two small pools in Colorado, first discovered in 1876, pro- claimed the Rocky Mountain district, but little was done until the discovery of the Salt Creek field in Wyoming renewed the interest in 1920. The Mid-Continent field, the greatest producer in the United States, first came into prominence in 1903 and has grown steadily since that time. This district covers a wide territory and plays a substantial part in the production of American petroleum. Copyright 1922 COMPILED BY E 10 4. PETROLEUM AGE J. B. RATHEUN * -º & E. CRUDE OIL (E-10-6) O } Distribution of American Crude Oils APPALACHIAN FIELDS. This great area of producing territory is a long strip which starts in southwestern New York State and runs southwest through Pennsyl- vania, Ohio, Kentucky, and just slightly enters the northeastern borders of Tennessee. On the map it runs at an angle of about 45 degrees with the horizontal. It is the earliest American oil field and has been worked steadily since 1859, the territory for many years bearing the entire burden of production for the United States, but at the present time the production is gradually declining, being less than one-half the pro- duction had in its prime. The Pennsylvania, district was the earliest worked, while the West Virginia Pan- handle is now receiving the greatest development and is the richest territory. New pools continue to be discovered from time to time in Rentucky and in the southern end of the field, but the extent of the Appalachian structure has been so carefully marked out and tested that it is very doubtful whether any considerable extensions Will ever be made. The oil and gas sands occur throughout a long stratigraphic interval, ranging from the ordovician to the carboniferous. The strata consist of preponderating shale and lenses of sandstone, the main oil and gas horizons, together with subordinate sand- stone. The sandstones merge into shales toward the west, where there is also a greater proportion of sandstone in the section. The thickness of the strata decreases toward the west, particularly of the Upper Devonian. The interval between the Berea, sandstone and coniferous limestone, which is 500 feet in central Ohio, increases to more than 5,800 feet in northern West Virginia. Southward across West Virginia, there is a notable thickening of the Pottsville formation. For this reason, and for the reason of the basin structure, the Clinton Sandstone, which lies between 2,000 and 3,000 feet beneath the surface in central Ohio, is more than 7,000 feet deep in western Pennsylvania, and northern West Virginia. The Appalachian oil and gas district lies in the geosyncline extending between the Cincinnati anticline on the west and the zone of steeply folded rocks of the Allegheny Mountains on the east. The Syncline is a spoon-shaped trough in which the rocks rise northwestward, northward and southwestward from the lowest point of the basin in West Virginia (close to the southwestern corner of Pennsylvania). The axial trend throughout the greater part of the district is northeast-southwest, but in Southern West Virginia, and Kentucky the trend becomes more Westward. The folds decrease in intensity toward the west from the eastern margin. West of the axis of the geosyncline the folding is so gentle that the rocks are warped into irregular wrinkles without marked axial trend. Along the Western margin the folds practi- cally disappear and give way to a monocline on which the rocks rise westward at the rate of about 60 feet per mile. The most productive oil belt occurs contiguous to the central axis of the geosyncline, and the largest accumulations of gas are found along the outer margins of the trough. Pools of oil and gas, separated by non-productive areas, are distributed irregularly through the district. These pools are elongated in form, with their longer dimensions parallel to the structural trend. The location of most of the gas pools has been deter- mined by structure. They occur along crests of anticlines or along the updip termi- nations of lenses of sandstone, where they merge with shale, or where there is a marked decrease in the porosity of the pay sand. The influence of structure on Oil accumulation is also marked. In the absence of gas some oil pools occur on the crests of anticlines. Where much gas is present pools occur on , the flanks of anticlines, below, the gas and above the edge water. A few occur on terraces marked by changes in the rate of dip. In the absence of water in the rocks, petroleum tends to accumulate in the Synclines. In some pools the effect of structure is not so evident and lithology has been the controlling factor. The location of many of the pools is principally due to the position and porosity of the lenticular reservoir rocks. The crude petroleum from the Appalachian region is a high grade paraffin base oil, particularly desirable as a SQurge of lubricating oils. It contains much free, gaso- line and light burning oils. Oils, from New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania and Virginia have a specific gravity approximately 0.800 (45° Be...), while the average for Kentucky is not quite so high. Copyright 1922 COMPILED BY rešššūmī’āg J. R. RATHEUN E-10-6 CRUDE oil (E-10-7) Properties of Appalachian Crude Oils PROPERTIES OF PENNSYLVANIA CRUDES. The Pennsylvania crudes are of paraffine base and contain considerable quantities of gasoline, kerosene and lubricating oils. Both lubricating distillates and cylinder Stocks are obtained in large quantities, in fact the lubricants are at present the most important of the commercial derivatives obtained. For this reason, practically no cracking is carried out with Pennsylvania gº full attention being paid to the yield of lubricating oils. The sulphur COIntent IS IOW. In the “Complete” type of refinery handling Pennsylvania crude, the commercial products Will average about as follows (With steam distillation): 1. Gasoline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * * * * * e s e º e s e e s = e s is a • * 26 percent 2. Kerosene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 percent 3. Gas oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * * * * * * * * * * 20 percent 4. Neutral lubricating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 percent 5. Cylinder Stocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº e º is a tº º º 12 percent 6. Paraffine Wax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 percent 7. Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 percent Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ". . . . . . . 100 percent PROXIMATE ANALYSIS. The following analysis based on commercial classifica- tion shows the general characteristics of Pennsylvania crude oils. Items marked (*) are compiled from data issued by the United States Bureau of Mines. COMMERCIAT, PROPERTIES OF PENNSYLVANIA CRUDES Normal Light Medium Gasoline- Eero- Gas Lubric. Lubric. Carbon Name of Specific Baumé Sulphur Naphtha, sene Oil , Distil. Distil. Residue Field Gravity Gravity Pot. Pct. PCt. PCt. PCt. Pot. Pct. *Bradford . . . . 0. 40.1 0.10 32.5 \ 17.8 9.4 10.6 5.7 2.6 . . . . 0.802 44.5 0.12 37.5 12.7 9.2 10.0 5.7 2.2 . O.809 43.1 0.16 36.2 15.0 9.5 10.5 5.5 2.3 ... 0. 42.0 0.12 35.5 15.9 10.0 10.0 6.0 2.1 . 0. 42.0 0.15 36.0 15.5 9.4 10.8 5.5 2.2 COMPLETE ISISTILLATION TEST. This distillation, test was conducted on a Sample of Pennsylvania crude by the Bureau of MineS. The specific gravity is 0.809, Baume gravity 43.1°, sulphur 0.16 percent. The first half of the table is air distillation by the Hempel method. First drop at 24° C. (75° F.). Temp. Percent Sun Sp. Gr. of Be “ of Viscosity Cloud Temp, • C Cut Percent Cut Cut Say. Univ. Test * F. • F. |Up to 50 . . . . . . . 1.5 1. 0.639 89.1 * g º & tº e º 'º Up to 122 50- 75 . . . . . . . . 2.8 4.3 0.662 81.5 * * * * ge e º e 122-167 75-100 . . . . . . . . 3.3 7.6 0.702 69.4 * & © tº tº ſº ſº tº 167–212 100-125 . . . . . . . . 7.2 14.8 0.728 62.3 s & ſº tº is tº e gº 212-257 125-150 . . . . . . . . .0 20.8 0.746 57.7 tº e s ∈ tº º $ tº 257-302 150-175 . . . . . . . . 6.5 27.3 0.760 54.2 tº ſº tº e in e º 'º 302-347 175–200 . . . . . . . . 5.5 32.8 0.773 51.1 * & d tº gº ºn tº º 347–392 200-225 . . . . . . . . 6.5 39.3 0.785 48.3 * c > tº tº º ſº tº z 392–437 225-250 . . . . . . . . 5.9 45.2 0.797 45.7 ** = & J & & * * * e 437-482 250-275 . . . . . . . . 7.0 52.2 0.810 42.8 tº ſº s tº tº gº tº tº 482–527 | VACUUM DISTILLATION AT 40 M.M. Temp. Percent Sum Sp. Gr. of Be “ of Viscosity Cloud Temp. • C Cut Percent Cut Cut Say. Univ. Test * F. • F. Up to 200 . . . . . . 4.6 ° 4.6 0.829 38.9 39.1 16 TJp to 392 200-225 . . . . . . . . 5.2 9.8 0.834 37.9 44.5 36 392–437 225-250 . . . . . . . . 5.2 15.0 0.842 36.3 53.5 55 437-482 250–275 . . . . . . . . 5.0 20.2 0.850 34.7 71.2 74 482–527 275-300 . . . . . . . . 6.0 26.2 0.859 33.0 109.5 90 527-572 Copyright 1923 COMPILED BY PETRO LEU M AGE J. B. RATHBUN E-10-7 ſº O A O * CRUDE OIL (E-10-40) (Texas Crude Oil Properties) NORTH AND CENTRAL TEXAS CRUDES. The North and Central Texas fields, properly a part of the Mid-Continent fields are of the mixed base type containing both paraffine and asphaltunn. The gravity varies from 33 to 41 Baumé in the majority of Sases, and haye, a relatively great yield of gasoline and naphtha. They also yield high. grade, lubricating oils, and cylinder stocks, and some paraffine. As it is not possible with present methods of refining to completely remove the paraffine in making lubricating oils from these crudes, the finished oils show a cold test ranging from 25°. F. to 30°. F., much higher than, the “zero” oils of the South Texas crudes. The Cylinder stocks, however, have a high cold test. The sulphur content in general, is low ranging from 0.13 to 0.4 percent. The treatment is essentially the same as with any paraffine base. SOUTHERN TEXAS CRUDES. The crude from the Southern Texas (Naphthene) fields is entirely unlike that from the Northern fields, having an asphaltic base and having a low Baumé gravity. The gasoline content is extremely low. Formerly it Was thought that these oils were only fit for use as fuel oils since the majority of the refiners labored under the impression, that only paraffine base oils were fit for produc- ing lubricants, but after Some experiment and research it was found that the heavy asphaltic oils of Texas were capable of producing high percentages of excellent lubri- cating oils if properly handled. This lubricating distillates have a low cold test as they contain little or no paraffine, and many will flow at temperatures as low as zero degrees Fahrenheit. The Sulphur is comparatively low for such heavy oils. The Baumé gravity Of the Coastal crudes will run from 18° to 26°. Gas Oil is obtained in considerable quantities. Analysis by the Bureau of Mines shows a total of 33.5 percent of lubricating dis- tillate and 1.7 percent of gasoline and naphtha (Natural), the latter corresponding to a distillation temperature of 175°-200° C. (347°-392° F.). The gas oil is used in the pressure stills for the production of cracked gasoline and for burning at the refinery. Asphalt is produced from the residuum, this being oxidized with air until the required penetration test is reached. This asphalt is of good grade and is used for many pur- pOSes. 3. PRODUCING FIELDS OF TEXAS. The principal producing fields or districts of Texas, prominent at the present time or in the past will be found in the following table. The fields listed as ‘‘Northern Fields” are those contained within the areas commonly included in the “Mid-Continent” area, or oils of paraffine or mixed paraffine and asphaltic base. In some cases, the Northern belt extends well down toward the center of the state, but the oils have distinctly different characeristics from those obtained from the Southern or Coastal districts. -*— NORTHERN AND CENTRAL TEXAS SOUTHERN TEXAS Abilene Lockhart AltaVista, Markham Avis | Mexia. BarberS Hill Mission BangS Milsap a Batson Pickering Black Moran Big Creek Piedras-Pintas Breckenridge Panther #; Hill Pierce Junction d ue Ridge Reagan - BrOWnwoo Putnam Brown ROCkdale—Minerva. Burkburnett Ranger Bryan Saratoga Byrd’s ta. Anna - y Santa Ar Callihan Somerset Caddo Sipo Springs CrOW ther SOur Lake Colemen Southbend Dannon Mound Spindle Top Corsicana. \ South Bosque Dayton Stratton Ridge Desdemona. South Grosbeck Goose Creek West Columbia. Duke-Rnowles Stephens Co. High Island White Point Electra Strawn Hockley Elgin Tarall Hoskins Gray Thorndale Hull Grayford Thrall Humble Holliday Vernon Jim Hogg Iowa. Park Waggoner Laredo Jack Co. West Fork Liberty PCOS Se Wortham Tuuling COPYRIGHT 1922 V. COM I’l LED BY E 10 40 PETRO LEU M AGE J. B. H.A. THE UN - - CRUDE OIL (E-10-41) Properties of Texas Crude Oils AVERAGE COMMERCIAL CONTENTS. The following table gives a summary or the commercial petroleum derivatives obtained from the various Texas crude oils. It shows the great difference between the yields of the Northern-Central and the Southern coastal Crudes, and the marked difference in their physical characteristics. As ex- plained before, the North-Central fields are an extension of the Mid-Continent fields and produce oils of a paraffine base, while the southern coastal oils are distinctly an asphaltic base product. These figures represent the average value of a large number of samples, and include data from the United States Bureau of Mines, the latter being marked (*). NORTH AND CENTRAL TEXAS FIELDS *E=– (COMMERCIAL PROPERTIES OF CRUDE OILS) Name of Specif. Baume Sulphur Gas. | Normal Gas Light |Medium || Wiscous | Carbon Fields Gravity Gravity | Percent Naphthal Keros. Oil Lubric. Lubric. | Lubric. | Residue Percent | Percent | Per. Distill. | Distill. | Distill. | Percent *Burkburnett. . . . . . . . 0. 37.1 0.38 36,3 17.7 10.8 10.4 5.1 11.1 *Burkburnett........ 0.829 39.2 0.29 34.5 19.4 9.1 8.9 is g º a tº e º 'º *Burkburnett........ 0.835 | 37.7 0 28 29.0 22.0 14.4 10.8 tº e º is tº ſº tº *Breckenridge........ 0. 35.9 0.25 30.0 18,8 11.4 10.9 5.0 5.3 *Breckenridge... . . . . . 0 850 34.7 0 27 29 4 19.1 11 4 10.6 5.3 5.5 *Breckenridge gº & º 'º e º is is 0 35 4 0 25 31 6 20.0 11.1 9 9 5.5 5.2 OrS1Caſlº. e. . . . . . . . . 0. 33.7 0 24 19.7 23.8 14.7 6.7 11. 5 9.9 *Corsicana........... 0. 33.2 0 24 20.1 24.0 14.9 7.7 6, 2 6.2 *Electra. ........... 0.825 || 39 9 0 28 40.8 16. 1" 8.9 6.0 9.0 e tº º *Electra. ........... * * * * 40.0 0.22 41.1 15.9 8.5 6 0 5, 1 tº e & *Mexia.............. s = 8 35.3 0.19 17.3 28.4 17 3 12 3 4.9 9.9 *Mexia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . e 0.847 35 3 0.20 17.3 27.8 17.0 11 9 5.1 9.2 *Mexia.............. * * 35.8 0.19 18.1 28 6 16.9 12.0 5.5 9.0 Moran . . . . . . . . . . . . 0 835 | 37 7 0 23 28.0 25.0 16.6 10.8 6, 1 6 6 Moran ............ * * * * 38 0 0.21 26 9 25 0 15.9 11.0 6.7 7.0 SOUTHERN AND COASTAL TEXAS FIELDS Beaumont. . . . . . . . . . 0 912 23.4 0 65 4 0 16 0 11.7 9. 1 10.8 13.4 Beaumont. . . . . . . . . . e e º & 23.1 0 68 3 9 16.1 12.4 9.6 9.9 tº tº a tº Beaumont. . . . . . . . . . * & & P 23.4 0.66 4.1 16.5 12 0 8.9 9.4 tº º tº º umble. . . . . . . . . . . . 0 902 25 4 0.72 0.9 25 0 12 6 8.8 11.0 13.9 Humble . . . . . . . . . . . º ºg º & 23 9 0.78 1 4 17 9 10 0 8 4 11.0 14.0 . Humble . . . . . . . . . . . 19 9 0 81 1 0 18 8 8 8 8 4 11.1 14.3 Humble . . . . . . . . . 22 2 0.76 1 9 17.7 |, 10.0 8 5 11.6 14.0 Barbers Hill . . . . . . 22 5 0.75 1 8 18.1 11.9 9 4 11 0 13.9 tº a ſº & *B of M. Aver. . . . . . . 18.3 0.78 1.7 18 0 8.0 8.4 || 11.0 14.1 9.8 The gasoline and naphtha content given above is the natural content under ordinary By Cracking processes, the atmospheric distillation by the usual laboratory methods. gasoline yield is of course increased at the expense of the other distillates. The total gasoline content obtainable by both straight distillation and cracking will average about 81 percent for the northern crudes and from 55 to 65 percent for the southern and coastal crudes. distillate. The gasoline and naphtha are taken as being the ordinary motor The Saybolt Universal viscosity of the northern and central crudes will average about 45 to 55 seconds. higher and has a lower pour test. The S. U. V. of the southern and coastal crudes is very much will average below 5 degrees Fahrenheit. COPYRIGHT 1922 PETRO LEU M A GE COMPILED BY J. B. RATHBUN The pour test of the northern and central crudes E-10–41 | CRUDE OIL (E-10-42) Properties of Texas Crude Oils PROPERTIES OF ELECTRA (NORTHERN) CRUDE. The following table gives the properties in detail of the crude oil obtained from the Electra Field, Wichita County, Texas. This is taken from the Bureau of Mines Report No. 2293. Specific Gravity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.824 Saybolt Universal Viscosity @ 70° F. 42.0 Baumé Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39.9 Saybolt Universal Viscosity @ 100°F. 37.4 Percent Sulphur. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.25 Pour Test . . . . . . . . • a s e º e º 'º º º ... Below 5° F. Percent Water. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nil. • Distillation tests performed by the Bureau of Mines on samples from this field show the approximate commercial derivatives to be as follows: APPROXi MATE CO M M ERC ||A L SU M M A RY Items Percent Sp. G. Be° Gasoline and Naphtha. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40.8 0.734 • 60.7 Kerosene . . . . . . . * * * * * * * * * * * * * * e". . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.1 0.822 40.3 Gas Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.9 0.860 32.8 Light Lubric. Distillate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.0 . 0.876 29.8 Medium Lubric. Distillate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.0 0.896 26.3 Complete distillation test of these oils was made by the Bureau of Mines by the Hempel method at a barometric pressure of 745 mm. The first drop at 27° C. DISTILLATION TEST (ATMOSPHERIC) Percent Sum Sp. G. Ee" Temp. C*. Cut Percent Cut Cut Temp. Fº. Up to 50° C. 4.6 4.6 0.664 80.8 Up to 122° F. 50- 75 4.1 8.7 0.671 78.6 122–167 75-100 6.8 15.5 0.712 66.6 167–212 100-125 | 7.8 23.3 0.737 60.0 212-257 125-150 5.9 29.2 0.757 54.9 257-302 150-175 5.9 35.1 0.773 51.1 302-347 175-200 5.7 40.8 0.792 46.8 347–392 200-225 5.2 46.0 0.809 43.1 392–437 \ 225-250 5.2 51.2 0.821 40.5 437-482 250-275 5.7 56.9 0.834 37.9 482–527 The table below shows the results obtained by vacuum distillation at a pressure of 40 mm. Carbon residue of residuum was 10.3 percent. DISTILLATION TEST (VACUUM.) _! Viscosity Percent Sum Sp. G. Be? S. U. Cloud Temp. C*. Cut Percent Cut Cult Temp. F*. at 70° F. Test F* , Up to 200° C. 3.4 3.4 i).855 33.7 Up to 392° 40 23° F. 200-225 5.5 8.9 0.863 32.2 392-437 47 30 225-250 6.0 14.9 O.876 29.8 437-482 65 52 250-275 4.2 19.1 - 0.889 27.5 482–527 126 70 275-300 4.8 23.9 0.903 35.0 527-572 . 167 90 PILED BY egºš'Étiº": as *ś, E-10-42 CRUDE OIL (E-10-43) Properties of Texas Crude Oils PROPERTIES OF BURREURNETT (NORTHERN) CRUDE. The detailed data On this field as in the case of the data on the Electra field was obtained from the Bureau of Mines Report No. 2293. This is a representative of the Northern and Central - light Texas crude oils taken from the southern extremity of the Midcontinent region. Specific Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.821-24 Saybolt Universal Viscosity @ 70° F.40.6 Baumé Gravity . . . . . . . . . * - - - - - - - - - 40.1-40.5 Saybolt Universal Viscosity @ 100° F.35.9 Percent Sulphur . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.25 Pour Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Below 5° F. Percent Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nil Complete distillation tests were made on these oils by the Bureau of Mines at atmospheric pressure (Unknown). First drop at 121° F. Items marked (*) denote Steam distillation. Item (**) indicates carbon residue. w f:= COMPLETE DISTILLATION TEST Percent Temp. Sg G. Be° Gravity of Total Over Cut Fo. ut Cut Sp. G. Be° We 5 197 0.686 74.8 0.686 74.8 10 227 0.701 70.4 0.693 72.7 15 253 0.720 65.0 0.702 70.1 20 283 0.738 60.2 0.711 67.5 - 25 309 0.751 56.9 0.719 65.3 30 342 0.762 54.2 0.726 63.4 35 375 0.776 50.8 0.733 61.6 40 410 0.789 47.8 0.740 59.7 45 440 0.801 45.2 0.747 57.9 50 485 0.813 42.5 0.754 56.2 55 529 0.825 40,0 0.760 54.7 60 562 0.834. 38.2 0.766 53.2 65 578 0.842 36.6 0.772 51.8 *70 - O - 0.854 34.2 0.785 48.7 *75 tº º º 0.868 31.5 0.791 47.3 *80 tº º e 0.887 28.0 0.797 46.0 *85 & e º 0.910 24.0 0.803 44.7 **90 © e - 0.916 22.9 0.809 43.4 The average gasoline content, taken as 60° Be gasoline is approximately 40 percent according to the above determination, while 25.0 percent of 40.5° Be kerosene is indi- cated. According to another authority, the natural gasoline content is 41 percent and the kerosene will average 20 percent. PROPERTIES OF RANGER (NORTHERN) CRUDE. The Ranger field of Texas produces • Crude oil which averages as follows: ! Specific Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.829- 0.830 Saybolt Universal Viscosity @ 70° F...40 Baumé Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .38.9 -39.2 Saybolt Universal Viscosity @ 100° F. . .35 Percent Sulphur . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.22 - 0.23 Pour Test. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Below 5° F. Percent Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nil. t * Copyright 1922 COMPILED BY ºrs 1 PETROLEU M AGE J. B. RATHEUN * - - -- E-10–43 CRUDE OIL (E-10-45) Properties of Texas Crude Oils PROPERTIES OF MEXIA (NORTHERN) CRUDE. The Bureau of Mines Report No. 2293 gives the detailed properties of the crude oil obtained from the Mexia, Lime- Stone County, Texas fields, and is reproduced below. Specific Gravity . . . . . . . . . tº g c e º º . . . . . . 0.847 Saybolt Universal Viscosity @ 70° F.. 56.2 Baumé Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35.3 Saybolt Universal Viscosity @ 100° F. .45.6 Percent Sulphur . . . . . . . . tº º ſº e º 'o e º º . . . 0.19 Pour Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº º is e E & Below 5° F. Percent Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . NiI. Distillation tests performed by the Bureau of Mines on samples from this field show the following approximate commercial derivatives to be as follows: APPROXIMATE COMMERCIAL SUMMARY ITEMS Percent Sp. Gr. Baumé " Gasoline and Naphtha............................ 17.3 0.768 52.3 erosene. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28.4 O 0.807 43.5 Gaº Qil.: ....…. ::::::. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.3 0.845 35.7 Light Lubric. Distillate........................... 12.3 0.869 31.1 Medium Lubric. Distillate... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . | 4 9 | 0.894 | 26.6 Cºl. distillation tests were made both under an atmospheric pressure of 736 mm., and under a vacuum of 40 mm. pressure, the tests being according to the Hempel *::3% adopted by the Bureau of Mines. At atmospheric pressure the first drop was 3, & ATMOSPHERIC DISTILLATION TEST AT 736 MM. º Percent Sum Sp. Gr. Baumé Temperature Temperature C Cut Percent Cut Cut Fo Up to 50° C. 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 | Up to 122°F 50–75 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 122–167 75–100 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 167–212 100–125 3.3 3.3 0.757 54.9 212-257 125-150 3.5 6.8 0.760 54.2 257-302 150–175 4.7 11.5 0.769 52.1 302–347 175–200 5.8 17.3 0.779 49.7 347–392 200–225 8.5 25.8 0.792 46.8 392–437 225-250 9.8 35.6 0.806 43.7 437–482 250–27 10.1 45.7 0.821 40.5 482–527 WACUUM DISTILLATION TEST AT 40 mm. | | WISCOSITY CLOUDTEST Temperature Percent Total Sp. Gr. | Baumé S. U. o * gº Cut Cut Cut Cut 70° F. F Up to 200°C 8.7 8.7 0.841 36.5 40 19 200–2 8.6 17.3 0.849 34.9 46 36 225-250 6.6 23.9 0.862 32.4 63 52 250–275 5.7 29.6 0.877 29.6 92 70 275-300 4.9 34.5 0. 26 6 170 86 It is interesting to compare the properties of this crude with those determined for the Electra field under similar conditions. Here we see how great a physical difference may exist between two crudes obtained from wells in the same region and of the same base. There is not a great deal of difference between the gravities of the two oils and yet the distillation test shows up great physical differences. Thus, the first drop obtained from the Electra Crude was at 27° C. and 29.2 percent was distilled up to 150° C. The Mexia crude under distillation produced the first drop at 75°, and only 6.8 percent distilled up to 150° C. COPYRIGHT 1922 COMPILED BY E-10-45 PETROLEU M AGE J. B. RATHE UN '* ~~ tº ºs : CRUDE OIL (E-10-55) Properties of Oklahoma Crude Oils AVERAGE COMMERCIAL CONTENTS. In the following table is a summary of the commercial petroleum derivatives obtained from the various Oklahoma crude oils, Midcontinent Field. These figures represent the average value of a large number of samples, and include data prepared by the Bureau of Mines. The latter items are marked by (*). f º COMMERCIAL PROPERTIES OF ORI, AEIOMA CRUDE OILS | | NAME OF Specif. Baumé | Sulphur | Gaso. | Normal | Gas Light | Medium) Carbon FIELD Gravity || Gravity | Percent | Naphthal Keros. il | Lubric. Lubric. Residue J | | Percent, Percent | Percent | Distill. | Distill. j Percent *Bartlesville. ............... 0. 30.7 || 0.25 | 19.0 18.5 7.3 || 13.6 || 13.2 8 1 *Bartlesville................ ſº º ſº tº 31.1 0.20 21.0 19.5 8.0 12.5 12.5 8.0 *Bartlesville............... * * * * 30.5 0.22 21.0 19.0 8.0 12.0 13.5 8.1 *Billings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.812 || 42.4 || 0.25 || 38.8 25.0 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.5 *Billings................... tº e e 40.0 0.20 41.5 26.1 s & 6 s. - - & © 7.8 Billings. ................. e s & e 41.2 0.22 40.0 25.0 * * * > - - - - tº s is 6. 7.8 irby. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.845 35.7 0.28 25.0 20.0 & e º s - - - - • * * * 6.7 Bixby..................... 0.845 35.7 0.27 24.5 21.0 e is tº º * * * * tº a gº & 6.8 Cushing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº $ tº 39.1 0.12 37.5 18.0 11.5 9.6 4.7 6.8 hing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.82 40.1 0.12 35 0 15.0 10.8 10.0 5.0 6.8 “Cushing...... . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.824 || 39 9 0.14 35.0 25.0 10.0 9.2 4.5 6.0 "Cushing................... tº gº a s 40.0 0, 12 38. I 19.5 11.2 9.9 4.3 6.4 *Garber.................... is e º sº 45 2 0.14 52.4 15.7 3.9 11.9 2.7 5.7 "Garber.................... 0.780 || 49.5 0.13 60.0 10.8 3.5 8.8 1.7 5.6 "Garber.................... 0.780 || 49.5 0.05 55.0 20.0 * g º º tº ~ * * * * * * 5.9 *Garber.................... tº s a s 45.6 0.10 58.7 16.8 4.1 9.8 3.2 5.8 Healdton.................. tº e º s 30.9 0.22 22.3 15.8 10.5 6.5 12.1 9.0 *Healdton. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * s tº e 29.0 0.24 21.0 15.8 10.8 6.8 12.5 9.4 *Healdton. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . e is is 31, 1 0.22 22.9 16.7 H1.0 7.2 13.0 9.6 *Lyons... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . a 9 s 37.5 0.14 28.3 17.4 11.5 11.1 6.1 2.6 *Lyons... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * g tº 38.0 0.12 30.0 20.0 12.0 10.0 5.0 2.5 *Muskogee. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 'ſ 34.3 0.23 19.5 17.8 13.9 12.2 7.3 3.7 uskogee. ................ • * , 34.0 0.22 20.1 18.5 14.1 / 12 0 8.0 3.5 *Muskogee................. * * * * 34.5 0.24 20.0 19.0 14.5 11.5 8.0 3.1 *Newkirk. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . | 0.822 || 40.3 0.24 32.5 14.0 is e º e • * * * * * * * 6,6 *Newkirk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * 6 s is 41.0 0.25 35.0 14.0 10.0 10.0 6.0 6.0 *Phillipsville. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . | .. 43.1 0.17 39.6 15.4 9.0 10.0 4.1 3. 1 Phillipsville . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . | 44.0 0.20 * 42.0 16.0 10.0 | 10.0 4.0 3.0 Phillipsville. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43.5 0.20 41.1 15.0 9.5 10.1 4.1 3.2 The gasoline and naphtha content above is the natural content obtained by distillation at atmospheric pressure and without cracking the heavier components. The tests in most part were made in the laboratory under standard conditions. The total gasoline, both natural and that obtained by cracking processes will run between 83 and 91 percent. (Laboratory Methods.) f It will be seen from the above that some oils, notably those from the Garber field, produce tremendous percentages of natural gasoline, or rather gasoline obtained-by atmospheric distillation. In nearly every case, the gasoline is well above 20 percent. In general the carbon residue of the residuum is very low, and that the oils are gen- erally of an exceptionally high quality. The Sulphur is low and the percentage of water is practically nil. t Probably one of the most marked peculiarities in the Oklahoma oils is the great variation in the gravity, running as it does from 30.5 Bé. to 49.5° Bé. The Garber oils are unusually light and contain great quantities of gasoline. The base of the oils is paraffine and semi-paraffine. COPYRIGHT 1922 COMPILED BY E 10 5 5 PETROLEUM AGE t J. B. RATHBUN tº ºn O w | * CRUDE OIL (E-10-65) f * O Properties of Kansas Crude Oils AVERAGE COMMERCIAL CONTENTS. In the following table is a summary of the ordinary commercial distillates in the proportion that they are obtained from the different Kansas crude oils. These figures are of course approximate as there is not hard and fast definition for gasoline or kerosene, but they are of value in making Com- parisons. The figures represent the averages of a large number of samples, and in- clude data prepared by the Bureau of Mines. The latter items are indicated by (*). COMMERCIAL PROPERTIES OF KANSAS CRUDE OILS g | | | Light | Medium NAME OF Specif. | Baume | Sulphur | Gaso. Normal Gas Lubri. Lubri. | Carbon FIELD Gravity || Gravity | Percent | Naphthal Keros. Oil Distill. Distill. | Residue I Percent | Percent | Percent | Percent | Percent | Percent 0 31.9 0.41 24.2 20.5 11.1 11.4 5. 10 2 32.0 0.40 25.0 20.0 10.0 12.0 6.0 10 0 29.5 0.31 15.9 17.6 11.5 12.9 7.8 100.4 29.8 0.33 16.0 18.0 12.0 12 5 7.5 110.0 30 0 0.35 16.5 17.5 12.5 12.1 7.2 10.6 34.1 0.29 27.5 20.5 12.1 11.4 5.7 11.5 34.0 0.25 28.0 20.0 12.0 12.0 6.0 10.0 34.5 0.35 30.0 18.5 11.8 10.9 5.5 9.9 tº e º e 34.0 0.30 30.0 18.0 12.0 10.0 5.0 11 0 0.860 33.3 0.35 25.0 17.0 * & & g º º tº s tº º 12.6 0.871 30.7 0.40 15.0 17.5 12.0 tº º º º s & º 12.0 tº tº tº tº 30.0 0.42 14.5 16.0 * * g e & 11 9 * † 29.9 0.41 14.2 16.4 13.3 gº º & 11 0 e 28.2 0.37 17.3 14,6 11.1 5.3 9.8 9.8 & e 28.5 0.40 16.5 15.0 10.5 5.0 10.0 10.0 tº ºr 28.9 0.33 18.0 14.1 11.1 5.0 10.0 10.0 0.850 34.7 0.27 26.5 27.5 • * * * & C & 8.8 Towanda.................. 0.850 34.7 0.25 26.2 27.0 ge g tº gº & ſº º gº tº e º e 9.5 Towanda. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.850 34.7 0.25 26.9 25.0 11.1 6.0 6.0 10.0 The natural gasoline and naphtha, given in the above table is the natural content as determined by laboratory distillation at atmospheric pressure and does not include the total gasoline content in which both the natural distillate and the gasoline obtained by pressure cracking are given. The total gasoline content obtained by cracking will average from 77 percent to 81 percent of the crude. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. The following table grves the ultimate analysis of a few Ransas crude oils. TJ LTIMATE ANALYSIS Carbon Hydrogen Sulphur TNitrogen i Oxygen NAME % % % % | % Towanda. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . gº & e e 84.15 13.00 1.90 0.45 Nil, Neodesha... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84.00 13.10 0.88 0.81 0.04 Chanute... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . | 84.65 14.55 0.61 0 45 Nil. It should be noted that this table gives the total sulphur in any form, and hence is higher than the first table where only the simpler combinations are determined by “proximate” analysis methods. ight 1923 COMPILED BY eśae J. B. RATHEUN " E-10–65 ~, - f Y f CRUDE oil (E-10-75) f Properties of Louisiana Crude Oils DISTRIBUTION. The distribution of crude in Louisiana is somewhat similar to that of Texas, there being a Northern district which is an extension of the Mid-con- tinent field, and a Southern coastal district which forms a continuation of the Texas coastal field. The Northern oils are of paraffine and mixed base with some asphaltic oil, while the Coastal oils are the characteristic heavy asphaltic base oils. The prin- cipal producing fields to date are as follows: NORTH-WESTERN FIELDS SOUTHERN COASTAL FIELDS > Bull Bayou Monroe Anse LaButte Terry Caddo Mooringsport Edgerly e Vinton Crichton Morehouse Evangeline Welsh DeSoto-Red River Ouachita. Jennings St. Mary Haynesville Pine Island New Iberia. Arcadia. Homer Vivian COMMERCIAL PROPERTIES. The table below gives the average commercial analysis of Louisiana oils in regard to their production of commercial distillates. Here we note that the oil from Pine Island (Naphthene base) has noticeably different chair- acteristics than the other Northern district oils. COMMERCIAL PROPERTIES OF NORTHERN LOUISIANA CRUDES Light | Mediumſ Heavy | Gaso. Normal | Gas Lubric. Lubric. I, Wisc. Carbon Naphthal Keros. Oil Distill. Distill. Lub. Dis.| Residue Percent | Percent | Percent | Percent | Percent | Percent | Percent |TV NAME OF | Specif. |* sº FIELD Gravity Gravity | Percent Sp. Gr. Baume? *Caddo. . . . . . . . . . . 0 34.7 0.25 25.7 18.9 12.6 11.7 5.9 Nil. 9 *Caddo. . . . . . . . . . . 0 34.5 0.25 25.5 18.5 12.5 11.0 5.5 Nil. 9 5 *Caddo. . . . . . . . . . . 0 34.7 0.22 25.0 19.0 12.8 12.0 6.0 Nil. 10.0 *Caddo............. ſ). 34.5 0.25 26.0 19,0 12.0 11.0 6.5 Nil., | 10.0 •Haynesville....... 0. 34.7 0.42 20.9 15.5 15.2 15.7 5.4 Nil . 7.3 •Haynesville....... 0. 34.6 0.40 21.5 16.0 15.0 14.0 5.2 Nil 8.5 •Pine Island....... 0. 25.4 0.42 3.0 18.2 7.5 17.1 15.5 Nil. 5.1 •Pine Island....... 0. 25.5 0.45 3.4 17.8 8.0 16.5 12.5 Nil. 6.2 •Pine Island....... 0.902 || 25.4 0.40 2.5 25.0 7.5 17.6 15.0 Nil. 6.0 •Pine Island....... 0. 25.2 0.42 0.9 20.0 * * g e 17.0 13.0 Nil. 6.5 •Pine Island....... 0. 25.4 0.45 1.0 25.0 s a a g 17.5 15.0 Nil. 6 5 **Average......... 0. 25.2 * tº e is 0.0 23.4 30.8 27.0 18.0 tº g tº º tº £ tº OASTAL LOUISIANA CRUDES 1.7 18.0 8.0 8.4 11.0 14.1 9.8 1.0 18.5 8.5 9.0 10,0 10.0 10.0 4.0 16.0 11.7 9. 1 10.8 * * * tº ſº. 0.8 25.0 12.6 8.8 10,0 1.7 18.1 11.6 9.4 11,0 *Data from Bureau of Mines Reports. *From Pogue’s “Economics of Petroleum.” Here we see that there is a very sharp distinction between the Northern and Coastal oils, and further, that the Coastal crudes may be divided into two sub-classes, those averaging about 18° Be., and those averaging about 23° Be. The Northern oils produce little or no heavy lubricating distillate, while the Coastal crudes produce rel- atively high amounts. Copyright 1923 COMPILED BY esºjº” be J. B. RATHBUN E-10-75 \ O O ** t \ Y. * CRUDE OIL (E-12-1) ^ | (Mexican Crude Oil) OIL FIELDS OF MEXICO. The principal commercially developed oil fields of Mexico are three in number: (1) The Northern or Panuco fields; (2) The Southern or Tepetate field, and (3) The Deal field in the Isthmus of Tehuantepe. The character of the oils in these districts varies widely and are apparently of different origin. The geological structure is entirely different than that of the oil bearing formations in the United States, and are really caverns or reservoirs of oil. The production is not limited by the rate of seepage through porous sandstones as in the United States but the oil flows at a tremendous rate—exactly as out of a tank. The greater majority are gushers and there is practically no pumping in Mexico. The present Northern and Southern fields lie along a narrow strip of land on the Gulf coastal plain, and as the wells are only a few miles from the coast they are admirably located in regard to transportation. The Northern or Panuco fields produce a very heavy crude, ranging from 10° to 14° Baumé. This field comprises three pools, the Ebano, Panuco and Topila. The oil con- tains very little gasoline or light burning oils and is generally sold as a fuel oil with- Out further refining. The Panuco oil, which constitutes about 85 per cent of the production, averages 12° Baumé. A topping plant could produce about the following percentages by complete distillation of the gasoline: Gasoline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5% Kerosene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.0% Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90.5% Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.0% A commercial plant employing Straight run distillation for the total commercial products, will produce: Gasoline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5% Kerosene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.5% Gas Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.0% Lubricating Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.0% Asphalt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65.0% Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.0% When the total gasoline is removed (3.5%), the gravity of the 12° oil is increased to about 10° Baumé, and it becomes too viscous and stiff for efficient use as a fuel oil. For this reason, it is not usual to top more than 2.5% to 3.0% of the gasoline. The great amount of asphalt produced in complete refining will be noted, and also the small percentage of lubricating oil. Panuco oil is seldom coked for too much coke is pro- duced; hence, it is seldom that one finds lubricating oil or gas oil equipment installed for Panuco crude. The southern district produces a much lighter crude, comparatively high in gasoline and the lighter oils, and for this reason this field is of great importance. The crudes average from 18° to 22° Baumé and are suitable for refining. The principal pools are the Des Bosas, Tepetate-Casiano-Chinampa, the Amatlan-Naranjos-Zacamixtle, the Toteco-Cerro-Azul, the Alazan-Petrere del Llano, the Tierra. Blanca, Alamo and the Molino. Oils from the various pools are called “Light Mexican, Tuxpan crude, or Tepetate crude.” Most of this oil is “topped” and gives the following products. Gasoline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.0% Kerosene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.0% Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ". . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81.0% Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.0% * The gasoline in the above averages 440° F. end point, with the 'uel oil ranging from 14.5° to 15.5° Baumé. While very heavy, this viscosity does not interfere with the usual boiler equipment. It is likely that the future will see a more complete stripping of the lighter components and an increased gravity of the fuel oil. Copyright 1922 COMPILED BY Peščišūmīºae J. B. RATHE UN E-12-1 CRUDE OIL (E-12-2) (Mexican Crude Oil) SOUTHERN FIELDS. If the crude is completely refined instead of being topped, a refinery may obtain approximately the following percentages, or practically all of the constituents of Midcontinent oil: * Percent le Percent Gasoline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.0 Light Lubricating Oil. . . . . . 25.0 Kerosene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.0 Heavy Lubricating Oil. . . . . 10.0 Gas Oil. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28.0 Gas and Coke. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.0 A small amount of wax may be recovered from the light crude, from 1.2 to 1.3 per- cent. Many refineries operating on Mexican crudes are compromises between the simple topping plant and the lubricating plant. They produce gasoline, kerosene, gas oil, fuel oil and coke in about the following propertions. The market' has a great influence on this Operation: Percent Percent Gasoline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.0 Gas Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61.0 Kerosene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.0 - Gas and Coke. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.0 Percent Gasoline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.5 Fuel Oil. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80.5 § Kerosene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.0 Toss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.0 In distillation for asphalt: Percent Percent Gasoline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.0 Asphalt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46.0 Kerosene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.0 Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.0 Gas Oil. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.0 * Pools in the Isthmus Of Tehuantepec produce very light oils, but to date the quan- \ity has been small. The fields at Oaxaco and Southern Vera Cruz have a gravity langing from 12° to 25° Baumé. The latest fields are the Tabasco-Chiapas sections. In the valleys of Grijalva, and Usamacinta, there are many seepages and this Will undoubtedly prove a fertile field. The sands are encountered at shallow depths and the oil is of the highest grade in Mexico, running from 20° to 42° Baumé. Some of this oil is not only Superior to Texas and Oklahoma crude but is said to rank with the best Pennsylvania grades. A sample test shows the following characteristics: --- Percent Percent Gasoline and Light Oils. . . 42.58 Heavy Oils. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28.16 Medium Oils. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27.11 Volatile Residues. . . . . . . . . . 2.07 A fractional distillation test on the same crude showed the following: 50° C. to 100° C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TraceS Colorless 100° C. to 150° C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Traces Colorless 150° C. to 200° C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.25 percent Colorless 200° C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34.34 percent Light yellow/blue 250° C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27.11 percent Golden yellow 350° C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28.16 percent Dark red/green Asphalt . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.07 percent Black f Sulphur . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.78 percent * Copyright 1922 * COMPILED BY i- E-1 2–2 PETROL EU M AGE J. B. RATHEUN O | L CRUDE OIL (E-12-10) *. L O * | (Mexican Crude Oils) TYPICAL SPECIFICATIONS FOR NORTHERN MEXICAN CRUDE According to grade, Mexican crude oils may be divided roughly into two classes: (1) The Heavy Crudes, ranging from 10° Baumé to 14° Baumé (specific gravity 0.993 to 0.973), and (2) the Light Crudes, ranging from 18° to 22° Baumé (0.947 to 0.922 specific gravity). very light gravity crude has also been obtained from the southern Mexican fields ranging from 30° to 40° Baumé. The following tests were made on Mexican crudes taken from the various fields, and in general show what may be expected in the general run of these oils: * Light Sample No. 6675 Specific gravity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.9115 Baumé gravity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23,8 Flash point, Open cup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77° Fr. *… Fire test. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120° F. Af Initial boiling point. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ". . . . . . . . . 175° F. Viscosity, Engler, @ 32° F. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,980 seconds Viscosity, Engler, @ 72° F. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298 Flows readily at a temperature of . . . . . . . . . . . . 150° F. Heat content in B. T. U. per pound . . . . . . . . . . . 18,493 B. T. U. Sulphur . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.28% Natural gasoline content. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.21% Heavy Sample No. 9756 Specific gravity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.985 Baumé gravity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.100 Flash point, closed cup. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157° F. Fire test. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225° F. Initial boiling point. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1: Q Cº. Viscosity, Engler, @ 60° F. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Too thick to pour Viscosity, Engler, @ 100 °F. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Too thick to pour Flows readily at a temperature of . . . . . . . . . . . . + ºr text Heat content in B. T. U. per pound . . . . . . . . . . . 18,227 B. T. U. Sulphur . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.17% Natural gasoline content. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.85% Heavy Sample No. 9757 Specific gravity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.975 Baumé gravity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.600 Flash point, Open Cup. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100° F. Fire test. . . . . . . . . . . . . . _* - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 221° F. Initial boiling point. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. C. & ). Viscosity, Engler, @ 60° F. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Too thick to pour Viscosity, Engler, @ 100° F. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Too thick to pour Flows readily at a temperature of . . . . . . . . . . . . * * * * Heat content in B. T. U. per pound . . . . . . . . . . . 18,710 Sulphur . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ~ 2.54% Natural gasoline content. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.00% Light Sample No. 523i Specific gravity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Baumé gravity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.4 Flash point, closed cup. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _81° F. * Fire test. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ~––. - * & Initial boiling point. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FF-nº-, . = ºri - Viscosity, Engler, @ 60° F. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,340 seconds Visoosity, Engler, @ 100 °F. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476 Flows readily at a temperature of . . . . . . . . . . . . tº Cº. º. * Heat content in B. T. U. per pound . . . . . . . . . . . 19,124 B. T. U. Sulphur . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 e o s • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 1.34% } Topyright 1922 COMPILED BY PETROLEUM AGE J. B. RATHRUN E-12-10 CRUDE oil (E-13-25) South American Crude Oils ARGENTINA. There has been but little oil field development in Argentina, hence little is known concerning the extent of the petroliferous area. At the present time there are four principal fields: (1) The Commodora Rivadavia, (2) The Salta. Jujuy field, (3) The Cacheuta field, and (4). The Mendoza-Nequen field, only the first having been Worked to any extent. Indications of oil in other territories are reported from time to time, hence it is possible that there are extensive oil bearing sands. The Commodora Rivadavia field has only been worked since 1907. The oil from Conmodora Rivadavia is very heavy and of an asphaltic base char- acteristic of South America. From two analyses the composition is as follows: PROPERTIES OF COMMODORA RIVADAVIA OIL (ARGENTINA) Residuals, * Gasoline- Normal Lubes, Solid Flash Specific Naphtha Pºerosene Coke, Asphalt Point Authority— Gravity Percent Percent Percent Percent °F. Argentine Gov ſº tº e º e º 'º º 0.922–0.940 1.5-3.0 15-19 77–85 gº º e e º ſº tº Redwood . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.935 2.5 # 4.7 s & s e is 55 178°F. ,” The oil in the other three fields is of different quality, having a paraffine or mixed base, and indicating a greater percentage of the lighter constituents. In regard to lubricating oils and kerosene, these oils greatly resemble Pennsylvania oils. The light oils from the Salta. Jujuy field show from 5 to 8 percent of gasoline and naphtha, 30 percent of kerosene and 52 percent of lubricating oils. ARIPERO. An oil field in Trinidad Island, near the town of San Fernando. A proximate analysis shows the following commercial contents: Gasoline and naphtha = 1.0 percent, kerosene = 43.0 percent, lubricating oil = 38.0 percent, residual bitumen = 18.0 percent, mineral matter = 4.0 percent. BRAZIL. Up to the present time there has been no evidence, of petroleum deposits in Brazil, but this country has enormous resources in the form of oil shales. Many of i. shales are very rich and only suitable processes for the extraction of oil are a CK1 Ilg. CHILI. A few oil bearing areas are found at Chucumata, which have been worked for a considerable time, but very little exploration has been carried out in other sec- tions of the country and the character is not known. These are very heavy asphaltic base oils used principally as a fuel oil, and so far as known, have not been refined. Specific gravity . . . . . . . . tº g º ºs e e . . 0.932–0.948 Gross calorific value. . . . . . . . .18,630 B.T. U. First drop (Engler) . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 172°-185° Net calorific value. . . . . . . . . . .17,525 B.T.U. Flash point (Gray) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115° Asphaltun percent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.50 Viscosity (Redwood) 70°F. . . . . . . . . 392 Ash percent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.40 Viscosity (Redwood) 100°F. . . . . . . . . 112 Sulphur percent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.32 Viscosity (Redwood) 200°F. . . . . . . . . 16 Water percent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.00 | PERU. This South American Republic contains many important deposits of petro- leum, and as the oil is of a grade to distill º in many cases, several refineries have been erected which turn out considerable quantities of excellent grades of gasoline, kerosene and lubricating oils, and much of the residuum is sold as fuel oil. The principal fields are as follows: (1) The Negritos or Talara, field which lies about 40 miles along the east northwest of Paita, (2) La Brea, 25 miles inland from the above fields where a heavy adhesive asphaltunn is found, (3) The Zorritos field 24 miles south of Tumbes and which is the most northern of the developed field, (4) The Lobitos field in Piura, (5) Puno on the shores of Láke Titicaca, (6) The Lagunitos field 12 miles south of Talara, (7) La Paz. & & t PETROL EU M AGE ~ i J. B. RATHEUN § Copyright 1923 COMPILED BY E-13–25 CRUDE OIL (E-14-25) | ^ * Properties of Russian Crude Oils DISTRIBUTION. The principal oil fields in Russia are roughly outlined as: 1—The four old fields of Baku. 2–Surakhan, Binagad, and Sviatoi (Holy) Island, lying on the outskirts of the Baku group. 3–Grozny and Maikop on the northern slopes of the Caucasus. 4–Cheleken Island near the eastern shore of the Caspian Sea. 5—Emba-Ural fields to the north and east of the Caspian Sea. 6–Ferghana in Turkestan. The highly productive fields are situated principally in the Caucasus, the highest productivity being in the Apsheron Peninsula. This peninsula, which projects into the western side of the Caspian Sea is said to be the most remarkable single oil field in the world and contain groups (1) and (2). The petroleum industry dates from 1877, and previous to 1903 practically all of the oil came from a small area about ten Square miles in the Baku region. That Russian territory has been little developed may be understood from the fact that the total oil field area is estimated at least 14,000 square miles. They were only in the initial stage of development when the war caused a sudden check in the activities. In 1901 Russia stood first in the world’s total production, producing 50.6 percent of all the petroleum. In 1913 this fell to 17.8 percent and at present the output is almost negligible. In 1913 the four Baku fields produced 69.5 percent of all Russian oil, Grozny, 13.2 percent; Surakhan, 7.1 percent; Binagad, 2.6 percent, and all others 7.6 percent. The present status is not generally known. THE BAKU FIELDS. The four principal areas of the Baku region are Balakhan, Sabounch, Roman and Bibi-Eibat. The specific gravity of the oil from this region ranges from 0.874 to 0.902. They are of mixed base in most instances, a predominating paraffine base with some asphaltun. An approximate commercial analysis of one type having a Specific gravity of 0.874 (30.2°Ee) giving 15 percent natural gasoline and 20 percent kerosene. The following table gives the general properties of samples tested within the last four years: Benzine Rerosene Residues Name of Specific Baume (to 150°C.) (150°-300°C.) (above 300°C.) field gravity gravity percent percent percent Roman . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.876 tº e º e 9.0 25.0 66.0 Roman tº G & C & G e º 'º e g º e 0.875 tº º º º 6.0 27.0 67.0 Balakhan . . . . . . . . . . . 0.890 e C & © 5.0 30.0 65.0 Balakhan . . . . . . . . . . . 0.890 tº tº e & 7.0 29.0 67.0 Bibi-Eibat . . . . . . . . . . 0.875 15.0 30.0 55.0 Bibl-Eibat . . . . . . . . . . 0.874 15.5 28.0 56.5 Bibi-Eibat º e º e º 'º e e º ºſ 0.877 16.0 26 0 57.0 SURAKHAN-BINAGAD-SVIATOI (HOLY) ISLAND. This group, which is related to the Baku fields is the most productive of the new territory developed since 1907. In the Surakhan field there is a peculiar highly volatile straw colored oil called “White Oil” which is really a high grade naturally refined product giving high percentages of benzine and motor gasoline. It has a specific gravity of 0.780, and on distillation yields 48.9 percent benzine, 43.9 percent kerosene, and 7.2 percent of oils above 300°C. The remaining fields of this district approximate the product of the Baku group in com- mercial analysis, little if any of the high grade “White Oil” having yet been discovered. The Sviatoi Island lies three miles off the Apsheron Peninsula and is a highly productive area yielding a fair acreage grade similar to that of Baku. COPYRIGHT 1922 COMPILED BY #######, J. B. RATHEUN E-14–25 t cRUDE oil (E-14-26) Properties of Russian Crude Oils - G 1,02,NY-MAIKOP. The Grozny fields produce an oil having a high percentage of benzine and kerosene. The benzine averages from 11 to 13 percent and kerosene 31 to 38 percent. The following are examples of oils from this field. Benzine FCerosene Residues Name of Specific Baume (to 150°C.) (150°-300 °C.) (above 300°C.) field gravity gravity percent percent percent Grozny . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.850 * * * * 11.0 31.0 68.0 Grozny . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.850 e & © e. 11.5 31.5 57.0 Grozny . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.848 g tº e g 12.0 32.0 56.0 Maikop . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.848 tº $ tº tº 12.5 32.0 55.5 Maikop . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.840 tº gº tº º 13.0 33.0 54.0 Maikop . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.832 tº a tº º 13.5 33.0 53.5 CHELEKEN ISLAND. This is a comparatively heavy soil containing much paraffine, which on distillationſ leaves a heavy solid residual. EMBA-URAL DISTRICT. Production in the Emba, fields began in 1912. Trial distillation tests of the oil produced in these regions by the Ural-Caspian Company show the following results: Benzine Name of Specific Baume gasoline Kerosene Residues Loss field gravity gravity percent percent percent percent Emba (Dos-Sor). . . . 0.875 e e º ſº 0.36 23.66 74.92 1.06 a Emba (Dos-Sor) . . . . 0.861 e e º tº 1.22 24.60 72.10 1.08 Emba (Dos-Sor) . . . . 0.850 tº e º º 8.00 26.00 64.90 1.10 Emba (Dos-Sor) . . . . 0.839 e e º 'º 13.50 33.00 51.10 2.00 Emba (Dos-Sor). . . . 0.828 tº e º 'º 14.5 34.00 49.7 1.80 From this table it will be seen that the crude is of widely varying quality in this region, and while there are reports of oils having a specific gravity of over 0.990, we have no figures on the proximate analysis. The range at different depths and different localities ranges from the light grade 0.828 to the heavy residual of 0.915. Owing to the late date at which this territory was opened there has been no settled production in the ordinary sense of the word, nor no means of subdividing the district into well defined areas. It would seem that two belts of oil passed through the Emba-Ural area similar to the two belts in the north and south of Texas and Louisiana. FERGHANA. FIELDS. This field is new and few figures are now available on the proximate analysis of the oils. The oil bearing area is estimated at 27,000,000 acres and it is said that it offers greater possibilities for development than any of the other fields. Ferghana is in the central part of Turkestan. One analysis shows 6 percent of benzine, 30 percent kerosene, and 56 residuals with 6 percent paraffine. ULTIMATE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. An ultimate analysis of an oil sample taken from the Baku district of Russia, a sample from Grozny, and a third from the Emba-Ural district showed the following analysis: º Specific Carbon Hydrogen Sulphur O. & N. Heating Value B.T.U. Origin gravity percent percent percent percent observed calculated Baku . . . . . . . . . . . 0. *84.90 11.63 2.06 1.46 18,690 18.541 \ Grozny . . . . . . . . . 0.838 86.00 13.00 0.00 1.00 20,286 20,225 Emba-Ural . . . . . 0.877 86.90 13.10 © tº e º 1.5 19,500 19,706 COPYRIGHT 1922 COMPILED BY E 1 4 26 PETROLEUM AGE J. B. RATHEUN tº- sº | CRUDE OHL (E-1 6-25) East Indies, South Sea Islands, Etc. JAVA (Dutch East Indies). These islands are rich in petroleum and, are divided into two distinct districts, the north and south. The southern fields include the well developed districts of Tjelatjap, Ngawai, and Poerwadi. The northern district con- tains Rembang and districts to beyong the Solor river. The density of Javanese petroleum varies from 0.876 to 0.898, and contains rather a large percentage of paraffine, and also a large percentage of aromatics such as benzene, toluene, etc. The island chain of Timor directly eastward from Java contain considerable areas of oil bearing land. There are extensive oil seepages at 1.umerous points on the islands and oil is had in very shallow wells. Several of the natural oil springs give above 20 gallons per day, and wells dug to depths of 30 and 50 feet are commercially productive. The oils are very light and thin, the specific gravity averaging 0.825 and the viscosity only 5.86 Redwood. Like the Javanese oils, they are brown in color and have a con- siderable fluorescence. On distillation a sample yielded 15 percent of benzine and 65 percent of kerosene, with large amounts of paraffine in the residue. The flash point was 105° F (Abel) and the solidifying point was about 10° F. SUMATRA. This island of the East Indian Archipelago has extensive oil deposits, a great proportion of the wells being gushers. It is said that the oil found in this island resenbles that of Borneo. BORNEO. This, next to Australia, and Papua, is the largest island in the East Indian Archipelago. Petroleum is found in large quantities and comparatively near the coast, and as is the case with most of these islands, at very shallow depths. On the northern coast in Sabah-Seknati the oil is of a tarry nature of great viscosity. The most important areas are: 1—The Kutei district. 2—The Tarakan district. 3—The Miri district. A test distillation of the lighter oil in district (3) indicated a benzine content of 19 percent (to 150° C.), a kerosene content of 54 percent (150°-300° C.), and 27 percent residue above 300° C. It is said that no distillate passes over at a temperature below 100° C. The specific gravity of the sample was 0.850. The following tests were made on one of the heavier northern crudes and reported. in Harold Moore’s “Liquid Fuels for Internal Combustion Engines”: Specific, gravity @ 20° C., 0.939. Gray closed flash point, below normal. Ignition point in oxygen, 269° C. ~ Gross calorific value, 18,648. B. T. U. Net calorific value, 17,482 B. T. U. Viscocity (Redwood) @ 70° F. = 63.2 Viscosity (Redwood) @ 100° F. = 23.1 Viscosity (Redwood) @ 200° F. = 6.7. Water; percent, 0.25. Sulphur, percent, 0.098. Ash, trace. The distillation test showed the first drop over at 250° C., Engler distillation, 24 percent over at 300° C., 49.5 percent, over at 350° C., and 81 percent, over at 400° C. APUA (New Guinea). This large island of the East Indian Archipelago has large deposits of oil, which in some respects are quite different from those of Borneo and Java. Like the oils of Borneo and Java, however, the Papuan oil contains large per- centage of aromatic hydrocarbons, such as combined benzene (Benzol) and toluene. About 10 percent can readily be obtained, and this was taken advantage of during the war when much toluol was obtained from this source. These oils differ greatly from those produced in the United States, and among the most apparent features are the absence of a pronounced color or odor, either in the original oil or in its distillates. The gravity of the crude is low (0.7965 at 22° C.) and there is a great yield of low boiling point distillates. Chemically, the oil is basically a paraffine hydrocarbon with whºeh is mixed up to 10 percent of aromatics. COPYRIGHT 1922 COMPILED BY PETROLEUM AGE J. B. RATHEUN E–16–25 cRUDE oil (E-16-26) g East Indies, South Sea Islands, Etc. PROPERTIES OF PAPUAN CRUDES. According to commercial classification, the crude yielded 36 percent of benzine (up to 150°C.), 46 percent of kerosene (150–300°C.), and 17 percent residues above 300° F. The specific gravity was 0.796. The total fraction passing over up to 180°C. had a specific gravity of 0.755 at 22.25°C. Distillation began at 90°C. The tests were under auspices of the University of sydney. DISTILLATION TESTS OF PAPUAN CRUDE OILS Boiling Weight Fraction point Press. percent No. Co In III. fraction Sp. Gr. 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60° - 90° Atmos. 5.0 0.715/24°C. 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90°-120° Atmos. 16.6 0.744/24.5°C. 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120°-150° Atmos. 14.0 0.762/25°C. 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150°-180° Atmos.' 8.0 0.791/24°C. 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Up to 220° Atmos. 13.6 0.796/20°C. 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220°-260° Atmos. 13.9 0.820/20°C. 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260°–300° Atmos. 10.2 0.842/20°C. 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Up to 190° 18 mm. 3.0 0.860/25°C. 9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190°-200° 18 mm. 1.4 0.855/25°C. 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200°-225° 18 mm. 3.3 0.861/25°C. 11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225°-255° 18 mm. 3.1 0.869/40°C. 12 e & G is e º e º a tº g º e º ºs º º Up to 275° 20 In In. 3.0 e e º e º e s is tº e e 13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275°-305° • 20 mm. 1.6 ge e º is e e 14 tº º ºs e e º gº tº º & & ſº tº e º ſº tº e 305°-310° 20 IYıIſl. 0.3 e e s is tº & e tº tº 15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Above 310° 20 mm. 0.9 • * ſº e º e º 'º º * The residue offered many peculiar characteristics annong which was the depositation of a colorless crystalline substance. AUSTRALIA. No oil has yet been found in Australia, but little attempt has beer made to discover any oil lands or to investigate possible fields. The Australian Com- monwealth, has however, done much to develop the oil lands of Papua (New Guinea) The oil shale deposits in Australia are probably the richest in the world, and failing to obtain crude petroleum, the commonwealth has this rich reserve to fall back on. f NEW ZEALAND. It is known that petroleum exists in small quantities at least on the North Island, but nothing’ has yet been developed on a commercial scale. Such wells as have been sunk show great gas pressure. On the South Island there are many surface , seepages of oil, and much petroleum has been removed from excavated pits and shallow wells, but this makes very little showing compared with the actual demand for oil, hence by far the greater quantity is imported. At Orepuki there are very extensive shale deposits which are particularly rich in paraffine and which contain con- siderable quantities of lubricating oils and kerosene. Much money has been spent in this development, but at the present time there is only one native operating oil company in operation. NEW SOUTH WALES. So far no oil in practicable quantities has been discovered. There is much oil shale development going on, however, and one of the most important industries is the mining of oil shale. This shale has a specific gravity of 1.02 to 1.350 and is known as “kerosene shale” since kerosene is ‘the principal distillate removed. Natural gas has been obtained in the north-eastern part of the state of Grafton. COPYRIGHT 1922 COMPILED BY E 16 26 PETROL EU M AGE J. B. RATHIBUN sº tº NATURAL GAs (H-1-1) (Composition and Physical Properties) ORIGIN. Natural gas is associated both with petroleum and coal and is found trapped in formations of open grained sandstones, in cavities, or in seams of shale. It is usually a gas of very high heating value, and also contains many elements and compounds which are of industrial value when separated from the gas. It is the Source of casinghead gasoline, hydrogen, helium, carbon black, and nitrogen, as well as of numerous very light hydrocarbons such as methane, pentane, etc. Although One of the most important natural products, the gas has not received the commercial development that it deserves and in many oil fields is shamefully wasted in order to gain the more easily marketed petroleum. As with petroleum, not much is known with exactness about the origin or nature's method of producing natural gas. It is not always directly connected with petroleum exclusively, for it is often found in coal mines (fire damp) where no petroleum is present, and again it may be found in large quantities in dry wells which show no trace of oil. From its composition, one would judge that at one time it was associated with atmospheric air. It usually contains large quantities of nitrogen and some helium, gases which predominate in the atmosphere and which are rarely found in liquid petroleum or in coal. The oxygen, however, is either entirely absent or present in only very small quantities, it being evident that this element has either entered into combination with the sulphur contents of coal or petroleum or else has been removed by the action of water in which the oxygen is highly soluble. As natural gas contains carbon dioxide and monoxide, it is evident that some of the oxygen has been removed from the gas by combining with the hydrocarbons surrounding it. The fact that the gas is of the same general composition as petroleum, and is most generally found in loose porous sandstone when not in actual contact with the oil, leads to the idea that the natural gas may have been formed by the decomposi- tion of the petroleum components. In cases where the gas is found at long dis- tances from known oil bearing formations it is likely that the gas has been trans- ferred by seepage or transfusion through the porous sandstone to the point of drill- ing. The point to remember is that we may have natural gas without oil, but seldom oil without natural gas. COMPOSITION. Like petroleum, natural gas is primarily a hydrocarbon com- pound consisting largely of methane and ethane, and mixed mechanically with such dilutant gases as nitrogen, helium, carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide. When the gas is found in contact with petroleum it also carries the vapors of the lighter petroleum fractions, these vapors producing what is known as a “Wet gas.” B separating these vapors by compression or absorption of heavy oil we obtain the very light and volatile liquid called “Casinghead Gasoline.” When taken from dry wells, where no petroleum is in evidence, there is little if any evidence of the light gasoline vapors and the gas is therefore said to be “Dry.” The following table lists the percentages of the various fixed gases found in a typical dry natural gas, it being understood, however, that the percentages are subject to a considerable range of variation in the different fields, particularly in regard to the nitrogen content of the gas. TYPICAL EXAMPLE OF DRY NATURAL GAS Methane (CH4) . . . . . . . . . . . . tº e º e º 'º e º e g º e º ºs e e s tº 80.5 percent Ethane (C2H6) tº tº gº tº * * * * dº e e º gº is gº e º sº e º ºs º º tº º te & © gº tº e 16.6 tºº Carbon Dioxide (CO2). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.0 d 6 Oxygen (O2). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 gº Nitrogen (N). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.7 & 6 Included under “ethane” are small quantities of propane and butane, but these are generally disregarded in an analysis of this kind. The nitrogen content is extremely variable, reaching as high as 90 percent in certain western and northern fields. Such gas is of course worthless as a fuel, Copyright 1921 COMPILED BY H 1 1 PETRO Glºuſº AGIE J. B. R.A.THE UN gº º NATURAL GAs (H-1-2) (Composition and Physical Properties) COMFOSITION CONTINUED Nitrogen is an inert gas. It does not enter into the process of combustion and therefore contributes no heat. The same is true of carbon dioxide, helium and oxygen, and when any of these gases are present in quantity, the calorific value of the natural gas is reduced in proportion. The petroleum vapors contribute some to the heating value of the gas, but when they are removed in the manufacture of casinghead gasoline the heating value does not suffer Seriously. + GASOLINE CONTENT. “Wet” natural gas carrying the light petroleum Vapors is a valuable product of a well. These vapors are generally composed of pentane, hexane, and heptane in addition to the hydrocarbons contained in the dry gas, and when removed produce a highly volatile gasoline having a gravity of from 90° to 100° Baumé. The composition and quantity of the gasoline removed depends largely upon the process of separation. In the compression process the quality and quan- tity depends upon the compression pressure, and if this is carried high enough, We may even liquefy and remove the methane and ethane constituents of the dry gas. The various hydrocarbon compounds liquefy at various temperatures and pressures. and the higher we carry the pressure, the lighter will be the products obtained and the greater will be the total quantity removed. When the compression is carried beyond a certain point, some of the condensed compounds will be so light that they will again turn in to gas at atmospheric pressure or will be so “Wild” and volatile that they are dangerous to handle and ship. Cer- tain components liquefied by a compression of 500 pounds per square inch will immediately return to the condition of a gas as soon as the pressure is removed. It is not the usual practice to carry the pressure over 250 pounds per square inclu for this reason, all practicable commercial gasoline hydrocarbons being removed all this or lower pressures. The vapors may also be removed by the converse practice of refrigeration, or by cooling the vapors to their point of liquefaction at low or atmospheric pressures, or by a combination of pressure and refrigeration. Heptane has a boiling temperature of 98.4 ° F., hexane boils at 69.0° F., pentane at 36.3° F., butane at 1.0° F., and so on, the temperature of boiling at atmospheric temperature continually decreasing as the compounds grow lighter until We reach the boiling point of methane at the extremely low point of 184.0° F. at atmospheric pressure. By increasing the pressure, we raise the boiling or condensing tempera- ture so that by a combination of temperature and pressure we have a Wide field of variation. By sufficiently increasing the pressure we can even liquefy methane at ordinary temperatures, although it boils at nearly 200 degrees below zero at atmos- pheric pressure. The separated gasoline is absorbed into naphtha to bring if down to commercial gravity and to make it safe for shipping and handling. The quantity of gasoline obtained, of course, first depends upon the gas and the nature of the crude petroleum with which it makes contact. The lighter the oil, the richer will be the gas in gasoline vapor. Much also depends upon the temperature, the character, and the Conditions Of the formation of the sands or sandstones at the point where the well is drilled. The range is great, running from 0.25 to 9.0 gallons per thousand cubic feet of gas, With an average of from 2.5 to 3.0 gallons per thou- sand cubic feet. It should be understood that this is the production at the usual pressures, or with usual processes, and that the collected hydrocarbons correspond principally to pentane, hexane and heptane. For further information see “CASING- HEAD GASOLINE.” HYDROGEN PRODUCTION. Hydrogen gas may be obtained by “Cracking” natural gas or by decomposing it by heating to high temperatures in the absence of air. The hydrocarbons are broken up into hydrogen gas and solid flaky Garbon (Carbon black or soot), both of which are Gommercial commodities. The hydrogen must be purified by additional processes by which it is freed-of the nitrogen, carbon dioxide and other gases. This hydrogen is used in autogenous gas welding' and cut- ting, for filling balloons and dirigibles, and in many chemical industries. CARBON BLACK. The soot produced by burning natural gas, either in the open or as , a product of the hydrogen process, finds use in the manufacture of paints, electric carbons, , and rubber tires. One pound of carbon black is obtained fro gºnately 1,000 cubic feet of gas when the gas is burned in the open throug gaS JetS. - Copyright 1921 COMPILED BY H 1 2 121:Tºº O. Lºu Mi AGE J. B. RATHBUN * * - sº O \ L NATURAL GAs (H-1-3) (Composition and Physical Properties) , HELIUM. Helium is a rare gas found in some natural gases, but never in any great quantity, probably never reaching 2 percent of the total gas content. It is a very light gas, standing next to hydrogen in this respect, and its principal use to date has been in filling dirigibles and balloons. For aircraft it offers One great advantage over hydrogen (it is not inflammable), but the fact that it is very expen- sive and heavier than hydrogen greatly restricts its use. It has but little use in the industries and arts. NITROGEN. To date there has been but little use for the nitrogen, for it is not much more available for chemical operations than the nitrogen in the air. However, some development has been made along lines of producing nitrogen base fertilizers and explosives by causing the hydrogen and carbon elements of natural gas to com- bine directly with the free nitrogen. - REFRIGERANTS. The lighter hydrocarbons of wet natural gas such as pentane and butane offer possibilities as refrigerating agents in compression sys- tems, and some work has been done along this line. These gases seem to Work out quite well for small domestic plants used in the home, but are not suitable for large cold storage or commercial ice plants. For use in the home low pressures are neces- sary and this eliminates any idea of a gas such as ammonia. The temperatures are comparatively high in the ice box, and thus butane offers possibilities as a substitute for the troublesome sulphur dioxide and anmonia, now in use. SOLVENTS. The very light hydrocarbons obtained from natural gas, or the “Petroleum Ethers,” are used as solvents in the rubber industry or in other chemical operations. COMPOSITE GASOLINE. Large quantities of casinghead gasoline are used in compounding with heavy naphthas to obtain motor fuels. The light C. H. gasolines bring up the volatility of the cheap heavy naphthas and thus enable the oil industry to increase the quantity and reduce the price of automobile gasoline. This is known commercially as “Casinghead Gasoline” but is really a blend of casing head gasoline and naphtha. - Casinghead gasoline is far too “wild” for shipment or direct use in the gasoline engine, and in addition produces but little power in engines designed for use with heavier fuels. * NATURAL GAS AS FUEL. Natural gas is used more extensively as a fuel at present than for any other purpose. Wet gas may be treated for the removal of the gasoline and then afterwards burned as a fuel, or it may be burned without the removal of the vapor. There is little other use for dry gas than as a fuel. except perhaps that it is sometimes used as a source of hydrogen or carbon black. Natural gas has not been fully developed in respect to its capacity as a source for chemical products. and it seems a shame to use and waste this valuable product as at present. # iºd be treated in all cases before delivery into the gas mains for heating and Ighting. Compared with artificial city gas, natural gas has a very high heating value and burns at a very high temperature. It averages from 1,000 to 1,100 B. T. U. per cubic foot, while ordinary city water gas averages about 600-650 B. T. U. It can be used in the cylinders of gas engines or can be burned under boilers, and its low cost and great heat make it a very useful industrial fuel. Dry natural gas gives little or no illumination when burned in an ordinary gas jet, but can be used very satisfactorily with incandescent mantle burners. It is clean, easily controlled, practically free from sulphtir, and is very useful and particularly adapted for use in heat treating metals and in the manufacture of glass where the flame and gases come into direct contact with the material under treatment. Properly burned, it causes no smoke. t can be used without a smokestack or with but a short stack to discharge the nearly odorless and colorless products of combustion. It is well adapted for use in gas engines, and many engines are being used with this fuel. It gives a comparatively high \output per cubic inch of piston displace- ment, and is not so likely to form carbon, detonate, or otherwise misbehave as liquid fuels. It does not contaminate the lubricating oil so rapidly as gasoline or kerosene when the Splash system of lubrication is used. Copyright 1921 COMPILED BY H 1 3 PETIROI, EUM AGE J. B. RATH BUN ; , gº - NATURAL GAs (H-1-10) (Composition and Physical Properties) COMPOSITION AND HEATING VALUE. The natural gas obtained in various localities varies greatly in composition and thermal content. When the percentage of nitrogen or carbon dioxide is great, then the heating value of the natural gas is reduced correspondingly. This will be seen from the following table: Specif. Methane | Ethane Nitrogen | Carbon Higher NAME OF FIELD Gravity CH4 2 TG N) Dioxide | Heating Air-l.0 Percent | Percent Percent CO2 alue Percent | B. T. U. Oklahoma, Osage County..................... 0.58 94.3 0.0 4.60 1.10 1,004 Oklahoma, Park County. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.59 94.4 3.8 1.80 0.00 1,076 Oklahoma, Ponca City........................ tº e º g 44.6 14.8 40.10 is g º º 692 Oklahoma, Kay County. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.76 57.9 9.9 31.60 735 Öklahoma, Cushing................ . . . . . . . . . . . 0 72 70.7 21.6 7,40 1,059 Oklahoma, Bartlesville. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.71 70.5 24.6 3,20 1,125 0.64 81.6 16.9 1.45 0.05 1,184 1.01 6.6 91.1 2.30 0.00 1,766 0.78 53.3 45.8 0.90 0.00 ,420 0.57 96.4 2.5, 1.10 0.00 1,073 0.70 70.8 28.2 1.00 0.00 1,279 Kansas, Ellsworth. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.83 61.1 1.1 37.20 609 Kansas, Cowley County.................. . . . . . 9 & © ºp 16.3 3.0 80.23 209 Kansas, Chatauqua....... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº gº º 42.4 1.8 55.30 441 Kansas, Augusta. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.5 1.6 87.71 128 Kentucky, Barron County..................... 0.91 23.6 69.7 1.30 2.50 1,548 Oregon, Northwest........................... 0.60 87.0 0.0 12.50 0.50 , 927 Oregon, Tillamook............................ 0.96 2.0 0.0 97.90 0.10 21 California, Kings County...................... 0.85 66.2 1.0 2.40 30.40 724 Utah, Moab. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.61 90.8 0.0 5.60 3.60 967 Louisiana. Caddo.......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.57 97.6 0.0 1.50 0.90 1,039 Wyoming, Greybull........................... 0.64 81.7 17.3 0.80 0.20 1,192 Nevada, Stillwater............................ 0.58 95.6 0.0 3.10 1.30 1,018 North Dakota, Nortonville. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0 62 85.1 0.0 13.60 1.30 907 The higher heating values are given in B. T. U. per cubic foot, taken at 0° C. and 760 millimeters pressure. * It will be seen that the specific gravity (Air = 1.00) decreases with an increase in the methane content, and increases with the ethane and carbon dioxide. The highest heating values are obtained when the ethane content is the greatest and least when, the nitrogen and carbon dioxide are greatest. The composition is variable in the extreme, ranging from no ethane to 91.1 percent ethane, and from 96.4 methane to as low as 2.0 percent methane. The methane does not become zero in this list. ' t The heating value runs from a minimum of 21 B. T. U. with 97.9 percent nitrogen, to a maximum of 1,766 B. T. U. with 91.1 percent ethane. With one exception, the carbon dioxide content averages about 1.00 percent. The specific gravity averages about 0.6 with a maximum of 1.01 and a minimum of 0.57. The nitrogen is con- sistently low in the eastern fields and highest in Kansas and certain parts of Oregon. COMPILED BY Copyright 1921 RATHEUN PETRO LEU M AGE J. B. L t H-1-10 . PIPE LINEs (Il-1-10) [. \ General Notes THE PIPE LINE. The pipe lines spread out in a network over the country provide an economical means of transporting the crude oil from the wells to the refineries. By far the greatest percentage of the crude oil produced is transported by pumping through these lines and only a relatively small amount is handled by the railroads in tank cars. At the present time the total length of lines in active operation is well over 60,000 miles or about 20 percent of the 'total length of all the railroads. Some of the oil is moved only a few miles while in many cases it is carried for more than 1,500 miles through the main trunk lines. The expression “pipe-line” not only covers the pipe itself but also the whole plant equipment employed, and includes the tankage systems, pumping stations, right of way, communication Systems, housing for employees, and all other property connected with the actual conveying ducts. The pumping stations, located every few miles along the lines, represent a great investment and are of course a vital factor in the operation of the line. The necessity of storing oil involves huge expenditures for tank- age. Phone lines must be run from point to point along the lines, and as many of the stations are located many miles from settlements provision must be made for housing the employees. All this involves a tremendous investment which is variously estimated at from $500,000,000 to $750,000,000. PIPE LINE CLASSIFICATION. The crude oil is produced from thousands of wells by hundreds or even thousands of producers, and is supplied to many refiners, but the pipe lines through which the oil is transported are owned by only a few pipe line companies. The great investment required naturally limits the number of pipe line companies, and these in turn usually operate one or more refineries in connection With the pipe lines. In general, the line may be divided into two principal divisions: (1) The “gathering lines” which connect the various wells with the pipe line owner's tankage system, and (2) the main “trunk line” which conveys the oil from the producing field to the re- fineries or other points of consumption. Roughly, the length of the gathering lines is about one-third the total length of the pipe lines in this country, two-thirds the total length being that of the trunk lines. GATHERING LINES. The oil from the wells is first run into tanks owned by the producer where it is allowed to settle or is given chemical treatment to separate the water, emulsions and other foreign matter So that it will be in a condition for accept- ance by the pipe line company for running through their lines. After settling in the first tank it is then run into a second storage tank where it is gauged by a represental- tive of the pipe line company. In new fields where the oil is held in earth storage and sufficient time has not been had to build suitable tankage, this is of course modified. After gauging, the producer is handed a “run ticket” or receipt and the oil then becomes the property of the pipe line company and is carried away by the gathering pipe line -run to this well. Once in the line, the oil of course becomes mixed with oil from other wells and there is no further means of identification or individual measurement. The terms of sale of course vary with conditions, and this will be taken later. The oil discharged from the producer's tank may run through lines owned by the producer to the tankage center of the pipe line company, but in most cases these gathering lines are run to the producer's tanks by the pipe line company who then follow up new production in this field by extensions to the gathering lines. w RIGHTED 1924 COMPILED BY * §§§ºë J. B. RATHE UN II-1–10 R. PIPE LINEs (Il-1-11) General Notes 2 / The various gathering lines in the field discharge into the field tank storage usually maintained by the pipe line company in the fields, and from this point is delivered into the main trunk line by high pressure pumps. The “tank farms” at this point usually have tremendous storage capacity in large fields, and are so proportioned to the trunk line capacity that the line is kept in economical operation. TRUNK LINES. The main trunk lines are generally built of eight inch steel pipe although an occasional six inch line is met with. They carry the oil from the wells to the refineries and other consumers. The oil is forced through the pipe by high pressure pumps operated by internal combustion or steam engines, the pumping stations being relayed along the line at distances of from 10 miles to 35 smiles apart, depending upon the nature of the oil and the temperatures prevailing in that vicinity. When the oil is very viscous it is of course necessary to have the pumping stations closer to- gether than when the crude is of a light gravity non-viscous type, since there is a decided limit to the pressure that can be economically carried. On a long line containing a number of pumping stations the oil is pumped from one station to the next, the intermediate stations receiving the oil from the station further back in tanks. This oil is then pumped from the tank of the second station and the oil is relayed to the next station. With heavy viscous oils it may be necessary to reheat the oil at each station to increase the fluidity and to thus reduce the pressure and increase the capacity of the line. The heavy coast crudes are so viscous that heating is a necessity, and for that reason many of these stations are not more than 10 or 12 miles apart along the line. The capacity of a pipe line depends upon the viscosity of the oil, the pipe diameter, the pressure carried and the temperature. An eight inch line carrying medium gravity oil at pressures ranging between 700 and 800 pounds per square inch will have a capacity of approximately 122,000 barrels per 24 hours at ordinary temperatures. This is a yearly capacity of about 6,500,000 barrels or over 1,000,000 tons. This estimate is based on a gravity of about 38° Bé., and a load factor of about 80 percent for a period of 300 working days. With heavier oils this will of course be much reduced unless the pressure is increased. The cost of operating the pipe line is estimated in ton-miles, that is, the cost of moving the total weight of oil in tons by the total distance of miles. This will vary through a considerable range according to local conditions, but from many sources the limits seem to be reached at from $0.0020 to $0.0038 per ton mile. In these figures internal combustion engines were the prime movers used. It is interesting to note that a number of analyses indicate that the costs are mostly fixed charges and are independent of the amount of oil pumped. For this reason, the cost of pipe line trans- portation per ton-mile will vary inversely with the load factor of the line. From a number of figures at hand taken from a large number of lines it is found that the cost of transporting a barrel of oil by pipe line is approximately 65 percent of the cost of transporting the oil through the same distance by railroad with present tariffs. COPYRIGHTED 1924 COMPILED BY II 1 11 PETROLEUMAGE * J. B. RATHE UN * - ºg º * t REFINERY ENGINEERING (JJ-1 10-30) (Cracking Processes) CROSS CRACKING PROCESS. The Cross Process is a method of making gaso- line from heavy petroleum oils from which the natural gasoline has been removed or from which the gasoline cannot be distilled by ordinary Straight refining processes. It is essentially a liquid phase cracking process producing an artificial crude which is then redistilled in the ordinary manner to obtain the low boiling point fractions cor- responding to gasoline. Any heavy petroleum oil can be used, and the gasoline result- ing from the process is practically the same as that obtained by distilling gasoline out of a natural crude. Depending upon the raw material, the Cross process produces from 55 to 75 percent of New Navy gasoline from gas oil, and from 40 to 50 percent of gasoline from fuel oil. The raw stock, kerosene, gas oil, fuel oil or crude, is subjected to a temperature at a pressure corresponding to the vapor pressure of the oil at that temperature, with the result that the oil remains substantially in a liquid state during the cracking process. The raw stock is broken down into lighter constituents by this temperature and pressure and the mixture is subsequently distilled by its own heat or by cooling the Synthetic crude and afterwards distilling it in the usual manner. The normal conversion is about One third of the oil under treatment. One of the most prominent features of this system from a practical standpoint is that the reaction takes place in a Special chamber from which the deposited carbon is easily removed, and that little or no carbon deposits are formed on the tubes or other heating Surfaces. This Speaks for economy in operation since at no time is it neces- sary to transmit heat through a thick layer of carbon as in many other processes, thus leading to fuel economy and less danger of burnouts. At the end of from six to ten days continuous Operation, it is necessary to shut down for the removal of coke from the reaction chamber. The entering oil is heated up to a temperature of approximately 300°F by exchange heat, and is then boosted up to the normal cracking temperature of approximately 870°F by furnace heated coils. The pressure at this temperature is about 600 pounds per Square inch. This comparatively low temperature used in liquid phase cracking is more economical from a thermal standpoint than the ordinary temperatures of 1,200 °F or more necessary in Vapor phase cracking, and at the low temperature there is no waste of matefial due to conversion of the stock into fixed gases. Such as Pintsch and Blau gas, oil gas, etc. Further, the lower temperature of the Cross system avoids the production of the highly colored olefins which always accompany cracking at temper- atures above 900°F. Great attention has been paid to the conservation of heat, and the system is so designed that no heat is lost in vaporization or distillation until the cracking is com- pleted. It is said that a Cross Cracking plant requires Only from 3 to 6 barrels of fuel for each 100 barrels of gasoline produced, a consumption which reflects great credit upon the heat flow arrangement. In the case of the average gas oil, the total loss does not exceed two percent of the oil charged, and the gas included in this loss is sufficient to operate the plant. It not only furnishes the heat required for cracking but also the heat for distillation. A standard fuel oil unit of the Cross System has a daily gasoline capacity of from 300 to 400 barrels per day or a fuel oil capacity of approximately 750 barrels per day. The cost of operation per barrel of gasoline produced averages from $1.10 to $1.20. 1924 COMPILED BY §§§§ºãe J. B. RATHE UN JJ-110-30 REFINERY ENGINEERING (JJ-1 10-31) sº (Cracking Processes) d CROSS CRACKING PROCESS. On the accompany sheet JJ-110-32 is an Operation diagram of the Cross process taken from the literature furnished by this company. The unit shown produces 300 to 400 barrels of gasoline per day. In this unit an arti- ' fisial or synthetic crude is produced, which upon distillation yields the gasoline. The direct products of the plant are benzine, recharging stock and fuel oil, all of which are obtained from a normal charging stock of 32-36° Ee gas oil. The charging stock is forced through the coils in the heat exchange tower (17) by the feed pump (1) which receives its supply from the intake line (30). Here the oil is raised to approximately 300°F, and from here is transferred to the upper furnace coils (3) through the line (23). The oil passes downward through the coils, out of the fur- nace and to the bottom of coil (4). Heated by the furnace (5) the oil passes out through the line (7) at a temperature of about 870°F as indicated by the output thermometer(8). The pressure corresponding to this temperature is approximately 600 pounds per Square inch, and this high pressure facititates the cracking saving fuel over that which would be required at a lower pressure. From line (7) the heated oil passes into the reaction chamber (9) where the actual cracking and conversion take place. This chamber is a simple cylindrical forging of great Strength which is easily freed from solid carbon or coke through the handholes provided at either end. Very little cracking takes place in the tubes and hence little Carbon is deposited at this point. The reaction chamber (9) is thoroughly insulated against heat loss, and all the drop in temperature that takes place here is due to the Cracking. The oil is held for about 15 minutes in the chamber, and the normal con- version is about one-third the oil treated. This treated oil is now an artificial crude containing a definite proportion of the light or gasoline fractions, and is discharged through the valve (12) wheh controls the pressure. The Synthetic crude now enters the still or vaporizer (13) which is main- tained practically at atmospheric pressure, and the sudden drop in temperature to- gether with the heat of the liquid causes vaporization of the light fractions in the still. With gas oil as a charging stock about 85 percent is distilled with 15 percent of fuel residue. A mist separator (16) restrains the tendency of the mixture to pass off as a mist or Smoke, and compels the gas, synthetic benzine and recharging stock to pass as a clean Vapor into the tower (17) where the recharging stock is condensed. A level regulator (32) controls the level of the recharging stock, and the fuel oil level in the vaporizer (13) is controlled by the regulator (15). The residue discharges through line (25) to the fuel oil storage. The recharging stock which consists largely Of kerosene and gas oil discharges through line (31) and a coil in the box (19). It leaves through the line (27) to the recharging stock or gas oil storage from which it is again taken and used as charging stock for the plant. The synthetic benzine, together with the fixed gas, passes out through the line (18) into the condenser coil box (19). From here it passes to the gas separator (20) with the benzine going out through line (22). The gas may afterwards be passed through an absorber to remove the last traces of gasoline vapor as the gas usually carries very light gasoline unless removed by absorption. The gas is now fired into the furnage (5), and supplies sufficient heat for the operation of the plant when it is once on stream. In the case of fuel oil, a small pipe still is used in connection with the above where it is heated to approximately 850°F. It is discharged into vaporizer (13) giving approx- imately 66 percent of recharging stock per day. The fuel oil accessories increase the cost of the plant by about 20 percent. Fuel oil may be cracked direct but this is not recommended as it is less profitable and more difficult to handle. OPYRIGHT 1924 COMPILED BY §§§M AGE J. B., RATHEUN JJ-1 10–31 O t REFINERY ENGINEERING (JJ-1 10-32) . . (Cracking Processes) à COPYRIGHT 1924 COMPILED BY PETROLEU M AGE J. B. RATHEUN JJ-110-32 REFINERY ENGINEERING (JJ-1 10-33) (Cracking Processes) COSTS ON CROSS PROCESS. The following data on the cost per barrel for treat- ing gas oil in a plant costing $60,000 to $70,000 was published by the Gasoline Products Company. The oil treated per day was 1,000 barrels running single phase, and 500 barrels running double cycle per 24 hours. The yield was 300-400 barrels of gasoline per day. t -* The single cycle treatment yielded 33 percent gasoline per barrel, while the double cycle gave about 65 percent. Column (3) is based upon synthetic gasoline per barrel of gasoline. - SINGLE DOUBLE SYNTHETIC ITTEMS CYCLE CYCLE BASE; (1) (2) (3) Labor Cost per barrel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $0.05. . . . . . . . . . . . . . $0.10. . . . . . . . .. . . . . $0.15 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.02. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.04. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.06 Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.01 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.01 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.02 Overhead . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.05. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.10. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.15 Fixed Charges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.02 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.05. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.07 Rerunning and treating benzine. . . . . . . . . . . . 0.10. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.20. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.30 License Charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.10. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.20. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.30 Total Operating costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $0.35. . . . . . . . . . . . . . $0.70. . . . . . . . . . . . . . $1.05 RESULTS OF RUNS WITH CFOSS PROCESS. The following is from data com- piled by the Gasoline Products Company, and relates to tests made on a single cycle operation with a small 650 barrel unit. RECHARGE 38-40 1TEMS , GAS OIL STOCK FCERO SENE DISTILLATE Gravity treated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35.6° Be . . . . . 35.1° E.e. . . . . 41.0° Ee. . . . . 38.9° Be Hours for cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25.00. . . . . . . . 26.50. . . . . . . . 36.0 . . . . . . . . 23.50 Hours of total Cycle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165.25. . . . . . . . 182.50. . . . . . . . 331.0 . . . . . . . . 285.0 Average bbls. intake per day (stream) 646.00. . . . . . . . 658.00. . . . . . . . 588.00. . . . . . . . 619.0 Percent gasoline (of Oil intake). . . . . 33.33. . . . . . . . 32.10. . . . . . . . 39.00. . . . . . . . 40.70 Average gasoline per day, bbls. . . . . . 215. . . . . . . . . 211. . . . . . . . . 229. . . . . . . . . 252. Cracking loss percent (Volume) . . . . 0.9 . . . . . . . . 2.7 . . . . . . . . 5.2 . . . . . . . . 3.0 Coke produced, lbs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5300. . . . . . . . . 4620. . . . . . . . . 947. . . . . . . . . 4450. Fuel consumed, percent of raw oil, gas used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.6 . . . . . . . . 0.6 . . . . . . . . 0.50. . . . . . . . 3.0 Pressure, lbs. per square inch. . . . . . . 600.0 . . . . . . . . 600.0 . . . . . . . . 675.0 . . . . . . . . 650.0 Oil temperature (Fº) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 876.0 . . . . . . . . 871.0 . . . . . . . . 867.0 . . . . . . . . 888.0 Total bbls. oil treated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3705.0 . . . . . . . . 4139.0 . . . . . . . . 7150.0 . . . . . . . . 6611,0 Total gallons gasoline produced. . . . 1234.0 . . . . . . . . 1328.6 . . . . . . . . 2788.0 . . . . . . . . 2690.0 Recoverable Gharging stock (bbls.) . .1973.0 . . . . . . . . 2172.4 . . . . . . . . 3492.0 . . . . . . . . 3191. Fuel oil, bbls. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350. . . . . . . . . 400. . . . . . . . . 350. . . . . . . . . 400. Oil converted, consumed, lost, bbls. .1732.0 . . . . . . . . 1966.6 . . . . . . . . 3658.8 . . . . . . . . 3420.0 Gasoline percent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71.2 . . . . . . . . 67.5 . . . . . . . . 76.2 . . . . . . . . 78.5 Fuel oil percent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.2 . . . . . . . . 20.3 . . . . . . . . 9.6 . . . . . . . . 11.9 COPYRIGHT 1924 COMPILED BY - PETRO LEU M A G E J. B. RATHEUN JJ-110-33 $ # * f --- * GASOLINE (KK-1-1) (Uses and Statistical Data) USES FOR GASOLINE. The word “Gasoline” is simply a trade term which refers to the lightest commercial distillate of petroleum. It is a variable liquid, which can- not be strictly defined, for its composition and physical properties vary with the market conditions, with the method of manufacture and with the crude from which it is made. It is marketed in several grades, each grade being defined by the Baumé gravity or by the “end point” or evaporating temperature of the heaviest component. This sub- ject will be discussed elsewhere in detail, but I wish to call your attention to the fact at this point that the lighter grades of gasoline are the more expensive, since they constitute a smaller proportion of the crude oil from which they are made. Gasoline has a great variety of uses. It is used as a motor fuel, for domestic gas lighting plants, for cleaning, as a solvent in the laboratory or for the extraction of greases and oils, for paint, vehicles, metal polishes, insecticides, gasoline lamps and stoves, and numerous other uses. By far the greatest demand for gasoline is that levied by the gasoline engine as used in automobiles, motor trucks, tractors, power boats and airplanes. Compared with its use as a motor fuel, all other uses form an insignificant percentage of the total use. At the present day the refinery has the pro- duction of motor gasoline as its chief objective, all other products of crude oil being byproducts" by comparison. * t Owing to the composition of the crude oil, gasoline cannot yet be made com- mercially as a single product, but the production is always accompanied by at least two other commercial commodities, kerosene and fuel oil, and in case of complete refining we have naphtha, lubricating oil, wax or asphalt, and coke. To increase the yield of gasoline over that contained natural in the crude, processes have been devised by which a portion of the heavier oils are converted into gasoline. In other systems, the yield of the crude is increased by adding the very light natural gas, “casinghead” gasoline, to the heavier petroleum residual oils, thus producing a blended gasoline. In spite of these innproved processes, the production of gasoline is barely keeping up with the demand. To make gasoline possible for the motorist at a reasonable price, more and more of the heavier components of the crude are being included in the gaso- line, making it heavier and less volatile than in former years. \ DEMAND FOR GASOLINE. Neglecting all other uses for gasoline as being insig- nificant, it is interesting to study the conditions affecting the demand for motor gaso- line, or for gasoline used as a fuel for producing power. Automotive engines, such as used on automobiles, motor trucks, boats and tractors, consume by far the greater por- tion, the present day stationary engines being now adapted to the uses of heavier fuels, such as distillate, kerosene and fuel oil. The exact consumption per vehicle is somewhat variable, owing to local conditions, but on the Whole the unit Consump- tion per year for each auto, tractor or truck shows a tendency to increase, this probably being due to the rapid extension of hard roads and the attending increased yearly mileage. The following table based on registrations of vehicles, yearly production, etc., will give a fair idea of the yearly consumption per vehicle: Passenger Cars, Motor Trucks, Tractors, Year Gals. Per Year Gals. Per Year Gals. Per Year 1914. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256 967 2,100 1916. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272 1,050 2,100 \ 1918. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306 1,120 2,050 1920. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326 1,270 1,975 1921. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332 1,285 . . . . . 1921 CQMPILED BY - EU M AGE J. B. RATHEUN KK 1 PETROL Copyright 1 mºs GASOLINE (KK-1-2) (Uses and Statistical Data) In the vicinity of Chicago during the year 1921 it has been found that the average passenger car runs about 10,000 miles per year with an average mileage of 15 miles per gallon. This high mileage is due to the good, hard roads and the level nature of the city and surrounding country. The annual mileage is always much lower in those portions of the country where the roads are poor; but, on the other hand, the consump- tion is somewhat increased by the fact that the mileage per gallon is also decreased. From this survey we see that the average Chicago car runs 27.4 miles per day, and that the total annual consumption of gasoline per car is approximately 666 gallons, or nearly double the average annual consumption. Motor trucks also show an increasing trend in gasoline consumption, not only- because of the increased length of haul and mileage but also for the reason that the percentage of heavy trucks is constantly increasing and higher speeds are being attained with the lighter trucks. The lighter type of trucks of the “speed wagon” type will consume up to 900 gallons per year, while the medium trucks will range from 900 to 1,100 gallons per year. The very heavy trucks of the five-ton type will have an annual gasoline consumption of from 1,500 to 1,650 gallons per year in good road territory, or as high as 2,100 gallons with bad roads or on contracting work. Farm tractors are becoming of less and less importance as gasoline consumers, for the reason that the great majority are now arranged to burn distillate or kerosene oil. In fact, during the year 1921 there were so few examples of gasoline tractors recorded that\ it was impossible to arrive at a fair average. FCerosene tractors are generally started on gasoline, and after they have become thoroughly warmed up they are switched over on kerosene, their normal fuel. The amount of gasoline used in this way, however, is almost negligible for our purpose. On the Pacific coast, distillate is most commonly used as a fuel for tractors and heavy duty power boats. The total annual demand for gasoline is, of course, equal to the product of the average annual consumption per vehicle by the number of vehicles. The quantity factor increases for the reason that more new automobiles, trucks and tractors are being turned out than are being junked. It is quite likely that the total number of automotive vehicles in the United States in daily use exceeded 25,000,000 in 1925. The rapid increase in self-propelled vehicles (licensed) is shown by the following table: Estimated Estimated Year Total Passenger Motor Farm Vehicles. a. TS. , Trucks. Tractors. 1912 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,166,504 1,033,096 122,000 11,408 1913 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,530,859 1,387,658 126,000 17,201 1914 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,935,620 1,768,720 J42,800 24,100 1915 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,690,742 2,479,742 174,000 37,000 1916 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,940,367 3,584,567 291,000 64,800 1917 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5,565,25 4,992, 152 465,000 J08,100 1918 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5,990,166 5,101,666 678,500 210,000 1919 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6,899,100 5,821,100 789,000 289,000 1920 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8,179,734 6,932,934 81,40 365,400 1921 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9,068,344 7,628,949 958,295 481,100 1922 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12,021, 197 10,072,198 1,331,999 617,000 1923 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16,169,395 13,484,939 1,796,356 888,100 1924 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19,185,836 15,597,628 2,132,608 1,455,600 COMPILED BY | J. B. RATHEUN Jº COPYRIGHT 1925 KK-1-2 PETRO LEU M A GE GASOLINE AND NAPHTHA (KK-1-3) (Uses and Statistical Data) EXPORTS OF GASOLINE. In America, the production of petroleum products exceeds the domestic demand by about 20 percent, and this surplus is exported. The gasoline exported, however, forms a smaller percentage of the total petroleum exported than any of the other products, and this percentage varies from year to year. The maximum percentage of gasoline referred to the total petroleum exported is 17.21 per- Cent, a figure reached in 1916. The minimum was 9.35 percent, in 1919, at the close of the war. Since that time the quantity of gasoline and naphtha exported has rapidly increased, and will be likely to continue increasing. The following table gives the general characteristics of the combined gasoline and naphtha export branch of the industry. We have here the total annual exports in gallons, the percentage of the gasoline and naphtha, taken in regard to the total petroleum exports, a comparison between the domestic and export price per gallon, and the total value of the gasoline-naphtha, exports. EXPORT TRADE STATISTICS ON GASOLINE AND NAPHTHA | | Percentage | Average Price Per Gallon || Total Walue of Year | _Total Gallons of Total | in Cents Gasoline and Exported Per Year Petroleum | Naphtha Exported Exports Domestic Export | Per Year 1913. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187,500,000 14.21 15.60 14.75 $ 28,125,000 1914. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210,110,000 14,02 13.02 12. 12 25,250,000 1915. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281,295,000 15.85 11.75 12.00 33,955,000 1916. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357,023,000 17,21 18.76 19.25 68,750,000 1917. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416,000,000 14.65 20.60 22.40 93,050,000 1918. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 560,440,000 15. 55 21.70 25.00 141,135,000 1919. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371,100,000 9.25 22.20 24.60 92,000,000 1920. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 633,890,000 13.00 26.72 27. 55 174,990,000 Great Britain and France are consistently the largest purchasers of gasoline and naphtha, the distribution between the two countries being nearly equal in 1920. In this year France imported approximately 180,000,000 gallons and Great Britain 146,- 500,000 gallons. Following these countries (1920) comes Canada, with 55,000,000 gal- lons, Italy with 35,000,000 gallons, New Zealand and Argentina with approximately 18,500,000 gallons each, Germany with 7,000,000 gallons. The balance is distributed in small lots among the Smaller countries. Great Britain and France together took prac- tically half of the export gasoline produced in the United States in 1920. tº SEASONAL DEMAND. Owing to the influence of weather conditions upon motor- ing, the demand for gasoline in the United States is far greater in the warm months than in winter, the maximum peak of demand Occurring late in the Summer or in the early fall. The quality or end point of gasoline also undergoes seasonal changes, the gasoline marketed being heavier in the summer months than in the winter. The latter is due both to changes in demand and to the effects of temperature upon the vaporiza- tion of the fluid. The following figures are taken from Pogue's Economics of Petroleum and show seasonal demand: Percent Percent January . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4 July . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • February . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.8 August . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.8 March . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.4 September . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.4 April . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2 October . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.8 May . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.5 November . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.9 June . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.9 December . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.7 For twelve months. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100.0 1922 COMPILED LEU M AGE J. PETRO 'Copyright B. RATHEUN BY KK-1-3 GAsoLINE, PROPERTIES OF (KK-2-1) (Commercial Grades, Types, etc.) ASOLINE CLASSIFICATION. According to their composition, and the method of their manufacture, the gasolines produced by the several methods may be classified as follows: neglecting the base of the crude, whether paraffine or asphaltic. (1) STRAIGHT RUN, or STRAIGHT REFINERY gasolines are distilled directly from the crude petroleum, and consist of a series of closely related, “Overlapping” hydrocarbon compounds, that is, the product consists of compounds having closely related boiling points and gravities, the highest and lowest boiling points being connected together with a series of progressive intermediate boiling point compounds. This gaso- line consists of a group of the more volatile of the constituents of petroleum which pass off progressively while the crude is being distilled so that there is a “Straight run” or continuous series of hydrocarbon compounds arranged in the order of their boiling points. The distillation continues in the fire still until the gravity increases to Some predetermined point determined by market conditions. The distillate is then acid refined, neutralized, washed and steam distilled. In the steam distillation the crude naphtha may be again separated into several different gasolines of varying volatility, While the heavier remaining portion (Bottoms) may be used in the kerosene stock. A great variety of gasolines are possible. Straight run gasolines have a low content of unSaturated hydrocarbons (Olefines), and very few aromatic hydrocarbons. A graph drawn from the distillation temperatures is free from marked “Humps” or irregularities. This is a pure distilled petroleum product with no additions of foreign components. (2) STRAIGHT CASINGHEAD GASOLINE. This gasoline is obtained from natural gas by compression or absorption processes. In pure form it is far too volatile for com- mercial use (“Wild”), for in this condition it has too high a vapor pressure and is too dangerous to ship. It also wastes rapidly in storage due to excessive evaporation. y (3) BLENDED CASINGHEAD GASOLINE. Is a mixture of the very light casing- head gasoline with enough heavy naphtha, so that it can be handled with safety and so that a gasoline is obtained which averages about the same density as straight run gaso- line. In general, blended casinghead shows a considerable proportion of constituents of high volatility (Low boiling point), and also a high “End point” or high temperature boiling point constituents composed of heavy hydrocarbons. Often however, the casing- head gasoline is used in moderafely small proportion with heavy straight run refinery naphtha, so that there is a more homogenous structure, and the blending is therefore difficult to detect. Its chemical properties seem to be identical with the straight run products of the same distillation range, providing they are of the same base or produced from similar crudes. Physical characteristics depend entirely upon the blending propor- tions and the manner of blending. (4) CRACKED OR SYNTHETIC GASOLINE. Cracked gasolines are produced by pyrogenic decomposition of heavy petroleums, or high temperature distillation of petro- leum constituents heavier than the gasoline produced. It is by high temperature distilla - tion that the gasoline yield of the crude is increased beyond that possible by straight run distillation. The cracked gasolines are similar to straight run products in many respects, but differ in the matter of containing varying percentages of unsaturated hydrocarbons or olefines. This accounts for the peculiar odor of many cracked gaso- lines. Aromatic hydrocarbons also occur to a smaller degree in cracked gasoline. The Cracked gasoline is generally sold in the form of blends made up of varying propor- tions of straight run and casinghead gasoline, and the blends have been perfectly Satisfactory and are generally used without a suggestion that they contain cracked gasoline. The whole purpose of cracking by high temperature distillation is to in- crease the amount of gasoline obtainable from the crude. (5) TRUE SYNTHETIC GASOLINE. True synthetic gasoline is made from bases other than petroleum such as coke, acetylene, or coal tar, and while such products have been produced under laboratory conditions they are not yet commercial articles. Copyright 1921 COMPILED BY KK 2 1 PETROL EU M AGE J. B. RATHE UN * Aſ sºme A y \ GASOLINE (KK-4-1) * & (Physical Properties of Gasoline) GENERAL GASOLINE SPECIFICATIONS. Under this head is defined the gen- eral properties of a gasoline which is to be used for certain specific purposes. In gen- eral, the specifications of a gasoline include: (1) The physical properties of the gaso- line and (2) its chemical properties. When these points are known, then we can judge the Suitability of a given gasoline for the service intended, whether it complies with certain laws and regulations or whether it will' be safe to handle and suitable for Storage. In Some cases these are rather conflicting points and an intelligent com- promise must be made. Some gasolines, while being ideal from the standpoint of service, may be dangerous to handle and transport or may waste away rapidly in storage due to evaporation. Gasoline is simply a trade name for a series of the lighter petroleum distillates and has no hard and fast definition. There are many commercial grades which vary Widely in their physical properties and price. The gasolines range from fluids which are as light and volatile as ether to heavy (nearly stable) fluids approaching kerosene. The term is very flexible in its application, and to obtain that particular grade which We desire we must have certain methods of measurement and methods of testing. All this is further complicated by the fact that there is a considerable difference in gaso- line made from different crudes and by different manufacturing methods. Gasolines Suitable for motor fuels are not always suitable for solvents or cleaning purposes. Some grades contain higher percentages of the heavy hydrocarbon compounds than others, thus reducing the volatility, which is a prime requisite of a motor fuel. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES. By this phrase we mean the essential characteristics Of a gasoline which may be determined by purely physical or mechanical means and without the use of chemical reagents or processes. This includes such characteristics as gravity, distillation range, initial boiling point, end point, color, undissolved water, suspended matter ahd grit. All of these points have an influence on the performance of the gasoline in the motor and are of importance. The distillation range, initial boiling point and end point are indicative of the volatility of the fuel, or its ability to form vapor, and therefore determine the flexibility and general performance under varying Seasonal temperatures. The balance of the “points” refer principally to impurities and their effect in clogging up the fuel system. There is a great variation in the numerical values of the points allowed in specifications for different services or Operating conditions, and in the end they point to one objective—price. If the Specifications call for too high a standard of quality, then the gasoline will be unnecessarily expensive for the purpose intended; while if the grade specified is not high enough, then the gasoline Will perform unsatisfactorily. An intelligent compromise must be made between the two extreme conditions, and we should be as careful to avoid stringent exacting classification, which demands high prices, as we are to obtain a proper quality for maximum performance. It is evident that a lower and cheaper grade can be used for tractors and heavy duty engines than for the high compression type engines used on racing cars and aeroplanes, and that it would be wasteful and expensive to call for high grade aviation gasoline for use in tractors and other low compression engines, where the heavier gasoline would prove just as satisfactory. We must be able to analyze the conditions under which the gasoline is to be used, and then compromise so that We can obtain a suitable fuel for the least money. Very high grade gasoline can always be obtained, but we must expect to pay the high price asked for it. The quality and price are simply matters of supply and demand, for the crudes contain only a limited amount of that range of distillates known as the gasolines and an increasing demand therefor soon affects either the volatility or price, or both. copyright 1922 COMPILED BY * PETROL EU M AGE J. B. RATHEUN KK-4-1 GASOLINE (KK-4-3) (Physical Properties of Gasoline) GENERAL. In general, the physical properties of gasoline are those which can be determined by mechanical apparatus or by the agency of physical methods such as by Weighing, heating, or by physiological effects. The following is a short description of the physical properties usually presented in designating various qualities of gasoline. VQLATILITY. This is the basic property by which gasolines are graded since the formation of Vapor at given temperatures is of primary importance in motor gasolines. By Volatility we mean the rate at which gasoline vapor is formed at a given tempera- ture or the rate of evaporation. This varies widely among various gasolines due to ºfacturing methods, the relation of supply to demand, and according, to the crude UlseCl. As gasoline is not a single simple fluid, but is built up of a number of compounds having various boiling points, the volatility of any gasoline cannot be expressed by a single constant quantity. The lighter constituents vaporize more readily than the heavier portions; hence we really have a large number of degrees of volatility. For simplicity it is the common practice to mention two of the vaporizing temperatures, the “Initial Boiling Point” (I. B. P.), which is the temperature at which the lightest fraction distills over, and the “End Point” (E. P. or Ep.), at which the final and heaviest component is distilled. In Straight-run gasoline the relation between the initial boiling point and the end point can be controlled to some extent by the method of distillation and is also a function of the crude from, which the gasoline is obtained. In blended “Casinghead” or “Natural Gas Gasolines,” the relation of the I. B. P. to the E. P., is, of course, con- trolled by the proportions in which the natural gasoline and the naphtha, are mixed. In º gasolines, the relation is established by the process and handling of the equipment. - * For ordinary, use in motor cars, the gasoline should contain a moderate but not excessive percentage of low boiling point (highly volatile) constituents. The low I. B. P. fractions should be sufficient to permit easy starting in cold weather, but should not be so great as to lead to excessive loss by evaporation while in storage, or so as to , make the gasoline unnecessarily expensive. It should be borne in mind that a gasoline, with a high percentage of low I. B. P. contents is very expensive, for the reason that little of this material is naturally present in crude oil, and that very volatile straight- run gasolines are suitable only for the most exacting service as in aeronautics. The volatility of the gasoline as a whole is also controlled somewhat by the locality in which it is to be used and the seasonal temperatures. Thus, a more volatile gasoline would be ordinarily required in a cold climate such as Alaska, or, during the winter, than in a tropical climate such as in the Canal Zone, or during the heated period of summer. Less volatility is required for good motor operation during heated periods than in cold, since in the latter case starting is difficult unless a considerable volume of vapor is formed at low temperatures. 4. The end point, or the relative volatility of the heavier components, should be high enough to insure that vaporization will be completed at the required running tempera- ture and that no deposits will be formed in the cylinders of the engines due to imper- fect vaporization and resulting in...imperfect combustion. A high end point means a cheaper gasoline, but one that is likely to cause excessive carbon deposits or irregular running unless taken care of . by , the carbureter or vaporizing apparatus. Unless completely vaporized, the gasoline is of very little service as a power producing agent. A low end point is of course desirable from the user’s standpoint but is expensive. Motor gasolines should have a total volatility range wide enough to include both low and fairly high boiling point constituents, the intermediate components being well and evenly graded, so that there will be a gradually increasing series of compounds between the I. B. P. and the E. P. The greater the number of intermediate com- pounds, the better will be the combustion of the gasoline, since the intermediates form a continuous bond between the extreme compounds. The combination of an extremely light and extremely heavy fluid without intermediates is certain to result in trouble. . Copyright 1922 COMPTT.ET, BY KK-4-3 PETROL EU M AGE J. B. RATHE UN º * - t t | f GASOLINE (KK-4-4) (Physical Properties of Gasoline) DISTILLATION VALUE. The practical method of determining the volatility of a gasoline as a wholesand" of determining the nature of the components and their boiling points is by a method of fractional distillation in which, the various compounds are Separated in the order of their boiling points. Thus a given weight of the gasoline is gradually heated in a flask, and the vapors thus formed are progressively cooled and Condensed in a condenser in such a way that the boiling point of each ten percent of distillate is measured. * The lightest distillate is the first drop condensed and is taken as the “Initial Boil- ing Point.” From this point on the temperatures are taken for each succeeding 10 percent condensed until the final temperature is reached at which the last drop is evaporated. The latter is the “End Point” or “Dry Point.” It should be understood that this is simply a rough commercial method of indicat- ing the volatility and the distribution of the components, and is far from being an exact Scientific index of the vaporizing qualities. It is comparatively simple, however, and for this reason has found favor in the oil trades. The following table is an example of a distillation test record and shows the quantities determined for a certain grade of mid- continent gasoline (S. R.): DIST! LLATION DETERMINATION Temperatures Mark Deg. C. Deg. F. First drop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52.0 125.6 10 percent. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * * 84.2 183.6 20 percent. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96.5 205.9 30 percent. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103.1 217.3 40 percent. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112.0 233.6 50 percent. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120.5 248.9 60 percent. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133.1 273.1 70 percent. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140.0 284.0 80 percent. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157.7 314.2 90 percent. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178.0 352.4 95 percent. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198.0 388.4 Dry point. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213.2 415.0 Average . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132.3 270.1 The characteristics of the components are shown more clearly when plotted in the form of a graph, and are often shown in this Way, particularly if comparison is to be made between Several gasolines. GRAVITY OR DENSITY. The specific gravity of a gasoline is the ratio of a unit volume of the gasoline to an equal volume of pure distilled water, the measurement being performed at a standard temperature. This is usually taken at 15° C. or 60° F. Since gasoline is lighter than Water, the specific gravity is expressed by a decimal frac- tion such as 0.6580 or 0.5566, the exact numerical value varying widely between different gasolines. e This value may be determined by means of a hydrometer or by a specific gravity balance, and is more commonly used in Scientific work than in the trade. In the oil trades the density is more commonly expressed by the Baumé density in which the density of water is taken at 10,000 instead of 1.0000 as in the specific gravity scale. The Baumé degree (Be, *) is a Whole or mixed number for gasoline, and, unlike specific gravity, the numerical value of the Baumé degree increases as the gasoline becomes lighter. When all the gasolines under test are of the same original and made under the same process, the specific gravity is a rough index of the volatility, but when the other characteristics of the fluid are unknown, the density or gravity is of slight value. Paraffin and asphaltic base gasolines of equal volatility may differ as much as 8° Be. to 10° Be. in density, and, again, the density is no index of the comparative volatilities of straight-run, natural gas gasoline, or cracked products, for the latter may have varying proportions of light constituents and still have the same density. This test is not of much significance. ight 1922 COMPILED BY egºš'Étinºae J. B. RATHEUN ** KK-4-4 GASOLINE (KK-4-5) (Physical Properties of Gasoline) VAPOR PRESSURE (TENSION). This is the pressure established by the gasoline vapor at a given temperature when enclosed in a gas tight vessel, and is an index to the volatility of the lighter components. A gasoline with very low boiling point com- pounds, of course, indicates a high vapor pressure or tension, and while very suitable for starting a cold motor or operating in cold weather, such a gasoline wastes rapidly in storage by evaporation and increases the fire risk. Vapor pressure determinations are applied principally to natural gas gasolines or casinghead gasoline or blends, and a definite limit is placed upon the pressure for the various grades of this fuel. VAPOR DENSITY. This unit indicates the relative weight or the actual weight of the gasoline vapor per unit volume, taken under standard pressure (760 mm.), and at standard temperature. This density is of importance in engine Operation since it bears a relation to the amount of air required for the combustion and also affects the mean effective pressure established in the cylinder. While often used in engine tests, this unit is seldom incorporated in gasoline specifications and is rarely used by the refiner Or trade. LATENT HEAT OF VAPORIZATION. A unit showing the quantity of healt (gen- erally in calories) required to vaporize a unit weight of the gasoline. This is rather of academic interest and is very seldom used by the oil trades. It is of principal interest to engine builders and carbureter makers. CALORIFIC OR HEATING VALUE. The value of a fuel lies principally in the quantity of heat developed, providing of course that this heat can be developed in the engine under practical working conditions. The calorific value of a gasoline is gener- ally given in terms of British thermal units in this country, or sometimes in terms of calories, and is measured in a device known as a ‘‘Calorineter.” This value is seldom determined by the oil trades since the heat actually developed in practice differs considerably from the actual heat developed by complete combustion in a calorimeter. The available heat usefully developed in the engine depends upon the efficiency of the engine as well as upon the volatility of the fuel and its vaporization and admix- ture with air. Used principally in engine tests. SPONTANEOUS IGNITION TEMPERATURE. The temperature at which a gaso- line vapor explodes as a whole without an igniting spark—that is, the temperature at which the vapor “goes to pieces” completely and with explosive violence, causing detonation and explosion waves in the cylinder. Every particle ignites simultaneously and the characteristic slow spread of flame in true combustion is absent. Every fuel has a definite temperature at which it detonates under pressure and heat, and this tem- perature determines the point at which an engine “gas knocks.” This is of great importance to the engine builder, but little work is done by the refiner in determining this factor for the trade. As a rule, the heavier gasolines detonate at a lower tempera- ture and cause more trouble than the lighter fluids. COLOR. Color alone is not of much importance, but is principally of interest because it is an index of other qualities such as purity and the degree of refining. Again, a water white, crystal clear fluid finds more favor in the eyes of the dealer than a dark colored gasoline. ODOR. There is no definite standard unit for odor, and since the advent of cracked gasolines this property has become of less importance than in the days of straight-run gasoline when the specifications generally demanded a “Sweet, pleasant odor.” Ex- cept as a means for identifying certain gasolines, the odor has now little significance except that a sweet gasoline is far more pleasant to use than the rank, strong products due to incomplete refining of S. R. gasolines or to certain Cracking processes. WATER AND SEDIMENT. Gasoline must be free from sediment, suspended flocculent matter and free moisture. If present, such impurities clog the carbureter paSSageS. .* 2 Copyright 1922 COMPILED BY KK 4 5 PETRO LEU M AGE J. B. RATHEUN | sm ºf ſº, * O O t GASOLINE (KK-4-12) (PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF GASOLINE) VISCOSITY OR FLUIDITY. The viscosity or fluidity of a light oil fuel is of importance both in regard to its use and manufacture. The degree of fluidity is becoming of more and more interest in the laboratory, and while such tests were seldom made in past years the viscosinmeter is becoming a fixture in the modern petroleum laboratory. Fluidity is, of course, the reciprocal of viscosity. It has been found that the viscosity is a rough index to the volatility and to the nature of the heavy ends contained in gasoline. The heavy ends or components of gasoline have a higher viscosity than the lighter fractions, and the determination of these components by the viscosineter is more accurate than by a specific gravity determination and more simple and easily performed than by the distillation method. Bingham has shown that the relation of the fluidity to the vapor pressure of the aliphatic hydocarbons are practically identical, hence the vapor pressure may be deter- mined by the fluidity for any of these pure hydrocarbons, but in experimental work this exact relation is rather difficult to determine because commercial hydrocarbons are not homogeneous compounds and are extremely sensitive to slight changes in experimental conditions. Ordinary commercial auto gasoline has a fluidity averaging that of octane. Most aviation gasolines have a fluidity intermediate between heptane and hexane. The Viscosity of kerosene is very much higher (Fluidity less), and the increase of viscosity is progressively higher as we continue to distil off the heavier fractions. Fuel oil residuals and lubricating oils are, of course, fluids of enormously greater viscosity than either gasoline or kerosene and must be handled in different instruments. In the carbureter, the viscosity affects the delivery of gasoline or kerosene through the nozzle and therefore affects the quality of the mixture. A heavy gasoline or one containing a high percentage of heavy ends flows more slowly through a given nozzle Orifice than a lighter fluid. Since temperature affects the viscosity it is evident that a change in temperature will affect the rate of flow through the carbureter orifice and thus affect the richness of the mixture. This is one reason why seasonal adjustments must be made in a carbureter to maintain a uniform mixture of gasoline and air. Where carbureter jets are gravity fed the increasing density of heavy gasolines in- Creases the pressure On the orifice, and thus to some extent Offsets the increasing viscosity, but this compensation is not exact and does not exist at all in carbureters where the fluid is withdrawn by the suction of the engine. Viscosimeters used for the determination of viscosity in gasoline, (Or other light fuels) differ from those used in testing lubricating oils since the viscosimeter orifice must be very much smaller. In Europe the Ubbelohde viscosineter is used for gasoline and kerosene, while in the United States the Saybolt Thermo Viscosimeter (Not Say- bolt Universal) is used extensively. In all Countries the viscosity is often given its abso- lute dimensional form of “KINEMATIC VISCOSITY,” for the Saybolt; and Ubbelohde units are purely arbitrary scales. The Engler and Redwood viscosimeters are also some- times referred to, but see but limited use in this country. The true and Scientific method is to convert the instrumental readings, whatever the particular commercial scale may be, into the dimensional unit called the “POISE,” or into kinematic viscosity which is obtained by dividing the poises by the density in grams per cubic centimeter. The poise is the unit of fluid shear, and the definition of this unit together with further descriptions of the instruments will be found under the head of “Physical Properties and Units.” \, The Saybolt Universal viscosineter, and the Engler type used for the measurement of lubricating oils and the heavier fuel oils have efflux tubes only seven diameters in length and it is almost impossible to determine the viscosity of gasoline or kerosene with such small ratio tubes. The orifices are also too large So that the thin fluid runs too rapidly through the instrument. The Ubbelohde (Engler-Ubbelohde) viscosimeter for light fluids has a tube 24 diameters in length and a smaller orifice. C ight 1922 COMPILED BY Peºšijm AG E J. B. RATHEUN KK-4-12 GAsoLINE (KK-4-13) (PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF GASOLINE) IxINEMATIC VISCOSITY AND WATER RATE. All of the Viscosinmeters described are of the efflux type in which the viscosity is determined by the rate at which the fluid flows through a standard sized orifice urged by a pressure created by the “Head” or weight of fluid column above the orifice. In general, such instruments may be calibrated or corrected by the use of some stable and uniform fluid such as water, alcohol, etc. When water is used as a means of checking up on a viscosineter the term “Water rate” is used. With the Ubbelohde viscosineter the water rate is 200 seconds, the time required for 100 cc. Öf water at 20°C (68°F) to pass through the instru- ment. Kinematic viscosity of water is 0.010068 at 20°C. The viscosity expressed in Ubbelohde degrees is obtained by dividing the time in seconds required for the discharge of the gasoline by the “Water Rate.” This is a purely arbitrary unit, having no direct relation to the dimensional unit of viscosity until converted by suitable factors. To secure uniformity between the tests made with Various instruments and to make these readings comparable by reducing them to a common scale of measurement, they can be converted into the dimensional unit called the “POISE” or reduced to terms of kinematic viscosity. The absolute viscosity of a liquid may be defined as “the force which will move a unit area of plane surface with unit speed relative to another plane surface from which it is separated by a layer or film of the liquid having a unit thickness.” In Other words, the absolute viscosity is a shearing force required to move two increments of a surface past each other in the fluid. The absolute viscosity is therefore correctly expressed in dynes-seconds per square centimeter, but is usually referred to as dynes per square centimeter, thus neglecting the time element. CENTIPOISE. The viscosity unit called the “POISE” signifies “One Dyne-Second per square centimeter.” Since an absolute viscosity of one poise represents a quite viscous fluid, the term “CENTIPOISE” is often used, this being equal to one- hundredth of a poise. The viscosity in poises will be expressed by the symbol “u,” and the time of the discharge for the fluid from the instrument in seconds by (t). We know the general equation for kinematic viscosity expressed by: J ABS. VISC. POISES EINEMATIC VISCOSITY = = u/r = At — B/t & DENSITY, G. per CC. Where the density in grams per cubic centimeter is (r), and (A) and (B) are instrumental constants depending upon the dimensions of the instrument. This ratio (u/r) is taken as basis of comparison between the actual and effective viscosities of the fluids. . The density (r) is a factor because this is effective in producing the pres- sure that forces the liquid through the orifice of the instrument, and thus applies only to the efflux type Of Viscosineter. Winslow H. Herschell found by tests with different homogeneous liquids, such as water, alcohol and Sucrose solutions, that the kinematic viscosity of the Ubbelohde viscosimeter Čan be expressed by: 1.438 Rinematic viscosity = u/r = 0.0000887t — + (Ubbelohde) t This was based on two Ubbelohde instruments used by the Bureau of Standards. Further experiments showed that Water could be used in this instrument since even the high surface tension of this liquid instrumental error. According to the same investigator, the values for the Engler viscosimeter are expressed by two independent equations, one when the time of efflux (t) is greater than 56 seconds, and one with a time element less than 56 seconds. 74 3. For Engler time greater than 56 seconds: u/r = 0.0017t--- 1.33 For Engler time less than 56 seconds: wº-ºooºoºt--- C ight 1922 COMPILED BY Peššjm AGE J. B. RATHEUN KK-4-13 O [. GAsoline (KK-4-22) [. * (PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF GASOLINE) FLUIDITY OF GASOLINE SAMPLES. A number of tests were made by Winslow H. Herschell of the Bureau of Standards upon a rather wide range of gasoline samples. Instead of listing the gasolines by their viscosity he used the reciprocal term “Fluidity,” since the fluidity is a direct instead of indirect function of the volatility. Numerically, the fluidity in the table is the reciprocal of the viscosity in poises. Using the reciprocal we obtain a temperature-fluidity curve that is more nearly a straight line than is a tº ature viscosity curve, and again, the use of decimals is avoided when fluidity S JISéOi. FLUIDITY OF GASOLINES AT WARIOUS TEMPERATURES (Reciprocals of Poises) Gasoline Specific FLUIDITY AT GIVENTEMPERATURE (Cº) Sample No. Gravity —y— 15.6°C/15.6°C 5°C 15°C 25°C 35°C 45°C 55°C 1 0.757 145 166 193 212 235 262 2 0.748 130 151 170 194 214 243 3 0,743 129 156 185 203 227 s & ſº 4 0.726 202 233 264 293 324 360° 5 0.722 189 • 219 244 278 308 342* 6 0.717 176 208 239 277 295 * * * 7 0.716 197 217 256 289 321 341* 8 0.708 203 230 257 298 332 360° 9 0.702 233 261 296 321 258* 400° 10 0.701 230 262 287 333 373* 398* 11 0.699 233 269 306 335 372* 423* 12 0.694 251 286 316 354* 387° 427* 13 0.680 288 323 365* 413* 441* 475* Kerosene 0.813 39 47 61 71 84 & ſº tº ſ (*) Calculated from time of discharge less than 155 seconds and the values should therefore be accepted with caution The values were determined in an Ubbelohde viscosineter, and compensation for the conversion into poises and their reciprocals was obtained by equations already given. The gasolines are arranged in order of their specific gravities and it will be seen that the arrangement would have been quite different had they been arranged according to their fluidities. VISCOSITY (SAYBOLT) OF GASOLINE, KEROSENE, AND BENZOL. It is said by H. T. Bennett that the viscosity of Midcontinent 56/61 gravity gasoline varies from 125 to 154 when measured by the Saybolt Thermo-Viscosineter. PCerosene of gravity 40/43 has a viscosity of 320 to 545 according to the same Scale. WISCOSITY OF LIGHT OIL FUELS (SAYBOLT THERMO-WISCOSITY SCALE) Name Baume Initial End WISCOSITY OF GIVEN TEMPERATURE (Fº) Gravity º Point (Saybolt Thermo-Wiscosity) oint 60°F 60°F 65°F 70°F 75°F 80°F 85°F 90°F 60.6 100 403 125 1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº &º s 56.8 165 440 143 |. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * * * 57.3 105 449 145 141 1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .l.... * tº º º 55.7 140 440 154 150 145 140 l. . . . . . . .l........ * * * * 45.9 145 607 249 |. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . [........l... tº º ºs s a 42.8 326 490 320 305 294 278 269 257 247 4.1.8 344 575 419 397 377 357 341 327 312 39.6 380 612 545 532 496 467 442 418 396 10.0 212 212 126 117 109 102 97 92 87 29.6 162 194 125 1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .l........l... ſº tºº Copyright 1922 COMPILED BY PETROLEUM AGE J. B. RATHEUN KK-4–22 & t GASOLINE (KK-4-23) NATURAL GASOLINE SPECIFICATIONS (Compiled by Specifications Committee) The Association of Natural Gasoline Manufacturers, of Tulsa, Okla., has compiled specifications for natural gasoline and motor natural gasoline as follows: Natural Gasoline Grade “A” Grade “E” Gravity.—Not below 72° Be., not above 76° Gravity—Not below 84° Be., not above 87° Be - Be. Ep.—Not over 375° F. I.b.p.–Not below 65° F. Color—Water White. Ep.—Not above 330° F. Vapor Tension—Not over 10 lbs. Color—Water White. Recovery—Not less thari 90%. Vapor Tension—15 lbs. maximum. Grade “B” Grade “F” Gravity.—Not below 76° Be., not above 80° Gravity—Not below 87° Be., not above 90° Be. º Be. Ep.—Not over 375° F. I.b.p.–Not below 60° F. Color—Water White. Ep.—Not above 330° F. Vapor Tension—Not Over 10 lbs. Color—Water White. Recovery—Not less than 85%. Vapor Tension—Under maximum required Grade “C” \ by Bureau of Explosives. Gravity.—Not below 80° Be., not above 84° Grade “G” Be. Gravity—Specified by Seller. Ep.—Not above 375° F. Color—Water White. Color—Water White. Vapor Tension—Specified by Seller. Vapor Tension—Not over 10 lbs. Recovery–Not less than 85%. • Recovery—Not less than 85%. º Grade ‘‘D’’ Gravity.—Not below 80° Be., not above 84° <> Be. K$ 3> <> Ep.—Not above 330° F. wº & © $> <> <> Color—Water White. & © $). Vapor Tension—12 lbs. maximum. © Recovery—Not less than 80%. Motor Natural Gasoline Grade “1” > Grade “3” Gravity—Not below 60° Be., not above 62° Gravity—Not below 66° Be., not above 70° B Be. €. I.b.p.—Not less than 87° F. I.b. p.–Not less than 70° F. Ep.—Not over 450° F. Ep.—Not over 450° F. Color—Water White. Color—Water White. Vapor Tension—Not over 6 lbs. Vapor Tension—Not over 10 lbs. Recovery—Not less than 90%. Recovery—Not less than 83%. Grade ‘‘2’’ Grade “4” Gravity.—Not below 62° Be., not above 66° Gravity—Specified by Seller. Be. I. b.p.–Not less than 85° F. I.b.p.–Not less than 80° F. Ep.—Not Over 465° F. Ep.—Not Over 450° F. Color—Water White. Color—Water White. Vapor Tension—Not Over 8 lbs. Vapor Tension—Not Over 8 lbs. Recovery—Not less than 86%. Recovery—Not less than 80%. Note: All tests to be determined by methods of A. S. T. M. with additional pro- vision condensor Water temperature 32-34 F. The committee, by official action, does away with the terms “casinghead,” “absorp- tion” and “blends,” as well as the various kinds of “wild” and “outlaw” products. *The above association, in selection of a trade name for its product, is not wholly in accord with the Natural Gas and Natural-Gas Gasoline Division of the United States Geological Survey. E. G. Sievers, in charge of the division, recently issued a statement asking for the retention of the name as “natural-gas gasoline” on the ground that it is “correct, definite and cannot be misinterpreted.” - Copyright 1923 COMPILED BY p;#&#üßge J. B. RATHETUN t KK-4–23 * º GASOLINE (KK-4-50) ; Physical Properties of Gasoline WAPOR PRESSURF3. The relation of vapor pressure to temperature is of interest from several standpoints. (1) This relation determines the quality of the mixture obtained in the carbureter of an internal combustion engine, and (2) It has a direct bearing on the fire hazard in refining, storage and shipment. Owing to the fact that gasoline is not a simple definite compound, there is a wide variation annong the various gasolines in regard to the pressures established at different temperatures, and a care- ful test of each individual sample is necessary for accurate data. Vapor pressure has much to do with the production of a uniform mixture of gasoline vapor and air, and therefore is a determining factor in combustion and ignition in the cylinders of an automobile engine. According to BURRELL and BOYD, the Vapor from 73° Be gasoline will mix uniformly with nearly six times as much air as will the vapor from cleaner's naphtha, at the same temperature (63.5°F). This example indicates the better mixture obtained with the high vapor pressure of the 73° Be gasoline against the lower vapor pressure of the naphtha. With the low grade gasolines and naphthals, the vapor pressure depends largely upon the percentage of the light constituents or to a lesser extent upon dissolved gases. Practically, the vapor pressure of a gasoline may be regarded in the same light as the pressure of water vapor or steam produced within a boiler, and each unit area, of the container walls is subjected to a force which varies with the applied temper- ature. This pressure may be expressed in terms of pounds per square inch or in milli- meters of mercury column just as with water vapor, the first unit being given at Fah- renheit temperatures while the latter is related to the temperature given in Centigrade degrees. Typical standard apparatus for making these determinations will be described later on. When a simple homogeneous liquid is heated, molecules of the liquid are driven out of the body of the liquid into the Space above it, and this will continue until a reduc- tion of temperature or an increase of pressure in the upper space cause the vapor mole- cules to condense and to fall back into the liquid. When the molecules returned are equal to the molecules driven out of the liquid by heat, the process is in a state of equilibrium and the vapor pressure in the upper space becomes equal to the vapor pres- sure of the liquid. With complex compounds Such as gasoline the action is somewhat more complicated as is the case when other gases are mixed with the gasoline. In general, the vapor pressure increases with the temperate (at Constant volume) but not always in a simple direct proportion. The vapor pressure of a given vapor is independent of the vapor pressure of other gases which may be mixed with it. When a second vapor is mixed with the first, then the total vapor pressure is equal to the sum of the two vapor pressures, thus increasing the total pressure above that due to the first vapor alone. Mixtures of various liquids, as With the various hydrocarbon compounds found in gasoline, exert the vapor pressures of each of the liquids, which combine to form the total pressure. The “partial pressures” of the various liquids can be combined by a rather complicated calculation to obtain the total pressure. \ Natural gasolines and the light products obtained by distillation from the benzines produce exceedingly high pressures at comparatively low atmospheric temperatures, and for this reason the pressures are of importance from the standpoint of safety. COPYRIGHT 1924 COMPILED BY PETROLLEU M AGE J. B. RATHEUN KK-4–50 GASOLINE (KK-4-51) Physical Properties of Gasoline WAPOR PRESSURE AND SHIPMENT. At temperatures frequently attained during the summer months, the pressure of confined natural gasoline (Casinghead gasoline) may easily reach 25 to 30 pounds per square inch with the lighter grades. Such pressures, of course, require very substantial containers to prevent actual explo- Sion and exceedingly tight Seams to prevent excessive loss by leakage. In making shipment of natural gasolines, the Interstate Commerce Commission has made certain restrictions regarding the vapor pressure and the type of container used for the various vapor pressures. Gasoline which develops vapor pressures ranging from 10 to 15 pounds per square inch at 100°F can be shipped in tank cars tested to with- stand 60 pounds per square inch. Gasolines having vapor pressures greater than 15 pounds per square inch at this temperature cannot be shipped in tank cars at all, but must be shipped in high pressure type drums or gas cylinders. When the tanks or containers are not designed to withstand high pressures, then they must be Con- structed with Open vents which will prevent the accumulation of vapor and the estab- lishment of high pressures. The vapor pressures are also considered under the specifications of the Association of Natural Gasoline Manufacturers, of Tulsa, Okla. The natural gasolines in these specifications are divided into Seven grades, and the natural motor gasolines into four grades as outlined below. A.N.G.M. VAPOR PRESSURES (NATURAL GASOLINES) VAPOR PRESS LBS/SQ/IN. GERADE (Max) “A” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 “B” . . . . . . . As e s > * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 10 “C” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 “D’’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 “E” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 “F” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ". . . . . TJnder maximum --- required by Bureau of Explosives. “G” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Seller. NATURAL MOTOR GASOLINES & (Max) “1” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . “2” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 “8” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 “4” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 VAPOR PRESSURE TEST.S. A method of testing vapor pressure has been outlined in M. C. L. No. 147, January 18, 1916. This is a simple method adapted to the use of shippers, but like other tests of this sort is likely to give variable results unless care. fully conducted. A test container is made from an eight inch -length of two inch pipe, capped at both ends and With a pressure gage screwed into one of the Caps. This pipe is filled to 90 percent of its capacity with the gasoline and is then heated in a water bath to a temperature of 70°F for five minutes, vented for 20 seconds to allow the escape of air, then closed and heated to 100°F for ten minutes. The pressure gage gives the vapor pressure in pounds per square inch. The uncertainty of this crude test has led to proposals for a standard volatility test in which the vaporizing tendency is recorded instead of the final Vapor pressure. COPYRIGHT 1924 COMPILED BY PETRO LEU M AGE J. B. RATHE UN KK-4-51 O º GASOLINE AND NAPHTHA (KK-13-10) * (Cracked Gasoline and Processes) * GENERAL, NOTES. When crude petroleum is treated by dry distillation at atmos- pheric pressure, the components are vaporized and pass off to the condenser in the inverse order of their boiling points—that is, the lightest and most volatile first and the heaviest and least volatile at the last. The temperature is of course continually increased as the distillation proceeds, and from the point where the first light vapors appear at the condenser until the temperature of the still reaches approximately 625° F., the products are “Natural” or the distillates are chemically the same as they were in the Crude petroleum. The temperature has not been sufficiently high to decompose the hydrocarbons or to form new compounds. If the distillation is carried out above the maximum temperature, especially if performed slowly, “Cracking” or decomposition of the compounds takes place (pyrogenic decomposition), and the crude yields a greater percentage of gasoline and kerosene than is naturally contained in the crude petroleum. By high temperature “Cracking processes” the yield of the highly desirable gasoline is increased. Furthermore, if the pressure is increased as well as the temperature, say between 50 and 150 pounds per square inch, profound decomposition takes place and the yield of gasoline is increased by 15 percent or more over that obtained by natural or “straight-run distillation” at low temperature and atmospheric pressure. The residue remaining from the first cracking operation can be again cracked and a further though Smaller yield obtained. Chemically, cracking consists of breaking down the molecule of the heavy oil into simpler compounds of lower molecular weight, and usually is accom- panied by a certain small degree of complete decomposition in which the first molecule is broken down completely into solid carbon and gaseous hydrogen. If the residual oil is placed in a vertical still having a fractionating column between the Still and condenser, Stirring in anhydrous aluminum chloride with the residual oil, a further increase in the production of gasoline will take place when the distilliation is Carried out at atmospheric pressure. In this case, the aluminum chloride acts as a “‘Catalyst,” causing a further decomposition in the residual oil but undergoing no chem- ical change within itself. The various cracking processes now in use for increasing the yield of gasoline over that naturally contained in the crude are briefly as follows: 1—PRESSURE STILL, a two phase process, of which the Burton and Coast systems are examples. 2—PIPE STILL, a one phase cracking system of which the Greenstreet, Hall, and Rittman processes are examples. 3—cCATALYTIC system, operating at atmospheric pressure with catalytic agents in the oil, includes both the single phase and two phase system. 4––COMBINED STYSTEMS in which combinations and modifications of the above systems are used. Dubbs, Jenkins, and Bacon processes are examples. 5—ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS in which the heavy vapors are decomposed by thé discharge of high voltage, high frequency electrical discharges.. The Cherry system is an example. 6–GASEOUS REDUCTION SYSTEMS in which hot gases are passed through the heavy oil or oil spray (Coast), or those in which air is admitted to the crack- ing chamber for maintaining a slight combustion to increase the heat and the cracking effect. PYRIGHT 1922 COMPILED BY 2- §§§m AGE J. B. RATHE UN KK-13–10 GASOLINE AND NAPHTHA (KK-13-11) (Cracked Gasoline and Processes) CRACKING. By first distilling the “natural” gasoline by ordinary processes at or near atmospheric pressure and at corresponding temperatures, we can then ruin the residual gas Oil or fuel oil through the cracking stills where the heavier hydro- carbons are decomposed to form further additions to the gasoline obtained by natural disti IIation. While this is commercially profitable under present conditions owing to the de— mand for gasoline, yet economically it is very wasteful as We not Only produce a, fuel having a lower heating value than the original oil also further expend heat in the cracking process. Further, heat is some times used for the re-distillation of the Cracked oil and for reheating during different stages in the manufacture, hence from the standpoint of conservation the cracking process has little to recommend it. When automotive engines have been developed which will operate successfully on heavy oils, such as gas oils, then the waste and expense of cracking will be avoided. When a heavy oil is decomposed into a light Oil by the Cracking process, solid carbon is deposited in the stills or retorts in large quantities because of the change in composition and liberation of the lighter compounds. This carbon represents a direct loss in heating value for it is in such condition that it cannot be readily - ignited for burning in any form of prime mover. The lighter gasolines contain a lower percentage of carbon than the oils from which they were made, the difference being deposited in the Still. In the following table will be found average values of gasolines, both natural and cracked, which can be expected from various crudes. The total gasoline is of course the sum of the gasoline obtained by natural distillation and that obtained by Cra, CKlng. GASOL I N E Y| E LDS OF VARIO US CRUDES +/ Crude Natural gasoline Total gasoline Increase gravity and naphthas and naphthas due to Field Be° PCt. BE9 PCt. cracking Franklin Co., Pa.. . . . . . . . . . . 32.2 9.0 60.0 66, 0 t 57,0 Alleghany Co., Pa.. . . . . . . . . . 45.0 37.5 61,0 82.0 21,0 McKean Co., Pa.. . . . . . . . . . . . 40.0 32.5 60.0 78.0 45.5 Sunset, Cal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25.7 20.0 47.0 - 52.0 32.0 Colinga, Cal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.4 16.5 46.0 48.0 31.5 El Dorado, Kas. . . . . . . . . . . . . 34.1 27.3 56.5 69.0 41.7 Neodesha, P.Cas. . . . . . . . . . . . . 35.5 29.9 58.9 71.0 41.1 Caddo, La. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34.7 25.7 56.0 69.0 43.3 Caddo (T_ight), La. . . . . . . . . 40.7 35.2 57.0 78.0 42.8 Panuco, Mex. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.6 6.0 51.0 39.0 33.0 Beggs, Okla. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38.7 29.9 57.0 76.0 45.1 Billings, Okla. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40.1 40.4 69.8 77.0 36,6 Glen Pool, Okla. . . . . . . . . . . . 32.4 24.8 54.0 64.0 39.2 Garber, Okla. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45.2 52.4 60.0 83.0 30.6 COPYRIGHT 1924 “ COMPILED BY * KK-13-11 * PETRO LEU M AGE J. B. RATHEUN a tº tº *. Af *. O & FUEL oil (LL-1-1) (Properties of Oil Fuels) DEFINITION OF OILS. Any fluid hydrocarbon used for obtaining heat or power is an OIL FUEL, and, strictly, this is quite different from the ordinary acceptance of the term FTIEL OIL. An oil fuel may be any burning oil, but fuel oil is ordinarily taken to mean the petroleum hydrocarbons left after the more volatile fractions, Such as gasoline and kerosene, have been removed from the crude oil by the process of dis- tillation. Thus ordinary fuel oils are “topped’’ petroleum crudes. Certain crude oils, such as Mexican crude oil, are low in gasoline content, and are therefore often burned just as they come from the well and without topping. The same is true of certain Russian and Balkan crudes. Thus the oil fuels most commonly used for burning under boilers or for use in oil engines of the Diesel type may be either crude oils or the hydrocarbon compounds remaining after the more valuable volatile portions have been removed. Vegetable oils are far too expensive for fuel oils, except when used in highly efficient Diesel type engines under certain limited circumstances. FUEL OIL. Fuel oil is a dark heavy hydrocarbon, somewhat more viscous than the crude from which it was obtained, owing to the fact that the lighter non-viscous elements have been driven off by distillation. It has a higher calorific value than the crude, and, as its flash point is higher, it is safer to handle. Fuel oil is the residue remaining after the crude has been “topped” or the gasoline and kerosene are removed. Blended fuel oils are produced by mixing certain proportions of the residue just men- tioned with crude oil in Order to fulfil certain specifications. In refineries producing a complete line of petroleum distillates ranging from gasoline to lubricating oil and asphalt, the gas oil is generally absent from the fuel oil as well as the gasoline and kerosene. In “topping” plants which only distill for gasoline and kerosene the gas oil is left in the fuel oil residue, and therefore this fuel oil is less viscous and a better product for use in the burners. There is a considerable difference in the physical characteristics of the different fuel oils (residuals), depending upon the locality of their origin and upon the percent- age of distillation. The heavier oils are more viscous and have a higher calorific value, but are also likely to contain more Sulphur than the lighter oils or oil made from lighter crudes. Viscosity is an important factor in a fuel oil, for it determines the ease with which it may be made to a flow through the burner and piping system, and also the amount of Steam or air that is required to properly atomize it in the burner. Very viscous oils require Such pre-heating before reaching the burner in Order to increase the fluidity. It should be noted at this point that oil must be very finely subdivided in the burner in the form of an extremely fine mist or spray if proper and complete combustion is to be had. Owing to the high velocity of the air blast, the oil must be consumed in from one-fifth to One-third second before it strikes the opposite wall, and such high flame Velocity cannot be attained when there are any oil droplets in the stream of any considerable size. Impurities such as water, Sulphur and Suspended solids should be reduced to the minimum. Sulphur causes corrosion in Steam boilers and affects the composition of steel in industrial furnaces. Moisture reduces the available heat, causes irregular action in the burner, and in freezing weather may clog up the pipe lines with ice. Dirt, of course, tends to clog the lines and cut the valve seats. Tarry residues and paraffine also cause clogging and irregular burner action. At low temperatures the paraffine waxes solidify and cause much trouble, particularly in Diesel and other oil engines. The oil should be paraffine and asphalt free. Crude oils are, , of course, full of impurities unless carefully settled and filtered. While there is some difference between the heating values of light and havy oils, yet the difference is not nearly so great as may occur between different grades of coal. Oils' are far more uniform in heating value and composition than coal. The average oil contains about 19,000 B.T.U. per pound and from 140,000 to 150,000 B.T.U. per gallon. The Baumé gravity ranges from 10° to 36°. !. Copyright 1922 COMPILED BY g Peščišūm AGE J. B. RATHEUN LL-1-1 FUEL oil (LL-1-2) (PROPERTIES OF FUEL OILS AND CRUDES) CHARACTERISTIC AMERICAN OILS. In general, the oils used for combustion in steam boilers and industrial fur- naces vary in density from 100 Baumé to 360 Baumé, and as used in the petroleum refineries, tars and tar oils of over 8,0000 Baumé have been successfully used. As before explained, the oil fuels may be the residue left from the production of the lighter oils, may be the crudes as taken from the wells, or a mixture of the two. For this reason, the following tables are divided into two parts, fuel oil residues and crude oil The properties of the fuel oils depend upon the origin of the crude from which they were made and the percentage of the lighter constituents that have been distilled out of them. PROPERTIES OF AMERICAN FUEL OILS (RESIDUES) Higher Heating Walues § Density Specific Wgt. Per Sulphur ORIGIN Beſ Gavity | Gallon | B. T. U B. T. U. Per Cent Pound Gallon Appalachian, West Virginia. . . . . . . . . . . . 36.0 0.8433 7.03 19,690 138,421 0.18 Mid-Continent, Average .............. 26.9 0 8920 7.43 19,375 143,950 0.30 Mid-Continent, Kansas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26.0 0.8985 7.49 18,810 144,482 0 20 Mid-Continent, Oklahoma . . . . . . . . . . . . 32.2 0.8631 7.18 19,580 140,576 0.25 Mid-Continent, Unknown . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.8 0.9226 7.68 19,170 157,300 0.65 Louisiana, North..................... 22.0 0.9211 7.67 19,175 147,600 0.72 ' California, Kern River................ 14.78 0.9670 8.06 18,562 152,111 0 89 Qalifornia, Colinga... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.29 0.9505 7.92 18,720 *149,300 0.66 California, McKittrick. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.83 0.9600 8.00 18,835 150,920 0.76 California, Midway................... 16. 14 0.9580 7.98 18,565 150,900, 0 72 California, Sunset. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.26 0.9705 8.09 18,419 152,605 1.06 Oklahoma, Garber.... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.30 0 86.79 7.27 *19,500 *140,000 0.25 Oklahoma, Cushing.... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40.10 0.8230 6.86 *19,850 *136,370 0.20 Oklahoma, Healdton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 10 0.9200 7.67 *19,130 *146,918 0.84 Oklahoma, Healdton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.00 0.9090 7.58 *19,210 *145,612 0.22 Kansas, Moran, Allen City. . . . . . . . . . . . 19.70 0.9352 7.80 *19,050 *148,200 0.60 Kansas, Towanda. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.00 0.9211 7.67 *19,175 *147,600 0.70 Texas, Ranger. . . . . . ................. 32.22 0.8630 7.18 *19,530 *140,800 0.28 Texas, Beaumont. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.40 0.9126 7.60 *19,200 *145,812 0.58 Pennsylvania, Average................ 36.00 0.8433 7.02 *19,610 *138,555 0.20 Mexico, Tampico..................... 14.00 0.9722 8.10 *18,810 *150,931 1.80 Mexico Huanaca ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.60 0.9818 ° 8. 18 18,710 154,360 2 50 Mexico, Panuca...................... 11.40 0.9901 8.25 18,580 155,020 2.20 PROPERTIES OF CRUDE OILS (FROM WELL) California, Bakersfield. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.30 0.9840 8.19 *18,710 *154,200 2.55 California, Ventura.......... . . . . . . . . . 12.50 0.9825 8.18 *18,800 *152,999 2.00 California, Kern River. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.00 0.9722 8.10 *18,810 *150,931 0.94 Canadian, Crude..................... 32.90 0.8594 7. 16 19,435 140,165 0.35 Oklahoma, Cushing................... 39.90 0.8240 6.86 *19,850 *136,370 0.15 Louisiana, Pine Island. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v. 25.20 0.9020 7.51 *19,250 *145,145 0.22 Mexico, Average..................... 11.80 0.9873 8.22 18,400 *155,100 2.60 (*) Designates calculated values. The heating values given above are the “Higher heating values,” that is, are determined by the calorimeter and include the heat of moisture produced by the hydrogen element of the fuel. (See “Combustion” sheets 00.) It will be seen that in general, the heating values per pound increase with an increase in the Baumé density, and that the heat per gallon decreases with as the Baumé degree increases. *. * Copyright 1921 COMPILED BY ; LL-1-2 PETROL EU M AGE k J. B. RATHE UN * tº gº º * * e z. FUEL OIL (LL-1-5) (Advantages of Fuel Oil) GENERAL. The use of fuel oil presents many marked advantages over coal as listed in the following table: 1—Fuel oil contains about 30 percent more heat per pound than the best grade 91 coal, and less weight is required for the same heating effect. This is of great import- > ance With locomotives and vessels. & 3-oil does not deteriorate in storage but maintains its heating value for long periOCIS. 3—Greater mileage and speed can be attained on the road and sea, with oil. 4—Oil requires about one-third less storage space than coal of equal weight, and 50 percent greater heating value in the form of oil can be stored in equal space. Bunker Volume is often of great importance in crowded quarters. 5—Smoke can be almost entirely eliminated. 6—Oil is not subject to spontaneous combustion as with coal. 7—Oil fires can be instantly lighted and the furnaces or boilers can be brought up to temperature or pressure in a very short time. 8.—There is no loss due to banked fires when oil is used. 9—There is no dirt or ashes to contend with when oil is used. 10—Oil is more cheaply and easily handled than coal. 11—Fuel oil is a complete combustible, and there are no ashes nor moisture to reduce the heating value. You buy combustible, no trash. 12—An oil fire is much more easily controlled than a coal fire, and responds more Quickly in an emergency. 13—In metal working furnaces either reducing or oxidizing conditions may be pro- duced with less loss than with coal. 14—There is a very great saving in labor when oil is used, there being no necessity for stokers or ash handlers. 15—The fuel oil can be stored in any part of the plant. It is not necessary to locate a Supply immediately at the point of use. \ 16–Oil may be stored in places that are ordinarily inaccessible and unsuited for Storage of solid materials. 17—Oil is a fluid and may be transported by pumping, no expensive and compli- Carted conveyors or carts being necessary. 18—There is less danger of fire with oil than with coal if proper tanks are provided, 19—The tubes and heating surfaces of boilers receive less soot and ash than with Coal; hence not so much Work is required to maintain a state of surface efficiency. 20—It is not necessary to Open fire doors frequently and admit cold air, for it is never necessary to clean fires or remove clinkers in an oil furnace. 21—Less sulphur is introduced into a furnace with oil than with coal. 22—Oil does away with complicated and troublesome stokers. 23—Oil cuts down the fire room force and payroll to a very small fraction of that necessary in a coal burning plant. 24—The load may be more equally distributed among a battery of boilers since it is possible to get closer fuel regulation with oil. 25–In large plants or with railroads there is a considerable saving in the cost of firing tools such as shovels, slice bars, etc. 26–Water circulation is much more rapid in oil fired boilers, thus increasing the steaming capacity and the efficiency. 27—The output of coal fired boiler plants can be greatly increased by the use of oil. 28—Oil burners only require about 25 percent excess air, thus giving a higher tem- perature and a less volume of Waste gases. 29—A smaller combustion space is possible with oil and this reduces the losses by radiation. 30–Oil burning boilers only require 60 percent of the stack area needed for coal. 31—Maintenance charges are less With oil providing that the proper grade of refrac- tory materials are used. 32—Greater ability to meet Sudden peak loads is possessed by oil burning equipment, 33—Less investment is a feature of oil burning, for the plant occupies less space, smaller stacks, no Stokers or ash handling machinery, and less floor space for oil Storage. Copyright 1922 COMPILED BY PETROLEUM AGE J. B. RATHEUN LL-1-5 FUEL OIL (LL-1-6) (Advantages of Fuel Oil) Continued from LL-1-5 34—If the price of oil is equal to or just a little higher than coal, the preference is given to oil because of its convenience. 35—The possibility of using oil in conjunction with coal in the same boilers is im- portant for the reason that advantage of oil or coal may be had almost instantly in cases of sudden fluctuations in market prices, and, further, that oil may be used at intervals to care for peak loads or to heat up a cold boiler. 36—Owing to the better working conditions in the boiler room of an oil fired plant a better grade of labor may be employed, and it will be easier to get labor in cases of labor shortages. 37—For the same reason labor can be obtained at Iower prices when oil is used. 38—About 10 percent of the coal invoiced for an industrial plant is lost in traffic and handling. Oil cannot be so easily lost or stolen. 39—The banking loss with coal announts to about 30,000 B.T. U. per hour per square foot of grate surface, or about 2.3 pounds of coal per square foot of grate per hour. This is not an entire loss, however, since it keeps the settings warm. ., 40–There are less demurrage charges with oil than with coal, for the reason that oil can be quickly unloaded with a minimum of labor. 41—Starting an oil fire is yery simple compared with kindling a coal fire. 42—There is a far greater advantage in the use of fuel oil than would be indicated by many of the competitive tests recently published, for the reason that these tests are generally pulled off in boilers not properly arranged for the use of oil, and in most Cases are old coal burners temporarily altered. There is not sufficient combustion Space or else the combustion chamber is poorly arranged. Again, the coal used in #:s. tºts is usually a far better grade than that used in the ordinary operation of e plant. 43—There is no danger of fire from spontaneous combustion as with coal. 44—The saving in the size of an oil burning stack often pays for a good percentage of the cost of tanks and piping. 45—Repairs to coal Stokers are far more expensive than repairs to burners. 46—In congested city districts the disposal of ashes is often a serious problem and always an expensive One. First, we must supply labor to pile the ashes; second, we must pay for teaming and loading, and sometimes for dumping privileges. Owing to the congestion of the Streets and alleys, most of this work must be done at night, a fact that further increases the expense. 47—Hot ashes have often started fires and many men have been scalded by dampen- ing them when hot. This means money for damages. 48—Railroads have discovered that personal injury suits are far less when oil is used, as there is much less chance of injury when handling oil. 49—Dust from ashes and coal are the cause of much lubricating trouble and damage to machinery. 50—There is less loss with oil in regard to calorific value than with coal, as there is not as much difference between the heat contents of various oils as with coals. Oil may only vary from about 18,000 to 19,500 B.T. U. per pound, while coal will suffer a variation of from 9,000 to 14,000 B.T. U., according to the location of mine, grade and size, and impurities. 51—Coal conveyors and crushers have a high maintenance rate and a high first cost. They are noisy and unsightly. Ash removal Systems are still more troublesome, and when ashes are stored in bunkers there is often much trouble due to their sticking and clotting. 52—Coal weighing machines are complicated and expensive compared to oil meters. 53—For steel furnaces oil is much simpler to handle than producer gas, and the dirty, disagreeable job of cleaning producers is done away with. 54—There is less chance of explosion with oil than with producer gas. 55—Where plants are located in residential or business centers oil is far preferable, being cleaner and less noisy in regard to teaming and loading ashes. There are no objectionable coal piles or ash piles. *> COMPILED BY Copyright 1922 LL 1 6 J. B. RATHE UN PETRO LEU M AGE * * º * y O f ^* FUEL OIL (LL-1-20) (Properties of Fuel Oils and Crudes) ness of atomization possible, a highly viscous oil atomizing with difficulty and requiring the use of an excessive amount of atomizing steam or compressed air. Again, the viscosity reduces the rate of flow through the pipes and burner orifices with a given pump pressure, and if excessive may entirely clog the line at low temperatures. In practice, the viscosity is reduced by “pre-heating” with heavy oils, the temperature of pre-heating being limited by the flash point of the oil. The temperature should never be carried to the flash point for the reason that considerable vapor is produced at this temperature, which interferes with the suction of the pumps, forms choking gas pockets in the oil piping, and causes irregularities in the burner action and carbonization of the tips. W YISCOSITY AND FLASH POINTS, The viscosity of the oil in the burner determines the thorough: As a rule, any oil having a density lower than 20°Be must be heated to insure proper fluidity, and this heating should not usually be greater than a temperature 30°F below the flash point of the oil. As oils vary widely in respect to viscosity and flash point they require different degrees of pre-heating. The residue fuel oils have different characteristics than the crude oils from which they were made, and are influenced by the process in which the lighter components of the crude were driven off during distillation. hus, where gasoline is “topped,” the properties of the fuel oil are different than where the crude is cracked, blended, or where the residues of several different refining operations are mixed together. It should also be noted that there is no direct relation between the gravity and viscosity, and now fixed relation between viscosity and flash point. Accurate results require accurate determinations on each consignment, but in º adjustments are more easily made to accommodate these variations than would be deduced from e analysis. The U. S. Navy specifications state that the flash point shall not be lower than 150°F as determined by the Pensky-Martens closed cup tester, or 175°F as determined by the Tagliabue open, tester. The viscosity shall not be greater than 40 Engler at 70°F or 1500 Saybolt seconds. The following table will give a rough idea of the relations existing between different fuel oils and the crudes from which they were made, notes being attached showing the method of production. w FUEL OILS AND CRUDES, WISCOSITY, GRAVITY AND FLASH Process Gravity Beo Wiscosity Flash Point ORIGIN, REMARKS Mfr. Crude Fuel | Crude Fuel | Crude Fuel \ § 16 9 15 5 5,400° 414 tº tº º 1860F 17.1 15.0 4,747 372 132 166 17.8 17.1 3,340 212 145 278 is sº gº gº 16.5 4,185 117 s & ge 186 23.5 21.2 810 135 e tº & 27.5 23.7 272 88 29.3 26.3 340 104 146 34.7 28.8 248 71 144 19.7 21.2 3,360 178 & º & * * * 34.7 26.0 422 131 149 170 10.8 12.6 14,500 530 * & & ſº tº * * * * 10.0 12,375 610 375 e º 'º º 12.0 10,600 501 g 224 tº & º º 11.7 * * * * * * is º º g = * 220) 13.7 12.0 . . . 685 146 277 . 31.3 28.0 183 70 tº tº 6 tº tº & º & tº º 24.8 a s tº 222 g = tº g 24.0 188 220 28.7 165 182 19.8 201 275 29.6 112 144 Af C ht 1921 COMPILED BY esºas J. B. RATHE UN LL-1–20 FUEL OIL (LL1-25) (Properties of Fuel Oils and Crudes) U. S. VISCOSITY STANDARDS (1924). The following data is abstracted from the United States Government Specifications for Lubricants and Liquid Fuels and Methods of Testing. Standard Specification Number 20, Federal Specifications Board, , Revised March 18, 1924. VISCOSITY (METHOD 30.4). In general, the Saybolt Universal viscosimeter shall be used for lubricants and the Saybolt Furol viscosimeter for fuel oils and other oils of similar viscosity. The Saybolt Universal viscosimeter shall not be used for times of flow less than 32 seconds. With the Saybolt Furol viscosimeter determinations shall be made at 122°F. (50°C.), and the viscosities shall be expressed as “ . . . seconds Saybolt Furol,” this being the time in seconds for the delivery of 60 c.c. of oil. Fuel oils and other oils of 'similar viscosity showing a time of less than 25 seconds, Saybolt Furol, at 122°F., shall be tested in the Saybolt Universal at 122°F. Oil showing a time of less than 32.seconds, Saybolt Universal at 122°F., shall be measured in the Saybolt Uni- versal at 100°F. (37.8°C.). These methods of test do not apply to fuels having a viscosity at 100°F. of less than 32 seconds, Saybolt Universal, which are not con– sidered to be fuel oils. - VISCOSITY OF U. S. NAVY STANDARD FUEL OILS. This specification covers the grade of oil used by the United States Government and its agencies where a high-grade fuel oil is required. This oil may be used in Diesel engines. Viscosity taken by Method 30.4. The viscosity shall not be greater than 100 seconds at 77 °F. (Saybolt Furol Viscosimeter). This specification covers the class of fuel oil designated as: Bunker Fuel Oil “A,” which is a low Viscosity oil which may be used in Diesel engines. Bunker Fuel Oil “B” is a móre viscous oil than “A” and may be used in Diesel engines of a type adapted to an oil of medium viscosity. Viscosity measured by Method 30.4 and shall not be greater than 100 seconds at 122°F. (Saybolt Furol). Bunker Fuel Oil “C” covers the grade where a high viscosity fuel oil is satis– factory, and may be used in Diesel engines of a type adapted to an oil of high viscosity. Viscosity taken by Method 30.4 and shall not be greater than 300 Seconds at 122°F. (Saybolt Furol). * se:OPYRIGHT 1925 COMPILED BY LL-1–25 [PETROL EU M AGE J. B. RATH BUN timſ ºr Fuel oil (LL-4-50) Properties of Asiatic Fuel Oils ASIATIC FUEL OILS. These oils are principally of interest to the navy and merchant marine as fuels for steaming and for use in marine Diesel engines. These oils are usually more or less under the control of the British Admiralty and will usually be found to abide by these specifications. ASSAM FUEL OIL. The determinations for the following example are made by English methods, i.e., Engler flask distillation and Redwood viscosimeter. Specific gravity @ 20°C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.89 Percent ash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.04 Viscosity (Redwood) @ 70°F........ 14.0 Baumé gravity @ 20°C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ſº Viscosity' (Redwood) @ 100°F. . . . . . . . 9.1 Gross calorific value. . . . . . . . . 18,550 B.t.u. Viscosity (Redwood) @ 200°F. . . . . . . . 5.1 Net calorific value. . . . . . . . . . . 17,400 B.t.u. Percent asphaltun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nil. Ignition point in Oxygen. . . . . . . . . . . . 259°F. Percent Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nil. Flash (Gray closed cup). . . . . . . . . . . . 150°F. Percent Sulphur . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.15 Engler first drop over (Dist.). . . . . . 215 °F. This is a paraffine base oil of good grade and is suitable for use either for steaming or marine Diesel engines. The absence of asphaltun, water and ash makes this oil particularly suitable for Diesel engines. In the following table is a short history of the distillation tests: • ENGLER FLASE DISTILLATION } First drop over. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2iş" C. 5 percent over. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25.2°C. 10 percent over. . . . . . * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * e s is º e º ºs s tº e º ºn e º e º 'º e 278°C, 20 percent over. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... .. 301°C. 25 percent over. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . & 3 x * g e º e º e º ºs e e 3.09°C. 50 percent over. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . & e º sº e s e º 'º s º ºs e e 355°C. BORNEO FUEL OIL. Oil suitable for steam or for limited Diesel engine service. Specific gravity @ 20°C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . • 0.94 Percent ash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . sº e s e s a e s e = Nil. Viscosity (Redwood) @ 70°F. . . . . . . 63.0 Baumé gravity @ 20°C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Viscosity (Redwood) @ 100°F. . . . . . . . 23.6 Gross calorific value . . . . . . . . . 18,650 B.t.u. Viscosity (Redwood) (3) 200°F. . . . . . . . 7.1 Net calorific value. . . . . . . . . . . . 17,500 B.t.u. Percent asphaltun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.70 Ignition point in Oxygen. . . . . . . . . . . . 270°F. Percent Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.25 Flash (Gray Cup). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135°F. Percent Sulphur . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.10 Engler first drop over (Dist.) . . . . . . 250°F, While satisfactory for steam this oil is not of the best sort for Diesel engines since it contains a relatively high percentage of asphaltun and some water. Tests show 50 percent of the oil over at 350°C. PERSIAN FUEL OIL. This has a relatively high asphaltun content, high sulphur and some ash, and is therefore not suitable for Diesel engines. Specific gravity @ 20°C., 0.895. Copyright 1923 COMPILED BY Peºčišūmī’āae J. B. RATHEUN | LL-4–50 How to Get Rathbun's Latest Leaflets Each issue of the semi-monthly PETROLEUM AGE contains a new 4-page instalment of Rathbun’s Oil Data. These leaflets are printed in the same style as those here with and may be readily transferred from PETROLEUM AGE to this collection. Therefore: To keep your Data Book complete and up-to-date, Subscribe to PETROLEUM AGE. PETROLEUM AGE is published the first and fifteenth of each month and sells, in the U. S. A., at $2.00 a year.” It presents the entire story of oil, care- fully edited by a practical oil man. Many executives order Rathbun’s Oil Data for their heads of departments and other responsible employes. It makes them worth more to their company. This book contains a great fund of petroleum infor- mation, in condensed and simplified, loose-leaf form. It is just right for the every-day use of the average oil man. Colgan Mfg. & Supply Co., New York, write: “Rath- bun’s idea is the best we have ever seen. How much for extra copies?” Several thousand copies were printed to supply the .. demand for the current edition. If you desire extra copies they should be ordered immediately. PETROLEUM AGE 28 E. Jackson Blvd. Chicago, Ill., U. S. A. *Canada, add $1.00. Foreign, add $2.00. ſº | - FUEL OIL (LL-7-14) (Comparisons of Oil and Various Fuels) in Bulletin No. 15 of the Kansas City Laboratories, will be a rough guide to the equivalents of oil in terms of various fuels. Exact comparisons of this §: are impossible to make because of the great range in the variations of compo- SIUIOIl. Cº.; OF OIL AND COAL. The following table, compiled from data EQUIVALENTS 1 Ton of Coal = 3.60 Bbls. Of Oil = 24,500 Cu. Ft. Of Natural Gas. 1 Gallon of Oil = 13:1 Lbs. Coal = 160 Cu. Ft. Natural Gas. 1 Barrel Oil = 0.278 Ton Coal = 680.6 Cu. Ft. Natural Gas. 1 Pound Oil = 1.75 Lbs. Coal = 21.3 Cu. Ft. Natural Gas. 1 Pound Coal = 0.763 Gallon Oil e- 12.2 Cu. Ft. Natural Gas. These figures are taken from the theoretical heat content as determined by the calorimeter and do not take furnace efficiency, boiler efficiency, etc., into account. The data is based on the following properties of the fuels: Fuel Oil of 25.7° Baumé gravity, 7.5 pounds per gallon, 19,225 B. T. U. per pound, and 144,200 B. T. U. per gallon. Slack Coal = 11,000 B. T. U. per pound. Natural Gas = 900 B. T. U. per cubic foot. COMPARISON OF OIL AND OTHEIR FUELS. From an article in PETROLEUM MAGAZINE by W. N. Best, the value of oil for various purposes is given in terms of tons of coal and in commercial units of other fuels. 1 Long Ton of Coal in Locomotive * * * * * * * * * s & & ſº º is e º a s 4 e º ºr e º 'º s 180 Gallons of Oil 1 Long Ton of Coal in Average Stationary Boiler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 Gallons of Oil 1 Long Ton of Coal in Steamer (Mech. Atomization) . . . . . . . . . . . 180 Gallons of Oil 3.25 Barrels of Oil = 5,000 Lbs. Hickory = 4,550 Lbs. White Oak. 6 Gallons Oil = 1,000 Cu. Ft. of Commercial or Water Gas (1,000 B. T. U./Cu. Ft.). 3.5 Gallons Oil = 1,000 Cu. Ft. of Commercial or Water Gas (620 B. T. U./Cu. Ft.). 2.25 Gallons Oil = 1,000 Cu. Ft. By product Coke Oven Gas (440 B. T. U./Cu. Ft.). 0.42 Gallon Oil = 1,000 Cu. Ft. Blast Furnace Gas (90 B. T. U. per Cu. Ft.). These values are based upon the calorific values only. COMPARATIVE COSTS OF OIL AND COAL. A handy rule for approximately determining the relative costs of coal and fuel oil is provided by Ernest H. Peabody of the Babcock and Wilcox Company. This is based on the fact that in steam making, one pound of oil is equal to 1.5 pounds of coal or that 200 U. S. gallons of oil equals one long ton (2,240 pounds) of coal. Conversely, one long ton of coal equals about 4.5 barrels of oil. We can now state the approximate rule for comparative costs. “When the price of coal in dollars per ton (2,240 pounds) is double the price of oil in cents per U. S. gallon, the cost of fuel for producing a certain boiler capacity will be the same for both fuels. Thus two-cent oil equals $4.00 coal, or four-cent oil equals $8.00 coal.” This rule takes into consideration the probable increased boiler efficiency obtain- able with oil, but necessarily makes certain assumptions regarding the heat values of the two fuels, and the weight per gallon of the oil, which may or may not fit some particular case. COMPARATIVE RATES OF EVAPORATION. Allen F. Brewer gives approxi- mate comparative rates of evaporation of water from and at 212 °F. One pound of fuel oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.50 pounds of water Eva.p. One pound of coal, Stoker fired . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.00 pounds of water Eva.p. One pound of coal, hand fired. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.50 pounds of water Eva.p. * Copyright 1921 COMPILED BY PETROLEU M AGE J. B. RATHEUN LL-7-14 FUEL oil (LL-7-15) (Stationary Boiler Tests, Evaporation, Etc.) Company in their booklet on fuel oil (1919). These figures refer to heavy topped Mexican oil used Mºś BOILER TESTS. The following tests are quoted by the Tide Water Oi under service conditions, the characteristics of oils in general being given as: BAUME GRAVITY Specific Gravity Lbs./Gals. Calc. B. T. U. Calc. B. T. U. (BeO) (Sp. G.) Per Pound Per Gallon 14". . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.9725 8.10 t 18,810 150,931 26°. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.8985 7.49 19,290 144,482 36". . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.8433 7.03 19,690 138,421 With the above index we can get comparative tables on the actual tests. The evaporation quoted below is the equivalent evaporation from and at 212°F. NAME OF PLANT | Gravity Beo |Specific Gravity Rated H. P. |Actual H. P. Factor Evapor. #: * $e Power Plant, Pa...... 14/16 0.9725/.9590 150 200 1.137 16.000 Steel Co., Md........ 19/23 0.9400/.9160 550 733 1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.000 Qil Company, Md.... 26 0.8985 150 225 1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.500 e Water Co. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...::... ::::. 400 533 1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Merch, Marine....... 14/16 0.9725/.9590 l................l............l.............. 15.400 *Merch. Marine...... 14/16 0.9725/.9590 |......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.400 g It will be seen that an excellent evaporation rate is attained in the first three cases when the boiler is given a 33 per cent overload above rating. This is one of the characteristics of fuel oil. The minimum evaporation shown is 12.5 pounds of water per pound of coal, from and at 212°F. In regard to overload capacity, three boilers burning oil are the equivalent of four boilers burning coal. Two results are given for the Merchant Marine, the first being near rated horsepower, and the second (*) being the evaporation with the boilers carrying an overload of 500 per cent. \ BABCOCK AND WILCOX TEST.S. A series of tests were made at the plant of these boiler makers on their marine type boilers. With coal as a fuel an .#. evaporation of 14.76 pounds of water per º: foot of heating surface was obtained per hour, while with fuel oil this was increased to 15.83 pounds Of Water. COMPARISON OF CRUDE OIL WITH FUEL OIL. In 1914. The Oklahoma, Agricultural and Mechanical College carried out a series of tests to determine the relative values of crude oil and fuel oil, these oils being Oklahoma products. The tests were conducted on a Babcock and Wilcox boiler rated at 200 H. P. having a heating surface of 1870 square feet. A Peabody oil furnace was used. In this furnace the burner is located at the bridge wall and flame is directed toward the front of the boiler, thus avoiding direct contact with the boiler tubes or the setting, and insuring a long flame and perfect combustion. DATA OBTAINED Crude Oil Fuel Oil Steam pressure, Gage..................................... * * * * * * 112.00 101.700 Draft in inches of water......................................... 0.109 0.128 Feed Water Temperature........................................ 145.000 165.000 Flue Gas Temperature...................... 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352.000 307.500 Oil Temperature. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75.200 153.000 Heatingyalue per pound of Oil. ..................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22,115.000 18,652.500 Specific Gravity of Oil............. ... • - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 0.808 0.877 Percent of Total Steam to Atomize Oil...... g s e e s a s e s e s a s e s s s e e s m a 3.100 5.910 Factor of Evaporation......…......… . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.112 1.089 Equivalent Eyaporation Per Pound Oil................... jº e s e s a e s s 15.650, 14.830 Efficiency of Boiler (Percent). . . . . . . . ............................ 66.700 72.600 Percent of Rated H. P. Developed................................ 116.000 81.300 Copyright 1921 COMPILED BY PETROLEU M AGE J. B. RATRIBUN LL-7-15 FUEL oil (LL-7-31) (Comparisons of Fuel Oil and Coal) & ELATIVE BOILER EFFICIENCIES, AND FUEL CONSUMPTION. A useful table Calculated R; C. C. Moore and Company, Engineers, and published in the “Mechanical Engineers' Hand- " Book” (McGraw-Hill), gives a means of determining the relative consumption of coal and oil with different boiler efficiencies. This assumes the heating value of fuel oil at 18,500 B. T. U. per pound. ^, Gross Net Net WATER EWAPORATED AT AND FROM 2120 F PER POUND COAL Boiler Boiler Evaporated Efficiency Efficiency Lbs. Water 5 || 6 || 7 || 8 || 9 || 10 | 11 || 12 (Oil) (Oil) Per Lib. Oil Percent Percent At 2120 F POUNDS OF OIL EQUAL TO ONE POUND OF COAL 73 71 13.54 {).3693 0.4431 || 0.5170 || 0.5909 || 0.6647 0.7386 || 0.8124 || 0.8863 74 72 13.73 0.3642 || 0.4370 0.5099 || 0.5827 || 0.6556 || 0.7283 0.8011 || 0.8740 75 73 13.92 0.3592 || 0.4310 || 0.5029 || 0.5747 || 0 6466 0.7184 0.7903 || 0.8621 76 74 14. 11 0.3544 0.4253 0.4961 || 0.5670 0.6378 || 0.7087 || 0.7796 || 0.8505 77 75 14.30 0.3497 || 0.4196 || 0.4895 || 0.5594 || 0.6294 || 0.6993 || 0.7692 0.8392 78 76 14,49 0.3451 || 0.4141 0.4831 || 0.5521 0.6211 || 0.6901 || 0.7591 || 0.8281 79 77 14.68 0.3406 || 0.4087 || 0.4768 || 0.5450 || 0.6131 || 0.6812 0.7493 || 0.8174 80 .78 14.87 0.3363 || 0.4035 || 0.4708 || 0.5380 || 0.6053 0.6725 || 0.7398 || 0.8070 81 79 15.06 0.3320 | 0.3984 || 0.4648 || 0.5312 0.5976 0.6640 || 0.7304 || 0.7968 82 80 15.25 0.3279 || 0.3934 || 0.4590 0.5246 || 0.5902 || 0 6557 || 0.7213 || 0.7869 83 81 15.44 0.3238 || 0.3886 || 0.4534 0.5181 || 0.5829 || 0.6447 || 0.7125 0.7772 In the above table, the “Net Efficiency” is equal to the “Gross Efficiency” minus 2 per cent, or the team consumption of 2 per cent taken from the gross efficiency gives the net efficiency. Boiler tests have often given a gross efficiency of 83 per cent when using oil fuel but this is rather a high figure to expect under service conditions or with boilers not especially constructed for the use of oil. With efficient burners, furnace, and careful management there is no reason why a gross efficiency of 80 per cent, or 14.87 pounds of water per pound of oil, could not be maintained, and 78 per cent might be considered good work. With re-converted coal furnaces, 75 to 76 per cent will probably be the expected range for good operations. Ernest H. Peabody of the Bábcock and Wilcox Company states that while tests have been made with coal claiming 80 per cent gross efficiency that such results can only be obtained with the largest units and having the most efficient mechanical stokers. This is an exceptional performance, and is not likely to be. attained in daily service. Probably 76 to 78 per cent would be the everyday upper limit. With hand stoking, 75 per cent is about the maximum that can be attained while 65 per cent may be considered as very good average work. Much more excess air is necessary with coal stokers than with oil, and a tremen- dous excess of air is necessary with hand firing. This air of course pulls down the boiler efficiency. The excess air ordinarily necessary with fuel oil ranges from 20 to 25 per cent, the best results with hand fired coal requires 50 per cent excess air, while average hand firing will run as high as 80 to 100 per cent exceSS. The table above may be used in two ways: (1) To find the pounds of oil equal to one pound of coal with a given boiler efficiency, or (2) To find the boiler efficiency when the evaporation per pound of oil is known or when the pounds of water evaporated per pound of coal is known. For example, If the known *boiler efficiency is 80 per cent, and 10 pounds of water are evaporated per pound of coal, then 0.6725 pounds of oil will be equal to one pound of coal. The evaporation per pound of oil is 14.87 pounds of water from and at 212°F. It will be noted that the relative value of oil becomes better as the efficiency 111CT68. Ses. ight 1921 COMPILED BY Peºjºae J. B. RATHEUN LL-7-31 FUEL OiL (LL-7-33) (Comparative Tests for Fuel Oil and Coal) Q OMPARATIVE TESTS BETWEEN OIL AND COAL. A series of tests made * alternately with fuel oil and coal are described in “Power.” The boiler was a horizontal return tubular type 72” x18'-0". The furnace was built for coal and the application of the oil burners was only temporary. When the coal was burned, it was hand fired and forced ash pit draft was used. The oil burning equipment consisted of three burners of the five tip type, and steam was used for the atomization. Short runs were made with each fuel, of about one-half day each. Two coals were used. (A) A mixture of three parts buckwheat to one part bitumin- ous, and (B), Straight Bituminous coal. The oil was 18°/20° Baumé, heated to 118° F. The coal cost $6.82 per ton while the oil was 6c per gallon. The average steam pres- Sure was 95 pounds per square inch, gage. On the first day, the coal tests were run in two shifts, the first from 8 A. M. to 2 P. M. using the Mixture (A) of buckwheat and bituminous coal, while the second shift from 2 P. M. to 5 P. M. burned the straight bituminous. The following were the results obtained with coal. SHIFT NUMBER Class of Duration | Equiv. Evap. Equiv. Evap. Coal Hours Lb. Coal Lb. Comb, 8A. M.–2 P. M. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (A) 6 6.75 Lbs. 8.33 Lbs. 2P. M.–5 P. M. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (B) 3 6.93 Lbs. 7.30 Lbs The equivalent evaporation in the table is from and at a temperature of 212° F., and gives the number of pounds of water evaporated per pound of coal (Actual) and the pound of pure combustible matter in the coal. The test on Oil was likewise divided into two shifts, and is as follows: - SHIFT NUMBER Class of Duration | Actual Evap. Actual Evap. Equiv. Evap. Equiv. Evap. Oil Hours Per Gal. Oil | Per Gal. Oil Lbs. Oil | Per Gal. Oil 8A. M.–2 P. M. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18°/120° 6 14.8 Lbs. | 117.10 Lbs. l. . . . . . . . . . . . 122.7 Lbs. 2P, M.–5 P. M. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18°/120° 3 1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126.4 Lbs. COMPARISON LBS. Water per ton of coal = 6.75 X 2,000 = 13,500 pounds water per ton (A) coal. This is equal to 119 gallons of oil per ton of mixed coal. From afternoon result, we get 106.8 gallons of oil per ton of bituminous coal. BOILER TESTS WITH MEXICAN OIL. Two plants were taken under working conditions; (1) Four Babcock and Wilcox Watertube boiler with a heating Surfce of 9,200 square feet; (2) Seven 72” x 20'-0" horizontal tubular boilers of 1,650 square feet each. The settings were in very bad condition and the plant was not designed for oil burning. Simply a temporary rig for testing oil burners. gives 13.962 pounds of water per pound of coal at 212° F. ing and oil pumps was 4.04 percent. 4. The COmbined average The total steam for atomiz- DATA Babcock and Wilcox Watertube Horizontal Tubular Boilers & Test No. 1 | Test No. 2 | Test No. 3 | Test No. 4 || Test No. 5 Test No. 6 Steam Pressure, Gage-............ 120.1 124.4 124.0 94.5 101.7 108.9 Furnace Draft, inches—. . . . . . . . . . . 0.32" 0.14" 0.17" 0.21" 0.18° 0.13" il Pressure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30.00 19.60 40.00 45.00 36.00 40.00 Feed Water, F". . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174.90 180.70 182.10 193.80 201.10 176.50 Flue Gas Temp., Fº. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486.00 486 00 583.00 368.00 • 464.00 492.00 Temp. of Oil, Fº. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183.00 180.30 182.00 161.50 172.30 162.00 Factor Evaporation—. . . . . . . . . . . . 1.080 1,075 1.0738 1.0575 1.0510 1.0 Oil Heat, • U. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18,500. 18,300. ,350. y 18,370. 18,370 Gross water evap. per lb. Fuel Oil. . 13.354 12.745 13. 113 14.43 || 14.835 14.425 Gross Efficiency. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70.05% 67.51% 69.35% 75.08% 78.36% 76.20% (Continued on Following Sheet) Copyright 1921 COMPILED BY PETRO LEU M AGE J. B. RATHE UN LL-7–33 y FUEL oil (LL-7-34) (Fuel Oil Tests and Comparisons) is combined in the table below, which gives the combined and weighted results of the tests. It will be noted that the test numbers are rearranged so that one watertube and One return tubular boiler is placed under each of the three headings. It was in this sequence that the tests were run. Cº.; FROM SHEET LL-7-33). The data contained in the preceding sheet TESTS TESTS TESTS COMBINED AND WEIGHTED RESULTS- 1-4 2-5 3-6 Heat in oil in B. T. U. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18,564 18,352 18,361 Steam used by burner-pump (%). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.77% 4.13% 4.29% Gross Evaporation at 212° F. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.042 14.077 13.811 Gross Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73.400 74.440 72.997 These results are not to show what may be expected from a new well designed plant, designed for oil burning, but are to show what may be accomplished with an old altered plant, the boilers and settings of which are old and Out of repair. There was probably enough leakage through the brick setting to lower the total efficiency by 5 percent or more. COMPARISON OF COSTS BY FORMUL.A. An approximate formula for estimat- ing the comparative prices of coal and fuel oil has been published by the Tidewater Oil Company. This is not exact and will not suit every condition, but it will give a good idea of what may be expected in regard to the relative expenses. Let A = cost of coal per net ton (Total), including the items in the following example: | Coal cost per net ton on Switch. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $5.50 Coal cost per net ton for unloading. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .50 Coal cost per net ton for lost coal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30 Cost per net ton delivered to furnace. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .50 80% of cost per net ton for firing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .60 80% of cost per met ton handling ashes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30 A = total cost of net ton fired and ashed. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $7.70 B = Factor 1.6, fireroom labor, loss through cleaning fires, etc. C = Factor 167, base-oil 144,000 B. T. U. per gallon, coal 24,000,000 B. T. U. per ton. D = Price that can be paid for oil per gallon. E = Factor 104. F = Number of gallons to equal coal now used per ton of metal treated. G = Factor 2000.’ * TH = Pounds of coal now used in treating one ton (2,000 lbs.) of metal. I = Factor 134—Boilers only—(167 × 0.80). A X B A H X E * mº * cºmmº - C D a G A. Boiler formula: D = T Then: D = From A = $7.70 (Total cost per ton of coal, and the factor, (I) which is equal to 134, we can work out the given problem to obtain the price which can be paid for oil with coal at $7.70 per ton. A $7.70 D = -- ~ = $0.057 = price per gallon of oil allowable. T I 134 The formula F = — is applicable only to metal working furnaces, not for boilers or power plants. t Copyright 1921 COMPILED BY * A f sº Pºśw AGE J. B. RATHBUN Ll-7-34 FUEL oil (LL-7-35) Fuel Oil Testing Methods * DETERMINATION OF SEDIMENT. The following data on testing for sediment lº fuel oils is abstracted from the Bureau of Mines paper, Serial No. 2408. by A. D. Bauer, dated October, 1922. The centrifuge method used in testing for “B.S.” and sediment in Crude oils has not been found easily applicable to heavy oils as no sharp line of demarcation between the solution and the Combined water and sediment. The centrifuge method formerly adopted by the Committee on the Standardization of Petroleum specifications, at the recommendation of the Bureau of Mines, has been Succeeded by a benzo] extraction method for sediment in heavy oils, and the centrifuge method as standardized by the American Society for Testing materials has been Fe09mmended for the light oils. In the following text will be found the results of tests and testing methods investigated by the Bureau for determining satisfactory limits for the application of the various methods to different classes of oils. The 22 Samples used in these tests varied in Saybolt Furol Viscosity (at 122° F.) from 19 to 384 seconds. The percentage in each specimen was checked by the benzol extraction method, and the A. S. T. M. centrifuge methods (300.2 and 300.3, Technical Paper 298.) ºpercentage of Water and the viscosity of each sample was determined by methods BENZOL, EXTRACTION METHOD (300.2). Ten grams of sample are placed in a porous alundum thimble and oil extracted with 90 percent benzol. Extraction is Continued. With fresh benzol until weight of dried thimble and sediment is constant, Results are given in terms of percentage by weight of sediment. * A. S. T. M. CENTRIFUGE METHOD FOR WATER AND SEDIMENT (300.3). Fifty c. c. of 90 percent benzol are placed in two graduated centrifuge tubes, and 50 C. c. of oil sample are then added to each tube. The tubes are shaken, heated in Water bath to 100° F. for 10 minutes, and then whirled for 10 minutes at about 1450 R.P.M. in Centrifuge. Whirling is repeated for ten minute periods until volume of Water and Sediment in bottom of tubes remains constant for three consecutive readings. The Sum of the readings of the two tubes is the percentage of water and sediment. DEAN AND LERCH METHOD FOR SEDIMENT. An alundum crucible is ignited, cooled, weighed and adjusted in a Spencer holder, the rubber rings being slipped over top, and line of contact being as nearly as possible at upper edge of crucible. Crucible and ring are pushed into Spencer funnel until bottom of crucible rests on the three projecting points. Funnel is then inserted in neck of suction flask. Ten grams of the oil are Weighed in a beaker, 50 C. c. of 90 percent benzol added, and mixture heated to temperature of 140° F. to 158° F. The mixture is now filtered through alundum Crucible, taking care that latter is never more than two-thirds full at any time. The beaker is washed out with additional benzol to insure that all sediment is transferred to crucible. The crucible is washed with benzol until all oil is removed which is indicated by colorless wash liquid. Crucible is detached from holder and rubber ring is dried for at least one hour at approximately 100° C., is cooled and weighed. The result is given as the percentage of sediment by weight. COMPARISON OF RESULTS. The results of comparative tests indicate that the benzol extraction method (330.2) can be used satisfactorily for all grades of fuel oil. This method needs little or no attention during extraction, and with reasonable care in weighing the results of duplicate tests can be closely checked. Care must be taken not to apply heat so strongly that the benzol will overflow the thinnble rather than filter through. The A. S. T. M. centrifuge method (300.3) is satisfactory for light oils having a Saybolt Furol viscosity of 200 seconds or less, such as bunker oils “B.” The sediment failed to separate from heavy oils, Such as bunker oils “C.” So that test could not be made. In some tests, a heavy black Sludge remained in tip of centrifuge tube (300.3) after oil-benzol mixture was poured off, and as sludge was the same color as the oil it was impossible to take reading without pouring off benzol solution. This sludge may amount to as much as ten percent, and the line of separation could not be seen. The Dean and Lerch method is not entirely satisfactory but gives results which are comparable with other benzol methods. It is somewhat tedious, and care must be taken that the rubber ring on top of crucible leaves no deposit. It is difficult to wash out all of the oil stain. It should be remembered in comparing methods 300.2 and 300.3 that one is gravimetric and the other is volumetric. º C ight 1923 COMPILED BY Peščíšūm AGE J. B. RATHEUN LL-7–35 D r FUEL oil (LL-8-5) l O *ś, (Oil Burners for Locomotives) GENERAL ARRANGEMENT OF FUEL SYSTEM AND BURNERS. The accom- panying Data. Sheet No. LL-8-6 contains two diagrams illustrating the arrangement of the fuel piping and burner in an oil burning locomotive. There are, of course, many Variations of the construction shown, different forms and locations of burners, and arrangements of piping, but the diagrams shown are taken as being typical and will give a general idea as to the requirements of a locomotive. We are indebted to “Every- day Engineering” for the line cuts which in turn were taken from the literature of a burner manufacturer. Starting With the oil circuit, Diag. 1, we see that the engine is located at the left and the tender or oil tank at the right. At the top of the tank is the manhole through Which the Oil is run into the tank and next to it is the oil measuring rod by which the depth and quantity of the oil is measured. Near the front and at the bottom of the tank is the oil heater which warms up the heavy oil and thins it out before passing to the burner. The heater consists of a coil of steam pipe through which the steam passes, the Oil Surrounding the coils and washing over them on its way to the boiler. An ex- tended rod Within easy reach of the fireman allows him to cut off the flow of oil in Case that the flexible joints become detached or damaged. A main cutout cock at the bottom of the tank is further insurance against leaks and permits the tender to be detached from the engine without loss of oil. Oil and steam connection is made between the engine and tank car by conventional flexible and detachable joints. At the left in Diag. 1 is shown the piping for the burner. Steam is taken from the box Valve located near the top and center of the boiler firebox, the steam line passing down to a check valve, the latter guarding against the introduction of oil into the boiler when the boiler is cold and likely to be under a slight vacuum. Three steam lines branch off from this main steam lead, the steam line to the burner atomizer, the Steam line to the tank heater, and the blower pipe used for increasing the draft. A subsidiary line is the “blow back line” used for forcing oil back into the tank, and another line called the “blowout” line used for blowing out and cleaning the burner, The oil flows into the burner by gravity. The quantity of air passing into the Com- bustion chamber is controlled by a damper. By means of suitable control rods and levers the burner may be adjusted, the atomizing steam may be regulated, and the air of combustion may be controlled while the engine is running. Diag. 2 is the firebox arrangement of the engines used by the Santa Fe, showing the burner and wall arrangement. Owing to the vibration of the locomotive it is not possible to use the same form of brick combustion arches that are used with stationary boilers; hence the burner location differs somewhat from conventional stationary prac- tice. At the same time the metal of the boiler must be protected from the direct action of the intensely hot oil flame, particularly flat plates which are so difficult to replace. As shown, the burner is located near the front end of the firebox and directs the flame back toward the fire door. The flame Strikes on the low short brick flash wall, which, being incandescent, immediately ignites any oil particles which may strike against it. This wall is made of special firebrick and can be quickly and cheaply replaced. As a further protection to the flat steel crown sheet at the top of the firebox, a series of inclined arch tubes run over the burner. These are filled with water and because of their inclination cause a rapid circulation of water through the fireboºz and over the top of the crown sheet, thus reducing the danger of burning out the metal. Should an arch tube burn out it is far cheaper and Safer than to burn the crown sheet. The temperature of the gases passing up through the arch tubes is much reduced, and not only saves the crown sheet but the ends of the boiler tubes (flues) as well. The more rapid the circulation of water along Sharply defined paths, the less is the danger of burnouts. The rest of the furnace needs no explanation. Copyright 1923 COMPILED BY PéâûâûNºge J. B. RATHE UN LL-8-5 FUEL oil (LL-8-6) (Oil Burners for Locomotives) º % imsViejº | \º * \\\\ \\ 0. | Jafery 0/ Wa/ve | A mergency (a//e % \ % Check Va/ve... % * | %\ % | Sofery 0/ | Manhoſe Aronizer Wolves, % ,”,5ana' or Aeed'Aoſe , Wa/ve Koo' g *. f e Sana'8ox-, ſ 8/ower Va/ve * > §...A-ſank hearer Va/ve 0// ºrm A- - ...º 2-\ Arng Valve Handle sº O'ſ Heaf | Burner &/or ovy Vaſve % §§ | a nearer | * ^ % * !. * link f *}}_ 7&nk /ſea ſer/? -: *, * tº A & 8/ower //ne- % 4am nearer” | º Q/ sº : 2” \!\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\ •" &ng A #ment 8/ow back Wa/ve -- 2%rmer/on-ov/ºpe | * racker, homºzer * . t Draft. An 8-ick Ziong Wº..., Blory Back | | || '" Sofery 0/ Va/ve 8vrner Damper Pipe | | ---Morr, Cvj Ovy Cock # | ; £mergency Sef Screw * - T-sº " - } TVS. A=\;= & * ; : % | Coonects fo Axhovsf Sfeany ,' --- *, ' , % o://pe f #24 Por? /n Heafer Header # Atomizer/ºpe’ ‘‘-8orner &/orvouſ // Pºpe J 2f". ! Alpe A/r. 706 * * - Coy? Ov/ Cock ſoaſ 01 Pipe * /r /t/pes \\ !--- 0://ank Wafer Oram /a/ve 'Frng Valve Pºpe Carrier ‘’ Zazeer- Operafing hand/e Flex /b/e J ro/ ! -/ſeafer Éxhaus? War/ve ©A / O//? ſº t ‘flexible Joof (Sheam) Diag. 1.-F uel System for Locomotive Oil Burner Æack/ſeaa’ =\%rº/eº.3%azºr 2',4 /erru/e N -\o * Ali tºſteº •º ºffeadea' sºftwiliww.brºe /, 7. f * * º: º Arch Tube Setting * * * Arch ſubes..., in Door Sheet \ • * //ash haſ/---, s Fron/Shelf, Side Sheff, $ 35/b/oppertº t Fºunºlul Aerru/e-, * * * * * N sº t ||f|| tlé | ||||||||Int Beaded--'7 \ \; % \! £º .ºg * g Årner Wa/A’". T $7,º Jheef Æ ; Floor.” | SAir Holes Arch Tube Setting- Urney." & ** in Flue Sheet //opper” | ;Hopper Voor Diag. 2.-Firebox Arrangement of Oil Burn! ng Locomotive Copyright 1922 PETRO LEU M AGE gº COMPILED BY J. B. RATHEUN LL-8-6 FUEL OIL (LL-8-20) (Oil Burning Locomotives) West and in Mexico have burned crude oil and fuel oil in their locomotives, and at the present time this practice is inereasing rapidly. It is not only a question of cost that enters into the use of oil fuel, but the cleanliness, increased steaming radius, Convenience and other factors that are nearly of as much importance. A railroad in the Southwest, after a long trial of oil, has made a report on its advantages, and we have abstracted this matter here. O': COSTS FOR LOCOMOTIVES. For many years railways in the West, South- The cleanliness of oil, and freedom from cinders and dust, is an incentive to travel that increases the passenger traffic from 10 to 12.5 percent yearly. Steam pressures Can always be maintained under all conditions with the result that the locomotives have greater capacity for work and train schedules are maintained. The increased Capacity allows of heavier trains, and hence fewer trains for a given amount of traffic. Oil burning engines can be run longer distances without replenishing fuel than when 'using coal, thus reducing the idle periods and holdovers. They do not need to be “roundhoused” so often, and when run in can be roundhoused with less difficulty, labor and loss of time. t In 1912 oil burners averaged 200,000 gallons per 100 passenger car miles, costing $3.25 per 100 passenger car miles. In 1910 coal burners used on the average 2,603.9 pounds of coal per 100 passenger car miles, costing $4.10 per car mile. In 1912 (using oil) the roads averaged 22.4 percent in favor of oil over the year 1910. The following comparative costs are submitted for 1920: ITEMS Coal Oil Saving Cost of Fuel At Source.... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $2,250,000 $1,300,000 $ 950,000 Transporting Fuel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500,000 850,000 350,000 Handling, Unloading, Etc. .................................. 100,000 22,000 78,000 Firing Tools, Shovels, Etc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,000 | . . . . . . . . . 3,000 indling Wood.................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,700 | . . . . . . . . . 1,700 Engine House Expense ............ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 700,000 400,000 300,000 Personal Damages in Handling Fuel. . . . . . . . . . • * * * * * * * * * * * * * 6,000 3,000 3,000 Property Damage. Fires, Etc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50,000 10,000 40,000 Maintenance of Fuel Stations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20,000 13,000 7,000 Total Saving Due to Oil......... $1,382,700 The losses due to the depreciation of coal in transit and storage are not included in the above table, but it may be said that coal loses 2 percent in weight during the first 24 hours due to the evaporation of moisture. Again, there is an additional loss in transit due to coal falling off of train, loss by theft, due to errors in tare weight, mine weights, and losses in handling. Coal loses in heating value as well as in weight, often as much as 5 percent. Dr. W. F. M. Goss, in Bulletin No. 402, Geological Survey, says that 20 percent of the coal is consumed in non-tractive performance, as in starting fires, moving the locos to trains, Switching, standing idle under steam, or banked. About 10 percent is blown Out of the stack as Cinders and Sparks, and about 2.5 percent in unconsumed coal. Only 45 percent is actually and usefully applied to the rails as tractive energy. With oil the loss due to transport is negligible and the loss due to prolonged storage is very Small with the proper equipment. All of the fuel is burned in the firebox and none is blown out of the stack unconsumed. The losses with oil are about 20 percent less. The tractive efficiency is increased 10–40 percent. In regard to labor, it may be said that oil can be handled for about one cent per barrel. There is less labor and less danger of injury to the employees when handling the oil than with coal. Owing to the greater Steaming radius with coal, only about 80 percent of the fuel stations are necessary and these stations are cheaply maintained. In Texas, the saving per train mile averages $1.705, and the average saved in the yards is 20 percent. Oil decreases overtime labor by 10 to 20 percent, and a decrease in train- men's wages has been obtained. In Texas, firemen receive 15 cents less per mile on oil burners. There is, however, no profit from the return of empty tank cars as with empty coal cars, and depreciation of equipment is somewhat greater. Copyright 1921 COMPILED BY Pěčišūn. AGE J. B. RATHBUN LL-8-20 FUEL OIL (LL-8-22) (Fuel Oil for Locomotives) FUEL STATIONS (STORAGE TANKS). At most of the fuel stations located along the right of way are located the fuel oil supply tanks which in many ways resenble the water tank installations inasmuch as they are elevated and supply the tenders by gravity flow. Underground storage Systems are few and far between, but this may be due to the fact that the majority of the railroads using fuel oil are located in the south, where precautions against freezing temperatures on exposed tanks are not necessary. Steel tanks and reinforced concrete tanks, both of the horizontal and vertical tanks, are represented, but the reinforced horizontal tank built up of reinforced concrete is probably the most desirable of any types yet introduced. This type probably has a smaller maintenance charge than the Steel tank, as it is not neces— sary to repaint it or to provide other protection against the weather. Further, the concrete shell is a very poor conductor of heat and there is less variation in volume with thermometric variations due to changes in Weather conditions. As all of the oils used are high gravity types, either heavy crudes of residual oils, the volatile contents form a small percentage of the total volume and therefore evaporation is not such an important factor as With Other Oil storage Systems, but at any rate the evaporation is reduced to a minimum by the non-conducting shells of the concrete tank. From many standpoints, reinforced concrete is an ideal material for the bulk storage of fluids. It is self-supporting without the necessity of external bracing, has no joints to spring a leak, and is inherently an enduring material with an indefinite life. Its great weight and stability are a protection against overturning in the high windstorms, as an empty Concrete tank may weigh as much or more, than a fully filled steel tank. Properly constructed there is little seepage of oil through the concrete walls under the worst conditions, and when properly built it is doubtful whether the oil penetrates more than one-eighth or one-quarter inch into the walls. The natural moisture retained by the concrete in the center of the shell is an efficient guard against external IOSSes through Seepage. Horizontal type concrete tanks are simply replicas of the horizontal steel tank, a cylinder with a horizontal axis. This is carried at either end by the usual type of trestle made of concrete, of course, but Similar in form to the steel “saw—horse.” The shell construction may consist of a Steel tank shell covered with a shell of concrete or of a straight reinforced System using the common type of reinforcing rods, both girth and longitudinal. COPYRIGHT 1925 COMEPILED BY PETROLEU M AGE J. B. RATHE UN LL-8-22 } C & O FUEL OILS (LL-8-30) Oil Burning Locomotives. CHARACTERISTICS OF FUEL OILS. Much of the follo, wing data concerning fuel oils for railroad service was compiled from the proceedings of the International Railway Fuel Association, to whom we give thanks for the privilege of abstracting. The west, southwest and southern sections of the United States are largely dependent upon the use of fuel oil owing to the scarcity of coal in these regions. Among the principal railroads using ſuel oil are: Southern Pacific, Union Pacific, Missouri, Kansas and Texas; Texas and Pacific; Florida, East Coast; Gulf Coast 'Lines; St. Louis and San Francisco; Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific; Santa Fe; Cotton Belt; Fort Worth and Denver; International and Great Northern ; Kansas City Southern. These railroads drew from the Mid-Continent Fields, Gulf Coast, California, and Rocky Mountain Districts, with much oll also taken from the Mexican fields. A very large percentage of the total production is produced by the Mid-Continent region for locomotive fuels as well as for industrial purposes. The question of market price and the location of the field in regard to the requirements of the various railroads are determining factors in the type of oil used and no hard and fixed rule can be given that will govern the narketing of any one field. As Ordinarily defined, fuel oil is the residuum left in the stills after the lighter products have been removed from the crude by the process of distillation. The most important source is from skimming and topping refineries which remove Only the gasoline and kerosene, but some is also obtained from intermediate or complete re- fineries where much of the residual is used as cracking stock for the manufacture of gasoline. In the two latter types of refineries the residuum is of more value as cracking stock than as fuel oil and the amount of fuel oil obtained from this source is therefore limited. Crude oil (Domestic) is seldom used as a fuel oil except when the gravity is below 22°Be. Lighter oils, say above 24°Be , are dangerous because of the great per- centage of gasoline contained in such crudes and also for the reason that crudes having a high gasoline content are too valuable for use as fuels for direct burning under the boilers. Mexican and Venezuelan crudes have a very low gasoline content, much lower than the heaviest domestic crudes, and therefore can be used directly in most cases without preliminary refining. The fuel oil produced by skim, ming and topping plants contains all of the ele— ments of the crude below the gasoline, naphthas and kerosenes and sometimes all of the fractions below the gasolines. This is the most suitable residuum for fuel Oils when natural distillation processes are carried out. The great demand for gaso— line has led to the development Of the “cracking’’ process, which increases the natural yield of the crude by 15 per cent or n\Ore, and as these plants use the fuel Oil grades for cracking into gasoline, both the quantity produced' and the quality are affected. Cracking is accomplished by subjecting the lighter fuel oils (gas oils) to a heavy pressure and high temperature, thus decomposing the oil and breaking it up into gasoline and a solid carbon precipitate. Fuel oil obtained from cracking plants requires more preheating to reduce it to the proper fluidity at the burner, and as it is more difficult to atomize, more boiler steam is required at the atomizer. Roughly, two percent more steam is required to atomize a cracked fuel oil than the oil obtained from the same crude by the natural distillation used in topping and skimming processes. Further, there is a great amount of free carbon dust in the cracked oil which settles in the bottoms of the tanks. COPYRIGHT 1924 COMPII, ED BY LL-8-30 PETROLEUM AGE J. B. RATHEUN sºms ºr `` ºrº- FUEL OILS (LL-8–31) Oil Burning Locomotives. CRACKED FUEL OILS. The fuel oils delivered by cracking plants contain more than one-half percent of solid carbon caused by the decomposition of the oil in mak- ing gasoline. This carbon has absolutely no heating value, as it is impossible to attain a sufficiently high temperature in the furnace to cause it to burn, and there— fore the solid matter is a direct loss. The accumulations of sludge demand adequate cleanouts in the tanks and a considerable amount of attention unless means are devised for keeping the oil continuously stirred up so that the fine carbon grains will remain suspended in the oil. In computing the cost of steam where cracked oil is used, we must take into consideration the additional heat required for reducing this viscous oil to the fluidity required at the burner. For equivalent costs, the price of the cracked oil must be considerably less than the 24–26°E.e. oil obtained from the topping plants. (J. M. Nicholson, Santa Fe.) BOILER EFFICIENCY. The oil burner boiler efficiency is greater than when coal is used, partly owing to the more rapid circulation of the Water Over the heating Sur— faces. According to the data furnished by Mr. J. M. Nicholson in the “Symposium of Fuel Oils,” International Railway Fuel Association, the relative efficiencies are as follows: LOCOMOTIVE BOILER EFFICIENCIES Oil Burner. . . . . . . . . . . . . 75% Coal, Hand Fired. . . .60% Coal, Stoker Fired. . . .56% Comparisons made on a strictly heat unit basis are all in favor of fuel oil. OIL AND COAL EQUIVALENTS. In Data. Sheet (LL–8–32) will be found a table of oil and coal equivalents prepared by J. M. Nicholson in his paper read before the International Railway Fuel Association. This table reads in terms of barrels of oil (42 gallons) to produce a locomotive boiler evaporation equivalent to one ton of coal. The furnace efficiencies used in this table are given above. The heating values of the various oils listed in the table are given by the following: California Oil. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148,400 B. T. U. per Gallon Mid-Continent Oil. . . . . . . . . . . . . 142,500 B. T. U. per Gallon Mexican Oil. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139,725 B. T. U. per Gallon Tons of 2,000 pounds and barrels of 42 gallons are used in the computations. COST.S. While the above data, give the figures computed on a heat unit basis, yet there are other points to consider as well of the thermal efficiency. The interest and depreciation on coal handling equipment, the relative freight charges in moving the fuels to their destination, the cost of handling the ashes, depreciation of chutes, cinder pits, oil handling facilities, grates, etc., must all be taken into account. As fuel oil may be considered as a by-product of gasoline, the prices of fuel oil fluctuate with the demand for gasoline unless adequate storage is provided for the oil which will take care of the excess produced at the peak of maximum gasoline demand. The price fluctuates with the season, being least when the demand for gasoline is greatest under ordinary conditions. | COPYRIGHT 1924 COMPILED BY LL 8 31 PET ROLEU M A GE J. B. RATHETUN -- " " - - FUEL OILS (LL-8-32) Oil Burning Locomotives. Barrels of Oil Required to Produce a Locomotive Boiler Evaporation Equivalent to One Ton of Coal Barrels of Oil to One Ton of Coal California Oil Mid-Continent Oil Mexican Oil Coal Heat Value, B.t.u., per Lb. Hand Fired 9,500 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.44 9,600 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.46 9,700 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.49 9,800 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.52 9,900 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.54 10,000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.57 10,100 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.59 10,200 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.62 10,300 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.64 10,400 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.67 10,500 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.70 10,600 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.72 10,700 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.75 10,800 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.77 10,900 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.80 11,000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.82 11,100 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.85 11,200 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.88 11,300 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.90 11,400 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.93 11,500 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.95 11,600 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.97 11,700 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.00 11,800 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.03 11,900 -. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.05 12,000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.08 12,100 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.10 12,200 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.13 12,300 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.15 12,400 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.18 12,500 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.20 J. M. Nicholson (International Railway Fuel Association) Stoker Hand Fired 2.28 2.30 2.32 2.35 2.37 2.40 2.42 2.44 2.47 2.49 2.52 2.54 2.56 2.59 2.61 2.64 2.66 2.68 2.71 2.73 2.76 2.78 2.80 2.83 2.85 2.87 2.90 2.92 2.95 2.97 3.00 } Fired 2.54 2.57 2.59 2.62 2.65 2.67 2.70 2.73 2.75 2.78 2.81 2.83 2.86 2.89 2.91 2.94 2.97 2.99 3.02 3.05 3.07 3.10 3.13 3.15 3.18 3.20 3.23 3.26 3.28 3.31 3.34 Stoker Hand Stoker Fired Fired Fired 2.37 2.59 2.42 2.40 2.62 2.44 2.42 2.64 2.47 2.45 2.67 2.49 2.47 2.70 2.52 2.50 2.73 2.54 2.52 2.75 2.57 2.55 2.78 2.60 2.57 2.81 2.62 2.59 2.84 2.65 2.62 2.86 2.67 2.64 2.89 2.70 2.67 2.92 2.72 2.69 2.94 2.75 2.72 2.97 2.77 2.75 3.00 2.80 2.77 3.03 2.82 2.79 3.05 2.85 2.82 3.08 2.87 2.84 3.11 2.90 2.87 3.13 2.93 2.89 3.16 2.95 2.92 3.19 2.98 2.94 3.22 3.00 2.97 3.24 3.03 2.99 3.27 3.05 3.02 3.30 3.08 , 3.04 3.32 3.10 3.07 3.35 3.13 3.09 3.38 3.16 3.12 3.41 3.18 COPYRIGHT 1924 PETRO LEU M AGE LL-8-32 COMIPILED BY J. B. RATHE UN FUEL OILS (LL-8-33) Oil Burning Locomotives. FUEL OIL SPECIFICATIONS. The fuel oil specifications for oil to be used on locomotives takes into account the purity or freedom from injurious matter, the , minimum flashpoint, and the viscosity at a given temperature. The impurities are of importance as they tend to clog or injure the burner, or interfere with the Com- bustion. The flash point indicates the presence of volatile hydrocarbons which form dangerous explosive dangers when in 'storage. The viscosity detérmines the flow through the pipes and orifices of the burrier at low temperatures. The following typical specification is taken from a bulletin of the International - Railway Fuel Association, but of course is subject to slight Changes under extreme conditions. SPECIMIEN SPECIFICATION. 1. This specification covers the grade of oil used by the United States Govern— ment and its agencies where a high grade fuel oil is required. 2. Fuel oil shall be a hydrocarbon oil, free from grit, acid and fibrous and other foreign matters likely to clog or injure the burners or valves. PROPERTIES AND TEST.S. 3. Flash Point: The flash point shall not be lower than 150 degrees F. (Pensky— Martens closed tester). In case of oils having viscosity greater than 30 seconds at 150 degrees F. (Saybolt Furol Viscosineter) (8 Degree Engler) the flash point shall not be below the temperature at which the Oil has a viscosity of 30 Seconds. 4. Viscosity: The viscosity shall not be greater than 140 seconds at 70 degrees F. (Saybolt Furol Viscosinneter) (40 degree Engler). | Sulphur: Sulphur shall not be over 1.5 percent. A 6. Water and Sediment: Water and sediment combined shall not amount to over 1.0 percent. All tests shall be made according to the methods of testing fuel oils adopted by the Committee on Standardization of Petroleum Specifications. VISCOSITY AND PREHEATING. With very heavy viscous oils, particularly with Mexican fuel oils, provision must be made for increasing the fluidity of the oil so that it will flow freely through the pipes and Orifices in cool Weather. In warm climates the lighter oils do not require so much heating as in the north, but for the sake of safety steam heating coils should be installed in the tender for emergencies. While this calls for an expenditure of steam, the heat consumed in heating is less than the additional atomizing steam that would be required to break up the cold viscous oil and is therefore a saving within certain limits. Where heavy Mexican crudes are used it is the - common practice to provide two heating systems: (1) The usual steam coil in the tender, and (2) A direct heating system consisting of a jet by which steam is blown directly through the oil. When starting out on a trip, or just before, the steam is blown through the oil by the direct heater to “break up” the oil. After this has been done, the direct feed is turned off and the proper temperature is maintained by the steam coil or indirect heating unit. COPYRIGHT 1924 COMPILED BY PETRO LEU M AGE J. B. RATHE UN O * FUEL OILS (LL-8-34) (Oil Burning Locomotives) MID-CONTINENT FUEL OILS. Fuel oil obtained from Mid-Continent crude is extensively used for locomotives, but little if any crude oil is used for this purpose, as the crude is light and valuable and contains a large percentage of light Com- ponents which would make its storage dangerous. The Mid-Continent field is by far the largest producer in the United States, the yield of crude in 1923 being estimated at 343,928,000 barrels, or 47.4 percent of the total production of the United States. This crude is a semi-paraffin or semi-asphaltic base which varies widely in its physical properties with the different localities. Approximately the average gravity is 34° Baumé (Specific gravity 0.854), and it contains about 22 percent gasoline, 12 percent gas oil and yields about 29 per cent of residual fuel oil. The residual fuel oil averages about 60 percent of the price of the crude oil at the average market, but as the cost of the crude fluctuates from time to time the cost of the residual oil also varies considerably. t The price varies with the demand for gasoline, since the residual fuel oil is a byproduct in the manufacture of gasoline. A heavy demand for gasoline increases the volume of residual oil available, hence the price of the fuel oil drops when the skimming and topping plants go heavily into operation. For the equalization of prices between slack and peak load production extensive storage must be provided for, but fortunately the maximum demand by the railways occurs at about the Same time as the peak production of gasoline so that the bulk of the oil is obtained at a favorable price, without excessive storage Charges. The bulk of the residual oil is obtained from the topping and skimming plants, everything being left over after the gasoline being sold as fuel oil. In the complete refineries a greater percentage of the crude is used in the manufacture of lubricating oils, etc., as well as gasoline, and as many of these plants employ Cracking processes there is little fuel oil residuum to offer. As before explained, the fuel oil obtained from the cracking plants is difficult to handle. As the Mid-Continent fields are located near the very productive coal fields of Ransas, Missouri, Illinois, Colorado and New Mexico, the use of these oils for railroad purposes is somewhat limited in this vicinity because of the low competitive prices. The bulk of the fuel oil is used in regions Where coal is more expensive and less plentiful. APPALACHIAN DISTRICT. The crude oil of the Appalachian fields in the east is of the paraffin base type and is too valuable for extended use of the residuals as fuel oils. The refineries in this district are nearly all complete refineries, which pro- duce lubricating oils and other petroleum products so that little fuel oil is available. Cylinder stocks are made from the residuals of the paraffin base crudes of the Appalachian districts, which is not often the case with the western oils which carry any considerable percentage of asphaltic compounds. PYRIGHT 1924 COMPILED BY §§§M AGE J. B. RATHE UN LL-8–34 FUEL OILS (LL-8-35) (Oil Burning Locomotives) \ CALIFORNIA FUEL OILS. California, in 1923 stood second to the Mid-Continent fields as a producer of crude oil, the principal output coming from the field known as the Los Angeles basin. The three districts of this field, Huntington Beach, Long' Beach and Santa Fe Springs, produced nearly 70 percent of the total output of Cali– fornia. The output of the Los Angeles basin dropped considerably in 1924, and it is likely that other fields must be opened if California is to maintain her identity as a large producer. * While there are many grades of crude produced in this state, the gasoline content is generally much lower than in the Mid-Continent fields and the oils are - of almost entirely a strict asphaltic base. The residual oils used as locomotive fuels range from 14° to 19° Baumé, with a heating value varying from 18,000 to 19,000 B.t.u. per pound. They are very viscous and require considerable preheating before passing to the burners. MEXICAN FUEL OILS. Mexican fuel oils are obtained from fields located along the east Gulf Coast of Mexico, the city of Tampico being the center of distribu- tion for this territory. The largest fields of the Tampico district are the Panuco fields, lying on the Panuco River, and until recently the Southern fields on the Tuxpan River also furnished a great volume of oil. Panuco crude is a heavy black asphaltic base oil averaging from 10° to 15° Baumé gravity, and with a very high flash point since Athere is little volatile matter of the gasoline Order contained in the Crude. The oil from the Southern fields is also an asphaltic base oil but is brown in color with a much higher gravity, ranging from 19° to 21° Baumé. The latter oil can be refined by topping to obtain gasoline and the lighter oils, but the Panuco oil is too heavy for simple refining methods and is used principally as a fuel oil. The oil produced by the Ebano fields west of Tampico has a gravity of about 12° Baumé or even heavier than that of Panuco, but this oil is not shipped in large quantities to the United States. It is used principally by the Mexican railroads. Most of the Mexican oil used as a locomotive fuel on the railroads of the south and southwest comes from Tampico (Panuco field) by barge and is delivered to the railroads through the ports of Galveston, Texas, and Algiers, Louisiana. It is ex- ceedingly heavy and viscous and must be heated to a Comparatively high tempera— ture every time that it is handled through pipe lines or by pumps, and this heating deducts a considerable proportion of the effective latent heat of the oil. A fairly large percentage of the oil is used in heating itself to the necessary degree of fluidity for handling. While topping the heavy Mexican crude is not profitable from the value of the distillates produced, yet it must be topped to a certain extent to insure safety in storage. Water must also be removed before it is fit for use as a fuel. Blending the heavy Mexican oils with the lighter Gulf Coast oils of the United States is also prac— ticed to some extent in order to produce a more fluid and more easily handled oil. COPYRIGHT 1924 COMPILED BY ** LL-8 35 PETRO LEU M A GE J. B. RATHE UN FUEL OILS (LL-8–36) (Oil Burning Locomotives) IHEAT VALUE OF MEXICAN OIL. Mexican oil is by far the cheapest fuel oil for locomotives even when the investment for heating coils is considered. It has about the same heating value in B.t.u. per pound, but because of its greater gravity the heating value by volume (per barrel) is considerably greater. According to C. S. Pond of the Southern Pacific lines, the 12° Be. Panuco oil has 10.6 percent greater heating value per barrel than the average 35° Be. American fuel oil. It is more, economical for the reason that there is less evaporation loss with the Mexican oil and also for the reason that the base price is lower. Special precautions must be preserved in burning it because of its viscosity and resistance to atomization in the burners. PROPERTIES OF MEXICAN OIL. The following is a typical analysis of Panuco Oil taken from the delivery tank: SPECIFIC GRAVITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . © tº E tº tº a tº tº 9 tº º ſº tº e º ſº tº ſº tº tº tº . . . 0.989 Baumé gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , 11.5° Redwood Viscosity at 70° F. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Over 7,000 Secs. B.t. u. per pound. . . . . . . . . . . tº ſº º º is a s 6 & e s tº a s is º e s m is s a e i s e s e º s & e º ſº 18,066 Flash Point, Closed Cup, M. P. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ºf s e e º e s is a a s & a ve 121° E. Sulphur . . . . . . . . . . . tº º e º e º e º 'º e º e g c e º e º ºs e º sº º e º s a tº º e tº º tº e º e º e & ... 5.19% It Will be noted that this oil has the same objectionable characteristics as most viscous oils, that is, the sulphur content is very high. This is considerably higher than that of the average American heavy oil, and to a certain extent is objectionable. BljRNING MEXICAN OILS. Owing to the great viscosity of Mexican oil it must be thoroughly heated to a high temperature by means of steam coils placed in the tender and must also be “broken up” at intervals by means of a steam jet im— mersed in the oil. Heat is necessary for a smooth, even flow from the tender to the burner and in most cases this temperature is carried at from 140° F. to 150° F. It is not advisable to go higher than this, as a higher temperature results in excessive evaporation losses. The oil line between tender and burner should not be less than two inches in diameter and preferably from three to four inches in diameter. It should be as straight and free from elbows and pockets as possible, and for this reason a flexible metal-sheathed pipe is generally to be preferred to a ball and socket joint with a rigid pipe. The quantity of atomizing steam is greatly increased by cold viscous oil and for this reason the temperature should be such as to insure the proper fluidity. The quantity of steam can easily be increased by from three to four percent' if the oil is not properly heated and “broken up” by the steam jet before starting out on a trip. The steam jet is most effective in reducing the oil since the passage of dry hot steam through the oil seems to Work a chemical change in the composition which makes the burners act more freely. 4 COPYRIGHT 1924 COMPILED BY PETRO LEU M AGE J. B. RATHE UN LL-8-36 FUEL OIL (LL-8-40) (Oil Burning Locomotives) MISCELLANEOUS FUEL OILS. Having covered the conditions existing in the United States in regard to locomotive fuel oils, it will be of interest to list the fuel oils of other lands, where local oils or special oils are demanded to meet certain local conditions. In tropical countries the prevailing high temperatures make the use of heavier oils not only possible but desirable, and again, personal opinion has much to do with the Specifications. MISCEILANEOUS FUEL OILS. Origin Crude Specific Heat, Percent Flash Percent Locality. Residue. Gravity. B.T.T.J. Water. •F. Sulphur. ASSam . . . . . . . . * * * a s tº e º 'º º e Resid. 0.890 18,550 Nil 150 0.015 Assam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Resid. 0.892 18,670 0.001 155 0.016 Assam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Resid. 0.891 18,650 Nil 152 0.015 Borneo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Resid. 0.940 18,800 0.025 135 0.010 Borneo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Resid. 0.925 18,750 0.021 138 0.009 Borneo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Resid. 0.935 18,850 0.032 136 0.10 Chile, S. A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Crude 0.952 18,198 0.019 114 0.023 Chile, S. A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Crude 0.948 18,100 0.021 112 0.022 Chile, S. A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Crude 0.954 18,350 0.022 116 0.024 ° Chile, S. A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 'Crude 0.950 18,150 0.021 113 0.025 Mexican . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Crude 0.949 18,630 0.010 200 0.029 Mexican . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Crude 0.948 18,610 0.010 185 0.03 Venezuela. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Crude 0.955 17,430 0.030 100 0.017 Venezuela. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Crude 0.956 17,520 0.030 102 0.017 Venezuela. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Crude 0,957 17,570 0.030 103 0.017 Persia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Crude 0.894 18,960 Nil 200 0.015 Persia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Crude 0.900 18,990 Nil 202 0.015 Persia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Crude 0.890 18,940 Nil 195 0.015 Russia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Crude 0.865 18,150 0.015 140 0.012 Russia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Crude 0.880 18,400 0.010 175 0.010 \ COPYRIGHT 1925 COMPILED BY LL-8 40 PETRO LEUM AGE J. B. RATHE UN ſº- | º FUEL OIL (LL-9-1) (Oil Fuel for Steamships) DVANTAGES OF OIL FUEL FOR MARINE SERVICE. The superiority of oil A: OVer Coal for steamships is now unchallenged, and the question of its uni- Versal adoption is only a matter of supply and price. Besides being cleaner and easier to handle, the use of oil makes enormous savings possible both in the cost Of the fuel and in the earnings of the ships. While the saving over coal is much greater When oil is burned in the furnaces of boilers, it is still greater when the oil is burned directly in the cylinders of Diesel oil engines. Oil is a natural fuel for the marine, being compact, light, easily handled and stored. Generally speaking, it gives greater Steaming radius with a given bunker capacity, 15 to 30 percent increased Cargo Space, 40 percent less dead fuel weight to be carried, 10 percent increase in Speed, 25 to 50 percent increase in boiler capacity, and a 70 percent lower cost for handling and loading fuel. It appeals to passenger service for the reason that it is much cleaner, and that it is possible to maintain schedules more exactly than when coal is burned. OIL STORAGE. For a given heat value, oil is a much more compact fuel than Coal, takes less volume, and weighs less. In addition to these advantages is the fact that the oil bunkers do not have to be located in any exact relation to the boiler room and thus take up valuable space that might be devoted to paying cargo. Oil can be pumped and drawn from any out of the way place on the ship, while coal must be transported from the bunkers by hand and hence must be placed conveniently and close to the fireroom. It has been standard practice to store the oil in the double bottoms of the ship, a place that is not adapted for any other cargo. Thus, waste Space is utilized. It is due principally to this fact that three oil burning ships can usually perform the work of four ships when burning coal. CARGO SPACE INCREASED. The free cargo space within the ship is of course One of the most important elements in the earning capacity of a vessel. It is the available cargo space that pays the dividends, and when the substitution of oil for coal insures that the cargo space is increased thereby by 15 to 30 percent, the fuel makes an irresistible appeal to the shipping Owner. In a coal burning ship, the coal bunkers take up the most valuable part of the ship, and causes heavy concentrated stresses in the hull structure. The exact amount of cargo space saved of course depends on the method in which the oil bunkers are arranged. By storing the oil in the double bottoms, the gain is at a maximum, but there are several practical disadvantages argued against this location. According to the Naval Advisory Board, the gain of cargo space due to storing in double bottoms announts to about 27 percent on a 5,000 ton dead weight capacity ship. When the tanks are above the double bottom the same authority estimates the saving at 19 percent. BOILER CAPACITY. When oil is used, the water circulation is improved, the boiler Steams more freely, and its steaming capacity is greatly increased. The ca- pacity of the boiler is not dependent upon the grate area, as with coal, but upon the volume of the combustion chamber which is quite another thing. This increased capacity means increased speed and the possibility of maintaining a constant steam pressure and speed in adverse weather conditions. Cutting down the time required for a voyage, and the ability to maintain the schedule under all conditions is equivalent to a further increase in the cargo space, amounting possibly to an additional 10 percent in carrying capacity. SPEED. Speed on the modern steam vessel, and particularly on passenger ships, is a vital necessity, both from the standpoint of the owner and the passengers or shipper. In the first place, a 10 percent increase in speed as obtained with oil means a 10 percent increase in cargo carrying capacity and hence in earnings. In the second place, increased speed reduces the overhead charges proportionately. A slow ship or an idle ship eats up money rapidly, for the interest on investment, insurance, etc., go right along regardless of what the ship may be doing. \ Copyright 1921 COMPILED BY Peščišjºse J. B. RATHE UN LL-9-1 FUEL oil (LL-9-2) (Oil Fuel for Steamships) REDUCED FUEL CONSUMPTION. When oil is burned the fuel consumption is affected by two principal factors: (1) The boiler is more efficient with oil than with coal, and (2) There is less dead fuel weight on which to expend power uselessly. The fuel consumed in carrying fuel is no small item, and acts with double effect on the operating expense of the ship. For example, a 5,000-ton d. w. coal-burning ship will consume about 1,060 tons of coal between New York and French ports. An oil burner will do this on 584 tons of oil, or a saving of 476 tons dead weight, This reacts on the steaming radius of the ship, reducing the radius in proportion to the dead fuel weight. It can be readily seen that if we travel far enough that all of the coal will be consumed in simply transporting the ship and the fuel without a paying cargo. Furthermore, the efficiency is further increased by the fact that there is no necessity for banking the fires when . in port and thus burning fuel wastefully, as is the case with coal fires. Oil is only burned as it is needed. A similar incidental increase in efficiency is due to the fact that there is no loss of heat through cleaning fires or by opening the fire doors when stoking. i With Diesel oil engines the saving in fuel is very much more marked, for the Diesel oil engine has an efficiency many times greater than that of the best steam engine or turbine. The inherent thermal efficiency of the Diesel engine is further increased on shipboard by the fact that the dead weight of the boilers is done away with. The Diesel engine is only possible With liquid fuel, and the following table gives an interesting comparison of the costs of fuel between coal burning steam- ships and Diesel engined motor ships for different trade zones: Suez Canal Dist. Panama Canal N. South Wales Singapore Cost Cost Cost Cost Cost Cost Cost Cost Motive Power— Ton Day TOn Day Ton Day TOn Day Steamer, Coal Fired. . . $34.00 $1,213 $13.00 $583 $12.00 $535 $24.00 $1,116 Diesel Motorship (Oil). 19.00 233 21.50 262 19.00 233 15.75 179 Both ships are 10,000 ton d. W. vessels operating at 10 knots, the steamer averag- ing 45 tons of coal per day. It Will be seen that there is a tremendous saving in the fuel cost per day no matter what the relative prices of coal and oil may be in the different zones. Both fuels are priced by the ton to expedite calculation. The power plant of a Diesel engined ship costs about twice that of a steamer, but the fuel saving and other advantages are so marked that it is only a question of time when the internal combustion engine will rule. STEAMING RAIDIUS. By “Steaming Radius” is meant the distance traveled by the vessel on one filling of the fuel bunkers. This depends upon the amount of fuel carried, the calorific value of the fuel per unit weight, and the efficiency of the power plant. It is evident that an inefficient engine and boiler will eat up the fuel so fast that the trip with a limited bunker capacity will be very much reduced. The radius is also limited by the amount of Space allowed for the fuel bunkers and the nature of the fuel employed. With oil as a fuel, which occupies only 0.63 percent of the space required for coal of equal heating capacity, it is evident that an oil burner will have greater radius with the same storage space. Statistics show that an oil burning steamer will travel about 50 percent further than the same size vessel burning an equal weight of coal. If the same bunker volume is used for the oil as for the coal, the radius will be increased by as much as 80 percent. For a given length of voyage made regularly between two ports the oil bunkers can be very much reduced in size. BTJRNERS FOR STEAMERS. The greater number of steamers use burners of the mechanical atomizing type, since with this type there is no loss of fresh Water in feeding oil. These burners are generally less efficient, however, than the compressed air or steam type, the relative efficiencies being roughly as 147 is to 180. Copyright 1921 COMPILED BY LL 9 2 PETRO LEU M AGE J. B. RATHE UN tº * * sº FUEL OIL (LL-10-20) & | y ge º, (Atomization of Fuel Oil) VARIOUS ATOMIZING AGENTS. The fuel oil may be atomized, or broken up into a fine spray by the action of jets of steam or compressed air, or mechanically by the action of the pressure oil against suitable interior baffles in the burner. The use of Compressed air and steam are universal in almost all classes of oil burning furnaces except in marine service, where the mechanical type is largely used. The mechanical atomizer is less efficient than the other two, and it is stated by one authority that when 180 gallons of oil are equal to one long ton of coal, burned with a mechanical atomizer, that 147 gallons will suffice when steam is used for atomizing. Thus there is a difference of 33 gallons between steam and mechanical atomization per ton of coal. Ernest H. Peabody, of the Babcock & Wilcox Co., states that there is little to choose between compressed air and steam for steam boilers as long as the burner pressure is carried above 30 pounds per square inch, and that there is no special difference in the design of the burners above this pressure. W. N. Best places a lower limit of 20 pounds per square inch and advises that compressed air be used at lower pressures and steam for pressures greater than 20 pounds. With industrial furnaces there is not much difference in the fuel efficiency with either steam or air, except that air is sometimes preferable, as it does not introduce moisture into the furnace in such large quantities. STEAM ATOMIZATION. When steam is used it should be as dry as possible, for wet steam causes the flame to s sputter, retards combustion and may even extinguish the burner if in large quantities. Much moisture is also likely to cause pulsations in the boiler, due to the momentary cutting in and out of the flame. When available, superheated steam is preferable to saturated steam, for it undoubtedly breaks the oil up finer. Usually, Steam is the most direct and suitable means of atomizing for stationary boilers, since no compressor is necessary, and the fires are more easily started in cold boilers. Great care, however, must be exercised so that excessive steam will not be fed into the burner, for this not only cuts down the efficiency of the flame itself but also increases the waste of Steam. It should be noted that the steam escaping from the burner cannot be recovered and that practically all of its heat is carried up the stack unused. Properly used, the steam required for atomization is only a little in excess of the steam required for the Stokers used with coal, it being takea into account that the exhaust steam from the Stoker engines is to sonne degree recoverable in the feed- water heaters. A stoker can use a great deal of steam unless properly handled, espe- cially in underfeed or direct acting piston type. When forced draft or induced draft is necessary for burning coal under certain conditions, the steam consumed by the blowing engines often far exceeds the amount of steam required for an oil burner. Little draft is required for oil. COMPRESSED AIR ATOMIZATION. Compressed air may be used at any pres- sure, but is most desirable at pressures below 30 pounds per square inch. It is more commonly used with industrial furnaces, such as annealing furnaces, open hearth furnaces, etc., than with boiler plants. Low pressure air burners working at about 8 ounces fan pressure are in Very common use for small industrial furnaces, for a fan is much cheaper than a compressor and the air is more easily controlled. In some operations air is necessary since the excess moisture carried in by steam is detrimental to the material under process. This is particularly true if the heated gases are to be used for drying purposes. If there is much sulphur in the oil, the presence of great quantities of Water increases its activity in producing corrosion and contamination. Copyright 1922 COMPILED BY Peššūmī’; ae J. B. RATHE UN LL-10-20 FUEL oil (LL-10-21) (Steam and Air Required for Atomizing) STEAM REQUIRED FOR ATOMIZING. The steam required for atomizing the oil in the burner varies with the load on the boiler, with the viscosity of the oil, and with the temperature of a given oil. The amount quoted by various authorities ranges from 1.5 to 6.5 percent, although in practice this probably averages between 3.00 and 4.5 percent, this being the percentage of the total water evaporated. More steam is required to break up a very viscous oil than one less viscous, and more steam is required for handling the greater volume of oil when a boiler is being forced than when running light. Thus in one series of experiments 3.1 percent was required to atomize a low viscosity crude, while 5.91 percent of the total evaporation was re- quired for the more highly viscous fuel oil obtained from this crude, all other quanti- ties being constant. Preheating the oil reduces the viscosity and therefore reduces the steam for atomization. Steam used in the boilers is, of course, a loss. In marine service (ocean going ships) the steam consumption of the burners is of more importance than in stationary plants, for the reason that fresh water is being continually lost through the burners, and hence salt makeup water must be supplied in excess of the engine requirements. It is for this reason that the mechanical atomizers have been So popular on ocean going ships. FORMULA FOR ESTIMATING QUANTITY OF STEAM FOR BURNERS. In 1914, Charles Jablow proposed a method for estimating the amount of steam and oil required for atomizing oil, this material being published in “Power.” It was based on tests made at the Oklahoma. Agricultural and Mechanical Collège with a 200 H. P. Bab- cock and Wilcox boiler. In short, this method is developed as follows: “On a basis of an equivalent evaporation of 15 pounds of water per pound of oil, and 5 percent of the total Steam generated to be used for atomizing, one pound of oil will be expended in atomizing for each 300 pounds of steam generated from and at 212° F.” For other values substitution can be made in the equation: X = 100E gºmºmº A. Where X = Evaporation from and at 212° F. (total water evaporated), E = Equivalent evaporation per pound of oil, A = Percent of (X) used for atomizing oil, O = Pounds of oil used for atomizing for each horsepower developed, The above formula modified becomes: O = 34.5A = 0.345A * 100E E. Taking the standard rating of 34.5 pounds of water at and from 212° F. for one boiler horsepower, and taking 100 horsepower as an example, we have a total evapora- tion of X = 100 × 34.5 = 3450 pounds of water. Assuming 300 pounds of steam to re- quire one pound of oil for atomizing, as in the first general rule, then the weight of oil required for atomizing will be: t 3450/300 = 11.5 pounds of oil. Let us say that a certain condition requires 2 percent of oil steam for atomization, and that the equivalent evaporation per pound has been determined as being 14 pounds, then by the third formula, O = 0.345A = 0.345 X 2 = 0.0564 pounds of oil for atomizing Af for each boiler horsepower 15. 14 developéd. This, of course, requires knowledge of boiler and burner conditions, but is a short cut in figuring oil. C ight 1922 COMPILED BY Peščí UM AG E J. B. RATHE UN LL-10-21 FUEL OIL (LL-11-1) 2. { | (Burner Installation and Equipment) OIL BURNING EQUIPMENT FOR BOILERS. The principal element in an oil ourning plant is, of course, the burner, the balance of the equipment being in the nature of auxiliaries for feeding, purifying and spraying the oil. Much depends upon the auxiliary devices, and unless the piping and other appliances are of good design and well laid out the burner will not give satisfactory service. The careful consideration of the piping layout of the fuel supply is every bit as important as the layout of the main steam headers and water supply, and yet, strange to say, the oil system rarely attracts the attention that it deserves. For the benefit of those who are not familiar with the layout of the fuel System of an oil burning boiler System we will attach the following outline of the various devices entering into the installation. 1. BURNERS. It is the purpose of the burners to break the oil up into fine Spray and to inject it into the combustion chamber or furnace of the burner. The various class of burners and their construction are taken up under the LL-10 series of these sheets. 2. OIL STORAGE TANKS. In these tanks the oil is stored for use in the burners, and may be either of Steel or concrete construction. They are fitted with vent pipes for ventilation, oil level indicators for showing the quantity of oil remaining in the tank, means of removing water and sediment, filling and suction pipes, and steam coils. For details see series LL-11. 3. OIL. PUMPS. The oil pumps take oil from the storage tanks and deliver it to the burner under a considerable pressure. In certain classes of burners the pump pressure also serves to atomize the oil. 4. HEATERS (PREHEATERS). Fuel oil is heavy and viscous and must be heated before it reaches the burner so that it will be thinned out sufficiently to spray properly and so that it will flow freely through the piping system. Generally the oil heaters are of the steam coil variety. 5. OIL STRAINERS. Fuel oil is not a pure refined product and always contains a certain amount of sediment and Water. To prevent clogging the pipe lines and 1 burners, the oil should pass through at least two strainers before reaching the burners. One strainer should be placed between the storage tanks and pumps, and another just in front of the burners. 6. COMPRESSED AIR SUPPLY. When compressed air is used for atomization, an air compressor must be installed. 7. LOW PRESSURE AIR. Some classes of burners, notably the low pressure type, require a supply of low pressure “Volume air.” This is supplied by a fan or by a positive volume blower. This is not always used. 8. PIPING SYSTEM. This includes all of the oil piping between the tanks, pumps and burners and the steam or compressed air piping for the transport of the atomizing air or steam, as well as that for the steam used for preheating the oil. The piping demands very careful study. This completes what might be called the major portion of the system, to distinguish these main elements from those devices which do not properly enter into the burning and supply of the oil. The following auxiliary devices are for increasing the efficiency of the burners and for keeping accurate records of the performance and cost. ht 1922 COMPILED BY esºas J. B. RATHEUN LL-11-1 Fuel oil (LL-11-2) (Fuel Oil Storage Data) COMMERCIAL STEEL, TANKS. The following table will give an idea as to the oil tanks supplied for the market, their dimensions, capacity, shell thickness, and weight in pounds. Different firms have different standard sizes, but the fol— lowing list can usually be picked up. It will be noted that there are a number of lengths under each diameter. OIL TANKS (LANCASTER IRON WORKS). Diameter, Length, Thickness of Metal. Capacity, Weight, Feet. Feet. Shell. Head. Gallons. Pounds. 5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 5/16” . 3/8” 1,025 2,380 5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 5/16” 3/8” 2,050 3,790 5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 5/16” 3/8” 2,350 4,427 5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 5/16” 3/8” 2,940 5,189 5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 5/16” 3/8” 3,230 5,663 5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 5/16” 3/8” 3,525 6,037 5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 5/16” 3/8” 4,100 6,962 5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 5/16” 3/8” 4,410 7,370 6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 5/16” 3/8” 1,690 3,326 6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 5/16” 3/8” * 2,540 4,340 6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 5/16” 3/8” 3,385 5,350 6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 5/16” 3/8” 3,805 5,856 6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 5/16” 3/8” 5,080 7,366 6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 5/16” 3/8” 6,345 9,054 6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 5/16” 3/8” 7,610 10,569 7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 5/16” 3/8” 5,182 6,995 7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 fi/16” 3/8” 6,910 8,710 7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 5/16” 3/8" 8,060 10,358 7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 fi/16” 3/8” 8,637 11,000 7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 * 5/16” 3/8” 10,360 12,530 8. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 5/16” 3/8” 6,015 7,522 8. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 5/16” 3/8” 6,765 8,065 8. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 3/16” 3/8” 9,020 10,378 8. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 5/16” 3/8” 11,280 12,225 8. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 fi/16” 3/8” 12,030 12,950 8. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 5/16” 3/8” 13,530 14,320 8. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 5/16” 3/8” 15,040 15,655 8. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , 16 3/8” 1/2” 6,015 9,472 8. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 3/8” 1/2” 6,765 10,340 - 8. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 , 3/8" 1/2” 9,020 12,811 8. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 3/8” 1/2” 11,280 15,295 8. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 3/8” # 1/2” 12,030 16,145 8. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 3/8” 1/2” 13,530 17,850 8. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 3/8" 1/2” 15,040 19,500 9. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 5/16” 3/8” 19,030 S17,720 9. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . e e 3/8” 1/2” 19,030 22,355, 10. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 3/8” 1/2” 11,750 14,990 10. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 3/8" 1/2” 17,625 20,480 10. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 3/8" 1/2” 23,500 25,860 . EXAMPLE OF STORAGE TANKS. Two tanks have been installed in a large building, capacity 12,000 gallons. The shells are 3/8”, double riveted lap joints, rivet pitch 2.5”. Tested to water pressure of 35 pounds per square inch. Each tank is separated from the next by masonry 12” thick. * & COPYRIGHT 1925 COMPILED BY LL-1 1-2 PETROLEU M AGE J. B. RATHEUN O *~~ FUEL oil (LL-11-5) (Supply Lines, Piping, Connections) ... FUEL OIL PIPING. As the piping connects the supply tanks, burners and pumps, it is one of the most important elements in the fuel oil system. It must be perfectly tight and must run in the shortest possible direction. There should be as few turns and fittings in the lines as possible, first to reduce the number of pipe joints and the Consequent danger of leakage, and second to reduce the fluid friction and loss in pressure. Pump suction lines should in general be larger than the high , pressure discharge lines for the suction pressure tending to move the oil is very slight and the oil, is thick and viscous. Suction lines must be very short and laid with a minimum of bends and fittings. HEATING OIL LINES. Nearly all fuel oils are very viscous and require pre- heating to insure a free flow of oil. Even if only a light Oil is contemplated for the present plant, provision should be made for heating heavy oil should it become necessary to use this grade in the future. If the oil pipe lines are long, or run out of , doors, it is advisable to parallel the oil lines with a steam pipe for the heat given by the preheater is soon lost in a long run of pipe. The oil and steam pipes can be placed together within a split tile pipe and then buried, or else the steam line can be run inside of the oil pipe. The latter is preferable since all of the heat radiated is imparted to the oil and there is no direct radiation from the steam line to the outside air. This pipe should have independent valves so that either the heater or the steam warming pipes can be used alone in case of light oils or warm weather. Exhaust steam from the pumps or heaters will give sufficient heat for this purpose. They should be given enough pitch so that they will drain readily. SEDIMENT CLEAN OUTS. All pipes, however short, should be provided with plugged openings through which sediment can be removed from the pipes by “rodding” or running wire. It may become necessary to poke out dirt, or solidified oil. For this reason, it is not advisable to use elbows, on a turn since the lase of a tee gives, one opening through which a line may be rodded, and a “cross” will give access to both branches of the pipe. On short runs, pipe bends are better than fittings since they give less resistance to flow, and the radius is so large that a wire may be easily run around through the bend, but they should not be placed in a run longer than 25 feet from Outlet to outlet. * EXPANSION. Very long lines, of over 100 feet have a considerable expansion and contraction, due to variations in temperature, and should be supported in such a way that the pipe may come and go freely. Laying the pipe on roller chairs is often advisable, anchoring the , pipe near, the center to reduce motion, as far as possible. If expansion is not provided for, leaks are likely to develop or fittings may be broken. Branch lines should be connected to long “feeders in such a way that they can swing easily with the movement of the main pipe. Long radius pipe bends near the ends of the pipe take up expansion effectively. BLOW OUTS. Steam connections should be made to all oil pipes so that they may be thoroughly cleaned out by blowing steam through them. Steam is the most effective cleansing agent known for it contributes heat for thinning the oil as well as giving a thorough scrubbing action. DUPLICATE LINES. In very large plants having a number of boilers or furnaces, especially in central power plants, it is sometimes advisable to duplicate certain parts of the piping system to insure against a shut down should trouble arise in one of the branches. Much thought should be given to the subject of “Flexibility” so that certain parts of the system can be cut out for cleaning or repairs without making it necessary to shut down the plant. By properly arranged bypasses, it will be possible to make any desired combination between the various pumps, burners and heaters in an emergency. PIPE AND FITTINGS. Pipe and fittings should be at least of the “Standard weight” class suitable for withstanding a steam pressure of 125 pounds or more, Cast iron or sheet metal pipes should not be considered. tº COMPILED BY peºštějºae J. B. RATHIBUN •- I LL-11-5 FUEL oil (LL-11-6) (Supply Lines, Piping, Connections) PIPE CONNECTIONS. All pipe should be flanged in the oil lines in preference to the screwed type, and flanged fittings should be used. Avoid the use of rubber gaskets, but use some good metal packing such as copper. Rubber soon decays when in contact With oil. * CONTROL VALVES. Valves for controlling the rate of flow to burners should preferably be of the sliding seat type specially made for this purpose. Sediment is not so likely to lodge on the seats of these valves as it is in the flat and conical seat valves used for steam lines. The special valves, of which the Rigby is an example, are also provided With a sediment pocket into which the sediment collects after being scraped from the valve seat by the movement of the Slide. Stop valves for cutting off various parts of the system can be cocks. Metal seats only. AIR AND GAS POCPCETS. In laying out a fuel oil pipe system great care should be taken in avoiding any arrangement which will admit of a collection or air or gas in pockets. This will cut down the flow and cause many burner irregularities. Where possible, the horizontal runs of pipe should pitch up slightly in the direction of flow so that the oil will carry the gas and air before them in an upward direction. Unless the fixed gases are carried away by the oil there is certain to be trouble. To provide against pockets, an air cock should be placed at the uppermost points in the system, and they should be opened frequently to allow the escape of the air and gas. Gas pocketing may be caused by Overheating the oil, thus liberating the vapor, or by passing the pipe line too close to highly heated objects at points where the oil velocity is low. Crude oil Will give more trouble in this respect than fuel oil residue, and there will be more trouble with low velocity lines than with high. Leaks in the suction line introduce much air in the Systems which must be disposed of through air cocks or into the air cushion standpipe. AIR CHAMBERS (PULSOMETERS). A vertical air chamber, sometimes called a pulsometer should be placed in every oil line in order to absorb the pulsations due to the movements of the pump pistons. This maintains a constant pressure on the oil and produces an even flow through the burners. Plenty of air space should be allowed so that the oil will not strike against the top of the standpipe during heavy surges or due to air leaking from the chamber. For a 3 inch oil supply line, a piece of pipé 15 inch diameter and five feet long will be ample. This is mounted at the top of a “Cross,” while a corresponding pipe connected to the bottom flange acts as a sediment chamber. The oil line flows through the two horizontal branches of the CI’OSS. This chamber should be placed above the highest point in the piping so that all air contained in the system will find its way into the air chamber. This supply of air will generally be more than ample to meet losses by air leakage. However, a cock should be placed at the top of the system through which air can be introduced into the chamber in case of accident. HEAT INSULATION. In short runs from the heater and pumps to the burners, the pine can be covered with some good pipe covering that will insulate it against the loss of heat, thus avoiding the use of heating steam pipes on short runs. 12IPE TRENCHES. In the boiler room or in furnace rooms, the pipe can be run in concrete floor trenches made of concrete and provided with thin metal covers COming flush with the level of the floor. These covers are made in short sections so that access may be easily had to the pipe lying below the floor level. Pipe laid in trenches is not so likely to be damaged as pipe run in the open, and is more easily kept warm. The trenches should be connected to sewer or other drain so that water or leakage will not accumulate. Further, a vent pipe should be connected at one end through which vapors may escape to atmosphere. For work in the open, pipe trenches can be made of tile, Split in halves so that it can be easily removed without disturbing the pipe. Tile is a good heat insulator and will afford protection to the pipe. º f Copyri PETROL. f O ht 1922 OMPILED BY É $ºrºs LL-11-6 UM AGE FUEL oil (LL-11-20) (Burner Installation and Equipment) AUXILIARY EQUIPMENT. The following appliances, while not a part of the true burner System, are necessary for its efficient operation, especially in large boiler plants. Some of these appliances may be omitted with the smaller and more modest installations, but in general they are advisable when more than 1000 horsepower is generated. , ''," lºſiºſi * 9) AIR CHAMBER. An air chamber should be placed on the oil line of all burner Systems, however Small, to prevent vibration due to the pistons of the pumps and Consequent Surging at the burners. This acts as an air cushion and smooths out all momentary variations in the oil pressure. Sometimes called a “Pulsometer.” • 10) OIL FLOW METERS. The meters are of the type commonly used for the measurement of water and afford a check on the oil consumption. While the con- sumption may be measured by means of a graduated rod placed in the storage tanks, yet a meter is desirable in Order to eliminate the errors due to such measurements or to neglect in taking the soundings at the proper intervals. It is a useful check On Operations. 11) THERMOMETERS. Thermometers should be placed in the storage tank and in the various oil lines so that the oil may be kept at the proper temperature at all times. In general, the temperature of the oil should be kept at a point 30° F. below the flash point, and if colder or warmer than this there is almost certain to be trouble With the burners. 12) OIL PRESSURE GAGES. Pressure gages should be placed on the oil line at the burners. They not only insure the proper pressure at this point but also indicate clogged burners and lines by the rise in pressure indicated, and are also useful in determining bad leakage. All plants. 13) CO2 RECORDERS. In order that combustion proceed with the greatest economy, the proportions of the oil and air must be kept constantly at the proper point. . This can only be done accurately by means of an Orsat flue gas analyzer or continuous CO2 recorder, which at once indicates an excess or deficiency of air in the furnace. Proper estimation of the proper air proportions by Sound or by eye are , far from accurate, and in large plants the saving effected by a gas analyzer will pay for the instrument in a short time. Not for very Small plants. 14) PYROMETERS. With boiler plants the installation of a pyrometer or high temperature thermometer is a great aid in maintaining the proper furnace temperature and efficiency. By its use, the temperature may be kept at the least wasteful point and the danger of burning out the settings and boiler by poor burner control can be avoided. In the industrial furnaces used for the Working of steel and glass, such instruments are nearly always employed regardless of the size. 15) MOISTURE SEPARATORS. When wet saturated steam is used for atomizing the oil in the burner, a moisture separator placed directly in front of the burner is very desirable. This need not be an elaborate affair, but should have sufficient settling capacity so that sputtering and jumping may be avoided in the furnace. 16) SUPERHEATERS. An improvement in Steam atomization may be attained by superheating the steam before passing to the burners, this avoiding the danger of water in the burners and improving the action of the Steam jet. Superheating may be accomplished simply by passing a short length' of the pipe through the setting or uptake of the boiler. 17) OIL REGULATORS. These devices may take care of the oil pressure, and regu- late the supply of steam and oil in proportion to the demand for steam. They reduce • attendance and speak for better pressure regulation. Copyright 1922 COMPILED BY Peščištjm’íae J. B. RATHEUN LL-11-20 FUEL OIL (LL-11-25) (Oil Pumps and Attachments) CLASSES OF FUEL OIL PUMPS. Almost every kind of a plunger pump has been employed for circulating fuel oil, duplex or simplex direct acting steam pumps, belt driven triplex, and electric driven triplex. The steam simplex or duplex direct acting pump is however the preferable type, and is certainly the most commonly used, since it is not only a simple and reliable means of pumping but also provides exhaust Steam for heating the oil. Of course with industrial furnaces, the electric and belt driven types are often used since there may be no steam available. Until recently the gear type rotary and the screw pump have not been much used, but since their successful introduction into the navy, their virtues are becoming appreciated. Gear and screw pumps create little pulsation in the oil line and thus maintain a steadier burner flame without much air cushioning. They have no valves to clog up or unseat and have a minimum of working parts. They must be belt or electric motor driven in smaller S126 S. A direct acting steam pump is not very efficient taken by itself, but when the exhaust steam available for heating is considered the overall efficiency is probably as great as any other type. A steam pump will furnish sufficient exhaust for heating the oil it pumps, and further more the exhaust steam is supplied in proportion to the quantity of oil delivered. The faster the pump speed and the greater the volume of oil, the greater will be the volume of steam. Such pumps are easily handled by unskilled labor. & PUMP PRESSURES. The pressure carried by the pump depends upon the type of burner used and the character of the oil. A mechanical atomizing burner requires more pressure as a rule than a burner in which atomization is performed by steam or compressed air. A low pressure “Volume air” burner as used by industrial furnaces requires the least pressure of all. A steady oil pressure is a necessity for air and steam burners and is a vital necessity for the mechanical type. The heavier the oil, the higher will be the required pressure with a given type of burner. Ol L PRESSU RE FOR VARIOUS TYPES OF BU RNERS Type of Burner. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Oil Pressure Per Square Inch Low Average High Steam or Air Atomizing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 25.0 50.0 80.0 Mechanical Atomizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . e e º e º ºn e º us tº e º 'º g 50.0 200.0 250.0 The low to average pressures apply in general to oils having a Baumé gravity of over 20 o (Specific gravity 0.9340 and less). The high pressures apply to oils having a Baumé density less than 20° (Specific gravity 0.9340 or greater). This applies only to the air and steam atomizing types. For mechanical atomizers the highly viscous oil must be heated to a rather high temperature as this type does not usually atomize as readily as the steam and air burners. Usually, the higher the oil pressure the bettel the burner will atomize with any type of burner, up to and including 180 pounds pel square inch, but certain practical difficulties present themselves when the pressure exceeds 100 pounds. The oil pressure should be lower than the air or steam by fully 5 pounds or oil “strikes back.” s PUMP CAPACITY AND SPEED. The oil pumps should be capable of supplying at least 50 percent more oil than would be consumed at their greatest overload. First to insure a proper supply of oil in case of damage to one of the pumps during a peak load, and second because an oil pump should be run normally at about one-half the speed of a feed water pump. Pumps should always be provided in duplicate to provide against breakdown. Pump speeds should be low to avoid excess pressures due to the viscous oil, blowing out pump packing, and to avoid high steam consumption. ight 1922 COMPILED BY --- Copyr J. B. RATHEUN LL-11-25 | ©ETRO LEUM AGE * FUEL oil. (LL-11-30) (Fuel Oil Heating and Heaters) heated just sufficiently to reduce it to the proper degree and no more. Over- heating reduces the burner efficiency, causes irregular burner action, and many other troubles. It should never be heated to or above the flash point and pref- erably only to about 30°F below this temperature. Oil having a gravity above 20° Baumé should be heated, while oil heavier than this must be heated. While the vis- cosity is not in proportion to its gravity, that is directly proportional, yet this is about the only simple unit that can be used in practice unless laboratory determina- tions are made on each consignment of oil. The viscosities and the limiting flash points of a variety of Samples are given by Data. Sheet No. LL.-1.-20 and among other sheets in the Same series. Hº. TEMPERATURE. Depending upon its viscosity, fuel oil should be ... The following table gives an approximate relation between the gravities of fuel oils and the temperatures to which they should be heated to secure the best burner action for Steam or air atomization. FUEL OILS, APPROXIMATE PREHEATING TEMPERATURES (FAHRENHEIT) BAUME GRAVITY Preheating Temperature | Min. Flash | Flash Points (Be”) * > Point F* | From Tests Low High 10-12. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280 300 325°F 220–375 12-14. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270 280 305°F 195-224 14-16. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250 270 295°F 166-265 13-18. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 250 275°F 162–278 18-20. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 200 225°F 165-275 20-24. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 170 195°F 165-220 24-26. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 160 185°F 146–222 26-28. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 155 180°F 144–220 28-30. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . we & º a º e º 'º e & e º a s a ſe tº º & a s 145 150 175°F 140–145 30-32. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 145 170°F 140–155 32–36. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 125 140 165°F 140–155 In the above table, the flash points of the oil used are not supposed to be below the minimum flash points in the third column. If the actual flash points are below this, the preheating temperature must be reduced accordingly. The fourth column shows results that have been obtained by actual tests on fuel oils corresponding to the various gravities, and this table shows that in actual Work the flash points are not always in agreement with the gravities, although there is a general, trend down- ward as the fuels become lighter. When crudes are used the flash points are gen- erally lower than given for fuel oils, but in the case of heavy California and Mexican crudes this is sometimes reversed. TEMPERATURE AND VISCOSITY. The following table gives the relation between the temperature and viscosities of a number of different fuel oils of different specific gravity. VISCOSITY IN SAYEOLT SECONDS SPECIFIC GRAVITY 0.986 0.960 0.955 0.944 2 50°F tº e g º q e º 'º e e g º e º 'º e i º ºs e º 'º e º q t e º te & it * * * * * * *** * $ ), * ſº & tº ºr 4500 § ºf................................................. *::::::: :. . . . 4250 2100 9100°F. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . º º *:::::: 3000 1950 1050 #125°F................................................. 4500 1100 900 550 *140°F. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2650 600 550 410 Šiščºf................................................. 1650 500 490 285 $150........ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1050 300 250 250 § . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * c e s s e e s e a s s e e s a s e e º 'º e s e º a 750 250 248 249 5190°F. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510 248 246 246 H200°F. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * c e s a e < e < * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 425 2 244 242 212°F. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325 244 244 241 From this table you will note that there is not a great deal of difference in the viscosities of any of the oils at 212°F. \ t 1921 COMPILED BY Pešč'Étiº AGE J. B. RATHBUN LL-1 1-30 FUEL Oll- (LL-1 1-36) (Fuel Oil Heating and Heaters) 43 in pipe coll form in which the oil flows through the pipe with the steam or heat- ing agent on the Outside. There are of course variations in different makes, but the principle is the Same. In One heater, a pipe coil is placed within a tank, the oil flowing through the coil While the Steam fills the tank. In another type, one pipe is placed within another, the inner pipe carrying the oil while the space between the outer and inner pipes is filled with steam. The steam and oil flow in opposite direc- tions or “Counter current.” For the most effective heating, and the lightest and most compact heater, the oil should be broken up into as thin films as possible. This means small oil pipes. Counterflow adds to the effectiveness of a given heating area. F UEL OIL HEATER CONSTRUCTION. In general, fuel oil heaters are arranged Either exhaust steam from the pumps or main engines, or live steam from the boilers may be used for heating oil, but the use of exhaust steam is more economical and is not so likely to start leaks which will contaminate the oil. Exhaust from the oil pumps is the more desirable for the steam is always available when the oil is cir- culated, and the steam is provided in proportion to the amount pumped. Care must be taken, however, to free the exhaust steam from lubricating oil before it enters the heater. If this is not done, the oil will accumulate on the heating surfaces and cut down the transfer of heat very materially. Owing to the Sulphur contained in heavy oils it is not always advisable to use copper or cast iron oil piping. Wrought iron pipe offers the most resistance to cor- rosion and electrolytic decomposition. Again, the difference in expansion between a copper coil and a steel tank is likely to cause trouble unless proper care has been taken to allow for this movement. Internal leakage due to corrosion or expansion Stresses Will cause all kinds of trouble. A thermometer should always be included With the heater, and a thermostat for the automatic control of the steam is a most useful device for maintaining constant preheating temperatures. A drain should be supplied for the water of condensation. The arrangement of the oil pipe coils has much to do with the effectiveness of the heating surface. In types where the coils of oil hang in steam-filled tanks, the motion of the steam is very sluggish and there is not much tendency toward remov- ing the condensed film of water adhering to the heating surface. The result is that there is little heat transfer per foot of surface. Coils of “U” form placed in a dead Steam Space have the lowest rate of heat transfer, while helical coils placed in tanks arranged so that there is considerable steam velocity may have twice the ability to transfer the heat. The following tables show about what may be expected in heating Values, and is abstracted from “Marine Engineering.” & OIL PREHEATERS B. T. U. per Sq. Space Taken Up FORM OF COILS Ft. per Degree, in Cubic Feet * per Hour. Fahr. per Sq. Ft. Surf. (1) “U” Form Coils in Large Steam Tank. . . . . . . . . 33- 59 0.62 (2) Water in Tubes, Oil Outside, Closely Spaced, Flow Countercurrent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº gº º e º ºs © tº e º gº tº E 0.02 (3) Doubles Helical Coils, Oil Inside, Steam in Closely Fitting Outside Tank. . . . . . . . . . . . go tº gº 66- 73 0.063 (4) Closely Spaced Straight Tubes, Oil Inside, Close Fitting Outside Tank, Condenser Type . . . . . © Cº 25- 35 0.084 (5) Same as (4) but with Vertical Tubes. . . . . . ſº e º º 136-180 0.038 Heaters, (2), (4) and (5) are of the surface condenser, type with small tubes Spaced at short centers and counter current flow. Owing to the small tubes and close fitting the velocities are high, but these are expensive to build. Heater (3) consisting of double helical coils in steam drum is very effective, cheap and simple. Copyright 1921 COMPILED BY LL-11-36 PETROL EU M AGE J. B. RATHEUN FUEL oil (LL-11-40) (Fuel Oil Storage Data) OIL STORAGE TANKS. The location of tanks and their exact constructional de- tails depend to a great extent upon the local fire ordinances and the rulings of the Board of Fire Underwriters. These authorities should be consulted whenever an oil storage system is to be installed. In nearly every case, however, the tanks should be located below the lowest point in the system and preferably buried in the ground. Underground tanks are safer, are easier to fill, suffer less evaporation and remain at a more even temperature than those exposed to the air above ground. Unless carefully Constructed they are more subject to water leakage. In small sizes the tanks are usually of sheet steel construction, very large tanks and medium size tanks may be either of steel or concrete. Two or more steel tanks are provided for duplicate operation while the large concrete reservoirs may be divided internally by one or more partitions so that they may be cleaned out periodically with- out interfering with the supply of fuel. One tank or compartment may be cleaned while the other is supplying fuel to the furnaces or boilers. Piping connections are generally made to the pumps so that the oil may be transferred from one tank to the other, or so that they can draw out of either tank or both. | When tanks are placed undergrºund it is the usual practice to place them not less than 50 feet from a building, but under exceptional conditions and with special pre- cautions they may be placed within the building. When stored above ground the tanks must be placed at least 150 feet from the building, and each tank must be surrounded by an earthwork or concrete dike (Dam) to catch and retain the oil should the tank break or overflow. The capacity of the diked area must be equal to one and one-half the capacity of the tank, so as to allow for any water or snow that might be present at the time of the accident. Additional fire protection must be afforded by lightning rods, and steam or foamite connections for smothering out the flame. Installed under these conditions, there may be a slight increase in the insurance carried. It is believed that this increase will be reduced to nil when fuel oil is more commonly used as it is certain that there is less danger with oil plants when properly installed than from spontaneous combustion in, the usual type of carelessly constructed coal bunker. Gravity feed of oil to the boilers or furnaces is prohibited. *. CAPACITY of OIL STORAGE TANKS. The amount of oil storage space provided depends upon the output of the plant and the number of days' supply that is to be stored. The storage period at full capacity may range from one week to six months and is based mostly upon the facilities of delivery and unloading the oil. Plants located a great distance from the source of supply must necessarily have greater storage capacity than those located in the immediate vicinity of the refinery or oil fields. Traffic conditions, the question of car delivery schedules, and labor conditions all enter into this factor. Even with the best of conditions, a week’s supply should always be held in reserve. The cost of storage tanks will vary from $3 to $50 per horsepower depending upon the amount of reserve and the location of the tanks, the periods ranging in this estimate from 10 days to 5 months storage. The steel tanks ordinarily used for small and moderate size installations vary from 7000 to 15,000 gallons. This is governed to some extent by the fact that we must have at least two tanks. Hence, if our total storage is to the 15,000 gallons each tank will have a eagacity of 7500 gallons (two tanks), or with three tanks, we may have two tanks of 7000 gallons and one tank of 1000 gallons. A recent installation for a moderate size plant installed two 12,000 gallon tanks, and one 7000 gallon tank. / I'uel oil having a specific of about 0.95 and a heat content of 18,000 B. T. U. per pound will average 59.5 pounds per cubic foot. Crushed bitumineus coal will average 48 to 52 pounds per cubic foot, therefore for equal heat values per pound, the oil will occupy about two-thirds the space required by the coal, providing they are stored under equal conditions. This advantage is offset to some extent, however, by present insurance regulations which require a considerable spacing between tanks when used for factories or power houses. With concrete reservoirs, conditions are more equal and oil may require less space than the coal. 922 COMPILED BY Peščº AGE J. B. RATHEUN LL-11-40 sit- Nº. FUEL OIL (LL-11-41) { > - - (Fuel Oil Storage Data) NITS OF CAPACITY. Fuel oil is usually bought in terms of barrels containing 42 U. S. gallons. The following conversions give the relation of barrels, cubic U feet, cubic inches and gallons, 1 Cu. Ft. = 1728 Cu. In. = 7.48 Gals. = 0.178 Bbl. 1 Gal. = 231 Cu. In. = 0.1337 Cu. Ft. = 0.0239 Bbl. 1 Bbl. = 9,702 Cu. In. = 42 Gal. = 5.615 Cu. Ft. CALCULATING TANK CAPACITY. The total capacity of a horizontal cylindrical tank in U. S. gallons may be computed from the following formula: G = 0.0034 d?L. Where G = Capacity in U. S. gallons, d = Inside diameter in inches, L = Inside length in inches, If the given dimensions are in feet, then the formula will read: G = 5.875 D*M Where D = Inside diameter in feet, M = Inside length in feet. When the capacity in barrels of 42 U. S. gallons per barrel is desired, then: B = 0.14 D2M Where B = Capacity in barrels of 42 Gals. D = Inside diameter in feet, M = Inside length in feet. This is the total filled, capacity. When a horizontal tank (length horizontal) is partially filled, the contents are not directly, proportional to the depth of the fluid owing to variations in the circular cross-section. The formula for computing this case is quite complicated, and must be figured for every individual fluid level. When the tank is of the vertical type and sits upon one of its circular ends then the con- tents are directly proportional to the depth of the fluid. CONTENTS OF CYLINDRICAL TANKS.. The following table gives the total number of U. S. gallons in completely filled cylindrical tanks. To obtain the capacity in barrels, divide the gallons by 42. DIAMETER IN FEET ; : ; 10 11 13 14 15 16 18 20 22 || 24 25 ; * sº y 3. 9,516||11,750|14,215|16,918|18,358 8,038|| 9,024|11,419 #: 20,302|22,030 4,960 5,765| 6,698| 7,520 5%| 6′31; 44; 8,071 9,224 10,377 11,530 1,728 2,016|2,625 2,304|3,000 2,592,3,375|4,280 2,880|3,750 3,168|4,1255, 3,456|4,500|5,705 44|4,875|6, 5,250|6, 5,625||7,130 6,000|7, ,3758,080 6,750|8,535 ,4727,1259,010 5,760|7,500|9,490 9,378|10,528|13,32216,450|19,90223,680|25,701 10,718|12,032|15,225|18,800|22,745|27,070|29,372 12,058|13,536|17,128|21,150|25,588|30,45433,043 13,398|15,040|19,031|23,500|28,431|33,838|36,714 12,683|14,738|16,544|20,934|25,850|31,274|37,222|40,385 11,904|13,836|16,078|18,04822,837|28,200|34,11740,606144,056 ######: 19,552|24,740 #: 43,99047,727 3 13,888|16,142||18,758|21,056|26,643|32,000|39,803|47,37451,398 14,880|17,295|20,098|22,260|28,546|35,250|42,646|50,758|55,069 15,872|18,448|21,438|24,064|30,449|37,60045,48954,142|58,740 16,864|19,601|22,778|25,568|32,35239,950|48,332|57,520,62,411|, 15,248|17,856|20,15424,11827,072|34,255|42,300|51,175|60,910|66,082 16,095|18,848|21,907|25,458|28,576|36,158|44,650|54,01864,29469,753 16,942|19,840|23,060|26,798|30,08038,06247,000|56,861|67,678|73,424 6 6 3%iº *** 11,700 # 5 2 STANDARD STEEIL TANKS. Whenever possible use the standard size steel tanks made by the various tank companies instead of having special tanks made. This will save time and money. A list of Stock sizes may be had on application to these companies TÉfößNESS OF SHELL. The thickness of the steel tank shell depends upon the diameter and the method of suspension. small tanks to 9% " or ºr" in large sizes. pounds per square inch in reinforced concrete tanks (in the steel bars). Copyright 1921 PETROL EU M A GE It may vary from No. 10 gage in very The fiber stress should not exceed 10,000 COMPILED BY J. B. RATHE UN LL-11-41 FUEL oil (LL-1 1-55) & Tanks and Oil Storage Regulations FIRE UNDERWRITERS’ REGULATIONS. The regulations of the National Board of Fire with reference to the storage of fuel oil provide for four distinct classes of installation. 1. Outside underground storage tanks. 2. Storage tanks under buildings. 3. Storage tanks above ground (diked) with outside underground service tanks. 4. Storage tanks inside buildings, not buried. So far as storage is concerned, each class of installation presents a different degree of fire hazard, the outside underground storage being the safest installation possible and the inside of building (unburied) tank being the most hazardous. The success and degree of safety of any particular class of system is dependent upon the design, work- manship and supervision of installation, maintenance of equipment and methods of operating. Before an equipment is installed, or before an existing equipment is remodeled, the plans should be submitted for approval to the inspection department having jurisdiction. These plans should be drawn to an indicated scale; give relative location of the building, tanks, pumps, pipes, etc., show sectional elevation of the building (including lowest floors or pits) that limit allowable storage capacity, tanks, their fittings and devices, dikes, pumps, filling lines, burners, etc. Specifications based on the following rules should accompany the plans: DEFINITION OF FUEL OIL. Oil burning equipments are those using only liquids having a flash point above 150° F., closed cup tester. Oil burning equipment shall be operated only when a competent attendant is constantly on the premises. In determining the flash point, either the Elliott, Abel, Abel-Pensky or Tag closed testers shall be used, but the Tag closed tester (standardized by the United States Bureau of Standards) shall be authoritative in case of dispute. All tests shall be made in accordance with the methods of tests as adopted by the American Society for Test- ing Materials. LOCATION OF TANKS. Storage tanks should be placed underground to obtain the greatest measure of safety. When this cannot be done and tanks are necessarily located within the building, or above ground, such an arrangement is considered more hazardous. Above-ground storage or supply tanks may be permitted only outside of closely built districts. SECTION 1. CONSTRUCTION OF TAN KS (Underground Tanks) 1. MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION. (a) Tanks shall be constructed of galvan- ized steel, basic open hearth steel or wrought iron of a minimum gauge (U. S. Stand- ard), depending upon the capacity, as given in Tables I and II. For liquids of 35° Baumé and below, tanks may be of concrete. TABLE I Minimum Thickness Capacity (Gallons) of Material ^* 1 to 560. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 14 gauge Q $ 561 to 1,100. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 gauge 1,101 to 4,000. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 gauge 4,001 to 10,500. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . % inch 10,501 to 20,000. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * inch 20,001 to 30,000. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . §§ inch OMPILED BY esºae § B. RATHEUN LL-1 1-55 FUEL oil (LL-1 1-56) Tanks and Oil Storage Regulations (b) In outlying districts to be prescribed by inspection departments having juris- diction, tanks not exceeding 1,100 gallons in capacity, if located ten feet or more from any building, may be constructed as follows: tº: TABLE || Minimum Thickness Capacity (Gallons) of Gauge tº 1 to 30. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 gauge 31 to 350. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 gauge 350 to 1,100. . . . . . . . . . . . 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 gauge 2. JOINTS AND CONNECTIONS. All joints shall be riveted and caulked, brazed, welded or made by some equally satisfactory process. Tanks shall be tight and suf- ficiently strong to bear without injury the most severe strains to which they may be subjected in practice. Shells of tanks shall be properly reinforced where connections are made, and all connections made through the top of the tank above the liquid level. 3. RUST PROOFING. All tanks shall be thoroughly coated on the outside with tar, asphaltun or other suitable rust-resisting material, dependent upon the condition of the soil in which they are placed. Where soil is impregnated with corrosive materials, tanks shall also be made of heavier metal. *. 4. VENTING OF TANKS. (a) An independent, permanently open galvanized iron vent pipe terminating outside of building shall be provided for every tank. The lower end of vent pipe shall not extend through the top into the tank for a distance of more than one inch. * (b) Vent openings shall be screened (40x40 non-corrodible wire mesh or its equiva- lent, preferably cone-shaped), and shall be of sufficient area to permit proper inflow of liquid during the filling operation, and in no case less than 1%.” in diameter. Screens shall be accessible for examination and removal. Vent pipes shall be provided with weatherproof hoods and terminate twelve feet above top of fill-pipe, or, if tight connection is made in filling line, to a point one foot above the level of the top of the _highest reservoir from which the tanks may be filled, and preferably not less than three feet, measured horizontally and vertically, from any window or other building opening. 5. FILLING PIPE. End of filling pipe in tank shall be turned up SO as to form trap or seal, and when installed in the vicinity of any door or other building opening shall be as remote therefrom as possible so as to prevent liability of flow of oil through building openings; terminal shall be outside of building in tight, incombustible box or casting, so designed as to make access difficult by unauthorized persons. | 6. MANHOLE. Manhole covers shall be securely fastened in order to make access difficult by unauthorized persons. No manhole shall be used for filling purposes. * 7. TEST WELL OR GAUGING DEVICE. (See Par. 32.) 8. SETTING OF TANKS. (a) Tanks to be buried underground with top of the tank not less than three feet below the surface of the ground, and below the level of any piping to which the tank may be connected, except that in lieu of the three feet cover tank may be buried under 18 inches of earth and a cover of reinforced concrete at least 6 inches in thickness provided, which shall extend at least one foot beyond the outline of the tank in all directions; concrete slab to be set on a firm Well tamped earth foundation. Tanks shall be securely anchored or weighted in place to prevent floating. C ht 1922 COMPILED BY Peščištiv”, ae J. B. RATHEUN LL-11-56 } O FUEL oil (LL-11-57) Tanks and Oil Storage Regulations 8. (a) (Continued) Where a tank cannot be entirely buried, it shall be covered over with earth to a depth of at least 3 feet and sloped on all sides, slopes not to be less than 3 to 1. Such cases shall also be subject to such other requirements as may be deemed necessary by the inspection department having jurisdiction. If tank cannot be set below the level of all piping to which it is connected, satisfactory arrangements shall be provided to prevent syphoning or gravity flow in case of accident to the piping. (b) Tanks shall be set on a firm foundation and surrounded with soft earth or Sand Well tamped in place, or encased in concrete as outlined in paragraph 15 (d). (c) When located underneath a building the tanks shall be buried, with top of tanks not less than two feet below the level of the floor. The floor immediately above the tanks shall be of reinforçed concrete at least 9 inches in thickness, or some other type of construction of equivalent strength and fire resistance, extending at least one foot beyond the outline of the tanks in all directions, and provided with ample means of Support independent of any tank. i º ABOVE GROUND TANKs f 9. MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION. (a) Tanks, including top, shall be con- structed of basic open hearth steel or wrought iron of a minimum gauge (U. S. Stand- ard), as specified in Tables 3 to 5, inclusive. No open tanks shall be used. (b) For liquids under 35° Baumé tanks may be of concrete. TABLE 3. HORIZONTAL OF VERTICAL TANKS NOT OVER 1,100 GALLONS Minimum Thickness Capacity (Gallons) Of Material 1 to 30. . . . . . . . * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * e º e g º e 18 gauge 31 to 350. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 gauge 351 to 1,100. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 gauge wº TABLE 4. HORIZONTAL TANKS OVER 1,100 GALLONS CAPACITY Maximum Diameter Minimum Thickness of Material in Feet Shell Heads Not over 5 feet. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 gauge 7 gauge 5 feet to 8 feet. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 gauge % inch 8 feet to 11 feet. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 inch % inch *- ! TABLE 5. VERTICAL TAN KS OVER 1,100 GALLONS CAPACITY This table refers to tanks under 40 feet in diameter and containing not more than 5,000 gallons. s * Bottom No. 8 gauge. Bottom ring No. 8 gauge. Other rings No. 10 gauge. * * Top No. 12 gauge. (c) All tanks in excess of 5,000 gallons shall be designed to provide a factor of safety of 4. , (d) No vertical tank shall exceed as feet in height. (e) Riveted joints shall have an efficiency of at least 60 percent. (f) Joints. See paragraph 2, section referring to joints. (g) Rust proofing. See paragraph 3. 22 - COMPILED BY Peš. tº as J. B. RATHEUN LL-11–57 FUEL oil (LL-1 1-58) Tank and Storage Regulations 10. ROOFS OR TOPS. No wooden or loosely fitting metal roofs or tops shall be permitted. Roof or top shall be without unprotected openings; shall be firmly and permanently joined to the tank, and all joints made as noted in paragraph (2). 11. VENTING OF TANK. (a) A permanently open vent conforming to paragraph (4) shall be provided. (b) Each above-ground tank, Over 1,000 gallons in capacity, shall have all man- holes, vent openings and all other openings which may emit inflammable vapors pro- vided with 40x40 mesh, non-corrodible Wire screen, or its equivalent, so attached as to completely cover the opening and be protected against clogging. A safety relief of 1% percent of roof area shall be provided, or manhole covers of equal area must be kept closed by weight only, and not firmly attached. The screen on such openings may be made removable, but shall be kept normally firmly attached and shall be accessible for inspection. \ 12. SETTING OF TANKS. Tanks with bottom more than one foot above the ground shall have firm foundation and Supports of incombustible materials, except wooden cushions. The storage of combustible material within 10 feet of any tank is prohibited. \ 13. PROTECTION AGAINST LIGHTNING. Metal tanks shall be constructed en- tirely of metal, including top, side and bottom; all openings shall be gas tight (see paragraph (2) for caulking of joints), except breather vent, which shall be screened as provided in paragraph (11b). All tanks shall be electrically grounded by resting directly on moist earth or grounded in accordance With the requirements for lightning protec- tion of the National Fire Protection Association. All steel work of reinforced concrete tanks shall be interconnected and grounded by an approved method. 14. EMBANKMENTS AND DIKES. (a) In locations where above-ground tanks are liable, in case of breakage or overflow, to endanger surrounding property, each tank shall be protected by an embankment or dike. Such protection shall have a capacity of not less than one and one-half times the capacity of the tank surrounded, and shall be at least 4 feet high, but in no case higher than one-fourth the height of the tank when height of tank exceeds 16 feet. (b) Embankments or dikes shall be made of earthWork or reinforced concrete, Earthwork embankments shall be firmly and compactly built of good earth from which stones, vegetable matter, etc., have been removed, and shall have a flat section at top of not less than three feet, and a slope of 2 to 1 on both sides. (c) Embankments or dikes shall be continuous, with no openings for piping or road- ways. Piping shall preferably be laid over or under embankments; if it is necessary to install pipes through embankments, concrete wing walls shall be provided. Brick or concrete steps shall be used where it is necessary to pass over. a- TAN KS INSIDE OF BU LD! NGS Inside storage is regarded as much more hazardous than outside storage. Where used the following requirements shall be rigidly applied: 15. SETTING AND HEAT INSULATION OF TANKS. (a) Tanks shall not be located above the lowest story, cellar or basement of building. (b) Tanks shall be located below the level of any piping, to which they may be con- nected, or, if this is impracticable, satisfactory arrangements shall be made to prevent syphoning or gravity flow in case of accident to the equipment or piping. Copyright 1922 COMPILED BY Peščijmºe *#####, LL-11-58 FUEL oil (LL-1 1-59) Tank and Storage Regulations 13 CONTINUED. (TANKS INSIDE BUILDINGS) (c) Tanks shall be set on a firm foundation and those exceeding 2,500 gallons capacity shall be supported independently of the floor construction. (d) Steel tanks shall be completely enclosed with a heat insulation equivalent to reinforced concrete not less than 12 inches in thickness, with at least a 6 inch Space on sides between tank and concrete insulation filled with sand or well tamped earth, and with 12 inches of sand on top of tank, either between tank and concrete Slab or above concrete slab. - (e) Concrete tanks shall be completely enclosed with a heat insulation of reinforced Concrete not less than 8 inches in thickness, with at least a 6-inch space on sides be- tween tank and concrete insulation filled with sand or well tamped earth, except that for top of tank an insulation of 12 inches of sand without concrete covering shall be deemed sufficient. - (f) Walls of concrete tanks shall be constructed independently of any not in con- tact with the building walls. 16. VENTING OF TANKS See Par. (4) and Par. (11b). SECTION || Location and Capacity of Tanks for Underground Storage 17. Tanks shall preferably be located at least 50 feet from important buildings. When this cannot be done, the limit of individual tank capacity permitted shall be dependent on the location of tanks with respect to adjacent buildings as follows: (a) Tanks may be of unlimited capacity if buried underneath or outside of build- ings and at least 50 feet from any buildings having a floor or pit lower than the top of the tank. (b) Tanks may have a capacity up to 500,000 gallons if the tank is at least 40 feet from any building having a floor or pit lower than the top of the tank. (c) Tanks may have a capacity up to 200,000 gallons if tank is at least 30 feet from any building having a floor or pit lower than the top of the tank. (d) Tanks may have a capacity up to 150,000 gallons if the tank is at least 25 feet from any building having a pit or floor lower than top of tank, * (e) Tanks may have a capacity up to 100,000 gallons if the tank is at least 20 feet from any building having a floor or pit lower than the top of tank. (f) Tanks may have a capacity, up to 75,000 gallons if the tank is at least 10 feet from any building having a floor or pit lower than top of tank. (g) If tank is within 10 feet of any building and the top of tank is above the lowest floor or pit of the building, the tank shall not exceed a capaéify of 50,000 gallons, and must be of metal entirely closed in concrète without airspace. } ! • v. . . § {..} & ...: ight 1922 * COMPILED BY tº * Peščištiv”, as J. B. RATHEUN * * LL-11-59 FUEL oil (LL-11-60) Tanks and Storage Regulations ABOVE GROUND STORAGE 18. CAPACITY AND LOCATION OF TANKS. (a) The relation between the ca- pacity of individual tanks and the permissible distance from other property is shown in Table 8. TABLE 8. ABOVE GROUND STORAGE Minimum Distance to the Line of Adjoining Capacity of Tanks Property or Nearest (Gallons) Building (in Feet) 750 . . . . . . . . . . ; : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 feet 1,100 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº e s ſº e º e s a tº e s e ... 10 feet 3,000 or less. . . . . . . . . . * - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 20 feet 21,000 or less. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 25 feet 31,000 or less. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 feet 45,000 or less. . . . . . . • - - - - - - * e º $ tº tº e º ºs º º 40 feet 64,000 or less. . . . . . . . . . . . . . & e e º 'º e º ºs e º e 50 feet 80,000 or less. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 feet 128,000 or less. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 feet 200,000 or less. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . & º e s tº ſº 85 feet 266,000 or less. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 feet 400,000 or less. . . . . . . . . . . . . . ge e s sº º e º e e g is 150 feet 666,000 or less. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250 feet 1,333,000 or less. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300 feet 2,666,000 or less. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350 feet (b) For tanks of over 400,000 gallons capacity a minimum distance of 175 feet to . adjoining property or nearest building may be permitted, provided that an approved type of extinguishing system is installed for the tank and covering other parts of the yard Or System. (c) For tanks permitted from 50 feet and up to 175 feet of building or property line the capacity may be increased 33 percent if the tank is provided with an improved extinguishing system. 19. HIGH WATER. Tanks shall be so located to avoid possible danger from high Water. 20. STREAMS WITHOUT TIDES. When tanks are located on streams without tides they shall, where possible, be downstream from burnable property. 21. TIDE WATER. On tide water tanks shall be located, if practicable, well away from shipping districts. STORAGE | NSIDE OF BU L DI NGS 22. PERMANENTLY SET STORAGE TANKS IN BUILDINGS. (a) In ordinary buildings at gross capacity of tanks shall not exceed 5,000 gallons. (b) In fire resistive buildings the gross capacity of the tanks shall not exceed 10,000 gallons. (c) In any building, if in a fire resistive or detached room cut off vertically and horizontally in an approved manner from other floors of the main buildings, the gross capacity of tanks shall not exceed 50,000 gallons with an individual tank capacity not exceeding 25,000 gallons, provided the insulating sand specified under paragraphs 15 (c), (d) and (e), shall be increased to 12 inches on sides and 18 inches on tops. NOTE. Regulations covering the installation of fuel oil piping will be found under “Fuel Oil Piping,” and these specifications form a part of the above, Copyright 1922 COMPILED BY LL-1 1-60 PETROLEUM AGE J. B. RATHEUN FUEL oil (LL-12-15) Oil for Industrial Furnaces NNEALING FURNACES FOR STEEL CASTINGS. In a paper read before the * Engineer's Club of Philadelphia, James E. Wilson gaye some data regarding the use of fuel oil in annealing furnaces. The oil used had a gravity of approximately 33° Baumé, a flash point of 212° F., and a calorific value of 140,000 B. T. U. per gallon. Two types of furnace were described; (1) The car type furnace in which large castings were introduced into the furnace on a wheeled car, and (2) A hand loaded furnace of smaller size for Small castings. High pressure compressed air burners were used in the car type furnace, and low pressure burners in the hand loaded furnace, the latter operating at a blower pressure of about 8 ounces per square inch. In his summary, Mr. Wilson says that there is little to choose between the two types of burners in regard to oil consumption, but that the low pressure type affected a saving because no compressor was necessary. The following are the principal dimensions and ca- pacities of the two furnaces: ---T FURNACE TYPE Width Length Height Capacity | Oil Req. Duration Feet Feet Feet in Lbs. Gals. p. hr., of Heat Car #. Furnace-............ © tº e º & e tº e º g º e º e 5'-0" 12'-0" '-6" 14,000 20 10 hours Hand Loaded Type-......................... 4–0° 8'-0" 2'-0" 3,000 20 8 hours Thus, in the car type furnace 20 X 10 = 200 gals. were required to anneal 14,000 pounds of castings, while in the hand loaded type 20 × 8 = 160 gallons were required to anneal 3,000 pounds of castings. Regulation must be carefully attended to, for if the heat is too intense, the thin portions of the castings will be burned while if the temperature is below the required point the physical structure will not be sufficiently changed. Two burners were used at either end of the furnaces, and these led into combustion chambers which prevented direct contact of the flames on the metal. If the flame is allowed to smoke, the carbon will be absorbed by the metal when heated between 1400-1600° F., and the composition of the castings will be changed making them hard and brittle on the surface. Smoke increases carbon content. The furnace linings were burned out about once a year and were renewed. COAL EQUIVALENTS IN STEEL WORKING FURNACES. W. N. Best gives the fuel oil requirements of various types of steel furnaces in terms of coal consump- tion. Thus, if the coal consumption of a certain class of furnace is known a close estimate can be made on the fuel oil consumption. These figures are in terms of gallons of oil per long ton of coal (2,240 pounds): Flue Welding Furnaces. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº gº e º 'º º 58 gallons of oil = 1 ton of coal Forging Furnaces . . . . . . . . & e º ºſ e e e º e º 'º e º e º ſº e º e º gº tº . . . . . . 80 gallons of oil = i ton of coal Heat Treating Furnaces (Low Temperature). . . . . . . . . . 80 gallons of oil = 1 ton of coal Heat Treating Furnaces (High Temperature. . . . . . . . . . 63 gallons of oil = 1 ton of coal Annealing Ovens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * & © tº ſº º º e º e 63 gallons of oil = 1 ton of coal OPEN HEARTH STEEL FURNACES. Approximately, one barrel of fuel oil will melt one ton of steel in an open hearth furnace with the walls already hot. Qil is much preferable to producer, gas for this purpose in the majority of cases for the sulphur content of oil is less than that of the average coal used in steel mills, and the oil iſ) more easily and cheaply handled than a gas producer plant. Adopting the usual equivalent, of 40 gals, oil = 400 pounds of coal = heat required. to melt" one ton of steel, it will be found that coal introduces 8 pounds of sulphul while the oil introduces only 6 pounds of Sulphur, both fuels assumed as carrying 2 percent of sulphur, and having the same heating value. This difference is due to the smaller quantity of oil required. Heavy oils, contain, more, sulphur than the lighter varieties, so that to reduce sulphur to a minimum, light oils are used until the slag forms and then the heavier, and more effective oils are turned on to complete the heat. Ordinarily this takes 50% light oil and 50% heavy oil. Not much sulphur is absorbed from any fuel after the slag forms. 2 COMPILEI) BY eśae J. B. RATHEUN LL-12-15 FUEL oil (LL-12-16) (Oil for Industrial Furnaces) coke may be saved by using oil as an auxiliary fuel in the cupola. Oil cannot be used alone, without coke, owing to the fact that under these conditions the iroi; mass mats together and that complete combustion of the oil cannot be had without the addition of some incandescent solid fuel such as coke. The incandescent coke bed acts as a catalytic agent in completing and intensifying the combustion of the oil. A further advantage to be had in the use of oil is the very low absorption of sulphur, this being far less than when coke is used alone. º The cupola used by Mr. Stoughton is of the usual type provided with four addi- tional combustion chambers located at about the level of the tuyeres. The oil is sprayed into these chambers, and beneath them is a small tuyere for admitting the additional air of combustion required for the oil. An ordinary cupola may be easily changed for the use of auxiliary oil. To start, the cupola is first filled up to the melting zone with coke as usual, and the iron placed on top of this bed. The fire is started, and when the coke is red hot, the injection of oil begins. The coke should be held to a good red color only, for it is not desired to heat the iron to melting point by the coke, but to use it as a retardant in reducing the tendency toward matting of the iron. The combustion and wasting away of this coke therefore takes place at ,a very slow rate, and is renewed by the addition of a very small amount of coke to the iron during the melting process, this coke being charged with the iron. The coke thus charged is a very much smaller quantity than ordinarily used, only about one- fourth or less than one-fourth as much. Combustion is controlled by regulating the flow of air through the supplementary heaters placed beneath the combustion chambers, a separate air valve being placed at each of the four tuyere openings So that they can be adjusted separately. Only enough air should be admitted to maintain the coke bed in a state of bright incan- descence, the least possible amount of air being admitted. If the flame from the oil burners is directed upon the coke bed, the flame will actually quench the coke to a state of blackness, and to avoid this quenching sufficient additional air must be admitted to insure a high coke temperature. The oil is atomized, ignition begins in the combustion chamber, and afterwards comes into contact with the coke. The gases from the oil and coke rise through the red hot coke bed to the melting zone and there melt the iron. The rate of melting is controlled by regulating the air through the auxiliary tuyeres. Commercial operation shows that oil replaces practically three-fourths of the coke ordinarily used, and that good hot iron may be obtained with 60 pounds of coke and 7.25 gallons of oil to the ton of iron melted. By proper control of the air tuyeres, the proportion of coke to iron, burned can be regulated, and this is of course adjusted so that the minimum of coke is burned. Air unites in preference with the oil, so that if insufficient air is provided for the combustion of both, the oil will burn but not, the coke. It has been found that the sulphur absorbed by the iron comes rather from the coke than the oil, hence with a minimum of coke combustion we obtain a mini- º º in the iron. The less coke burned, the less will be the sulphur con- tent O € 1.I’OIl. The first test conducted with a 42 inch cupola was performed with iron having an original content of 0.010 Sulphur. After melting the sulphur increased to 0.022. Another test showed that when this iron was melted with coke containing 0.080 per cent Sulphur, that the molten iron contained 0.045 percent sulphur. This increase was far greater than that obtained with oil. A more recent experiment showed that an iron mixture containing 0,026 percent sulphur, before melting only rose to 0.035 percent, or an increase of 0.009 percent when using oil. It is expected that added experience Will allow of even smaller gains in sulphur. It is not necessary that a low sulphur, oil be used, because practically all of the sulphur is oxidized by the blast and {iºes not enter the iron, but passes, Qut of the cupola with the gases. Oils containing 1:6 sulphur, and oils containing half as much showed little difference in the amount absorbed by the iron. Fº: OIL IN CUPOLAS (CAST IRON). According to Bradley Stoughton, much Copyright 1921 COMPILED BY L L- 1 2- 16 PETROL EU M AGE J. B. RATHEUN O ^ FUEL oils (LL-14-10) .* (Operation of Oil Burners for Boilers) efficient, for this indicates an excess of air and a loss of heat up the stack. A very thin haze of smoke should just be in evidence at the top of the stack. Excessive black smoke indicates too little air and a waste of unconsumed fuel. Great care should be taken to have the air proportion just right or there will be a decided loss in boiler efficiency. A loud roaring in the burner is indicative of excess air or atomizing steam. A boiler burner is not a blast burner used for producing an oxidizing flame but is meant to distribute the heat as softly and uniformly as possible over the heating surfaces. The flame should have a steady flow and should not pump nor sugge. Nº: OF BURNER FLAME. A perfectly smokeless flame is not the most A proper flame should be white or bluish white for a distance of six to eight inches from the burner tip. From this point it shades into a violet, then to a cherry at the tip, and as it spreads out into the furnace there should be a soft orange-colored haze for a considerable area. A dark red flame, or reddish yellow flame, indicates insufficient air and incomplete combustion, while a flame totally pure white or yellowish green indi- cates excess air. Good combustion is indicated by a bluish flame obtained just after the last trace of yellow has disappeared. An absence of black smoke or fumes of light- colored Smoke together with a white flame means too much air. The proper way to proportion the air and fuel is by means of a flue gas analysis apparatus. An excess of atomizing steam in the burner is a bad thing from two standpoints: (1) It wastes boiler steam that has required the expenditure of fuel to produce; (2) the excess steam takes heat from the flame and carries it up the stack. This heat Cannot be recovered and is a total loss. Excessive atomizing steam may be indicated by a roaring in the burner, or by an intensely white flame. This terrific heat concen- trated by the powerful steam blast on the brickwork or heating surfaces will soon cause Serious damage in addition to the waste of steam. Use just enough steam to Secure proper injection and distribution of the oil, and to obtain a soft, clear flame. Another point to be considered is the injection velocity of the oil. If the velocity is too great owing to excess atomizing steam or excess volume air, then the oil will be carried away so rapidly that it will not be entirely consumed before it strikes on the surfaces of the furnace or boiler. If cool, these surfaces will soon be badly carbonized due to the deposits of adhering baked oil. I The flame should completely fill the combustion chamber and should not be con- centrated on one spot. If two or more burners are used in a single combustion chamber, they should be adjusted so that the flame of one burner will impinge on the flame of the other rather than to have them strike the brickwork. A flat fan-shaped flame is preferable to any other form, as it presents a maximum radiation surface and pro- duces a more uniform distribution of heat than conical or cylindrical formed flames. Sputtering, surging flames may be caused by a number of derangements, such as dirty carbonized burner tips, water in the oil, sediment in the oil pipe line, overheated oil, oil not sufficiently heated, or by the lack of air chambers on the oil pump line. The same effect will be produced if the oil pressure, is allowed to equal or exceed the pressure of the atomizing steam, or air. A normal flame streaked with black strips is almost a sure sign of a clogged burner. Burner orifices and, pipe lines should be kept clean and free from sediment, water and lint. Poor oil containing a high percentage of tarry matter or wax will cause trouble through deposits unless the oil is strongly pre-heated. Wiping the burner tips with waste is a frequent cause of trouble since the fine threads often clog the orifice. When the oil is overheated on its way to the burner, vapor pockets are sometimes caused at bends in the pipe, which seriously interfere with the flow of the fuel. A clogged line is sometimes indicated by excessive white Smoke and an unusually high oil pump pressure. The strainers should be cleaned out. 1 COMPILED BY e Pºśjºae J. B. RATHBUN LL-14-10 FUEL OILS (LL-14-11) (Operation of Oil Burners for Boilers.) FLUE GAS ANALYSIS. The only sure method of determining whether combus- tion is being carried out under proper conditions is to analyze the flue gases and thus determine the percentage of carbon monoxide (CO) and carbon dioxide (CO2). An apparatus of this sort can be had on the market which is accurate and simple in handling and is soon accepted by the fire-room crew. This may be either of the simple test type or the continuous recording CO2 instrument which plots out the variations continuously on a strip of paper in a manner similar to recording pyrom- eters and Similar instruments. When such readings are supplemented by pyrometer readings above the furnace and in the britchen we have a full record of the results attained and can develop the maximum efficiency of the plant. This applies to coal burning plants as well as to oil burners of capacities exceeding 1,000 horsepower. Such methods when carried out systematically lead to marked in provements in plant operation economy and are the direct cause of getting the best efforts of the fireroom crew who know that they are being watched and checked up. The improvement is both physical and psycho- logical. FUEL OIL ANALYSIS. While there is not a great deal of variation in the thermal contents of fuel oils, yet we should be on the lookout for the presence of water, sediment, free carbon and sulphur. The thermal contents need only be checked up occasionally, but a moisture, Sediment and Sulphur determination should be made on each Shlpment. An analysis made according to the U. S. Government standards is both accurate and simple to make, and can be handled as a routine test by the chief operating , engineer of the plant as well as by a consulting chemist. With this equipment there will be less trouble with the burners, less clogging up in the pipe lines and less trouble from sulphur. With coal there is a direct loss in dollars and Cents due to impurities owing to the great percentage of water, ash and sulphur contained in coal. In other words, the weight of the impurities is being paid for at the same rate as for the true com- bustible component, and this waste is exceedingly high with even the best grades of coal. The loss in weight due to the impurities in fuel oil is negligible as the total weight of the impurities combined is only a small fraction of the weight of one impurity in coal, but just the same we should prohibit excessive amounts of water," ash and sulphur because of their effect on the piping and burners. PYRIGHT 1925 COMPILED BY * . ####### J. B. RATHBUN LL-14-11 . * FUEL OiL (LL-17-20) f O (Furnace Construction) REFRACTORY FURNACE LININGS (BRICK). Refractory brick used for resisting high temperatures in furnaces may be divided into the following classes: 1–FIRE CLAY BRICKS made by fusing certain clays to such a temperature that partial Vitrification occurs, together with a plastic clay known as the “Grog” which serves as a structure for the brick. These may be subdivided into Paving Brick, Aid Proof Brick, and Glazed Brick. 2—SILICA BRICK made by heating pure silica to vitrification, together with about 0.02 percent of lime forming a calcium silicate. These bricks are very brittle and are likely to “Spall” when the temperature is rapidly changed. Twice burned bricks should be insisted on, as single burned bricks expand excessively. 3—GANISTER BRICPC are intermediate between fireclay and silica brick and are made similar to silica brick but without the lime. 4—BASIC BRICKS are made of magnesite or bauxite and are used where exceed- ingly high temperatures are met with, as in open hearth steel furnaces, etc. They are weak in regard to carrying weight, but are very resistant to heat and the action of flame. Magnesite bricks have a high coefficient of expansion and cannot therefore be used in arches. To reduce cost and for use in arches, a class of brick is furnished which has a magnesite veneer over a base brick of Silica. The mortar is powdered magnesia mixed with 1/9 its weight of tar. 5—NEUTRAL FIRE BRICK (CHROME BRICK) are made of chromite mixed with fireclay or bauxite. They are practically infusible, dense, and not affected by Sudden changes in temperature. They are sometimes used as a middle course between magnesite and silica brick in openhearth furnaces. They are not very resistant to crushing when hot. FIRE WALLS. Fireclay bricks are ordinarily used for lining boiler furnaces burning coal, but their resistance to temperature and flame is somewhat too low for properly constructed oil burning furnaces, where the heat is much more intense than with burning coal. Only the highest grade firebrick should be used at any rate. Although, more ex- pensive, magnesite or chromite bricks are more suitable for oil burning, particularly for ignition walls where the flame impinges directly on the brick. Parts running at a lower temperature than the furnace proper can be lined with high grade fireclay bricks. Flame should never be allowed to come into contact with common building brick, but these common brick weight bearing walls should be lined with a suitable thickness of refractory brick. On the other hand, care should be taken not to place much weight on the refractory brick lining, for refractory bricks are generally very weak. Owing to the higher temperature and the greater factor of expansion, there is more expansion in the lining than in the outer bearing walls, hence provision should be made so that the two walls can move relatively without a tendency toward cracking. Fire brick should be dipped in a clay wash, and then rubbed and shoved into place, the least thickness of binder between the brick the better. Lime or cement mortar should not be used where flame makes contact with brick, and a thick mortar of fire clay has no binding effect on the brick and only adds weak- ness to the fire wall. Bricks should have only a wash of fireclay and shoved into as close contact with the adjacent bricks as possible. Furnace linings should be laid with four courses of headers and one of “stretchers,” just the reverse from common building walls. Magnesite bricks should be laid in a wash of magnesia and a small addition of tar. Any center walls in furnace that are completely surrounded by flame and hot gases should be built completely of firebrick, no common brick being allowed. Fire brick arches should be laid with selected straight brick, and as few wedge brick used as possible. The broken face of cut bricks should not receive heat. T 1922 COMPILED BY §§Mºše J, TE, RATHEUN f LL-17–20 FUEL oil (LL-17-30) s (Properties of Refractories) HEAT RESISTANCE OF REFRACTORY MATERIALS. The following table gives the melting point of firebricks and other refractories as determined by the U. S. Bureau of Standards Melting Melting Name of Material Point F* Name of Material Point F* Fire-clay Brick . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2831-3137 Bauxite Clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3308 Bauxite Brick . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2849-3245 Bauxite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3263 Silica Brick . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3092-3100 Chromite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº e º e º e & . . . .3956 Chromite Brick . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3732 Pure Alumina. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3650 Magnesite Brick . . . . . . . . . . . * * * 3929 Pure Silica. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3182 Kaolin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3155-3164 Carborundum . . . . . . . e e º e º 'º e e g e º 'º - . . 4892 RESISTANCE OF FIRE BRICK. Fire clay brick may be divided into three principal classes, as follows: ſº CLASS A for Stoker fired furnaces or for other severe conditions. CLASS B for ordinary stoker firing where there will be no heavy overloads. CLASS C for ordinary hand fired settings. Properties Class A Class B Class C Fusing Point, Fº . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,200–3,300 2,900 - 3,200 2,900 - 3,000 TJ1t. Compress, Libs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6,500-7,500 7,500-11,000 8,500-15,000 Relative Hardness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 to 2 º 2 to 4 4 to 6 The fusing points given in the above table are safe values for working conditions. It will be seen from the table that the heat resistance decreases as the hardness in- creases, and that the strength in compression increases rapidly with the hardness. A first quality brick should have a fine uniform fractured face when broken, and should appear white and flinty. GRAPHITE BRICK (KRYPTOL). These brick have a heat resisting capacity far beyond that of silica, firebrick, or mangesite brick, and are used where extreme tem- peratures are employed. This material is a mixture of graphite, carborundum and clay, and as it is quite expensive is only suitable for Small furnaces. Its fusing point is not exactly determined as it is very high, but even at the highest temperatures there is practically no deterioration for long periods. SIZES OF FIRE BRICK. Standard fire and silica, bricks are 9”x4.5” x2.5”, although there are a large number of special sizes adapted for certain classes of work. The following are also in a way standard shapes: (1) Small 9 inch, 9”x3.5” x2.5”, and (2) the large 9 inch, 9”x6.75” x2.5”. ARCH BRICK Dl M. ENSIONS No. Bricks —Circle Diams. Dimensions of . Size Per Circle Inside Outside Brick in Inches No. 1 Arch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 4'-3” gº º is c & 9x4.5 x(2.5 -2.125) No. 2 Arch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 1'-9" . . . . . 9x4.5 x (2.5 -1.75) No. 1 Wedge . . . . . . . tº e º 'º - tº 91 4'-6" 6'-0" 9x4.5 x(2,5 -1.875) No. 2 Wedge . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 2 ” -3" 3 * -9" 9x4.5 x(2.5 -1.500) No. 3 Wedge ...". . . . . . . . . . 57 3 * -0” 4 * - 6° 9x4.5 x(3.0 -2.000) No. 1 Key . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 12 *-0” 13'-6" 9x4.5 x(4.0 -2.500) No. 2 Key . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 5’-3” 6 * -9” 9x4.5 x(3.5 -2.500) No. 3 Key . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 3'-0" 4'-6" 9x4.5 x(3.0 -2.500) No. 4 Key . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 1'-6" 3'-0" 9x4.5 x(2.25-2.500) No. 1 Circle . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 24” 33” (9-6.56).x4.5x2.50 No. 2: Circle . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 36” 45” (9-7.18)x4.5x2.5 No. 3 Circle . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 42” 51” (9-7.43)x4.5x2.5 #######, "ºe Sºś LL-17–30 Z f *- FUEL oil (LL-19-10) (Smoke Stacks for Oil Fuel) fuel are different than those for estimating stacks for coal burning as there is a considerable difference in the combustion conditions. In the first place, only 25 per cent excess air is usually allowed for oil burning and this of course results in a smaller volume of gas for a given horsepower. Again, the boiler is more efficient with oil fuel and less fuel is burned. The stack temperatures are lower with coal and this gives a third reducing factor. Roughly speaking, the stack for oil burning furnaces need only have 60 per cent of the cross-sectional area necessary with coal furnaces. Changing from coal to oil makes an increase in the stack size unnecessary, in fact the stack will º of greater output when oil is substituted. A stack giving insufficient draft with coal is likely to have excess draft with oil since there is no longer a heavy fuel bed to pull the air through. S; SIZES AND CAPACITIES. The rules governing the size and capacity of stacks for oil The following table is compiled from data furnished by Wm. Kent on coal burning, and by C. R. Weymouth on oil burning. This gives a comparison between coal burning and oil burning with a given S1262 i. The figures in the body of the table represent rated boiler horsepowers (Burning 5 lbs. coal per hour). STACKS FOR FUEL OIL AND COAL HEIGHT OF STACK ABOVE GRATES IN FEET STACK DIAM. IN INCHES 80' 90' 100' 125 ' | 120” 150* || 140* | 175' | 160° Coal Oil Coal Oil Coal Oil Coal - Oil Coal Oil Coal Oil 33. . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 161 206 149 233 270 306 315 36. . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 208 253 182 295 331 363 387 39. . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 251 303 219 343 245 399 488 467 42. . . . . . . . . . . . . 231 295 359 258 403 289 474 316 521 557 48. . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.11 399 486 348 551 389 645 426 713 460 760 54. . . . . . . . . . . . . 402 519 634 449 720 503 847 551 933 595 1000 60. . . . . . . . . . . . . 505 657 800 565 913 632 || 1073 692 || 1193 748 || 1280 66. . . . . . . . . . . . . 620 813 9 694 || 1133 776 || 1333 849 || 1480 918 1593 72. . . . . . . . . . . . . 747 980 1206 835 | 1373 |e 934 1620 1023 | 1807 || 1105 1940 78. . . . . . . . . . . . . 885 990 1107 1212 1310 84. . . . . . . . . . . . . 1035 | 1373 1587 || 1157 | 1933 || 1294 || 2293 1418 2560 1531 2767 90. . . . . . . . . . . . . 1338 1496 1639 1770 96. . . . . . . . $ tº e º s 1833 2260 | 1532 2587 || 1713 3087 1876 3453 2027 | 3740 102. . . . . . . . . . . . . 1739 1944 2130 2200 108. . . . . . . . . . . . . 2367 2920 1959 || 3347 || 2190 | 4000 || 2392 || 4483 || 2300 || 4867 114. . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.192 2451 * * * 2685 2592 120. . . . . . . . . . . . . 3060 3660 2438 || 4207 || 2726 5040 2986 || 5660 | 3226 6160 126. . . . . . . . . . . . . 2697 3016 . . . . 3303 3568 tº 132. . . . . . . . . . . . . 2970 3321 3637 3929 º 144. . . . . . . . . . . . . 3554 3973 4352 4701 * The powers given for the oil burning stacks given are the “nominal” powers, but are good for a 50 per cent overload. These figures are based on centrally located stacks with short flues. It will be seen that the differences between coal burning and oil burning are most in evidence with the large stacks, With oil burning, do not make the mistake of choosing a stack too high for the plant, for the increased draft due to this error tends to destroy the efficiency by drawing too much air through the furnace. * ALTITUDE CORRECTION. As the altitude or height above sea level is increased, the density of the air becomes less, and therefore a greater volume must be handled to supply the same weight of air for combustion. This means that the gas yelocity must be increased through the stack; This increased velocity increases the friction hence the diameter must be increased with high altitudes. * º: § M PETR Cop O COMPILED BY GE J. B. RATHBUN LL-19-10 i 921 y r t 2 A FUEL OIL (LL-19-20) (Smokestacks for Fuel Oil.) CORRECTIONS FOR ALTITUDE. For the combustion of a given weight of fuel per hour we require a definite weight of oxygen per hour which must be taken from the surrounding atmosphere. At high altitudes the air is more rarified than at Sea- level and therefore less oxygen is present per cubic foot at high altitudes. This means that we will have to handle a greater volume of air at high altitudes to obtain the given weight of oxygen for the combustion, hence all of our velocities must be greater and the frictional resistance will be correspondingly greater. The velocity for a given boiler horsepower will vary inversely as the barometric pressure and the friction head will vary as the square of the barometric pressure. To increase the velocity requires an additional height of stack, and the addi-, tional resistance due to this increased height means that the diameter must also be increased. At an elevation of 9,000 feet above sea-level the stack height will be practically twice the height of a stack at sea-level for the same service, while the diameter will be increased by about one-sixth to take care of the resistance of the addition. * In the following table will be found multipliers for determining the stack dimen- sions at any altitude when the dimensions at sea level are known. For example, the sea-level dimensions of the stack can be determined by the table on the preceding page and then can be multiplied by the constants in the table below. ALTITUDE CORRECTION FACTORS, FOR STACPCS. (DIMENSIONS AT SEA-LEVEL = 1.000) Altitudo in Stack Stack Feet Above • Height Diameter -- Sea-Level. g Ratio. Ratio. 0. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.000 1,000. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.079 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.015 2,000. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.164 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.030 3,000. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.257 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.047 4,000. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.356 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * * * * * * 1.063 5,000. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.464 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.079 6,000. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.580 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1.096 t 7,000. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.706 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.113 8,000. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.841 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 1.130 9,000. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.988 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,147 p 10,000. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,144 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.165 t / ED BY §§§ {& §ººkłº LL–19–20 MISCELLANEous oils (NN-1-6) º (Solvents—Paint Thinners–Cleansing Agents) TURPENTINE SUBSTITUTE. A turpentine substitute is a petroleum distiliate u. a compound of a petroleum distillate and natural gum turpentine, and is used as a sol- Vent or as a thinner for paints and varnishes. Real natural gum turpentine (vegetable) is becoming too expensive for certain classes of work and where the substitute can be used there is a great saving. The substitute alone has a limited solvent power with Some gums and oils, and where oxidization is an important feature it cannot sometimes be used, but when 40 percent of real turpentine is compounded with the substitute the mixture can be used in nearly every case with results equal to those obtained with the real fluid. Natural gun turpentine possesses just the correct degree of volatility or rate of evaporation for paints and varnishes. It must be noted that too rapid evaporation is harmful to the finished dried coat. With too rapid evaporation pinholes are formed, streaks and uneven film thickness, and deficient adhesion of the coat occur. Commer- cial benzines and naphthas are extremely volatile and for this reason are entirely un- , Suited for finely finished work. To be successful, it is evident that the substitute for turpentine must have as nearly the same rate of evaporation as the natural turpentine and also approximately the same average boiling point. The substitute must also be water white and free from any chemical impurities, such as sulphur, which will com- bine with white lead and form dark colored compounds. Lead paints are very sensitive to the presence of minute quantities of sulphur. Grease and water must be absent for Obvious reasons and the flash point must be as low as possible to minimize the danger of fire, and yet not so low as to unduly delay drying. The following table gives the eomparative properties of natural gum turpentine and a turpentine substitute by the trade name of “Tur-Min-Tine,” made by the Waverly Oil Works. PROPERTIES OF GUM TURPENTINE AND A TYPICAL SUBSTITUTE Property Natural Gum Turpentine Turpentine Substitute *Tur-Min-Tine” Color. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Water White.................. Water White Specific Gravity @ 15°C. ................... 0.870. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.768 #; a tº ſº ºn tº e º e º º tº e º & tº 4 tº e ºs e & © tº º ſº tº $ tº & 155°C........................ 14.7°C Flash Point (Open Cup)..................... 40°C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41°C ſº Distillation Test............................ 95% Between 155°C–165°C .... 95% Between 147°C-220°C Residue.................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Not over 2%. . . . ............. 0.03% Spot Test. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . No Spot Shown............... No Spot Shown Sulphur.............. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . None. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Oſle Water......::::::::::... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . None........................ None Darkening of White Lead................... None................... ... • . . . None Polymerization............ * @ tº gº tº º s e º & e º is s a 6 & Not over 5%—should remain un- wº polymerized in 30 minutes.... 93% unpolymerized in 30 minutes In both long and short varnishes petroleum Substitute can be used to partly replace turpentine. With varnishes based on China, wood oil and rosin, the substitute can be used almost “straight” with but little admixture of turpentine. With white lead or other paste paints made by mixing oil and the substitute together, adding sufficient Japan drier for the required drying properties gives good results. While the substitute is usually greater in first cost than benzine or naphtha, yet there is generally a saving §h; the fact that there is less loss due to evaporation, and there is much less danger of fire. * In addition to its use as a paint and varnish thinner, turpentine substitute is also extensively used for many liquid preparations such as stove polish, insecticides, germi- cides, metal and furniture polish, stains, soaps, and insulating compounds. Copyright 1921 COMPILED BY Peščištinºae J. B. RATHBUN - NN-1-6 MISCELLANEOUS OILS (NN-1-8) - (Solvents—Paint Thinners—Cleansing Agents.) LINSEED OIL SUBSTITUTE. Owing to the increased cost of growing flaxseed, the cost of pure linseed oil has increased rapidly until it has become almost pro- hibitively expensive at the present time for many classes of varnish and paint jobs. For this reason there has been much research work done on linseed oil substitutes and even Synthetic linseed oils. Among the many petroleum substitutes for linseed oil now on the market, OIle of the best known is the Min-Seed-Oil produced by the Waverly Oil Works of Pitts- burgh, Pa. This is a pure petroleum product especially adjusted to the need of the paint and varnish industry and is used in connection with the linseed oil as a dilutant. It is not used alone in its pure state, but is used simply to displace a certain percentage of the more expensive vegetable oil. The following formulae have been published by the Waverly Oil works and are claimed to give excellent results on high class work. For cheaper work the percentage of the petroleum Min-Seed-Oil can be increased. The amount of course is best determined by experiment when the Min-Seed-Oil is used in, excess of the amounts given below. FORMUL.A. N.O. 1. When this formula is used a very hard cleat film is produced and is therefore suitable for the very highest grades of work. 25% Min-Seed-Oil. 70% Pure Linseed oil. 5% Turpentine dryer. FORMUL.A. NO. 2. The film produced under this formula is not quite so hard as that obtained by Formula No. 1, out will give very good results on high grade work. 33.33% Min-Seed-Oil. 33.33% Pure Linseed oil. 33.33% Treated China wood oil. In this latter formula it will be seen that less than half the linseed oil is used and that the proportion of Min-Seed-Oil to the whole mixture is increased from 25% to 33.33%. * coPYRIGHT 1925 COMPILED BY º PETROLEUM AGE J. B. RATHBUN NN-1-8 * O MISCELLANEOUS OILs (NN-3-15). Oils for Quenching and Hardening HARDENING STEEL. Steel is an impure form of steel which ordinarily contains Such elements as carbon, silicon, manganese, sulphur and phosphorus either in me- chanical solution or chemically combined. Of these elements, the carbon is the most important element in the control of strength and hardness, and the common steels are therefore commercially rated according to the percentage of carbon that they contain. This, of course, does not take the “alloy steels” into consideration to which various rare metals such as vanadium and tungsten are added to gain modifications of the Carbon effect. Carbon contents of steel range from 0.10 percent to 1.25 percent, the higher the Carbon percentage the harder and stronger the steel after proper heat treatment. Approximately, for each 0.01 percent of carbon added, the tensile strength of the steel is increased at the rate of 2.5 percent, and the hardness is increased at the same rate. It should be noted at this point that hardness is an index to the strength of steel, and it is common practice to estimate the tensile strengh from hardness tests made by the Shore Or Brinnell tests. From a technical standpoint carbon steels may be classified in three principal groups: (1) The unsaturated steels having less than 0.89 percent of carbon, (2) The saturated steels which have a content of exactly 0.89 percent carbon, and (3) The supersaturated steels which have a carbon content higher than 0.89 percent. Com- mercially, the steels range from the “dead soft steel” with about 0.10 percent of carbon, through the medium steels with from 0.15 to 0.25, to the hard steels running up to 0.85 percent. Spring steel averages from 0.90 to 1.25 percent carbon, this giving the great- est modulus of elasticity. Steels having less than 0.40 percent can be hardened only with difficulty and even when hardened have only a small degree of hardness. The combination of carbon with the basic iron of the steel may take place in several ways. It may be simply a mechanical Solution of the carbon in the Steel, or it may be a true chemical combination in which compounds known as the ‘‘carbides” are formed. Thus, we may have the carbide known as “cementite,” or the compound ‘‘pearlite” in various proportions and combinations. At ordinary temperatures the carbon exists principally in the form of pearlite, but When heated up to the “decalles- cence point,” the pearlite gradually resolves itself into the hardening alloy “cementite,” and in so doing sets free about 0.04 percent of Carbon. To harden the steel it is therefore heated slightly above the decalescence point to produce cementite, and when this temperature is reached, the steel is suddenly “quenched” or chilled in a bath so that the carbon element will remain fixed in this form. The decallescence temperature varies with the different percentages of steels, hence for an accurate degree of hardening we must control our temperature accord- ing to the data obtained by an analysis of the steel or from tests made on the steel for obtaining the decalescence point directly. Maximum hardness with any given steel is obtained when the heat is withdrawn with the greatest rapidity, and before the carbides are allowed to change back into their original form. For the most rapid quenching the quench fluid must have a high degree of conductivity, fluidity, and comparatively high specific heat. Fluidity is of importance, as a thin mobile fluid flows rapidly and quickly wipes away the heat. Heat is carried away both by conduction and convection, hence mercury which has a com- paratively high heat conductivity and which is very fluid, produces the greatest degree of hardness obtained by any quenching medium. For intermediate degrees of hard- ness we have the choice of water, oils, or other fluids which have varying degrees of conductivity and fluidity. It should be noted that quenching is only a “fixing” process which preserves the characteristics developed by the heating, and that quenching itself is not a means of hardening nor can it be made to correct the effects of improper heating. COPYRIGHT 1924 COMPILED BY PETROL EU M AGE J. B. RATHEUN NN-3–15 MISCELLANEOUs OILs (NN-3-16) Oils for Quenching and Hardening PROPERTIES OF QUENCHING OILS. Oils for quenching are rated by those factors which govern the absorption of heat from the steel. In this regard it must be noted that heat is removed by the processes of conduction, convection (flow), and by the vaporizing of the Oil in direct contact with the surface of the steel. The thermal conductivity is the rate at which the heat is carried by direct con- veyance through the body of the oil. It is very likely that the heat conducted away by this means forms a comparatively small percentage of the total heat flow, but “never- theless it contributes to the effect. By convection currents in the oil, the flow of the oil over the surfaces literally wipes away the heat, and probably this washing of the oil removes more heat than any of the other methods. The maximum effect by this method requires a limpid oil of low viscosity which flows freely and which will quickly fill in any voids caused by the eddying motion of the fluid. Directly related to the fluidity is the specific heat of the oil. This is the amount of heat absorbed by the fluid during One degree rise in temperature. A high specific heat means a great quantity Of heat removed for a given rise in temperature, and in this respect water stands the highest with a specific heat of 1.00, while the specific heat of oil is approximately 0.5. A given volume of liquid carries away the greatest annount of heat when it has a high specific heat. * Latent heat is the quantity of heat required to change a liquid into a vapor, or is the heat absorbed by the quenching medium when the liquid is being changed to a. vapor by the heat of the steel. As the steel is far above the boiling point of the ma- jority of quenching liquids, it is certain that vaporization takes place along the surface of the steel and that this vaporization is responsible for much of the cooling effect. With water as a quenching medium, as much healt will be absorbed by the vaporization of one pound of the water as will be absorbed by 97 pounds of the Water when raised ten degrees in temperature. COMPARATIVE COOLING VALUES. The cooling rate of mineral oil is approx- imately 25 percent of that of water, and is immensely greater than the cooling effect of air. For the majority of hardening jobs water cools too rapidly and in cooling so rapidly causes shrinkage strains and warping in the hardened part. Small pieces, glass hard, are frequently quenched in water or even salt water, but in the case of tool and spring hardening oil is far more suitable. There is always one quenching medium that is better for some particular job than any other, and this accounts for the great variety of fluids in use. Among the oils used for hardening are the mineral oils of various grades, fish oils, seal oils, lard oil, whale oil, linseed Oil, turpentine, Cotton Seed oil, etc., all of which have a specific use in the heat treating shop and which must be prescribed with caution for individual Ca,SeS. With any oil, we must be sure that it is free from water unless water is purposely introduced in the form of an emulsion. Droplets of water suspended in the oil give Severe local cooling effects which may cause Cracked pieces Or Warping. A noticeable moisture content may also cause glass hard spots in the work which will interfere with future grinding Operations or other shop processes. A uniform emulsion of minute Water globules in oil, as obtained with soap water or soluble oils, gives a cooling effect which is less rapid than that of water but which is more rapid than with pure oil. The difficulty experienced with such emulsions is that of breaking down under the high tem- peratures into the Original components of water and oil. COPYRIGHT 1924 COMPILED BY ~ NN 3 16 PETRO LEU M A GE J. B. RATHEUN tº-º tº CUTTING AND COOLANT OILs (NN-4-1) (General Requirements) ENERAL DEFINITION.—Cutting lubricants or “coolants’’ are oils or emulsions G used in cutting operations for the protection of the tools and to reduce the term- perature produced by the friction and shear at the point of tool contact. With some materials it is impossible to obtain a proper degree of finish without the applica- tion of a cutting lubricant while with others the use of the lubricant permits a higher cutting speed and a more rapid rate of production than when no lubricant is used. In general, a cutting oil or emulsion fulfills the following purposes: 1—To reduce temperature of tools and material being machined; 2—Reduces friction and power required; 3—Washes away chips and particles detached by the tool; 4–Prevents tool from seizing or grabbing into material; 5—Reduces wear on cutting edge of tool and reduces grinding expense; 6—TO protect metal from rusting or from corrosion; k 7—To reduce friction of dies in form and drawing Operations and to prevent buckling and abrasion of work; 8—To enable punches to center themselves and thus to prevent breakage of the punches and dies. Frictional heat affects the tools in two ways, (a) it causes the sharp cutting edge to wear and dull rapidly thus taking valuable time for regrinding which cuts down production and increases the expense of the operation and (b) the heat causes an expansion difference between the tool and the work which leads to errors in the dimen- sion of the finished product. After removing from the machine and cooling a part that has been highly heated during the machining process will be found Smaller than when calipered in the machine. Uncontrolled heat also causes trouble in the pindles of the machine and temperature variations in dimensions. When the proper cutting lubricant is used the increase of production may amount to 40 per cent or more over the production with dry Operation or with an improper cutting lubricant. Lubrication is ordinarily not of such great importance with brittle granular mate- rial such as cast iron for then the material breaks into a fine dust or powder which does not tend to bind or clog the cutting edge. Thus, cast iron may be satisfactorily machined without a lubricant. The exception to this rule is aluminum whose broken granular particles always tend to pack and clog the teeth of Cutters unless washed away by some cutting fluid. When the metal is tough and forms continuous spiral shavings which are not always broken by the tool much friction and heat are caused by the shavings clinging to the tool and rubbing over its faces. The tougher the material the greater necessity for a proper lubricant. In addition to reducing the friction the application of a fluid coolant chills the outer edge of the shaving causing it to contract On the Outer edge and thus to draw it Out of contact with the tool. This “relief’’ effect of the lubricant is perhaps nearly of as much importance as its actual friction reducing properties. Removal of the fine chips should be accomplished as rapidly as possible both to reduce the wear on the tool and to preserve the finish on the part being machined. This is especially necessary in drilling deep holes and in milling operations where accu- mulations of chips and dust would reduce the Cutting efficiency of the tool and would likely score the finished surface of the work. Washing away "these particles is one of the most important functions of a cutting lubricant. Taps, dies, reamers, milling cut- ters and other toothed tools have a much longer life when cleared by a proper lubricant. Perfect finish on the machined part generally calls for a lubricant having a high degree of greasiness Or oiliness or in other words the fluid must be a true lubricant. For every accurate work on the finishing cut the property of oiliness or lubricating value probably stands pre-eminent. Copyright 1921 COMPILED BY 1 PETRO LEU M MAGAZINE J. B. RATHE UN NN-4- CUTTING AND COOLANT OILs (NN-4-2) (General Requirements) ERVICE CLASSIFICATION.—In prescribing a cutting lubricant and coolant there S are a number of things to consider: the cutting speed, depth of cut, material, cooling effect, tendency to gumming, chip disposal, protection of machine bearings and spindles, character of tools, degree of finish, tendency toward rusting and corrosion, fluidity, and ease of separation from finished product and chips. These will be taken in detail under the various headings. CUTTING SPEEDS AND DEPTH OF CUT-Cutting speeds and depths of cut de- termine the amount of heat generated with a given material. As a rule deep cuts require a fluid with a considerable degree of oiliness or lubricating value while high speeds demand a pronounced cooling effect. At high speed the lubricant should be a S fluid as possible (low viscosity) so that the oil may flow rapidly into the cut. Fluidity has a great influence on the rate of cooling. With slow speeds and light cuts little cool- ing effect or lubrication is necessary except with the toughest and most clinging materials. With a high speed and shallow cut the cooling properties (fluidity) of the oil are of the greatest importance; this is best accomplished by water emulsions or very thin oils. With high speeds and heavy cuts we must have both cooling and lubricating values to a marked degree. This points to a compounded oil having low viscosity with the oili- ness of vegetable or animal oils. In some cases it would be necessary to use pure lard or sperm oil, for these sometimes meet perfectly very difficult conditions with heavy cuts and tough materials. With a low speed but with a heavy cut lubricating value Or oiliness is the greatest asset. DRILLING—Shallow depth drilling offers no difficulties not met by emulsions in Ordinary work. Fast production drilling on rough work where the drill is “punched through” rather than run through may require a compounded oil for best results. The principal factor in drilling is to wash the chips out of the hole as fast as they are pro- duced; this is best accomplished by a slightly increased viscosity. In very deep drilling, as with gun barrels or internal ports, the chip problem is serious and the lubricant must possess considerable viscosity to carry away the fine particles. The cutting Speed of drills is low compared with the speeds attained on lathes, automatics and so forth. MATERIAL–The material being cut has a pronounced effect on the cutting lubri- cant. Tough materials require a great degree of oiliness and a low vaporization tem- perature. A brittle material such as cast iron requires little lubrication. Nonferrous metals such as copper, aluminum, bronze, babbitt and other soft but tough nonferrous alloys, require a special form of cutting fluid which cannot properly be called a lubri- cant. Copper when machined dry is so tough and ductile that the tool will catch and tear out chunks of metal, producing a very jagged “job.” A common lubricant for , copper is milk or a mixture of lard oil in kerosene. Brass or bronze like cast iron may be worked dry but in automatic machines is generally lubricated with compounded oils or a straight light mineral oil. The best results with aluminum and aluminum alloys are generally accomplished with kerosene or lard Oil containing a percentage of kero- sene. Soap water or “aqualine’’ may also be used with this metal. For drilling very hard steel or glass use kerosene or turpentine. TJnless otherwise specified, the lubricants mentioned in these data, sheets refer to steel, brass or other common metal which has machining qualities similar to mild steel or brass. Peculiar metals such as copper, aluminum or materials such as glass, raw- hide, or fiber will come under a separate heading. TAPPING AND THREAD CUTTING—In tapping screw holes and threading the purpose of the cutting fluid is to lubricate and prevent the tearing out of the fine threads rather than to act as a coolant. The lubricant used for threading depends to a great extent on the material but in any instance the fluid should possess oiliness; emulsions are seldom used except for rough, fast work. Copyright 1921 COMPILED BY NN 4 2 PETROLEUM MAGAZINE J. B. RATHE UN sºsºm ºn tº # CUTTING AND cool ANT OILs (NN-6-1) A (Lubricants Classified) UBRICANTS AND COOLANTS-The fluids used in cutting and machining are generally either straight oils or emulsions of water and oil although in a few instances such fluids as turpentine, saline solutions, kerosene or milk may be used. The latter are generally used as “mordants” (mordeo—“I bite”), and are for the purpose of aiding the cutting edge in engaging hard surfaces such as hardened steel or glass. The general classification of cutting lubricants and cooling reads as follows: 1—Animal oils such as lard oil, or Sperm oil in the pure State; 2—Vegetable oils such as castor oil, rape Seed oil, et Cetera; 3—Pure light mineral oils; 4—Compounds or mixtures of light mineral oils with vegetable or animal oils; 5—Sulphonated animal oils mixed with mineral oils; 6—Emulsions formed by mixing water with a soluble oil; 7–Cutting compounds or solid soaps used for producing emulsions when mixed with water; 8–Drawing lubricants for blanking and press drawing operations. Selection of a proper cutting lubricant for a given purpose is fully as difficult as the selection of a proper bearing lubricant. It depends not only on the character of the metal or material machined but also on the degree of finish desired, the rapidity with which the cut is made, cost and a number of other factors. What would prove satis- factory with aluminum alloy would not be proper for nickle steel or copper. A lubricant satisfactory for roughing cuts would not be satisfactory for smoothly finished work. Milling machine operations demand a different fluid from the majority of drilling operations, and so forth. Last but not least comes the cost of the lubricant. In the past lard oil and sperm oil were considered the best mediums for lubricating and cooling cutting tools but owing to the high price of these oils the machine industry has been using mineral oils or mixtures of mineral oils; the various emulsions also played a considerable part in the industry. For some purposes the substitute emul- sions and mineral oils have been very satisfactory and have resulted in greatly reduced costs and in some cases greatly increased production rates. There are some materials and operations which demand the use of animal oils. Commercial cutting oils (Class 4) are usually a mixture of lard oil with a light mineral oil, the percentage of lard oil varying from 15 to 50 and oils having a lard oil content averaging 35 per cent may be used satisfactorily on a large variety of work. These compounded oils often contain small amounts of graphite, talc or aluminum salts. Pure animal oils or vegetable oils must be used on work where fine finish or high speed production with tough materials is desired for here we have a demand for the property of “oiliness” which may be attained only by pure animal or vegetable oils, oils which have the highest lubricating value. The “sulphonated” oils (Class 5), are produced by mixing light mineral oil with an animal oil which contains combined sul- phur, the sulphonated animal oil being produced by heating the animal oil in contact with sulphur. This is cheaper than the lard oil compounds (4) and may be used Ön many cutting operations. Water emulsions formed from soluble oils (6) have a lubricating value nearly equal to the compounded or sulphonated oils, are much more effective in cooling the tool and the work and are much less expensive. The emulsions are particularly valuable in drilling and milling (toothed cutters) and are adapted to all ordinary materials machined at ordinary speeds. The principal objection to the use of emulsions on some types of machines is that it will enter into combination with the Spindle lubricating oil and dilute it, thus causing excessive wear in the bearings. With poor grades of soluble oils or with very dilute solutions rusting may take place but this is avoided with proper solutions. Often straight mineral oil may be used on some operations with a resulting saving over the higher priced oils in classes No. 1, 2, or 4. Copyright 1921 & COMPILED BY i I PETRO LEU M MAGAZINE J. B. RATHEUN NN-6–1 cuTTING AND cool ANT oils (NN-6-2) (Lubricants Classified) \ HYSICAL PROPERTIES-Cutting oils and coolants cannot be judged entirely by P their chemical or physical characteristics in adapting them for a given service, except in a general way. Actual tests under practical conditions is the best method of determination. The following analysis will act as a rough guide in the selection of the lubricant and will at least serve to show the influence of the physical properties on their conduct. VISCOSITY –Within itself viscosity is not a desirable characteristic of a cutting oil for it resists settlement of the chips and prevents or retards them from settling out of the used oil in reclaiming it for recirculation. The higher the viscosity the greater will be the tendency toward holding the chips in suspension. High viscosity also retards the rate of flow and reduces the cooling effect at the point of tool contact. The loss of oil due to adherence is to some degree offset by the lesser annount of Spray and Splashing Of a highly viscous Oil and the leakage is reduced. Low viscosity oil must be used for high Speeds. With mineral oils the viscosity increases with the degree of oiliness, hence when straight mineral oil is used the viscosity must necessarily be high. Oiliness without a corresponding increase in viscosity is best attained by blending vegetable or animal oil with the mineral oil, the oiliness being contributed by the fixed oil without a great increase in Viscosity. OILINESS—This property is essential in obtaining a fine finish on the work or when cutting tough, Stringy materials; it is this property which reduces the friction and the Wear on the cutting edges of the tools. Ordinarily deep heavy cuts call for extreme oiliness; this is also necessary in threading Or tapping operations where sharp, clean threads are requisite. Animal and vegetable Oils attain oiliness to a high degree; emulsions have least. VOILATILITY-When the Oils are very volatile the healt at the tool causes them to produce objectionable smoke and fumes. With emulsions only steam is produced. Highly volatile lubricants such as kerosene and very light mineral oil produce com- bustible vapors and thus increase the fire risk on fast, heavy cuts with tough material. When the flash point is above 300° F. it is safe from the standpoint of fire. ACID AND ALFCALI—All vegetable and animal oils contain a certain percentage of free fatty acid, ranging from five to six in good grades of oils and 10 to 15 in tinged lard Oil. Acid above six per cent. decomposs rapidly in circulation systems, causing gummy deposits. The acid in good straight mineral oils is negligible. Oils containing , a large percentage of acid or rancid vegetable and animal oils may corrode brass (verdigris) but when below seven per cent there is not much danger of corrosion. In emulsions the presence of excess acid produces a separation of the soluble oil and water, the water collecting in the bottom of the System. This indirectly leads to rusting of the machine parts. Emulsions are not stable in the presence of excess acid. An excess of alkaline matter causes the tools to wear rapidly, probably for the reason that it destroys the oiliness of the fluid, and may also start rusting. Calcium and magnesium salts, as contained in hard water, will cause precipitates and will affect the stability of an emulsion. * OXIDIZATION.—Oil which oxidized rapidly when exposed to the air, such as the majority of the vegetable oils, cannot be successively recirculated when used “straight.” This oxidization causes gummy deposits which will eventually clog the circulating Sys- tem and will result in other troubles. Animal oils do not oxidize so rapidly, and the Oxidization of pure mineral oils is practically negligible. Mineral oil is best from the standpoint of recirculation, as on automatics. COLOR.—As a rule pale oils produce less carbon and gummy deposits than dark oils and in general should be preferred. A very dark oil interferes with reading the micrometer or other measuring instruments. tº t Copyright 1921 COMPILED BY NN 6 2 PETRO LEU M MAGAZINE J. B. RATHE UN * | } | CUTTING AND coolant oils (NN-6-4) .* (Lubricants Classified) g operations as lubricants or coolants. It includes such oils as lard oil, Sperm oil, wool grease and tallow. They may be used “straight,” sulphonated, mixed with maneral oil or in the form of emulsions according to demand. Animal oils have a high degree of oiliness with a minimum of viscosity and owing to their fluidity are excellent coolants at high sped. In many cases the use of animal oils is imperative; no mineral substitutes would suffice in difficult cutting Operations. In other cases" they may be diluted with mineral oils to reduce the cost and to gain some of the advantages of the animal oil properties. The animal oils are more stable than the vegetable products and will stand a certain annount of recirculation. A NIMAL OILS—This group is the most important of all the oils used in machining LARD OIL–This is by far the most commonly used animal oil both in pure form and in combination with mineral oil. It comes in many grades, such as “prime,” extra No. 1, and to some extent is affected by the temperature at which it is produced. Thus we have “winter pressed” oil. Prime lard oil is nearly colorless, having only a faint yellow or greenish tinge; this is the best, most expensive grade of oil. Cheaper grades are more heavily colored or “tinged” and tend to decompose more rapidly than the prime oil and to produce deposits, especially if the acid content is excessive. Tard Oil has a high degree of oiliness and is therefore well suited for machining tough materials such as steel and wrought iron or where a high degree of finish is to be produced. It is not extremely fluid, particularly at low temperatures; thus is not the best coolant, since it lacks much of the property of flowing and penetrating into the cut at high speeds. After extended use in a circulating system it thickens and loses still more of its cooling property. It is much superior to the majority of mineral oils in regard to cooling capabilities. It is extremely useful in tapping or threading touch steel or wrought iron and forms perfect threads with the proper tools. It is also adapted for finishing operations as in reaming. For extreme high Speed the oil should be diluted with mineral oil or used in the form of an emulsion. Prime lard Oil has a Saybolt viscosity ranging between 100 and 120 seconds at 100° F. and a setting point of 32° to 60° F. The Open cup flash point lies between 500° and 600° F. Its saponification value approximates 195, iodine value 65–75 and the free acid content in terms of Oleic acid should be below six per cent. The United States navy specifications for lard oil are given in the following abstract, which in general covers the most desirable features: Lard oil must be of good commercial quality and must be purchased and inspected by weight (specific gravity ranges from 0.914 to 0.920), the weight being determined at 60° F. Oil will not be accepted that contains any mixture of mineral oil (10 per cent vegetable or fish oil is allowed), nor must the oil contain more acidity than the equiva- lent of five per cent of oleic acid or show a cold test above 55° F. The specific gravity must not be above 0.92 nor below 0.910. SPERM OIL–Sperm oil has lower viscosity and is therefore a better coolant than lard Oil but is extremely expensive except for the Smallest and most delicate work. Its oiliness is less than that of lard Oil. It may be used for light cuts on tough or brittle material and at speeds higher than permissible With pure lard oil. The viscosity is 98 to 100 Saybolt seconds at 100° F. and has the low setting point of 32° F. It has only a slight tendency toward oxidization and therefore will stand much circulation. Specific gravity 0.878 to 0.883. Saponification value 130, iodine 90. WHALE OIL–Pale whale oils though expensive are used in some special machining operations and have a much higher specific gravity and viscosity than sperm oil. The dark oils may not be well used for this purpose. Whale oils evaporate or dry more rapidly than other animal oils and are therefore almost always mixed with a small percentage of mineral oil. Specific gravity 0.925, viscosity 100-120, saponification value 190, setting point 40-50° F., acid percentage five, flash point open cup 575° F. FISH OIL–This is used principally in compounding, frequently in lard oil, and is allowed up to 10 per cent by government Specifications. e t Copyright 1921 g COMPILED BY NN-6–4 PETROL EU M A GE J. B. RATHE UN º º CUTTING AND Cool ANT oils (NN-6-6) (Lubricants Classified) EGETABLE OILS—Vegetable oils possess a high degree of oiliness; in some V instances this property makes them superior to animal or mineral oils, particu- larly when a high degree of finish is sought. Owing to the very high viscosity of the majority of these oils they have little coolant effect in their pure state and are therefore diluted with mineral oils when high speeds are to be used. Vegetable oils Oxidize more readily than either animal or mineral oils and are therefore not well adapted for use in circulating Systems since the oxidization forms gummy deposits which clog the circulating System and interfere with the production of the machine. These oils may be used in blending with mineral oil or used with water in the form of an emulsion. CASTOR OIL–This is a very viscous oil with a high degree of oiliness and is there- fore suitable for use on very tough materials where a high degree of finish and accuracy are to be attained, as in boring and rifling guns. Owing to its high viscosity it must be diluted with moderate cutting speeds, generally with mineral oil. Its Saybolt viscosity at 100° F. is about 1200 seconds, setting point 0°-10° F., open cup flash point 550° F., Saponification value 175-185, and iodine value 80–90. It is classed as a non- drying oil. Castor oil does not mix readily with mineral oil directly, but may be made to combine indirectly by the addition of turpentine. It is insoluble in gasoline or kero- sene. It is an excellent lubricant for tapping and threading extremely tough materials. It is frequently used in the hydrolyzed Or Sulphonated form in making soluble oils for emulsions. COTTONSEED OIL–This is a semi-drying oil often used for obtaining finely finished surfaces or for compounding with mineral oils, but owing to its drying prop- erties and its extreme tendency toward Oxidization it is not suitable for use in circulat- ing systems. Viscosity is about 170 Saybolt seconds at 100° F., setting point 32° F., flash point 550-630° F., saponification value 195 and iodine number 110. It may be used for slow heavy cuts in tough materials. RAPE SEED OIL–This may be used under practically the same conditions as cottonseed oil, slow speeds and heavy cuts and for obtaining highly finished surfaces. It does not oxidize as rapidly as cottonseed oil but it should not be used in circulating systems. It has a high oiliness and a considerable viscosity. The viscosity is 240 Saybolt seconds at 100° F., setting point 10° F. to 25° F., open cup flash point 550° F., saponification value 175 and iodine value 95-105. It may be classed as a semi-drying oil; it mixes in all proportions with mineral oil. RESIN OIL–Resin oil is sometimes used with soluble oils to give “stability” to the emulsions formed with water Or So that the emulsions Would not separate or cause deposits. The resin oil should not be in excess of 10 per cent of the soluble oil; a greater amount would tend to form gummy precipitates. When using emulsions the presence of some resin oil is desirable, for it seems to retard rusting when very dilute solutions of the emulsion are used. \ TURPENTINE–While hot strictly an oil turpentine is often used in machining and cutting operations both as a lubricant and coolant and as a “mordant” for causing the tool to bite in or engage with the metal worked. A mixture of turpentine and lard oil is excellent for machining copper and is also used for causing Castor oil to enter ºnto solution with mineral oil. Aluminium is easily machined with a turpentine lubricant, although this is rather expensive. t In drilling very hard materials such as hardened steel or glass either turpentine alone or turpentine mixed with camphor will greatly increase the Speed of cutting. The writer has drilled hardened manganese steel in this way that could not be drilled by any other method. The solution of camphor gum in the turpentine increases the bite of the tool and seems to help in preserving the cutting edge. One great objection to the use of turpentine is the irritating funes given off when the tool is highly heated; usually kerosene is to be preferred when it may be used. Copyright 1921 COMPILED BY - tº- PET PO LEU M A GE J. B. RATHEUN NN 6–6 O % O \ Miscell ANEOUs OiLs (NN-21-20) CORE OILS CORES. In molding molten metal, a body of sand called a “Core” is used to form the hollow spaces in the casting. Thus, in the case of a casting having the form of a hollow cylinder or pipe, the central open space is formed by means of a cylindrical bar of sand supported in the mold, this core having the diameter of the desired hole While the length of the core is slightly longer than the complete casting in order to form a support for the ends of the core in the mold. The cores are made of sand in which some form of binder is used for giving the core solidity and the ability to hold its shape while under the pressure of the molten metal. It is generally further reinforced by metal rods or “core wires” run in the interior of the core. Nails, grids or cast “spiders” are also used for the reinforcement depending upon the form and size of the core. The reinforcement together with the binder, produces a hard solid mass of sand of considerable strength. Cores are molded unto the required shape in a mold called the “core box.” This is simply a block with recesses cut in the reverse form of the core, and may be either of metal or wood. The sand with its binder is slightly moistened before being molded in the core box, and after molding is usually baked in the “core oven” to dry it and to harden the mass. A green core is a core which has been dried by natural heat but not baked, and this sort of core is also frequently used. POURING. When molten metal is poured into the completed mold a considerable bending moment is exerted on the core due to the fact that the core is much lighter than the metal and therefore tends to float up, causing a heavy stress at the Supports, and a severe moment near the center. This is resisted by the sand particles which are cemented together with the binder and also by the reinforcing rods. It is evident that the binder must be of such nature that it is not decomposed by the heat of the molten metal or at least weakened so that it will give away. A second necessary characteristic of a core is porosity, that is, the structure of the core must be sufficiently porous and Open grained to permit the escape of air, Steam and other gases produced by the impact of the heated metal on the core. When the metal enters the mold, the Openings are of course filled with air which must be gradually displaced by the metal. Moisture exists in the sand of the mold and core and this must be allowed to escape through the pores in the core and mold to prevent blow-backs and scabby castings. Gases of various natures are included in the metal itself and other gases are produced by changes taking place in the core binder so that altogether, a great volume of gas must be transferred through the body of the sand. It is therefore essential that the Core binder be of Such nature that it does not form an excessive almount Of gas, and further, it must not bake into a solid non-porous mass which will obstruct the flow of gas through the core sand. A third requirement is that the material should not allow any perceptible shrinkage to take place which might form cracks in the core or cause the thin edges to chip or spall off. A certain percentage of free carbon is generally desirable in a core binder, and in fact is sometimes added to the binder, as the free solid carbon reduces 'the Cutting action due to such high temperature molten metals as steel or semi-steel. CoPYRIGHTED 1924 COMPILED BY PETRO LEU M AGE J. B. RATHEUN NN-21–20 MiscELLANEOUs OILs (NN-21-21) CORE OILS INITIAL STRENGTH. After the core is molded and baked it must have sufficient hardness to resist the rough handling that it receives in molding and in transporting the cores to the molding department. It must be of Such nature that the edges are not easily knocked off or nicked. Very often, the tests met with in placing the cores in the mold are more severe than experienced after pouring, and much attention should be given to the binder for this reason. \ MOISTURE. Another item of importance in the core is that of resistance to moisture. The binder must not be hygroscopic, or in other words, must not absorb moisture from the air during storage. MARING CORES. There are several innportant factors which determine the Suitability Of a COre binder from the Standpoint of the Core maker. In Order to save the core maker’s time and to prevent ragged cores, the binder must quickly unite with the sand particles on mixing, and then must leave no loose sand grains nor sticky residue after the core is taken out of the core box. Sticky gummy oils when used for this purpose are troublesome to handle. f Quick baking is another innportant item. The cores must bake quickly clear to the Center, and in baking should give Off as little gas or Odor as possible. Fumes from certain binders are very objectionable, and as it is almost impossible to properly ventilate a core room in the wińter time this -question is of importance to the health Of the Core room help. After the sand and binder are mixed, the mixture should stay moist and moldable for many hours afterwards. Rapid drying binders which require frequently mixed batchés are not desirable. There should be little evaporation at Ordinary room temperatures. A CORES FOR CAST STEEL. Owing to the terrific temperatures of molten steel, all care must be taken to have a core that will withstand this temperature. It must not fuse or melt with the metal, and there should be a minimum tendency toward Carbonization and the Consequent hardening Of the Steel surfaces which come into COntact With the core. & As cast steel has a comparatively great rate of shrinkage, nearly double that of cast iron, the core should be of Such nature that it will “Squeeze in” as the metal cools. Another point in the making of steel castings to take care of is the provision for the great amount of gas contained in the Steel. Porosity is an exceedingly valuable and necessary property of a core sand for steel molding. Any binder which will form a. hard non-porous surface is prohibitive with steel castings. GREY IRON CASTINGS. The temperature of molten cast iron is comparatively low, and it is not a difficult matter to get good Smooth Castings with even a fair core. Core strength is particularly desirable where large cores are used for castings having thin metal walls as in the case of steam radiators, automobile castings, stove plate castings, etc. The slightest flexure or “give” in cores used for such castings are likely to produce a dangerously thin Wall on One side of the casting or the core may even shift so much that it will cut clear through the casting. BRASS AND NON-FERROUS CASTINGS. In making brass, bronze and aluminum castings, the temperatures met with are still lower than with cast iron, and little trouble will be experienced from heat. The most important point is porosity. COPYRIGHTED 1924 COMPILED BY PETRO LEU M AGE J. B. RATHE UN NN-21–21 MISCELLANEOUs OILs (NN-21-22) | | * CORE OILS CORE SANDS. There are a number of different sands used for core making, the Sand selected depending upon the nature of the metal poured, surface desired, porosity, etc. The principal heat resisting element in the sand is silica, which constitutes from 80 to 98 percent of the total weight of the sand. Other substances contained in varying quantities are alumina (clay), iron oxide and small amounts of organic matter, although the latter must be reduced to the Smallest possible amount. The Silica, exists in the form of small sharp glass like crystals, which When pure, have absolutely no bonding power between themselves and are almost as free running as Water. This condition only obtains when the percentage of silica, is very high, say about 96 percent. Such sands, most frequently used for core work, therefore require some form of binder which will cement the silica, particles together. Molding Sands contain a comparatively high percentage of alumina or clay which effectively bonds the silica, particles together without the necessity of an additional binder. Such sands, however, are not usually well adapted for core work. Clean Washed silica sand, free from clay and with about 96 percent silica are the best adapted for Core work. Bonding of the silica, crystals depends much upon the sharpness of the crystalline edges. Some Crystals are as sharp as broken glass while other are slightly or com- pletely rounded Off forms probably produced by washing in the beds of rivers or lakes, The Size of the Crystals is also of importance and may range from the fine silica, dust obtained from sand blasting establishments to the large coarse grains of Jersey gravel. Venting Or the escape of gas from a core of course depends upon the size of the “voids” or Spaces between the crystals of the sand, and as a rule, the voids or porosity is at a maximum when the grains are large in size and when the grains have sharp Corners and edgeS. The size of the grains is largely influenced by the nature of the metal used. Fine grain Sands, as a rule should be used with such thin penetrating metals as brass and aluminum as these metals will enter sufficiently into the pores of the sand to produce a rough Casting or a Casting with a grainy surface which is often objectionable with Such metals. Cast iron is not as fluid as the brass and aluminum and hence can be used With Coarser grained sand. Molten steel which is extremely viscous and immobile will not flow into the Coarsest of Sand pores, and with the necessity of provision for large Volumes of gas in Venting, coarse porous sands are most desirable for steel foundry work. Uniformity in the size of the grains is also important in order that venting and bonding be uniform throughout the core. It is also desirable as uniformity in grain size permits of accurate estimates in the matter of proportioning the amount of binder and Water needed for properly making the cores. The presence of alumina in core sand determines the nature of the binding agent that is to be used. If there is much clay or alumina, shale or limestone particles present, then oil is not of much avail as a binding medium. COPYRIGHTED 1924 GOMEPILED BY PETRO LEU M AGE J. B. RATHE UN NN-21–22 MISCELLANEOUs OILs (NN-21-23) Core Oils CLASSES OF CORE SAND BINDERS. Commercial core and Sand binders can be had either in the form of solids, pastes or liquids, but in all cases their function is to cement the grains of the core sand together to give the core form and strength. The following list gives the principal core binders now used by foundries. (1) DEXTRINE (DEXTROSE). This compound is a sort of sticky sugar found in corn starch or wheat flour, and is obtained commercially by heating starch to a high temperature in the presence of diluted hydrochloric acid. This ele- ment gives flour pastes their adhesive qualities. (2) GLUTRIN, is another flour product or may be obtained from corn starch by special treatment, or from wood pulp. (3) PITCH obtained by heat treating certain resins is a binder sometimes used for heavy work. This is also known as ‘‘Black Compound”. (4) MOLASSES. A byproduct of sugar refining which is so common as to need little description. (5) SEMI-RESINS. These are viscous liquids or semi-fluid pastes obtained by the partial evaporation of vegetable oils which contain natural resins in solution. (6) OILS. Oils containing certain cementing elements are Very commonly used as core binders. The most common of these oils is linseed oil or compounds of which linseed oil forms the base. Other oils are resin oils, fish oils, soya-bean oil, corn oil, mineral oil, China wood oil, Cottonseed oil, and tar oils. VEGETABLE DERIVATIVES. The dextrines or other solid or vegetable pastes require thorough mixing with the sand to insure uniform distribution through the sand, and must be supplied in excess over the amount actually effective as much of the material is lost in the voids of the sand. The binder is moistened during mixing and then after molding to form is dried or baked to expel the moisture. A small amount of the binder dries on the surface of the grains, and binding takes place only at the Small points of contact between the grains. This of course gives but little Strength because of the small binding area. The excess binder fills up the voids between the grains of sand and thus interferes with the proper venting of the core. When clay is present in the sand, it has but little effect upon the binding power of the dextrines since the dextrines are not absorbed by the clay. With glutrin, clay in small quantity actually increases the binding power, hence with clayey sands glutrin is a desirable material except that it acts with the clay in interfering with the proper venting. Where limestone pebbles are contained in the sand, the use of glutrin is desirable. Resins and pitches melt under baking and flow through the sand cementing the grains together when cooled. When clay is present, the binding effect of the resin is added to that of the sand so that a strong core is had. Being highly carbonaceous, masses of carbon are formed by the pouring of the hot metal, thus protecting the core against scoring by the metal and making it easy to break up and remove the core from the Casting. COPYRIGHTED 1924 COMPILED BY ######"Aé J. B. RATH BAUN } NN-21–23 | | * MiscellANEOUs oils (NN-21-24) Core Oils 2. MOLASSES. This viscous fluid is often used but is objectionable in many respects. It ferments easily, and when fermented loses its strength. It is not uniform in Strength and its effect on the cores cannot be predicted with certainty. Again, it has a tendency toward forming a hard inpenetrable skin on the core, and as it is easily carbonized by a hot core oven, it will lose strength rapidly unless handled in just the right way. CORE OILS. One of the principal advantages of oil as a core binder lies in the fact that little or no ramming or tamping is required, and that the sand can easily be handled by unskilled labor. No venting is needed, hence improper handling will not cause blowouts and defective castings. Core oil effects a great saving in time, labor and in reduced wastage. From 40 to 50 percent of the costs experienced with other binders can easily be saved by the proper use of core oils. Sharp sand can be used in place of the usual core Sand. | The sand used with core oils should be free from loam, earthy matter or clay as such materials absorb the oil and interfere with its binding power. Used with sharp, clean sand, the cores are exceedingly strong and uniform and are particularly adapted for gray iron castings having long, thin cores where strength is a consideration and where the temperatures of the metal are not high. However, the oil binder is not suitable for steel foundry work as a rule, as the uniform hard body of this core resists the great shrinkage of the metal and the extremely high temperature of the Steel weakens the core. Generally, glutrin is preferable for this work. It is a much simpler matter to obtain a perfectly uniform mixture of core Oil with the sand than with solid binders, and in most cases it is almost necessary to use an oil binder when core making machines are installed as the oil lubricates the feed mechanism and tubes and prevents an excessively hard core. A solid binder remains where it is placed in the body of the sand, but the oil automatically transfuses through the mixture by capillarity and therefore requires much less mixing. While linseed oil is the best known of the core oils, and probably the best, yet its comparatively high cost makes it desirable to compound it with other oils or to use other oils in certain cases. There are commercial oil binders on the market which are sold under various trade names which are compounds of linseed oil with some other cheaper vegetable oil, or with even mineral or fish oils. Mineral oils contribute nothing toward the strength of the linseed oil since they contain no resinous matter, but they reduce the cost of the oil and prevent the sand from Sticking to the sides of the core box as is often the case where pure linseed oil is used. Raw linseed oil is the strongest binder but is slow drying, Boiled linseed oil dries much more rapidly but is deficient in strength. Among the vegetable oils used as blending agents are resin oils, China wood oil, soya-bean oil, cottonseed eil and corn oil. Resin oil is probably the most common compounding oil and because of the resinous matter contained contributes binding power to the linseed base. It has a stronger tendency toward sticking in the core box and does not evaporate rapidly, hence it is not a desirable oil to mix in large percentages nor to use alone. Chinawood oil dries rapidly, and contributes this factor to oils with which it is compounded, and is In itself a good binding medium. YRIGHTED 1924 COMPILED BY sº ‘ºaº J. B. RATHE UN NN-21–24 MISCELLANEOUS OILS (NN-21-26) (Grinding Lubricants.) GRINDING WHEELS. There are a great many different grinding operations in the Various metal working shops varying from rough grinding and cleaning on cast- ings to the refined precision grinding on finely machined parts, where finishing down With an accuracy of 1/10,000 inch is not unusual. In fact, the grinder is one of the greatest developments in accurate production methods where machine parts are turned out in quantities. When grinders were first introduced they were run dry. This necessitated very light Cuts because of the great amount of heat generated and much objectionable dust was also produced which interfered with the accuracy of the work and was highly injurious to the machine spindles and bearings. Dry grinding was followed by the use of plain water as a lubricant, then by soapy water and finally by many special lubricants devised by the makers of lubricants. e The grinding wheels used are of many types and are furnished in many grades, the wheels being graded principally by the size of the grains composing the mate- rials. Among the more common materials are carborundum, alundum and plain emery. The Sharp grains act just like minute cutting edges and on close examina- tion it will be found that these edges cut chips and metal shaving very similar to those produced by ordinary cutting tools except that they are of course on a very much smaller scale. ROUGH GRINDING. By rough grinding is meant those grinding processes used in foundries and similar metal working industries where large fins, burrs and rough Spots must be removed before the actual machining is begun. The principal objec- tive in this case is to remove metal as rapidly as possible without regard to accuracy. The materials are seldom Chicked up but are fed to the wheel by hand and the rough spots are trimmed off according to eye. * This rapid removal of metal results in much heat, but of more serious conse- quence, also produces much injurious dust that is harmful to the health of the Operatives and which is difficult to remove by ventilating systems. While the grind- ing efficiency may not always be very greatly improved by the use of fluid lubri- Cants yet it eliminates the dust evil and from this standpoint alone is a great step in advance over dry grinding. FINISH GRINDING. In this grinding the lubricant is used principally to wash away the heat and to prevent the parts from warping Out of shape while being machined. When dry ground, it is impossible to grind a perfect cylinder when a heavy cut is taken owing to the distortion of the part directly under the wheel. f COPYRIGHT 1925 OMIPILED BY PETRO LE U M AGE § TB. RATHEUN NN-21–26 j. *. * CoMBUSTION (oo-3-1) (Thermal Calculations) HEAT ENERGY-Heat is a form of energy into which all other forms of energy may be converted hence it may be considered the lowest form of energy. Heat energy may be converted into mechanical energy by means of heat engines or mechanical energy may be converted into heat through friction. The measure of healt “INTENSITY” or “THERMAL PRESSUEE” is called the “TEMPERATURE” and is apparent to the senses of touch, Sight etcetera. The intensity is measured by an instrument such as a thermometer, pyrometer or thermostat, and is numeric- ally given in “degrees” according to the system by which the instrument is gradu- ated. The principal units of temperature are the FAHRENHEIT DEGREE, CENTI- GRADE DEGREE and the REAUMIER. Heat intensity is evidenced principally by its ability to cause “expansion” or to increase or diminish the dimensions of various objects as the temperature increases or diminishes. TEMPERATURE (SENSIBLE HEAT)—This property of heat (pressure) causes expansion, either linear or volumetric, by increasing the Space between the molecules and increasing the radius of the orbits through which they ware assumed to swing. Conversely expansion may be made as the measure of heat intensity, as in the expansion of the mercury column of a, thermometer. The effect on the senses is so wariable as to eliminate this feature as a basis for temperature measurement. Each increase in temperature is accompanied by an increase in volume Or length, Some materials increasing more rapidly than others under similar temperatures. The increase per unit length for each unit increase in temperature (degree) is the unit of expansion and is called the “COEFFICIENT OF EXPANSION.” The length of the object multiplied by the change in temperature, multiplied by the coefficient of ex- pansion for that material gives the total increase in length due to that change in temperature. When the temperature is reduced, the reduction in length is computed by means of the change in temperature in the same way but Considered negatively. The expansion of any material of course reduces its density or weight per unit volume since the same weight of material occupies more Space after expansion. Temperature or heat pressure is the force tending to cause a “flow” of heat or the transfer of healt from one object to another or along a continuous material. The greater the temperature difference between two points the more rapid will be the flow of heat. The flow is from the higher to the Iower temperature. There is no such thing as cold; it is a relative term expressing the fact that one point is of lower temperature than another hence there can be no flow of cold. A third effect of temperature is to determine the point at which a substance changes its physical form. Thus we have the melting temperature, congealing temperature or vaporizing temperature at which a solid body becomes fluid, a fluid becomes solid of a solid or liquid turns into gaseous form, respectively. There is a temperature at which all heat ceases to exist. This is known as “ABSOLUTE ZERO” and when temperatures are measured from this point they are known as the “ABSOLUTE TEMPERATURES.” This is entirely different from the “Zero” marked on a thermometer, for the absolute temperature lies far below the thermometric zero; in fact, it has never been reached experimentally. It lies approximately 461 degrees below the Fahrenheit thermometer zero and 273 degrees below the zero on the centigrade Scale. Thus to obtain the absolute temperature we must add 461 to the Fahrenheit thermometer reading and 273 to the centigrade thermometer reading. FAFIRENHEIT THERMOMETER SCALE-This scale is used in English speaking countries, principally in commercial work. On the Fahrenheit scale water freezes at 32 degrees (32°) and boils at 212 degrees (212°). Thus there are 212 — 32 = 180 Fahrenheit degrees or divisions between the freezing and boiling points of water. CENTIGRADE THERMOIMETER SCALE-This is a metric system in which water freezes at zero degree (0°), and boils at 100 degrees (100°) thus there are 100 degrees between the freezing and boiling points. A Copyright 1921 COMPILED BY 00–3–1 PIETROT-EUMI MAGAZINE J. B. RATHBUN In order to leave space for additions the sheets in one issue may not follow exactly in numerical order. Thus 00-3-1 may not be printed with 00-3-2, the latter following in a subsequent issue, combustion (oo-3-3) (Thermal Calculations) HEAT CONTENTS OF HYDROCARBONS–The heat contents of the various hydro- carbon fuels may be estimated with fair accuracy both from the analysis and from the Beaume gravity. A formula devised by Inchley (the engineer) gives the higher heating value of hydrocarbon liquid fuel when the carbon (C) and the hydrogen (H) percentages are known. In this formula, (C) and (H) denote respectively the parts by weight of carbon and hydrogen in the fuels. Heat in B.t.u. per pound— B.t. u = 13,500C + 60,890ER Another formula, much more applicable to the Ordinary data, at hand, gives the heat in terms of the Beaume gravity (Be°), and is in fair agreement with tests. B.t.u. = 18,650 + 40 (Be” — 10) TABLE OF CALORIFIC VALUES.–The following table gives the heating values computed by the second formula, in terms of the Beaume gravity. For convenience the corresponding weights per gallon, trade name of nearest average commercial product and hydrocarbon group symbols are also given with the horsepower per pound per hour at 100 per cent. efficiency. Sº Po © +ar- - ? tº tº Is tº * = ga §:s #3 Hºd; #3: 3 * Bă p'º §§º H P @ 35 P- º £3; §§ H Biº ::s #* | ###| | ### §§ #: ... 3 # ºšš ſº (; §§ B; wng, ſº ſº ſº ºf 3 10 1.0000 8.32 | . . . . . . . . . Fuel Oil 18,650 158,628 7.3.3 11 0.992.9 8.27 | . . . . . . . . . 4 & 18,690 154,667 | . . . . . . . .9859 8.21 | . . . . . . . . . & 4 18,730 153,774 7.36 13 .9790 8.16 . . . . . . . . . 4 & 18,770 153,163 | . . . . . . . 14 .97.22 8.10 ! . . . . . . . . . tº g 18,810 152,361 7.39 15 .9655 8.04 | . . . . . . . . . |U. S. N. “B” 18,850 151,554 7.41 16 .9589 7.99 | . . . . . . . . . Bunker 18,890 150,931 . . . . . . . . 17 .9523 7.93 | . . . . . . . . . Fuel Oil 18,930 150,115 . . . . . . . 18 .9459 7.88 . . . . . . . . . & & 18,970 149,484 7.45 19 .9395 7.83 . . . . . . . . . & 4 19,010 148,848 | . . . . . . . 20 .9333 7.78 . . . . . . . . . & 4 19,050 148,209 7.48 21 .9271 7.72 | . . . . . . . . . 4 & 19,090 147,375 | . . . . . . . 22 .9210 7.67 . . . . . . . . . & 4 19.130 146,727 7.52 23 .9150 7.62 | . . . . . . . . . | & 4 19,170 145,975 | . . . . . . . 24 .9090 7.57 | . . . . . . . . . 4 & 19,210 145, 7.54 , 25 .903.2 7.53 | . . . . . . . . . & 4 19,250 144,953 . . . . . . . . 26 .8974 7.48 . . . . . . . . . & 4 19,290 144,287 7.58 27 .8917 7.43 . . . . . . . . . & 4 19,330 143,620 | . . . . . . . 28 .88.60 7.38 . . . . . . . . . 6 & 19,370 143,050 7.61 29 .8805 7.34 [ . . . . . . . . . & 4 19,410 142,470 | . . . . . . . 30 .8750 7.29 | . . . . . . . . . & 4 19,450 141,790 7.64 31 .8695 7.24 | . . . . . . . . . & 4 19.490 141,110 | . . . . . . . 32 .8641 7.20 ! . . . . . . . . . & & 19,530 140,620 7.68 33 .8588 7.15 ! . . . . . . . . . & & 19,570 139,925 | . . . . . . . 34 .8536 7.11 . . . . . . . . . . Gas Oil 19,610 139,430 7.71 35 .84.84 7.07 Cs5H12 & 650 138,925 | . . . . . . . 36 .84.33 7.03 28H4s & & ‘ 19,690 138,420 ! . . . . . . . 37 .8383 6.98 C20H42 6 & ,730 137,715 . . . . . . . 38 .8333 6.94 C18Hss & 4 19,770 137,200 7.76 39 .8284 6.90 | . . . . . . . . . & 4 19,810 136,690 | . . . . . . . 40 .8235 6.86 C18H36 & 4 19,850 136,170 | . . . . . . . 41 .8187 6.82 | . . . . . . . . . P& erosene 19,890 135,650 7.82 42 .8139 6.78 C16.H.84 & 4 19,930 135,025 | . . . . . . . 43 .8092 6.74 C15H82 4 & 19,970 134,600 7.84 44 .8045 6.70 | . . . . . . . . . & & 20,010 134,070 7.86 45 .8000 6.66 C14Hao & 4 | 20,050 | 133,530 [ . . . . . . . 46 .7951 6.63 . . . . . . . . . & 4 20,090 133,200 | . . . . . . . 47 .7909 6.59 CiałH28 & 4 20,130 132,660 | . . . . . . . 48 .7865 6.55 | . . . . . . . . . & 4 0,17 132,110 7.93 49 .7821 6.52 • * * * * * * * * 4 4 20,210 131,770 | . . . . . . . 50 . . .7777 6.48 C12H26 & 4 20,250 131,020 7.96 For lighter fuels (gasoline) see Data Sheet (00-3-4). Copyright 1921 COMPILET) BY 00:3 3 PETRO LEU M MAGAZINE J. B. RATHBUN sº emº In order to leave space for additions the sheets in one issue may not follow exactly in numerical order. f Thus 00-3-1 may not be printed with 00-3-2, the latter following in a subsequent issue. 39 O O w combustion (OO-3-4) * * (Thermal Calculations) Table of Calorific Values Continued From (00-3-3): *@ P, 9 tº . +* - - 9 Q tº ºs * -: H.3 -ºi ää. #85 §§§ ### §§ Pä E3 ###". & P @ gºº .." S- 9 : * & Q H H e §§ ##!" ### §§§ # #2. : ; 3 º;3 , "tº ūnū; §§ tº: AP ºf biſh' 'E 51 0.7734 6.44 C12H26 Naphtha. 20,290 : 130,670 | . . . . . . . . 52 .7692 6.41 | . . . . . . . . . & 6 20,330 130,315 7.989 53 .76.50 6.37 | . . . . . . . . . & £ 20,370 129.760 | . . . . . . . . 54 7608 6.3.4 C11H24 & & 20,410 129,400 8.0 21 55 7567 6.30 [ . . . . . . . . . 4 & 20,450 128,835 | . . . . . . . . 56 7526 6.27 | . . . . . . . . . & ſº 20,490 128,470 8,055 57 .7486 6.24 C10H22 of 4 20,530 128,110 ! . . . . . . . . 58 .7 4.46 6.20 ! . . . . . . . . . Gasoline 20,570 127,535 8.084 59 .7 407 6.17 Colizo & & 20,610 127,165 | . . . . . . . . 60 .7368 6.14 | . . . . . . . . . 4 & 20,650 126,790 8.115 61 7329 6.11 | . . . . . . . . . & 4 20,690 126,415 8.131 62 .7290 6.07 | . . . . . . . . . & & 20,730 125,830 8.147 63 .7253 6.04 | . . . . . . . . . § { 20,770 125,450 | . . . . . . . . 64 .7216 6.01 . . . . . . . . . . & 4 | 20,810 125,070 8,178 65 .7179 5.98 Cs.His & 4 20,850 124,680 . . . . . . . . 66 71.42 5.95 . . . . . . . . . & 4 20,890 124,300 8.209 67 .7106 5.92 | . . . . . . . . . & & 20,930 123,905 | . . . . . . . . 68 .7070 5.89 | . . . . . . . . . & 4 20,970 123,510 8.241 69 .7035 5.86 . . . . . . . . . & 4 21,010 123,120 | . . . . . . . . 70 7000 5.83 C7H16 & £ | 21,050 122,720 8.272 REMAIRRIS ON TABLE –It will be noted that as the specific gravity decreases (Beaumé gravity increases) the B.t.u. per pound increases but the B.t.u. per gallon decreases. Because of this variation the horsepower per pound per hour also in- creases as the specific gravity decreases. The table indicates another feature of petroleum, that is, the trade names for the different fractions cover a Wide range of gravities and that the trade name is not definitive. The table of horsepower is the horsepower produced with the expenditure of One pound of fuel per hour, the efficiency being assumed at 100 per Cent. For any other efficiency, say 30 per cent. (0.30), multiply the tabular value of the h. p. for the given fuel by the efficiency. Thus with an efficiency of 0.30 and a gravity of 60° Be... the horsepower becomes: 0.30}{8.12=2.426 B. h.p. where the expression B. h.p. is the “brake-horsepower” or the useful horsepower. The group symbol of the paraffine series does not exactly agree with the given specific gravity in every case but the variation is comparatively slight, an Ounting Only to a few points in the fourth decimal place. DERIVATION OF HORSEPOWER CONSTANT—The following shows the method of deriving the horsepower constant in the last Column, it being taken that one horsepower (h. p.) equal to 33,000 foot pounds per minute and that one B.t.u. = 778 foot pounds. 77.8h Then: HP == where h = B.t.u. of heat energy supplied per minute, 100% effic. 33,000 Or 778 h’ HP = — where h ’ = B.t.u. supplied per hour at 100% efficiency. 33,000 × 60 * This, when terms are reduced, becomes: HP = 0.000393h' at 100% efficiency. Let E = efficiency expressed as a decimal then brake-horsepower = BHP = B.H.P. = 0.000393h’ E. Copyright 1921 COMPILED BY ########M Magazine J. B. RATHBUN 00–3-4 In order to leave space for additions the sheets in one issue may not follow exactly in numerical order. Thus 00-3-1 may not be printed with 00-3-2, the latter following in a subsequent issue. CoMBUSTION (oo-3-5) (Thermal Calculations) t GASOLINE TEST-HEAT AND POWER—A number of tests were made throughout the country on various gasolines by the United States bureau of mines in 1916. These are representative of the commercial grades and are interesting principally for the reason that they offer Comparisons with the calculated values tabulated on Data. Sheet (00-3-4) and show the results actually obtained in practice. The power tests were made with an “L” head, six cylinder automobile motor with a bore and stroke of 3.5” x 5”. The throttle was wide open with a speed of 1,000 r.p.m. The temperature of the outlet water from the jackets was kept within range of 140° F. to 150° F. while the carbureter was adjusted to give the best torque. The thermal contents were measured in a bomb calorimeter of the Dinsmore-Atwater type. (Technical Paper 163, Petroleum Technology 38.) IHEAT AND POWER, WA.I.UES OF COMINTERCIAL, GASOLINES Poo Po Q @ H ſº º : E. E. Q) P - 'd Sprº H Field from which sample Mºś. §§§ ă § #5 ſh 㺠was obtained (Class) ### § tº H; 5 p;5: § §§ i º ifiº | awe ſº ſº | Hº Mid-Continent . . . . . . . . . . Cracked . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.745 57.9 20,097 1.345 Mid-Continent . . . . . . . . . . Straight run . . . . . . . . 0.742 58.7 20,113 1.403 Mid-Continent . . . . . . - . . . [Straight run. . . . . . . . 0.733 - 61.0 20,12 1.350 Eastern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Straight run. . . . . . . . 0.718 65.0 20,137 1.405 Eastern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Blend C. Hol. . . . . . . . . 0.733 61.0 20,214 1.376 Eastern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Straight run . . . . . . . . 0.687 73.8 20,36 1.487 Mid-Continent . . . . . . . . . . Straight run. . . . . . . . 0.724. 63.4 20,187 1.395 Mid-Continent . . . . . . . . . . Straight run. . . . . . . . 0.727 62.6 20,198 1.396 Mid-Continent . . . . . . . . . . Straight run. . . . . . . . 0.715 65.8 20,250 1.365 COMPARISON OF THERMAL VALUES.–The actual thermal value in B.t.u. per pound are slightly less than that obtained theoretically in the table in Data. Sheet (00-3-4), as may be supposed but the relation of the gravities to the thermal contents in the table above is remarkably consistent, for in nearly every case, the heat con- tents increase with an increasing Beaumé gravity. The difference due to the two cases of 61.0 Bé. in the above table is due to the variation between a casing- head blend and a straight-run product. Taking the case of the straight-run Eastern having a Beaumé gravity of 65.0 in the above table we see that the heat content is 20,137 B.t.u., while the calculated value on Data. Sheet (00-3-4) is 20,850 B.t.u., giving a difference of 713 B.t.u. per pound or a difference of about 3 per cent. This error is practically negligible in heat calculations for the calorimeter is likely to be 2 per cent. Out. The calculated value for the straight run 61° Eé. product is 20,690 B.t.u., while the actual test shows 20,124 B.t.u., this resulting in a difference of 566 B.t.u. per pound or about 2.5 per cent. error. It would undoubtedly be safe to deduct 3 per cent. from the calculated value to obtain the average commercial Value of Straight run gasoline. COMPARISON OF POWER-ENGINE EFFICIENCY-The engine efficiency may be obtained (within error limits of 3 per cent.) by dividing the power given above by the calculated power on Data. Sheet (00-3-4). Let us take the case of the 61° Beaumé product where the actual power per pound of fuel per hour is 1,350, with a calculated power of 8,131 at 100 per cent, efficiency. 1.350 Efficiency of engine = E = — = 0.166 8.131 Copyright 1921 COMPILED BY 00 3 * PETROI, IETUM TVIAGAZINE J. B. RATHBUN —J-J In order to leave space for additions the sheets in one issue may not follow exactly in numerical order. Thus 00-3-1 may not be printed with 00-3-2, the latter following in a subsequent issue, A. L combustion (oo-3-6) (Thermal Calculations) tº g º Boiling Point £ . + ſº gººmºsºmºmºmºmºmºmºsºms 5t; § 3 * - 5 # 5; X Y º 3 + ,835 C F ‘5, t- s S > 5 § O > O ſ Pentane . . . . . . . C5 H12 72 36 96.8 .3100 3.225 .2013 | Hexane . . . . . . . . 6 H14 86 6.85 || 155.3 .2595 3.877 .2420 Gasoline. . . . ... + Heptane . . . . . . . CT H16 || 100 98 208.4 .2232 4.481 .2797 Octane . . . . . . . . a His 114 | 125 257 1957 5.110 ! .3190 Distillate. ... J . Nonane . . . . . . . . Co H20 | 128 || 130 266 1744 5.734 . .3579 Decane . . . . . . . . 10H22 || 142 | 161 321.8 1572 6.361 .3971 Undecane -. . . . . . 11H24 || 156 | 194.5 382.1 ! .1431 6.988 . .4362 Kerosene. . . . . . Dodecane . . . . . . 12H26 || 170 214.5 418.1 .1313 7.616 | .4754 Tredecane . . . . . 18B.2s | 184 || 234 453.2 .1213 8.244 .514.6 UTetradecane . . . . 14H80 198 || 252 485.6 | .1127 8.853 .5526 Pentadecane . . . 15H82 212 || 270 518 .1052 9.505 .5933 Gas Oil. . . . . . Hexadecane . . . . 16H34 || 226 287 548.6 0988 || 10.121 | .6318 Heptadecane . . . . C17Hsa 240 || 303 380 0930 10.754 .6713 Octodecane . . . . . C18H38 254 || 317 600 .0878 11.389 .7.109 Benzene . . . . . . . Ce H6 78 80.4 177 .2862 3.494 | .2181 Toluene . . . . . . . Cz Hs 92 || 111 231.8 .2426 4.122 2573 Xylene . . . . . . . . . Cs H10 || 106 || 137 278.6 2105 4.751 .2965 of Liquid 1 Kg. Requires Ai Oxygen r Oxygen º Cu. Ft. S.G. Beaume Air Lbs. Cu. Ft. Kg. Cu. M. Cu. M. † & Pentane. . . . . .626 800+ | 3.5555 || 2.4855 T 11.950 T 3.5555 T-39.7 191.2 Hexane. . . . . .663 800+ 3.535 2.4715 || 11.858 || 3.535 39.5 189.5 Gasoline.” Heptane. . . . .688 || 73.5 3.520 2.4610 || 11.832 || 3.520 39.3 198.1 & Octane. . . . . .719 64.5 3.508 2.4529 || 11.795 || 3.508 39.15 | 188.5 OL18. Ile .723 63.5 3.500 2.4472 11.766 || 3.500 39.1 188 Distillate | f Decane. . . . . .736 || 60 3.493 2.4422 || 11.741 3.493 30.0 187.8 Undecane. . . .756 55 3.487 2.4380 || 11.721 3.487 38.9 187.5 Kerosene. . . Dodecane. . . .765 || 55.5 3.482 2.4345 || 11.704 || 3.482 38.5 187 Tredecane. . . .778 49.5 3.478 2.4317 | 11.691 || 3.478 38.2 186.8 Tetradecane | .796 || 46.5 3.475 2.4295 11.681 3.475 38.0 186.5 Pentadecaneſ .809 || 43 3.472 2.4275 / 11.671 || 3.472 38.00 | 186 Gas Oil . . . Hexadecane. 3.468 2.4247 || 11.659 || 3.468 38.0 186 Heptadecane 3.466 2.4233 || 11.650 || 3,466 37.99 || 186 Octodecane. 3.464 2.42.19 || 11.644 || 3.464 37.99 || 186.0 Benzene. . . . . .8799 || 29.1 3.077 2.1514 || 10.343 || 3.077 6,09 36.5 Toluene. . .8723. 30.5 3.130 2.1883 || 10.521 i 3.130 6.17 37.2 Xylene. . . . . . .876 29.8 3.169 2.2156 10.652 3.169 6.27 37.6 a = Theoretical Volume of 1 kg. of Vapor in cu. meters at Pressure of 1 Atmosphere. ty = Density 09—C in kg. per cu. meters of Vapor, 1 Atmosphere Pressure. COPYRIGHT 1923 PETROL EU M AGE ar COMPILED BY J. B. RATHEUN OO–3–6 INTERNAL combustion ENGINEs (PP-3-50) (THERMAL AND POWER CALCULATIONS) S.A.E. HORSEPOWER RATING. This formula, also often called the A.L.A.M. or N.A.C.C., formula is a “Volumeric” rating used for comparing machines or for basing taxation, but does not give the true horsepower rating of modern high speed long stroke engines. It underrates this class. The formula is based on an old time type With an equal bore and stroke, running at 1,000 R.F.M. and having a mean effective pressure of 70 pounds per Sq. in. Modern engines run at higher speeds, have a greater proportionate Stroke and higher M.E.P., hence give much more power than the S.A.E. formuka. Would give. If D = diameter of cylinder in inohes; N = number of cylinders. H = horsepower (Volumetric). Then: H = D&N or H = 0.4ID2N *=ºms 2.5 GENERAL, HORSEPOWER FORMUL.A. The most accurate of the empirical formulae for Calculating horsepower is one that takes into account the stroke, bore, number of R.P.M., the number of cylinders, and has a constant representing the mean effective pressure, the value of the fuel, and the compression. Thus if D = cylinder diameter in inches; S = stroke in inches; N = number of cylinders; R = revolutions per minute, and C = a constant representing the mean effective pressure, fuel, etc., then: The brake-horsepower = B.H. P. = D2NSR —- This is a close approximation to the useful, or brake-horsepower developed. The value of the constant (C) for various types of engines and fuels is as follows: s FOUR STROICE CYCLE ENGINES Diesel oil engines, C = 13,500. Aeroplane engines, C = 10,800. High-speed auto engines, C = 12,500. Automobile (pleasure), C = Producer gas engines, C = 17,800. Stationary, gasoline engine, C = 18,000. TWO STROKE CYCLE ENGINES Hot bulb kerosene engine, C = 15,400. Marine two stroke, C = 13,600. Gasoline two stroke engine, C = 10,000. DISPLACEMENT. The displacement volume or the volume swept out by the piston in One Stroke is a measure of the power for a given type of engine. The “total dis- placement” is the total displacement of all cylinders. Thus, if D = cylinder, S = stroke, both in inches, then the displacement in cubic inches becomes: Displacement = v = 0.7854D2S, and total displacement = 0.7854D2SN, where N = number of Cylinders. The unit displacement, or cubic inches of displacement per horse- power becomes: 0.7854D2SN V’ = — , where B.H.P. = brake horsepower. B.H.P. } According to the S.A.E. horsepower formula, there are 7.854"cubic inches per horse- power, but this figure varies, with the compression, speed, fuel and other variables, so that in extreme cases with high speed engines, there may be as little as 3.00 cubic inches per horsepower or even less. An aeronautic engine wtih two exhaust and two inlet valves per cylinder has accomplished one horsepower with as little as 2.908 cubic inches. . Changing back to one exhaust and one inlet per cylinder, with the same engine increased the unit displacement to 5.83 cubic inches, all other factors remaining constant. The old Gnome rotary engine only gave a horsepower on 12.00 cubic inches. The computation of power by means of volumetric contents is simple and short. To obtain the horsepower, divide the total displacement in cubic inches by the factor représenting the number of cubic inches per horsepower for that particular type of engine. 3. COPYRIGHTED 1924 COMPILED BY PP-3–50 *. PETROL EU M AGE JOHN . B. RATHEUN tº-> $ \ O & ! INTERNAL combustion ENGINEs (PP-6-50) D O A Motor Transport COST OF OPERATION PER MILE. It is the oommon practice to quote the fuel consumption of pleasure oars and some classes of light trucks in terms of the average number of miles traveled per gallon of fuel. This is a rough and ready method of computation for the reason that many important factors are obscured, hence comparison is not particularly accurate. However, if we assume standard conditions it is close enough for estimates. There are a number of variable factors which control the number of miles attained with a gallon of fuel. Among these are the following items: * 1. Total weight of loaded vehicle, including weight of the vehicle and that of the live load. 2. Speed in miles per hour. 3. condition of roads, whether paved, sandy, etc. 4. Adjustment of engine and the engine condition. 5. Class of fuel used, whether gasoline, kerosene, etc., or the grade of these various fuels. 6. Percentage of idling periods during which engine runs without driving the car. 7. Type of tires, whether pneumatic or solid. 8. Atmospheric temperatures and temperature of engine. 9. Type of vaporizer [Carburetor] and ignition system. 10. Skill of driver in handling and repairing car. Nearly all of these items are self-evident except for item [2] which denotes the speed of the vehicle. Really, speed is of the very greatest importance since the amount of power required varies nearly as the cube of the speed. When running above 15 miles per hour, the effect of speed on the fuel consumption is very marked, and from this point every little increase in speed rapidly jumps the power and fuel consumption. If the engine is idled much of the time while driving in traffic or while loading or unloading at the curb, then fuel is burned at low efficiency without running up the mileage at the same time. If the engine is cut off at every step, and for any length of time, then again we have increased fuel consumption due to heating the engine up a great many times. All this sort of thing brings down the result of dividing the speedometer miles by the total gallons consumed, or in other words, cuts down the gallons per speedometer mile. * In the following table it is assumed that the total speedometer miles attained per gallon is known, Whether this mileage per gallon is obtained by continuous running under ideal conditions or by traffic driving with numerous stops makes no difference so far as the table is concerned. Here we have the cost of driving per mile at-various rates of fuel consumption and with different prices of fuel per gallon. The fuel consumptions listed range from 6 to 25 miles per gallon while the price of fuel ranges from 6 cents to 32 cents per United States Standard gallon. This table is useful in many departments, but more partic- ularly in the transportation and distributing departments. t COPYRIGHT 1923 COMPELED BY PP 6 50 PETROLEUM AGE J. B. RATHE UN gº ºs & \ ſe INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINEs (PP-6-51), Cost of Motor Transportation Per Car Mile Wuel Price per MILES TRAVELED PER GALLON OF GASOLINE OR OTHER MOTOR. FUEL Gallon (Cents) 6 7 8 9 || 10 || 11 | 12 || 13 || 14 || 15 16 || 17 | 18 || 19 20 | 21 || 22 || 23 24 || 25 C C C C C G G C C C C C C t| C C C C { | C 6.0 . . . . . . . . . 1 00 .86| .75 .66 .60. .54 .50 .46| .43 .40 .38 .35| .33| .32] .30| .29 .27| .26| .25| .24 6.5 . . . . . . . . . 7.0. . . . . . . . . . 1 16|1.00 88 .77| .70 .64; .58| .54 .50 47] .44 .41| 39| .37 .35| .33] .32 .30| .29] .28 7.5. . . . . . . . . . 8.0. . . . . . . . . . 1.33|1. 14|1 00 .89 .80 .72 .66 .61| .57| .53| .50 .47 .44 .42| .40 .38|| 36|| 35| 33 .32 8.5. . . . . . . . . . 1.42 1 07 .85 .71 . 61 .53 47 .43 .39 .35 9.0... . . . . . . 1.50|1 29|1.13||1 00 .90|| 81] .75] .69 , 64] .60 .56 .53| 50 .47] .45] .43 41 .39| .37| 36 95. . . . . . . . . . 1.59 1 20 95 .86 .79| .73| 68 .64| 60} .56| 53 .48 .43| .41| 40 100. . . . . . . . . 1.67|1.43||1 25||1.11||1 00| 91} .83| .77|| 71 .67| 63| 59 56 .53| .50 .48 .45| .43| 42| 40 10 5. . . . . . . . . . 1 75 1 32 1 06 .88 .75 , 66 58 .53 .48 44 11 0. . . . . . . . . . 1.83|1 57|1 38; 1.221.11:1.00 .92. 85| .79| .73 .69 .65 .61| .58 .55| .52 50 .48| .46 .44 11.5. . . . . . . . . 1.92 1.44 1 16 .96 .83 .77|| 72 .64 .58 .52 .47 12 0 . . . . . . . . . 2.001 71|1 50|1.33|1 201.09||1.00 .92 .86] .80 .75 .71 .67| .63 .60|| 57| 54| .52| 48 .46 12.5. . . . . . . . . 2.09 1.57 1.25 1.04 .90 * | .78 .70 .63 57 51 13.0. . . . . . . . . 2.17|1.86|1 63|1.441.30|1. 18|1.08||1.00 .93| .87 .81 .76|| 72 .68 .65 .62 59 .56|| 54 .52 13.5 . . . . . . . . . 2.25 1 69 1.35 1.13 .97 .85 .75 .68 62 .56 14.0. . . . . . . . . 2.33|2.001.75|1.56|1.40|1.27|1. 17|1 08||1 00. 93 .88 .82| 78 .74 .70 67 64| 61 .58 .56 14 5. . . . . . . . . . 15.0.......... 2.50 2.14 1.881 67|1.50|1.361.25||1.15||1.07|1.00 .94 .88 .83 .79| .75|| 71 .68| .65 º .60 15.5. . . . . . . . . . 16.0. . . . . . . . . . 2.67|2.28|200||1.78|1.601.45|1.33|1.23|1. 141 07:1.00 .94 .89 .84 .80 .76 .73| 69| .67 .64 16 5. . . . . . . . . . 17.0. . . . . . . . . . 2.83|2 432 13||1.89|1.70|1.55|1.42|1.31|1.21|1.13||1 06:1.00 .94 .89 .85| .81 .77| 74| 71 .68 17.5. . . . . . . . . . 18.0. . . . . . . . . . 299|2.57|2.252.001.801.64|1.50|1.381.29.1.19|1.131.061.00) .95, 90 .86. .82 .78] .75 .72 18.5. . . . . . . . . . 19.0... . . . . . . . |3.172.71/2.38|2 111.901 731.58|1.461.361 27|1.19|1.12|1.05|1 00 .95 .90 .86|.82 .7ſ) .76 19.5 . . . . . . . . . 20.0. . . . . . . . . . 3.332.86|2 502.222.001 82|1 67|1.54|1 431.33|1 251.18|1.11||1.051 00 95| .91 87| 83| 86 20 5. . . . . . . . . . 3.41 2.57 2 50 1 71 1.47 1.28 1. 14 1.03 .93 .85 21 0. . . . . . . . . . 3.50|300|2.63|2 332.101.91|1.75|1 61|1 501 401.31|1.23|1.17|1.101.05|1.00) .95 91] .87 .84 21 5. . . . . . . . . . 3.58 2.69 2.15 1 79 1.54 1.34 1.20 1 08 .98 .90 22 0. . . . . . . . . . 3.67|3.14|2.75|2.442 2012 001 83|1.69||1.57|1.47|1.38:1.29|1.221.58||1.101.05|1.00; 95 .92 .88 22.5. . . . . . . . . . 3 75 2.82 2.25 1.88 1.61 1.41 1.25 1.13 1 02 .94 23 0. . . . . . . . . . 3 83|3 28|2.882.56|2.30|2.09|1.921.77|1.64|1.531.44|1.35||1.28|1.211.15||1.09||1.04|1.00 .96 .92 23 5. . . . . . . . . . 3.92 2.94 2.35 1.96|1 81| 68 1.47 1.31 # 1 07 .98 24.0. . . . . . . . . . 4 003.433.00|2.67|2.40|2.182 001.85|1.711.60|1.50|1.41|1.331.261.201.14|1.09|1.041.00 .96 24.5. . . . . . . . . . 4.09 3.07. 2.45 2.04 1.75 1 53 1.36 1.23 1. 12 1.02 25.0. . . . . . . . . . 4.17|3.57|3.132.782.50|2 27|2.08||1.92|1.79|1.67|1.56|1.47|1.39||1.321,251.19|1.14|1.09|1.041.00 25.5. . . . . . . . . . 4.25 3.19 2.55 2.13 1.83}1.70|1.60 1.42 1.28 1.16 1.06 26.0. . . . . . . . . . 4.333.71|3.25/2.892.602.362. 17|2.001.86|1.73|1.63|1.531.441.37|1.30|1.341.18|1.13||1.08||1.04 26.5. . . . . . . . . . .42 3.31 2.65 2 21 1.90 1 66 1 47 1.33 1.21 1.10 27.0. . . . . . . . . . 4.50|3.86|3.383.002 70.2.45|2.25|2 08||1.93||1.801.69||1.59|1.50|1.43|1.35||1.29.1.23|1.17|1.12|1.08 27.5. . . . . . . . . . 3.44 2.75 2.29 1 97 1.72 1.53 1.33 1.25 1. 14 28.0. . . . . . . . . . 4.66|400|3.50|3.11.2.80|2 55|2.33|2.152.001.86|1.75||1.65||1.55|1.47|1.40|1.33|1.27|1.221.161.12 28 5. . . . . . . . . . 4.75 3 57 2 85 2.37 2.04 1.78 1.58|| 1.43 1.29 1.19 29.0... . . . . . . . 4.834.14|3.633.222 90|2.63|2.42|2.23|2.07|1.93||1.81|1.711.61|1.53|1.45 1.8sliš, 1.26|1.211 16 29.5. . . . . . . . . . 4.92|4 21|3.69 2.95 2 46 2.11||1.97|1.85 1.64 1.48 1.34 1.23 03.0 . . . . . . . . . 5.00|4.283.75|3.33|3.00|2.73|2 50|2.31|2 14|2.001.881.761.671.58|1.50|1.431.361 301.25:1 12 03.5. . . . . . . . . . 5.08|4.36||3 82|3.39;3.05|2.78|2.54|2.35|2.18|2.03|1.91 1.70 1.53 1 39 1 27 31.0.......... 5.16|4 433.88|3.44|3.102 822.58|2,382.21|2.061.94|1.821.72|1.631.55||1,481,41|1.35 1.29||1.24 31.5. . . . . . . . . . 32.0. . . . . . . . . . 8.33|4,514.00|3.56l3.20 a wizºb. 2 282.132.001 88|1 78|1.68|1 60|1.52|1.45|1.39||133|1 28 COPYRIGHT 1923 COMPILED BY PP 6 5 PETROLEUM AGE J. B. RATHE UN –6–51 ^. INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINEs (PP-10-12) (Carburetion and Combustion) VA PORIZATION. Vaporization is the process of converting a solid or liquid Sub- stange into gaseous form without producing any permanent chemical change. in the gasified substance. This change in physical form is accomplished by the addition of heat, and no matter what the substance may be, some heat is always absorbed during vaporization. This heat may be considered as the energy required to break up the liquid particle into vapor form, and the heat is absorbed in proportion to the quantity of vapor formed. This is the first step in the process of burning liquid fuels in the Cylinders of internal combustion engines and is therefore of the greatest importance. At this point a distinction must be made between the terms “Gas” and “Vapor.” Ordinarily, when a Substance is “Gasified” a chemical change is assumed to have taken place in the gas so that it remains permanently in gaseous form at tennperatures Con- siderably below the temperature at which it was formed. A vapor suggests no change in the chemical composition of the substance, and when cooled down to a certain Critical temperature it “condenses” and returns to its original liquid form. A “Fixed Gas” is one requiring very high pressures and extremely low temperatures for its liquefaction and is a substance which perfectly retains all of its gaseous properties through the range of temperatures experienced in its use. Thus, air and hydrogen may be considered as being fixed gases since tremendous pressures and very low temperatures are required to return, them to a liquid state. When gasoline is moderately heated “Vapors” are formed which condense and return to the liquid state when the heat is reduced to the Original tennperature. Nearly all substances, which are liquid at ordinary atmospheric temperatures, form vapors to Some extent at these temperatures. I liquids, such as ether and light gasoline, form large volumes of vapor at Ordinary room temperatures and are known as “Volatile” fluids. Water, heavy kerosene and lubricating oil form very small volumes of vapor at ordinary temperatures and are therefore known as “Non-Volatile” substances, although they are really volatile to a limited extent. It is practically certain that any fluid which possesses odor is volatile to Some extent although it may form very Small volumes of vapor. Very light gasoline forms sufficient volumes of vapor at ordinary temperatures to permit of use without adding artificial heat, the air temperature being high enough to perform the work. Heavy gasolines and kerosene require heat in addition to the atmospheric heat for the evolution of sufficient vapor volume. Heat applied to a liquid mass first raises its temperature, and this part of the heat is therefore called the sensible heat since it is apparent to the sense of feeling. The quantity of heat required to elevate a given weight of fluid through a given temperature depends upon the character Of the fluid or is dependent upon the specific heat of that fluid. With the specific heat of water taken as 1.000, which is usually the case with liquids, the average specific heat of petroleum products is approximately 0.500, which signifies that Only half as much heat is required to raise petroleum through a given temperature as in the case of water. | After the Sensible heat has been increased to a certain value we reach a point where further additions of heat produce no further rise in temperature, but instead cause a change in the physical state of the liquid. At this temperature the liquid is rapidly changed into a vapor. In the case of water, at ordinary atmospheric pressure, We can increase the Sensible heat to 212° F., but any further addition produces Only an increased volume of vapor or “Steam” and no higher temperature is reached until all of the water has been converted into vapor. Every liquid has a different boiling point, or temperature at Which the rise in sensible heat reaches a maximum. N Gasoline is composed of a great nurnber of different liquid hydrocarbons, each having its own boiling, temperature, hence gasoline can have no single definite boiling point as in the case of “Homogenous” or simple fluids such as water. COPYRIGHT 1922 COMPILED BY PETROLEU M AGE J B. RATHEUN PP-10-12 INTERNAL combustion ENGINEs (PP-10-13) (Carburetion and Combustion) HEAT OF WAPORIZATION. When the sensible heat or temperature of the liquid has been raised to a maximum at which no further temperature rise is possible, the heat further added to produce vaporization is called the latent heat or “Hidden Heat.” This is the heat quantity required for producing a physical change in the liquid and is expressed in terms of British Thermal units or in calories, depending on whether the English or metric systems are used. In numerical terms the latent heat is called the heat of Vaporization and this may be Stated as the quantity of heat disappearing in the evaporation of a unit mass of the liquid at the constant temperature of evaporation. To evaporate a given mass of liquid we must first bring up the mass to the tem- perature Of evaporation, the heat required being the “Sensible Heat.” Next, we must Supply the “Heat of Vaporization” to convert the liquid into vapor at the temperature of vaporization. Thus, the total heat of vaporization is equal to the sum of the “Sensible Heat” and the “Heat of Vaporization.” Unless some standard temperature is taken for the Starting point of the heating, various results will be obtained for the total heat of Vaporization for the same liquid since with a low temperature we must supply a greater a.mount of sensible heat to bring the mass of the liquid up to the vaporizing temperature, To avoid confusion from this source, the engineers have adopted a standard for the evaporation Of Water in boilers, the water being assumed in all cases to be elevated from 32° F. to the atmospheric boiling point of 212° F., with evaporation taking place “at and from 212° F.” With certain solid fuel, such as Naphthaline, sometimes used in internal Combustion engines, We must first heat the Solid in order to convert it into a fluid, and then heat it further to produce vapor. Here we must add the “Latent Heat of Liquefaction” to the heat elements already described. TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE. The temperature of vaporization and the latent healt are affected by the pressure placed on the vapor. Thus, with a given fluid, the temperature of vaporization is increased by increasing the pressure over the surface of the fluid, or is reduced by reducing the pressure. For example, water, which has a normal boiling temperature of 212 ° F. at atmospheric pressure, may be made to boil at 90° F. if a strong vacuum is established over the fluid. By increasing the pressure we may attain a boiling temperature of over 500° F. In other words, for each tempera- ture there is a corresponding pressure value, and for each pressure there is a corre- sponding temperature at which evaporation takes place. This is of importance in carbureted motor fuels for the reason that the evaporation is affected by changes in atmospheric pressure. The change of atmospheric pressure may be caused by weather conditions Or by Changes in altitude. When the altitude above sea level is increased by any great amount, the pressure drops and consequently the temperature of vaporization drops with it. This means that the temperature of vaporization at an elevation of 10,000 feet above sea level will be much lower than at sea level and that there will be a greater production of vapor at the high altitude pro- viding that the temperature is kept constant. This is one of the reasons why ‘‘Altitude Compensation.’ must be made with carbureters when abrupt changes are made in alti- tude, a high altitude causing a more rapid evolution of vapor (at constant temperature) and hence a richer mixture. In practice this effect is somewhat Offset by the fact that the temperature falls as the altitude is increased so that the full effect of pressure reduction is not experienced. BOILING POINT (B. P.). By the term boiling point as used in the foregoing, it is to be understood the highest temperature attainable by a liquid under a given pressure of its own vapor. It should be noted that this pressure is the vapor pressure of the liquid in question and not the total pressure acting on the fluid. When the upper Space of a vessel is entirely filled with the pure vapor of the liquid, any increase in the pressure is followed by a rise in the boiling point. When the vapor is mixed With some other vapor, the total pressure of the mixture does not determine the boiling point. By experiment in which the pressure of the vapor rising from the liquid is reduced below the total pressure existing in the vessel, the boiling temperature is lower than would be accounted for by measurement of the gaseous mixture pressure. COPYRIGHT 1921 Sºś PP-10–13 FETRO LEU M AGE . RATHE UN * INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES (PP-10-14) * (Carburetion and Combustion) VAPOR TENSION (VAPOF PRESSUFE). The rate of evaporation of a liquid is Controlled to a large extent by the blanket of vapor lying on its exposed surface. The Vapor pressure is the true indication of volatility. The primary relations between Vapor tension and evaporation are expressed by DALTON'S LAW : (1) A liquid will continue to evaporate from an exposed surface until a definite pressure of this vapor is established on the surface. (2) This pressure changes with the temperature of the liquid, but is independent ; ºne Character, quality, or quantity of any other gases or vapors existing above the ll] Cl. (3) If the vapor issuing from the liquid are mixed with other vapors or gases, the total pressure of the mixture multiplied by the volume percentage of any constituent gives the “Partial Pressure” of that of that constituent. This is the case governing carburetor mixtures since here we have a mixture of vapor with large quantities of air. s Law No. 1 can be demonstrated by partly filling a vessel with the liquid and heat- ing until all of the air is displaced by the vapor. By closing the vessel and heating to different pressure we find that the liquid under the blanket of its Own vapor has a boiling point which varies with the pressure. * Law No. 2 may be demonstrated by covering the bulb of a thermometer with cotton, the Cotton being soaked in Water. This is placed within a closed vessel in which a dish of sulphuric acid is also placed, the water vapor from the thermometer bulb being rapidly absorbed by the sulphuric acid. Air is the other gas which forms the mixture with the water vapor. Now when the total pressure of the mixture within the vessel is reduced, the water vapor from the bulb is rapidly absorbed by the sulphuric acid, thus reducing the water vapor pressure to a lower value than the actual total pressure of the mixture of air and vapor. The boiling point is no longer proportional to the total pressure within the vessel, but is proportional to the vapor pressure of the water alone. By experiment, the total pressure of the mixture was reduced to 40 mm. of mercury at which the boiling point of pure water vapor is normally 34°C. Actually, the temperature fell to 10°C for the reason that the pressure of the water vapor was much below the pressure of the mix- ture due to the rapid absorption of the acid. , In another experiment, which comes closer to actual carburetion conditions, an air bath through which a current of air could pass was heated to 205 °C. A thermometer having its bulb covered and wetted with boiling water was suspended in the bath. The total pressure within the bath was atmospheric, but in spite of this and of the high temperature of the chamber, the temperature of the thermometer fell to 66°C instead of remaining at the theoretical value of nearly 100°C. When the flow of air was partly checked, the temperature rose to 80°C, and when the air was entirely checked and the chamber nearly filled with vapor the thermometer reached 99°C. (Experiment by P. S. Tice.) Here we have the case where the water vapor pressure fell below the atmos- pheric pressure when the air was passing through the bath. The evaporation of a gasoline or other liquid fuel in a carburetor is controlled by the vapor pressure of that liquid, and the liquid continues to evaporate as long as the pressure of its vapor is less than the maximum vapor pressure corresponding to that temperature. This evaporation can of course proceed at almost any temperature, far below the actual boiling point and is commonly called “Insensible Evaporation” When a loss takes place at low temperatures by the exposure of the Surface of the fluid to the air. The proportion of air required for the combustion of a gasoline does not alone depend upon the chemical composition of the fuel but also upon the relation of its vapor pressure to its temperature. Again, the heat, of vaporization is important since the temperature during evaporation is lowered in direct proportion to its value unless heat is supplied from some external Source. YRIGHT 1922 COMPILED BY tº #: J. B. RATHBUN PP-10–14 INTERNAL combustion ENGINEs (PP-10-25) (Carburetion and Combustion) GASOLINE EVAPORATION FROM COMPOSITION. We can illustrate the vapori- zation requirements of an ordinary gasoline by assuming that the lighter constituents Correspond to Pentane (C5H12) and that the heavy ends approximate Undecane (C11Hsa), these, of course, being compounds of the paraffine series. The theoretical formula for the combustion of Pentane is expressed by the following formula: Fuel Air Products of Combustion C5H12 + (8 O2 + 32N2) = 5CO2 + 6H2O + 32N2 tº From Avogadre's Law, the volumetric proportions of a mixture of gases are repre- sented by their molecular proportions. In turn, these are directly represented (in the particular case of a gaseous fuel mixed with the proper amount of air for combustion) by the above equation of combustion itself. From this equation of combustion we See that a perfect combustible mixture of pentane and air must consist of 40 parts of air and one volume of pentane, the air being composed of 8 volumes of oxygen and 32 vol- unes of nitrogen. -- - - - f| Hºſt Now we will fine the volumetric proportions obtained from the heavy undecane element of the fuel, the following being the formula of combustion for undecane: Fuel Air Products of Combustion C11H24 + (17 O2 + 68N2) = 11CO2 + 12H2O + 68N2 Here we see that a perfectly vaporized mixture of undecane and air is made up of 1 volume of fuel to 85 volumes of air. Since pentane and undecane mark the upper and lower limits of the fuel considered, it is evident that there are more of the inter- mediate fractions which are much lighter than undecane, and that the average constitu- ent is lighter than the arithmetical mean taken between pentane and undecane. It is likely that the average volumetric proportion of the vapors will be 1 in 60 (1.67%). This is about the same percentage of gasoline as the percentage of moisture commonly contained in the air. From the fact that we are only concerned with mixtures of air and gasoline which contain only about 2 percent of vapor saturation it is evident that the boiling point (at which the saturation is 100 percent) is of not much practical value. True vaporization within the carbureter takes place at temperatures much below the boiling point. The measure of evaporative ability of a fuel is its ability to form approximately a 2 percent mixture and not a condition of complete vapor Saturation. The Vapor pressure is the true indication of Volatility. With pentane the mixture must be stable up to about 2 percent, while with undecane the stability need only be attained at 1 percent. Approximately, the pentane element must have about twice the volatility of undecane to exist in the form of a Vapor and to be equally volatile in actual carburetion. Here we are assuming a gasoline of the “straight-run” type and not a casinghead blend. From Dalton's Law (3), in an early part of this section, we can determine the Con- dition of the two vapors listed. Thus, taking the heaviest fraction of this gasoline having a boiling point of about 380° F.—435° F., which forms the last 10 percent of the gasoline, we find by the combustion formula that a perfect mixture would contain about 1.2 percent of this fraction in the form of a vapor. Taking the average intake manifold pressure of an engine at about 400 mm., the partial vapor pressure of the heavy fuel vapors (averaging 400° F. end point) will be: 0.012 X 400 = 4.8 mm. This is the vapor pressure that actually controls evaporation. We will find by experiment that the least volatile portion of the fuel (B. P. = 400° F.) has a vapor pressure well above 4.8 mm. at any temperature above 125° F.; hence the heaviest fraction in the assumed fuel can be vaporized and will remain as a vapor. If manifold condensation, so-called, does take place it is due to the droplets of fuel which were never vaporized, and is not due to the condensation and separation due to low temperatures. The latent heat of gasoline is about 130 B.T.T.J. per pound. C ight,1921 COMPILED BY prºjº AGE J. B. RATHE UN PP-10–25 INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES (PP-10-26) (Carburetion and Combustion) VAPOR PRESSURE OF MIXTURES. With a smaller amount of vapor present and lower vapor pressure, a lower vaporization temperature is indicated when the Vapor is mixed With air. The less the partial pressure of the vapor, in a mixture, the lower the boiling point. Therefore, with a given fuel and air temperature, the rate of evaporation Will be higher the greater the proportionate amount of air present. Thus economy With lean mixtures can be explained both by the use of less fuel per cylinder Volume, and Secondly by the better evaporation of the fuel in a lean mixture and the better rate of flame propagation. With a lean mixture and with air in excess, the more rapid Will be the evaporation of the fuel. The relative vapor pressures of gasoline and kerosene depend of course on the initial and end points of those two fluids. In the following table, the vapor pressure in millimeters of mercury is given for two samples of high grade straight run gasoline and kerosene. The vapor pressures of present commercial auto gasoline are somewhat lower than given here, but the table will at least be useful as a guide in explaining What is to follow. VAPOR PRESSURES OF HIGH GRADE GASOLINE AND EXEROSENE Temperature Vapor Pressure (Millimeters Mercury) Co Ga,SO line P:Cerosene 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 11 * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * is e e º e s e º e º 3 g º º is e e s = e º a 116 12 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 14 15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 16 ar 30 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 19 25 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210 24 30 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250 29 35 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305 36 40 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361 42 45 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432 47 50 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497 52 55 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 556 57 60 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 648 64 65 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 750 72 70 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 845 81 75 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 975 94 80 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . & e g 102 Here we see the great difference between the vapor pressure of kerosene and gasoline and the reason for the necessity of heating the kerosene when used in car- buretors. The vapor pressure of kerosene is roughly one-tenth that of gasoline for the same temperature. This table represents the maximum vapor pressure of the two fuels under consideration at different temperatures, and conversely, represents the boiling points of the liquids at different pressures. The lower the grades of the gasoline and the more nearly that it approaches kerosene in its nature, the lower will be the vapor pressure for a given temperature. Let us assume that a given weight of fuel is mixed with air necessary for its combustion, and so that the partial pressure of the vapor is zero at the time that the mixture takes place. The heat contained within the air and fuel is sufficient to cause evaporization. At the instant of contact, the partial pressure of the vapor is very far below the maximum vapor pressure due to the temperature (See table). The initial evaporation is now very rapid for the reason of the great depression of the boiling point in regard to the temperature. As vaporization progresses, the partial pressure of the vapor rises and the tem- perature of the mass falls, due to the absorption of heat during vaporization. The available heat becomes less as the vaporizing temperature rises, and the progress of vaporization becomes slower and slower, until it finally stops when the partial pres– sure of the vapor in the mixture equals the maximum vapor pressure at the tempera- ture then-existing. If the sum of the heat contents of the fuel and air is sufficient, all of the fuel will be vaporized, but it is important to note that the rate continually decreaseS. | I 1922 COMPILED BY Eğ # J. B. RATHEUN PP-10-26 INTERNAL combustion ENGINEs (PP-10-27) (Carburetion and Combustion) RATE OF VAPORIZATION. With a pool of fuel, the greater the relative percentage of the fuel vaporized, the longer will be the time required to oomplete evaporation. Thus the last ten percent of the fuel may take five or ten times as long to evaporate as the first ten percent, even when assuming that the gasoline is of uniform composition and without “Heavy ends.” The leaner the mixture becomes (Air in excess), the lower will be the partial pres- sures of the vapor and the boiling point. Thus, when the air is increased above that actually required for combustion the rate of vaporization will be higher than with richer mixtures. Similarly, if the heat content of the air and fuel Were greater than above, then the partial pressure of the vapors would have been lower than the maximum vapor pressures at the temperatures involved, and the rate of vaporization would have been again increased. VAPORIZATION CALCULATIONS. The following method is commonly used in, computing temperatures of vaporization and the necessary initial temperatures of the fuel. Having determined the values of vapor pressure referred to temperature of the fuel in question, and having determined the chemical composition of the fuel, the weight of oxygen necessary for the combustion is calculated. From the latter, we determine the weight and volume of air necessary at standard temperature. As the volumetric ratio of air to fuel vapor in mixtures is from a low limit of 55:1 to a high limit of 130:1 for petroleum fuels, it is evident that the vapors are very much expanded when mixed with the necessary amount of air. Here we may assume without much error that the vapor has a density theoretically equal to its molecular weight. Let t = absolute temperature of the mixture air and fuel vapor. (Absolute tem- perature = thermometric temperature plus 273° C.) x = vapor pressure in millimeters of mercury corresponding to temperature (t). d = density of the vapor at 0° C. and 760 millimeters atmospheric pressure. Then since volume times density equals weight, we have: 760 X 1 V (1 + t)—d — . — = 1 760 — x 760 1 + t > < 1 760 —x. Tvd 2 760 and hence x = — 1 + Vd The temperature taken from the table of vapor pressures of the fuel in question cor- responding to the vapor pressure found by formula is the minimum temperature of the saturated mixture of the proportions calculated. If the temperature of the mixture drops below this point some of the vapor will condense and drop out. Having determined the lower limiting temperature at which the mixture can exist, we will calculate the heat necessary for the change from the liquid to vapor states of the fuel. This is the “Heat of vaporization” total, and consists of the sum of the “Sensible Heat” required to raise the temperature of the fuel and air to vaporizing temperature and the latent heat, neces- sary to transform the fuel from the liquid to gaseous state. Taking hexane as being the average constituent of the fuel, for example, we proceed as follows: The ratio of air to fuel for the complete, combustion of hexane is 15.337:1, The sensible heat per change, or specific heat, is 0.527. The total sensible heat of the mixture is 0.527 H- (15.337 × 0.2375 for air) = 4.169 calories per C* change in temperature. The heat of vaporization of Heºne is 79.4 calories per kilogram, therefore the minimum initial temperature of the ingredients must be 79.4/4.169 = 19.06 C* higher than the temperature of the resulting saturated mixture. The vapor pressure curve of hexane indicates that the latter temperature is —17.2° C., hence minimum initial temperature T= 1.86° C OPYRIGHT 1922 IILED BY ######M AGE *ś, PP-10–27 3. O INTERNAL combustion ENGINEs (PP-10-28) (CARBURETION AND COMBUSTION) PROPERTIES OF HYDROCARBONS. The following table gives the properties of the various components entering into the composition of gasoline, and which are necessary for the computations just described. It will be noted that the boiling point of the compounds under each of the series increases with the molecular weight, and that both the heat of vaporization and the specific heat decrease when the molecular Weight is increased. In “Straight-Run” gasoline, the majority of the components belong to the paraffine Series, but in “Cracked” or “Synthetic” gasoline there are certain percentages of the naphthene and aromatic series in addition to the paraffines. These are due to the decomposition of the crude under pressure distillation, and by heating them above the , critical temperature. In casinghead gasoline, where the light natural gas gasoline is blended with naphthas, there are fewer compounds than in straight-run gasoline and the differences in the physical properties are more sharply marked. The properties of a. ſº º fuels (aromatics) derived by the distillation of coal tar are also included 1I] Uſle U3,016. These hydrocarbon compounds are contained in varying proportions, depending on the Origin of the crude from which they are obtained, upon the process of manu- facture and upon the commercial grade of the fuel. The various component percent- ages must be determined or estimated before calculations are made if reliable results are to be obtained. PROPERTIES OF MOTOR FUEL CONSTITUENTS (GASOLINE, BENZOL, ETC.) Boiling Heat of Specific Name Formula Specific Point Molecular Vaporization eat Gravity o Weight (Calories) (Water =1) PARAFFINE series CnH2n+2 Pentane. . . . . . . . . . . C5H12. . . . . . . . . . . 0 6300 36.3 72 10 75 8 0 5340 Hexane. . . . . . . . . . . C6H14 . . . . . . . . . 0.6700 69.0 86. 12 79 4 0 5272 Heptane... . . . . . . . . C7H16. . . . . . . . . . 0 6970 98.4 100 13 74 3 0. 5074 Octane. . . . . . . . . . . . CsHis . . . . . . . . . . 0.7180 125 5 114.15 69 7 0. 5052 Nonane. . . . . . . . . . . C9H20 . . . . . . . . . 0.7400 150 0 128. 16 66 3 0 5034 Decane... . . . . . . . . . C10H22. . . . . . . . . . 0.7500 173.0 142 18 62 7 0.5021 Undecane. . . . . . . . CuPI24. . . . . . . . . . 0.7600 195 0 156.20 * * * * * * * * * * * Duodecane ........CizH26 . . . . . . . . . 0.7700. 214 0 170.22 57.3 0.4997 Tridecane. . . . . . . . . C15H2s. . . . . . . . . . 0 7920 234.0 184.24 * * * * * * * * * * Tetradecane. . . . . . . C14H80 . . . . . . . . . 0 8000 252 0 198 25 & º ºs e º gº e s = e < Pentadecane . . . . . . C15H32. . . . . . . . . 0 8070 260 0 212 26 50.3 0 4966 Hexadecane... . . . . . C18H38 . . . . . . . . 0.8150 275.0 226 27 48.5 0.4957 Heptadecane. . . . . . . C17H36. . . . . . . . 0 8220 295 0 240 28 & & & º l tº e g º e ºs Octadecane. . . . . . . CisBas . . . . . . . . . 0 8300 317.0 254.30 ! . . . . . . . . . . . NAPHTHENES CnH2n Cycloprepane. . . . . CaRs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35.0 l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cyclobutane. . . . . . C4Hs... . . . . . . . . 0 7000 12.0 [ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cyclopentane . . . . . C5H10 . . . . . . . . . 0 7690 49.0 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cyclohexane. . . . . . . C6H12........... 0.7990 81.0 . . . . . . . \ s • * * | * * * * * * Cycloheptane . . . . . C7H14 . . . . . . . . . . 0.8980 117.0 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . AROMATICS Benzene (Benzol). . . C6H6. . . . . . . . . . . 0 8766 80 4 78,05 92.9 0.4191 Toluene........... CeBIsCHs... . . . . . 0.8659 110 3 92 06 83.6 0.4400 M-Zylene... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0 8655 139 1 106 08 78.3 0.3833 Naphthalene....... C10Hs . . . . . . . . . 1, 1517 217.7 128.06 gº º is e 0.3140 \ , Copyright 1922 COMPILED BY Peščišjm AGE J. B. RATHEUN PP-10-28 INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINEs (PP-10-30) (Carburetion and Combustion) APPLICATION OF HEAT. The method of applying the heat of vaporization is of importance and there is much to be said on this subject. If all of the latent heat of vaporization is applied to the liquid alone, the lighter fractions will be distilled off frac- tionally and wasted, and there is also a tendency for the heavy “ends” to accumulate. Thus with highly heated carbureter float chambers, the lighter fractions are given off *:: º: rapidly as they enter the chamber and there is much leakage and loss through the VentS. * Heating the air alone is not of much avail because the heat transfer between the heated air and the liquid droplets is so slow that the droplets actually cool off rather than heat up owing to the vaporization of the lighter components from the surface of the drops. In this case, the distillation of the lighter components forms a vapor, while the heavier portions have a greater tendency to remain in liquid form on arriving at the combustion chamber than they did before preheating. Heating the air is of indirect benefit in that it heats the manifolds and thus evaporates any liquid film that might adhere to the walls. Heating both the liquid in the carbureter and the air is a compromise, providing that the heating is not carried to an extreme in either case. One system that has been experimented with to some extent but not yet highly developed involves the use of a fine mesh screen or heated baffle plates in the manifold. In passing through the mesh of the screen, the larger droplets are broken up and there is a more intimate heating effect upon the particles and the air. “Hot Spot” manifolds are in extended use. With these manifolds connection is made at a point between the exhaust and inlet manifolds, the point of connection being highly heated by the exhaust. The “Hot Spot” is placed so that the stream of air and Spray from the carbureter strikes on the spot and is thus heated strongly and broken up directly in the intake air Stream. There are many arguments for and against this method, but it may be said that it is quite effective in practice. The hot spot requires careful adjustment prevent Superheating the air and to prevent carbonization of the heavy ends of the gasoline. Very good results have been obtained with “Separator” type vaporizers which Separate the fluid droplets from the mixture just before the stream enters the cylinders, and returns the separated fluid to the supply. With a separator in action, only vapor and air passes into the cylinder and with proper adjustment the amount of carbon is notice- ably decreased. One modification of this type is in the form of a grooved annular ring closely fitting the manifold and placed just above the carbureter. This prevents any liquid which may be adhering to the manifold walls from being drawn into the cylinder, The state of the mixture has much to do with the condensation and vaporization, as before explained, and this of course in turn is reflected in the amount of healt required. If more air is used than is actually required for combustion (Lean mixture) a lower initial evaporating temperature will be required than for a rich mixture. In the “lean mixture, . temperature of Saturation is reduced and the heat carried by the mixture lS 111CI"ea.Sed. TIME REQUIRED FOR WAPORIZATION. . Owing to the complexity of the com- mercial gasoline, or the wide variation between the properties of its various components, It is practically impossible to supply any rule or formula, which will give the exact rate of evaporation. Sorel gives a rough approximation in the formula: I P t = — nat. Tuog — k P — p , where (k) is a constant, (P) is the maximum vapor pressure corresponding to the tem- perature of the liquid, and (p) is the actual vapor pressure in surrounding medium, The value of (p) approaches #) as vaporization progresses. COPYRIGHT 1922 MPILED BY PETRO LEU M AGE §§ RATHEUN PP-10-30 BEARING LUBRICATION PRINCIPLEs (Qo-1-3) O 2^ # (Friction and Resistance) WETTED SURFACES. When surfaces are wetted or ‘‘Lubricated,” there is a Very Considerable change in the laws of friction when compared with the laws for solid friction set forth by Morin. The friction coefficient now depends not only on the character of the surfaces, and pressure, but also upon the nature of the fluid used as a lubricant and the quantity of the lubricant supplied. Additional factors are the rub- bing speed and the temperature, the temperature affecting the character of the fluid lubricating film. SIX LAWS OF LUERICATED SURFACES. The following six laws of friction between well lubricated surfaces are based on Goodman and Lasche, and are given in Alvord’s “Bearings.” LAW - (1). The friction coefficient for well lubricated surfaces is nearly inde- pendent of the surface materials but is largely dependent upon the lubricant. LAW (2). The coefficient of friction for well lubricated surfaces varies from 0.16 to 0.1 of that for dry or poorly lubricated surfaces under the same conditions. LAW (3). The coefficient for medium pressures and Speeds varies inversely as the normal pressure or load, and with a constant speed, the resistance per unit area of surface is constant. The total frictional resistance of the entire bearing varies as the a. Tea. LAW (4). The coefficient of friction varies inversely as the temperature, or de- creases directly with the temperature up to the point where cutting or abra.sion of the surface starts. This applies only to well lubricated surfaces and does not hold with Surfaces that are merely greasy. LAW (5). The coefficient of friction for well lubricated surfaces varies inversely with the speed, the figures being very high for low rubbing speeds. They drop rapidly with increases in speed. For rubbing velocities of from 100 to 500 ft. per min., the coefficient decreases approximately as the square root of the velocity. From 500 to 1600 feet per minute, the coefficient decreases as the fifth root of the velocity, and above 1600 feet per minute it is practically independent of the speed. There are certain exceptions to the universal application of this law, notably when the temperature is kept constant instead Of being allowed to increase with the speed. LAW (6). The coefficient of friction varies with the viscosity of the oil, and is inversely proportional to the pressure and the thickness of the oil film. At constant pressure, the thickness of the oil film is inversely proportional to the square root of the unit surface pressure. There is a distinct difference between a well lubricated surface and a greasy surface, the latter often being called an “Imperfect Film Type,” as there is not suf- ficient lubricant to form a complete film and hence there is a certain annount of metallic Contact between the Surfaces. When there is contact between the surfaces, however slight, the coefficient of friction will be influenced by the surface materials. The following table is based on in perfectly lubricated greasy surfaces (Rennie): SLID | NG FRHCTION CO EFFICI ENTS OF GREASY SURFACES } Friction Coefficient (u’) Friction Coefficient Load on Surf. Steel on Cast Brass on Cast Load on Surf. Steel on Brass on Lbs. Per Sq. ln. Iron Iron Lbs. Per Sq. in. Cast I ron Cast Iron 125 . . . . . . . . . . . 0.17 0.16 390 . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.35 ().21 186 . . . . . . . . . . . 0.30 0.23 445 . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.35 0.21 225 . . . . . . . . . . . 0.33 0.22 485 . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.36 0.22 260 . . . . . . . . . . . 0.34 0.21 525 . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.36 0.22 300 . . . . . . . . . . . () 34 0.21 560 (Abraded) . . . 0.36 ().23 335 . . . . . . . . . . . 0.35 0.22 600 (Abraded) . . . 0.36 0.23 375 . . . . . . . . . . . 0.35 0.21 635 (Abraded) . . . 0.37 9.24 Here it will be seen that the poorly lubricated greasy surface does not follow the law (3) established for well lubricated surfaces with perfect oil film, since the friction' coefficient increases with the load instead of varying inversely as in the law. COPYRIGHT 1922 COMPILED BY PETROLEU M AGE J. B. RATHEUN \ QQ-1-3 BEARING PRINCIPLEs (QQ-5-25) -> (Loading and Rubbing Speeds of Journals) PRESSURE/VELOCITY FORMUL.A. The limiting factors in journal size are the unit loading and the rubbing velocity, as these quantities determine the amount of work lost and the annount of heat produced. The work lost is the product of the fric- tional force at the periphery of the shaft by the rubbing velocity. The frictional force in turn is proportional to the load on the bearing and the coefficient of friction (greasy surface) so that with the coefficient value constant, the heat Varies with the loading. The variation of the coefficient of friction is dependent upon the nature of the oiling and the character of the film. Based on these propositions a rather crude relation between the allowable load and rubbing speed has been expressed by * pv = C = Constant in which the product of the unit pressure (p) by the velocity (v) is equal to a constant (C). The pressure (p) is given in pounds per square inch of projected area, while (v) is generally given in feet per minute. This is not accurate, although often used, for the reason that the pressure should vary as the Square root of the velocity instead of directly with the velocity as indicated by the equation. To use such an equation means that a different value of the constant (C) must be chosen for each class of machine or bearing. It does not take all of the factors into account and therefore cannot be called an “absolute” measure. However, since this expression is so commonly met with, we will give a number of values of (C) which correspond to a wide variety of machinery, and which will give safe if not economical sizes of bearing S. Bearings computed by this method are larger than actually required, particularly With high Speed bearings. If d = shaft diameter in bearing, L = effective length of bearing, and W = total weight coming on journal, then We may transform the basic equation as follows: W Wv Wv p = hence = C, or L = dL dL dC As the shaft diameter is generally determined by considerations of strength, the length (L) is the only remaining factor that must be computed in finding the area of the bearing. The equation as originally proposed by Thurston had a universal constant (C), which was Supposed to apply to all bearings, hence in the original form; py tº 50,000. This was afterwards proved to be highly inaccurate, and the following values for (C) were selected from actual bearings in practice. VALUES OF (C) 1 N THE EXPRESSION PV = CONSTANT Class of Bearing Value of (C) Freight car journals at 10 miles per hour. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60,000 Line shaft bearings, babbitted, Self-aligning, ring oiled, maximum . . . . . . . . . . . 24,000 Line shaft bearings, cast iron, Self-aligning, wick oil or grease. . . . . . • * * > * * * * 11,000 Pedestal bearings, babbitted, ring oil, self-aligning, Const. load. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37,000 Automobile engine, front main bearings at 1,370 R. P. M. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220,000 Automobile engine, center main bearings at 1,370 R. P. M. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 325,000 Automobile engine, rear main bearings at 1,370 R. P. M. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250,000 Automobile engine, crankpin bearings at 1,370 R. P. M. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220,000 Steam engine main bearings (Corliss type), Steam load Only . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70,000 Steam engine crankpins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . e e s e º e o e º 'º a tº a º º w w e º sº e º 'º e 200,000 Steam engine Crosshead slides (at mid-stroke). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50,000 Steam engine watercooled marine thrust bearings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37,000 Rolling mill pinion housing bearings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18,000 Rolling mill roll housing bearings. . . . . . . . . . tº s a e g º e º e e s s a e º e s a ſº e º 'º e º ºs e e º 'º e e 65,000 COPYRIGHT 1922 COMPILED BY QQ 5–2 5 PETRO LEU M A GE J. B. RATHETUN * BEARING PRINCIPLEs (QQ-5-20) Loading and Rubbing Speeds of Journals PERMISSIBLE UNIT PRESSURES IN PRACTICE. In the following table is given examples of the unit bearing pressures used for various types of machines in practice, these figures being averages taken from a number of makes of each type. The loading is given in terms of pounds per square inch of projected area: PERM ISS 1 B L E UNIT WORKING PRESSU RES FOR BEARINGS Loading per Inch of Projected Area Class of Bearings and Type of Machine— in Pounds AIR COMPRESSORS (Straight-line, steam driven, 100+ press.) Main bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160- 235 Crank-pin bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 560 - 700 Crosshead-pin bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 630 – 825 AIR COMPRESSORS (Straight-line, belt driven, 100+ press.) Main bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 - 225 Crank-pin bearings . . . . .‘. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240– 400 Crosshead-pin bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400 - 775 AIR COMPRESSORS (DUPLEX, Meyer valve, steam driven, 100:# press.) Main bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160- 200 Crank-pin bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 640 - 850 Crosshead-pin bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 850–1375 AIR COMPRESSORS (DUPLEX, Corliss, steam driven, 100+ press.) Main bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115- 140 Crank-pin bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500- 700 Crosshead-pin bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 750-1150 BEARINGS (LINE SHAFT). Heavy type bearings, babbitt lined. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 - 150 Light type, cast iron shell. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15- 25 AUTOMOBILE ENGINE, BEARINGS. Front bearing, maximum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 560- 670 Rear bearing, maximum. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525 - 650 Center bearing, maximum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 570- 700 Crank-pin bearings, maximum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1300-1450 Piston pin bearing, maximum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1900–2500 COLLAR THIRUST BEARINGS. Drill press thrust bearings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250- 350 Red fiber disc on hard Steel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300 – 350 Ringsbury segmental thrust, Steam turbine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . – 350 Marine propeller collar thrusts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50- 70 DYNAMO BEARINGS. Small, light, high Speed. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30- 50 Large, belt driven. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 - 85 Large Outboard bearings for direct connection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50- 80 GAS ENGINES (STATIONARY). * Small horizontal, main bearings (Maximum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420- 650 Large horizontal, main bearings (Maximum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350- 380 Small vertical, main bearings (Maximum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300 - 350 Large vertical, main bearings (Maximum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300- 320 Average Crank-pin bearings. . . . . . . . . . . . . ". . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1500-1800 Piston pin or crosshead bearings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1500–2000 LINE SHAFT BEARINGS. Heavy type, babbitt line, Self adjusting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100- 150 Light type, cast iron bearing, self adjusting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15- 25 COPYRIGHT 1922 COMPILED BY 5 20 PETROLEUM AGE J. B. RATHE UN QQ- t- BEARING PRINCIPLEs (QQ-5-21) Loading and Rubbing Speeds of Journals (Continued) Loading per Inch of Projected Area Class of Bearings and Type of Machine— In Pounds LOCOMOTIVE (STEAM) BEARINGS. Locomotive driving wheel bearings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500- 550 Locomotive crank-pin bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1500-1700 Locomotive Cross-head bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . \. . . . . 3000-4000 Locomotive tender axle bearings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400- 430 MARINE STEAM ENGINE EIF5ARINGS. Merchant marine, main engine bearings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400 - 500 Merchant marine, Crank-pin bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 400- 500 Merchant marine, thrust bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . sº- 70 United States Navy, main engine bearings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275 - 400 United States Navy, crank-pin bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400. 500 Onited States Navy, thrust bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . +++ - 50 RAILWAY CAR JOURNALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300- 330 ROLLING MILL (STEEL) MACHINERY. Pinion housing bearings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30- 50 Roll housing bearings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1000-2000 Table roll bearings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 - 50 Table lineshaft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 - 50 Hot Shear main bearings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2000-2500 Cold shear main bearings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3000-4000 STEAM ENGINES, SLOW SPEED, STATIONARY. * Dead load for main bearings due to flywheel, etc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 - 150 Live Steam load for main bearings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200– 400 Crank-pin bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 800-1300 Crosshead-pin bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1200-1500 STEAM ENGINES, HIGH SPEED, STATIONARY. Main bearings (dead load) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 - 125 Main bearings (live steam load) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150- 250 Crank-pin bearings (center crank) ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400 - 600 Crank-pin bearings (Overhung crank) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 900-1500 Crosshead-pin bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1200–1500 STEAM TURBINES (RADIAL LOAD ONLY). * Main bearings of turbines (United States Navy) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . '75- 85 Main bearings of horizontal stationary type. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40- 60 STEP BEARINGS. Slow Speed. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1000-2000 SHEARS AND PUNCHES. Main bearings, instant load. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3000-4000 In general, all other things being equal, the permissible loading per square inch decreases as the rubbing speed increases, and the loading of hot running machinery is less than that of machinery which ordinarily runs at room or outdoor temperature. Locomotive pressures and those of automobile engines are unusually high, for the simple reason that there is no room for large bearings, and the speed is so high that larger diameters would result in impracticable rubbing velocities. Both conditions demand heavy oils for proper support. Machinery in which the load is of an intermittent nature, as with shears and punches, Connecting rod bearings of auto engines, and similar places, makes a high maximum load possible. The average load, however, may be exceedingly low, par- ticularly if the instantaneous impulse is of very short duration. Copyright 1922 COMPILED BY PETROL EU M AGE J. B. RATHE UN QQ-5-21 * BEARING PRINCIPLEs (QQ-5-32) Loading and Rubbing Speeds of Journals OIL FILM AND PRESSURE. In the experiments of Beauchamp Tower it is shown that the lubricating conditions in a slow moving shaft are not the same as in one that rotates rapidly above a certain critical speed. In slow motion we have a simple grea.Sy - pair of Surfaces which make actual metallic contact to a pronounced degree, and therefore the actual friction is largely determined by the nature of the metals in contact. With higher rubbing speeds above the critical speed, a wedge shaped oil film is formed under the shaft giving true oil film support, the oil being forced under the Shaft faster than it can escape. Here the surfaces are truly separated. In the first case, with slow speed greasy surfaces, a momentary increase in fric- tion Or temperature might thin down the oil to the point where the surfaces would Seize. At Speeds above the critical and with a perfect oil film the pump action of the shaft will furnish sufficient oil for support even though the viscosity is considerably reduced. This means that we can safely run at higher temperatures with the shaft above the critical speed than we can with very slow speeds. This at once shows the weakness of the older formula : py = constant, since here no account is taken of the additional film Support attained above the critical. In other words, the expression pV = C gives bearings of excessive size at high speeds, and for this reason it gives a Safe even though wasteful value. MOORE’S LOADING EQUATION. H. F. Moore made extensive experiments on the Strength of oil films at different speeds and loadings, basing his investigations upon Beauchamp Tower's perfect film theory of lubricants above the critical Speed. Moore's equation is fundamentally correct and is generally accepted. P = 7.47 VV Where: P = limiting pressure per square inch of projected area at which the Oig film 'breaks down. V = rubbing velocity in feet per minute. When the pressure exceeds the value given above, the film breaks down and the lubrication becomes of the ordinary greasy type in which partial metallic contact takes place between the bearing surfaces. The constant 7.47 represents a number of factors among which is the Viscosity or supporting value of that particular oil used. It is interesting to note that the limiting film pressure varies as the square root of the rubbing velocity (v). As an example in the use of the equation we will assume that we wish to find the break down pressures of the perfect oil film at speeds of 900 and 1600 feet per minute. In the first place: (1) P = 7.47 V V = 7.47 × V 900 = 7.47 x 30 = 224 Lbs./sq. In. (2) P = 7.47 V v = 7.47 × V 1600 = 7.47 × 40 = 299 Lbs./Sq. In. Here we see that an increase in speed has increased the supporting value of the perfect film by a considerable amount, a result directly contrary to the case with simple greasy lubrication. If the lubrication were of the imperfect film type with partial metallic contact the additional heat produced by the speed increase would so reduce the viscosity that the surface contact would become more intimate and the friction would increase. This in turn would be likely to cause seizure. The Safe value of (P) to be assumed in a bearing for continuous service would range from 50 to 60 percent of the values obtained above. If little load comes on the bearing before it reaches the maximum speed then the allowable pressure can be made more nearly equal to the calculated value of (P) than would be the case where th full load came on below the critical speed. - * COPYRIGHT 1922 COMPILED BY ÉÉrflöttitjmº E J. B. RATHE UN QQ-5-32 BEARING PRINCIPLEs (Qo-5-34) Loading and Rubbing Speeds of Journals LOADING AND SPEEDS FOR RING OILED BEARINGS. In dynamo and electric motor bearings of the ring oiled type, the lubrication is of the perfect film class as a great volume of oil is deposited in the bearing surfaces at a comparatively high Speed. The following table shows the maximum permissible loading and the maximum per- missible speeds adopted by the General Electric Company for ring oiled bearings, and is comparable with the results obtained by Moore's equation. These loadings are based on a fairly thin and limpid lubricating oil such as must be used for the lubrica- tion of high speed bearings. For dynamos and electric motors, the limiting range is between 400 to 1200 feet per minute and 100 to 175 pounds per square inch of projected a,I'éal. Li MITING LOADING AND RUB BING VELOCITIES FOR RING OILED BEAR 1 NGS (DIRECT HEAT RADIATION WITHOUT WATER COOLING) Unit Loading Rubbing Velocity Unit Loading Rubbing Velocity Lbs./Sq. I n. Feet per Min. Lbs./Sq. I n. Feet per Min. 20 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 130 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 600 30 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 140 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 709 40 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 150 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 900 50 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 160 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1050 60 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 170 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1250 70 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 180 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1500 80 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 190 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1800 90 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 200 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº e º e º 'º e º & & B e. 2100 100 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300 210 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2600 110 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350 220 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3000 120 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450 240 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4500 | Here the allowable speed increases with the maximum unit bearing pressure per square inch of projected area, an allowance made possible with perfect film lubrication. At low pressures, as might be expected, there is not much difference between the speeds, or rather, the velocity increase is nearly in proportion to the loading increase. At pressures above 70 pounds, the velocities increase in larger jumps. The values given above are for use with simple bearings in which the heat is radiated directly to the surrounding air without the aid of water jackets or other cooling devices, and the temperature limits under these conditions are within the usual commercial range allowed for dynamos and electric motors. The loading is assumed to be fairly constant and in general, applied in one direction. For intermit- tent loads which allow for a periodic redistribution of the lubricant the values can be somewhat increased. As with all electric machinery a slight end motion is allowed the shaft so that it can slide back and forth in the bearings, thus aiding the oil grooves in distributing the oil along the length of the shaft. By comparing the values in the table with those obtained by Moore's equation we see that the General Electric practice allows a maximum pressure of from 0.60 to 0.67 of the break down pressure given by Moore’s formula. This is the maximum allowable for a perfect film. Thus, Moore’s formula for break down pressure is modified as follows to meet the safe maximum pressure: P = 4.63 V v." ; f This gives a fair safe value for loadings above 50 pounds per square inch, a pres- sure which should always be exceeded where possible for the reason that the co- efficient of friction at lower pressure becomes excessively high. Possibly 70 pounds per square inch is a better minimum. COPYRIGHT 1922 COMPILED BY PETROL EU M A GE J. B. RATHEUN QQ-5-34 LUBRICATING OILs, PROPERTIEs of (R-5-10) d (Physical Units of Measurement) is one of the most commonly quoted properties of a lubricant. This is sometimes referred to as the “body of the oil”; viscosity is the resistance offered to the flow of an oil by reason of internal molecular friction. Highly viscous fluids flow slowly or not at all while fluids less viscous flow freely. Theoretically the resistance is due to a shearing stress set up by the adherence of the film to a stationary surface on one side and to a moving surface on the other, the relative motion tending to part the film in the center. In commercial oil tests the determinations of viscosity are made with viscosineters, the relative viscosities being indicated by the time taken for a given quantity of the fluid to flow through a standard orifice. The more viscous the oil the more slowly will it flow through the orifice and the greater will be the time in seconds required to discharge the fluid, the time being known in terms of viscosity seconds. Viscosity varies rapidly with the temperature, the oil thinning out or becoming less viscous at high temperatures than at low. Decreasing temperatures cause increas- ing viscosities until some critical point is reached at which the fluid becomes a solid Or semi-solid. For this reason it is necessary to specify the temperature at which the oil was tested, the usual test temperatures being 100° F., 150° F. and 212° F. Viscosity variation with temperature is more pronounced with mineral oils than with those of vegetable or animal origin. Asphaltic base oils vary with the temperature at a different rate than paraffine base oils. The viscosity also varies with the pressure, hence the viscosity under heavy journal pressure is greater than that determined in the laboratory at atmospheric pressure. The instrumental units of viscosity are arbitrary units which depend on the cali- bration of that type of viscosimeter on which they were made. The more common flow type units are the Saybolt Second, Redwood Second and Saybolt Number, these names coming from the instrument by which they were determined. The Saybolt Second, which is the most commonly used unit in the United States, indicates the time in seconds required for 60 c.c. of fluid to flow through a standard orifice. The Redwood is used in England and the Engler is used in Continental Europe and to a limited extent in the United States. There are a few more units but they are not of sufficient impor- tance to be considered here. The readings of the various instruments necessarily vary considerably from the true dimensional unit of fluid shear known as the absolute viscosity and given in terms of the poise. The poise is a unit of shear force defined as being “the moving of a unit plane surface past a second plane surface, these surfaces being separated by a fluid film of unit thickness.” Numerically this is given in dynes per Square centimeter, and as this unit represents a very viscous fluid, the 1/100 part of the unit or the centipoise is more commonly used for commercial oils. The various instrumental units may be converted into centipoises by constants and formulae after Ward described. All instru- mental readings may be converted into absolute units by a basic equation which is an adaption of Poiseuille's formula: Absolute viscosity = n = 0.3927gd Htrº VL Where: d = density; H = mean head or height of fluid above orifice; t = temperature in C*; r = radius of orifice in centimeters; L = length of tube in centimeters; V = volume of fluid discharged in c.c.; and G = acceleration due to gravity. Flow or nozzle type viscosineters give readings in terms of kinematic viscosity; that is, viscosity in terms of flow or motion, owing to the fact that a considerable veloc- ity is attained in the tube and that part of the flow energy is not taken up within the nozzle by resistance but passes out with the discharged fluid. Rinematic viscosity may be reduced to terms of absolute viscosity by constants and equations. Specific viscosity is the relation between the viscosity of oil and water and is numerically equal to the product of the time of flow by the density of the oil divided by the product of the density and the time of flow of the Water. Uº. OF VISCOSITY-The viscosity of an oil or the index of its internal friction Copyright 1921 COMPILED EY PETROLEU M MAGAZINE J. B. RATHEUN R-5-10 LUBRICATING OILs, PROPERTIEs of (R-5-11) , (Physical Units of Measurement) OMMERCIAL VISCOSIMETERS–In the following is given a brief description of C the principal eonmercial viscosineters now in connmon use with conversion for- mulae for reducing the instrument readings to absolute viscosity. In these formulae the absolute viscosity is designated by (n) and the specific gravity by (G). SAYBOLT VISCOSIMETER—The readings of the Saybolt viscosimeter are given in terms of Saybolt Seconds which is the time required for 60 c.c. of fluid to pass through an efflux tube measuring 1.8 mm. in diameter and 13 mm. long. The amount of oil charged is 70 c.c. This gives readings in terms of kinematic viscosity which may be reduced to absolute viscosity by the formula: n = G (0.00213 Saybolt — 1.535 ) - Saybolt ENGLER VISCOSIMETER—The unit obtained by this instrument is the Engler number which is really a specific viscosity unit since it refers to the viscosity of Water taken as a standard. The Engler number is obtained by dividing the time of oil efflux in seconds by the efflux time of water in seconds at a temperature of 20° C. The efflux time for the water varies from 50 seconds to 52 seconds, depending on the calibra- tion of the instrument. The Engler number must be distinguished from the Engler efflux time, the former being a ratio while the latter is the time in seconds for: the dis- charge of the fluid. The Engler efflux tube has a tapering bore 2.9 mm. at the top and 2.8 mm. at the bottom, the length being about 20 mm. The volume of oil discharged is 200 c.c., while the amount charged is 240 c.c. To convert the Engler number to absolute viscosity we have: n = G (0.00147 Engler — 3.74 ) Engier RED WOOD WISCOSIMETER—The Redwood viscosimeter (Great Britain) gives the kinematic viscosity in terms of the number of Seconds required for a flow of 50 c.c. Of oil through a tube 1.5 mm. in diameter and 10 mm. long. The amount of oil charged is 130 c.c. The conversion to absolute viscosity is expressed by: n = G (0.00260 Redwood — 1.715 ) Redwood ABSOLUTE VISCOSITY OF WATER.—As determined by a number of experi- menters the absolute viscosity of water at 20° C. is very close to 0.01025 dynes per Square Centimeter. NEW SAYBOLT WISCOSIMETER—Recently the standard dimensions of the efflux tube of the Saybolt have been slightly changed by the American Society for Testing Materials. Thus we have an old and a new Saybolt instrument in the United States. This should be noted. COMPARISON OF OILS—When two oils have the same kinematic viscosity, as determined by an efflux type viscosineter, but differ in Specific gravity the heavier oil has really the greater viscosity since the greater pull of gravity on the heavier oil tends to make it flow more rapidly than would be the case with equal density. In this way gravity affects the kinematic ViscoSlty of the oil and is the cause of much con- fusion. An asphaltic base oil for this reason has an actual viscosity about five per cent. greater than a paraffine base oil showing the same instrumental kinematic viscosity, Oils should be tested at temperatures most closely corresponding to the tempera- tures at which they are to be used Owing to the influence of temperature on the viscosity. For bearings (external) a temperature of 100° F. is common, while a test temperature of 150° is useful for enclosed bearing oils or engine bearings enclosed within the base. Steam engine and gas engine cylinder oils should be tested at the highest practicable temperature, which is generally taken as 212° F. The old standard temperature of 70° F. is rarely used at present. Copyright 1921 COMPILED BY R 5 11 PETRO LEU M MAGAZINE J. B. RATHEUN tº º * * hºr LUBRICATING oils, PROPERTIES OF (R-5-12) (Physical Units of Measurement) Sheet R-5–11 are the American viscosimeters named as Tagliabue, Riehle-Still- man and the Doolittle torsion. Both the Tagliabue and the Riehle-Stillman in- struments are of the efflux or flow type, but the Doolittle torsion viscosineter (used by the Pennsylvania, railroad) depends on the “damping effect” or the resistance offered by the oil to an Oscillating disc placed in the oil bath. The Doolittle therefore measured friction and shear directly. TAGLIABUE VISCOSIMETER—The Tagliabue viscosineter is peculiar because of the fact that two nozzles are used, one for tests at 70° F. and one for tests at 212° F. Different amounts of oil are charged at the two temperatures, 90 c.c. for tests at 70° F. and 80 c.c. for tests at 212° F. At the lower temperature the discharge of 70 c.c. is timed and at 212° F. Only 60 c.c. are timed during the test. The number of seconds required for the discharge of the required amount of oil is then multiplied by 2 in order to have the readings comparable with those of the Saybolt viscosimeter. This is supposed to be the same as the Saybolt readings, but, in fact, all Tagliabue tests are 10 to 20 points higher than the corresponding Saybolt readings. W VISCOSIMETERS (continued)—In addition to the viscosimeters mentioned in RIEHLE-STILLMAN–This instrument is somewhat similar to the Engler. It is charged with 100 c.c. of oil, and 50 c.c. is timed. PENNSYLVANIA, PIPETTE–This is a small glass pipette of 100 c.c. capacity used by the Pennsylvania, railroad. The instrument is filled to the mark with the oil and then the time is taken for the discharge of the oil through the lower orifice. DOOLITTLE TORSION VISCOSIMETER.—A cylinder is immersed in the oil to be tested, and is supported by a fine Steel wire so that the cylinder is free to turn back and forth about the wire axis after the manner of a torsion pendulum. The cylinder is rotated 360° from its position of rest, and when freed oscillates around its axis, gradually coming to rest under the influence of the fluid friction. If the oil offered no resistance the pendulum would eventually return to zer O and then would be carried the full 360° in the opposite direction. The oil being viscous prevents the full accomplish- ment of this swing in proportion to the viscosity of the oil. The result is given in terms of the angular degrees of retardation or in terms of standard sugar solutions of equiva. lent viscosity. SCOTT VISCOSIMETER—This is a modified Engler type of simple design in which the time in seconds is taken for the discharge of 50 c.c. of fluid. CONVERSION INTO SAYBOLT SECONDS—To convert Saybolt readings into terms of other American viscosineters or to change miscellaneous readings into terms of the Standard Saybolt the following table of conversion factors is attached. To use these factors, use that figure under the Column Which most nearly corresponds with the given temperature conditions. These figures are based on paraffine lubricating oils of Pennsylvania. Origin, hence are inaccurate as to any other oils. They are for general comparison Only. To Change Saybolt linto Terms of the Following Instruments W Termperature at Which Coefficients Are Taken Name of Instrument 70° F. 100°F. 212° F. 338° F. Tagliabue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº e e 0.250 0.280 0.510 0,000 Pennsylvania. R. R. Pipette. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .300 ° .470 .510 .940 Scott . . . . . . . e e º e º e a tº e e º e º a e - © & © e g e º e º & * * * * .130 .130 l. . . . . * * * * * * * I e e e º s º Engler . . . . . . . . . . . . . e = e º 'º e º e º ºs e e s s s * c e º 035 .030 .028 .027 Copyright 1921 COMPILED LEU M MAGAZINE J. PETRO B. RATHE UN BY R- 5-12 LUBRICATING oils, PROPERTIEs of (R-5-13) (Physical Units of Measurement) ABLES OF COMPARATIVE VISCOSITY –When comparisons are made between the various kinematic viscosities as indicated by the various instruments such as the Saybolt, Redwood, and Engler viscosinmeters great care must be taken to use the same class of oil and to test at definite temperatures. Thus we could not cor- rectly compare the reading made on a Saybolt viscosineter with a paraffine base oil with oil reading made on an Engler viscosineter using as asphaltics base oil. The oils must be as nearly similar as possible when making such comparisons, both in regard to the basic composition and to gravity. & The viscosity variation of asphaltic and paraffine base oils with a given change in temperature is not the same. Differences in specific gravity produce varying rates of flow through the orifice even with oils having the same viscosity. True correction and conversion is really quite a complicated matter when One attempts to convert the readings of one instrument into terms of another. It is with this understanding that we attach the following tables computed by C. Watson Gray, F. I. C., Liverpool, England, which will serve to give at least a rough idea, as to the relation between the readings of the Saybolt, Engler, and Redwood vis- Cosimeters. The readings are given in terms of a Pennsylvania, oil at the temperatures indicated at the heads of the various columns. For any other class of oil the compara- tive figures would be changed, particularly if tested at temperatures varying greatly from those indicated in the tables. The tables are true only for fixed conditions. At 70° F. Temperature Saybolt | Redwood| Engler || Saybolt |Redwood Engler Saybolt | Redwood Engler at 70°F. at 70°F. at 20°C. at 70 °F. at 70°F. at 20° C. at 70°F. at 70°F. at 20°C. 50 84 | 2.5 170 287 8.7 290 | 490 | 14.7 55 93 2.8 | 175 296 9. 295 || 497 | 15. 60 101 3. 180 304 | 9.2 300 [ 507 | 15.2 65 110 3.3 185 313 9.4 305 515 15.5 70 118 3.6 190 321 9.7 310 524 15.8 75 127 3.9 195 330 10. 315 532 16.1 80 135 4.1 200 338 10.2 320 543 16.3 85 144 4.4 205 346 10.4 325 551 16.6 90 152 4.6 210 355 10.7 330 558 16.8 95 161 5. 215 364 11. 335 556 17 100 169 5.1 220 372 11.2 340 574 17.2 105 177 5.4 225 381 11.4 345 582 17.4 110 186 5.6 230 390 11.7 350 590 17.7 115 194 6. 235 * 398 12. 355 599 18 120 203 6.2 240 406 12.2 360 608 18.2 125 211 6.4 245 414 12.4 365 614 18.4 130 220 6.6 250 422 12.7 370 622 18.7 135 228 6.9 255 431 13. 375 630 19 140 237 7.2 260 439 13.2 380 639 19.2 145 245 7.4 265 447 13.5 385 649 19.5 150 253 7.7 270 455 13.7 390 659 20 155 • 262 8. 275 464 14. 395 668 20, 2 160 270 8.2 280 472 14.2 400 676 20.5 165 279 8.4 285 481 14.4 e At 212° F. Temperature Saybolt | Redwood Engler Saybolt |Redwood Engler || Saybolt Redwood Engler at 212°F. at 212°F. at 50° C. at 212°F. at 212°F. at 50° C. || at 212°F.]at 212°F. at 50° C. 50 40 1.7 135 109 45.7 220 176 89.9 55 44 4.1 140 112 48.3 225 181 92.8 60 48 6.5 145 117 51. 230 184 95.1 65 52 8.9 150 119 53.1 235 188 97.7 70 56 11.3 155 124 56. 240 193 100.3 75 60 13.7 160 128 58.7 245 196 103 80 64 17.4 165 133 61.5 250 201 105.5 85 68 20 170 136 63.9 255 204 108.1 90 73 22.6 175 141 66.5 260 208 110.5 95 77 25 180 144 69.1 265 213 113.3 100 80 28 185 148 71.7 270 216 116 105 84 29.9 190 153 74. 275 219 118.1 110 89 3 195 156 77. 280 224 120.9 115 92 35.2 200 161 80.1 285 228 123.9 120 95 37.7 205 164 82.1 290 230 127 125 100 40.5 210 165 84.7 295 232 130 130 104 3 215 172 87.3 300 235 233.9 Copyright 1921 COMPILED BY * R 5 1 3 PETRO LEU M MAGAZINE J. B. RATHE UN tº º LUBRICATING OILs (R-5-20) Lubrication Troubles ANALYSIS OF BIEARING TROUBLES. Bearing troubles such as excessive fric- tion, excessive heating, cutting, etc., may be due to mechanical troubles within the bearings themselves or to the lubricating oil or grease. Again, a poor lubricant can cause wear which in turn results in mechanical trouble so that here we have a reflex that is not so easily traced. A third cause of trouble will be found in the method of handling and storing the oils, carelessness in this respect introducing grit and other impurities which cause cutting and heating. In proper protection of the bearings against the entrance of dust or moisture is a further cause of trouble frequently experienced in foundries, saw mills, flouring mills, cotton mills, etc. Many troubles which are charged up to the lubricating oil are really due to mechan- ical misadjustments and wear. If the bearings are not properly aligned Or if the bear- 1ngs are not properly provided with the proper oil Supply system, then wear and heating are certain to take place no matter what the grade of the Oil may be. HEATING. Since excessive bearing heating results from excessive friction, the heating is certain evidence of something wrong. The resistance caused by Stiff or dry bearing surfaces is converted into heat-energy which soon spreads through the bear- ings and continues to increase until the quantity of heat radiated is equal to the heat supplied by the friction. . When this point of equality is reached, then the bearing continues at a constant temperature. Any condition that will increase the friction will also cause the corresponding heating effect. In the majority of bearings, the outside cast iron supporting hub or shell is lined with a soft metal “liner” on which the shaft actually rests. This may be plain babbitt or white metal, or it may consist of a bronze shell lined with babbitt, but in any case the rate of expansion of the shaft, shell and liner are different. This difference in the rate of expansion causes trouble when the bearing is heated beyond a certain temper- ature by contracting the clearance Space existing between the shaft and the liner. At high temperatures, this clearance becomes steadily smaller and smaller until the lubricant is finally excluded. When there is no longer any room for the lubricant, the journal heats up at an exceedingly great rate until the bearing “seizes” by the actual metal to metal contact between the shaft and liner. When seizure occurs, the machine is halted instantly unless some provision is made for allowing the liner to melt out. Without such a liner, the shaft and bearing may be welded together or in most cases the shaft Will be Seriously cut and Scored. As frictional resistance always exists to some extent in all bearings, a certain annount of heat will always be developed whether it is sensible to the touch or not. Under normal Operating conditions the heat is kept below a certain temperature by the following items: (1) ' By radiation from the outer surfaces of the bearing. (2) By conduction of the heat along the shaft and away from the bearing. (3) By the circulation of the oil film which removes the heat from the rubbing Surfaces and transfers it to the outer radiating walls. (4) By special water jackets built around the shell where the circulating water removes the heat from the bearing or oil. w COPYRIGHT 1924 COMPILED BY PETRO LEU M AGE J. B. RATHE UN R-5–20 LUBRICATING OILs (R-5-21) Lubrication Troubles FRICTION. The resistance offered to the rotating shaft is called “bearing fric- tion,” and it is the purpose of the lubricant to reduce the friction to the Smallest possible amount. The friction is at a maximum when the shaft and bearing Surfaces are perfectly dry, and is at a minimum when the shaft is perfectly suspended by the oil film so that the only friction is that due to the “fluid friction” of the lubricant Or to the friction between the molecules of the lubricant. With imperfect film lubrication where the friction is partly due to the rubbing of the metal surfaces and partly fluid friction, the nature of the bearing metals has much to do with the friction developed. Thus, where the shaft is not entirely supported by the film, the coefficient of friction between the shaft and the babbitt. metal or bronze liner has a great effect upon the frictional resistance developed. This, is particularly true of slow speed machinery where the bearing pressures are comparatively high. In very high speed machinery running above 1,500 revolutions per minute, the friction is largely fluid friction in the majority of cases and the character of the bearing liner has but little influence upon the friction. The oil is forced under the shaft so rapidly that it has no time to settle down into metallic contact with the bearings, hence in Steam turbines there is little friction and little Wear. * ALIGNMENT. For the proper operation of machinery the bearings should be in perfect alignment, that is, all of the bearing centerlines should be exactly parallel to the centerline of a perfectly straight shaft. Except in the better classes of mal- chinery, perfect alignment is seldom attained in practice and there is always more Or less friction caused by binding in the bearings or by eccentric shaft centers caused by the bending of the shaft. Lineshafting is practically never in even approximate align- ment and this at least partly accounts for the great frictional losses encountered in long lineshafts. When the bearings are very much out of alignment due to the settling of the foundations, the bending of the shafts, or similar causes, it is practically useless to remedy the heating by changing the lubricants. The only sure and permanent remedy is to line up the shafting. OIL SUPPLY SVSTEMS. The method of supplying the lubricant is of fully as much importance as the lubricant itself, for no lubricant can act unless supplied in the proper quantity and unless uniformly distributed Over the rubbing surfaces. Whether the oil is supplied by drip cups, by the Splash system or forced feed system, we must provide annple channels or grooves cut in the bearing surfaces for the dis- tribution of the oil. These grooves must be So arranged that the rotation Of the shaft automatically circulates the oil through the grooves from the point where it is intro- duced into the bearing. One seldom finds the proper oil grooving in bearings and as a result the lubricant is seldom given a fair chance. In bearings where the grooves are sufficiently large to distribute the oil their arrangement prohibits the proper distribution in many cases. We frequently find grooves that are so cut that they “short circuit” the oil under the heavy pressure zone with the light pressure zones, thus reducing the activity of the circulation. For proper service, each groove must be run in a zone of constant pressure. Forced feed systems which employ rather high pressures are of course the most reliable and productive of the best results, but of course this system cannot be uni- versally applied to all machines. Small machines require the less efficient wick feed and drip feed cups. COPYRIGHT 1924 COMPILED BY R–5–21 PETROL EU M AGE J. B. RATHE UN } O LUBRICATING OILs (R-5-22) Lubrication Troubles OIL STORAGE. Much trouble is due to improper storage methods. The oil may be left exposed directly to the air or stored out of doors in barrels where water, and dust will find entrance to the oil and contaminate it. When oil in wooden barrels is exposed to rain and sunlight, it very often happens that the glue lining becomes Softened and is spread through the oil. Glue taken up in this manner will work havoc in the bearings by causing excessive friction and heating. It is always safest to store lubricating oil in specially designed metal containers, and to remove it from the shipping barrels or drums as soon as it arrives. When transferring the oil into the storage tanks it should be passed through a strainer which will remove any wood chips or other solid matter that may have been introduced by knocking out the bungs, etc. The storage tanks or cabinets should be cleaned out at frequent intervals so that all slimy deposits and dirt will be eliminated. The use of dirty oil cans and oil cans with open covers is responsible for much bearing trouble, for dirt can easily get in through the tops of such cans while they are standing around for delivery. Bungs and screw top covers should be attached to the cans and tanks with short chains so that these tops cannot be laid down in the dirt while filling. More dirt is probably introduced into the lubricating system by loose, detachable covers than by any other means. Furthermore, an oil can should be used for only one grade of oil so that it can be labeled to avoid mistakes. Tua beling cans with the grade of oil contained in them will save trouble and Con- fusion. Many a high Speed light bearing has been ruined by introducing a heavy oil by mistake. The accidental introduction of kerosene or linseed oils into a bearing spells disaster. ; PROTECTION OF BICARINGS. When machinery is operated in dusty places, too much care Cannot be taken in the protection of the bearings against the entrance of dust and grit. Even a very Small annount of hard dust will cause rapid overheating and cutting and to insure against this trouble all oil openings should be kept tightly closed. Cement mill dust, flour mill dust and cotton lint in cotton mills clog up the oil passages in the bearings and interfere with the lubrication of the bearings unless these bearings are properly designed and protected. Pumping machinery used out in the Open Or rock Crushers frequently become clogged up With gnats and other Small insects so that the lubrication System ceases to function and the bearings are soon cut or burned out. Dust from sweeping the cement floors of engine rooms has frequently caused trouble in this way, and for this reason cement floors are not to be recommended unless mopped with Wet or oiled mops. The entrance of water into the bearings displaces the oil film and soon causes trouble. Further, the water forms emulsions of poor lubricating value with many oils and is an additional cause of heating. If water gains access to an oil circulating sys- tem, the oil should be removed and treated for the removal of the slime and solid de- posits formed by the contact. Where compounded oils are used, in which the mineral oil is compounded with an animal or vegetable oil, the water will enter into combina- tion with the fixed oil to form a sludge. *~ The use of cotton waste is not recommended Owing to the fine threads of the waste entering into the bearing passages. Wiping cloths are to be preferred. COPYRIGHT 1924 COMPILED BY R 5 22 PETROL EU M AGE / J. B. RATHE UN Eº - & LUBRICATING OILs (R-5-23) Lubrication Troubles EXTERNAL, HEATING. In many types of bearings heat enters, the bearing through the shaft, and the bearing may give all the indications of overheating When there is really nothing wrong with the bearing itself or its lubrication. The armature of an electric generator, for example, runs at a fairly high temperature, and the arma- ture shaft conducts much of this heat into the bearings. Under these conditions there is not much that can be done except to cool the bearings with a fan or to reduce the temperature Of the engine room. \ In forging machines, cement kilns, paper machinery, and other machines used for high temperature operations, the introduction of heat through the conductivity of the shaft is a real problem. In such cases, it is usual to use very viscuous oils which will thin down to the required viscosity when heated to the operating temperature. VISCOSITY. The viscosity of the oil should only be sufficient to support the bear- ing and no higher. An oil of very great viscosity introduces a considerable fluid fric- tion into the bearing which is in particular evidence in high speed machinery. When the oil is too viscuous there is a very marked increase in the amount of power required. A very viscous oil flows slowly, and in bearings with a small clearness the oil feed will be imperfect with such an oil. High speed machinery or machinery with close clearances demands a fluid oil which will flow rapidly into place and which will be quickly distributed over the rubbing surfaces by the oil grooves. For equal bearing loads and Speeds, a thinner oil will be required on cool running bearings than those which run at a high temperature for the reason that the viscosity is reduced in inverse proportion with the temperature. In cold weather the viscosity should be reduced while in hot weather or in a Warm room it must be increased for reasons mentioned above....Chilled heavy oil feeds slower and it may endanger the lubrication if not corrected. Oil thinned out by high temper- atures to an undesirable extent makes itself known by noisy operation when the mech- anism is much worn, and the heating is above normal. There has been much debate upon the type of oil to use with badly worn bearings having a great deal of clearance space, some claiming that a heavier oil should be used while others state that the grade should not be changed. The use of a more viscous oil in worn, bearings undoubtedly reduces the pressures due to bearing shocks and impact, and also decreases the clearance slapping and other undesirable noises, and if for no other reason it seems advisable to increase the viscosity. The increased clearance permits the free flow of the heavier oil and there should be no objection from this standpoint. The effect of a change in oil is not so much in evidence Where there 1s pure rotation without change in the direction of the loading, but in reciprocating #ºns or where the load comes on alternatively the heavy oil makes a great life I’en Ce. RING OILING BEARINGS. Bearings of the ring oiling type where a rotating ring feeds oil from a low reservoir into the bearing, great care should be exercised in pre- venting moisture from entering the reservoir, particularly in cold weather. If any amount of water accumulates in the bottom of the tank it is likely that the rings will be frozen so tight that they cannot operate. For the same reason a zero test oil must be used with such systems in the winter time so that the rings will not be stuck by the congealation of the oil. ... In warm weather, the accumulation of moisture in the reservoir will displace, the oil, and when the rings get into the water strata, the water will cause Overheating. Deposits or slime produced by the contact will be likely to stick the rings. f y COPYRIGHT 1924 COMPILED BY R 5 23 PETRO LEU M AGE J. B. RATHE UN tº ºp. LUBRICATING oils, PROPERTIEs of (R-8-1) (Commercial Classification) GENERAL, NOTES. Mineral lubricating oils are classified or given a commercial grading according to their use and the process by which they are produced, rather than by any reference to their chemical composition. Color is an index as well as compara- tive viscosities. The following are the general classes of lubricating oils under which there may be numerous sub-divisions and sub-gradings. DARK CYLINDER-OILS. The undistilled, untreated residues left in the stills after the lighter oils have been driven off, and while free from solid matter are not filtered. They are used for steam engine cylinder lubrication, and may be compounded with a Small percentage of tallow oil. The mineral cylinder oil is generally the result of steam distillation of paraffine base oils, and in color vary from a dark brown or green to solid black in reflected light. FILTERED CYLINDER OIL is made from dark cylinder oil by filtration, and may be used pure or compounded with from 3 to 12 percent of tallow oil according to the annount of moisture contained in the engine Steam or to the service. This is the highest grade of steam engine cylinder oil, and is less viscous than the dark oil. The filtered oil is also used for compounding with lighter oils to produce high viscosity oils for gas and gasoline engines, air compressors, etc. In reflected light the color varies from green to amber, and in transmitted light is a dark red. The filtration reduces the depth of color encountered with the dark cylinder oils. f RED OILS. These oils constitute the large proportion of medium and high viscosity oils used for the external lubrication of bearings, general machine lubrication, and similar work at moderate temperatures and Out of contact with steam or hot gases. They are made either from paraffine or asphaltic base crude, fire stilled. The red oils are often mixed with the filtered engine cylinder oil to produce high viscosity engine Oils and heavy duty bearing oils. They are also compounded with some form of vegetable oil to produce low viscosity engine oils. The red oils from paraffine crude are not suit- able for gas or gasoline engine cylinder lubrication as they deposit a great deal of hard carbon, but when made from asphaltic crude the carbon is much reduced and is of a softer flaky nature. Based on a Saybolt viscosity taken at 70° F., because of their more common use on external bearings the viscosity averages 600-1500 secs., with a specific gravity ranging from 0.900 to 0.916. The color is red. The setting point of a paraffine base red oil is higher than with the oil obtained from asphaltic crude. PALE OILS. These oils run from low to medium viscosity, and are commonly used for the external lubrication of high Speed journals such as elastic motors, grinders, and spinning machinery. They are also used for the lubrication of small and medium size internal combustion engines, and when in this service may be modified by the addition of from 3 to 10 percent of fixed oil or filtered cylinder oil, the latter when a high viscosity oil is required. Pale oils deposit less carbon in the cylinders of gas and gasoline engines than the oils heretofore mentioned. They are fire stilled, and very completely acid treated or well filtered. NEUTRAL OILS. Neutral oils may be subdivided into two classes: (1) Viscous neutrals, and (2) Non-viscous neutrals, this difference being obtained by redistillation or reduction process. As suggested, the viscosity of the non-viscous neutrals is only about one-half that of the viscous neutrals. They are fired distilled and free from paraffine wax, sun bleached, and filtered through Fuller's earth. When not acid treated, and they seldom are, they are called “Filtered neutral oils.” Neutral oils are used for the same purposes as pale oils, and are better adapted for re-circulation systems and self-oiling bearings where the same oil is used over and Over again. The neutral oils are also well adapted for enclosed type steam engines and steam turbines as they sep- arate well from the condensation. PYRIGHT 1922 w COMPILED BY §§§M**śe J. B. RATHEUN R–8–1 LUBRICATING OILs, PROPERTIES of (R-8-4) (Commercial Classification) General Classification of Mineral Lubricating Oils º 9°ºns | Saybolt viscosity Percent Name Of Oils (Pour Test) Saybolt Temp. of A. F. 9 Seconds F. o Fixed Oils * & o Lºſ) o * . py o Pure Or Dark Cylinder Oils. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35°-60 135 250 212 3–10% Tallow Oil Filtered Cylinder Oils. . . . . . . . . . . . 40°-89° 100°-180°] 212° 3-12º.ºw on - P f. 20 °-30° Red Oils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . *:::::: *::::::: 600°-1500"| 70* | 5-20% Fixed & Yºr Pal clf. 15°-25° fy py o 3–10 % Fixed or Pale Oils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Asph. 0° -15° 60” - 850 70 Filt. Cyl. Oil * & Para.f. 15°-25° PP ** o Pure Or Neutral (Viscous) Oil. . . . . . . . . . . . . A Sph. ôo -15° 180”- 500 70 Filt. Cyl, Oil - g Paraf. 15°-25° py PP © Pure Or Neutral (Non-Viscous) Oil. . . . . . . Asph. 0°-15° 70” - 180 70 Filt. Cyl. Oil Dark (Black) Lubricating . . . . . . . 109–50 v | 200” – 350” 140° Bloomless (Neutral) Oil. . . . . . . . . . White (Pale Spindle) Oil . . . . . . . . . Viscous (Low Pour Test) Oil . . . . . 09 -20°| 12007-4000" | 706 || 10-25% Fixed Oil Non-Viscous (Low Pour Test) Oil –40° - 0° 80” – 350” 70° * Specific Color Test Fla,Sh Point Name Of Oils Gravity Reflected Transm. Open gup Light Light F. Dark Brown B Dark Cylinder Oils. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.900-0.916 || Tor Green to Dark Brown 500°-620° Black to Black * Green- o ex Filtered Cylinder Oils. . . . . . . . . . . . 0.875- 0.895 Amber Dark Red 490°-580 Red Oils. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.900-0.915 Red g 380°-440° | Pale Oils. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.870-0 910 Light Light 275°–420 ° Neutral (Viscous) Oil. . . . . . . . . . . . 0.850–0.900 Light Red 350°–400° Neutral (Non-Viscous) Oil . . . . . . . 0.840–0.890 Light Light 320°–360° L)ark Brown Dark (Black) Lubricating. . . . . . . . 0.890-0.950 Black "". 300°-450° Bloomless (Neutral) Oil. . . . . . . . . . º No Bloom | Very Light White (Pale Spindle) Oll. . . . . Viscous (Low Pour Test) Oil. . . . . 0,910–0.950 Light Light Red 385 °-415° Non-Viscous (Low FourTest) Oiſ 0.850-0.900 Light ſight to Red | 280°-330° Note.—The specific gravities are purely relative and are of service only in compar- ing oils taken from similar crudes. oils is different for paraffine and asphaltic base oils. Copyright 1921 PETROLEU M AGE J. B. RATHE COMPILED BY UN (2) It Will be noted that the pour test of several R-8-4 LUBRICATING OLs, PROPERTIES OF (R-8-20) (Animal Oils and Fats) ANIMAL OILS. Animal fats are generally obtained by heating or “rendering” the chopped tissues of Various domestic animals. After the fat melts out, the tissues (cracklings) are then pressed to remove the fat remaining in the residue. Other fats are obtained from the bones, while a few are extracted from the wool, but the latter greases are rarely used except for certain special cases. Further treatment of the Solid and Semi-solid greases, generally by placing them under pressure, extracts the thin animal oils which are used for various lubricating purposes. Animal oils and greases are seldom used in their pure state as lubricants, except for certain special “cutting compounds” used in the machining of metals. They are more generally used in their solid form for making “soaps,’’ for lubricating greases or for compounding with petroleum lubricants to increase the adherence of the petro- leum oils to Wet Surfaces Or to impart certain other special properties to the mineral oils. They are relatively expensive and many of them decompose slowly in the presence of air, liberating organic acids and becoming “rancid.” Further, the animal oils are not suitable for use under extremely high temperatures as the Organic conn- pounds break down and destroy the useful properties Of the Oil. One of the most important properties of an animal oil is its ability to form “soaps” when heated with certain metallic bases such as potash, lime or certain aluminum salts. The fatty acid radicals contained in these oils, such as stearin and olein, enter into chemical combination with the metallic bases to form unctuous salts or soaps. The lime soaps, made by combining the fats with lime (CaOH), are not soluble in water. The Soda and potash Soaps, however, are soluble in water and form a. Stiff foam or lather when beaten up with the Water. Blending fluid animal oils with mineral oils contributes certain special properties to the mineral oils even when the animal oils are present in very small percentages. For example, from 5 to 10 percent of tallow oil added to mineral cylinder stock causes the mineral oil to adhere and form a definite oil film On the wet cylinder walls of low pressure steam engines. Certain other oils or greases, such as degras, added to automobile oils decreases the tendency toward chattering of the brake bands and frictional clutch Surfaces. RED OIL (ELAINE). Red oil is practically pure oleic acid and is a ruby colored semi-solid of nearly the same consistency as tallow. It is also known to users as “elaine” or simply as “oleic acid,” and may be had in two principal commercial forms: (1) Saponified Oleic Acid, or (2) Distilled Oleic Acid. The fatty acids are freed from a solid fat by a process of decomposition. The principal use for oleic acid is in the preparation of Soaps and grease or wool oil manufacture. \ STEARIN. Stearin separates out when melted tallow is allowed to cool slowly at an average temperature of 80°F., the cooling forming a granular mass from which the stearin is removed by pressing. During the process, a thin liquid known as “tallow oil” is expressed by the pressure, thus giving two products which are valuable to the oil trades. TALLOW OIL. "Dhis is a thin oil much used for compounding, particularly with steam cylinder oils. It is obtained from tallow as explained under “stearin” and results from heat decomposition of tallow. COPYRIGHT 1923 COMPILED BY R 8 20 PETROLEU M AGE J. B. RATHEUN $ºs * * * LUBRicating oils, PROPERTIEs of (R-8-21) (Animal Oils and Fats) TALLOW. Tallow is a grease of varying degrees of hardness which is obtained by rendering the fats of cattle, sheep, goats and similar animals. This material has many uses. It forms the base of the Stearin and tallow oil used in lubrication, and in its natural State is frequently used directly in the lubrication of heavy duty bear- ings and for making candles. Pure tallow is white, firm and free from odor, and for lubrication must be made from fresh fats which have not become rancid. Tallows are divided into two principal groups according to their Origin, that is, beef tallow and mutton tallow. Subdivision of these two classes are made according to the locality from which it is obtained since the tallows from different parts of the world have distinctly different qualities. Both beef and mutton tallows contain Olein and stearin with the percentage of stearin greatly in excess of the olein. Beef tallow contains more Olein than mutton tallow, and the hard tallows contain more Stearin than the softer varieties. The melting point ranges from 105°F. to 115°F., depending largely upon the percentage of stearin contained. Saponification value 19.2 to 20.2. Iodine value 35 to 44 percent. Specific gravity at 60°F. 0.863. TARD. The plastic grease known as “lard” which is taken from the loins of the hog is seldom used in its natural state as a lubricant, but simply forms the source of the lard Oil commonly used for this purpose. TARD OIL. Lard oil is usually obtained from the leaf lard by pressure, this process producing the best grades. Tower grades of lard and lard oil are obtained by boiling the abdominal tissues in water, the oil afterwards being skimmed off the surface and allowed to cool slowly. This forms a crystalline mass similar to that Ubtained by slowly cooling molten tallow, and the oil is then pressed out of the mass through heavy pressure. Izard oils are graded principally upon the amount of fatty acid and the color, and the principal commercial series are as follows: (1) Prime Winter Strained. (2) Prime. | (3) Off Prime. { (4) Extra. No. 1. (5) No. 1. (6) No. 2. These grades are then subdivided into minor classes according to the process of manufacture as in the cases of “steam lard,” “kettle rendered lard,” “neutral lard,” etc. The lard is then chilled to solidify the heavy fats, and the liquid olein is then pressed out, the olein being the lard oil. Kettle rendered lard is made from leaf fat taken from the newly slaughtered hogs while still warm. This fat is then chilled and is cut up into fine particles ready for heating in the steam jacketed kettles. At a temperature of about 250°F., a light yellow oil melts out from the tissues. The oil is then salted and allowed to stand until the membranes and other solid matter settle out. Usually several such settlings are necessary to get the degree of clarity desired, and after this point is reached the product is solidified by freezing. PETROL EU M AGE J. B. RATHE UN COPYRIGHT 1923 COMPILED BY R-8–21 | | \ LUBRICATING OILS, PROPERTIES OF (R-8-30) * O Properties of Fixed Oils (Vegetable and Animal Origin) º Coºg.ºns Saybolt Viscosity Purpose Name of Oils. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (Pour Test) Saybolt | Temp. Or F. o Seconds o TJse e a los 1100” –1200”I 104° Aero Eng. Castor Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0° - 10 90” - 100” 212 ° Hvy. Brgs. - o o 235”” 240”| 104° General Rape Oil (Unblown). . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12°– 25 55” – 58"| 212 ° Lubrication Rape Oil (Blown). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2007. 720° 212" | *.* Olive Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20° - 50° 185” – 210” | 104° WOOlens Palm Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80°-110° Making Grease Tallow (Beef-Mutton) . . . . . . . . . . . 100 °–12.5° 52”- 54"|T3123 Grease Tallow Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32° - 40° steºcyl Lard Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32° - 5.5° 185” – 220" | 104° ] Rosin Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bººs. Sperm Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32° 104”- 106”| 104° Šiš. Whale Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40° - 50° 135” - 155” | 104 ° Śiś, Neatsfoot Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0°- 40° 190” – 220" | 104° Aºis Porpoise Jaw Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Watches Flash Point - Solvents Name of Oils Open Cup ãº; Color Or F. o «y Mixture Castor Oil. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 580°-560° 0.960-0.968|Rºw #3}, Rape Oil (Unblown). . . . . . . . . . . . . . 530°-560° | 0.913-0,916 | *ś | *; Rape Oil (Blown). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.960-0.985 | Deep Red § Olive Oil. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475°-600° 0.915-0.918 Palm Oil. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430 °–450° 0.922–0.925 Yellow-Eted Tallow (Beef-Mutton) . . . . . . . . . . . . 550°-585° || 0.935-0.950 Mineral Tallow Oil. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 540°-600* | 0.918-0,918| Pºij, | Mineral Lard Oil. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500°-600* | 0.914-0.918| Pººj, Rosin Oil. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340°-330° 0.960-4.00 | Blººm Sperm Oil. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500°-505° 0.878-0.882|Light Yellow tº : Whale Oil. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470°-475° | 094-0.9%|Pale to Dark gº, Neatsfoot Oil. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470°-580° 0.914–0.917 Porpoise Jaw Oil. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.916-0.927 Copyright 1921 - COMPILED BY R 8 30 PETRO LEU M AGE J. B. RATHEUN * - ºnes LUBRICATING OILS, PROPERTIES OF (R-8-31) (Properties of Fixed Oils.) FISH AND MARINE ANIMAL OILS. The oils obtained from fish and marine animals such as the whale, seal and similar species have been known from the earliest times. In fact, whale oil was used extensively as a lubricating oil for heavy machinery up to a comparatively recent date, at which time it was superseded by the Cheaper and more effective petroleum products. MENHADEN OIL. This oil is produced in quantity and is obtained from the menhaden, a fish similar to the herring, but which is considerably larger. The fish are digested in steam pans and the oil is recovered by skimming it from the surface of the water after the steaming is completed. This produces a light brown oil with a low percentage of fatty acids when made from fresh fish and a dark brown oil When obtained from old or putrid stock. These crude oils may be bleached to a pure White oil when desired and the strong odor of the crude oil can also be somewhat reduced by processing. When desired, the fish oil may also be blown. Commercial grades are progressively known as Gurry oil, Dark Pressed, Light’ Pressed, Winter Pressed and Bleached oils. The specific gravity will range from 0.925 to 0.938 with an average iodine number of 160 (Hanus). The acid number is 6. SPERM OIL. This oil is taken from the head of the sperm whale, and when the Contents are removed from the head cavity of the whale both sperm oil and a white Wax known as Spermaceti are obtained. A lower grade of sperm oil is obtained from the bladder. The highest grade is a very light yellow oil having a specific gravity ranging from 0.878 to 0.885, the lightest of the fixed oils. As with all natural products there is a considerable variation in the gravity and the gravities given here are not the extreme values but the values ordinarily considered the best for commercial purposes. According to the method of separating the oil from the mass, sperm oils may be classified as Winter Sperm, Spring Sperm and Pressed Sperm oils. In purchasing sperm oil, the specifications ordinarily define the specific gravity and the acidity, the latter being held at a certain lower limit. SEAL OIL. This oil, obtained from the seal, has a high specific gravity and a high flash point. It has a strong odor and the Color is variable. COPYRIGHT 1925 Ae COMPILED BY \ * R 8 31 PETRO L E U M AGE J. B. RATHETUN smº fºr * mag { LUBRICATING OILs (R-8-40) o (Properties of Lubricating Oils) SOLID LUBRICANTS. There are several kinds of solid lubricants, some of which are used in their original solid form while others are suspended mechanically in some liquid medium Such as water or oil. Among the most common of the solid lubricants are graphite, talc, mica, white lead, various salts of aluminum, flowers of sulphur and litharge. These being either of a tough flaky nature or even brittle must be dis- tinguished from the semi-solid lubricants such as the fats and greases. For ease and uniformity of application to a bearing, certain of the solid lubricants are reduced to a finely divided or colloidal form and then mechanically suspended in a liquid or grease, but So far as We know, this has but little effect upon the original solid lubricant. The liquid in this case is known as a vehicle. GRAPHITE. Graphite is the most important of the solid lubricants, and because of its greasy feel and dark color is often erroneously called “black lead” or “Plumbago.” This substance is one of the several allotropic forms of pure carbon, hence is elemental and not a salt of a metal. It is not attacked by acids nor alkalis and successfully resists temperatures up to 4,000° F., even resisting the action of the acetylene blow torch. It Slowly burns in air under the action of the electric arc. The specific gravity of com- mercial grades ranges from 1.81 to 2.1, depending upon the amount of impurity Con- tained. Commercial graphite can be divided into two principal classes: (1) The Natural Graphite found in natural beds in different parts of the world, and (2) Artificial Graphite produced in the electric furnace. The natural graphite always contains some impurities, Such as Silica, and alumina, but the artificial product can be obtained almost chemically pure and in a much better physical condition. For lubrication, the artificial product is probably the best since it is entirely free from grit and other substances which Would be likely to injure the rubbing Surfaces of a bearing. NATURAL GRAPHITE. Natural graphite as obtained from the mines exists in two forms, flake graphite and amorphous graphite. The flake type comes in flakes Or Scales having a bright lustre and a rather tough structure. The amorphous graphite has no such lustre, and unlike the flake type is easily reduced to powder by rolling it between the fingers. After mining, both classes receive some treatment for the removal of impurities and are sorted Out into various grades. It is easier to remove the impurities from the flake type and this is one of the reasons why this is preferred in lubrication practice. In the bearing, the flake graphite has the better adhering qualities and is retained more firmly in the Small irregularities found in the bearing surfaces. It retains its flakey form even when ground into the finest powder and this thin laminated form presents more wearing surface than the amorphous type. While very satisfactory when mixed with heavy or semi-Solid oils it is not suitable for mixing directly with water since its high Specific gravity tends to make it settle out of solution and to clog the passages in the lubricating system. \, . ARTIFICIAL GRAPHITE. The graphite produced in the electric furnace by the Acheson process is pure, soft and has a high lubricating value. This is of particular interest because it is from the artificial graphite that deflocculated graphite is made, and for the reason that almost any degree of fineness can be obtained. Commercial grades are turned out with particles Smaller than 1/400 inch, and in the deflocculated graphite the size is further reduced until each particle of graphite is divided into 700,000 particles. COPYRIGHT 1923 COMPILED BY • * PETROL EU M AGE J. B. RATHEUN ...' ... R-8-40 LUBRICATING OILs (R-8-41) (Properties of Lubricating Oils) COLLOIDAL GRAPHITE. Colloidal graphite is pure graphite ground down to such a finely divided State that the particles are nearly of molecular dimension. After reducing it to the proper degree of fineness, it is kneaded in water with some vegetable extract Such as tannic acid. This process surrounds each of the minute graphite particles With an envelope of organic matter which permanently suspends the graphite in Water or any thin fluid. A form of Acheson deflocculated used for suspension in Water is known by the trade name “Aquadag,” and this may be diluted in water Without danger of the graphite settling out. “Oildag” is the trade name for the product Suitable for mixing with mineral oils, and this may be mixed with any acid free neutral oil to form a permanent graphite lubricant. GRAPHITE AS A LUBRICANT. When graphite is used as a lubricant in a bear- ing, it fills the Small depressions and cavities and thus makes a uniform smooth bearing Surface. Not being affected by high temperatures it provides satisfactory lubrication for journals which would be far too hot to carry an oil film. There is a somewhat greater friction loss with dry graphite than with common grease, but when the graphite is mixed with oil in Small quantities, the friction loss may even be less than with the Oil alone, particularly with rough shafts or shafts much out of alignment. It is an excellent lubricant for heavy pressures and cannot be displaced under any bearing pressures used with the largest and heaviest rolling mill machinery. Owing to this resistance to pressure it is a very satisfactory lubricant for toothed gears where the face pressures may run up into thousands of pounds. Graphite is a fairly good electrical conductor and cannot be used where there is any danger of the lubricant getting on insulating surfaces and causing short circuits. It is for this reason that the use of graphite in the cylinders of gas engines and auto- mobile engines should be carefully restricted since the graphite will short circuit the Spark plugs should any be deposited upon the porcelain insulators. A very little graphite, say a tableSpoonful to a quart of oil can be used Once Or twice in a gas engine cylinder to reduce fine scoring or to run down a new rough bore, but this should not be repeated at frequent intervals. Another objection to the use of graphite is its intense black color and its ability to produce practically permanent stains on fabrics. For this reason it cannot be used in textile mill lineshaft bearings or in the bearings of looms or spinning machinery. Used in moderation, graphite is an excellent lubricant for the cylinders of steam engines, particularly if the cylinder or valve seats are scored. It fills up all scratches and depression and increases the steam tightness of the valves and piston. With Super- heated steam, this solid lubricant is of great assistance since it withstands the highest temperatures without vaporizing and aids in establishing a steam tight seal in the piston rings. Oil must be used with the graphite, and flake graphite should not be allowed to stand for any length of time in the oil since it is likely to settle out and clog the lubricator. TALC. This is a natural mineral product occurring in scaly masses, and according to its physical form is known under the head of steatite, soapstone or French chalk. The latter are impure forms of talc having varying degrees of lubricating values. Talc is very soft and has a greasy feel, and while not as effective a lubricant as graphite, yet it is often used as a lubricant. The color varies from a silvery White in the best grades to a greenish gray for the harder steatite varieties. It resists both acids and alkalis and will withstand temperatures below red heat Without much loss in lubricating value. COPYRIGHT 1923 COMPILED BY R–8 41. PETRO LEU M AGE J. B. RATHEUN sº * & * LUBRICATING OILS (R-8-60) U. S. Government Specifications (1924) CLASS “A” LUBRICANTS. (1) This specification covers the grades of petroleum Oil used by the United States Government and its agencies for the general lubrica- tion of engines and machinery where a highly refined oil is not required. This oil is not to be used for steam cylinder lubrication. (2) Only refined petroleum oils without the admixture of fatty Oils, resins, soap, or other compounds not derived from crude petroleum will be considered. (3) These oils shall be supplied in five grades, known as extra light, light, medium, heavy and extra heavy. zº PROPERTIES AND TEST.S. (4) FLASH AND FIRE POINTS (METHOD 110.31). The flash and fire points of the five grades shall not be lower than the following: Flash Point. Fire Point. Grade. •F. • F. - Extra light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315 355 Light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.25 365 Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335 380 Heavy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345 390 Extra heavy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355 400 (5) WISCOSITY (METHOD 30.4). The viscosity of the five grades of oil at 100° F. shall be within the following limits: Seconds. Extra light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135–165 Light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180–220 Medium . . . . . . . . . . . ; . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * * * * * * * e º e s & e s a s e s a s a 270–330 Heavy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360–440 Extra heavy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * * * * * * * * * * * * * 450–550 (6) COLOR (METHOD 10.2). The color of the five grades shall be determined without the use of kerosene as a diluent. The colors of these five grades shall not be darker than the following: Extra light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 # Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7% Heavy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . S Extra heavy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 IILED BY \ §§§ ºše §º R-8-60 LUBRICATING OILS (R-8-61) U. S. Government Specifications (1924) (Continued from R–8–60) (7) POUR POINT (METHOD 20.11). The pour point shall not be above the fol- lowing temperatures: • F. Extra light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 Light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 Heavy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 Extra heavy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 (8) REACTION (METHOD 510.1). The oil shall not show an acid reaction. (9) CORROSION (METHOD 530.31). A clean copper strip shall not be discolored when Submerged in the Oil for 3 hours at 212° F. (10) All tests shall be made according to the methods given in Part 2 of Tech- nical Paper 323A, U. S. Government Standard Specifications No. 2C. .* CLASS B. GENERAL STATEMENT. (1) This specification covers the grades of petroleum oils used by the United States Government and its agencies for the lubrication of turbines, dynamos, and high speed engines, using circulating and forced—feed systems. (2) Only refined petroleum oils without the admixture of fatty oils, resins, soap, or other compounds not derived from crude petroleum will be considered. -- * (3) These oils shall be supplied in five grades, known as extra light, light, medium, heavy, and extra heavy. PROPERTIES AND TEST.S. (4) FLASH AND FIRE POINTS (METHOD J 10.31). The flash and fire points of the five grades shall not be lower than the following: Flash Point. Fire Point. * Grade. • F. • F. Extra light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315 355 Light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.25 365 Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335 380 Heavy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345 390 } Extra heavy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 . . . . 355 400 (5) VISCOSITY (METHOD 30.4). This viscosity of the five grades at 100° F shall be within the following limits: t Seconds. Extra light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135–165 Light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180–220 Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270–330 Heavy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360-440 Extra heavy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • 450--550 § ) COPYRIGHT 1924 COMPILED BY R–8 61 PETRO LEU M AGE * J. B. RATHE UN / * *= * A. { g .A. * LUBRICATING OILS (R-8-62) U. S. Government Specifications (1924) (Continued from R–8–61) (6) COLOR (METHOD 10.2). The color of the five grades shall be determined without the use of kerosene as a diluent. The colors of these five grades shall not be darker than the following: Grade. A. S. T. M. Color No. Extra light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 7 Light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7% Heavy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Extra heavy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 x . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 (7) POUR POINT (METHOD 20.11). The pour point shall not be above the fol- lowing temperatures: °F. Extra light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 Light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 Heavy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 Extra heavy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 (8) CORROSION (METHOD 530.31). A clean copper strip shall not be dis– colored when submerged in the oil for 3 hours at 212° F. (9) EMULSION TEST. Grades extra light, light and medium—METHOD 320.11. Grades heavy and extra heavy—METHOD 320.21. The oil shall separate (see Note) in 30 minutes from an emulsion with normal caustic soda solution, and the upper layer at the end of 30 minutes shall not contain more than 10.0 per cent of water— METHOD 300.41. W NOTE: This means that there shall be only a slight cuff (no continuous layer of emulsion) between the water and the oil. (10) DEMULSIBILITY. Grades extra light, light, and medium—METHOD 3.20.31. Grades heavy and extra heavy—METHOD 320,41. The demulsibility shall not be less than 300, and the upper layer at the end of 30 minutes shall not contain more than 5.0 per cent of water—METHOD 300.41. (11) All tests shall be made according to the methods for testing contained in Part 2 of Technologic Paper 323A, U. S. Standard Specifications No. 2C. f OPYRIGHT 1924 COMPILED BY #######mºde J. B. RATHEUN R-8-62 LUBRICATING OILs (R-8-63) U. S. Government Specifications (1924) (Continued from R–8–62) CLASS C. GENERAL STATEMENT. (1) This specification covers the grades of petroleum oil used by the United States Government and its agencies when, and only when, service conditions neces— sitate an oil suitable for lubricating both turbine and internal combustion engines. (2) Only refined petroleum oils without the admixture of fatty oils, resins, soap, Or other compounds not derived from crude petroleum will be considered. (3) These oils shall be supplied in five grades known as extra light, light, medium, heavy, and extra heavy. PROPERTIES AND TEST.S. (4) FLASH AND FIRE POINTS (METHOD 110.31). The flash and fire points of the five grades shall not be lower than the following: Flash Point. Fire Point. Grade. • F. of". Extra light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315 355 Light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325 t 365 Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335 380 Heavy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345 390 Extra heavy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355 400 (5) VISCOSITY (METHOD 30.4). The viscosity of the five grades at 100° F. shall be within the following limits: Seconds. Extra light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135–165 Light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180–220 Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270–330 Heavy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360-440 Extra heavy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450–550 (6) COLOR (METHOD 10.2). The color of the five grades shall be determined without the use of kerosene as a diluent. The colors of these five grades shall not be darker than the following: Grade. A. S. T. M. Color No. Extra light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7% Heavy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Extra heavy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Q *A º COPYRIGHT 1924 COMPILED BY R-8-63 PET FOLEU M AGE J. B. RATHEUN - º * f i } LUBRICATING OILs, GENERAL PROPERTIES OF (R-10-5) (Commercial Classification) general characteristics of oils suited for different classes of machinery. In so far as possible, they show the range of Oils most commonly used for representative machines of each class; that is, show the lightest and heaviest oils used. In some cases Intermediate values are given. While this does not allow us to prescribe for any certain make of machine, yet at the same time it will permit us to make a trial that º: be within close limits of the truth when the exact requirements of the machine are Ulrik Il OWI). Eº. OF TABLES. The succeeding tables, R-10-5, 6, 7, 8 and 9, show the The material in the tables has been assembled from a large number of machine builders’ specifications, from material supplied by Oil men, and from data in the Writer’s possession. As a result, the tables are quite representative of average practice and include all sorts of oils for all sorts of machines. When known, Pennsylvania, stocks are indicated by (*) placed in front of the machine name. There are certain machines, such as the gas engine and steam engine, which are built for many different services and which operate at a wide range of temperature and speed. . These necessarily demand a correspondingly wide range of oil quality, and as a result the tables some- times show the extreme oil properties for a given type of machine. In Such cases, as a rough estimate, it may be considered that the hotter and heavier duty types take the heavier grade of oil, and that the smaller and higher speed types take the lighter oil. This is not always true, but it at least gives a safe oil with which to begin trials and On which to base Our lubricants. Too much attention should not be paid to gravity or color, for both of these quan- tities vary with the character of the crude from which the lubricant was made. Color and gravity are incidentals, but to the experienced man will indicate the nature of the crude used in each of the specifications and Will therefore be of assistance in duplicat- ing them. In regard to viscosity, the different specifications are not all based on a standard minimum temperature, some being tested at 70° F., while others are taken at the more usual temperature of 100° F. The viscosity at 212° F. is principally of importance for very hot running machines Such as gas engines, Steam engines, etc., and as these steam oils are also commonly used for gear case lubrication, they are rated by the viscosity at 212° F., regardless of the fact that the gears run at a much lower temperature. The abbreviations used in the table are as follows: ić R.—“Straight Run” and Oil obtained from a single crude by progressive distil- lation. Vis.-Neut.-‘‘Viscous Neutral,” a pure mineral oil having a viscosity greater than 140 Saybolt at the low test temperature. Non-Vis.=“Non-Viscous,” a straight mineral oil having a viscosity less than 140 Saybolt. Blend=A mixture of two or more mineral oils. Comp.–“Compound,” a mixture of mineral oils containing a mixture of some fixed animal or vegetable oil Such as tallow oil, palm Oil, etc. Cyl. Stk.-‘‘Cylinder Stock,” filtered and steam refined. Be°=Raumé gravity. Cylinder oils used for gas and gasoline engines, and for Steam engines operating on superheated steam, are straight mineral products in the majority of cases. Cylinder oils for engines running on saturated or wet steam at low temperatures, and pressures usually contain a little fixed fatty, oil to prevent the mineral oil from being washed off the surfaces by the moisture. The latter oils are also used as lubricants for heavy gears. Oils for hand operated machines are of low viscosity, principally for the reason that such oils produced the least friction and for the reason that the loading on the bearings is light. Copyright 1921 COMPILED BY PETROLEU M AGE J. B. RATHE UN R–10 5 LuBRICATING oils, GENERAL PROPERTIES OF (R-10-6) (Commercial Classification) \ # - || B * | * 3, Saybolt Viscosity Purpose or Service Class of Distill. # # à #: º = ||— Color & :- “º o © Yºº <> S; C #| #| 5 ||70°F 100°F 212°F *Aeroplane Eng. Oil. . . . . . . . Vis–Neut. S.R. 30.5|415|490] 201| 530| 75|| Red *Aeroplane Eng. Oil. . . . . . . . V is-Neut. S.R. 28.5|460|535|...}|... . . . . . . . . 110||Dark Red *Aeroplane Eng. Oil. . . . . . . . Vis-Neut. S.R. 26.4|500|580. 41||.... 1640| 122 * Aeroplane Eng. Oil. . . . . . . . VIS-Neut. S.R. 25.9 |460|540|| 45||. 924 | 84 *Aeroplane Eng. Rotary. . . . . Castor Oil (Veg)|15.0|.. . . . . . 5|}. . . . 1200 108||Water Wh. *Air Compressor Cyl. . . . . . . . Vis-Neut. S.R. 30.5|415|480| 20 | 215 70|| Stol. Pale *Air Compressor Cyl. . . . . . . . Vis–Neut. S.R. 31.0|415|480| 20|| 210 70|| Pale *Air Compressor Cyl. . . . . . . . V1S-Neut. S.R. 32.0|400|460| 20 || 140 62|Pale *Air Compressor Cyl........ Vls–Neut. S.R. 32.0|415|460| 20|| 190|. . . . . 66|Std. White *Air Compressor Cyl. . . . . . . . Vis-Neut. S.R. [.. . . |400|. . . . . . . . 360] . . . . . 55 *Air Compressor Cyl. . . . . . . . Vis-Neut. S.R. 19.8|315|400|| 0 || . . . . . 275] . . . . *Air Hammer Oil. . . . . . . . . . . Non-Vis. S.R. 34.0|340|400| 20) 80} . . . . . . . . . [Straw *Air Hammer Oil. . . . . . . . . . . . Vis–Neut. S.R. 32.0|400|460| 20 140|. 62;|Pale Ammonia Compress. Oil. Non-Vis. S.R. 26.0|325 0|| 70]. . . . . . . . . . Annonia Compress. Oil NOn-Vis. S.F. 27.0|360 4|| 100 . . . . . . . . . Ammonia. Compress. Oil. . . . Vis–Neut. S.F. 340 0|| 130ſ . . . . . . . . . Ammonia Compress. Oil. ..., |Vis-Neut. S.R. [.... [380 . . . –4|| 1801. . . . . . . . . *Auto Engine (Gasoline). . . . . Vis–Neut. S.R. 31.0|415480| 20 210|. . . . 70|Pale *Auto Engine (Gasoline). . . . . Vis-Neut. S.R. 32.0|415|480| 201| 190|. . . . | 66|Std. White *Auto Engine (Gasoline). . . . . Vis–Neut. S.R. 30.5|415|480| 20 || 215|. . . . 70||Std. Pale *Auto Engine (Gasoline). . . . . Vis-Neut. S.R. 32.0|400|460| 20 140|. . . . . 62|Pale *Auto Engine (Gasoline). . . . . Vis–Neut. S.R. 29.5|440|500|. . . . . 650|. . . . . 92||Red *Auto Engine (Gasoline). . . . . Vis–Neut. S.R. 24.3|370420) 8||. 222 47 *Auto Engine (Gasoline). . . . . Vis-Neut. S.R. 21.9|360|425 || 25 332 5] *Auto Engine (Gasoline). . . . . Vis-Neut. S.R. 25.9|460|540|| 42||. . . . . 924) 45 *Auto Engine (Gasoline). . . . . Vis–Neut. S.R. 26.4|500|580|| 41||. . . . 1640|| 122 Auto Engine (Steam). . . . . . Comp. 80/20% | . . . . . . 27.0|580}680) 30|| 225}. . . . . . . . . . Green Auto Engine (Steam). . . . . . Cyl. Stock S.R. 24.0620720 30 || 260' . . . . . . . . . . Green Auto Engine (Steam). . . . . . . Cyl. Stock S.R. 25.0|600|690 30|| 235 . . . . . . . . . [Green Auto Engine (Steam). . . . . . Cyl. Stock S.R. [.. . . |550|. . . . 45|| 185| . . . . . . . . . Auto Motor (Electric). . . . . . V1S-Neut. S.R. 30.0|415|480| 20 || 220 . . . . 71|Red Auto Motor (Electric). . . . . . . VIS-Neut. S.R. 30.5|415|480| 20 | 215|. . . . 70|Std. Pale Auto Motor (Electric). . . . . . Vis–Neut. S.R. 31.0|415|480| 20|| 210} . . . . 70|Pale Auto Rear Axle House. . . . . Cyl. Stock S.R. 24.0|620.720 30|| 260 . . . . . . . . . || Green \ Auto Rear Axle House. . . . . . Cyl. Stock S.R. 25.0|600|690|| 30|| 235 . . . . . . . . . . Green Auto Cyl.—Ford “T”. . . . . . . . Vis–Neut. S.R. 28.1|370|420|| 0 ||. 166|| 45| Auto Cyl.—Dodge Bros.. Vis-Neut. S.R. 23.3|370|420|| 8 ||. 222 47 Auto Cyl.—Buick . . . . . . . . . . Vis-Neut. S. R. 23.3|370|420 8||. 222| 47| Auto Cyl.—Franklin . . . . . . . Vis-Neut. S.R. 21.9|360|425 25 332 51 Auto Cyl.—Cadillac. . . . . . . . Vis–Neut. S.R. 21.9/360|425 || 25 332| 51 Auto Cyl.—Oakland. . . . . "... I Vis-Neut. S.R. 21.9|360 425 || 25 || . . . . 332| 51 Auto Cyl.—Knight Motor. . . Vis-Neut. S.R. 26.4|500|580|| 40|| . . . . ;1640|| 122 Axle Oil (Car) . . . . . . . . . . . . . Natural Black!... . . . . . . [540|... iſ 100]. . . . . . . . . || Black Belt-Link Chain. . . . . . . . . . . Vis–Neut. S.R. 31.0|415|480|20I 210|. . . . 70||Fale Car Journal Oil. . . . . . . . . . . . Natural | . . . . . . . . . . . (540|...|| 100|....]....|Black * From Pennsylvania crudes. Copyright 1921 COMPILED BY R-10–6 PETROL EU, M A GE J. B. RATHE UN & LUBRICATING OILs, GENERAL PROPERTIES of (R-10-7) 4 | (COMMERCIAL CLASSIFICATION) Saybolt Wiscosity NAME OR PURPOSE Class Gravity Flash Burn Cold Color Dist!. Be F F 70° 100° 212° *Clutch Qil (Line Shift) . . . . . . . S. R. 30 5 415 480 20 215 x:# 34 70 || Stol. Pale *Clutch Qil (Auto Disc) . . . . . . S. R. 32 0 400 460 20 140 $ $.3k 66 || Pale Clutch Qil (Leather Cone) . . . . . Neatsfoot, (Animal Oil–No mineral substitute) *Clutch Oil (Gas Engine) ... . . . . lend :k:k:k: $ & Sk ::::::: 40 3:::::: :K.}::: 85 || Green *Clutch Qil (Ford Car) ... . . . . . R. 28 1 370 420 x:k:k 166 45 || Yellow *Clutch Oil (Gas Tractor) . . . . . Blend ×3::::: 440 500 :::$ k 650 *:k:k 92 || Red Compressor (See Air Comp.) . Qordage Qil (Trans. Rope). . . . Non-Wis. 34 0 340 400 20 80 sk ºf $ *** || Ex. P. Lemon Cordage Qil (Steel Rope) . . . . Blend 25 0 600 690 30 $:::::: *::::: 235 || Green Cordage Oil (Manila Hoist) .. Grease Tar Wax * * * - - tº e & *Crankcase (Auto) (See Auto) , | Vis-Neut. Crankcase §: Light). . . . . . S. R. 32 0 395 445 26 $::k ºf 85 * ::::$ *Crankcase (Steam, Medium) S. R. 28 0 400 450 28 :k:#; 125 >k:k X: Crankcase (Steam, Heavy). . . . . S. R. 26 5 440 490 30 :::::::: 150 :: *k:k Crankcase (Gas Engine) '..... S. R. 30.5 415 480 20 215 $ $xº: 70 || Std. Pale Cream Separator (Hand). . . . . Non-Wis. 34 5 340 400 20 80 x < x < x: *** | Straw... . Cream (Hand). . . . . . . Non-Wis. 34 0 340 400 20 75 sk:k:k *** || Std. White Cream (Power) . . . . | Vis-Neut. 30 5 415 480 20 215 *::::: 70 || Std. Pale Cream (Power) . . . . . Vis-Neut. 31 0 415 480 20 210 +++ 70 || Pale Cream (Power) . . . Vis-Neut. 32 0 | 400 460 20 || 140 | *** 62 || Pale Çylinder §º (See Auto). . . . . S. R. Qylinder (Gas Engine, Large). S. R. 30 5 415 480 20 350 :::$:k 70 || Stol. Pale *Cylinder (Steam, Heavy) Blend 25 0 600 690 30 $ Sk:}; :k:k ‘k 235 || Green Cylinder (Steam, General)..... Blend 25 0 590 680 30 $:k:k :k Sk:; 215 || Green Cylinder (Steam, L. P.). . . . . .] Blend 25.0 550 600 sk:k: ; $ Sk:}; Skx. $. 150 Cylinder (Steam, H. P.) . . . . . . Blend 25 0 600 690 30 skxk:}; $:k Sk 235 || Green Qylinder (Steam, Superh,) . . . . . Cyl. Stk. 24 0 620 720 30 *:::: $$$t 260 || Green Cylinder (Steam, H. P., Suph.). S. R. 24.5 630 700 :::k:k *k::: X:k:}; 375 || Green Cylinder (Locomotive). . . . . . . . . Cyl. Stk. 24 0 620 720 30 :::::it × Skxx 260 || Green Cylinder (Marine Engine). . . . . Cyl. Stk. 24 0 620 720 30 *:::::: Xs:k:k 260 || Green Cylinder (Diesel Oil Engine) . . . S. R. $xk:k:k :::::: :::::: x: x x; :::: 400 55 *Dynamo Qil §º . . . . Wis-Neut. 30 5 415 480 20 215 Sk:k:t 70 || Sta. Pale *Dynamo Qil (Generators). . . . . Wis-Neut. 31.0 415 480 20 210 xxx; 70 || Pale *Dynamo Qil (Generators) . . . . . Vis-Neut. 32 0 400 460 20 140 Sk:k:}; 62 || Pale Dynamo Qil (Large Gens.) . . . . Wis-Neut. 30 5 420 470 20 $Skx, 200 Sk::: Dynamo Qil (Med. Gens.). . . . . . Wis-Neut. 32 0 395 445 20 Skºk & 150 it sk: Dynamo Oil (Small Gens.). . . . . . Wis-Neut. 27 5 345 400 20 ×xº Sk 90 *::::: Electric Auto (See Auto). . . . . . Electric Motor (See Dynamo) .. Engine Qil (Qut. Brgs.) §. Wis-Neut. 24.0 450 500 40 sk X:#: 325 ::::::: Engine Qil §: Brgs.) (Med.)...] Wis. Neut. 25 0 400 450 35 Sk:g:: 280 *:::: Engine Qil (Out. Brgs.) (Gen.) . Vis-Neut. 30 5 400 450 * * * sk xk ºr 225 || *** || Red Engine Qil §: Speed). . . . . . Wis-Neut. 30 5 415 480 20 215 L *** 70 || Std. Pale Engine Oil (Splash Feed). . . . . . . Vis-Neut. 30 0 415 480 20 220 bºx; Sk 71 || Red Engine Oil (Skinner Engine). . . . | Blend 31 0 410 460 20 195 :::::: 68 || Pale Red_ Gas Engine Oil (See Auto and Cylinder Oils). Gasoline Engine Oil (See Auto and Cylinder Oils). Gear Case Oil §§ & º º º 'º - ſº º te že Cyl. Stk. 24 0 || 620 | 720 30 TFTTFTT550 TGreen Gear Case Oil (Auto). . . . . . . . . Cyl. Stk, 25 0 600 690 30 * * *k $$ Sk 235 || Green Gear Case Qil §: * g e s s & º e Cyl. Stk. 25.2 600 680 30 $:k sk sk xk:k 240 || Green Gear Case Oil (Worm Gear). . . . . Cyl. Stk. 24.0 620 720 30 Skºk $ **k (i. 260 || Green tº Copyright 1921 COMPILED BY R 10 7 PETROL EU M AGE J. B. RATHEUN •-y * LUBRICATING OiLs, GENERAL PROPERTIES OF (R-10-8) (Commercial Classification) Saybolt Wiscosity Class || Gravity | Flash Fire Cold NAME OR PURPOSE Distill. Be” Fo Fo Fo 70° 100° 212° Color *General Machine Oil . . . . . . . . . . S. R. 30 0 415 480 20 220 71 Red *General Machine Oil . . . . . . . . . . Blend 30.5 400 450 20 225 66 Red *General Machine Oil. . . . . . . . . . . S. R. 30 5 415 480 20 215 70 || Stol. Pal *General Machine Oil. . . . . . . . . . S. R. 32.0 400 460 20 140 62 Pale Generator Oil (see Dynamo). . . . . *Glass Machine Oil . . . . . . . . . . . S. R. 31 0 415 480 20 210 79 Pale Grinders, Emery Wheels. . . . . . . Comp. 33.1 420 495 20 95 Hammer Oil (Steam Cyl.). . . . . . Cyl. Stk. 25.0 600 690 30 235 Green Hammer, Air (see Air Hammer) *Hanger Oil (Lineshafts). . . . . . . . S. R. 30 0 415 480 20 220 71 Red *Hanger Oil (Lineshafts). . . . . . . . Blend 30 5 400 450 20 225 66 Red *Hanger Oil (Lineshafts). . . . . . . . Black e is sº e * * * * 540 * * * * is tº & g 100 Black Harvester Oil. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Caster Oil (Vegetable.) Harvester Oil. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . High Speed Machine Oil. . . . . . . S. R. 30 0 410 490 24 228 tº e º as 72 Red High Speed Machine Oil. . . . . . . Comp. 33.1 420 495 20 $ & e s 95 • * * * Red Ice Machine (see Ammonia) Journal Oil (Car). . . . . . . . . . . . . Black 540 100 Black Knitting Machine (Ordinary). . . . Comp. 32.5 415 470 21 148 61 Pale Knitting Machine § ...|Non-Wis. 33.8 335 405 18 87 * * * * Lemon Knitting Machine (Stainless)....|Non-Wis. 34.2 340 400 18 75 White Lathes, Small º Speed)..... S. R. 32.0 400 460 20 120 Lemon Lathes, Large (Low Speed). . . . . Comp. 31.0 420 460 tº º te tº 250 Red Lathes, Medium (18"-24")...... Comp. . . . . * * g is & s tº a 300 Red Lineshafts (see Hangers). . . . . . . Link Belt (Chain Drive). . . . . . . S. R. 31.0 412 475 20 210 72 || Lemon Locomotives (Cylinders). . . . . . . Cyl. Stk. 24.0 620 720 30 260 Green Loom Oil (Ordinary) . . . . . . . . . . S. R. 31 0 415 480 20 212 72 Pale Loom Oil §: Light). . . . . Non-Wis. 35.0 340 400 20 70 sº tº gº tº White Loom Oil (Stainless, Heavy). . . . |Non-Wis. 34.0 340 400 20 85 Straw Machine (see General Machine). 2 Meter Oil. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Non-Wis 02 Pale Monotype Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Blend 31.0 420 550 30 550 78 Red Motors, Elect (see Dynamo).... Motors, Auto (see Auto). . . . . . . Motor Boat (see Auto). . . . . . . . . Motorcycle (see Aeroplane). . . . . Oil, Engine §º fº & e º e º e g º & s Comp. 440 500 300 45 Oil, Engine (Semi-Diesel)....... Comp. 400 500 400 55 Pit Car Oil................... Black 550 100 Black Pneumatic Tool (see Air H.).... Copyright 1921 COMPILED BY R-10-8 PETROLEU M AGE . B. RATHE UN O LUBRICATING OILs, GENERAL PROPERTIES OF (R-10-9) (Commercial Classification) g te Saybolt Wiscosity NAME OR PURPOSE Class. Gravity Flash Fire Cold Color Distill Be F F F 70° 100° 212° Press, Hydraulic. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Non-Wis. 34.5 350 410 20 85 Lemon Pump Cylinders (Dry Air). . . . . . Comp. 395 350 55 Pump Cylinders (Vacuum). . . . . Comp. 400 325 50 * * *Roll Qil (Metal Working)..... , Wis-Neut! 30 0 415 480 25 230 75 Red Roll Qil §: Working). . . . . . , Cyl. Stk. 24 0 620 720 30 gº ºn tº & 275 Green Roll Oil (Copper-Brass). . . . . . . Vis-Neut! 31 0 410 460 30 225 72 Red :Sewing Machine Qil (Hand).....|Non-Wis. 34 2 335 | 490 20 85 Straw *Sewing Machine Qil § ... Non-Wis.|| 35.0 340 400 20 70 ..., | White *Sewing Machine Oil (Power).... S. R. 32 5 410 475 20 185 68 White Slab Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , S. R. 32 0 415 480 20 190 70 White Špindle Qil (Light): ........... Non-Wis. 33.5 350 400 20 85 * * * * Lemon Spindle Qil º * * g e g º g º e s tº Vis-Neut! 32.0 410 480 20 150 65 Pale Spindle Oil (Stainless)... . . . . . . . Non-Wis. 34 0 350 400 20 80 80 Straw Steam Turbine (see Turbine).... Steam Auto (see Autos)........ | Steam Engine (see Engine). . . . . Steam Cylinder (see Cylinder)... Switch Oil (Electric) . . . . . . . . . Non-Wis. 36 0 320 360 15 190 * * * * Stone Crushers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Comp. 400 410 ~ 30 350 53 Tractor Oil (see Aero-Auto). . *— Transmission §§ tº tº gº º e º & & B Cyl. Stk.| 24 0 620 720 30 260 Green Transmission (Auto) . . . . Cyl. Stk 25 0 600 690 30 tº e º e 240 Green Transformer Oil. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Non-Wis. 34.5 350 410 20 90 Lemon Transformer Oil, ... . . . . . . . . . . . Non-Wis. 34.0 340 400 20 80 Straw Transformer Oil... . . . . . . . . . . . Non-Wis. 35 0 340 400 15 70 White Trucks (see Auto). . . . . . . . . . . * w Turbine Oil (Steam). . . . . . . . . . . S. R. 32 0 400 460 20 145 tº e & © 65 Pale Turbine Oil (Steam). . . . . . . . . . . S. R. sº tº º 395 tº gº tº & 25 * * * * 135 & sº & © dº º gº tº Turbine Oil (Steam). .......... S. R. tº e 410 35 265 Turbine Oil (Steam). .......... S. R. * = e e 425 * * * * 40 465 Turbine Oil (Steam). . . . . . . . . . . S. R. 32 0 395 445 e s tº tº 150 Valve Oil (see Cylinders, Steam) Watch Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (Dolphin, Porpoise, Jaw Melon Fish Oils). *Windmill Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Non-Vis 34 0 340 400 20 80 Straw * In addition to the above machines are the very small delicate instruments and clockwork devices on which animal or vegetable Oils are used; Or, at the best, a Very light non-viscous mineral oil. These include watches, cash registers, typewriters, add- ing machines, and such work. Again, there are heavy machines which perform better with some animal fat like tallow or a vegetable oil such as castor oil. This class of viscous fixed oils is used in such places as the journals of paper making machinery, cold drawing dies, and so forth. Automobile racers and certain classes of aeroplane engines use castor oil, for castor oil maintains its viscosity under a Very high tem- perature. Sperm Oil, Porpoise Jaw Oil, Dolphin Jaw Oil and Melon Oil are used for watches, clocks, speedometers, tachometers and similar delicate work. º Sperm Oil, Whale Oil and Neatsfoot Oil are used for the next heavier class, such as light textile spindles, gun mechanism, compressed air engines, cash registers, sew- ing machines, duplicators, adding machines, etc. Neatsfoot oil very effectively softens leather, and for this reason is often used for clutches and belting, or other power transmission devices having frictlon faces of leather. Tallow is used for making greases and for lubricating very hot journals having an exceptionally high loading at low speed. Castor oil serves the same purpose, and in addition is often used to cool down overheated bearings. Acidless tallow oil is used principally for compounding with mineral oil cylinder stocks. Both beef and mutton tallow are used. Lard oils are used in compounding internal combustion oils of certain types, making cutting oils, and the manufacture of Stainless oil. . It is not generally ised pure as a lubricant. Rape seed oil (Vegetable) is much used in Europe as a general machinery lubricant. COMPILED BY Copyright 1921 PETRO LEU M AGE J. B. RATHE UN LUBRICATING OILS, PROPERTIES OF (R-10-12) (Commercial Classification.) LINESHAFT LUBRICATION. Lineshafting lubrication while of the greatest importance in a mill or factory is usually the most neglected feature of the plant and in most cases the lineshaft lubricants are purchased purely on a price basis regard- less of their suitability to the purpose at hand. Not only are indifferent lubricants used, but the method of applying them is primitive as well and, as a result, there is - undue friction in the power transmission. #. In many shops the iineshaft friction may annount to more than the driven load, this especially being the case where small light machinery is driven at a distance from the central power station. Many of the advantages of electric drive would be discounted if proper lineshaft lubrication were more commonly practiced. In one shop tested by the Writer the lineshafting required 128 horsepower to drive it -empty While the total full load with all machinery running was, Only 157 horsepower. Out of the 157 horsepower only 29 horsepower was utilized. Fart of this loss was due to poor lubrication and mechanical troubles such as misalignment of the shafting and bearings, power consuming couplings and cheap bearings. After lining the shafting up and readjusting the bearings the shaft power was reduced from 128 to 64 horsepower. Changing the lubricant caused a further drop to 38 horsepower. This is not an exceptional case among the older factories and indicates that a very great saving can be made by the lubrication engineer. One of the greatest troubles in open mills is due to seasonal changes, for left to the millwright department, the same lubricant is likely to be used the year around. In steel mills, forge shops and foundries there is not much difference in the tem- perature outside or in the building, and in winter weather the heavy black oils so commonly used simply solidify in the bearings and double or triple the frictional loads. It amounts to oil lubrication in summer and grease lubrication in winter, except that the shafts are not adapted for grease and therefore the cold lubricant is not properly distributed over the rubbing surfaces. In one mill the use of a proper lubricant avoided the installation of an addi- tional unit in the power house. Already near the proper load in Summer time, the congealation of the oil in the bearings during cold weather seriously overloaded the engines and the generators through the abnormal lineshaft friction. At times a 22 per cent overload was indicated by the switchboard instruments, which promptly dropped to 15 per cent below rated output. j COPYRIGHT 1925 COMPILED BY R 10 12 PETRO L E U M AGE J. B. RATHETUN &= | | | | | | - O * LUBRICATION (R-14-20) t Economics of Lubrication COST OF LUBRICATION. Primarily, the purpose of a lubricant is to reduce friction and wear in rubbing parts, hence these two basic items are the fundamentals of the measurement of saving and cost in lubrication. The frictional item is directly associated with the cost of power, while the second is associated with maintenance and repair. Again, since the reduction of power required for driving the plant is concerned with the size of the units employed in the powerhouse, we have the third element of investment and its subsidiary items to consider. The true calculation of cost in lubrication, and the economy effected thereby, is a complicated proposition since it involves nearly every operating expense either directly or indirectly. If belt dressing can be considered as an inverse sort of lubrication, saving power by eliminating belt slip and wear, then we add still further to the scope of the liquids and semi- liquids employed for the adjustment of frictional engagement. First taking the case of a plant driven by some form of prime mover such as a 'steam engine, gas engine or steam turbine, we find that the lubricant effectively increases the efficiency of the prime mover by reducing the mechanical friction of the moving parts. This at once means a reduction in fuel cost, reduction in Wear and hence in maintenance, and also causes a secondary increase in efficiency Owing to the employment of Smaller units than would be the case where no lubricant Or only a poor lubricant were applied. If a highly superior lubricant reduced the friction by 50 percent, then the unit could be that much smaller with a resulting saving in fuel, rental charges, upkeep and labor charges. The interest on the investment would also be reduced and other similar items in like proportion. While the latter is a small matter in a small plant, yet in large central power stations of many thousands of horsepower, the effect of lubrication on the Overhead charges is very marked. Next, we must consider the effect of the lubricant on the transmission system through which all of the power of the prime mover is transmitted to the machinery or other driven load. The mechanical friction loss in transmission is always very high, even when direct drive electric motors are employed, and is particularly in evidence when long line shafts are used in belt drive with numerous countershafts for driving the individual machines. Between the driven load and the mover, we have some of the most important losses in the entire System. At this point, particular attention must be paid to lubrication and to the proper alignment of the bearings and shafting, for it is always Very easy to exceed even the losses in the prime mover if proper care is not taken of the lineshaft hangers and belting. Excessive or deficient belt tension cause excessive bearing friction or belt slip respectively, and both are related directly to the problem of lubrication. So important are the losses in the hangers that a separate account should be kept of the transmission System where lubrication costs are considered. With direct electric motor drive, the shaft losses are of course eliminated, but there still remains the frictional losses in the bearings and commutators of the motor and in the gearing or chains used for connection of the motor to the machine. Naturally, the next link in the chain of power transmission and utilization is the driven load itself, or the friction of the driven machinery. Here we have an almost unlimited opportunity for improving lubrication and reducing the cost of maintenance. The question of Wear is generally of even more importance than saving in power, particularly in the case of finely built and adjusted machine tools where perfect running is of prime importance. In large plants where there are many machines, a small reduction in the friction and Wear of One machine is many, times multiplied giving a tremendous aggregate saving. Very high Speed machines are notoriously sensitive to the nature of the lubricant Supplied, Since the slightest increase or decrease in the fluid resistance of the lubricant is accentuated by the high Speed of the rubbing sur- faces. Viscosity is here a predominating influence. COPYRIGHT 1923 COMPILED BY R 14 20 PETROL EU M AGE sº J. B. RATHEUN * - *-* - LUBRICATION (R-14-21) * Economics of Lubrication FRICTIONAL LOSSES ITEMIZED. Below is a summary of the friction producing elements of the average power driven plant or factory, with notes as to the average losses and lubrication. Item (a) of course is absent in plants driven by power fur- nished by public service corporations. SUMIMARY OF FERICTIONAL ELEMENTS IN PLANT (a) PRIME MOVERS. The mechanical efficiency of prime movers of the reciprocat- ing type, Such as Steam engines and gas engines, ranges from 80 to 95 percent according to type and the method of lubrication. This means that from 5 to 20 percent of the total power Supplied to the engine is directly affected by lubrication, hence we are greatly COIncerned With the lubrication at this point. The efficiency of steam turbines is considerably higher than this owing to the simplicity of the rubbing surfaces and the nature of the lubrication, probably ranging from 90 to 98 percent. Assuming the case of a large plant with a cost of $20 per horsepower-year, an engine having an efficiency of 80 percent would represent a yearly loss of 0.20 X $20 = $4.00 per year per horsepower, due to friction in the prime mover alone. Smaller plants, with correspond- Ingly greater cost of power production, would have a much greater loss in terms of dollars and cents. If, by the use of proper lubricants, we could reduce the losses to 5 percent, then We would have reduced our yearly charge above to 0.05 X $20 = $1.00 per horsepower year, or would have reduced our power loss to 25 percent of its former cost. At this rate, the reduction of losses from 20 to 5 percent would pay for a great many gallons of lubricating oil of the highest grade. (b) TRANSMISSION SYSTEM. Depending upon the arrangement of the plant, the losses in the lineshaft bearings will range from 20 to as much as 80 percent of the total power produced by the engine, the average loss probably averaging about 40 percent of the power produced. These losses may be due to misalignment of the bearings or to the use of a cheap grade of lubricant, or to both, but in any event, the transmission system deserves far greater attention than is ordinarily given to it. The frictional losses increase very rapidly with the speed of the line shafts, hence wood working plants and textile plants suffer to a greater degree than metal Working plants with low speed shafting. Settlement of the building, heavy pulleys, improperly installed shafting, or heavy belt pull all contribute to great shafting losses. Direct individual electric motor drive does not eliminate friction, but as the motor shafts are generally in better alignment than the lineshaft bearings and the oil used is of better grade, the total friction of the motors is generally somewhat less. The fact that individual motors are cut out of service during light load periods further minimize the losses of motors. motorS. \s J ' ' ' , ", ſ! (c) MACHINERY LOSSES. The driven machinery shows frictional losses of from 10 to 60 percent according to the type of machinery and the speed at which it is driven. Light machinery driven at very high speed frequently shows higher percentage of loss than heavy machinery driven at low speed, particularly if a very heavy lubricant is used for the light machinery. In certain metal working machinery, as with the inter- mittent acting punches, the frictional load may be greater than the power required for actually performing the useful work. In this case, the friction load is constant while the work is intermittent. (d) HOISTS AND ELEVATORS. The mechanical efficiency of hoists and elevators is very low, owing to the “gearing down” of the motor speed to hoisting speed. Travel- ing cranes on poorly aligned runways are exceedingly Wasteful of power, particularly if the runways are not lubricated. COPYRIGHT 1923 COMPILED EY R 14 21 PETRO LEU M AGE J. E. RATHE UN * - sº º ºs ..sº LUBRICATION (R-14-22) Economics of Lubrication OVERALL EFFICIENCIES. The total efficiency of a number of chain connected units is equal to the products of the efficiencies. In a transmission system of power development, the efficiency of each link in the chain is multiplied by the next, thus obtaining the total efficiency of the entire plant. The following is a practical example: Let A = Efficiency of the prime mover. B = Efficiency of transmission System. C = Efficiency of driven machinery. Then, the total or overall efficiency = A X B X C. ** As all of these items are fractional, the resulting total is usually very small, nearly always below 50 percent. Let us say, for example, that the mechanical efficiency of the engine is 80 percent, that of the transmission system is 40 percent, and that of the machinery is 50 percent. The grand total then becomes: 0.80 × 0.40 × 0.50 = 0.16, or only 16 percent total. This little problem, which is in agreement with small plant practice, shows that the lubrication engineer has the problem of conserving 84 percent of the total energy Supplied in the coal. Conservation of power by proper lubrication and reduction of friction is of far more importance and is more cheaply accomplished than by multitudes Of mechanical “efficiency increasers” now being marketed. / Assuming, for example, that our fuel costs us $12.00 per horsepower-year, then under the conditions above, 0.84 × $12 = $10.08 of this armount is chargeable to friction, and only $1.92 is charged to useful work. DEPRECIATION AND REPAIRS. A very great portion of the cost of maintenance is due to the wear caused by mechanical friction. The replacement of worn parts is One of the greatest factors in the upkeep of mechanical equipment. This is, of course, at a maximum With no lubrication, and then progressively becomes less and less as the proper degree of lubrication is reached. To a very large extent, the power expended in overcoming friction (except for the fluid friction of the lubricant itself) is actually used in destroying the machinery, and in a way, the wear and maintenance charge is roughly proportional to the friction loss. Approximately, with ordinary plants, the repairs due to Wear will average about 10 percent of the total cost of power with proper lubrication, and up to 25 percent with incorrect lubrication. Unfortunately, the nature of a lubricant required for minimum wear must be com- promised with a lubricant causing a minimum power loss, for the heavy viscous oils required for maximum separation and protection of the rubbing surfaces cause the greatest fluid friction loss. To choose that lubricant which gives the least total loss requires careful study and considerable experimenting. Actual experience with the given type of machine operating under everyday practical conditions is necessary—not mere laboratory tests. The exact expense of maintenance chargeable to lubrication depends largely upon the design of the machine, and the facility with which renewals and adjustments car be made. Thus, With small light machines provided with easily replaced bushings anc liners, the expense is proportionately much less than with large heavy machines where the parts are removed with difficulty and where the cost of the material is great. In the same way, machines with babbitted fixed bearings forming an integral part of the machine are more difficult and costly to repair than similar machines with removable bushings and shoes. High speed machinery, with a purely rotative assembly has a different rate of depreciation than slow heavy reciprocating mechanisms. Machines with integral bearings require much more careful lubrication than those with separate bushings for the reason that replacements are much more expensive. COPYRIGHT 1923 , COMPILED BY R 14 22 PETRO LEU M AGE J. B. RATH BUN * - - " sº LUBRICATION (R-14–23) º (Economics of Lubrication.) CONSERVATION OF LUBRICANTS. When filters or other reclamation devices are installed, part of the oil formerly rejected is returned to the circulating System. The reclaimed oil is a saving, but not the net saving, as we must deduct the cost of the labor and the overhead charges on the reclamation system. Again, the reclaimed oil may not be used for the same purpose as the original fresh oil, but may be used as a substitute for some cheaper grade on Other Service. Again, we must make suitable compensation for the service. Let: G = Total gallons of fresh oil purchased. N = Gallons of usable filtered oil. L = Gallons of sludge or lost oil due to filtering. P = Price per gallon of fresh oil. Then: Cost of Oil = P × (G — N) = P × L providing no labor charge nor overhead is charged against the filtered component of the oil, and that the oil is filtered but once. As a matter of fact, constantly diminishing quantities of the original oil are returned again and again to the recla- mation system together with the new oil, so that on the second installment of new oil the cost is relatively less than at the first trip as there is a certain percentage of filtered oil to begin with. This is computed in a manner somewhat similar to compound interest. Now let the sum of the labor and overhead charges per gallon be represented by (p), hence in this case the cost of the treated oil becomes: | Price filtered oil = p x N = p x (G — L) The cost of the fresh oil is (P x G) and the cost of the filtered oil as above is (p x N). The total gallonage of one batch, including both fresh and filtered oil, is (G + N). From this we get the price per batch gallon as: (P x G) + (p x N) \ G + N Assuming that (N) = 80% of (G), which will be about right for average condi— tions, including evaporation, leakage, etc., We have: PG + 0.8Gp PG + 0.8Gp 0.8Pp. sº - = 0.444Pp G -- 0.8G 1.8G 1.8 f COPYRIGHT 1925 COMPILED BY * * * R-14–23 PETRO LEU M AGE J. B. RATHEUN -* --> tº lºº, º sº O stEAM ENGINE CYLINDER OIL (RR-3-5) (Selection of Oils) 3. FUNCTION OF OIL IN CYLINDER—The lubricating oil is introduced into the Cyl- inder in the form of a mist or spray mixed with the steam. The oil film deposited on the cylinder walls lubricates the pistons and seals them against the leakage of Steam, the latter function being fully as important as the lubrication or reduction of friction. A good oil film is a heat insulator and reduces the heat loss. By proper lubrication, power increases from 20 to 33 per cent over that produced with dry walls, this being due to the reduction of friction and leakage. a QUANTITY OF OIL REQUIRED–The proper amount of oil should be fed, for an excess causes a direct waste of oil with saturated or wet steam and causes carbon and gummy deposits Swith superheated steam which partly defeat the purpose of the oil. Too little causes friction and wear (symptoms is “groaning”). All things being equal, a horizontal engine requires more oil than a vertical type unless provided With an extended tail rod because of the piston weight. In some marine engines of the vertical type oil is supplied only to the piston rod, hence cylinder receives but little lubrication; this is not desirable. With proper oils, high Steam pressures and tem- peratures will not increase oil consumption and with Superheat the consumption may be less than with low temperature saturated steam. Wet steam increases consump- tion since oil does not adhere well to wet walls and the water tends to wash oil film a Way. The following table shows the approximate amount of cylinder oil that should be fed different types of engines and under different steam conditions, the amount being given in grains per horsepower-hour: STEAM, CYLINIDEE, OIT, CONSUIMTEPTION B. H. P. Of Engine Grains of Oil Per B. H. P. Hour Horizontal Vertical Wet Dry Wet Dry 500 B. h. p. and less. . . . . . . . tº e º e º 'º º º ſº tº e º e º & e º e º e º º e 16.00 | 4.75 0.65 | 2.30 500 B. h. p. and above . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.45 2.35 6.30 0.82. The larger engines require less oil than the smaller for the reason that the cir- cumference of the Iarge engine bears a smaller ratio to the volume than that of the smaller engine and therefore requires less Oil to wet the surface. VISCOSITY –If the viscosity of the oil is too low, the film will not stand the pres- sure or weight of piston, will not seal the piston properly against leakage and will be carried out of exhaust in excessive quantities. Excessive wear and loss of power will result. Larger engines generally require a more viscous oil than small for in most cases the unit bearing pressure of the piston increases at a rate greater than the diameter. The Weight increases as the cube of the diameter while the rubbing surface generally does not increase much more rapidly than the square. High piston speeds require a fairly low viscosity to reduce the power loss due to the viscous drag and so that the oil may spread more rapidly. Although high pressures and correspondingly high temperatures reduce the vis- cosity and Supporting Value of film it does not follow that high viscosity oils are always better for high pressures or superheats, for such oils often contain large quantities of heavy bituminous, sticky or nonlubricating matter that reduces lubri- cating effect and causes deposits in passages. While dark cylinder oils may show higher viscosity than filtered cylinder oils they form excessive carbon deposits and are therefore often , not as desirable with high pressure or superheated steam as filtered oils. * Copyright 1921 COMPILED BY RR 3 5 PETROLEUM AGE J. P. RATHE UN * . . . ºf - STEAM ENGINE CYLINDER OIL (RR-3-6) (Selection of Oils) SATURATED STEAM. When saturated steam is used, moisture is always present Within the cylinder, particularly at the end of expansion. Heat is taken from the steam during expansion, and as we still have the same amount of water present, it is evident that part of the moisture must be deposited in fluid form On the cylinder walls even though no liquid is admitted into the cylinder from the Condensation in the Steam lines. In addition to the moisture dropped by the fall in temperature during expansion another quota, is added which is caused by radiation from the Walls of the cylinder. In compound and triple expansion engines ºthere is always much moisture present regardless of conditions in the high pressure cylinder. ^. Owing to the wet cylinder walls it is almost impossible to establish a proper oil film With mineral Oil alone, hence we must add or “compound” some fixed animal. Or Vegetable oil with the mineral oil which will saponify and thus form a lather Of Soap which Will increase the adherence of the true lubricant. The percentage of fixed Oil depends upon the degree of moisture in the cylinder and will range from 2% to 10%, but as it is not much of a lubricant within itself it is well to keep the proportion of fixed oil as low as the conditions will permit and to use a larger proportion of the petroleum lubricant. WET STEAM. When- much steam pipe condensation accompanies the saturated Steam into the Cylinder, the steam is said to be “wet,” and to a certain extent all saturated steam is wet, as it is impossible to prevent the entrance of some free water. However, when the moisture content in the main steam line exceeds 5% it might truly be called wet steam. SUPERHEATED STEAM. Steam is said to be “superheated” when its tempera— ture is raised above the boiling point of water at that particular pressure. In Other words, free moisture cannot exist in superheated steam as long as it remains in a truly superheated condition. In practice the superheat may run from - 50 to 200° F. above the boiling point of water at that pressure, which practically insures that there will be no free moisture, at least in the high pressure Cylinder. In the absence of moisture there is of course no call for Compounding with fixed oils, therefore straight mineral lubricants are used with Superheated Steam. If compounded oils are used, then the heat will break down the fixed oils and form objectionable residues and deposits with the cylinder. It is always best to use those oils which are specially designed for this service and to regulate the feed carefully so that there will be as little residue as possible. COPYRIGHT 1925 COMPILED BY RR-3-6 PETRO LEU M AGE J. B. R A THE UN * - * º STEAM TURBINE oils (s-1-10) Classification of Steam Turbines ; THE STEAM TURBINE. In the Steam turbine, the latent energy of the steam is converted into kinetic energy by expanding it into a series of blades mounted on a rotating 'wheel. The expansion of the steam in suitably designed nozzles imparts a high velocity to the stream which impacts on the blades and causes a pressure tend- ing to produce rotation. As the innpact pressures On the blading are small, it is of course necessary that the velocities of the blades be very high in order to develop the requisite energy in the wheels. Thus, in the typical steam turbine we have a series of stationary nozzles in which the expansion of steam takes place, one or more running wheels, and lastly a number of blades on the periphery of the wheel on which the steam reacts. This is the basic and essential construction of a steam turbine, although certain combinations of the elements may be varied to produce different sub-classes of the principle. Any number of nozzles, wheels or blades can be used according to the output or to the number of expansions desired. A number of the elements can be connected up in cascade so that the expansion will take place progressively through the groups of elements, or In small turbines the total expansion Can take place in One Set Of nozzles Only. Owing to the high velocities involved, the steam turbine is very much Smaller and lighter in weight than a steam engine of equal output, and this coupled with the smaller size of the turbine generator (Direct connected) permits of great economy in floor space and in the size of the foundations. In the larger turbine units the steam consumption is less than with the reciprocating engine for the reason that there is a less internal loss by condensation. All of these factors have been reasons for the present popularity Of the turbine in large unitS. In the reciprocating engine the steam expands within the cylinder pushing the piston ahead of it, and during this expansion the drop in temperature cools down the cylinder walls below the temperature of the incoming steam from the boilers. At the beginning of the next admission of the steam, the cool cylinder walls chills a certain percentage of the Steam and causes a Wasteful condensation which lowers the efficiency of the engine. While part of this condensate is re-evaporated yet enough of the heat has been lost to limit the efficiency of the engine to a very low figure, even when such expedients as the “uniflow” principle and super-heat have been employed. Expanding the Steam successively in a number of cylinders as in the compound and triple expansion engine reduces the losses within certain limits as the extreme range of temperatures does not take place in range of the incoming steam, but still there is some loss due to condensation plus the additional frictional losses due to the increased number of work- ing parts in the multiple expansion engines. With the steam turbine, the temperature at any one stage or in any one set of nozzles remains Constant with a constant lead, hence outside of the losses due to radiation no internal condensation takes place. Further, as there are no working parts nor rubbing surfaces in direct contact with the steam in the turbine the super-heat temperatures can be very much higher with additional gain in economy. There is no piston friction taking place on the cylinder walls nor valve friction as in the recipro- cating type, and the lubrication problem is made much simpler in several respects. There is no oil film subjected to the high temperature and moisture of the steam. *- COPYRIGHT 1924 COMPILED BY S 1 10 PETROL EU M A GE J. B. RATHEUN * - || || --> STEAM TURBINE OILs (s-1-12) * Classification of Steam Turbines SUMMARY OF TURBINE ADVANTAGES. In the following tabulation will be found the principal advantages of the steam turbine when compared with the usual types of reciprocating Steam engine. 10 11 & COMPACTNESS, the steam turbine is very much smaller than the recip- rocating engine for a given output. PURELY ROTARY MOTION does away with the vibration and bearing adjustments frequently made on the reciprocating engine, and a truly uniform rotational velocity is had at all points in the revolution making synchronism comparatively simple when alternating current generators are driven by the turbine. fe \ CHEAPER FOUNDATIONS. The comparatively light weight of the turbine together with freedom from the heavy vibrations and inertia forces set up in the reciprocating engine makes it possible to use a much lighter and cheaper foundation with the steam turbine. LOW RENTAL CHARGE. The small space occupied by the turbine makes its installation possible where the reciprocating engine could not be used, and the rental charge against the operation of the unit is greatly reduced. GOOD REGULATION. Owing to the great flywheel effect of the rapidly revolving parts of a turbine the speed regulation is closer than with recipro- Cating engines. SUPERHEATED STEAM. A much higher degree of Superheat can be car- ried with the turbine Without danger to the rubbing surfaces and without an excessive consumption of lubricating oil. Temperatures can be used success- fully with the turbine that would cause excessive evaporation losses in the lubricant used in the cylinder of the reciprocating engine. LOW FRICTION LOSS. Having only two rotating bearings, the loss by friction is far less than with the reciprocating engine with its great number Of bearings and sliding surfaces. HIGH THERMAL EFFICIENCY results from the absence of internal conden- sation and from the higher superheat temperatures made possible. LUBRICATION ECONOMY. As no lubricant is carried away in the exhaust of the turbine, and as it is'enclosed in a complete circulating system where it is used over and over again, the cost of lubrication is much lower with the turbine than with steam engines. sº AUTOMATIC LUBRICATION. All parts of the turbine can be lubricated by a simple forced feed circulation without the necessity of hand filled grease Cups, oil cups or similar trouble making parts. EXHAUST. As no oil comes into contact with the steam there is no oil in the exhaust of a turbine, and this does away with the troubles common ſy experienced with the condensers of reciprocating engines. COPYRIGHT 1924 COMPILED BY S 1 12 PETROL EU M A GE g J. B. RATHEUN sºme ºs ** * * [. O f * A ,’ stEAM TURBINE OiLs (s-2-10) Bearings, Loading and Speeds MAIN BEARINGS. Hm the usual design of horizontal steam turbine there are two main bearings at either end of the turbine casing which carry the load of the rotor and the long main shaft. The bearings of the electric generator are separate from the turbine bearings, although they may be carried by the same pedestal, and the gen- erator and turbine shafts are coupled by means of a flexible coupling which compen- sates for the lack of alignment between the two shafts. Essentially, these main turbine bearings are of the high speed self-aligning type commonly used with belt driven generators or for the outboard bearings of direct connected generators. In the direct connected type of turbine, the greatest load on the bearings is the weight of the rotor and the shaft, both acting downwardly in a vertical direction. This is practically a constant weight, regardless of the turbine output, and hence affects the lubrication in two ways: l The continued action of the load in one direction calls for a comparatively light unit bearing load since there is no reversal of stress on the shaft to aid in the distribution of the oil on the rubbing surfaces. * 2 The extended surface of the bearing due to the light loading, as well as the high rubbing velocity of the shaft calls for a light viscosity oil which will flow freely and rapidly into the clearance spaces. The load per square inch of projected area will range from 45 to 90 pounds for the average horizontal Steam turbine. It is more difficult to obtain the proper distribution in a bearing carrying a steady load than in the reciprocating engine bearing for the reason that the engine bearing is rapidly being lifted up and down by the strokes of the piston, thus automatically pumping oil back and forth throughout the length of the bearing. With the turbine there is no Such action and We must depend upon the circulating pump pressure and upon the system of oil grooves cut into the bearing surface. However, there is no necessity of providing a viscous oil for the cushioning of the impacts and hence we meet with no interference with the first lubricant requirements. As the main shaft passes entirely through the steam space of the turbines, it is very hot at the point where it enters the bearings, hence, the turbine bearing generally runs at a much higher temperature than the shaft of an engine or electric generator. To this temperature is added the frictional heat so that the total is quite high. This of course calls for Some external cooling system to keep the temperature within rea- sonable ranges. Except in the Smaller sizes, simple radiation from the outer surface of the bearings is not sufficient to remove the heat. Very high rubbing Speeds, ranging from 1,500 to 5,000 feet per minute, together with the small bearing clearance again call for an oil with a fairly low viscosity. The lubricant supply must be copious and certain for the shortest interruption of supply stands for a certain seizure or burn out. However, with proper bearing design and a reliable circulating system there is very little wear on the surfaces, this probably being due to the high speed shaft literally floating on the oil films * COPYRIGHT 1924 . COMPILED BY S-2–10 PETRO LEU M AGE J. B. RATHERUN &= * * stEAM TURBINE oils (s-2-11) Bearings, Loading and Speeds BEARING CLEARANCES. The clearance allowed between the bearing and journal theoretically varies with the shaft diameter, temperature and speed, and upon this basis the actual clearance will range from 0.0005” to 0.003" for the range of commercial turbine ratings. Some authorities recommend a total clearance of 0.001” per inch of shaft diameter independently of temperature. However, when the bearing is in proper condition it should work well with a total clearance of 0.002” to 0.003" regard- less of the diameter or temperature. - It is the usual practice to fit the lower half of the bearing closely to the journal while the cap is given to clearance. This clearance in the cap aids in the distribution of the oil. In a few very large machines, the cap is bored out so the bearing surfaces and clearances alternate along the length of the shaft. An additional clearance must be provided along the horizontal centerline or along the plane ordinarily taken as the split line in split bearings. This clearance of from 0.002” to 0.004” is scrapped out and to take care of the expansion. In split bearings provided with liners the clearance is scraped out above and below the liners, and in addition to taking care of the expansion also aids in distributing the oil along the shaft and keeps it from tracking or segregating in ribbons. In effect, the upper cap is scraped to an elliptical bore, with the major axis horizontal. , COOLING IBEARINGS. The combined effects of the heat supplied to the bearing through the shaft plus the frictional heat generated frequently brings the total tem- perature to from 175 °F to 190°F even when supplied with artificial cooling. At such temperatures the oil loses its viscosity very rapidly and the initial body of the oil taken at the standard temperature of 100°F must therefore be considerably greater than would ordinarily be required at a lower temperature with this loading and rubbing Speed. In some cases, the bearings are watercooled with the circulating water applied directly to the bearing shell, but more generally the heat is carried away by the oil itself to , some point where the heat is finally removed by watercooled coils or by radiation. To carry the water direct to the bearings endangers the oil to contamination from leakage and is not generally desirable. Where the bearings are oil cooled, the lubricating oil is fed to the bearing in quantities in excess of the amount required for lubrication and absorbs the heat at the point of shaft contact as well as the heat transfused through the bearing shell. Continued circulation of oil in this way con- tinually transfers the heat to the cooling water in the base or in an external cooling tank placed near to the turbine. The rise in temperature varies from 15°F to 20°F. OIL GROOVES. The high speed turbine bearing actually floats on the film of oil that the shaft has wedged between it and the bearing, and for this reason, great care must be taken to avoid cutting any grooves or channels in the bearing which will release or “short circuit” this oil pressure. Many builders use no grooves at all, depending upon the side clearances for the distribution, while others use short, straight grooves arranged in such a way that these grooves are always in a zone of constant pressure. Any groove that is not parallel to the shaft centerline will undoubtedly affect the circumferential oil pressure. The incoming feed must enter into the low pressure zone so that the pressure film will not act against the oil pump pressure. The oil connection should be made at the point where a slight vacuum exists in the clearance Space. \ COPY HIGHT 1924 COMPILED BY '. S 2 11 PETRO LEU M AGE J. B. RATHE UN mº ºf , ºs y .* O p O g STEAM TURBINE oils (s-2-14) Bearings, Loading, Speeds THFUST BEARINGs. With all steam turbines, even with horizontal turbines, equipped with balancing pistons, there is a considerable end thrust or axial load caused by the unbalanced pressures acting on the rotors. This of course calls for thrust bearings in addition to the main radial bearings. In geared turbines We may have a second end reaction due to the thrust of the helical gear teeth. The thrust, however small, Çauses a considerable problem in lubrication and the design of such bearings is more difficult than with the plain bearings. The unit pressure on these surfaces is quite low averaging 20 pounds per Square inch with Stationary turbines and reach- ing a maximum of 40 pounds with marine turbines. In Small turbines the thrust bearings may be of the simple collar type consisting of a series of small shaft flanges imbedded in the bearing. The pressures on this, type are limited, however, so that in the large turbines many modifications are made. Where the pressures are exceptionally heavy, the thrust bearings are of the Kingsbury type consisting of shoes which ride on a true film of oil. In such a bearing we have true fluid friction. Without metal to metal contact, and there is little loss where the proper oil is used. Another bearing of the same general type is the Mitchell which also introduces the “wedging” principle of oil film Support. In either the Mitchell or Ringsbury thrust bearing the co-efficient of friction is very low, ranging between 0.0008 to 0.002. Unit bearing pressures of from 300 to 500 pounds per square inch can be carried easily and this means a smaller and more compact bearing than with the older collar type, where the pressure is limited to 40 pounds. As a comparison between the losses, the coefficient of friction in the old collar type ranges from 0.02 to 0.04 which is many times that of the Kingsbury type. Still another advantage of the Kingsbury and Mitchell thrust bearings is that a straight mineral oil can be employed in place of the compounded oils generally necessary with the collar thrust bearings. In the latter ‘bearings the straight mineral products have neither the penetrating power nor the adherence to function properly. The oil film dragged along by the moving element of the Kingsbury thrust bearing passes over an incline On the Opposing surface, and is thus wedged up and maintains a film of constant thickness under all operating conditions. This may be compared to a hydroplane skimming Over the surface of the water where the weight of the boat is supported by the reaction of the fluid energy, or impact. Where helical reduction gears are used, it is common practice to place the thrust of the inclined teeth in Opposition to the thrust of the rotors, thus reducing the end thrust to a considerable extent. As this gear thrust is roughly proportional to the thrust due to the Steam pressure at all loads it does not cause much unbalance when the output varies, but Still is not so accurate as steam pressure balancing. COPYRIGHTED 1924 COMPILED BY S 2 1 4 PETRO LEU M A GE J. B. RATHE UN - - - - STEAM TURBINE OILs (s-2-16) Bearings, Loading, Speeds OIL CIRCULATING SYSTEMS. In the ordinary large direct connected horizontal Steam turbines already described, the oil circulating System may be divided into two parts: (1) The oil supply to the bearings for lubrication, and (2) The oil required for the operation of the governor gear. In many cases, the speed control valves and mechanism is far too heavy for the governor to handle directly, hence the governor action is relayed through oil pressure to the valve controls. The governor moves a small light valve which controls the flow of oil to the pistons of the main valves, hence we can have a very stable and delicate governor which can handle very heavy mechanism. The same oil is used for this hydraulic control system that is used for the lubrication, The circulating pump supplies oil under a pressure of from 25 to 80 pounds per Square inch for the operation of the governor system, and this oil passes directly to the governor valve without reduction. The oil for the bearing lubrication is reduced by means of a pressure reducing valve to a much lower pressure, say from 2 pounds per Square inch to 25 pounds. The same oil, supplied by the same pump, is used in both cases. We therefore have a high pressure and a low pressure Oil System which draws its supply from the same oil tanks. Where reduction gearing is used a third branch in the lubricating system may be introduced by which the reduction gears are supplied with oil. However, the gears are not always supplied with pressure oil by the main pump, and in marine service it is frequently found that a heavier oil is used and is supplied by an auxiliary pump. The same applies to the propeller thrust bearings which are supplied independently of the turbine bearings. ſº |P'or the simple horizontal turbine which directly drives a generator without the use of gears, the oil may be supplied by one pump or two pumps, but generally the former. The smaller turbines are mostly ring oils after the manner of an electric generator, and draw their supply of oil from a pump in the bearing pedestals without the use of a pump. The latter turbines come under a different classification and will not be discussed until later. In the direct pressure feed system in which both high pressure and low pressure oil is supplied by a single oil pump, the oil required for the bearings is reduced in pressure by a special pressure reducing valve called a “Baffler.” This is a valve having a spirally grooved stem and by moving this stem in or out, the oil must travel through a greater or smaller portion of the oil grooves thus controlling the resistance and the flow of oil to the bearings. Generally this is a manual control, in which hand adjust- ment is made by means of a wheel placed on the end of the spirally grooved stem. The oil pump is usually of the gear impeller type so commonly used for oil circula- tion in automobiles. It consists of two meshed gears placed within a closely fitting housing which maintain a continuous circulation of oil without the use of valves or other trouble producing elements. Such pumps are most desirable from the fact that they introduce no pulsations into the oil Stream, and running completely immersed in oil, there is little wear. The proper oil pressure is maintained by a spring loaded relief valve on the far side of the system, which discharges the surplus oil back into the reservoir. *s COPYRIGHTED 1924 COMPILED BY g S-2–16 PETRO LEU M AGE J. B. RATHE UN ~ *- : b-) T4, T O * $ | \ f \ sTEAM TURBINE OILs (s-2-18) Bearings, Loading, Speeds CIRCULATION. In the oil circulating system on the discharge side of the oil pump are the strainers used for catching lint, dirt or grit, and the oil cooler. The cooler is a tank containing pipe coils for the cooling of the oil returned from the bearings, and water is circulated through the cooler at the rate necessary for main- taining the proper temperature and viscosity of the oil. As mentioned before, the oil is highly heated in the bearings and must be cooled by water circulation either within the bearings or by an external coil cooler as explained above. From the cooler, the high pressure pump oil passes to the reducing valve, and here it splits, one part going to the governor at high pressure while the remainder passes to the bearings at a lower pressure. From the bearings the oil returns to the reservoir from which it is re-circulated. The oil is therefore used over and Over again until loss through evaporation or contamination makes it necessary to replenish the loss or to clean out the System completely and fill with fresh oil. OIL COOLER. A considerable dehmand is made on the oil cooler for it is estimated that fully one-fifth of all the heat supplied to the turbine passes out with the oil to the cooler. The cooler not only removes the heat due to the friction in the bearings but also dissipates the heat that is fed into the bearings through the shaft from the steam stages. As the shaft is of large diameter and is in contact through its length with steam, it will be seen that much heat is carried away by the shaft and deposited in the bearings. In many large installations a separate motor driven centrifugal pump is used for forcing the cooling Water through the oil cooler. IParticular care must be taken at this point to insure that there is no water leakage which will cause contamination of the Oil, and that the Water circulation is continuous and certain. Fully fifty percent of the lubricating troubles met with in a steam turbine are due to the emulsions and sludges caused by water leakage at this point. AUXILTARY OIL PUMPS. While the main , oil pumps are generally gear driven from the turbine itself in medium sizes, yet these pumps do not supply sufficient oil when the turbine is being started and therefore we must have an independent pump to supply oil during this time. In small sizes of turbines, the auxiliary pump is operated by hand but in large units it is motor driven and of sufficient capacity to supply all of the oil required in case of failure in the main pumps. As soon as the turbine has reached normal speed, or after it has exceeded 25 percent of normal speed, the auxiliary pump can be cut out as then the main pump comes into action. In marine Service it is frequently the practice to supply all of the oil by motor driven auxiliaries at all times, for the speed of the marine unit is variable and the independent oil pumps are more easily controlled at low speeds. wATER SIGHT FEEDS. To insure that the proper amount of cooling Water is flowing at all times through the cooler or water jacketed bearings, it is usual to supply a sight indicator or alarm system in the water supply system. This may be a simple exposed nozzle which discharges the jet into a funnel in plain view, or it may be a needle sight feed consisting of a glass sight behind which a floating meedle indicates the rate of water flow. There must be no chance of interruption in the water supplied even for a few moments. COPYRIGHTED 1924 * COMPILED BY S 2 18 PETRO LEU M A GE J. B. RATHEUN ſº ºr -, - STEAM TURBINE OILs (s-2-20) Bearings, Loading, Speeds STUFFING BOX GLANDS. At the point where the shaft passes through the Casing Of the turbine, some form of packing must be used to prevent the leakage of the steam past the shaft. If it were not for this packing the steam in the high pressure stages would escape to the atmosphere while at the low pressure stage air would be drawn into the turbine and would destroy the vacuum. In addition to its importance to the operation of the turbine, the tightners of the glands is of importance to the proper lubrication of the bearings, for it is through the glands that a large percentage of the water enters the oil circulation System. f * As the bearings are close to the glands, any little leakage of water or steam that may take place enters into the pedesfal and becomes mixed with the oil to form the objectionable emulsions and sludges. The leakage of steam on the high pressure end of the turbine can be easily understood but at the low pressure end where the vacuum tends to pull in air instead of forcing steam out the proposition is quite difficult to comprehend until it is explained that live steam is fed into these glands so that steam will enter through the leakage rather than air. The steam fed to the low pressure glands is at a comparatively low pressure and by this arrangement much trouble is Saved in the Condensers. Thrower rings are placed between the glands and the bearings, and as these rings are larger in diameter than the shaft, much of the water is thrown off before it can enter the bearings. However, a certain annount Will always pass and some contamina- tion is certain to occur. If the thrower rings were at a low temperature all of the steam would condense and the moisture would all be thrown off, but as the rings are kept hot by the shaft, water vapor is formed which eventually finds its way into the bearings. * & PACP:CING. The packing used in the glands may be of several types. It may be of the labyrinth type in which the steam is forced to pass through a tortuous passage, or it may be of the carbon ring type in which carbon segments are drawn down into tight contact with the shaft by means of springs. A third type is the “water seal” packing with a revolving disc which is immersed in an annular trough of water. What- ever the type, it is far more difficult to seal the glands of a turbine than of the reciprocating steam engine Owing to the fact that the turbine shaft is always at a constant temperature without any chance for condensation to take place. With the piston rod of the reciprocating engine, the rod is continually being exposed to the external air for its full length, and being cooler than the steam for this reason, the escaping steam is condensed on the rod and forms an effective water seal. The nature of the carbon packing rings is such that little or no lubrication is required, even though they bear on the shaft with considerable pressure. This type is very extensively used, and is not so much affected by changes in load as the labyrinth type. The water seal type is probably the tightest and causes very little friction, but it offers certain difficulties in starting and in running at low speeds. With the latter, it is difficult to hold the vacuum at low speeds since the centrifugal force is not sufficient to throw the water out into the annular trough. COPYRIGHTED 1924 COMPILED BY S 2 20 PETRO LEU M AGE J. B. RATHEUN * Z - sºme t L 2. t STEAM TURBINE oils (s-8-7) (Typical Oil Specifications) EMULSIFICATION. Since it is impossible to keep all moisture out of the oil circulation system, -it is evident that we must use an oil which has the lowest p0S- sible tendency toward the formation of emulsions and sludges. By “emulsifiable” matter is meant the compounds in oils which produce soaps, with which the mois- ture produces bodies of poor lubricating value and which may cause trouble through foaming. Not only does the emulsion have a low lubricating value but it also thick- ens the oil, holds grit and Solid matter in suspension, and may cause trouble with the valves and oil pumps. In its pure refined state, before decomposition sets in, a true steam turbine oil will separate quickly and completely from any water with which it may be mixed. This means, that the water introduced into the oil at the bearings will quickly Settle out in the settling chamber and will allow the pure oil to pass on for re- circulation. No amount of shaking or churning of the proper mineral oil when in Contact With Water will form a mechanical mixture of oil and water known as an emulsion. Oils suitable for the turbine will separate quickly in hot water, leaving Only a Slight trace of a cloud in the water. Paraffine wax in very small percentages increases emulsification. -- As to physical composition, an oil-water emulsion is not a perfect homogeneous mixture of oil and water, but is a more or less permanent mechanical mixture due to a very finely subdivided state of the oil and water in the presence of a third body known as the “emulsifying agent.” Subdivision into very small particles is essen- tial to the formation of an emulsion, and in the turbine this is performed by the churning action of the oil pump, and the grinding and kneading that takes place between the shaft and bearing surfaces. After the fluids are properly broken up, an emulsifying agent must be present which will form a strong permanent skin or envelope of Oil around the water droplets. The Strength of this skin must be so great that adjacent drops of water will not unite. The instant that the tension of the film is reduced so that a number of particles coalesce into a large single drop, then the emulsion breaks up into its original components of oil and water. Allowing a sample of such an emulsion to stand for a while will show that it will resolve itself into three distinct layers. At the top will be a layer of the pure unmixed oil While at the bottom Will be nearly pure water. Halfway between the top and bottom layers lies a band of the emulsion which has a specific gravity greater than that of the Oil but less than that of the water. If the emulsion is not a stable one, it will gradually break up on prolonged Standing, the oil component breaking away and floating up into the top layer of pure oil while the water settles to the bottom. In this way, the central emulsion layer gradually narrows until only the stable emulsion remains. Heavy viscuous oils separate much more slowly from water than less Viscuous oils, and for the same reason any oil settles more quickly when hot than when cold and more viscuous. A very Viscuous oil tends to form more enduring emulsions than lighter oils, and for this reason heavy oils are not well adapted to settling methods of separation unless very large settling tanks are used which have a slow rate of discharge. The thickened emulsion does not flow readily into the bearing clearance Spaces, and as the water component is not a lubricant, such emulsions soon cause Wear and heating. The grit and slime carried by water emulsions still further increases the Wea,I’. COPYRIGHT 1924 COMPILED BY S 8 7 PETRO LEU M AGE J. B. RATHE UN - - - " " - STEAM TURBINE oils (s-8-8). (Typical Oil Specifications) FILTERED AND RED OILS. As a pale oil has received more filtration in its production than a red oil, it is freer from wax and like impurities and is usually less likely to form emulsions with water. Color itself, however, is not a factor in the final selection of an oil as there are certain light colored oils which are often not as highly refined as good grades of red oil. The fact that a pale oil darkens more quickly than a red oil means nothing for the reason that a given amount of change shows up more quickly in a pale oil than an oil having naturally a darker COIOr. SLUDGING. The solid or semi-solid sludge formed by the decomposition of the oil is insoluble in the body of the oil and can be settled out or filtered out of the solution. Some oils form very little sludge while others of apparently the same color, viscosity and gravity may deposit great quantities of this matter which will be likely to cause trouble through clogging the passages and interfering both with the lubrication and the action of the governor mechanism. It should be remembered that a part of the oil is used for relaying the governor action to the steam valves, and that the sludge if allowed to accumulate, will be likely to cause poor regulation. Frequent cleanouts are necessary both in the settling chambers and in the piping itself. In addition to the sludge produced by the decomposition of the oil there Inay be certain causes within the machine itself which are productive of deposits. Iron rust in the bearings or chambers will react with the oil to cause objectionable com- pounds, and if any of the surfaces are painted it will only be a matter of time When portions of the paint will be dissolved and will enter into partial solution. With the oil. Certain pipe thread compounds used for making tight joints are partially soluble in oil and will cause the same trouble. Because of rust, paint and thread Com- pounds many oils have earned an undeserved bad name. Bvery turbine should be provided with adequate filters in the circulating System which will collect the sludge and solid matter at points where it can easily be re- moved. However, the filters are only a secondary insurance against clogging of the system for it is in the settling chambers that the most effective separation takes place. If the oil is allowed to stand and settle for a sufficient length of time, there will be fine material removed that will pass through the finest mesh filter made. To insure perfect separation by settling, the velocity in the settling chamber must be as low as possible, and arranged so that when once settled that the material drops out of the current and in a shielded position where it will not be again caught up and recirculated. When only a small amount of oil is in circulation, the oil flow is too rapid to permit of perfect separation by gravity. COMPOUNDED OILS. Mineral oils compounded with fixed animal or vegetable oils are not suitable for use in the closed circulating system of a steam turbine. In the first place, the vegetable and animal oils tend to break down under the high temperatures and form soaps which in turn will cause emulsification and sludging. Only straight mineral oils are proper for this purpose and particular care should be taken to guard against loaded oils of any description. Compounded oils oxidize rapidly or become rancid. The gums, slime and acids thus produced result in trouble. COPYRIGHT 1924 COMPIT, ED BY S-8-8 PETRO LEU M A GE J. B. RATHE UN STEAM TURBINE oils (s-8-9) (Typical Oil Specifications) DESIRABLE PROPERTIES. An oil for satisfactory service in a steam turbine, has distinctly different characteristics from the lubricants used for a reciprocating Steam engine, and such oils must be specially prepared for utilization in the turbine, As the turbine oil is used in a closed circulating system particular care must be taken to avoid decomposition of the oil which will form emulsions and sludges after repeated use in the bearings. While the oil does not come into appreciable contact with steam in a turbine yet it is subjected at all times to a high temperature, oxidi- Zation and to moisture passing from the glands into the reservoirs by leakage. In addition to resistance to decomposition we must consider the viscosity or fluidity of the oil, its relative evaporation factor, and other similar physical char- acteristics which determine the fitness of the oil to withstand the high rubbing Speeds, bearing pressures, etc., of each individual type of machine. DECOMPOSITION. When subjected to such high temperatures as exist in the steam turbine bearings, all oils slowly decompose and show a marked change in their properties after being run for a short time, and as the oil film is generally churned in contact with the air, there is generally a strong tendency toward oxidiza- tion. This change in chemical composition is indicated by a marked darkening of the oil after continued circulation with the accompaniment of sludges and emulsions after the process has continued for a sufficient period. Darkening may have taken place for some time and to a considerable degree, however, until its lubricating Qualities are seriously affected. It should also be noted at this point that the light colored pale oils naturally show darkening earlier than the red oils, but that this does not necessarily mean that the total decomposition of the pale oils is any greater, it is only more apparent to the sense of sight. During decomposition, Some few Weak petroleum acids are developed which in extreme cases may have a slight tendency toward causing corrosion, but this factor is greatly over estimated. In the first place, even concentrated petroleum acids have very little effect in etching metal Surfaces, and in the second place they can be present only in very small percentages. As a rule, any corrosion that takes place in the circulating System can usually be traced to other causes than oil acids. In order (o make these acids effective, there must be a considerable amount of water present, and as the moisture is usually greatly in excess of the optimum amount for corrosion, the acid is further diluted. There is rarely any apprecialyle acid left in standard turbine oils from the refining processes, hence this can generally be ignored as a reason for corrosion. We cannot entirely prevent decomposition but we can greatly retard it by the use of suitable oils. One of the most important effects of oil decomposition in a closed circulating system is the formation of compounds which causes certain percentages of the oil to form emulsions with the moisture present. Secondly, any acids which may react on the metal surfaces produce metallic soaps which Still further augment the emulsification. Sufficient metal soap for a troublesome froth can be produced by an acid reaction so small that it is not noticeable on the surface of the metal. In addition to the soluble or semi-soluble matter which forms the emulsions are certain products of decomposition which are insoluble in the oil mass and which therefore settle out and are deposited in the form of a sludge. That such deposits gum up the passages of the oil circulating system, hardly needs further explanation. f COPYRIGHT 1924 COMPILED BY S-8–9 PETROL-EUM AGE J. B. RATHEUN STEAM TURBINE oils (s-8-10) * (Typical Oil Specifications) FLASH POINT-EVAPORATION. The expense of lubrication for a steam tur- bine is largely dependent upon the evaporation loss as the temperatures are high and for the reason that the oil is not enclosed in a perfectly vapor-tight system. This loss should be low at a temperature of 175° F., the average operating tem- perature. Evaporation loss is indicated by the flash point which should be over 340° F. in most cases, and preferably within the range of 390° F. to 400° F. VISCOSITY. The viscosities for steam turbine oils are ordinarily included within the range of 150” to 200” at 100° F. depending upon the speeds, clearance Spa CCS in the bearings and upon the operating temperatures. In small, very high Speed turbines with small running clearances a less viscuous oil can be used than -With large turbines running at lower speeds and with larger clearances. For the minimum friction loss and running temperature the viscosity should be low, but for Safety in bearing support and as an insurance against seizure we should take care that the viscosity is not carried to the minimum value until we have had some eXperience in handling the machine. While the fluid friction loss due to the use of excessively viscuous oils is Comparatively low at the low rubbing speeds experienced with the average run of slow speed machinery, this friction becomes of great importance at the high speeds attained in steam turbines. 'This is evidenced in practice by the rapid increase in temperature that takes place when the viscosity is increased very slightly. A few pounds increase in the tangential resistance at the periphery of the shaft may mean: an increase of several thousand foot-pounds of energy loss with a corresponding increase in temperature. If the maximum bearing temperature does not exceed 175° F., then it will be safe to use oil of 150” viscosity on the smaller high speed turbines providing that the clearances are proper and that the bearings are in perfect alignment. If there is any doubt as to the lubrication system or condition of alignment, then a viscosity of from 160” to 180” will be safer. If the temperatures exceed 175° F., then the heavier oils should be used in any event as the greater heat will seriously thin down the oil and reduce its supporting value. The larger turbines up to the maxi- mum sizes have bearings so designed that a viscosity of from 180” to 200" is advisable. Except in special cases, a viscosity of 200” should not be much exceeded owing to troubles experienced with emulsification and separation of the moisture. STEAM TURBINE OILS (HORIZONTAL TYPE) T Relative ( Relative Viscosity Turbine Size Speed at 100° F De Laval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Small . . . . . . . . . . . . V. High . . . . . . . . . . . 150”-160” De Laval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Medium . . . . . . . . . . High . . . . . . . . . . . 160”–180” Kerr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Small . . . . . . . . . . . . High . . . . . . . . . . . 150”-160” Kerr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Medium . . . . . . . . . . High . . . . . . . . . . . 160”-180” Kerr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Large . . . . . . . . . . . . OW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180”-200” Westinghouse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Medium . . . . . . . . . . Med . . . . . . . . . . . 160”–180” Westinghouse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Large . . . . . . . . . . . . LOW . . . . . . . . . . . 180”-200” Westinghouse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Targest . . . . . . . . . . LOW . . . . . . . . . . . 200”-250” Terry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Small . . . . . . . . . . . . V. High . . . . . . . . . . . 140”-150” Sturtevant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Small . . . . . . . . . . . . V. High . . . . . . . . . . . 140”-150” Allis-Chalmers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Large . . . . . . . . . . . . Low . . . . . . . . . . . 180°-200” COPYRIGHT 1924 COMPILED BY --- S 8 10 PETROL EU M A GE J. B. RATHE UN --- M - ºr ºwn sº y AIR COMPREssoR cyLINDER OILs (ss-1-1) (Air Compressors) TYPES ON COMPRESSORS–Compressors may be divided into four principal types: (1) low pressure or blower; (2) moderate pressure; (3) high pressure or injection, (4) liquifaction. The low pressure types are generally used for supplying “volume air” for combustion in oil furnaces, blast furnaces et cetera, the pressure ranging from a few ounces to about 30 pounds per square inch. The moderate pressure type is the most common, being used for pneumatic hoists, pneumatic tools (hammers and drills) and other shop purposes. The pressure ranges from 30 to 150 pounds per square inch, the greater number of these compressors averaging 90-100 pounds per square inch. High pressure pumps are commonly used in connection with oil engines for injecting oil against high compression pressures hence are often called injection compressors. The pressure of these compressors may range from 400 to 1000 pounds' per square inch. Liquifaction pumps air used for liquifying gases such as Oxygen, air, naval torpedoes and may develop pressures of 2000-4000 pounds per square inch. STAGE COMPRESSION.—Compression is performed most efficiently (particularly with pressures of more than 30 pounds per square inch) by compressing the gas progressively in a number of cylinders or in a number of steps or “stages.” Only a fraction of the total pressure is developed in one cylinder or stage. For example the “low pressure” cylinder may take air at atmospheric pressure, compress it to 35 pounds and then discharge it to the “high pressure” cylinder which compresses it further to the desired final pressure of 100 pounds per square inch. This gives an opportunity of cooling the air more effectively during compression, and con- serves power. Generally two-stage compression is necessary between 50 and 150 pounds per square inch or at least is highly desirable for economy. Hence for moderate pressures we usually have a low and high pressure cylinder. For pres- sures ranging from 150 to 450 pounds per square inch three stage compression (three successive cylinders) is common. For liquifaction of gas we may have as many as four to six stages of compression. Compression by stages reduces the temperature in the individual cylinders. FORM OF DIRIVE-Compressors may be driven by almost any type of motive power. They may be belted, directly connected with electric motors or gas engines or may be driven by steam cylinders which form an integral part of the compressor Construc- tion. In the latter case the “steam end” is like an ordinary steam engine and requires different treatment from a lubrication standpoint than the “air end” or air Com- pressor cylinder. COOLING CYLINDERS–All large compressor cylinders working above 30 pounds per square inch must be cooled by external means to remove the heat developed by reducing the volume of the air. Very small compressors may be air cooled by means of radiating fins placed around the cylinders but above two horsepower it is generally advisable to provide water jackets around the cylinders and circulate cold Water around them. In addition the air is cooled between stages by passing it over a series of water cooled tubes. The higher the pressure, and the larger the cylinder, the more difficult is the cooling problem. Air taken at 60°F. and compressed by single stage to 100 pounds per square inch has a final theoretical temperature of 485 °F. although this is somewhat reduced by the water jacket. In two stage compression the temperature would probably not exceed 250 °F. POSITION OF CYLINDERS–The axis of the cylinder may be either vertical or horizontal. The vertical type takes less room than the horizontal and there is less rubbing due to the weight of the piston but for certain purposes horizontal Com- pressors are the more desirable and are commonly used. Generally vertical com- pressors are run at a higher rotative speed than the horizontal types. Owing to the weight of the piston resting on the bore of the cylinder in a horizontal compressor the wear becomes excessive in very large sizes unless the piston rod is extended Out of the cylinder and provided with supporting shoes and guides. The extended piston rod is called the “tail rod.” A Copyright 1921 COMPILED BY SS 1 1 PETROL EU M MAGAZINE T. J. B. RATHEUN gºgº - sº AIR compFEssoR CYLINDER OiLs (ss-1-2) (Air Compressors) PISTON ARRANGEMENT—Compressors may be single acting or double acting according to whether the air is compressed only in one end of the cylinder or in both ends with a compression at each stroke. A single acting type compresses only One volume of free air per revolution while a double acting compressor disposes of two cylinder volume per revolution. Small compressors are generally of the single acting type but when the capacity exceeds a certain almount it is necessary to have the double acting system to reduce the size and weight of the cylinder. Small vertical compressors are nearly always of the single acting type while the horizontal com- pressors are generally double acting either in large or small sizes. Double acting cylinders generally require water cooling. VALVE ARRANGEMENT—Very small compressors are generally provided with spring loaded poppet valves or flap valves which are controlled by the suction and pressure of the air (automatic valves—atmospheric valves). Mechanically operated valves are opened and closed by eccentrics or cams on the compressor shaft hence open and close at definite points in the piston stroke insuring a maximum capacity and efficiency. Mechanical valves are used on double acting types and in nearly all of the better grades of large compressors (on the suction side). More air is taken in a given size cylinder with mechanical inlet valves since the valves are then wide open at the beginning of the suction stroke instead of being closed until the piston has moved far enough to create a suction sufficient to open thefn. RATING OF COMPRESSORS–A compressor is rated according to the amount of “free air” taken in at atmospheric pressure. Theoretically this is equal to the total displacement or volume swept out by the piston in cubic feet per minute. Actually it is less since the cylinder is never completely filled owing to valve restriction and air friction in the passages. The capacity of a compressor is given by the number of cubic feet of free air handled per minute at an atmospheric pressure corresponding to that at sea level. At high altitudes the capacity is less than at sea level for a lesser weight of air is taken in during each Stroke. volumſ ETRIC EFFICIENCY-The ratio of the cubic feet of air actually taken into the cylinder per stroke to the total displacement volume SWept out by the piston is called the “volumetric efficiency.” Thus if due to air friction et cetera only 76-cubic feet of free air are taken into a cylinder having a displacement of 100 cubic feet then the volumetric efficiency = 76/100 =0.76 = 76 per cent. This changes with different compressors according to the valve arrangement, tightness and other variables. AFTERCOOLERS–An aftercooler or air “receiver” is a large steel cooling tank placed between the discharge of the compressor and the air distributing mains. It is not so much to provide storage for the air as to damp down pulsations in the air due to the strokes of the piston and to permit the air to Cool and deposit the moisture and oil spray before going out through the pipe line. It is often supplied with cooling waver coils and in some instances is placed between the Compressor and the main air receiver where there is much trouble With moisture or oil. PRE-COOLING—Cool air is denser than warm hence the CapaCity of a compressor is increased by cooling the inlet air and as this is also effective in reducing the cylinder temperatures during compression it is quite desirable to have the inlet air as cool as possible. In any event the inlet air should be taken from a shady place out of doors where the temperature is less than in the engine room. Drawing the air in over coils of cold water pipes is a great help in Summer time both in main- taining the capacity and in holding down the temperature. AIR-FILTERS (PURIFIERS)—In dusty places such as coal mines, cement plants and steel mills the dust should be cleaned out of the intake air by filtering it or A passing it through a water spray. The dust particles not only injure the bore and cause leakage at the valves and piston rings but also tend to produce explosions within the cylinder. Copyright 1921 , COMPILED BY SS 1 2 PETROLEU M MAGAZINE J. B. RATHEUN * ſº N O AIR COMPREssoR cyLINDER oils (ss-6-1) 2 (Conditions) 100 pounds square inch being approximately 485 degrees Fahrenheit with a diabatic compression. Water cooling removes some heat but not sufficient to produce much difference in temperature. If lubricant is not of the proper quality it will be vaporized and a serious explosion is likely to occur in the compressor cylinders which would wreck the engine. If it does not explode such oil will deteriorate rapidly. The external bearings of the crankshaft, connecting rod and crosshead may be lubrik cated with machine oils suitable for given unit pressures and rubbing velocities and are therefore not greatly different from oils used for other machine bearings. Cºº of air causes high temperatures in cylinders, the temperature at SELECTION.—In selecting compressor cylinder oil we must take into account the position of the cylinder, whether horizontal or vertical, the condition of the cylinder, the piston velocity, the degree of piston fit or snugness of fit in cylinder, the Com- pression pressure, cooling system, weight of piston in horizontal compressors, number of stages, oiling system and valve System. Other things being equal lighter oils may be used with vertical than with hori- zontal cylinders, as the weight of the piston on the cylinder walls is practically neg- ligible with vertical engines; only sealing effect need be considered. Heavy horizontal pistons require viscosity sufficient to prevent metal contact at high temperatures. Low Speed compressOrS Or loose pistons require a heavier oil than high speed types or compressors with tightly fitting pistons (new). With high pressures and tem- peratures high viscosity oils must be used since the heat thins the oil and reduces its sealing and bearing value. Very light oils under high pressures cause leaking or “slip,” but it is best to choose the lightest oil that would seal the piston and give sufficient lubricating support. High speed pistons allow less time for the leakage of air and require that the fluid be sufficiently mobile to flow rapidly into position, thus indicating a lighter oil than for high speed engines, at least from the standpoint of sealing. When subjected to high temperature the lighter ends of the oil distill off, thus leaving the heavy end or fraction. On the Walls and tending to build a heavy gummy mass that will evaporate slowly. At the same time the oil is broken into Solid carbon by the heat, especially compounded oils. This carbon with the gum clogs the valves and discharge passages unless the oil is of proper quality. Gummed Valves cause loss of volumetric efficiency, cutting, scoring and other troubles. Oils of very high flash point do not reduce the danger of explosion—in fact they favor it as they tend to accumulate more dust and provide more solid residue, Which in the course of time may become incandescent. Oils of very low flash point While keeping the cylinders clean produce much oil vapor in the compressed air; these vapors are usually objectionable. Where the compressed air is brought into contact with food products it is often necessary to substitute some such fixed oil as glycerine for mineral Oils. Oils for moderate pressures should contain little or no cylinder stock and prefer- ably should be pale colored straight run distillates containing a minimum of Olefines or unsaturated carbons. For multiple stage compressors used for very high pres- sures such as Diesel injection air compressors, oxygen bottling compressors, and the like, the mineral oil should receive about five per cent. of a non-drying fixed oil. Where very viscous oil is necessary the straight run constituent should be as viscous as possible to reduce the amount of cylinder stock to a minimum. Copyright 1921 COMPILED BY PETRO LEU M MAGAZINE J. B. RATHEUN SS-6–1 Tn leave space for additions the sheets in one issue may not follow in numerical order. Thus SS-6-2 and SS-6-3 are not -included in this number, AIR compFEssoR cyLINDER OiLs (ss-8-4) (Specifications) be a straight-run, filtered, mineral product having a flash above 300 degrees Fahrenheit and should yield a low carbon residue in distillation test. Viscosity Will depend on the design of the compressor and the operating conditions as Sug- gested in Data. Sheet No. SS-6-1. The Compressed Air Society, leading authority on Compressors and air appliances, has issued the following general specifications: IPAIRAIFFIN BASIE OILS O IL used in air compressors for pressures above 15 pounds per square inch should Property | Minimum Average Maximum Gravity, Beaume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 °– 32 ° 25°– 30° 25°– 27 ° Flash point, Open Cup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375 °–400° 400 °–4.25° 4.25°– 500 ° Fire test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * * * * * * * 426°–450 ° 450°–475° 475°– 575° Viscosity (Saybolt) at 100° F . . . . . . . . 120”—180” 230”—315” 315”—1500” Color . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Yellowish IReddish Dark-red-green Fire test, F. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360°–380° 370 °–400° 3.85 °–440° Viscosity (Saybolt) at 100° F. . . . . . . . | 175”—225” 275"—325” 475"—750” Congealation (pour test) . . . . . . . . . . . . | 20° F.—25° F. 30° F. 33° F.—45° F. A.S.P.E.I.A.I.T. IBASE: OILS Froperty | Minimum Average | IMaximum Gravity, Beaume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20°– 22 ° 19.8°— 21° | 19.5°– 20.5° Flash point, open Cup, Fº . . . . . . . . . . . . 305°–325° 315°–335° 339°–375° Congealation (pour test) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0° F. | 0° E. | 0° F. NOTE–These specifications, quite broad, cover certain machine oils which would be not at all suitable for compressor lubrication. In general the compressor oil should fall within the range suggested but it does not necessarily follow that any oil fulfilling the specifications is a compressor oil. A. FURTHER SPECIFICATIONS-A noted authority basis his recommendations on a somewhat different basis taking the principal characteristics of a compressor oil as being the viscosity range between temperatures of 100° F. and 212° F. He neglects the pour test, oil base and color requirements given above and very properly onits reference to Beaume gravity. | Minimum IOW Average | Maximum 350” 650” Viscosity (Saybolt) at 100° F . . . . . . . . . 150” 1500” Viscosity (Saybolt) at 212° F . . . . . . . . . . 35” 55.” 70” 120” I’lash point, Open Cup, Fº . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380° 400 ° 4.25° 510 ° Flash point, closed Cup, Fº . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35.5° 375° 400 ° 475° OIL ACCORDING TO TYPE—In the following table are approximate recommenda- tions for compressor oil arranged according to the type of compressor (air end only): tº Wiscosity Flash Pt. (E.") CLASS OF COMPRESSOR | 3: - wi #3 SIZE AND ARRANGEMENT §§ # # I00°E", 212° IE". Open Closed 2, in §§ tº g tº 90 100 º 55 0.15 1.75 115 400 110 120 e 60 0.15 2.00 *For specifications Nos. 20 to 50 inclusive, the numbers indicate the first two figures of the average Saybolt viscosity in seconds at 100 deg. Fahr. of the grades indicated. The first cipher in specifications No. 0.20 and 0.30 indicates that the pouring test of these two grades is zero. Nos. 60 to 115 inclusive indicate the average Saybolt viscosity in seconds for these four grades at 210°F. CORFOSION TESTS. The following corrosion strip shall not cause dis- coloration of a copper strip. Place a clean piece of mechanically polished pure . copper strip about 3% inch wide and 3 inches long, and 10 co. of the oil to be tested, in a clean test tube. Close the test tube with a vented stopper, and hold for 3 hours at 212 °F. Rinse the copper strip with sulphur-free acetone and compare it with a similar strip of freshly polished copper. COMMENT. The tables given above show that it is possible to Standardize a Series of oils ranging over a great variation in viscosity and at the same time have only a few different grades to accomplish the result. The attempt at numbering the oils according to their viscosity is a great advance and tends to eliminate that uncertain phrase “light” or “heavy” when applied to lubricating oils. While the table does not state which Saybolt viscosity is meant, yet we assume that the Saybolt Universal is meant. Copyright 1923 PETRO LEU M AGE | O COMPILED BY J. B. RATH BTUN TT–8–30 GAS ENGINE CYLINDER LUBRICATION (TT-10-6) (Properties of Commercial Oils) OMMERCIAL CLASSIFICATION.—There is no standard of classification applying to commercial cylinder oils for gas or gasoline engines and the arbitrary “brands” or trade names applied by the various makers do not agree. Thus what may be called a “light” oil by one firm nay correspond with the physical properties of a “medium” or “heavy” oil produced by some other company. Some firms produce only three standards—light, heavy and medium—while others may have five to seven grades, such as zero, extra light, light, medium, medium heavy, heavy and extra heavy. This again increases the confusion and makes it more difficult to make the proper selection. L As an aid in identifying oils it was found advisable to place these oils into five principal divisions according to their viscosity. Lacking a better form of notation the writer has given them the letters (A), (B), (C), (D) and (E); the heaviest oil is shown by (A), with the viscosity decreasing progressively with the lettering. This covers the range of oils ordinarily used with gas, gasoline and kerosene engines of the following types and application: Automobile Engines (Passenger) Motorcycle Engines Motor Trucks Farm Lighting Plants Farm TractorS Marine (Light) Stationary Engines Marine (Heavy) Aeronautic Engines Dredges and Derricks Portable Work Engines Small Locomotives This also applies to the cylinder oil only or to conditions where the same oil is used for the bearings and cylinders as in certain classes of automobiles. When the bearing lubrication is independent, almost any machine oil may be used at this point, but the heavier oil must still be used for the cylinders. GOVERNMENT GRADING—In Specification No. 3502 the United States govern- ment divides gasoline engine cylinder oil into three classes according to the Saybolt viscosity. The physical properties are as follows: SPEC | FICATION No. 3502 tº Viscosity , Pour Class of Oil (Saybolt) | Test Light Oil. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270-230” 25° F. Medium Oil. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270–330” 30° F. Heavy Oil. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470-530” | 40° F. ARBITRARY GRADING—According to our system outlined above, in which motor oils are divided into the five classes (A), (B), (C), (D) and (E), the grading may be specified as follows: CLASS (A)—The heaviest or most viscous grade, the viscosity ranging from 1,100 to 1,650, Saybolt seconds at a temperature of 100°. F. Average is 1,200 Saybolt seconds. At 212° F. viscosity ranges between 100 and 122 Saybolt seconds. CLASS (B)—The viscosity ranges between 700 and 1,100 Saybolt seconds at 100° F. Average 850 Seconds. At 212° F. viscosity is 58-86 Saybolt seconds. CLASS (C)—Viscosity 300 to 700 Saybolt seconds at 100° F. or 46 to 70 seconds at 212° F.; a medium viscosity oil. CLASS (D)—A group of light oils ranging from 150 to 300 Saybolt seconds at 100° F. or from 40 to 51 seconds at 212° F. CLASS (E)-All oils having a viscosity less than 150 Saybolt seconds at 100° F. or 40-41 at 212° F. (The grouping of various brands of American motor oils will be found on Sheet No. TT-10-7.) Copyright 1921 COMPILED BY TT 10 6 f>ETRO LEU M MAGAZINE J. B. RATHE UN * * GAS ENGINE CYLINDER LUBRICATION (TT-10-7) (Properties of Commercial Oils) OMMERCIAL CYLINDER OILS-The following tables give the principal physical properties of American cylinder lubricants and were compiled in part from tabłes prepared by the air service. The notation or classification into groups (A), (B), (C), (D) and (E) was explained on Data. Sheet No. TT-10-6. The oils listed below are ‘‘heavy” to ‘‘medium” oils used for hot running, heavy duty engines or for engines with considerable piston clearance. This group includes tractors, aeronautic engines, air-cooled engines or heavy duty Water-cooled types: (A) CLASS OILs. CYL INDER LUBRICANTS (VISCOSITY 1100-1650) I & Saybolt Q1) 2. g Viscosity, ~5 'S O © Seconds s ty sº li. $º- sº O (j § t; Q- Make or Trade Narne | < x- sq) º O Q) º g Q1) Q1) H. ſl. tº i.e. .C. $ tº * Il- Li. li- ..Y as ºn (Do $- :- wº * § tº º & Cº & LL s ~ 3 lſ) v- > Z m Cl IL S- [I] O ~ wº- CN Mobiloil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . “B” 26.4 500 580 41 1640 367 122 Monogram . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ex. Hvy. 24.8° 465 536 59 1585 355 110 *Wolf's Head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . No. 8| 27.6 485 550 46 1196 300 100 (B) class of Ls. CYLINDER p UBRICANTs (Viscos ITY 700-1100) *Atlas Aerul . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hvy. 27.7 460 540 || 47 868 228 85 Mobiloil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . “BB” 25.9 460 540 45 924 240 84 Oilzum (G. E.) . . . . . . . . . . . . Cryst. 18.2 500 80 3 1072 241 81 *Ursa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.7 390 455 0 735 153 58 *Veedol (Aero) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . “1”| 26.2 455 535 39 795 212 78 *Veedol (Aero) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . “2”| 27.1 450 530 38 814 222 80 (C) CLASS Ol LS. CYL INDER LUBRICANTS (VISCOSITY 300-700) Mobiloil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . “A” 21.9 | 360 | 425 25 332 98 51 Mobiloil . . . . . . . . . . . . Zeta. Hwy. 25.6 420 485 43 475 135 60 Mobiloil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Arc. Med. 21.2 370 435 8 304, 88 45 Monogram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hvy. 29.0 430 500 33 341 107 54 *Havoline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hvy. 25.6 395 455 46 361 111 54 *Perfection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . “C”| 29.3 420 495 40 316 103 54 * Quaker State . . . . . . . . . . . . . Med. 28.8 440 520 21 301 102 - 48 Polarine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hvy. 25.2 390 455 34 301 103 51 Texaco . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Med. 21.0 350 405 0 301 89 46 *Texaco . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hvy. 19.3 356 420 12 496 121 53 *Veedol (Aero) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . “3”| 26.3 435 520 38 517 149 63 *Veedol (Aero) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . “4”| 27.6 440 515 34 513 151 64 *Veedol (Aero) . . . . . . / . . . . . . . . “5” 24.7 440 520 \ 28 413 135 55 *Veedol (Aero) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . “6”| 24.7 460 540 27 474 134 58 *Veedol (Aero) . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hvy. 26.5 410 480 34 3.31 107 61 Wolf's Head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hvy. 28.2 420 475 33 335 109 53 Aerial Oil. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29.1 425 490 50 593 176 71 Items marked (*) are taken from tables issued by lubrication branch of the air service. The remaining figures have been obtained from other sources. (Continued on Data. Sheet No. TT-8) Copyright 1921 COMPILED BY TT 10 7 PETRO LEU M MAGAZINE J. B. RATHEUN •º sºa } .* * º GAS ENGINE CYLINDER LUBRICATION (TT-10-8) ./ (Properties of Commercial Oils) CONTINUED from Data Sheets Nos. TT-10-6 and TT-10-7. The notation of the various classes is explained on Sheet No. TT–10–6 while the heavier grades and their properties are given on sheet TT-10-7. In general these oils are suitable for engines with small piston clearances, auto- mobile engines in which the clutch is lubricated by the crankcase oil or in light duty water-cooled, engines. These oils are also adaptable for general winter use in nearly all automobiles where a low chill test is necessary except perhaps with small bore engines with aluminium alloy pistons. It should be remembered that the “cold clear- ance”, of aluminium pistons, is greater than with cast iron pistons and that there is always a greater tendency for the gasoline to enter the crankcase with a light body Oil when used in winter Operation. Light lubricating oils used under these conditions deteriorate rapidly, due to contamination by fuel. Model, “T” Ford engines require oils under Class (D) owing to , the disc clutch being in the crankcase extension. If heavier oils are used there will be much trouble with clutch slipping in cold weather, excessive carbon deposits and an excessive fuel Consumption. (See Data. Sheet No. TT–10–9.) - t (D) class Ol LS. CYL INDER LUBRICANTS (VISCOSITY 150-300) * Saybolt Qt) P g Viscosity, - *C, 'S O O o Seconds ty ty Li- li- K- $– sº ** CJ (5 3. †. ſº Make or Trade Narne • *- *q) tº O Q) 'o (V) GD (1) H. º 5-2 F is tº ſl. LL Li- il- =5 S- -C º -- #5 | ##| || 3 || 5 || = | 2 º § > Z §§ it in O S to & Mobiloil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . “E” 28.1 370 420 0 166 67 45 Halvoline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Light 25.9 370 425 34 174 68 44 Havoline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mied.] §i | ###| | ###| | #5 239 83 47 Mobiloil. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Arc. 1ght. 23.3 370 420 8 222 76 47 *Amalie. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Spec. 31.0 420 490 40 209 80 43 *Duplex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . “350”| 30.7 425 495 27 194 77 46 Monogram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Med.| 26.2 380 435 24 290 95 51 *Oilzum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hvy.| 29.1 430 500 30 261 91 50 *Perfection. . . . . . . . . . . Light “A” 29.1 400 470 26 181 71 45 *Perfection. . . . . . . . . . . . Med. “B” 24.9 390 450 32 243 81 47 Polarine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.9 400 475 8 222 78 42 °FO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.3 400 475 0 219 77 43 Texaco . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Light| 21.5 340 385 0 207 72 42 Veedol (Zero) . . . . . . . . . . . . . Light| 26.0 390 465 15 201 77 44 Veedol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Med.| 26.3 410 480 31 250 87 48 *Duplex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . “350”| 30.7 425 495 27 194 77 46 *Supreme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Med. | 19.8 330 380 0 217 73 43 *Supreme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hvy. 19.4 330 370 > 0 242 73 44 *Valvoline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Med.| 30.7 385 440 30 257 93 51 *White Star. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25.8 360 415 18 170 66 43 *Waverly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.0 400 450 24 160 69 40 *Wolf's Head. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Med. 28.8 410 470 26 223 82 46 (E) CLASS Ol LS (VISCOSITY 150) Mobiloil Zeta. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Light 28.0 375 430 31 141 63 | 40 Monogram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Light| 27.7 365 415 20 140 61 41 *Supreme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Light| 22.3 325 || 360 0 137 57 39 Wolf's Head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Light| 31.0 385 440 33 142 61 41 Iterms in the table marked (*) are taken from the table issued by the lubrication branch of the air service; these figures were taken from this table in their entirety. The remaining figures have been derived from other sources—from the market, or as purchased on the open market in broken packages from the dealer or service station. ~ Copyright 1921 COMPILED BY g TT 1 O 8 PETRO LEU M MAGAZINE J. B. RATHE UN - - GAS ENGINE CYLINDER LUBRICATION (TT-10-9) (Properties of Commercial Oils) ORD MODEL “T” LUBRICATION.—The manufacturer of this car reconnnn ends a F very light oil for the reason that the same oil is used for the engine and the wet type disc clutch. If the oil is too heavy, particularly in cold weather, the heavy oil prevents the engagement of the clutch due to the fact that there is not sufficient force exerted to squeeze the heavy oil film from between the discs. That the light oil is best for the Ford engine has also been proved in the tests conducted by F. C Robinson, chief chemist of the Atlantic Refining company. The car was run approxi- mately 125 miles each day, accurate tests were nnade of the oil and gasoline, and as the tests were on the same road circuit, the running conditions were constant. The test road consisted of six miles of level smooth road, three miles of good hill road and one mile of rough hill road. Each test consisted of about 1,000 nmiles of running with an experienced Ford driver. The deductions are as follows: (1) Highly viscous oils from any source cause excessive losses in mileage per gallon. t (2) Irrespective of viscosity, the oils with low flash point are considerably less efficient than the higher flash point oils. (3) The amount of carbon averages broadly about the same both for high and low viscosity and about the same for Texas and Pennsylvania oils. The consistency of the carbon collected from the cylinders is identical. This means that all oils will produce some residue and that the amount will be largely governed by the amount of oil that actually reaches the combustion space. In the following tabulation of the tests, oil (M) is a medium oil from a southern field; (N) is a duplicate of (MI) but is made from Pennsylvania crude; (O) is a heavy southern Oil and (P) is a heavy oil of practically the same viscosity as (O): LUBRicATION TESTs on Ford MoDEL “T” cAR oils Tested and Results of Tests Determinations (M) (N) | (O) | (P) Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.1 29.3 20.6 28.5 Viscosity, 100° F. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228.0 238.0 547.0 282.0 Viscosity, 130° F. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - e º 'º - - - - 303.0 143.0 Viscosity, 150° F. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85.0 87.0 124.0 100.0 Viscosity, 180° F. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº e º 'º © º a tº 75.0 72.0 Viscosity, 212° F. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . e s e e - - - - 54.0 52.0 Flash point, Open Cup. . . . . . . . . . . . . 335.0 435.0 390.0 * 440.0 Color (association). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3% 3% Total miles run. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 976 1,339 | 1,134 1,011 Total gasoline in gallons. . . . . . . . . . 43.5 | 56.5 | 58. Total oil, pints. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 10.5 10 7 Total carbon, grams. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.9 29.5 36.02 26.32 Miles per gallon gasoline. . . . . . . . . . 22.4 23.7 19.4 18.2 Miles per gallon lubricating oil. . . 602 | 1,022 908 1,555 Grams of carbon per 1,000 M. . . . . . 18.4 | 22.0 31.8 25.0 From the table it will be seen that the best results are obtained with oil (N), the miles per gallon of gasoline being far the best with this oil. The miles per gallon of lubricating oil are very near the maximum. The carbon residue is next to the minimum obtained with all the oils. ſ l º According to the classification promoted by the writer and Set forth in Data Sheets Nos. TT-10-6 and TT-10-8 we see that the best oil for the model “T” Ford comes under the head of Class (D). This agrees with the recommendation made by many of the oil manufacturers, for example, Veedol Medium, Havoline Medium, Supreme Heavy, et cetera. In fact, any oil under Class (D) may be used with a fair measure of SUICCéSS. Copyright 1921 ACOMPILED BY _1 ſ) O PETROL EU M MAGAZINE J. B. RATHEUN TT–10–9 * - $ t GAS ENGINE LUBRICATION (TT-10-12) (Commercial Classification) RECOMMENDATIONS FOR THE CYLINDERS OF PASSENGER AUTOMOBILES NTRODUCTION TO AUTOMOBILE CYLINDER TABLES. Starting with Data. Sheet No. TT–10–16, and running through a number of sheets, will be found information regarding automobile cylinder lubrication. In these tables, the data is arranged according to the make and year of the various cars on the market and according to the various brands of advertised cylinder lubricating oils. As the trade symbols or makers' trade letters are given in each case, it is a simple matter to pick out the proper grade of any brand of oil for any given car. The letters such as “LM,” “Arc,” “XH,” etc., refer to the oil according to the symbols adopted by the producer of the oil and are in agreement with the symbols appearing in his catalogue. |Because of the size of the sheets it is possible to place only a limited number of oils on each sheet, hence if the reader does not find the required oil on the first sheet he should turn back until the proper oil is found. This means that there are two sheets for each automobile. Under the majority of column headings will be found the abbreviations “SUM” and “WINT’’ which refer to the grade of oil required for SUM- MER and WINTER, that is, in cases where the oil company recommends a seasonal change of oil. - Where the same oil is used the year around, thre column is marked “ALL SEASONS.” * A critical examination will show that the various brands recommended for a given car are not in perfect agreement, that is, some oil companies recommend a lighter Or a heavier oil than others. This question, however, is out of the province of the present sheets in which the makers’ recommendations only are given, and without further comment. For example, two brands of oil shown for a given car may indicate medium and heavy oils, while for a second car they may show as light and heavy oils, thus indicating a lack of direct relationship between the two brands. It should be specially noted, that the words “Heavy” and “Light” are rather loosely applied by the various manufacturers. An oil graded as light by one maker often corresponds in body to the “Medium” or “Heavy” grade of another maker. There is no uniformity in the grad- ings of the various companies. It will be seen in the tables that often a light medium Marathon oil (LM) corresponds to an Extra. Heavy Sunoco oil (XPH), to a Medium Veedol (M) and a Heavy Sinclair. This has not yet been standardized. AND WE CAN ONLY SHOW CONDITIONS AS THEY ACTUALLY EXIST. It will be noted that in nearly every case heavy bodied oils are used for eight cylinder engines, and that the heavy oils are always used for Rnight sliding sleeve motors, and for air cooled engines. Light assembled cars using stock motors almost invariably use light or medium oils. f VARIATIONS FROM TABULATED VALUES. The values tabulated, with the exception of the Sinclair oils, apply to new cars or cars in perfect mechanical condi- tion, and to the temperature indicated by the summer and winter columns under each heading. For well Worn cars, or cars used in very warm climates, it is advisable to change the grade of oil indicated to a heavier grade. An old car in which the cylinders have been reground, fitted with new oversized pistons, and piston rings installed, may be considered as new Cars in every essential respect, but this is not the case where only new rings are installed without grinding the cylinder or without fitting new pistons. Unless there is a perfect fit between the cylinder bore, pistons, and rings, the engine is almost certain to “pump” light oils into the combustion chamber and hence form heavy carbon deposits and much disagreeable whitish-blue smoke. * In the case of Veedol oils, the tables, apply only to engines with a piston clearance not exceeding 0.002 inch per inch of cylinder diameter. When the piston is well worn, with a clearance exceeding 0.002 inch per inch of diameter, but not exceeding 0.003 inch per inch of diameter, the next heavier grade of Veedol should be substituted. This rule in general applies to all of the oils shown. We should further note that this applies only to cast iron pistons. When the clearance exceeds 0.003 inch per inch of diameter, the only remedy is to regrind the cylinders, fit new rings and oversized pistons. No possible increase in the body of the oil will improve matters after the wear has progressed to this point. Copyright 1921 COMPILED BY ^2 PETRO LEUM AGE J. B. RATHBUN TT–10–12 GAS ENGINE LUBRICATION (TT-10-13) (Commercial Classification) RECOMMENDATIONS FOR THE CYLINDERS OF PASSENGER AUTOMOBILES ABULAR VARIATIONS CONTINUED. As it is rather difficult for the average man to measure the piston clearance of his engine, as outlined in the preceding Data. Sheet No. TT–10–12, the Sinclair company have approached the problem of wear in another manner, that is, by the mileage traveled by the car. With average care and treatment, the wear of all cast iron pistons is roughly proportional to the mileage covered, hence the speedometer readings are an index to the condition of the bore and pistons. According to the Sinclair System, the oil for the 1921 Cars Or CarS having bores recently reground, take the lightest oils as shown in the table. Cars of previous years, or cars having traveled over 3,000 to 5,000 miles require the next heavier grade of oil. After 15,000 to 20,000 miles of service, the grade is again increased by one point, or two degrees greater body than used with the new car. With the average car, a mileage above 30,000 miles means reground cylinders and oversize pistons, after which repairs we again start out with the light oil recommended for the new cars. This suggestion of wear is of course only an approximate estimate for all cars do not wear at exactly a uniform rate nor do all cars receive the same treatment in the hands of their owners. If a new car has been driven hard in the first 1,000 miles of its life, if it has been irregularly lubricated, or if the oil has not been changed fre- quently, then it is certain that such a car will show more wear and clearance than one which has been handled with more consideration. Another factor entering into the problem with force feed engines is the condition of the main bearings. If these bearings are worn, the high pressure oil will flow through them more rapidly, and the cylinders are therefore more likely to receive an excessive quantity of oil than when the bearings are in normal condition. Bearing wear is not of so much importance in Splash feed engines. Aluminum alloy pistons (Lynite) have a greater rate of expansion than cast iron pistons, hence a greater clearance must be allowed and a heavier oil must be used. When cold, the clearance of the alloy piston is far greater than with the cast iron model, and unless a heavy viscous oil is used there will be trouble with aluminum alloy pumping up into the combustion chamber. High speed engines with aluminum alloy pistons pump far more oil than low speed engines with cast iron pistons. The matter is very complicated and involved. EFFECTS OF TEMPERATURE AND SEASONS. Oils thin out at high tempera- tures and become much more viscous or heavily bodied at low temperatures, hence the working temperature and season has much to do with the class of oil chosen. In summer weather, or in hot climates a heavier oil must be used to maintain the value Of the oil film than in cold weather when the viscosity and supporting value are at a maximum. Heavy oils are not suitable in very cold weather since they stiffen or become so hard that they are circulated with difficulty or rhay fail entirely to enter the bearing clearance. It is for this reasonſ that there are two oils given for the majority of lubricants, one for hot weather and one for cold. Using a very heavy oil in winter may result in a broken oil pump, excessive wear, or burnt out bearings due to the stiffness of the oil. In countries where the temperature is always above freezing, the oil recommended for summer use can be used the year around. In tropical coun- tries with the temperature always above 60°-70° F., the tabulated values' should be increased to the next heavier grade. Temperature effect is not taken into account by the Sinclair company who recom- mend a single oil for all year round Service. The data is based on an oil light enough so that no trouble will be experienced in cold weather. It is not the purpose of the present sheets to enter into an argument on this radical change in practice but to present matters as given by the makers of the various lubricating oils. Air cooled engines, and engines provided with thermo-Syphon cooling systems generally run at higher temperatures than engines With pumped water circulation. This, however, is taken into account in the tables. Copyright 1921 COMPILED BY Peºtºjm A GE J. B. †N TT-10–13 ** g a" GAs ENGINE cyLINDER LUBRICATION (TT-18-10) (Comparison of Bases) difference in the properties of lubricating oils obtained from oil shale and petroleum; according to tests at the Ohio State university lubricants made from shale oil possess decided advantages when used as lubricants for internal combustion “engines. The tests were a comparison between a gas engine cylinder oil made by the Standard Oil company and a sample of oil refined from oil shale by the Colorado School of Mines, the test being reported in the “Colorado School of Mines Quarterly.” The following table gives a comparison of the physical properties of the two oils as Ordinarily determined: C OMPARISON OF SHALE AND PETROLEUM BASE OILS—There is a decided PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF GAS ENG IN E O LS ºr- | Petroleum Oi! Shale Determination a Se a Se Gravity, Beaumé. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.4 30.3 Flash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . & tº dº º ºs e < e º 'º º e º e tº tº $ tº tº ºi e º e º º te ſº 405. 390. Fire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485. 455. Viscosity at 70° F. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • e º ºs e º e º e º 'º º e º e º - e. e. e. tº 374. 133. Color . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . No. 6 No. 4 The shale oil was used as it came from the stills, without further treatment or finishing, and represented 57 per cent, of the crude shale oil from which it was made. The result of a test on a 12-hour run showed that— (1) The engine ran cooler with shale oil; (2) the engine carried a heavier load With the shale oil; (3) there was less friction with shale oil; (4) the mechanical efficiency was better with shale oil; (5) less shale oil was necessary for satis- factory lubrication. Whether this reduced friction was due to the iesser viscosity of the shale oil and whether equal results could not have been obtained from both types of oils when the viscosities were more nearly equal is not stated. The fact that the viscosity of the Shale oil was so much lower than that of the petroleum product alone would account for lower friction, regardless of other factors. The following table gives the results of the engine tests: COMPARATIVE TESTS, SHALE AND PETROLEUM Ol L | Petroleum Ol! Shale Determination Base Base Net brake load in pounds. . . . . . . . . . . . . • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 38.20 40.00 Brake-horsepower . . . . . . * * * * * * * * * * * * g e º e < e < e o e º e e s e e 6.00 6.28 Mean effective pressure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49.00 37.80 Mechanical efficiency. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * * * ~ e º e e is e º e - e. e. e. 52.40 54.50 Engine friction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • e º e º e º e e Ae e s - © tº e 5.45 4.87 Kerosene per I.H.P.Hr. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............ 0.647 0.50 Kerosene per B.H.P.Hr. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * * * * * * * * * * 1.25 0.90 Cooling water per hour in lbs. to maintain tempera- º ture 3t 185° F. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450.00 400.00 R.P.I.M. • * g e o e s tº e s - e. e. * * * * * * * * * * * * e s e º e s e e e a e * tº * c e - © tº º e 275.00 275.00 A- A This lubricating oil, obtained from crude shale oil is said to show an average viscosity of about 400 (Colorado Grand Valley shale) at 100° F. and an unusually tenacious film adhesion to heated and polished metal surfaces. It is comparatively free from oxidization in contact with heated air and has superior endurance. Copyright 1921 COMPILED BY PETR&#üß MAGAZINE J. B. ######, TT–18–10 GAS ENGINE CYLINDER LUBRICATION (TT-18-11) (Comparison of Bases) f ASPHALTIC AND PARAFFINE OILS. There has been a great deal of discus- Sion as to the relative merits of asphaltic and paraffine base lubricants and there has been much misunderstanding on the subject. It is not our policy to favor one at the expense of the other, for both will give excellent results in their proper field when carefully made. Further developments in the manufacture will probably result in identical products from either base in the near future. However, the following outlines will give the principal distinguishing characteristics: (1) Paraffine base lubricants have a higher Baumé gravity (lower specific , gravity) than asphaltic base products. Viscous neutrals made from , Pennsylvania paraſſine gas stock will average from 30° to 32° Baumé, while neutrals made from mixed Or asphaltic gases generally run less than 30° Baumé unless blended, or unless special processes are employed. 4. (2) In general paraffine base oils have a greenish bloom or fluorescence when viewed by reflected light, while the majority of asphaltic base lubricants give a bluish or violet bloom. (3) The viscosity of an asphaltic base oil can be made very high without blending, while it is seldom that true paraffine base oils of the Pennsylvania type show a viscosity of Over 240° without blending, taken at ordinary test temperatures. However, this varies with the temperature as follows: (4) With an increasing temperature the viscosity of an asphaltic base lubricant falls off much more rapidly than with a paraffine base oil, and when a certain critical high temperature is reached, there is very little difference between a high viscosity asphaltic base and a lower viscosity paraffine base oil. Above a temperature of 300° F. there is very little difference in the viscosity of any of the various oils. \ Flash point of the asphaltic oils is lower"than that Of the paraffine base type, but the cold test is also lower with the asphaltic products. (5 ) (6) California oils of the general asphaltic type with low flash points, very low cold test, and a viscosity which decreases very rapidly with an increasing temperature. S (7) There is much less sulphur in paraffine crudes than in the Penn— sylvania types, but with proper manufacture this should not make any difference in the finished product. This is principally a problem for the refiner. YRIGHT 1925 COMPILED BY ####### J. B. RATHETUN TT–18–11 * | ^. - * W. …” 2 º' { O • GAS ENGINE CYLINDER LUBRICATION (TT-21-20) (Commercial Classification) Aeronautic Engine Lubricants (Cylinder) HARACTERISTIC AFCRO CYLINDER OILS. In the following table is compiled a number of well known aeronautic cylinder oils, including the “Liberty Aero Oil” used by the Government and controlled by U. S. Specification No. 3501, and also a. Sample of Castor Oil: sº CHARACTERISTIC Sample Sample Sample Sample Sample Sample No. 1 No. 2 No. 3 No. 4 No. 5 No. 6 Maker. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tidewater | Tidewater | N. Y. Lub. Wac. Oil Co. . . . . . . . . . . . . Trade Name. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Liberty Weedol Weedol Monogram Mobiloil Castor rade ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . No. 3501 e Ex. Heavy || Ex. Heavy (B) Aviation Origin..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mineral Mineral Mineral Mineral Mineral Vegetable Gravity, Baumé. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25.4 |. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28.4 26 4 15 3 Gravity, Specific. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.9018 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0 9639 Flash (Fº)... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450 440 480 . . . . . . . . . . . 500 555 Fire (Fº)... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 515 515 550 ! . . . . . . . e e & 580 620 Pour, Test (Fº)..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 40 51 46 | 41 0 1043.” 1038" 1440° 1450." 1635 1358 271" | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * - 361 325 89 85 115 94* 121 100 48 |. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . § - - I - - - - - - - - - - - I - - - - - - - - - - 52 Acidity as Oleie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0 0000% |. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 270% Conradson Carbon. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.7600% 1.40% 1.51% . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.303% Ash. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2500% |. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.015% Odor... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Normal l............ Normal |... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . None Color. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Light Red | . . . . . . . . . . * * | * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * : * * * * * * * * * * * Water Wh Bloom. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Green l. . . . . . . . . . . Green 1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . None U. S. SPECIFICATION No. 3501 (PHYSICAL). The following are the physical properties required for “Liberty Aero Oil.” It divides oils into two groups: (1) High Specific gravity oils having Sp. G. ºº:: 0.9100 or below 24° Be., and (2) Low Specific Gravity oils below 0.9.100 or above 24° Be. CHARACTERISTIC High Gravity Low Gravity Wiscosity, S. U. Q) 212°F. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7075 80–85 Flash Point, F* (Cleveland Open Cup, above). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350° 350° Pour Test (F"), not over. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15° 40° Carbon, Conradson, not over. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . r & s s = * * * * * * * * * * | * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * U. S. A. SPECIFICATIONS No. 2-23-B. Under this specification the oils are divided into three grades: (1), (2) and (3). It will be noted that Grade No. 1 has the specifica- tion divided into “Summer” and “Winter” groups. Viscosity is taken at 210° F. CHARACTERISTIC Grade No. 1 Grade No. 2 Grade No. 3 i Summer Winter All All Flash (Fº)................................. 400° 400° 500° 400° Pour (F"), not over... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45° Cold (Fº), not over.... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45° 45° 35° 1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Wiscosity (Q) 210°F. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90°-100° 75°–85” 125°–135° 115*125 * Conradson Carbon, not over. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5% 1.5% 2.00% . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . This is not the specification in full but simply the physical properties of oil included under class No. 2-23-B. right 1921 Copyrig J. B. RATHE EUM AGE \ PETRol COMPILED TT–21–20 BY UN GAS ENGINE CYLINDER LUBRICATION (TT-21-30) (Commercial Classification) AERO NAUTIC ENGIN E LU BRICANTS (CYLIN DER). CASTOR OIL FOR ROTARIES. The air cooled-rotary cylinder and radial (Sta- tionary) cylinder engines are quite different from the water cooled type both in the details of construction and in their operation. The running temperatures are higher and not so evenly distributed around the bore, we have centrifugal force to combat in the rotary and the piston construction differs greatly. For this reason it has been the practice to adopt an entirely different grade of oil for the air cooled types, and previous to the war castor oil was used almost exclusively for this purpose. In the majority of rotor cylinder types much of the oil is lost through the ex— haust due to loosely fitting pistons, eccentric bores and centrifugal force. Secondly, the gasoline mixture is drawn through the crankcase of these engines and if the lubricating oil is soluble in gasoline it thins out badly on the shaft or bearings. It is largely for the latter reason that castor, oil is so extensively used on the rotary types for Castor oil is practically insoluble in gasoline and hence is little effected by the mixture. Mineral oils of the usual types are of course" rapidly attacked by the gasoline unless special provision is made for their protection while in the crankcase. Radial engines having fixed air cooled cylinders arranged radially about the cen— ter of the crankshaft introduce practically all of the problems mentioned above ex- Cept that of centrifugal force. In many of these engines the mixture is drawn through the crankcase and we always have the cylinder warping due to the uneven cooling of the flanges, just as with the rotary. With some of the more modern radials the fuel feed is more like that of the water cooled engine with an independent intake manifold for the cylinders and without the gasoline mixture in the crankcase. In the latter types we can adopt mineral oils with greater safety since they are not directly subjected to the stream of mixture, but in any event it is safest to proceed carefully with mineral oil unless the crankcase is of the “dry surmp” type in which the oil supply is virtually separated from the main crankcase. CASTOR OIL SPECIFICATIONS. When castor oil is decided upon for engine lubrication only the best grades of cold pressed oils should be used. Even with the best grades of castor oil a bulky varnish like deposit is formed in the cylinders which is very materially increased with the lower grades. As a rule, castor oils darker than a very pale yellow decompose rapidly and also form larger percentages of free fatty acids. Oils with a greenish tinge should be rejected under all conditions. The solubility of castor oil in gasoline is dependent largely upon the volatility or gravity of the gasoline. With the light volatile gasolines ordinarily used with rotaries and radials the solubility is practically negligible but with the higher specific gravity gasolines such as Ordinary automobile grades a comparatively high per- centage is absorbed by the castor oil This fact is principally of interest in cleaning out the deposits where a heavier gasoline should be used. PROPERTIES OF FIRST GRADE COLD PRESSED CASTOR O I L. Baume gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.3 Specific gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.964 Flash point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 550° F. B'ire test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 620° F. Cold test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . —10° F. Viscosity (Saybolt) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1440(G)100° F. Viscosity (Saybolt) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117(3)200° F. Viscosity (Saybolt) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96(G)210° F. ###### * jº, TT-21-30 * ELECTRICAL OILS (U-5-20) (switch and Circuit Breaker Oils) GOVERNMENT SPECIFICATIONS. The following specifications, under the head of “Electric Switch Oil,” give the requirements of an oil to be used for filling the cases of oil break switches and circuit breaker for suppressing the arc but is not to be used for transformer insulation. It is to be made from highly refined petroleum products, free from vegetable Or animal oils or fats of any kind. PRO PERTIES AND TESTS FLASH POINT (Method 110.31). The flash point shall not be lower than 290° F. VISCOSITY (Method 30.4). The viscosity at 100° F. shall be within the following limits: 95 to 110 seconds. POUR POINT (Method 20.11). The pour point shall not be above 20° F. ACIDITY (Method 510.3). Not more than 0.10 mg. of potassium hydroxide shall be required to neutralize one gram of the Oil. PHEAT TEST. The Oil shall not show a deposit or any change other than a dark– ening of color when heated to 450° F. - CORROSION TEST (Method 530.31). A clean copper strip shall not be discolored when Submerged in the Oil for three hours at 212° F. DREAK DOWN TEST (Method 410.11). The breakdown value shall not be less than 23,000 volts. * TJNSATURATION TEST (Method 550.2). The oil shall not contain more than four percent of hydrocarbons soluble in concentrated sulphuric acid. NOTES. The above specifications were taken from “United States Government Specifications for Lubricants and Liquid Fuels” and “Methods for Testing,” Tech- nical Paper 323A, U. S. Government Standard Specifications No. 2C, dated 1924. The “Method Numbers’’ given near the heading of each item are the numbers of the Standard tests to Which reference is made. This specification is somewhat different than the majority for this class of work, as there is no moisture determination required. This is probably included under the breakdown test, as a moisture-laden oil could not withstand the specified breakdown voltage of 23,000 volts. It will be noted that the viscosity is low and this rather suggests that the oil be used in a tightly sealed chamber to prevent splashing and throwing the oil when the circuit breaker is opened. However, the thinner oil allows the free solid carbon to settle faster to the bottom of the tank trian a more viscous oil and this is a decided advantage. r * COPYRIGHT 1924 COMPILED BY U-5–20 PETRO LE U M A GE J. B. RATHEUN - - - ELECTRICAL OILS (U-5-25) (Switch and Circuit Breaker Oils) CARE OF TRANSFORMER AND SWITCH OILS. Electrical oils should be handled with greater care than ordinarily used with lubricating oils to prevent the entrance of moisture and conductive sediment into the transformers. The slightest trace of water or metallic particles will cause much trouble. \ (1) Never store the drums of oil outdoors nor expose them to the weather. The drums should be well dried before opening. (2) When a cold drum is brought into a warm building, it should not be opened until the temperature of the drum is practically the same as that of the room. When cold, the moisture condenses on the drum and is likely to settle into the Oil. * (3) When possible, fill the switch or transformer casings in dry weather, and if these parts are out of doors, it must be performed in dry weather. (4) wipe off the bung carefully before opening, and When it is removed, lay it down in a clean place so that it will not drop dirt into the drum when replaced. (5) All oil should be carefully strained through several layers of clean old linen before the oil enters the housings. This will remove lint and sediment and may prevent the entrance Of Water. (6) If much dust is present in the oil it may cause a breakdown within the apparatus by bridging between parts differing in potential. The covers on the transformers and switches should be replaced innme— diately after filling. (7) When possible use all of the oil in the drum for the air remaining in the upper space of a partly filled drum is likely to contain moisture which will later cause trouble. (8) When filling from a hose, use a metal hose rather than one made of rubber, for the oil is likely to dissolve the Sulphur in the rubber hose and thus cause trouble. (9) After emptying the old oil out of the transformer or Switch casings, it is a good plan to flush out the casings and windings with fresh oil before permanently installing fresh oil in the case. This holds true of switching cases in particular where heavy deposits of carbon are frequently found. (10) Tanks should be frequently examined to determine the loss by evap- oration, and samples should be taken to see Whether the oil shows signs of discoloration. COPYRIGHT 1925 COMPILED BY PETROL EU M AGE • J. B. RATHE UN U-5–25 MEASUREMENT (V-10-5) (Capacity of Steel Storage Tanks—Outage—Etc.) UNITS OF CAPACITY. The capacity of tanks may be given either in gallons or barrels, the latter unit being used principally for the storage of crude and fuel oil. A barrel of crude or fuel oil is taken at 42 gallons. Steel tanks are usually of cylindrical form, either horizontal or vertical, and may have either flat or convex heads (dished). For ease in making calculations, the following conversion factors will be useful: 1 U. S. Gallon 231 Cu. In. = 0.1337 Cu. Ft. 1.000 U. S. Gal. = 0.8328 Innp. Gal. 1 Cubic Foot 1728 Cu. In. = 1.0000 Cu. Ft. 7.480 U. S. Gal. = 6.2292 Imp. Gal. 1 Cubic Inch 1 Cu. In , = 0.00053 Cu. Ft. 0.0043 U. S. Gal. 1 Brit. Imp. Gal. = 277.4 Cu. In. = 0.1605 Cu. Ft. = 1.2008 U. S. Gal. = 1.000 Imp. Gal. 1 Barrel (Oil) = 97.02 Cu. In. = 5.6150 Cu. Ft. = 42.0000 U. S. Gal. = 34.978 Inmp. Gal. FILLED CAPACITY OF CYLINDRICAL TANKS. The cubic contents of any tank in cubic inches or cubic feet may be obtained by multiplying the end area by the length, all dimensions being inside dimensions. Flat heads or ends are also assumed, the length being taken as the length of the shell or side plates. With dished or convex heads the capacity is somewhat increased. The capacity may be computed as follows: : : Let c = contents in cubic inches C’ = contents in cubic feet G = contents in U. S. gallons B = contents in oil barrels (42 U. S. gal.) d = inside diameter in inches G’ = contents in British Imperial gallons L = length in inches D = diameter in feet L' = length in feet Then: C = 0.7854d2L C’ = 0.000454d2L G = 0.0034d2L B = 0.000081 dºſ, G’ = 0.00283d?L B = 0.14 ID?L’ These formulae apply only to completely filled cylindrical tanks having flat heads. The contents of partly filled vertical tanks are proportional to the depth of the fluid, but horizontal tanks (with the length horizontal) must be specially computed when only partly filled, as the contents are no longer directly proportional to the depth of the fluid. This calculation will be given on another page. Dished or convex heads somewhat affect the capacity, especially on tanks with a large diameter and short axial length. TEMPERATURE EFFECT. Changes in temperature cause changes in the volume of the fluid contained in the tanks due to expansion and contraction. If the tank is filled With warm oil, which afterwards cools in the tank, the tank will gage less or there will be a “shrinkage” in the contents. The rate of expansion and contraction is a variable quantity among different oils and will be given in TABLES OF EXPANSION elsewhere, as it is too complicated to be taken up here. The Specifications for Fuel Oil issued by the United States Navy make an allow- ance that should be approximately correct for crude and fuel oils. This reads as follows: “The unit of quantity to be the barrel of 42 gallons of 231 cubic inches at a standard temperature of 60° F. For every decrease or increase of temperature of 10° F. (or proportion thereof) from the standard, 0.4 of 1 percent (or prorated percentage) shall be added or deducted from the measured or gauged quantity for correction.” In this country the quantity is generally taken as Standard at a temperature of 60° F., and the quantity at any other temperature must be reduced by factors to this standard temperature. See tables. ACTUAL SIZE OF TANK. A tank for a given quantity of oil should be somewhat larger than actually required in order to make up for expansion and to allow an air space above the oil for emergencies. Possibly ten percent should be added to the required capacity. The range of temperature in an outside tank (Temperate climate) is about 110 degrees for exposed tanks. The effect upon expansion should be considered. } Copyright 1921 COMPILED BY Peššūmī’āE J. B. RATHEUN V-10-5 MEASUREMENT (V-10-8) (Capacity of Steel Storage Tanks—Outage, Etc.) EXPANSION OF OILS. The expansion and contraction of oils by increases and " decreases in temperatures, respectively, depend to a great extent upon the density and the character of the Oils. Thus, the expansion ratio of gasoline and fuel oil are greatly different due to the great differences in density, and the same difference exists even among gasolines of different densities. When the oils are measured by meters, say of the disc type, the readings of the meters are affected by changes in the viscosity, which, in turn, vary with the temperature. Here we have a double effect, and for accuracy the meters should be corrected for temperature by actual test. In an article published in “Petroleum,” February, 1920, J. D. Lander presents a table for computing the changes in volume due to temperature differences. This table shows the temperature change in Fahrenheit degrees necessary to change the volume of different oils by one percent. From this table it will be seen that a lower tempera- ture change is required to produce a given change in volume for a light oil than for a heavy one; or, in other words, the lighter oils have a greater rate of expansion than the heavy oils. Thus, gasoline has a greater expansion than a heavy crude or fuel oil. Temperature- Volume Changes for Various Petroleum Oils (Temperature Change Required for One Percent Variation in Völume) Temperature Variation Baumé Gravity Volume Change in Fahr. Degrees 70–85 1 percent 12.5° F. 66-69 , 1 percent 14.3° F. 50-65 1 percent 16.0° F. 36-49 1 percent 20.0° F. 19-35 1 percent 25.0° F 12–18 1 percent 28.0° F From this table we see that it is highly inaccurate to assume a change of volume of one percent due to a change of 20° F., as is so commonly done. In many cases this º estimate would lead to errors as great as 50 percent between extreme values of density. All measurements of petroleum oils are considered standard at a temperature of 60° F., and when measurement is made at any other temperature corrections must be made. If oil were sold at a temperature above 60° F. without making correction, then the buyer would receive less oil than was due him, because he would be buying on the basis of an expanded volume. If the oil were below standard temperature, then he would receive more than his just dues if no corrections were made. All this must be considered in gauging tanks. For example, let us assume that we have a tank completely filled with 15,000 gal- Ions of oil, the gravity being 62° Be. (gasoline) and the temperature 92° F. The tem- perature excess above 60° F. is: 92 — 60 = 32° F., this being the temperature change that causes a volume difference when referred to Standard temperature. Consulting the table, we find that a change of one percent in the volume of a 62° Be. gasoline requires a temperature change of 16.0° F.; hence, the increased percentage of volume amounts to: 32/16 = 2 percent. Since the tank is full at 92° F., the volume will be greater than at standard by 2 percent, and to obtain the corrected value , we must therefore deduct 2 percent of 15,000 gallons or: 15,000 — (15,000 × 0.02) = 15,000 — 300 = 14,700 gallons. In other words, the increase of 32° F. has resulted in an increase of 300 gallons. When the temperature is below standard (below 60° F.), then the percentage must be added. Thus, if the temperature were 28° F. in the above example, the meas- urement would indicate: (60-28) = 32° F. difference (2 percent), or 15,000 + (15,000 X 0.02) = 15,300 gallons, corrected measure. Copyright 1922 COMPILED BY PETRO L E U M AGE J. B. RATHE UN V-10-8 MEASUREMENT (V-10-9) Expansion of Petroleum Oils COEFFICIENT OF EXPANSION. Petroleum oils expand and contract with varia tions in temperature, hence when measurement is made at any temperature other than the standard temperature of 60° F., Correction must be made. The amount of expansion or contraction caused by a change in temperature of 1° F. is called the COEFFICIENT OF EXPANSION, and this varies considerably with the density of the oil. In the following tables are the coefficients of expansion for various densities expressed in Baumé degrees, the other factors entering into the calculations being the U. S. Standard Gallon and the Fahrenheit degree. COEFFICIENTS OF EXPANSION FOR PETROLEUM OILS Baumé Coeffic. Baumé Coeffic. Baumé Coeffic. Gravity Expansion Gravity Expansion Gravity Expansion 10. . . . . . . . . . 0.000375 37. . . . . . . . . . .000457 64. . . . . . . . . . 000642 11. . . . . . . . . . e 38. . . . . . . . . . .000462 65. . . . . . . . . . 000649 12. . . . . . . . . . 000377 39. . . . . . . . . . .000467 66. . . . . . . . . . 000657 - 13. . . . . . . . . . 000378 40. . . . . . . . . . .000473 67. . . . . . . . . . 000664 14. . . . . . . . . . 000379 1. . . . . . . . . . .000478 68. . . . . . . . . . 000672 15. . . . . . . . . . , .000381? 42. . . . . . . . . . .000485 69. . . . . . . . . . 000678 16. . . . . . . . . . 000383 43. . . . . . . . . . .000491 70. . . . . . . . . . 0.00686 17. . . . . . . . . . 000385 44. . . . . . . . . . .000497 1. . . . . . . . . . 000693 18. . . . . . . . . . 000388 45. . . . . . . . . . .000503N 72. . . . . . . . . . 000700 19. . . . . . . . . . 000390 46. . . . . . . . . . 000510 73. . . . . . . . . . 000707 20. . . . . . . . . . 0.00893 47. . . . . . . . . . 000516 74. . . . . . . . . . 000715 21. . . . . . . . . . 000395 48. . . . . . . . . . 000524 75. . . . . . . . . . 000722 22. . . . . . . . . . 000398 49. . . . . . . . . . .000531 76. . . . . . . . . . 000728 23. . . . . . . . . . O00401 50. . . . . . . . . . .000540 77. . . . . . . . . . 000.736 24. . . . . . . . . . 000404 51. . . . . . . . . . .000548 78. . . . . . . . . . 000.744 25. . . . . . . . . . 000408 52. . . . . . . . . . .000555 79. . . . . . . . . . 000751 26. . . . . . . . . 4 .000412 53. . . . . . . . . . .000562 80. . . . . . . . . . 000758 27. . . . . . . . . . 000415 54. . . . . . . . . . .000568 81. . . . . . . . . . 000765 28. . . . . . . . . . 0004:18 55. . . . . . . . . . .000576 82. . . . . . . . . . 000771 29. . . . . . . . . . 000421 56. . . . . . . . . . .000583 83. . . . . . . . . . 000778 30. . . . . . . . . . 000425 57. . . . . . . . . . .000591 84. . . . . . . . . . 000787 31. . . . . . . . . . 000429 58. . . . . . . . . . .000598 85. . . . . . . . . . 000795 * 32. . . . . . . . . . 0.00434 59. . . . . . . . . . .000605 86. . . . . . . . . . 000803 33. . . . . . . . . . .0004:38 60. . . . . . . . . . .000613 87. . . . . . . . . . 000809 34. . . . . . . . . . 000443 61. . . . . . . . . . .000620 88. . . . . . . . . . 000815 35. . . . . . . . . . .000448 62. . . . . . . . . . .000627 89. . . . . . . . . . .000321 * 36. . . . . . . . . . .000453 63. . . . . . . . . . .000634 90. . . . . . . . . . .000828 To compute the actual volume of oil at a given temperature, first find the increase or decrease in temperature by subtracting 60° F. from the given pressure. Next, find the coefficient for the given Baumé density in the table, and multiply this coefficient by the temperature increase. Add 1.000, giving the increase of one gallon. If tem- perature is greater than 60°F., divide gallons at that temperature by the increase of one gallon. If temperature is less than 60°, multiply the number of gallons at given temperature by decrease of one gallon as found above. *** Actual gallons at given temperature True volume (above 60° F.) = I (Temp. — 60° F.) X coefficient] + 1,000 True volume (below 60° F.) = I (Temp. — 60° F.) X coeffic. -- 1.000] × actual gals. at given temp. COPYRIGHT 1923 COMPILED BY V 10 Q PETROLEUM AGE J. B. RATHE UN * -º tº * MEASUREMENT (V-10-10) Expansion of Petroleum Oils EXAMPLES. Let us say that we wish to find the true volume of 5,500, gallons of a 68° Baumé gasoline at a temperature of 85° F., the U. S. standard gallon being taken at 60° F. •) SOLUTION. From the table on the preceding page we find that the coefficient of eXpansion of a 68° Baumé gasoline is 0.000672. The temperature is: Temperature rise = 85° F. — 60° F = 25° F. The increase in volume due to the above temperature increase and density is: & t Increase = 0.000672 X 25 = 0.0168 gallon. The volume of one gallon at 60° F. is therefore: 1.0000 + 0.0168 = 1.0168 gallon. The true volume of 5,500 gallons at standard temperature is therefore: 5,500 1.0168 True Volume = = 5,409 gallons at 60° F. It is evident that the volume of 60° F. will be less than at 85° F., the latter being the temperature at which the gasoline was actually measured! EXAMPLE. A tank contains 15,000 gallons of 26° Baumé fuel oil at a temperature of 40° F. Find the true volume at the standard temperature of 60° F. --- SOLUTION. The temperature difference = 60° F. — 40° F. = 20° F. From the table, the coefficient of expansion for 26° Baumé oil is 0.000412. We now have a decrease of: 0.000412 X 20° F. = 0.00824 gallon. At 60°, one gallon of the oil increases to: 1.0000 + 0.00824 = 1.00824 gallon, hence the total increase of the contents of the tank will be: True volume = 15,000 × 1.00824 = 15,124 gallons at 60° F. It is evident that the volume of the oil at 40° F. will be less than the volume at 60° F., hence at the standard temperature we have a greater gallonage. NOTES. By examining the table of expansion coefficients it will be seen that the difference between the coefficients of low gravity oils is less than between the high gravity oils such as gasoline and naphtha. Thus, with heavy fuel oils and lubricating oils, there is less change of the coefficient with variation in gravity than with the lighter Oils. The base of the oil, that is, whether the oil, is of paraffine or asphaltic base makes a slight difference in the results, but so slight that it can usually be neglected in practice. The rule given above is not absolute, but is true. Within the limits com- mercially practiced. In making calculations care should be taken that the proper Corrections are also made for temperature in taking the Baumé gravity, that is, the gravity should be at standard temperature. Another precaution is that we should carefully observe whether the temperature is above or below the standard temperature of 60° F. Since this makes a difference in the method of calculation. COPYRIGHT 1923 COMPILED BY V 10 10 Tº ETROLEUM AGE J. B. RATHEUN sº ſº * g L MEASUREMENT (V-13-25) BE* CORRESPONDING SPECIFIC GRAVITY AND WEIGHTS PER (0) (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) 10. . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.0000 .9993 .9986 .9979 .997:2 .9964 .9957 .9950 Wt. . . . . . . . . . 8.325 8.322 8.317 8.311 8.305 8.299 8.293 8.287 11. . . . . . . . . . . . . .99.29 .9922 .9915 .9908 .99.01 .9894 .988.7 .9880 Wt. . . . . . . . . . .269 8.263 8.258 8.252 8.246 8.240 8.234 8,228 12. . . . . . . . . . . . . .9859 .9852 .9815 .9838 .9831 .9825 .9818 .9811 Wt. . . . . . . . . . 8.211 8.205 8.200 8.194 8.188 8.182 8.176 8.171 18. . . . . . . . . . . . . .9790 .978.3 (9777 .9770 .9763 .9756 .9749 .9743 Wt. . . . . . . . . . 8.153 8.148 8.142 8.137 8.131 8.125 8.119 8.114 14. . . . . . . . . . . . . .9722 .97.15 .9709 .97.02 .9695 .9688 .9682 .9675 Wt. . . . . . . . . . 8.096 8.091 8.086 8.080 8.074 8.069 8.063 8,058 15. . . . . . . . . . . . . .9655 .9649 .964.2 .9635 .9629 .9622 .9615 .9609 Wt. . . . . . . . . . 8.041 8.035 8.030 8.024 8.019 8.013 8.007 8.002 16. . . . . . . . . . . . . .9589 .9582 .9569 .9575 .9563 .9556 .9550 .9548 Wt. . . . . . . . . . 7.986 7.980 7.975 7.969 7.964 7.959 7.953 7.948 17. . . . . . . . . . . . . .9524 .9517 .9511 .9504 .9498 .9492 .9485 .9479 Wt. . . . . . . . . . 7.931 7.926 7.921 7.915 7.910 7.904 7.899 7.894 18. . . . . . . . . . . . . .9459 .9453 .9447 .94.40 .9434 .9428 .94.21 .9415 Wt. . . . . . . . . . 7.877 7.872 7.867 7.861 7.856 7.851 7.846 7.841 19. . . . . . . . . . . . . .9396 .93.90 .9383 .9377 .9371 .9365 .9358 .9352 Wt. . . . . . . . . . 7.825 7.820 7.814 7.809 7.804 7.799 7.793 7.788 20. . . . . . . . . . . . . .9333 .9327 .9321 .9315 .9309 . 9302 .9296 .9290 Wt. . . . . . . . . . 7.772 7.767 7.762 7.757 7.752 7.747 7.742 7.736 21. . . . . . . . . . . . . .9272 .9265 .9259 .9253 .92.47 .9241 .9235 .9229 Wt. . . . . . . . . . 7.721 7.716 7.711 7,706 7.701 7.696 7.690 7.685 22. . . . . . . . . . . . . .92.11 .9204 .9198 .9192 .918.6 .9180 .9174 .9168 Wt. . . . . . . . . . 7.670 7.665 7.660 7.655 7.650 7.645 7.640 7.635 23. . . . . . . . . . . . . .9150 .9144 .9138 .9132 .91.26 .9121 .91.15 .9109 Wt. . . . . . . . . . 7.620 7.615 7.610 7.605 7.600 7.595 7.590 7.585 24. . . . . . . . . . . . . .9091 .9085 .9079 .9073 .9067 .9061 .9056 .9050 Wt. . . . . . . . . . 7.570 7.565 7.561 7.556 7.551 7.546 7.541 7.536 25. . . . . . . . . . . . . .903.2 .9026 .9021 .9015 .9009 .9003 .8997 .8992 Wt. . . . . . . . . . 7.522 7.517 7,512 7.507 7.502 7.497 7.493 7.488 26. . . . . . . . . . . . . .8974 .8969 .8963 .8957 .8951 .. 8946 .8940 ,8934 Wt. . . . . . . . . . 7.473 7.469 7.464 7.459 7.454 7.449 7.445 7.440 27. . . . . . . . . . . . . .8917 .8912 .8906 .8900 .8895 .8889 .8883 .8878 Wt. . . . . . . . . . 7.425 7.421 7.416 7.411 7.407 7.402 7,397 7.393 28. . . . . . . . . . . . . .8861 .3855 .8850 .8844 .8838 .8833 .8827 .8822 Wt. . . . . . . . . . 7.378 7.374 7.369 7.365 7.360 7.355 7.351 7.346 29. . . . . . . . . . . . . .8805 .8799 .8794 .8788 .8783 .8777 .8772 .8766 Wt. . . . . . . . . . 7.332 7.328 7.323 7.318 7.314 7.309 7.305 7.300 30. . . . . . . . . . . . . .8750 .8745 .8739 .8734 .8728 .8723 .8717 .8712 Wt. . . . . . . . . . 7.286 7.282 7.277 7.273 7.268 7.264 7.259 7.254 31. . . . . . . . . . . . . .8696 .8690 .8685 .8679 .8674 .8669 .8663 .8658 Wt. . . . . . . . . . 7.241 7.236 7.232 7.227 7.223, 7.218 7.214 7.210 32. . . . . . . . . . . . . .864.2 .8637 .8631 . 8626 .8621 .. 8615 .8610 - 8605 Wt. . . . . . . . . . 7.196 7.192 7.187 7.183 7.178 7.173 7.169 7.165 33. . . . . . . . . . . . . .8589 .8584 .8578 .8573 .8568 .8563 .8557 .8552 Wt. . . . . . . . . . 7.152 7.147 7.143 7.139 7.134 7.130 7.125 7.121 34. . . . . . . .'..... .8537 .8531 ,8526 .8521 .8516 .8511 .8505 .8500 Wt. . . . . . . . . . 7.108 7.104 7.100 7.095 7.091 7.087 7.082 7.078 35............. .8485 .8480 .8475 .8469 .8464 .8459 .8454 .8449 Wt. . . . . . . . . . 7.065 7.061 7.057 7.048 7,044 7.039 7.035 Baumé, Specific Gravity, Density, Conversions 7.05% GALLON (8) .9943 8.281 .9873 8.223 .9804 8.165 .9736 8.108 .9669 8.052 .9602 7.997 ,9537 7.942 .9472 7.888 .9409 7.835 .9346 7.783 .9284 7.731 .9223 7.680 .916.2 7. 630 .9103 7.580 .9044 7.531 .8986 7.483 .8929 7.435 .887.2 7.388 .8816 7.341 .8761 7.295 .8706 7.249 .8653 7.205 .8600 7.16.1 .8547 7.117 .8496 7.074 .8444 7.031 (9) .9936 8.275 .9866 8.217 .9797 8.159 .9729 8.102 ,9662 8.047 .9596 7.991 ,9530 7.937 ,9466 7,883 .9402 7.830 ,9340 7.778 .9278 7,726 .9217 7,675 .9156 7.625 .9097 7,575 .9038 7,526 ,8980 7.478 .8923 7.430 .8866 7,383 .8811 7.337 .8755 7,291 .8701 7.245 .8647 7.201 .8594 7,156 .8542 7.113 .8490 7.069 ,8439 7.027 COPYRIGHT 1923 rºßTROLEUM AGR, V-13-25 J. COMPILED B. RATHEUN BY BUY. GOOD OIL BOOKS-HERE'S A LIST 3 50 3. 50 4.00 6. 50 3.00 3.00 3. 50 4.00 3. 50 2.50 6.00 1. 50 2.50 5.00 3.00 6.00 .* GEOLOGY * Economic Geology, Ries. . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.00 IClements of Petroleum Geology, Van Tuyl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.00 Engineering Geology, Ries & Watson. 5.00 Field Geology, Lahee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.00 Field Mapping for Oll Geológist, Warner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.50 Eield Methods in Petroleum Geology, Cox & Mullenburg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 00 General Economic Geology, Emmons . . 4.00 Geology of Petroleum, Ennnnons. . . . . . 6.00 Handbook for Field Geolog 1sts, Hayes & Paige . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.50 Popular Oil Geology, Ziegler. . . . . . . . . 3.00 Practical Oil Geology, Hager. . . . . . . . 3.00 Prospectors Field-Book and Guide, Osborn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.00 Prospecting for Oul and Gas, Panyity 3.25 LAW Blue Sky Laws, Elliott (preparing new edition) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * * * * * * * * Kulp's Cases on Oil and Gas. . . . . . . . . 5.00 Laws of Oil and Gas, Thornton (2 vols.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20, 00 Oil & Gas Laws of Oklahoma, Wal- lace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.25 I,UBRICATION American Lubricants, Lockhart. . . . . . 4.00 Benzine and Mineral Lubricants, Formanek . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . & 5.00 Examination of Lubricating Oils, Stillman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.75 Fruction, Lubrication, Fats and Oils, Dieterichs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.65 Industrial Oil Engineering, Battle . . . . 10.25 Lubricating Oils, Hurst. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.00 Lubrication and Lubricants, "Anch- butt & Deeley . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.00 Manufacture of Lubricants, Scheith- auer & Salter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * * * * * * 3. 50 Practice of Lubrication, Thomssen. . . S 6.00 NATURAL GAS AND GASOLINE Distribution of Gas, Hole . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.00 Hand-Book of Casinghead Gas, West- cott . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4, 50 Hand-Book of Natural Gas, Westcott 4.50 Measurement, Compression & Trans- mission of Natural Gas, Lichty. . . . 7.50 Measurement of Gas by Orifice Meter, Westcott . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.50 Pressure Extensions for Orifice Meter Readings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.00 Etecovery of Gasoline from Natural as, Burrell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . gº º is 7.00 OIL HIEAT A merican Fuels, Bacon & Harmor . . . . 12.00 Burning Liquid Fuel, Best . . . . . . . . . . . 5.00 Oil Fuel, Supply, Composition and Application, Butler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.00 PRODUCTION (See also Drilling) Business of Oil Production, Johnson, Huntley & Somers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº e . 50 Oil Field Practice, Hager . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.00 Oil Land Development and Valuation, McLaughlin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.00 Petroleum Production Engineering, Uren . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ‘... 6.00 Principles of Oil & Gas Production, Johnson & Huntley . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº gº 4.50 IREFINING Armerican Petroleum Refining, Bell . . . 5.00 Gasoline and Other Motor Fuels, Ellis & Meigs . . . . . . . a s e s • * * * * * * * * * * * s is e 10.00 Oil Refinery Specifications, Nugey. . . . 3.50, Petroleum Refining, Campbell . . . . . . . 8, 50 SHALE O LIL Oil Shale Industry, Alderson . . . . . . . . . 4.00 Shale Oils, Scheithauer & Salter . . . . . 4.00 For any oil book published, address GENERAL American Petroleum Industry, Bacon & Hann or s e e s a • * * * * * * * * * * * º Black Golconda e & tº a dº e º tº g º te tº sº º º & Creative Salesmanship, Hess. . . . . . . . Diesel Engines, Diesel . . . . . . . . . . * * Diesel & Oil Engineering Handbook, Rosbloom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Economics of Petroleum, Pogue . . . . Fishes, Source of Petroleum, McFar- lane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fuel and Lubricating Olls for Diesel Englines Schenker . . . . . * = < * * * * * Graphic Method for Presen tung Facts, Brinton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Handbook of Petroleum, Thompson & Red Wood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Handbook of Petroleum Industry, Day . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hydraulics of Pipe Lines, Duran d . Hydrocarbon Oils, Sapon ifiable Fats & Waxes, Holde . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Manual for Oil and Gas Industry, Arnold & Darnell g is e º sº e º 'º - $ Mechanical Engineer’s Pocket Book, Kent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mechanical Handbook, M a r k s (3 vols.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * * MIodern Pumping and Hydraulic Ma- chinery, Butler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Oil Encyclopedia, Mitzakis. . . . . . . . . . . On 1 Flow in Pipe Lines . . . . . . . . . * * * O1) Flow, Viscosity and Heat Trans- eT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Oil Valuation & Taxation, Tucker . . . Oil & Gas Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Oil & Petroleum Manual (Skinner's British D11ectorV) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Olls, Fats & Commercial Products, Pickering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Peru Oil Fields, Bosworth . . . . . . . . . . Petroleum, Redwood (3 vols.) . . . . . . . Petroleum Engineering, Phelps & Lake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Petroleum Industry, Dunstan . . . . . . . . Petroleum Register (Oil Directory) . . Petroleum Resources of the World, Garfias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Petroleum Technologist’s Pocketbook, Redwood & Eastlake . . . . . . . . . . . Petroleum, Where and How to Find It, Blum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Petroleum & Allied Industries (Na- tural Gas, Waxes, Asphalts, Shale Oil, etc.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Practical Compounding of Oils, Tallow & Grease . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soap Making Manual, Thornssen . . . . Treatise on British Mineral Oils, G. s g º ºr e º & * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Valuation of Oil & Gas Land, Brown CHEMISTRY Aids in Commercial Analysis of Oils, JPickering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . American Sulphuric Acid Practice, DeWolf & Larison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Analytical Chemistry, Trea dwell Hall; Qualitative Analysis, $3.50; Quanti- tative Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chemistry of Oil Industries, South- combe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IElements of Fractional D1stillation, Robinson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Examination of Petroleum, Petroleum Products. and Natural Gas, Ham or & Padgett . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TMineral Oil Testing, Hicks. . . . . . . . . . . Oil Analysis, Gill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DRILLING (See also Production) Deep Well Drilling, Jeffery. . . . . . . . . . Oil Well Drilling Methods, Ziegler . . . . Petroleum P r O du C t i o n Methods, Suman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PETROLEUM AGE, 28 E. Jackson Boulevard, CHICAGO, ILL., U.S.A. GREASES AND SOLID LUBRICANTs (VV-10-10) (Commercial Classification of Greases) CLASSIFIED LIST. The following list defines the principal classes of greases, solid lubricants, and semi-fluid lubricants used in this country. They are arranged in alpha- betical order according to their purpose or their trade name. AIR BRAKE GREASE. A high grade waterproof graphite grease used for the lubrication of the levers and guides of the railway air brake system. ANIMAL GREASE. A grease made from animal oils or tallows, either in their natural form or Saponified by treatment with lime or caustic solutions. In some cases, greases are known as “animal greases” when other oils are also used, but with the animal oil in a predominating percentage. AXI.E GREASE. A. grease used for the axles of horse drawn wagons, carriages, and for other bearings of a similar nature where the workmanship is not precise. Such greases are made from a wide variety of materials, petroleum oils, compounds of petro- leum with animal oils, mica, graphite, etc. BALL BEARING GREASE. A soft, pure and clean grease used for the lubrication and protection of ball and roller bearings. Vaseline or similar mineral products are generally used for this purpose. It must be free from acid and grit. BOILED GREASE. (See Steam Cooked Grease.) CABLE GREASE (CABLE COATING). A sticky, semi-fluid grease (often contain- ing tar) used for the lubrication and protection of steel cables or ropes. It must be sticky and elastic in order to grip the cable and thoroughly cover it, while the cable is being bent over pulleys or is being coiled. As the interior wire strands of the rope rub over one another, this grease must have penetrating power in order to reach the interior surfaces. It must also be waterproof. CHAIN GREASE. A grease used for the lubrication and protection of chain and link belt. For exposed chains, as used on motor trucks and bicycles, the grease should contain as little free oil as possible so that it will not collect dust and grit on the chain. It must be waterproof and enduring. Grease for enclosed power transmission chains may be more fluid and has a better lubricating value. Chain grease very commonly contains a considerable proportion of graphite, and may be made up in sticks or candles for ease in application. COG GREASE. (See Gear Grease.) COLD SET GREASE. This refers to a grease made without heating, the vegetable or animal oils being saponified in a cold state, and the mineral Oil afterwards added. COLD NECK GREASE. Used for rolling mili or other heavy journals operating “cold” or at ordinary temperatures. COMPOUNDED GREASE. A mixture of saponified animal and vegetable oils with an addition of mineral oil or its waxes. COMMUTATOR GREASE. A hard grease, usually containing paraffine, used for the lubrication of the commutator and collector rings (copper) of electric motors and dynamos. Furnished in Stick form, or may be boiled into the carbon brushes. COMMUTATOR COMPOUND. (See Commutator Grease.) CUP GREASE. A mixture of a Saponified animal or vegetable oil (soap) with an addition of a mineral oil to provide the lubricating qualities. The “soap” acts as a sponge in holding the mineral lubricating oil and prevents oil leakage. It is made in a number of consistencies varying with the percentage of mineral Oil, and is known as “hard” or “soft” greases according to the hardness at ordinary temperatures. This grease is used in grease cups, or in ball or roller bearings (special grade). Generally yellow. The vegetable and animal oils are usually saponified by lime, making “lime soap.” * ight 1921 COMPILED BY §§§ Eği AGE J. B. RATHEUN - *** -- ~~. * VV-10-10 GREASEs AND solid LUBRICANTs (VV-10-11) (Commercial Classification) (Continued from VV-10-10) CURVE OR TRACK GREASE. Used on railway track curves to reduce the friction of the train and to reduce wear on the track. CYCLE GREASE. (See Chain Grease.) DAG. Trade name for Acheson Defflocculated Graphite. DOLBLE DECOMPOSITION GREASE. A grease having a soda soap base to which alum and aluminum sulphate are added (Aluminum Soap). Mineral oil is afterwards added for the lubricant. This results in an insoluble, gelatinous and stringy compound. DRIVING JOURNAL COMPOUND. A very hard grease used for driving wheel journals of locomotives, generally put up in candle form to fit the grease chamber. ELEVATOR GREASE. (1) Slide or Guide Grease used for the lubrication of the elevator car guides or runways, generally of graphitic base. (2) Plunger Grease, a Waterproof sticky compound having a high melting point and used for the lubrication of elevator plungers or pistons. ~~~ FIBER GREASE. A grease having a fibrous appearance and yet not actually con- taining fibers other than those of the grease itself. Instead of being a solid bodied grease, the grease consists of an assemblage of grease fibers which may be easily picked apart. It is a sodium or potassium soap, to which mineral oil has been added after the water has been boiled out of the soap. FIRE COOKED GREASE, Grease cooked in a fired kettle instead of a Steam kettle. i GEAR GREASES. A grease used for the lubrication of toothed gears. This should be adherent so that it will not be thrown off the gears by centrifugal force, should be fluid enough so that it will flow readily into the tooth spaces at high speeds, and must not “Track” nor allow the gears to cut a cavity into which the grease will not flow or fill up. When used in enclosed gear cases, as in automobile transmissions, it should be as fluid as possible and yet not so fluid as to leak out of the case or along the Shaft Grease used on exposed gears should be waterproof. GEAR SHIELD GREASE (PINION GREASE). Used in steel mills or other places where the gears are exposed to great heat. It is generally furnished in three consis- tencies, Soft, Medium and Hard, the latter being so thick that it must be heated before application. This chills and forms a cushion for the teeth which does not drip off at high temperatures. Sometimes known as “Pinion Glaze.” GRAPHITE. An amorphous solid carbon, black in color, and produced either in the electric furnace or mined. This solid lubricant is often used where exceedingly high pressures and temperatures exist, or where a lubricant of a permanent nature is required. It fills up cuts and irregularities in the bearing surfaces and is a persistent lubricant that is not easily dislodged or decomposed. GRAPHITE (COLLOIDAL). Graphite in an extremely small grained or Subdivided state, so fine that particles remain suspended permanently in water or oil. They float like dust motes in the air. It is mixed with oil to produce “Oildag,” and With Water to produce the lubricant “Aqua dag.” * \ GREDAG. Trade name for a mixture of colloidal graphite and grease. It is fur- nished in a number of consistencies. HAIR CAR GREASE. A grease used for packing journal boxes on railway cars and used as a substitute for waste and oil packed boxes. HOT NECK GREASE. Used to lubricate journals running at high temperature, such as the journal of rolling mill machinery. Should be adhesive, Waterproof, and have a high melting temperature, Copyright 1921 COMPILED BY VV- 1 0- 1 J PETRO L EU M AGE J. B. RATHBUN \ O GREASEs AND solid LUBRICANTs (VV-10-12) (Commercial Classification of Greases) (Continued from VV-10-11) HOT SET GEREASE. A grease made by boiling the fats with caustic soda and lime, and after drying, mineral lubricating oil is mixed with the soap thus formed. LAUNCHING GREASE. Used for greasing the ways in ship yards for launching ships. It is waterproof but not sticky. LAUNDRY MACHINE GREASE. (See Paper Mill Grease.) MICA. Finely pulverized mineral mica is sometimes used as a lubricant for certain classes of rough work. It is generally mixed with a grease, although for lubricating slides and skids it may also be used in a dry State. $. MILL GREASE. (See Hot Neck and Cold Neck Greases.) + MINE CAR GREASE. For plain bearings on mine cars axle grease is often used or cold neck grease. In modern mine cars provided with ball or roller bearings, the usual class of ball bearing grease is used. MINERAL JELLY. (See Petrolatum.) PETROLEUM GREASE. An amorphous wax obtained in refining cylinder oil stock. The residue in the still is mixed with naphtha, and allowed to settle, the crude petroleum grease remaining at the bottom after the naphtha, Solution is drawn off. PAPER MILL GREASE. These greases are for use on the steam heated journals of paper mill machinery, are of a fibrous nature and have a high melting point. In some cases. mutton tallow serves well in such locations or wool yarn grease may be used. PETROLATUM (VASELENE). A semi-solid or jelly-like grease having excellent lubricating qualities for light mechanisms and ball bearings. IS also used as a rust preventative on finely finished surfaces. It is generally of a yellowish color, soft and pasty. PINION GREASE. (See Gear Grease and Gear Shield Grease.) PLUNGER GREASE. (See Elevator Grease.) POLE GREASE. (See Elevator Grease.) RECUPERATOR GREASE, Used for the lubrication of the recoil mechanism of the 75 and 155 millimeter gun carriages. A compound of a calcium Soap and mineral oil. IROD GREASE. Used in locomotive driving rod cups. ROSIN GREASE. A compound of rosin oil and mineral oil, the rosin oil being thick- ened with lime or litharge. REAR AXLE GREASE. A heavy gear grease used for the rear axle and differential gears of an automobile. Must be adherent, and must neither track nor be fluid enough to leak from case. Shall be free of grit so that it will not jam the ball bearings. It is generally heavier than the transmission grease. SEMI-BOILED GREASE. Grease heated just enough in steam kettles to form an emulsion. SEMI-FLUID GREASE. A grease having a consistency midway between that of a heavy lubricating oil and a cup grease. Is often substituted for oil where bearing leakage is to be avoided. SODA GREASE. (See Fibre Grease.) STAINLESS GREASE. A soluble grease used on textile machinery which may be washed from the fabric and leaves no stain. STEAM CYLINDER GREASE. Used for certain classes of steam cylinders. Tallow may also be used. This is only applicable to low temperatures and pressures, and under limited conditions. C ight 1921 COMPILED BY 2.Étjm AGE J. B. RATHEUN VV-10-12 GREASEs AND solid LUBRICANTs (VV-10-13) (Commercial Classification of Greases) (Continued from VV-10-12) STEAM COOKED GREASE (BOILED GREASE). Grease in steam jacketed kettles. STILL GREASE. The end distillate obtained by the distillation of oil shale. It is an amorphous Substance used for making grease. TALC. A soft, flaky mineral sometimes used on rough slides or for slow motion under heavy pressure. Talc is also sometimes used for weighing grease or used in Com- bination with grease. It is used as an adulterant. TALLOW. Animal fat (hard) such as mutton or beef tallow. TALLOW GREASE. A mixture of animal tallow and mineral oil. TRANSMISSION GREASE. A gear grease used on enclosed automobile gears (speed change gears) placed in the transmission housing. This should be a very adhesive grease, semi-fluid, and should permit of easy gear shifting in cold weather. It should be fluid enough so that it will not track and will freely enter the tooth spaces, and yet must not leak from the case nor crawl out along the shaft stubs. It should be free from filler and grit, and should be little affected by changes in temperature. TRACE GREASE. (See Curve Grease.) TUNNEL GREASE. Used for lubricating the propeller shaft bearings on steam ships. It is made in small blocks (56 pounds) to fit into the standard journal boxes. UNIVERSAL GREASE. Used for the Universal joints of automobile propeller shafts. It is usually the same as transmission grease. WIRE DRAWING GREASE. Grease used for the lubrication of the dies used in drawing wire. WIRE ROPE GREASE. (See Cable Grease.) WOOL GREASE (DEGRAS). The fatty matter secreted by the skin of the sheep and found deposited on the wool. Not usually used in the pure state but may be compounded. WORM GEAR GREASE. Used for lubricating worm wheels and worms. Must be semi-fluid, adhesive, free from filler and from grit which would destroy ball bearings. In general, this should be more fluid than the grease used for gears, and yet is not fluid enough to leak from the casing. 1. x iſ: # zº NOTE ON TRANSMISSION GREASE. Not all transmissions are adapted for grease, oil being used on several well known machines as the Ford, Oldsmobile, etc., and care must be taken in using grease for this reason. If grease is used in the Model “T” Ford it will soon gum the engine up, since the engine oil and transmission oil are used in common. In some cars where metal disc clutches are used, grease interferes with the action of the clutch. In transmissions where grease can be used, it will be found much superior to oil since the heavy body of the grease Cushions the gear teeth and greatly reduces the noise when shifting or running on low gear. Again, it is easier to shift gears' in cold weather when grease is used, and there is not as great a tendency for it to leak out of the gear case and cause a muss. As a rule, grease does not require so frequent renewals as oil and is generally a much better proposition. NOTES ON REAR AXLES. Not all rear axles are adapted for grease, there being many makes of cars in which the use of a heavy steam cylinder stock such as 600W is considered preferable to grease. This should be determined before grease is put in for under certain circumstances grease may raise havoc with the bearings or may not dis- tribute properly to the road wheel bearings. Where grease can be used, it will be found to leak less and will not waste away as rapidly as oil. There is less likelihood of its leaking into the brake drums or getting on the tires. In general, the rear axle grease should be thicker than that used for the transmission or universals. Cup grease should never be used with gears as it tracks, does not properly enter the teoth spaces, , and does not have the necessary adhesion. * C ight 1921 COMPILED BY Pešāºšijº AGE J. B. RATHEUN VV-10–13 f L i SERVICE STATIONs (W-11-50) \ (Fire Regulations) UNDERWRITERS’ REGULATIONS. The following regulations are those adopted by the National Board of Fire Underwriters and apply to the storage of “Hazardous Liquids.” They apply to any storage system whether of the service station or fac- tories, etc. The cases are divided under six different headings as follows: CLASS A. Individual Underground Storage Systems Without Inside Discharge. CLASS B. Inside Discharge Systems. CLASS C. Portable TankS. CLASS D. Stationary Tanks in Buildings. CLASS E. General Storage. CLASS F. Dry Cleaning Systems. - CLASS A. INDIVIDUAL UNIDERGROUND STORAGE SYSTEMS WITHOUT INSIDE DIS- CHARGE. These storage systems which are generally known as “Isolated Storage Systems” consist of an outside underground storage tank provided with suitable means for filling and for withdrawing the liquids it is designed to contain. Systems which provide for storing and handling hazardous liquids outside of, and so removed from adjoining property as not to create an exposure thereto, are con- sidered the least dangerous. 1. CAPACITY AND LOCATION OF TANKS. The limit of storage permitted shall be dependent on the location of the tanks with respect to the building to be supplied and adjacent buildings as follows: (a) Unlimited capacity if tank is located so that the top is lower than the lowest floor or pit of every building within 50 feet. (b) Twenty thousand gallons capacity if tank is located so that the top is lower than the lowest floor or pit of every building within 30 feet. (c) Five thousand gallons capacity if tank is located so that the top is lower than the lowest floor or pit of every building within 20 feet. (d) Fifteen hundred gallons capacity if tank is located so that the top is lower than the lowest floor or pit of every building within 10 feet. (e) Five hundred gallons capacity if tank is buried, but is so located that the top is above the lowest pit or floor of Some building Within 10 feet. In such cases, it must be entirely enclosed in six inches of concrete. 2. SETTING OF TANKS. (a) Tanks to be buried underground with the top of the tanks not less than three feet below the surface of the ground, and below the level of any piping to which the tanks may be connected. (b) Tanks to be set on a firm foundation and surrounded with soft earth or sand, well tapped in place or encased in concrete. Q IGHT 1923 COMPILED BY §ſº J. B. RATHE UN . W-11-50 SERVICE STATIONs (W-11-51) (Fire Regulations) 3. MATERLAL AND CONSTRUCTION OF TANKS. a) Tanks must be constructed of galvanized steel, basic Open hearth Steel or wrought iron of a minimum gauge (U. S. Standard) depending upon the capacity as given in Tables 1 and 2. TABLE 1. dººr Minimum Thickness Capacity in Gallons of Material 1 to 560. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 gauge 561 to 1,100. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 gauge 1,101 to 4,000. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 gauge 4,001 to 10,500. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . % inch 10,501 to 20,000. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tº inch 20,001 to 30,000. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . % inch TABLE 2. f In outlying districts to be prescribed by inspection departments having jurisdiction. Tanks of 1,100 gallons, or less if ten feet or more form any building, may be as follows: Minimum Thickness Capacity in Gallons tº of Material 1 to 30. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº g g º e º gº tº e g º ºs e º 'º º º 18 gauge 31 to 350. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 gauge 351 to 1,100. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 gauge b) All joints of tanks must be riveted and soldered, riveted and caulked, brazed, welded or made by some equally satisfactory process. Tanks must be tight and Suf- ficiently strong to bear without injury the most severe strains to which they are likely to be subjected in practice. The shells of tanks must be properly reinforced where connections are made, and all connections should as far as practicable be made through the upper side of tanks above the liquid level. NOTE. Tanks for Systems under pressure must be designed for six times the maximum working pressure, and tested to twice the maximum working pressure. c) All tanks must be thoroughly coated on the outside with tar, asphaltun or other suitable rust-resisting material. NOTE. The protection required for tanks will dependſ upon the conditions of the soil in which they are installed. When the soil is impregnated with corrosive materials, tanks should be made of heavier metal in addition to being protected as Specified above. 4. VENTING OF TANKS. a) Tanks containing inflammable vapor must be provided with a permanently open vent or with a combination fill and vent fitting so arranged that the fill pipe cannot be opened without opening the vent pipe. b) Vent openings must be screened (30 by 30 brass mesh or equivalent) and must provide sufficient area for allowing proper flow of liquid during the filling operation. Permanently open vent pipes must be provided with weatherproof hoods and terminate at a point at least twelve feet above the top of the fill pipe and never within less than three feet, measured horizontally and vertically, from a window or other building Opening. COPYRIGHT 1923 COMPILED BY W 11 51 FETROLEUM AGE J. B. RATHE UN tº ºs } O ComPositE FUELs (YY-1-5) (Detonation and Retardants) DETONATION-KNOCKING. Engines carrying very high compression pressures: and therefore necessarily running very hot, are subject to detonation, or “gas knocking,” when using petroleum fuels. This is more in evidence, when the combustion chambers contain much carbon or when the mixture is superheated before entering the cylinder. The sudden explosion causes a severe knocking, or “pinking,” which severely strains the engine structure because of the high pressure produced. sº This detonation is a true explosion caused by heating a mass of the mixture above its critical spontaneous combustion temperature, the mass going to pieces “all at once” instead of burning progressively and slowly as in normal operation. Every combustible mixture has a certain temperature at which it will ignite without the assistance of a spark (spontaneous temperature), and for certain petroleum hydro- Carbons this temperature is reached at very moderate compression pressures. In normal Operation, with the gas temperature below the spontaneous point, the process of combustion takes a measurable length of time, the flame spreading gradually and progressively through the mixture from the ignition spark to the outermost portion Of the charge, and as the time element is involved the pressures are comparatively low. Should the combined effects of compression, incandescent carbon and the heat of the ignited portion cause the interior mass of the unburned fuel to reach the critical value, then ignition takes place simultaneously at all points in the mixture, with the result that the whole energy of the fuel is liberated instantly. The efficiency of an internal combustion engine is very closely proportional to the Compression pressure and it is therefore advisable to carry this pressure as high as possible. From what has been said, it will be seen that the allowable compression is limited by the nature of the fuel—that is, whether the fuel has a high or low temperature of spontaneous combustion—hence the character of the fuel indirectly affects the inherent efficiency of the engine. Paraffine petroleum hydrocarbons are the worst offenders, for they have a very low temperature of spontaneous inflammation and also a very rapid rate of burning. These hydrocarbons are chain compounds and are there- fore unstable chemically. Fuels belonging to the aromatic series, such as benzol, xylene and tolouene, are ring compounds and are quite stable. The alcohols are also more stable than the paraffines or even the aromatics. Mixture of the aromatic hydro- carbons with the paraffines tends to stabilize them and increases the critical tempera- ture of the petroleum distillates; hence mixtures of the two are often used when high Compressions are attempted. Such a mixture is called a “composite fuel” to distin- guish it from a fuel of homogeneous composition. The following table gives the approximate specific gravity, heat, content, spon- , taneous ignition temperature, and boiling point of a number of liquid and gaseous fuels. The heating values are the “Higher Heating values”. NAME Specific Gravity B. T. U. Lb. Spont. Ig. Temp. Fº Boiling Pt. Fº Hydrogen Gas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,0000 62,032 878 | . . . . . Alcohol. . . : -, -, - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.8000 12,697 743 173.0 Gasoline (Light). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . g 0.6900 19,980 536 . . . . . Gasoline (Heavy). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.7600 19,010 509 | . . . . . Benzene (Pure Benzol). . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.8800 18,090 1051 176 4 Benzol (Commercial). . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.8789 17,930 996 181.2 Kerosene. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . *: 0.8070 19,728 483 . . . . . Kerosene. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0 8140 19,836 487 | . . . . . Kerosene. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.7680 20,250 489 . . . . . Gas Oil. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.8500 19,584 | . . . . . . . . . . Fuel Oil. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0 8900 18,562 502 | . . . . . Fuel Oil. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.8887 19,400 518 . . . . . Crude Oil. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.9390 18,648 518 | . . . . . Crude Oil. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0,9518 18,198 506 | . . . . . Toluol (90%). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . § 0.8643 18,270 961 230.5 Naphthaline. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1510 17,470 758 422.3 Xylol (M-Zylene). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.8655 18,410 902 282.3 Copyright 1921 COMPILED BY PETRO LEU M AGE J. B. RATHEUN YY-1–5 compositE FUELs (YY-1-6) (Detonation and Retardants) SUMMARY OF DETONATIVE PROPERTIES. From the table in the preceding page it will be noted that the Spontaneous ignition temperatures of the simple ring compounds, such as benzol, toluel and xylol, and also naphthaline, are much higher than any of the petroleum hydrocarbons. Also, that the lighter gasolines have a higher critical temperature than the heavier distillates, such as kerosene and gas oil. The greater the molecular weight of a hydrocarbon, and the more complex the molecule, the less is its stability and temperature of spontaneous ignition. While benzol has a lower heating value per pound than gasoline, its heating value per gallon is greater because of its greater density Or weight. COMPRESSION RATIO. By “compression ratio” we mean the ratio of the clear- ance volume (at the end of the compression stroke) to the displacement volume of the piston. In other words, this expression signifies the relative space into which the piston jams the cylinder contents during the compression stroke. The compression pressure is determined by the compression ratio, all other things being equal, and hence a high value of the compression ratio signifies a high compression pressure. The com- pression ratio of aeronautic engines is greater than that of automobile engines, since a higher efficiency and output per cylinder volume is demanded in the former type. The compression ratio closely determines the efficiency and output, but this is limited by the character of the fuel used, as previously pointed out. COMPOUNDING FUELS. It has long been known that the addition of aromatic compounds (benzol, toluol, xylol) to gasoline increases the Apontaneous combustion temperature and therefore increases the allowable compression and efficiency of the engine. The increase in compression is almost directly proportional to the percentage of aromatics introduced. It has been found that a light aviation gasoline detonates with a compression ratio of 4.85:1. The addition of 20 percent toluene allows the compres- sion ratio to be raised from 4.85:1 to 5.57:1 before detonation again takes place, and this increases the thermal efficiency from 31.1 percent to 33.5 percent, or a gain of 2.4 percent. The mean effective pressure (average pressure through the working stroke) is raised from 131.8 pounds per square inch to 140 pounds per square inch—a distinct gain in the power output. As toluene is a very effective Suppressant of detonation, its effect on gasoline is taken as a standard on which all other suppressants are based. The tendency of fuels to detonate is therefore expressed in terms of their toluol values. The following table is taken from a report by H. R. Ricardo in which the first value is that of a pure paraffine base gasoline free from aromatics (0 percent toluene) and the last item is a fuel containing a 60 percent addition of toluol or equivalent. Toluene Value (Percent.) Compression Ratio || Mean Eff. Pressure | Thermal Efficiency Limiting Thermal Lbs.—Sq. In. (Experiment) Efficiency 0. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 85:1 132.5 0.311 0.327 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.20:1 135 4 0.323 0.338 20. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.57:1 138.7 0.335 0.350 30. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.94:1 142 0 0.347 0.361 40. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 32:1 144 9 0.355 0.371 50. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 67:1 147.5 0 365 0.380 60. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.05:1 150.0 0 373 0.388 The compression ratios given above are those at which detonation began to a marked and definite degree. The values were obtained by experiment. Later experi- ments showed that toluene was not the most effective Suppresant and did not compare with alcohol. Taking toluol at 100, the value of 99 percent Ethyl alcohol is about 166, benzol is 66, xylene, 83, Acetone, 75, Cyclohexane, 30, Ether, 60. The fuel “Hectar,” consisting of 50 percent benzol and 50 percent cyclohexane has a toluene value of 48. This can be used with a compression ratio of 6.6 : 1. Ricardo finds that there is little difference in the results obtained with gasoline and benzol at equal compressions; and that the better results commonly obtained with benzol are due to the fact that the majority of engines have a compression too high for the efficient use of pure gasoline, this calling for a retarded spark with gasoline and a resulting, low efficiency and power. With benzol, the spark may be advanced further without knocking, and better efficiency resultS. Copyright 1921 COMPILED BY PETRO LEU M AGE J. B. RATHE UN Y-Y-1–6 O * O ComPositE FUELs (YY-3-6) - (Alcohol Base) Aºi. (STRAIGHT), PROPERTIES OF-Alcohol alone may be used only in engines especially built for this fuel as it demands higher compression pres- sures and larger carbureter nozzles than gasoline (if the best results are to be obtained). Alcohol is not sufficiently volatile at ordinary temperatures to start easily with a cold engine and at present is very expensive. It is principally of importance as an element in a composite fuel on which it has a modifying effect. Pure alcohol is not obtainable commercially and owing to its affinity for moisture always contains a perceptible amount of water. The following is an extract from tests made by the United States department of agriculture: One hundred and ninety-two tests were made with commercial ethyl alcohol (grain alcohol) having a specific gravity of 0.82 at 60° F., this corresponding to a purity of 91.1 per cent. by weight. The percentage of water in alcohol may be very accurately determined by a hydrometer. The heat content per pound of the 0.82 alcohol (higher heating value) was 11,880 B.t.u., and the lower heating value was 10,620 B.t.u. The heating value varies with the water content. Denaturing alcohol does not affect the volatility to any extent except that the addition of methyl alcohol (wood) vaporizes more readily than grain alcohol. For complete combustion, ethyl alcohol must have a vapor pressure of 49 mm. of mercury; if pressure is lower, air will be in excess, if greater, alcohol vapor will be in excess; Ethyl alcohol may have only a vapor pressure of 49 mm. at 72° F., hence vapor in correct portion may not exist above—or below 72° F. At very much lower temperatures it would be necessary to add ether to obtain the necessary volatility. It was discovered that a mixture of different fuels usually has a vapor pressure higher than either fuel alone, unless the percentage of one of them is too small to produce saturation. The critical temperature of 72° F. for pure aldohol must be raised in proportion to the armount of water contained, for water retards evaporation. The following is a summary of the results obtained in runs with Nash, I. H. C., Weber, Fairbanks-Morse, Mietz and Weiss, Pope-Toledo, American Mercedes and Mianus engines. Comparisons are made with 0.71 specific gravity gasoline. C O N C L U S I O N S (1) Any gasoline engine may be run on alcohol with fair results by increasing feed of carbureter. Increasing compression increases efficiency and must be done for best result. About 125 pounds per square inch is best. (2) With alcohol operation is noiseless, no carbon is formed and there is no carbon knocking or hammering. (3) Alcohol is ideal fuel for air cooled engine, since overheating does not produce preignition. (4) Efficiency is higher with alcohol because of the increased compression. The ratio of efficiency of gasoline to alcohol is roughly 17.2 to 18.5 per cent. The ratio of the heating values, gasoline to alcohol, by weight is 1.78 for the higher heating value and 1.85 for the lower heating values. The fuel consumption ratios per volume is 1.44, that is 1.44 times the volume of alcohol is required for the same power. Pure gasoline has a higher heating value of 12,697. B.t.u. In the engine tests it showed that alcohol permitted far more advance in the Spark without pounding than gasoline; With alcohol, operation is best with a well advanced spark. The greater the amount of Water in alcohol, the greater must be the advance. With 128 pounds compression in the Fairbanks-Morse engine no satisfactory tests could be made with gasoline OWing to the heavy detonations but with alcohol at this pressure the operation Was very Smooth and satisfactory, with intake air at room temperature. When intake air was heated to 125° F. with alcohol pre-ignition took place but without hammering. With air raised to 150° F. pre-ignition took place so early that the power was considerably reduced; still there was no hammering. Copyright 1921 COMPILED BY PETRO LEU M MAGAZINE J. B. RATHEUN YY-3-6 compositE FUELs (YY-4-10) ENZOL (STRAIGHT), PROPERTIES OF-Benzol is a hydrocarbon compound of B the aromatic series with the formula (CeBIs), hence the carbon forms 0.85 and the hydrogen 0.15 of the compound. For practical reasons benzol is not sold pure as a fuel but may be compounded with alcohol, gasoline, kerosene or a mixture of all these components. In Europe, commercial benzol motor spirit is what is known as a “90 per cent.” mixture and consists approximately of 0.84 benzol, 0.13 toluol, 0.03 xylol, with traces of tiophene. These exact percentages of course are variable with different makers but this is the closest approach to what may be called a pure benzol fuel Since it contains no petroleum products. Pure benzol has several undesirable qualitiess considered for a motor fuel. It is not very volatile, freezes at a comparatively high temperature and forms no protection for the steel parts of the carbureter against the rusting action of water. When alcohol is used alone with benzol it permits of a higher compression pressure without pre- ignition. One of the most marked qualities of benzol, whether alone or in combination with other ingredients is its tendency toward silent running and to the prevention of carbon knocking and irregular running. It also gives a better mileage per gallon than the average gasoline. It has the objection that few engines “idle” or well or run slowly at low speed as with gasoline. The following are the principal properties of benzol with a comparison of benzol, benzol compounds and commercial gasoline. RELATIVE PROPERTIES OF BENZOL AND GASO LINE Benzol Straight Run Properties (Benzene) Gasoline Specific gravity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.880 0.68—0.72 Freezing temperature. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (6° C.) —50° F. ( * C.) Boiling temperature. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (80.4° C.) Variable Molecule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C6H6 Cs Bis B.t.u. per gallon, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132,330 129,400 B.t.u. per lb. (higher) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18,060 20,400 Calories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,500 11,100 Theoretical air required for combustion in lbs. . . . . . . 13.46 * 15.2 Relative volume of exhaust gases formed by combust. 0.92 1.00 Explosive range mixture. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.7%–6.3% 1.1%—5.3% Latent heat vapor (CalS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93.7 80.0 Vapor tension (10° C.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45.4 mm. 78.0 mm. Vapor tension (20° C.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74.7 mm. 400.06)50° C. Temperature pre-ignition (C.”) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 566.0 265–280° C. Desirable compression pressure in 1bs. per Sq. in . . . . . 150–180 70–90 Rate of evaporation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Slow Rapid Relative compression pressure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . High LOW Relative mileage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.15 1.00 Carbon formed. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Little Much Trouble from pre-ignition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Little Great Flame propagation (m per Sec.). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25.0 19.5—21.0 Relative efficiency. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº e º ſº tº º tº gº e º & Benzol permits a compression pressure higher than gasoline and when used with the higher pressure gives much better efficiency than at gasoline compressions although the benzol efficiency is better even at low pressure. Copyright 1921 COMPILED BY * * * * PETRoLEUM MAGAZINE J. B. RATHBUN YY 4 10 & - U compositE FUELs (YY-4-5) (BASES OR CONSTITUENTS) COAL TAR BASE FUELS. In many cases, the principal base of a composite fuel is a coal tar product obtained from the distillation of coal. The tar is afterwards treated, and the more volatile constituents are then distilled off for use with carburet- ing engines or the tar may be used directly in injection type engines of which the Diesel engine is a prominent example. Benzol is one of the better known volatile fuels obtained from coal tar, and is generally the product of coke ovens or illuminating gas Works, where the fuel is produced as a byproduct. The amount of tar, and the resulting fuel obtained from a ton of coal depends greatly upon the nature of the coal, the method of distillation, and the temperature control of the retorts. The “gas coals” give moderate amounts of tar, anthracite practically no such residues while the maxi- mun tar yield is obtained from fatty caking coals such as cannel coal. While there is a considerable variation in respect to the relative percentages of the products obtained from the distillation of bituminous coals, the following gives the more important of the hydrocarbon compounds, and their formulae. Name Of Compound Formula. Name of Compound Formula Benzol, and homologues. . . . . . . . . CnH2n-6 Heavy oils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . In H. In Anthra.cene-phenanthrene . . . . . . CnH2n-18 Asphaltun (Soluable) . . . . . . . . . . . . . Can Hn Naphthalene-acenaphthene . . . . . CnH2n-12 Carbon (insoluable) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CsIHn Phenol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CnH2n-1 OH ! Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . H2O Pyridine bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CnH2n-1N Gases and loss. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * } { The tars vary in character with the process by which they are produced, and by the method of production may be divided into the following groups: Horizontal retort tars, inclined retort tars, Vertical retort tars, coking tars, blast furnace tars, producer gas tars, oil gas tars and low temperature tars. (1) HORIZONTAL RETORT TAR is rich in aromatic hydrocarbons from which toluene, naphthalene, benzene, and anthra.cene are obtained in quantity. This tar is black and viscous and contains up to 30% free carbon. Specific gravity equals 1.20. The large annount of solid matter, free carbon and ash prohibits its use in engines without refining. (2), VERTICAL RETORT TAR. A low gravity, fluid, dark brown tar containing aliphatic compounds, used as a source of Diesel engine fuel in Germany. It is almost free from solid matter. Specific gravity, 1.05-1.10. (3) INCLINED RETORT TAR. Intermediate between (1) and (2). (4) .COKE, TAR. There is a great variation in these tars, and may come under either (1) or (2), depending on design of ovens. Suitable for Diesel engines. (5) BLAST FURNACE TAR. Contains much ash in raw state, hence raw tar is useless. On distillation yields a small amount of light compounds and a large percent of low gravity oil suitable for Diesel engines. (6) PRODUCER GAS TAR is similar to (5), and is obtained from the power gas producers. (7) OIL GAS TAR. Obtained from illuminating gas plants where gas oil is used to increase the luminosity of the gas, and is a petroleum product (cracked) containing aromatic compounds. Light, mobile, reddish-brown, specific gravity equals 1.05. Water must be removed before using. (8) LOW TEMPERATURE TARS. A low temperature process for producing fuel tars, high percentages of tars being produced by this system. Much light matter that can be distilled for auto use. The tar itself Stands as a compromise between crude oil and gas works tar, but contains much water. COPYRIGHTED 1924 COMPILED BY YY 4 5 PETROLEUM AGE JOHN B. RATHE UN * *-** COMPOSITE FUELS (YY-4-6) (Bases or Constituents) W. A GAS SCRUBBING, Retort tars are seldom used in the production of the light Coal tars in normal times as the total production by this method would give less than two per cent of the gasoline consumption. Practically all of the commercial coal tar derivatives used as automotive fuels are obtained by “scrubbing” the blast furnace gases rather than by carbonization pursued particularly for this purpose. In addition to the light hydrocarbons recovered from the blast furnace gases we also Obtain other commercial by-products such as ammonia. º In the case of blast furnace tars the ſurnaces at one time act in the role of retorts and stills and the various hydrocarbons are very easily recovered by simple mechanical treatment. However, the production fluctuates with the market for steel and is not a direct function of the demand for fuel, hence we often meet with the condition where the motor fuel demand is at a peak while the production may be practically negligible at that particular time. The fact that steel plant operation for the production of benzene alone is not possible rather curtails the use of benzene as a In Otor ille!. Coal tar derivatives are of principal interest to the automotive industry as com- pounding agents rather than bulk fuels for reasons given above. Used in small proportions with gasoline they permit the use of higher compression and better per- formance with Open throttle than the gasoline without knocking and with better economy. VOLATILE PRODUCTS. Only a few of the coal tar hydrocarbons are suitable for use in carbureting engines of the automotive type, either in the pure form or for compounding. Of the liquid constituents we have benzene (berizol) as the principle volatile elements. The solid coal tar product which has been used to some extent as a motor fuel in Europe is naphthalene, the latter also being used to some extent for compounding with gasoline. The remaining solids and liquids can only be used in high compression engines of the Diesel type. Approximately, benzol forms about 2.5 per cent of the tar while naphthalene may run 6.0 per cent or even higher with fatty coals. Xylene alone is seldom used except as a cleansing agent, but is usually present in commercial benzol in Small quantity. Toluene is principally of interest because of its decided tendency toward sup— pressing knocking and also for the reason that it lowers the freezing point of benzol. Alone, xylene is not of much importance and is not now marketed as a fuel. Pure benzol solidifies at 6° C. which is higher than is desirable with a motor fuel, but the addition of xtlene or toluene will suppress this temperature without greatly affecting the VO latl Illy, t On distillation, the tar first gives up the “first runnings” or crude naphtha, which distill up to 110° C., these light fractions corresponding to the distillates of the same name obtained from crude petroleum. We then pass through the light oils, crude carbolic acid, creosote, anthracene and finally the Solid residual pitch. On settling, the water and ammonia settle out from the first runnings, and the benzine and toluol are then separated by repeated distillations followed by caustic soda and sulphuric acid Washing. COPYRIGHT 1924 COMPILED BY YY- 4-6 F ETRO LEU M AGE J. B. RATHE UN O * | CoMPOSITE FUELs (YY-8-10) (Benzol-Alcohol Mixtures) sº LCOGAS–This fuel (United States product) has been tested by the United States A air mail Service in its aerpolanes with satisfactory results. It is apparently the Successor of “Liberty Fuel.” Alcogas while containing gasoline has a high per- Centage of alcohol and benzol with some ether to facilitate starting from the cold, and a Small amount of toluol. The reported composition according to analysis by the mail Service is as follows: Alcohol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38.0 per cent. Benzol . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....................... * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * s s sº e < * * * * 19.0 per cent. Toluol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.0 per cent. Gasoline . . . . . . . . . . * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * s 30.0 per cent. Rºther . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.5 per cent. Unknown . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ". . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5 per cent. The flying tests were made both in the low compression and high compression Liberty “12” motors. Thirty-one trips were flown, each trip a nonstop flight of 218 miles. The ship equipped with the high compression Liberty engine made a total mileage of 6,758 miles. The average of all the tests, made on two ships, show a saving of 3.3 gallons per hour and an increase of revolutions of 1507.8 to 1514.3 compared with the results obtained from aviation gasoline (straight run). The saving in lubricating oil made by alcogas amounted to 0.58 quart per hour. Fuels containing alcohol generally have little diluting effect on the lubricating oil. The best result necessitated a change in compensator adjustment of the Zenith carbureters used in the tests. In regard to Carbon the deposits are less with alcogas and, being light and flaky, are more easily removed than those formed by the high test gasoline. The valves were in good condi- tion after the runs and showed no warping nor pitting. The following is a tabulation of the results obtained with alcogas compared with those obtained by straight speci- fication gasoline: RELATIVE FU E L CONSU M PTION | Consumption of Consumption of | Alcogas | ** Gasoline Revs. per Minute | Gals. per Hour | Gals. per Hour 1440-1460 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.90 | tº tº G & ºt 1475-1480 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . | 20.10 | 24.00 1500 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . | 21.50 | 24.17 1520-1525 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . | 22.44 | tº $ tº º tº RELATIVE LU BRICATING O |L CONSU M PTION * Consumption of | Consumption of Lub. I | Lub. Oll Quarts per Hour | Quarts per Hour Revs. fer Minute (Alcogas) | (Gasoline) 1440-1460 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . | 4.50 | & © & tº 1475-1480 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.20 | 4.65 00 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.20 | 4.95 f Copyright 1921 COMPILED BY PETROL EUM MAGAZINE J. B. RATHEUN YY-8–10 compositE FUELs (YY-10-5) (Comparative Tests) OTORCYCLE TESTS WITH ALL FUELS-A series of tests as to various fuels was made at the University of Cincinnati (1913) on a Miami motorcycle engine. This was a two-cylinder twin type, “L” head, with a bore and stroke of 3.25" x 3.672”. Cylinders set at 45°. Blower fan as brake. The displacement was 60.8 cubic inches, giving an S. A. E. horsepower of 7. Both simple and composite fuels were used, the fuels being built up from gasoline, kerosene, benzol and alcohol, heat values being tºº by a Parr calorimeter. The following tables give the fuels used and their heat Va. 1Ule . º Higher B.T., U. Per Pound Gasoline Benzol Kerosene Alcohol Fuels Used 20,980 17,550 20,600 y (1) Gasoline 22,200 16,950 20,000 11,150 (2) Benzol 20,500 16,920 20,400 . . . . . (3) Gasoline 60%, Kerosene 40% is e g º º 16,500 tº e º 'º ſº is a e g tº (4) Benzol, 50%, Gasoline 50% 21,196 16,980 20,333 11,375 = Av. (t) Benzol 75%, Alcohol 25% The values above are the “higher heating values”; hence correction must be made for the steam escaping from the exhaust. The amount of water is computed from the chemical equation for combustion as follows: GASOLINE assumed at C.IHie, then: Cºl{16 + 1102 = 7 CO2 + 8 H2O. This works out as 1.44 pounds of water formed per pound of steam. REROSENE taken at Cto H22 + 15.5 O2 = 10 CO2 + 11 H2O. = 1.395 pounds of water per pound of fuel. BENZOL–CeBIs + 7.5 O2 = 6 CO2 + 3 H2O. = 0.693 pounds of water per pound of fuel. ALCOHOL–C2H5OH + 6 O = 2 CO2 + 3 H2O. = 1.17 pounds of water. The heat of vaporization of water is 970 = b.t.u., and from this we may obtain the “lower heating value” as given in the following table; the efficiency of the engine may now be computed from the general formula: * Higher Lower Heating Heating Fuel Value Correction Value Gasoline . . . 21,196 1,400 19,795 Rerosene ". . 20,333 1,350 18,983 Benzol . . . . . 16,980 672 16,308 Alcohol . . . . 11,375 1,140 10,235 E = 100H Where: H = b.t.u. per hp, a 2545. W = pounds of fuel per hp. hour. F = b.t.u. per pound of fuel, lower heating value as given in the table. ENGINE TESTS-The following are the results obtained with the various fuels: GASO LINE FU EL BENZOL AS FU EL BENZO L - GASOL i NE Speed in B. H.P. Lbs. per Effic. B. H. P. Lbs. per Effic. B. H. P. Lbs.per Effic. P. M. Test H. P. Hr. PerCt. Test H P. Hr. Perct. Test HP. Hr. Perct. 1950. . . . . . . . gº tº * * * * * * * tº º * * * * tº ſº de 4.2 1.14 12.1 2000. . . . . . . . 4.8 0.78 16.60 tº e tº ſº tº tº tº gº tº e Kº * * * * & tº 2100. . . . . . . . tº º * g e tº $ tº dº * & * * * g. tº gº & 5.4 0.83 16,6 2120. . . . . . . . tº & & © tº tº tº º is 5.7 0.780 19.2 q & tº ſº tº & tº e 2160. . . . . . . . 6.4 0.76 17.85 & a tº $ tº dº * * * 2200. . . . . . . . 6.8 0.67 19.30 6.5 0.615 22.2 2220. . . . . . . . 7.0 0.64 12.75 tº ſº. e e º º * * * tº e e e is g tº º 2300. . . . . . . . tº º s tº º tº g tº gº 7.8 0.550 27.2 & e & º º © g tº 2320. . . . . . . . e tº tº e ſº tº g º & e tº tº ſº º ſº * * * 8.4 0.82 16.85 GASOL N E - K EROSEN E BENZOL - ALCO HOL Speed in B. H. P. Lbs. per Effic. B.H.P. Lbs.per Effic. R. P. M. Test H P. Hr. Perct. Test HP. Hr. Perct. 2100. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * * tº g º º g tº s 5.5 1.13 14.7 2200. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.5 0.66 19.7 gº tº tº sº s up tº º 2250. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº º * @ ºf ſº e e um 7.2 0.832 20.0 2400. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2 0.695 18.7 tº gº tº º is * † tº 2440. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.5 0.68 19.1 tº º 2550. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.5 0.51 25.6 tº º With the gasoline-kerosene mixture the engine developed more power than with any other fuel, while the highest efficiency was attained with pure benzol. * / Copyright 1921 COMPILED BY PETRO-L EU M A GE J. B. RATHE UN YY-1045 * * g PETROLEUM GLossARY (z-1) (A Dictionary of Words, Terms and Phrases) BEL CLOSED TESTER (PENSKY-MARTENS). An instrument for determining the flash point of oils. The Pensky-Martens is a modified form of the Abel. The flash test determined by the Abel closed tester is about 27° F. lower than given by the open cup method. The Abel tester is the English standard, while the Pensky- Martens has been adopted by the German Government. / ABSOLUTE PRESSURE. The pressure measured above vacuum or level of zero pressure. The absolute pressure is greater than the “Gage Pressure” as shown by a preSSure gage, Since the latter is measured above atmospheric pressure. The abso- §§ pressure is approximately equal to the gage pressure plus 14.7 pounds per square IIl Cºl. ABSOLUTE TEMPERATURE. The temperature measured above the point at which heat ceases to exist, or above “Absolute Zero.” Absolute zero has never yet been attained experimentally, but theoretically it is approximately 461° F. below the Fahrenheit zero (–461° F.) and 273° C. below the Centigrade zero (–273° F.). * ABSORBERS (TOWERS). Apparatus in which gases or vapors are brought into intimate contact with a heavy absorbing fluid in which the vapors are to be absorbed. The absorbers provide an extended surface of the fluid so that the gases or vapors more quickly enter into solution. Absorbers are used in the manufacture of casing- head gasqline. ABSCISSA. The horizontal reference axis in a graph or curve from which the height of the curve is measured. This is also called the “X-Axis” of the graph. ABSORPTION SYSTEM. A system of manufacturing casinghead gasoline in which the light gasoline vapors are absorbed by contact with a heavy oil, the mix- ture afterwards being distilled to separate the gasoline from the absorbent oil. After distillation the oil (Seal oil) is recirculated through the absorbers. ABSORPTION SYSTEM (REFRIGERATION). A refrigeration system in which the expanded ammonia gas is absorbed in water, the ammonia, afterwards being sepa- º É. distillation. No compressor is used, the pressure being produced by heating e IYAIXLUIT.e. ACCELERATION. To increase or decrease the rate of a process. Thus accelerated motion is motion With an increasing or decreasing rate of velocity. In areasing the rate of motion is considered as being positive, while decreasing the rate is negative, the latter being called “de-acceleration.” ACCUMULATOR. A storage vessel for fluids under high pressure used with high pressure hydraulic Systems for presses, hoists and elevators. It is placed between the pumps and presses and maintains a constant pressure on the line by means of a weighted piston, and at the same time is instrumental in absorbing pulsations due to the pistons of the pumps. ACENAPHTHENE. A component of coal tar distillation often entering into the composition of benzene and benzol. Not of much importance. ACETALDEHYDE. Produced by the slow oxidization of alcohol. ACETYLENE. . A highly inflammable hydrocarbon gas of high heating value, having the general formula of C2H2. It contains approximately 20,750 B.T.U. per pound. Acetylene gas is present in very small quantities in the unsaturated hydrocarbons produced by pyrogenic distillation, and in some synthetic fuels the gas has been pur- posely introduced by blowing it into benzol to increase the fuel value and volatility of the benzol. It may also be used to “liven” alcohol or to increase its volatility. ACETIC ACID. An acid formed by the decomposition of alcohol. ACID, . An acid is a body containing hydrogen, which hydrogen may be displaced by the action of the acid on a metal or a series of elements equivalent to a metal called 3. “Base.” An acid turns a solution of blue litmus to a reddish color. k Copyright 1921 COMPILED BY Z 1 PETROL EU M AGE J. B. RATHE UN sº PETROLEUM GLoss ARY (z-2) * (A Dictionary of Words, Terms, and Phrases) : CID (FATTY). A characteristic constituent of animal and vegetable oils (fixed A oils), all of this class of oils being compounds of alcohol radicals and fatty acid radicals. The fatty acids may be liberated by the application of heat When in contact with water, acids or alkalis. When heated in this way the oil is said to be “saponified,” and when the freed acid is brought into contact with a metal it forms a salt called a “Soap.” There are a great number of fatty acids existing in fixed oils, Such as Stearic acid, oleic acid, palmitic acid, etc. ACID (FREE). Uncombined acid contained in a compound, or acid that remains unchanged in mixing it with another substance. Free acid in lubricating oils may be free mineral acid, petroleum acid, or fatty acid. Free sulphuric acid (mineral) - in petroleum distillates is the uncombined acid left over from the refining process, but with modern processes this is practically a negligible amount. Free petroleum acid may have existed in the original crude oil or it may have been developed by decom - position of the oil during the refining process. Free fatty oil is present only in fixed oils or compounds of fixed oils with petroleum. Free mineral or fatty acids have a tendency toward corroding metal surfaces, but the action of the petroleum acids is comparatively weak. * ACID FREE OIL. An Oil that is free from uncombined acids. ACIDITY. The amount of free acid remaining in an oil. It is generally given in terms of milligrams of oleic acid per cubic centimeter of sample. º ACID SLUDGE. The residue left after treating petroleum oil with sulphuric acid for the removal of impurities. It is a black viscous substance containing the acid and the impurities that the acid has separated from the Oil. ACTION (CHEMICAL). The atoms or small particles that form a molecule (a. group of atoms) are held together by “chemism” or “affinity,” the chemism bringing dissimilar atoms into intimate relation, forming new groups of molecules. Thus, chemism maintains the zinc and sulphur atoms in a group or molecular arrangement, which is called “zinc sulphide,” and the molecule or group possesses different prop- erties than either the zinc or sulphur when taken alone. The action of the atoms On one another by virtue of their affinity is called “chemical action,” and forms Sub- stances or compounds which differ from any of the original constituents. ACTINIC LIGHT. Light which produces either a chemical or physical change in a substance. White light, blue light, violet and green are generally actinic colors causing changes in light, sensitive substances, while red and orange are only slightly active. * AIDHESION. That property of a fluid which tends to cause it to cling or adhere to a solid surface. Adhesion is an important property of a lubricant. ADMIRALTY SPECIFICATIONS. Specifications issued by the British naval authorities. AIEROPLANE GASOLINE (AVIATION GASOLINE). A high grade gasoline spe- cially adapted for use in aeroplane engines, and is designed to withstand the high Com- pression pressures of aeronautic engines. It is more volatile than the Ordinary auto- mobile gasolines and must be entirely free from impurities. It is a straight run product and is much more expensive than the usual motor gasoline. AEROPLANE OIL. A cylinder lubricating oil of high viscosity, especially adapted to high compression, heavy duty gasoline engines. For fixed cylinder engines this is a straight run mineral product, while for rotating cylinder engines’ of the air-cooled type Castor oil is frequently use. Copyright 1921 COMPILED BY Z-2 PETRO-L EU M A GE J. B. RATHEUN O PETROLEUM GLossary (z-3) N. L (A DICTIONARY OF WORDS, TERMS, AND PHRASES) AGITATOR. A tank in which a petroleum distillate is treated with sulphuric acid, the two fluids being thoroughly mixed by blowing air through the bottom of the tank. The constant stirring, due to the passage of the air, insures intimate con- tact between the acid and oil. AGGREGATE. The solid element of concrete or asphaltic paving such as crushed stone, gravel, etc. AIR. The gases of which the atmosphere is composed. Air is a mechanical mixture of oxygen and nitrogen gases, in the proportion of about 23 parts of oxygen to 77 parts of nitrogen. The oxygen of the air enters into chemical combination with fuels producing the process of combustion. The nitrogen is inactive. AIR COMPRESSOR. A pump by which the pressure of air is increased or compressed. AIR PUMP. A pump used for the removal of air and fixed gases trom the condenser of a steam engine or steam turbinſ. It is a vacuum pump, and reduces pressure. AIR REQUIRED. The weight of air required to completely consume one pound of a given fuel. AIRPLANE GASOLINE. See aeroplane gasoline. AIRPLANE OIL. See aeroplane oil. AIR BLOWN ASPHALT. By blowing air through residual oil, greater yields of solid or semi-solid asphalt are obtained than naturally exist in the oil. The action of the heated air blast gives a much more viscuous asphalt product, and one which is less affected by temperature changes than the natural asphalt. It is not usually sufficiently cementitious and ductile to be used for ordinary paving, but can be used successfully for waterproofing, as a filler in brick and wood pave- ments, for roofing, and for fluxing ductile asphalt. ALBERTITE. A substance very similar to asphalt. ALCOHOL (ETHYL). A fuel produced by the dist --ation of fermented vegetable matter. Pure ethyl alcohol (C2H5OH is a colorless mobile fluid, which when pure has a specific gravity of 0.794 and a boiling point of 78 50C. It possesses many thermo-dynamic advantages when used as a fuel in internal combustion engines, but owing to its relatively great cost it is not much used except for compounding with benzol. It contains less heat per unit weight and volume than gasoline. Com- mercial alcohol is about 0 95-0.98 percent pure. ALCOHOL (METHYL). Methyl alcohol is obtained by the destructive distillation of wood fiber. Pure methyl alcohol is a colorless fluid having a specific gravity of 0.789 at 00C, and contains only 8,320 B. T. U. per pound. This low calorific value is due to the great amount of oxygen contained. It is sometimes known as “Wood alcohol” (CH3OH), and is intensely poisonous. It is not important as a fuel. ALCOHOL FUEL. When alcohol is used as a fuel in the internal combustion engine, there is no knocking or pre-ignition, and this property is so strongly marked that it eliminates “gas knocking” when the alcohol forms only a small percentage of the mixture. Much higher compression pressures are possible with alcohol than with gasoline, and consequently the thermal efficiency is directly increased when alcohol is used. ALLOTROPIC. This term is applied to the different modifications of physical form which some elements possess this sulphur may exist as a crystalline solid, jelly-like paste, or as a liquid. ALKALI. A base or basic compound (usually an oxide or a hydrate) of very active character. It is soluble in water, imparting a soapy taste, and turns red litmus to blue. An alkali neutralizes acids, and combines with fatty acids to form “soaps.” Copyright 1921 COMPILED BY Z-3 PETROL EU M AGE \ J. B. RATHE UN PETROLEUM GLoss ARY (z-4) (A Dictionary of Words, Terms and Phrases) ALIPHATIC HYDROCARBONS. A group of hydrocarbons found in petroleum, the more important being members of the paraffin and olefine series. Methane, Ethane and Propane are examples in the paraffin series while Ethylene, Propylene and Butylene are examples in the olefine series. The carbon atoms in these compounds are bound to the hydrogen atoms in “Chain” form hence are known as chain compounds. The paraffins may be expressed by the general formula: CnH2n+2, while the olefines are: CnH2n, ALP:CALITEST. A purification test made on kerosene by adding caustic soda. ALKALIMETER. An instrument for determining the quantity of alkali in a mixture. ALLOY. A mixture of two or more metals such as brass, bronze, nickel, steel or duralumin. ALUMINUM. A metallic element having the symbol (Al). It is bluish white, very light in weight (Spec. Gr. = 2.708), and malleable. ALUMINUM CARBIDE (Ala Cs). Decomposes in contact with water and liberates methane. * ALUMINUM CHLORIDE. Used as a catalytic agent in oil refining and for the removal of Odor and color from cracked gasoline. It was once thought to increase the yield of gasoline but such has not been proved. ALUMINUM PALMITATE. Used for compounding oils and greases. ALUMINUM SOAP. A soap used for grease which contains aluminum sulphate or alum. * ALUMINUM STEARATE. Used in lubricating oils, greases and cutting compounds. AMMONIA (NHS). A colorless, pungent, gaseous compound of nitrogen and hydro- gen possessing strong alkaline properties. It will neutralize most acids and will combine with fatty acids to form ammonia soaps. The gas is also used in refrigeration. AMMONIA COMPRESSOR. A. machine used for compressing annonia, gas in the refrigeration process, the compression liquifying the gas which is afterwards expanded to produce the refrigerating effect. It is similar to an air compressor. AMMONIA. OIL. A. lubricating oil designed specially for almmonia, compressor cylinders. AMMONIA PERCHLORATE. A compound formerly used by auto racers to increase power and speed. AMMONIA SOAP. A soap produced by Saponifying fats by means of ammonia. AMMONIA IN ALCOHOL. Ammonia is sometimes introduced into alcoholic fuels to neutralize any acid that might be present (or caused by oxidation) before fuel enters engine. It is in evidence in the fuel “Natalite” which contains 40% ether and 55% alcohol. AMMONIUM SULPHATE. A salt having commercial value which is obtained by the distillation of oil shales. It is a valuable by-product. AMMETER. An instrument for measuring the almperes or the rate of flow of electricity. AMORPHOUS. Meaning “Without form.” A substance having no definite form of Crystal. AMORPHOUS GRAPHITE. Uncrystallized graphite—finely divided. AMP. , Abbreviation for ampere. AMPERE. The unit of electric flow. It is analogous to gallons per minute in mechanics. AMYL ACETATE. Called “Banana. Oil” from its odor. Used principally as a solvent for lacquers, celluloid, etc. Copyright 1921 COMPILED BY Z 4 PETRO LEU M A GE J. B. RATHBUN dº # PETROLEUM GLossARY (z-5) (A Dictionary of Words, Terms and Phrases) ANALYSIS (CHEMICAL). The process of determining the character or quantity of elements or Subsidiary compounds forming a given major compound. A process of tearing apart or resolving a substance into its elementary components. ANALYSIS (PROXIMATE). A partial analysis by which the compound is resolved into groups of compounds rather than into its ultimate elements. Thus, in the proximate analysis of coal, the quantities given are the volative matter, moisture, sulphur, fixed Carbon and ash, although most of these substances might be resolved into still more elementary form. It is purely a commercial analysis and is sufficient for practical purposes. ANALYSIS (ULTIMATE). The separation of a compound into its “Ultimate” or Smallest possible divisions or elements., Thus, an ultimate analysis of coal gives the hydrogen, carbon, and sulphur without reference to the existence of minor compounds. ANGLE. The difference in direction between two straight lines. Expressed in de- greeS. ANGULAR VELOCITY. The angles or revolutions turned through in a given time, as in revolutions per minute, revolutions per second, or degrees per second. ANGLE OF POLARIZATION. The angle whose “Tangent” is the index of refrac- tion or the amount by which a beam of light is bent in passing through a given substance. ANGLE OF REPOSE. That angle at which the friction is sufficient to keep a body from sliding down an incline. ANHYDRIDE. An oxide of a non-metallic substance (Organic radical) capable of forming an acid when uniting with water, or capable of being formed from an acid by removing the water, or of uniting with basic oxides to form salts. ANHYDROUS. Free from water of crystallization. Anhydrous salts are moisture free and are generally annorphous or without crystalline form. ANILINE. A coal tar base from which dyes are made and whióh is also used in Some composite gasoline to prevent detonation or preignition of the charge. It is an oily fluid. ANNEAL. To soften by a heating process, thus reducing the brittleness and in- creasing the toughness Or ductility. With steel the metal is heated to full red heat and is then very slowly cooled. With non-ferrous metals, such as copper and brass, the material is quenched in water after heating. ANNEALING FURNACE. A furnace in which steel or glass is annealed or softened to remove brittleness. The furnace is fired up to the required temperature and is then allowed to cool down slowly without removing the contents. ANNULAR BEARING. A ringlike bearing which carries the weight or load act- ing at right angles to the length of the shaft (Radial load). An annular ball bearing carries the balls in a ring like container surrounding the shaft. ANTI. Against or contrary to. Opposite. ANTICLINE. A fold or arch of rock or other strata dipping down from a central axis. It is the peak of the fold while the “Syncline” is the valley or upward trend. ANTI-CLOCKWISE. Left hand rotation or opposite to the rotation of the hands of a clock. ANTI-FRICTION METAL. A soft metal such as babbitt used for lining bearings - and providing a yielding surface for the shaft. Copyright 1923 COMPILED BY Z-5 PETRoleum AGE J. B. RATHE UN ſº PETROLEUM GLossary (Z-6) (A Dictionary of Words, Terms and Phrases) ANTHRACENE. A coal tar product (Solid) having the formula C14H10. Melting point 213 °C. It is sometimes used as a fuel for internal combustion engines but must be melted before using. It is also used to form compounds with liquid fuels. ANTHRACENE OIL. A liquid coal tar product having a very high boiling point and Often used as a fuel for Diesel engines. It is rich in anthra.cene and must be heated before using. The “Tar Oil’’ used in Diesel engines is a mixture of anthracene oil and creosote fractions produced in coal distillation. ANYTIN. A substance formed by the action of sulphuric acid on hydrocarbon oils. A PPALACHIAN FIELD. The oil fields located in the eastern part of the United States, and in general, east of the Appalachian mountains. It extends to Ohio and Kentucky. *. ABRON DRESSING. An oil for leather aprons used in wool carding. AQUA AMMONIA. A solution of ammonia gas in water AQUADAG. Very finely divided Acheson graphite containing tannin and ammonia, which when mixed with water, produces a fluid lubricant. * AQUEOUS VAPOR. Water vapor. A RACHIS OIL. A vegetable fuel oil for Diesel engines obtained from the Arachis or Earth nut. It is more expensive than mineral oils and is therefore not extensively used. ARAEO-PICNOMETER. A device for determining the specific gravity of oil by a Weighing process. Suitable when very small quantities of the sample are available. ARC. A short portion of the circumference of a circle. ‘ ARCH (SMOKE). A firebrick arch placed over the grates of a boiler and heated to incandescence. It oxidjzes the volatile hydrocarbons and thus produces smokeless combustion. AREOMETER. See Araeo-Picnometer. AREA. The magnitude of a surface expressed in square feet, square inches, etc. AROMATIC BODIES. Snibstances having a pleasant spicy odor. AROMATIC COMPOUNDS (AROMATIC SERIES) (BENZENE HYDROCARBONS). This series of hydrocarbons embraces such coal tar distillates as Benzene (C8H8). Tolouene (CeBigCH3), Naphthalene (C10Hs), and Anthracene (C14H10). The carbon atoms are arranged in ring form, hence this is known as a “Ring” series of compounds. While found principally in coal tar distillates, the aromatics are also found to some extent in certain California petroleums. They can also be formed from paraffin and naphthene hydrocarbons by pyrogenic decomposition at temperatures above 1000° F. A.S. Symbol for Arsenic. ASH. The solid incombustible residue left by the combustion of a fuel. It contains Silica, calcium, potassium, sodium and other salts. ASH CONTENT. The percentage of ash contained in a fuel. ASHPIT. The space below the grate bars in a boiler furnace. ASPHALT (ASPHALTIUM). A black and very viscuous hydrocarbon, either solid or semi-solid, used for paving, roofing, insulating and waterproofing. It may be ob- tained as a “Natural” Asphalt from beds or lakes, or as an “Artificial” Asphalt obtained from petroleum residues. Natural asphalt is probably the result of the slow evaporation of oil seepages in addition to a slow atmospheric oxidization. It is easily obtained from petroleum in any desired consistency, ranging from a thick viscuous fluid to a hard brittle solid. N ** Copyright 1923 COMPIL CD BY Z-6 PETROL EU M AGE J. B. RATHEUN PETROLEUM GLossary (z-7) (A Dictionary of Words, Terms and Phrases) il ASPHALT (ARTIFICIAL). Asphalt obtained by the distillation of naphthene base O11S. ASPHALT (BERMUDEZ). A natural asphalt obtained from Bermudez containing a Very high percentage of bitumen. It contains very little mineral matter or ash. . ASPHALT (LAKE). A low grade asphalt obtained from places outside of Lake Trinidad or Bermudez. It contains many impurities and lacks cementing power. º ASPHALT (REFINED). A very hard asphalt which has been subjected to a refin- ing process for the removal of impurities. It is so hard that it must be mixed With a “Flux” before using it for pavements. Tri *::::HALT (TRINIDAD). A high grade natural asphalt coming from Lake IIIllCia. Cl. ASPHALT BASE. An oil or crude petroleum containing much asphalt in solution. ASPHALT BLOCK PAVEMENT. A pavement having a wearing surface built up of prepared blocks of asphaltic concrete. ASPHALT CEMENT. An asphaltic material having the proper consistency (soft) for use, either fluxed or unfluxed, and a penetration of from 5 to 250. It is used in paving. ASPHALT FLUX. An oil used to reduce the consistency or viscosity of hard asphalt to the point required for use. A thinner. # AsPHALT METHOD (HOLDES). A method of determining the amount of asphalt IIl Oll. ASPHAI.T PUTTY. A mixture of asphalt and finely ground chalk. ASPHALT ROCK. (1) A natural strata of sandstone or limestone saturated with asphaltunn. (2) A rock or concrete impregnated with asphaltun or asphaltun flux. ASPEHALTUM. See Asphalt. ASPHALTINE (ASPHALTENE). A black solid inflammable hydrocarbon com- pound, composing that part of the asphaltic residue that is insoluble in petroleum naphtha (Pentane), but which forms the combustible portion of the residue after treat- ment by naphtha. © ASPHALTITE. A natural dark colored solid hydrocarbon, difficult to melt, insolu- ble in water, but at least partly soluble in carbon disulphide, benzol, etc. ASPTIALTNESS. The degree or quantity of asphalt contained in petroleum oils expresseu as a percentage of the total maSS. ASPIRATOR. A water power pump used to create a vacuum by the action of a stream or jet of water or steam acting by friction on the air being removed. Some- times called a “Jet Pump.” , ASTATKI. A residual oil obtained by the distillation of Russian crude. It is much used in Europe as a fuel oil. ‘º —e-ºr-ºne ASTRALINE. A distillate of Russian oil having a specific gravity of about 0.850 and a flash point of about 122° F. ATM.—ATMOS. Abbreviation for atmosphere. ATMOMETER-GRAVIMETROSCOPE. Used for determining evaporation rate of liquids. ATMOSPHERE. The free air surrounding the earth. (2) The pressure of the air at sea level averages 14.7 pounds per square inch, or “One atmosphere.” ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE. See Atmosphere. Copyright 1923 COMPILED BY * - PET FOLEU M AGE J. B. RATHEUN Z 7 PETROLEUM GLossary (z-8) (A Dictionary of Words, Terms and Phrases) ATMQSPHERIC CONDENSER. A barometric steam engine condenser in which the entrained air is removed by gravity flow. The vacuum is maintained by a column of water approximately 34 feet high. (2) A condenser cooled by air currents, ATMOSPHERIC RELIEF VALVE. A. Valve which allows the exhaust steam to escape to atmosphere when the condenser fails to produce a vaccum. ATOM. The smallest particle of matter that can enter into chemical combination, or the smallest division of matter that can be made without producing a substance weighing less than the atom. ATOMIC. WEIGHT (COMBINING WEIGHT). (1) The weight of an elementary atom in relation to an atom of hydrogen, the hydrogen atom being taken as unity. (2) The atomic weight is used in calculating the quantities of the various elements entering into a compound. The weight of the molecule, or the molecular weight, is the sum of the weights of the atoms forming that molecule or chemical compound. ATOMICITY. The atomicity of an elemental molecule designates the number of atoms that form the molecule, and is numerically equal to the molecular weight divided by the atomic weight. An elemental molecule is monatomic, diatomic, triatomic, or teratomic according as its atomicity is 1, 2, 3, or 4 ATOMIZATION. Reducing a liquid to a spray. ATOMIZER. A device used for Spraying a liquid. ATOMIZER (FUEL OIL). A nozzle device used to break up fuel oil into a fine spray or mist so that the oil may be brought into more intimate contact with the air of combustion, and hence so that the combustion Will be more perfect and rapid than with a solid stream of oil. ATOMIZER (LUBRICATING.) A device used for breaking up lubricating oil into a fine Spray so that the oil will be more effectively distributed within the cylinders of a steam engine. ATREOL. A substance produced by the action of sulphuric acid on petroleum distillates. ~x. ATWOOD CRACKING PROCESS. A method of producing light gasolines and illuminating oils from heavy oils, paraffine, etc. The oil is Cracked at atmospheric j. and the apparatus provides for the return of heavy vapors for further Cra CRII.g. AUGER. An instrument for boring holes in soil or rocks. AUGER (CLAY). A tool used for boring in greasy clayS. AUGER ROD. The rod carrying a clay auger. AUGER STEM. A rod carrying the auger. AUTOMOTIVE. Pertaining to self-propelled vehicles. AUTUN SHALE OIL. A shale oil obtained from Autun, France. AUTOMOBILE OIL. The oil used for the lubrication of the automobile engine, . generally considered as a cylinder oil only. This class of oil govers a wide range, of viscosities, varying from 145 to 1,600 Saybolt at 100° F. The oil, is primarily intended to withstand high temperatures and as free from carbon as possible. AUTOMATIC OIL. An oil for automatic screw machines. * AUX. Abbreviation for auxiliaries. AUXILIARIES. The smaller machinery of a power plant such as the feed Water pumps, condensers, condenser pumps, heaters, etc. AVOIR.—AV. Abbreviation for Avoirdupois system of weights. / Copyright 1923 COMPILED BY s º Z 8 PETROL EU M AGE J. B. RATHBUN - PETROLEUM GLoss ARY (z-9) (A Dictionary of Words, Terms and Phrases) AVQGADRO'S LAW. Equal volumes of all substances, either elemental or com- pound, in the gaseous state, at the same temperature and pressure, contain an equal number of molecules. AVERAGE PRESSURE. The average of all the pressures acting on a piston during the expansion or compression stroke. The average pressure is the effective preSSure taken throughout the movement of the piston. (Mean effective pressure.) AVOIRDUPOIS. A system of weights in which the pound contains 16 ounces. AXIS. (1) The centerline around which a body rotates. (2) A reference line from which measurements are taken. AXI.E. A shaft or bar for supporting or connecting rotating bodies. AXLE GREASE. A grease for horse drawn vehicles or rough bearings. AXLE OIL. A natural black lubricating oil used for roughly finished machines or for the axles of cars. It has a medium viscosity and a low cold test. It is often called ‘‘Black Summer” oil. *ArcacIP. A crystalline compound formed by the action of nitric acid On Ca,St Ol' OII. (B) t B. Symbol for Boron. Ba. Symbol for Barium. BABBITT METAL. A soft white anti-friction metal used for lining bearings. It has varying compositions but consists, mainly of tin, copper and antimony. In very high grade heavy duty babbitts, nickel is also sometimes used. BABBITTED BEARINGS. Bearings lined with babbitt metal. B. & W. Abbreviation for Babcock and Wilcox. BABCOCK AND WILCOX BOIL.E.R. A water tube boiler consisting of a bank of slightly inclined tubes, placed below a horizontal drum, the tubes being connected with the drum and filled with Water. BACKED BEARING. A form of bearing consisting of a thin brass or bronze shell lined with babbitt. The bronze shell is called the “Backing” of the bearing, and the babbitt is thus said to be “bronze backed.” BACK FIRE. (1) To turn over in the wrong direction when the automobile engine is being cranked owing to an advanced spark or defective wiring. This is caused by ignition taking place before the piston reaches the end of the compression stroke, thus tending to turn the engine in a direction opposite to its normal rotation. ACPC LASH. Lost motion due to too much clearance between working partos. Back lash in gears may be caused by worn teeth or by too great a distance between the centers of the gears causing them to “run off pitch.” BACK PRESSURE. Pressure caused by resistance in a pipe or opening, the opening being insufficient for the free escape of the gas or fluid. BACK PRESSURE (ON ENGINE.) The pressure acting adversely against the piston, causing power loss... This is due to obstructions or insufficient large piping for the exhaust steam. Sometimes back pressure is purposely created in the exhaust in order to force the exhaust steam through a heating system. BACK PRESSURE WALVE... An automatic valve designed to maintain a constant back pressure on the exhaust line of a steam engine in order to supply a heating system with Steam. Copyright 1923 } COMPILED BY Z-9 PETRO LEU M AGE J. B. RATHEUN PETROLEUM GLossary (Z-10) (A Dictionary of Words, Terms and Phrases) BAFFLER. A device used for controlling the flow of lubricating oil supplied by oil pumps, the resistance to flow being controlled by increasing or decreasing the effective length of a small oil passage. BAFFLE PLATE. A plate placed in a tank or other receptical which controls the direction of flow of a gas or fluid. It is a guide plate placed to divert the stream. BAGASSEE. Dried sugar cane used for fuel. BAIKERITE. A waxy substance taken from rock seams and containing about 60 percent of ozokerite. BAIKERINITE. A tarry fluid composing about 32 percent of bakerite. * BAILER. A. device used for cleaning out a well. BAILING DRUM. A winding drum placed in an oil derrick which carries the rope running to the bailer. It is driven by power. BAILING: TUB. A wooden tank placed on a trestle over a well to receive the Oil removed by the bailer. BAKU. A Russian oil field. BAKUIN. A. Russian machine oil obtained from Baku crude. BAKUOL. Illuminating oil made from Russian Baku crude. * BAKURIN. A. lubricating oil composed of Baku crude petroleum, castor oil and Sulphuric acid. The acid is afterwards neutralized. BALANCE (CHEMICAL). A “Scale” used for weighing. It has two pans, one of which contains the weights and the other the mass to be weighed. BALANCE (GAS). A balance used for determining the specific gravity of gases. BALANCE (SPECIFIC GRAVITY). A balance specially designed for determining Specific gravity by weighing methods. BALANCER. An electric motor-generator used for maintaining, a constant , voltage on the outer wires of a direct current three wire system, or for regulating the charging current to a storage battery plant. BALL BEARING. A shaft bearing in which the load is transmitted to the point of support through rolling balls, the balls being free to travel around an annular groove concentric with the shaft. “Radial”, ball bearings carry the load acting at right angles to the shaft (Annular Bearings). “Thrust Bearings” take the end load. BALL AND RING METHOD. A method of testing the melting and softening temperatures of asphalt, waxes or paraffine. 3. # BAND WHEEL. A wheel on a drilling rig serving as a pulley and carrying the driving belt from the engine. BARIUM CHILORIDE. Used for testing for Sulphuric acid or as a catalytic. BAROMETER. An instrument for measuring the pressure of the atmosphere. ; BAROMETRIC PRESSURE. Pressure of the atmosphere. * Copyright 1923 COMPILED BY * Z 10 PETRO L EU M A GE J. B. RATHBUN *a. ºs ..f f As * PETROLEUM GLossARY (z-11) (A Dictionary of Words, Terms and Phrases) . BASE (CHEMICAL). A base is a compound, usually an oxide or a hydrate of a metal, or a group of elements equivalent to a metal. A base combines with an acid, displacing the hydrogen of the acid, and forms a salt. The alkalis are par- ticularly active bases, and restore blue color to littmus paper that has been colored red by an acid. Alkali is soluble in water and combines with fatty acids to form “Soaps.” BASE (PAVEMENT). The artificial foundation of a pavement. & BASE (PETROLEUM). Petroleums are divided into two principal classes (1) Paraffin base oils carrying a predominating amount of paraffine in the residuum, and (2) Asphaltic base oils which have a greater percentage of Asphalt than paraffine. BASE LINE. A line from which all measurements are taken. BASSET. An outcrop or the exposed edge of a stratum. BATCH OIL. A pale lemon non-viscuous neutral oil having a viscosity of about 80 Saybolt at 70 °F. Used principally to prevent the adherence of moulded materials to the molds or as a lubricant in cordage manufacture, BATCH STILL. A petroleum still in which the distillation is carried out in “Batches”, the complete distillation of one still charge of crude oil being com- pleted before the next charge of oil is placed in the still. A still in which the charging is performed intermittently. BATH (LABORATORY). An outer vessel filled with sand, water, tolouol, or Salt into Which an inner vessel is introduced, the latter containing the material that is to be heated. The layer of sand, water, etc., between the inner and outer Vessels Controls the temperature of the flame and distributes it evenly over the material. EATH (HARDENING). See Bath (Quenching). BATH (LUBRICATION). A method of lubrication if, which the shaft dips in a pool or bath of oil, the surface of the shaft being at all times immersed in oil |BATH (WATER). See Bath (Laboratory). BATH (QUENCHING). A tank of tempering oil, water or mercury used for “Quenching” heated metals in hardening processes. BATTERY (BOILERS OR STILLS). A row of boilers or stills placed side by Side. A group of stills or boilers. BATTERY (ELECTRIC). A device for generating electric energy by chemical reaction, more properly, a number of such electro-chemical generators connected together. BATTERY (PRIMARY). An electric chemical cell in which electricity is pro- duced by the destructive action of a corrosive fluid (Either acid or alkali) upon a metallic plate. This plate is generally of zinc, and is called the “Negative Electrode”. A second plate on which very litttle chemical action takes place, and known as the “Positive Electrode”, is also immersed in the fluid and forms the second element. BATTERY (SECONDARY-STORAGE CELL). A chemical generator of elec- tricity in which the discharged elements are renewed by passing a “Charging” current through the cell in a reverse direction to the current produced by the cell. The electrodes are generally of lead and the fluid is a dilute solution of sulphuric acid. sº * º Copyright 1923 COMPILED BY Z-1 1 PETRO LEU M A GE J. B. RATHEUN PETROLEUM GlossaRY (z-12) (A Dictionary of Words, Terms and Phrases) BAUME GRAVITY (Be”). An arbitrary scale for measuring the density of liquids, the unit being called the “Baumé Degree”. This is used extensively for the measurement of petroleum oils. The Baumé scale bears an inverse ratio to the Specific gravity scale, that is, the Baumé density increases as the specific gravity increases. When floated in pure water, the Baumé scale stands at 10.00, while the specific gravity scale reads 1.000. BAUME HYDROMETER. An instrument used for measuring the Baumé density of a fluid. This is in the form of a straight glass tube which is floated on the fluid in question, the level of the fluid coming in line with the graduations of the Scale marked on the neck of the hydrometer. BAUXITE. A mineral used in the manufacture of aluminum. BBL. Abbreviation for barrel. Be”. Abbreviation for Baumé Degree. BIEAKER. A cylindrical glass vessel, somewhat like a drinking glass, but gen- erally with parallel sides and a flared rim and pouring lip. Used in the laboratory. BEAM. A bar used for Supporting a load, the load acting at right angles to the length of the bar and tending to bend it. Floor joists, rafters, and bridges are examples of beams. Any bar resisting bending is a beam. (2) A streak of light. BEAM (WALKING). An oscillating bar or beam, pivoted at the center and free to rock up and down. In oil derricks, the walking beam carries the string of drilling tools at one end and is connected to a cranked driving wheel at the other, the rota- tion of the wheel causing the tools to lift and drop and thus to drill the hole by concussion. BEARING (BRG.). (1) A support for a revolving shaft. (2) The amount of load or surface in a bearing. Two surfaces are said to be “Bearing Surfaces” when One rests on the other and transmits a load between the two. BEARING (ANCHOR). A dovetailed lug used for securing a babbitt shell or other bearing liner to the bearing proper. BEARING AREA. The area in square inches of a bearing surface. BEARINGS (BABBITTED). A bearing having an interior lining of soft Babbitt metal, the shaft resting on this lining. BEARINGS (BALL). SEE BALL REARINGS. BEARINGS (BALL AND SOCRET). A pivoted bearing arranged with a spherical enlargement which is supported by a cup shaped socket. The bearing is thus free to, move up and down to accommodate the irregular motion of a bent or deflated shaft. BEARING (CAPILLARY FEED). A bearing in which the lubricating oil is fêd to the rubbing surfaces by means of a wick. BEARING CAP. The upper half of a split bearing. BEARING CLEARANCE. The space allowed between the shaft and the bearing surface, this space being left for the accommodation of the oil film. Copyright 1923 COMPILED BY Ty_ PET RO LEU M A GE J. B. RATHE UN Z 12 PETROLEUM GLossary (Z-13) (A Dictionary of Words, Terms and Phrases) BEARING (COLLAR.) A form of thrust bearing in which rings or collars on the shaft engage with corresponding grooves in the bearing. This is used on either horizontal or vertical shafts and any number of collars may be used according to the load. BEARING (CYLINDRICAL). A plain bearing in which a cylindrical shaft fits closely in a surrounding bushing of cylindrical bore. BEARING DIAMETER. The diameter of the shaft or journal fitting into bear- ing.' The bore of the bearing is slightly larger by the amount of the clearance. BEARING (DIE CAST). A bearing bushing or liner cast to finished size by the die casting operation, no machining being done. Such a bushing is of some form of white metal. BEARING (DROP HANGER). A bearing arranged for hanging shaft from the ceiling or with the shaft below the supporting surface. BEARING (EASEMENT). In a split bushing or bearing shell the edges of the cut portion along the centerline must be rounded or beveled off slightly to keep these edges from scraping the oil off the journal, and in addition, a little more clearance Space should be scraped on either side of the split to allow the oil to more freely enter the bearing. BEARING FRICTION. The resistance offered to the rotation of a shaft by the rubbing of the surfaces and the internal fluid friction of the oil. BEARING LENGTH. The length of the bearing surface measured along the length of the shaft. BEARING LINERS. (1) A thin cylindrical bushing or shell placed in the bore of the bearing proper or in the supporting surface. (2) Thin sheets or “Shims” placed between the halves of a split bearing to allow for adjustment. (3) Shims or liners placed under the bearing for aligning the shaft. BEARING LOAD. The weight coming , on the bearing surfaces. BEARING (OUTBOARD). A bearing provided for the extended shaft of a ma- chine or a bearing that is outside of the machine structure proper. Thus in a Steam engine, an outboard bearing is provided for the extended shaft carrying a direct connected electric generator. BEARING (PLAIN). See Cylindrical Bearings. BEARING (PRG JECTED AREA). The area (Flat area) obtained by multiplying the diameter of the bearing by its length. It is not the area, measured around the circumference. BEARING SLEEVES. See Bearing Liners (1). BEARINGS (FING OIL). A self-oiling bearing in which the oil is taken out of an oil well by means of loose revolving rings hung on the shaft. The lower edge of the ring dips into the oil and the rotation of the ring continuously conveys oil and deposits it in the bearing as long as the shaft rotates. BEARINGS (SELF-ALIGNING). Bearings of the ball and socket or other pivoted type which are free to move with the shaft when the latter is bent deflected or out of line. e o BEARINGS (SELF-OILING). A bearing in which the oil is fed automatically from a supply well either by the rotation of the shaft or by capillarity (wick feed). ! Copyright 1923 COMPILED BY Z 13 PETRO L E U M A GE : J. B. RATHE UN *s PETROLEUM GLossary (Z-14) (A Dictionary of Words, Terms and Phrases) BEARING SHIMS. Packs of thin strips or sheets placed between the two halve; of a split bearing for adjustment. Removal of one or more of these strips or “Shims brings the halves of the bearing closer together and thus takes up for Wear. BEARINGS (SPLIT). Bearings or sleeves made in halves to allow of the removal, of the shaft without taking down the bearing, or to allow for wear by bringing the two halves closer together. BEARINGS (STEP). Thrust bearings arranged to take the load along the length of the shaft Or to take up the weight on a vertical shaft. BEARINGS (THRUST). See step Bearings. BEARINGS (UNIT PRESSURE). The load per square inch of projected area coming on a bearing Surface. BEARINGS (WATERCOOLED). Heavy duty, large bearings, sometimes develop So much frictional heat or so much heat from external sources is carried into the bear- ing by the shaft, that the outside radiating surface is not sufficient to keep the tem- perature down. In cases of this kind water coils or jackets are placed around, the bearing shell, or coils are placed in the oil well for cooling the oil, the latter in turn wiping off heat from the bearings. BEARINGS (WICK FEED). Bearings in which the oil is automatically fed by the capillarity of a wick which dips into the oil at the lower end and rests on the shaft at the top. BEAU DE ROCHAS CYCLE. The old name for the four stroke cycle engine. A §. stroke is performed every second revolution or in every four strokes of the plSton. * BENZENE (BENZOL). A coal tar distillate. See Benzol. It is of the aromatic ; and has the general formula (C6H6). Do not confuse with BENZINE a petroleum product. BENZENE HYDROCARBONS. Aromatic ring hydrocarbons having the general formula (CaFI2n-6). } BENZINE. A light volatile inflammable hydrocarbon obtained by the fractional distillation of crude petroleum. This includes the commercial products known as “Gasoline” and “Naphtha,” and in general, all hydrocarbons which distill off below 450° F. . The gravity depends upon the crude from which it is made, but, ordinarily ranges from 50° to 68° Baumé. Benzine is the name of a group of fluids rather than of a Single distinct homogeneous compound. Benzine is the first product to pass off in the distillation of crude petroleum, and when redistilled yields gasoline and naphtha. This must be distinguished from BENZENE which is a coal tar product. BENZINE (CRUDE). The benzine obtained directly from the crude, and not redistilled nor refined. ,” BENZINE NAPHTHA. A naphtha having a gravity of 70° Baumé. Redistilled crude benzine or naphtha. BENZINE (NORMAL). Benzine having specific gravity approximately 0.700 at 15° C., and a boiling point of 65° to 95° Centigrade. BENZIUM. An American distillate containing principally hydrocarbons of the methane series. BENZOIC ACID. An acid used as a fuel for calibrating or standardizing bomb Calorimeters. It has a uniform heat content of 6,325 calories. COPYRIGHT 1923 COMPILED BY * Z-1 4 PETROL EU M AGE J. B. RATHEUN PETROLEUM GLossary (Z-15) (A Dictionary of Words, Terms and Phrases) BENZOL (BENZENE), (PHENYL HYDRIDE), (COAL TAR NAPHTHA). Com- mercial benzene used as a motor fuel, and also as a paint or varnish remover. It is a coal tar distillate, a hydrocarbon of the aromatic series, and ordinarily is furnished as ‘‘90 percent benzol” or 90 percent pure benzene. In some cases, however, a blend of benzol with a petroleum product is marketed which is sold under the name of benzol. Benzol is much used in “Composite fuels” in which it is blended with gasoline Or naphtha, and sometimes with alcohol. BENZOLINE. Practically the same as benzine. A petroleum product obtained by the redistillation of benzine. Boiling point 70° F. to 95° F., specific gravity about 0.700. BERMUDEZ ASPHALT. See Asphalt. A natural asphalt from Bermudez. B. H. P. Abbreviation for Brake Horsepower. BINARY HEAT ENGINE. An engine using two working fluids, one being water while the other is some volatile fluid such as ether, Sulphur dioxide, or alcohol. The heavier fluid receives the heat from the combustion directly, and the exhaust from this first cylinder is used to vaporize the light secondary fluid which performs work in a second cylinder. BINARY MOLECULE. A molecule with two atoms. BINDER. Fine material mixed with the mineral part of the wearing surface of a pavement, or the intermediate course in an asphalt pavement placed between the concrete foundation and the top course. BINDER COURSE. Coarse bituminous aggregate containing a small percentage of bitumen or asphalt, and used as an intermediate connecting link between the con- Crete foundation and the top Wearing course of an asphalt pavement. BINDER (GULF). A blown Texas petroleum residual oil containing approximately 99.4 percent of pure bitumen soluble in 88° Be. naphtha, and 48 percent bitumen as Saturated hydrocarbons. BIT. A tool used in drilling oil wells. This is the cutting portion of the tool string, BIT DRAG. A bit used for drilling hard rock. BITUMEN. A black hydrocarbon of plastic or semi-fluid form having the appear- ance of tar. Sometimes called “Mineral Pitch.” . It is relatively highly viscous, and is a wax like substance which gives natural asphalts their essential characteristics. It is soluble in carbon disulphide and burns with a bright flame. BITUMEN (NATURAL). This is a bitumen occurring in nature, probably produced by the evaporation and oxidization of oil seepages. It is an impure hydrocarbon con- taining various metallic salts. BITUMINOU.S. Having...the general properties of bitumen, plasticity or high viscosity. Wax-like or tar-like form. BITUMINOUS (LIQUID). Materials having a penetration of more than 350 at 25° C. and loaded to 50 grams, load acting for 1 second. BITUMINOUS (SEMI-LIQUID). Having a penetration of more than 10 under 100 grams, acting ºr 5 seconds at 25° C., and penetration under 50 grams not more than 350 for 1 Second. * COPYRIGHT 1923 COMPILED BY Z 15 PETROL EU M AGE J. B. RATHEUN sº PETROLEUM GLoss ARY (z-16) (A Dictionary of words, Terms and Phrases) BITUMINOUS (SOLID). Penetration, loaded with 100 grams for 10 seconds to be not more than 10 at temperature of 25° C. BITUMINOUS CEMENT. A bituminous binder material with high cementitious properties. BITUMINOUS COAL. “Soft Coal,” or coal containing a high percentage of gas or volatile hydrocarbons, tar, and Other compounds easily removed by distillation. When such hydrocarbons are distilled from the coal, a mass of solid carbon called “Coke” remains. Anthracite, or “Hard coal” contains very little of the hydrocarbon compounds and hence does not coke. BITUMINOUS CONCRETE. A pavement composed of aggregates such as crushed stone, gravel, sand or slag combined with a bituminous cementing binder, the latter taking the place of the cement ordinarily used in concrete. Bituminous EARTH. Asphalt laid without an appreciable addition of sand Or TOCK, BITUMINOUS EMULSION. A liquid formed by the suspension of minute drops of bitumen held in suspension in Water. BITUMINOUS LIMESTONE. Limestone innpregnated with bitumen. It has a dis- ºgº. odor when rubbed, this giving it the common name of “Stinkstone” or “SWineStone.” BITUMINOUS MACADAM. A road having a loose macadam wearing surface bonded together by impregnation with bituminous matter. BITUMINOUS MASTIC. A bituminous material having a very fine aggregate. BITUMINOUS ROCK. A rock formation occurring in nature Saturated with bitumen or with petroleum residue. Hºuminous SAND. A sand naturally impregnated with bitumen or petroleum I'êSICille. HITUSOL. A solution of bitumen containing solid colloids in solution. Trinidad Asphalt is said to be a true bitusol. BLACK (CARBON). Petroleum or natural gas soot in a finely divided state, and used for paint, tire fillers, etc. BLACK SATIN GLASS. Lamp black. BLACK OIL. A heavy natural lubricating oil used for rough machinery. BLACKSTRAP. See Black Oil. BLACKJACK. See Black Oil. BLAES. Bluish-gray strata. Occurring between the brown oil shale strata, in Scotch oil shales. | BLAU GAS (BLUE GAS). A gas used for industrial purposes, consisting of volatile hydrocarbons from propane to pentane, the mixture containing hydrogen and methane under pressure. It withstands pressure and hence may be transported in steel tanks under pressure. BLEACHER. A tank used for “Bleaching” or taking the color out of petroleum S. BLEACHED OIL. Oil decolorized by the action of chemicals or sunlight, the latter being called “Sun Bleached Oil.” COPYRIGHT 1923 COMPILED BY Z 1 6 PETRO LEU M AGE J. B. RATHE UN tº- PETROLEUM GLossary (Z-17) (A Dictionary of Words, Terms and Phrases) BLEEDER." A drain. BLEEDER TURBINE. . A steam turbine arranged so that low pressure steam can be taken out between intermittent stages for heating purposes. Thus, the high pressure boiler steam does some work before it is taken out for low pressure heating Sel"WICe. BLEEDING. The seeping out or “Sweating” of bituminous materials on a road bed, or the loss of wax or bitumen by seepage. BLEND. A mixture of various kinds of oils having the same origin or of the same class. Thus a blended oil may consist of various petroleum oils, or a blended animal oil may consist of various animal oils. When vegetable or animal oils are mixed with petroleum oil the result is a “Compound”—not a blend. BLENDED GASOLINE. A mixture of various grades of gasoline having different boiling points. Thus, a blended gasoline , may consist of a mixture of casinghead (natural gasoline) and naphtha, or of cracked gasoline with Straight-run gaSoline. BLENDED LUBRICATING OILS. Petroleum lubricating oils having different properties are blended to form a “blend” possessing a desired viscosity, etc. *- BLOCK TEST. A shop test for a motor giving power output, efficiency and fuel consumption. BLOOM. The peculiar iridescent gleam given by light reflected from the surface Of the oil. It is of a varying phosphorescent Character, and With the exception of rosin oil, exists only in heavy petroleum products. Other vegetable oils have no bloom. Generally, paraffin base oils have a greenish bloom while asphaltic oils have a bluish bloom (when filtered). BLOWN ASPHALTS. By blowing the asphaltic petroleum residue with air at moderately high temperatures the yield of asphaltun is increased. Blowing also gives a more viscous product and One that is least affected by atmospheric changes. JBLOWN OIL (VEGETABLE). When a vegetable oil is “blown” by passing a stream of heated air through it, the Oxidization increases the body or viscosity of the oil. f BLOWN 'GASOLINE. When a benzine with a high sulphur content is being treated för the removal of sulphur and other undesirable contents (or with low grade petroleum), the distillate is treated with sulphuric acid in an agitator and air is blown through the mixture to give intimate contact between the acid and benzine. ELOWN OIL (CRUDE DURING DISTILLATION). Superheated steam blown through the crude Oil prevents decomposition of the hydrocarbons when the oil has been run down so far in the still that high temperatures are necessary for further products. The steam carries away the more volatile portions of the residue at a much lower temperature than the actual boiling point of the thickened oil, and thus prevents the decomposition of the asphaltic residue. When distilling for asphalt, the steam carries off much of the objectionable paraffine wax. BLUE SHALE. See Blaes. BODY. A term used to indicate the consistency or viscosity of a lubricating oil, or in other words, the fluidity of an oil. Thus we have heavy and light bodied oils depending upon whether they are thick and viscous or light and fluid. BOILING POINT. The temperature at which a liquid begins to liberate vapor in the form of bubbles, the bubbles forming Within the mass and not only around the edges. These must be bubbles composed of the Vaporized liquid, and not the bubbles of air given off by a preliminary heating. The boiling temperature of a single simple homogeneous liquid is fixed for a given pressure. COPYRIGHT 1923 COMPILED BY Z 17 PETRO LEU M AGE J. B. RATHEUN * PETROLEUM GLoss ARY (z-18) (A Dictionary of Words, Terms and Phrases) BOILING POINT (FRACTIONATING). The temperature at which the various constituents of a mixture are vaporized or driven off. Thus, petroleum, which Con- sists of a great number of different fluid hydrocarbons, has a number of different boiling points, one for each “Fraction” of the oil. BOILING POINT (FINAL) (END POINT) (DRY POINT). The temperature at §§ the final and heaviest “Fraction” of the petroleum is driven off in the process of istillation. BOILING POINT (INITIAL). The temperature at which the first drop of dis- tillate falls into the receiver from the end of the condenser. This of course represents the ºrization temperature of the most volatile and lightest fluid contained in the IIll Ntill Te. BOILING POINT AND ALTITUDE. The boiling temperature is affected by pres- sure and hence by the altitude if the vessel is Open to the atmosphere. The heavier the pressure, or the nearer sea level, the higher will be the boiling point. BOILING POINT AND IMPURITIES. In general, the boiling point of a single fluid is raised by dissolved inpurities in the liquid. BOILER CAPACITY (RATING). A boiler is rated by its ability to evaporate water ate a standard pressure, or at and from a given temperature. The rate of evaporation is given in terms of the number of pounds of steam (water) per hour. While a boiler does not actually develop power, yet it is given a standard horsepower rating which corresponds to the evaporation of 34.5 pounds of water per hour from and at a temperature of 212° F. (atmospheric pressure). BOILER HORSEPOWER. See Boiler Capacity. BOILER EFFICIENCY. The efficiency of a boiler is the relation of the healt delivered in the form of steam to the fuel heat actually applied to the heating Surfaces. A more practical and common method is to express the Weight of Water evaporated per pound of fuel (Oil or coal). BOILER FEED. The water supplied to the boiler. BOMB CALORIMETER. An instrument for measuring the healt content of fuels, a sample of the fuel being placed in a “bomb” or Strong walled Steel tube and burned in Oxygen. The bomb is immersed in a given weight of water, and the rise in the water temperature is the measure of the heat liberated by the weighed sample of fuel. ºt OIL. A viscous neutral oil used for thread cutting. Viscosity about 220 at 70° F. BOND. The attachment of One surface to another by cement or frictional means. Mechanical bond in a stone macadam road is performed by the interlacing of the dry stones. Cementitious bond is due to increased adherence of cement or bituminous matter incorporated With the Stone. BONE BLACK. Pulverized charred bones (bone charcoal). b BORE. The diameter of an engine piston or the inside diameter of the cylinder Ore. BORING CONTRACT. An agreement between an oil producer and a well drilling contractor for drilling a Well. l BORING JOURNAL. A book in which a record of progress in well drilling is Kept. COPYRIGHT 1923 COMFILED BY Z-18 PETROL EU M A GE J. B. RATHE UN PETROLEUM GLossary (Z-19) \ (A Dictionary of Words, Terms and Phrases) BOTTOMS. The residue remaining at the bottom of a still after the distillation. BOTTOM SETTLINGS (B. S.). Solid matter or emulsions of wax and oil with water which are contained in crude oil. This matter being heavier than the crude Settles and at the same time may hold a considerable volume of oil. BOTTOM STEAM. The steam admitted to the bottom of a still to prevent over- heating and decomposition of the heavier components or to increase the yield of light hydrocarbons. BOTTOM WATER. Water that lies below the producing sand of an oil well and is separated from the oil. BOULEVARD GAS FLUID (GASOLINE). Highest gasoline of 76° Bé, used for Street lamps. BOX (CONDENSER). A box in which the petroleum distillate vapors are con- densed. BOX (LOOPC). A small glass covered case placed over the ends of the pipes coming from the stills through which the character of the distillate may be observed. BOX (STUFFING). A means of preventing leakage around a piston rod or valve stem, the point at which the rod or stem passes through the partition being provided with a small annular cavity which is packed tight with some fibrous material which clings tightly to the moving rod Or stem. BOX (QUARTER). A form of takeup used on the bearings of large engines or with large shafts. The bearing liner is divided into four parts, each of which can be adjusted independently to take up wear or for the alignment of the shaft. B.R. Symbol for Bromine. BRADINHEAD. An iron or steel head Screwed to the top of an oil well casing and bored for a sliding fit with the inner pipe through which the oil flows out of the well. The joint between the Bradinhead and inner pipe is packed with some pliable Substance so that there may be relative movement Without leakage. The Bradinhead, which is really a cap for the casing, confines the gas inside of the casing and is tapped for a pipe through which the gas is removed. BRADINHEAD GAS. The gas taken out through the Bradinhead or cap at the top of the oil well casing. * BRARE-HORSEPOWER. The power actually delivered by an engine or motor as determined by test. BRASS. A term often used for the brass or bronze liner of a bearing. BREA. Sand saturated with petroleum residuals produced by evaporated oil seepages. It has been used as a road dressing in California. It is a sort of asphaltic Cement. BRG. Abbreviation for Bearing. BRICK OIL. Non-viscous oil, flash point 340° F., viscosity about 80 at 70° F (Paint Oil). BRITISH THERMAL UNIT (B. t. u.Y. The unit of heat quantity. The amount of heat required to raise one pound of water through one degree Fahrenheit, from 39.4° F. As the specific heat of water does not change much at ordinary temperatures, the B. t. u. may be taken as the amount of heat required to raise one pound of water one degree Fahrenheit. The mechanical equivalent of the British thermal unit (b. t. u.) is 778 foot-pounds, or 1 B. t. u. = 778 foot-pounds. CopyRIGHT 1928 COMPILED BY \ Z-19 PETROLEUM AGE J. B. RATH BUN gº PETROLEUM GLossaRY (z-20) o (A Dictionary of Words, Terms and Phrases) BRIX. A hydrometer scale used for density determinations. Not much used in the oil industry. BROACH. A tool used to clean off the burr of wax left at the end of a candle mould. "- BROMINE. An element (Br). Bromine is a reddish-brown liquid giving of irritating fumes at Ordinary temperatures. BROMINE TEST. A test used to determine the source of a kerosene or the Source of the crude from which it was made. The color given to the kerosene by adding a few drops of bromine, or the rate of decolorization, gives an index to the Origin of the oil. Bromine is absorbed by unsaturated hydrocarbons, and as unsatu- rated hydrocarbons exist in varying quantities in all petroleums, the rape of bromine absorption points out the characteristics of the crude B. S. Abbreviation for Bottom Settlings. B. T. U. Abbreviation for British thermal unit. BlſCRET. The piston of an oil well pump. * BUCKETS (STEAM TURBINE). The blades or vanes on the running wheels of a steam turbine against which the jet of steam is directed to cause rotation. BTUFFING OIL. A. Viscous Oil used for polishing or buffing wheels. BTUMPED HEADS. Convex or concave heads used with boilers or tanks. Some- times known as “Dished Heads.” - BTURNER (FUEL OIL). A device for atomizing and mixing fuel oil with air and for injecting the spray into a boiler or furnace. The atomizing may be performed Imechanically or by compressed air or steam. BURNER (TEST). A burner for testing the candle power of illuminating oils Or ga.SeS. BURNER (PCOSMOS). A burner for testing the candle power of illuminating Oil S. BTURNING. The process of combustion in which the chemical combination of Oxygen with the fuel produces heat. BURNING OILS. Illuminating oils such as kerosene, Seal oil, signal oil, etc. BURNING TEST. See Burning Point. BURNING POINT. The temperature at which oil continues to burn after igni- tion, the test taking place under standard conditions. This is also called the “Fire TeSt.” BljRNT BEARING. A bearing which has become overheated and melted out through the lack of lubrication, improper lubricant, improper fitting, or overloading. BLRTRELL-ORSAT APPARATUS. A device used for the analysis of gases and gaseous products of combustion such as the gases from boilers or exhaust from gas engineS. BURTON PROCESS. A cracking process for increasing the yield of gasoline from crude. BUTANE. A light hydrocarbon paraffine compound (C4H10) existing in petro- leum and natural gas. i BUTYLENE. A light hydrocarbon of the olefine series (CAHs). BYERLYTE. An asphaltic pitch manufactured from petroleum. COPYRIGHT 1923 COMPILED BY Z–20 PETROLEUM AGE J. B. RATH BUN * \ } O PETROLEUM GLossary (Z-21) (A Dictionary of Words, Terms and Phrases) (C) C. Symbol for carbon. Ca. Symbol for the metallic element Calcium. CALCIUM (Ca). A metallic element of a silvery white color. It belongs to the alkaline earth group. CALCINE. To burn to ash, to roast, or to oxidize to solid oxide. CALCIUM CARBIDE (CaC2). A solid much resembling liméstone and made artificially by uniting carbon and calcium in the electric furnace. It is used for generating acetylene gas. CALCIUM CARBONATE (CaCO3). Contained in chalk and limestone. CALCIUM CHLORIDE (CaC12). Used for absorbing water vapor from gases (Drying), and in anti-freezing mixtures for gasoline engine radiators. CALCIUM HYDROXIDE (Ca (OH)2). A white powder of which slacked lime is an example. & CALORIE. The metric unit of heat quantity. It is the heat required to raise Water 1 kilogram (or 1 gram according to conditions), one degree Centigrade, or from 0 °C to 1 ° C. * CALORIFIC ENERGY. Heat energy. CALORIFIC VALUE. The quantity of heat contained in a unit weight of a fuel. CALORIMETER. A device used for measuring the quantity of heat contained in a unit weight of fuel. CALORIMETER (MAHLER BOMB). This instrument contains a pear shaped Steel bomb in which the fuel is placed together with the oxygen required for its combustion. It is immersed in a weighed jar of water, and the temperature rise of the water after ignition makes it possible to compute the amount of heat in the fuel. CALOPIMETER (PARR). Is somewhat similar to the Mahler Bomb above, but uses sodium peroxide or similar oxygen producing salt instead of gaseous Oxygen. CALORIMETER WATER EQUIVALENT. The quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of the apparatus by one degree (not the water). CALORIMETER (THROTTLING). A device for determining the percentage of water in steam, the evaporation of the water produced by a given amount of wire drawing or throttling being measured. CAMSHAFT. A shaft on a gas or gasoline engine (Four Stroke) which carries the çams used for Operating the valves. CANADOL (Ligroin). A light petroleum ether often used as a local anesthetic, the rapid evaporation of the spray freezing and numbing the nerves. It is also used as a solvent. CANDLE POWER. The illuminating value of a standard candle placed one foot from the plane of observation. CANNEL COAL. A bituminous coal of the caking variety used for - the manu- facture of retort gas. CAPILLARY ATTRACTION. The effect of skin tension and absorption in making a fluid creep or crawl along a surface. When the absorption or attraction of a liquid for a solid surface is greater than the attraction between its own mole- cules, then the fluid will be forced along by the difference in skin tension. CAPILLARY FEED. Bearings in which the lubricating oil is supplied by a Wick. COPYRIGHT 1923 COMPILED BY Z 21 PETROLEUM AGE J. B. RATHEUN * PETROLEUM GLossaRY (z-22) (A Dictionary of Words, Terms and Phrases) CAPILLARY TUBES. Glass tubes of very small diameter used to obtain a dis- tinct capillary effect, and to cause a rise of fluid in the tubes of considerable . magnitude. CAPILLARY VISCOSIMETER. A type of viscosimeter or instrument for measuring the Viscosity of oil, in which advantage is taken of the relations existing between viscosity and capillarity. CAR OIL. A black summer oil used for car journals and other rough ma- Chinery. CARBENE. A component of bitumen, soluble in carbon disulphide but not Soluble in carbon tetrachloride. CARBIDE. A binary compound of carbon such as calcium carbide. This term is often popularly applied to Calcium Carbide. CARBOLIC OIL. Consists largely of naphthalene and phenol, together with pyridine and cresol. It is an oil obtained by the distillation of coal tar. CARBON (C). A non-metallic elementary solid existing in three different physical forms:. (1) A black hard solid as in coke and charcoal; (2) As a soft, flaky and greasy Solid such as graphite; (3) In a white crystalline form as in the diamond. The element carbon is the base of all hydrocarbons and is capable of combining with hydrogen in almost any proportion, this property resulting in almost numberless hydrocarbon compounds. Carbon is the base of all present time com- Unercial fuels, existing in some form in coal, petroleum and wood. CARBONACEOUS. Material containing carbon. CARBON (BATTERY). Carbon rods or plates of hard porous carbon used as the positive electrodes of primary batteries. CARBON BISULPHIDE. See Carbon Disulphide. CARBON BLACK (LAMP BIACR). The soot formed by burning natural gas With an insufficiency of air. This is much used in the manufacture of paints, elec- tric and battery carbons, and as a rubber tire filler. It is very finely subdivided and mixes well with paint vehicles. CARBON BRUSHES. Blocks of hard or graphitic carbon used for making con- tact with the commutator or collector rings of electric motors, generators, and other electric devices. The carbon is well adapted for making rubbing contact on metal. CAREON CONTENT. The amount (Percentage) of carbon contained. CAIRBON (CONRAIDSON). A test for the carbon forming properties of lubri- Cating oils. CARBON DEPOSITS. Continued heating of petroleum products at high tem- perature decomposes the oils and forms deposits of solid carbon. This is due to the breaking up of the hydrocarbon molecule. CARBON DIOXII) E (CO2). A colorless, odorless gas formed by the complete combustion of carbon. It is incombustible since this gas is the lowest form to which carbon can be burned. Any fuel, properly burned and containing carbon, produces carbon dioxide. It is not poisonous, but will suffocate by displacing the pure air. The percentage of carbon dioxide in the exhaust gases of an internal combustion engine, or in the smoke stack gases of a furnace, is indicative of the thoroughness of the combustion. COPYRIGHT 1923 COMPILED BY Z-22 PETRO LEU M AGE J. B. RATHE UN t PETROLEUM GLossARY (z-23) (A Dictionary of Words, Terms and Phrases) CARBON DIOXIDE APPARATUS. A device used for analyzing exhaust and smoke stack gases, and for determining he amount of carbon dioxide existing in the products of combustion. The Orsat apparatus is an example of this sort of device. CARBON DIOXIDE RECORDER. A device making a continuous record of the carbon dioxide existing in exhaust and stack gases. Usually applied to large boiler plants where it is desirable to know the conditions of combustion at any hour of the day. g y * CARBON DIOXIDE REFRIGERATION. A refrigerating system in which carbon dioxide gas is used as the transfer medium. The gas is compressed in a CARBON DIOXIDE COMPRESSOR until it liquefies, and this liquid is then led to the point where cooling is desired and is expanded through a valve to a lower pressure. During expansion the liquid changes back into gaseous form and in so doing absorbs large quantities of heat from surrounding objects. This gas is again compressed, and again passed through the expansion valve in a continuous circuit. CARBON DISULPHIDE (CS2). A highly refractive colorless liquid having an intensely disagreeable smell, much like rotten eggs. It is principally used as a solvent for carbon compounds. It is volatile and inflammable. CARBONS (ELECTRIC). Carbon used as battery electrodes, brushes, electric furnace electrodes, arc lamp carbons, etc. CARBON ELECTRODES (FURNACE). In “Arc" type electric furnaces large carbon bars are used, the ends of the bars being slightly separated so that an electric arc or flame is established between the two. This gives an intensely hot flame adapted to metallurgical operations. (2). The carbon plates used in some electrolytic operations, the two plates being immersed in a fluid serve as a means of passing a reducing current through the solution for the separation of various elements dissolved. CARBON FILAMENT LAMP. A lamp of an old type (Incandescent lamp), in which the glowing filament is made of carbon thread. Such lamps are not as efficient as the more modern tungsten filament lamps. CARBON (FIXED). Solid carbon in a compound which cannot be distilled. (2). The solid carbon in coal which remanis as “Coke" after the more volatile hydrocarbons are driven off by heating in closed vessels. (3). The carbon in the heavy residues left after the distillation of crude petroleum. CARBON FREE. (1) Free from mechanically suspended carbon or solid carbon particles. A petroleum hydrocarbon compound can never be entirely carbon free for the reason that carbon is the basis of the compound, but it can be freed largely of solid floating carbon or unstable hydrocarbons which quickly break down into carbon at low temperatures (2). The carbonaceous matter in tars not soluble in carbon disulphide CARBON FREEZING. The production of low temperatures by means of the rapid evaporation of carbon dioxide or carbon dioxide snow. CARBON (GRAPHITIC). A form of solid carbon in which the particles are soft and greasy, and make marks on paper The lead pencil has a graphite rod. CARBONIZE. (1). To convert into carbon. To char, (2). To impregnate or saturate with carbon, forming carbides. Thus, in casehardening steel, the steel is heated in contact with carbonaceous materials, the carbon combining with the steel forming a hard skin. (3). Refers to the casehardening process. COPYRIGHT 1923 COMPILED BY PETROLEUM AGE J. B. RATHBUN Z-23 PETROLEUM GLoss ARY (z-24) (A Dictionary of Words, Terms and Phrases) CARBON KNOCK. A knock or pounding in a gas or gasoline engine caused by incandescent carbon deposits in the cylinders. The heated carbon causes the fuel to detonate or explode and also causes “Preignition” or ignites the fuel before the end of the compression stroke. CARBONS (LIGHTING). The carbon rods used in electric arc lights, between which the electric arc or spark is main- tained. CARBON MONOXIDE (CO). A colorless poisonous gas resulting from the incomplete combustion of carbon when burned with insufficient air or oxygen. This gas is inflammable and can be further burned to carbon dioxide. The existence of large volumes of carbon monoxide in exhaust gases or chimney gases indicates imperfect combustion and an insufficient supply or distribution of air. It always exists to some extent in practice but an excess should be avoided. CARBONIC ACID. See Carbon Dioxide. CARBONATE. To impregnate with carbon dioxide. Thus carbonated water is water in which large volumes of carbon dioxide are dissolved. (2). A compound formed by carbon dioxide. *g CARBON PACKING. A form of packing used around the shaft of a steam turbine which consists of a series of segmental carbon plates forced in contact with the shaft by springs. CARBON RESIDUE. The solid carbon deposit or residue left after a complete distillation of petroleum. CARBON RESIDUE TEST. A test made for the estimation of the carbon residue formed by an oil. It is performed both for crude oils and lubricating oils. CARBON SUSPENDED. Free floating particles of carbon in a liquid. CARBON TEST (COMBUSTION METHOD). A burning test made to determine the total amount of carbon in a compound or in mechanical solution. CARBON TEST (COLOR). An approximation to determine the carbon content by the comparison of the color of a fluid with the color of a standard solution. This is quicker than the combustion methèd. CARBON TEST (CONRADSON). A means of determining the solid residual carbon in petroleum distillates, principally in lubricating oils. This method is practically standard in the United States. CARBON TETRACHLORIDE (CCIA). A solvent fluid, non-inflammable, having a powerful, pungent odor. Also used for fire extinguishers. CARBON (WOLATILE) (WOLATILE HYDROCARBONS). That portion of the carbon constituent of coal which may be vaporized and driven off by heating or distilling at moderate temperatures. This component includes the oils and tars found in coal. CARBURET. (1). To charge a gas with carbon. (2). To charge air with a hydrocarbon vapor in such proportions that a combustible mixture is formed. Thus the carbureted mixture used in gasoline engines is produced by charging air with gasoline vapor. * CARBURETED HYDROGEN. Hydrogen gas charged with carbon to form a hydrocarbon gas. Methane (CH4) is often termed “Light Carbureted Hydrogen.” e * * COPYRIGHT 1923 COMPILED BY ETROLEUM AGE J. B. RATHBUN Z-24 PETROLEUM GLossary (z-25) * (A Dictionary of Words, Terms and Phrases) CARBURETED WATER GAS. The water gas produced by passing steam through incandescent coal is afterwards given a charge of oil vapor to increase the luminosity. CARBURETER. A device used on a gasoline engine (and a few kerosene engines) for carbureting air with gasoline vapor. CARBURETER (DUPLEX). A double jet carbureter feeding two banks or “Blocks” of cylinders, both jets being contained within a single housing. CARBURETER (JET TYPE). A carbureter in which the gasoline is sprayed into the mixing chamber through a jet or nozzle. CARBURETER (SURFACE TYPE). A carbureter (old type) in which the air is passed Over the Surface of the gasoline or bubbled up through it, the evaporation pro- Viding the vapor. Another form consists of a series of cotton wicks dipping in the fluid, the wicks extending the evaporating surface. CARBURETTER. English method of spelling carbureter. CARCEL LAMP. A. French standard lamp for measuring candle power. This lamp burns Colza. Oil. CARIUS METHOD. A method of determining the Sulphur content of petroleum. CARNOT CYCLE. An ideal cycle of expansion and compression in a heat engine, a perfect gas being assumed (Theoretical proposition). The cycle consists of two iso- thermal and two adiabatics. The availability of heat energy for transformation into mechanical energy is given by the efficiency of the Carnot cycle. CARPET. An asphaltic top dressing of some thickness applied to the top of a road bed (generally as a repair), finely crushed stone or gravel being imbedded in the surface of the material. Granite chips are often used. This is thick enough to fill up the minor ruts and Voids. CASES. Drums in which Oils are air blown. CASE HARDENING. See Carbonizing. CASE HARDENING BATH. A bath generally containing molten potassium cyan- ide, the steel parts being dipped in the cyanide for carbonization. CASE HARDENING FURNA CE. A form of furnace in which the Steel is heated in contact with carbonaceous matter so as to form a hardened high carbon skin over the Still parts. CASING. A. Steel pipe placed in the bore of an oil well to line it and thus prevent dirt and water from filling up the well. CASINGHEAD. A fitting fastened to the top of the well casing to retain and separate the oil and gas, and to afford a connection by which the gas can be piped from the well. It also affords a Connection for the Oil pipes which carry away the Oil. CASINGHEAD GAS (WET GAS). A natural gas obtained from an oil well and therefore rich in oil vapors. So called because it is taken out through the casinghead of the well. Casinghead gas is the source of casinghead gasoline. CASINGHEAD GASOLINE. A very light volatile gasoline obtained by compression or absorption of casinghead (natural) gas and its vapors. This gasoline is too volatile for safety in shipping or handling and is afterwards mixed with naphtha to increase the volatility. COPYRIGHT 1923 COMPILED BY Z-2 5 PETROLEUM AGE J. B. RATHE UN !-ºil--- -*. PETROLEUM GLossary (Z-26) (A Dictionary of Words, Terms and Phrases) # CASINGHEAD GASOLINE (ABSORPTION METHOD). In this process the wet natural gas is passed through absorber towers in contact with a heavy petroleum oil such as “seal Oil,” the oil absorbing and retaining the gasoline vapors. The mixture of oil and gasoline is afterwards distilled to remove the gasoline, and the heavy oil is then recirculated through the System. N CASINGHEAD GASOLINE (COMPRESSION METHOD). In this case the wet natural gas is compressed to about 250 pounds per square inch and then cooled. This condenses the greater part of the gasoline as a liquid. CASPIAN CRUDE. Russian crude oil from the shores of the Caspian Sea. CAST. The fluorescence or bloom of an oil. The colors Of Surface reflection seen in most heavy petroleum oils. CASTOR OIL. A vegetable lubricating oil obtained from the castor bean. It is very heavy and viscous and is used for extremely heavy service or under severe heating conditions as in the cylinders of rotary air cooled aeronautic engines. CASTROL. The trade name of an English brand of castor aviation oil. CATALYSIS. A chemical reaction taking place due to the contact of a substance known as a “Catalytic Agent,’’ the catalytic agent undergoing little or no chemical change during the process. Thus, a cool hydrocarbon gas will not ordinarily 'take fire on making contact with the air, but if platinum black is placed in the gas stream, the atmospheric Oxygen will innmediately combine with the Oxygen and ignite. The catalytic in this case is the platinum, and it undergoes little or no change in the ignition process. The presence of such salts as aluminum chloride in petroleum during distillation is said to affect the quality of the distillate but remain practically un- affected themselves. CATHODE. The negative pole of an electric circuit. CAUSTIC. Corrosive, capable of eating away or destroying matter. Especially applied to the destructive action of powerful alkalis such as the hydroxides. CAUSTIC LIME (QUICK LIME). CO (OH)2. Calcium hydroxide. CAUSTIC POTASH (LYE). (KOH). Potassium Hydroxide. CAUSTIC SODA. (NaOH). Sodium hydroxide (Hydrate). CAUSTICITY. An excess of lime in boiler feed water compounds. The measure of Caustic action. CAUTIFRIZE: To burn or destroy with a caustic substance. CC. Abbreviation for cubic centimeters. Ce. Symbol for Cerium. C. F. M. Abbreviation for cubic feet per minute. CEILING. The maximum height to which an areoplane can ascend. CELL. A single element of an electric battery. (2) A pore. CELLULOSE. The woody fiber of plants. (2) Any material made from the fiber of plants takes its name from Cellu, such as celluloid, Cellulose acetate, etc. CELSIUS. A thermometer scale on which the Centigrade temperature system is based. CEMENT. A substance by which two bodies are made to adhere, such as waxes, calcined limestones, gelatines, asphaltun, bitumen, etc. CENTI. One-one hundredth part of (1/100). CENTIGRADE. A thermometer scale with the zero point at the freezing tempera- ture of water and the boiling point at 100 degrees. The range between boiling and freezing is divided into 100 degrees. The metric thermometer scale, usually adopted by laboratories in all countries. CENTIMETER. A. metric unit Of length. 1 inch = 2.54 centimenters. 1 Centimeter = 0.3937 in Ch. COPYRIGHT 1923 COMPILED BY Z–26 PETRO LEU M A GE J. B. RATHEUN O / PETROLEUM GLossary (z-27) (A Dictionary of Words, Terms and Phrases) f . CENTIPOISE. The one-hundredth part of a Poise, an absolute unit of fluid Viscosity. CENTRIFUGAL FORCE. A force developed by the rotation of a body which tends to throw the body away from the center of rotation. Acts tangent to circle of travel. e CENTRIFUGAL FAN (Blower). A form of air or gas blower in which the pressure is developed by rapidly rotating the gas or air by paddles within a specially formed housing. The rotation and mass of the air creates a casing pressure which tends to draw the air in at the center of rotation and to expel it in a direction tangent to the Outer circle described by the tips of the paddles. Used for low pressures, 44 to 10 Ollnces per Square inch. CENTRIFUGAL BILOWER. Same as the fan, but generally adopted for higher preSSures. CENTRIFUGAL PUM.P. Same principle as the Centrifugal fan except that water Or Other liquid is used in place of air. CENTRIFUGAL SEPARATOR. A separator acting by the difference in weigh of two substances. At high speed rotation, the heavier particles are thrown outward with greater force than the lighter particles, thus creating zones in which the various items may be picked Off during rotation. The materials may be placed in a rotating pain, Or the centrifugal force may be developed by turning fluids or gases quickly around turns Or baffle plates. CENTRIFUGAL SPRAY NOZZLE. A nozzle utilizing centrifugal force in break- ing a liquid into Spray as in the mechanical fuel oil burners or in Washing devices. CENTRIFUGE. A laboratory device used to perform a quick separation of Sub- stances of different gravity by rapid rotation. The samples are placed in a small grad- uated bottle, and are then rapidly whirled on the centrifuge. The heavier, component is thrown to the bottom and the percentage can be read from the graduations On the Side of the centrifuge bottles. J CENTRIFUGAL GOVERNOR. A speed regulating device used on engines by which the speed of rotation affects the attitude of two rotating balls or weights, any variation in Speed causing the balls to assume a new plane of rotation and at the same time to cut off or increase the flow Of Steam Or gas. - C. G. Abbreviation for center Of gravity. C. G. S. SYSTEM. A metric System of units involving basic measurements. The letters are abbreviations for CENTIMETER, GRAM, SECOND, system. The unit of length is the centimeter, the unit of weight is the gram, and the unit of time is the second. This system is extensively used in scientific work. CERESINE. A mineral wax, made from purified ozokerite. CHAIN COMPOUNDS. Hydrocarbon compounds in which the hydrogen and carbon atoms are bound together in “Chain” form, that is, the hydrogen atoms are linked to the carbon atoms in straight lines. Examples of chain compounds are the paraffine hydrocarbons such as methane, ethane, and propane. Cl. Symbol for Chlorine Gas. CHAIN LUBRICANTS. Greases used for the lubrication of chains. Such lubri- cants should be highly adhesive, and where the chain is not protected should be water- proof. They should attract a minimum amount of dust and grit. CHAIN (SILENT). A chain belt built up of thin links placed side by side, the teeth of adjacent links fitting into a single sprocket tooth space, and pivoted in scissors fashion, Such chains run accurately on the pitch line With Out noise or shocks at high Speed. CHARACTERISTICS. The essential properties of a material Or device, or their measure in terms of effectiveness. COPYRIGHT 1923 COMPILED BY Z 27 PETROL EU M AGE J. B. RATHE UN - * PETROLEUM GLossary (Z-28) (A Dictionary of Words, Terms and Phrases) CHAR. To reduce to carbon by heating a carboniferous body without air or in a deficiency of air. CHARCOAL. (1) Impure solid carbon formed by highly heating wood (Char- ring) in the absence of air. (2) Animal charcoal is formed by charring bones (Bone Black). The wood charcoal is used as fuel in making some grades of pig iron and as a filtering medium for purifying liquids. Animal Charcoal or “Bone Black” is used as a pigment in paints, and also as a filtering medium in filtering oil. CHARGE. To put in. (2) The material put in or injected. (3) The amount of combustible mixture taken into the cylinder during the suction stroke. (4) To fill a storage battery. t CHART. A graph or diagram showing the relation between two or more quanti- ties by means of a series of curved or straight lines. A chart is a diagrammatic means of showing numerical relations without figures or without the necessity for making calculations. Tables of figures are erroneously called charts. CHASE. The rifled portion of a large gun in which the projectile makes contact, or the portion of the bore in which the projectile rubs. CHASSIS. The running gear of an automobile exclusive of the body. In some cases this is meant to include the engine and transmission (Power plant), but strictly speaking it should only apply to the frame, wheels, axles, brakes and springs. In other words, chassis should apply only to the corresponding parts of a horse drawn buggy or wagon, to which the term originally applied. CHATS. Small stones used in paving. CHECKERWORK. A series of firebrick pigeon holes, or a series of perforated brick walls used to gain extended heating surface in heating gases. It is a series of brick walls built with alternate bricks missing, the Wall forming a baffle plate so as to insure contact with every particle of the gas. The checker work is enclosed in tight chambers and is usually operated in alternate order—that is, a stream of hot gas is first pulled through the chambers to heat them, and then the gas to be heated is drawn through the heated brick structure. lººse (PARAFFINE). The paraffine from the press which is saturated W] Oll. CHEESE PROTECTION. Edible cheese may be protected against dirt and sweating by covering it with a thin coating of paraffine. ** CHEMISTRY. The science of matter, the composition of matter, and the com- binations which may be attained by the mixture of various substances. CHEMICAL AIFFINITY. The tendency of one substance to enter into a chem- ical combination with another substance. CHEMISM. The measure of a tendency toward the combination of two ele- ments or compounds. Thus the chemism of sulphuric acid in regard to the metal sodium is greater than that of chlorine, for sulphuric acid will form Sodium sulphate ; sodium chloride, the sulphuric acid driving out the hydrochloric acid in so O1118. CHILLERS. A piping system through which the wax distillate is run to chill the Wax and thus separate it from the oil. CHILL POINT. The temperature at which flakes of wax start to form in a liquid, or (2) The temperature at which a lubricating oil starts to congeal. CHLORINE (CI). An elementary greenish-yellow gas. It enters into com- bination with nearly all metals to form chlorides or chlorates, common Salt being an example of a chloride. Often used for bleaching or color removal. COPYRIGHT 1923 COMPILED BY Z-28 PLETROL EU M A GE J. B. RATH BTUN PETROLEUM GLossARY (z-29) (A Dictionary of Words, Terms and Phrases) CHLORINATION. Treatment of a substance with chlorine gas for bleaching, clarifying or for the removal of some element. The Odors of some gasolines are ‘removed by treatment with dry chlorine gas, and it is also used as a bleaching medium With some oils. CHLORIDE OF LIME (CALCIUM CHLORIDE). See Calcium Chloride. CHROMIUIM (Cr). An element (metallic) used in alloying steels and for various chemical processes. CHROMOMETER. An instrument used to determine the color of oils according to some fixed scale. The Saybolt Chromometer is an example. CIRCULATING PLMP. A pump for circulating oil through the lubricating System. CIRCUILATING SYSTEM (OIL). An oil pump system in which the lubricating oil is fed to the desired point, then drains down to a pump through a strainer, and is again taken up by the pump suction for re-circulation. The oil is thus used over and over again. This system may be subdivided into many minor branches according to the pressure used and the method of applying the oil to the bearings. CIRCULATING AND SPLASH SYSTEM. A. lubricating system of the low pressure type used on automobile engines. The pump delivers the oil into a number of troughs (troughs supplied individually), the ends of the connecting rods splashing into the troughs and throwing oil on the bearings and the interior of the cylinders. The excess oil flows back into the crankcase together with the drip, and is recircu- lated by the pump after passing through a strainer. As the troughs are fed indi- vidually and are separate, the proper level is maintained in each trough regardless of the angle at Which the engine may be standing. CIRCUMFERENCE. The length of the perimeter of a circle. It is equal to the diameter multiplied by 3.1416. a' CIRCUMFERENTIAL VELOCITY. The velocity in , feet per minuté or feet per second at the circumference of a rotating circular disc or wheel. It is equal to the circumference in feet multiplied by the speed in revolutions per minute or revolu- tions per second, depending up On. Whether the Speed per minute Or Speed per second is required. In the case of a pulley, this is theoretically the same as the belt Speed, but actually the belt Speed is a little less, due to slipping. CIRCUIT. A path taken by a moving body or by an electric current. Thus, a lubrication circuit would be the path taken by the oil during its complete trip fro pump to drain. e CIRCUIT (CLOSED). A complete circuit, or path through, which , a fluid, or ºric current may circulate without interruption, always returning to the starting p01.mt. CIRCUIT (OPEN). A broken circuit or an incomplete circuit through which circulation cannot be maintained. CIRCUIT (SHORT). A défective path or circuit (leaking circuit) in such con- dition that the circulating fluid or current can return to the starting point Without going through all points of the circuit proper. CL. Symbol for Chlorine. CLARIFIER. A device for clarifying or for separating suspended solid matter from a liquid. CLAROLINE. A mineral oil having a specific gravity of 0.8667 at 15°C., and a viscosity of 4.4 Engler at 20 °C, Flash Point=150°C. It is used as a solvent or absorbent for natural gases. ^ COPYRIGHT 1923 COMPILED BY Z–29 PETROL EU M A GE J. B. RATHBUN PETROLEUM GLOSSARY (z-30) * (A Dictionary of Words, Terms and Phrases) CLEANING (DRYk). Cleaning fabrics with gasoline, benzine or naphtha. CLEVELAND FLASH TESTER. An open cup type of tester and used in the deter- mination of the flash points of oil, or the temperature at which the vapors alone Start to ignite. .* CLEARANCE., The space between a shaft and the bore of a bearing, measured on *i;e With the shaft in a central position. The clearance provides space for the I - CLOUD TEST. Temperature at which the oil “clouds” with flakes of paraffine When being cooled. (CO). Symbol for Carbon Monoxide. CO2. See Carbon Dioxide. COAGULATION. Curdling or forming clots of matter in a solution. (2) A means of Separating aluminous or colloidal matter from a solution. CQAGULANT. A substance producing coagulation. Alum, certain acids, and al- Cohol are examples of coagulants. SOAL.... A carbonaceous solid fuel occurring in beds or veins. The coal is supposed to be the remains of vegetation grown during the carboniferous era, carbonized and compacted by age and by the pressure of the earth. Coal may be divided into two principal classes, Bituminous (Soft) coal, and Anthracite (Hard), coal. ... The former contains much oil and tarry matter, while the latter consists principally of “fixed” or solid carbon. COAL ANALYSIS. The analysis of coal required for the determination of the com- bustible and non-combustible components as well as such destructive agents as sulphur... (1) PRQXIMATE, ANALYSIS in which , only the principal groups are given, Fixed Carbon, Volatile Hydrocarbons, Moisture, Ash, and Sulphur. (2) ULTIMATE ANALYSIS giving the percentage of elementary substances, Total Car- bon, Sulphur, Hydrogen, Oxygen, etc. COAL (ANTHRACITE). See Anthracite, Coal. COAL (ASH). Non-combustible mineral matter contained in all coals. COAL (BITUMINOUS). See Bituminous Coal. *. COAL (CARING). Bituminous Coals which swell when burning. COAL (CANNEL). Bituminous coal rich in gases and hydrocarbons. Suitable for the manufacture of retort gas and coal tar products. Contains a large percentage Of volatiles. COAL (CLINKERS). Clinkers are hard rock like lumps produced by the melting Of the ash contents of coal under heavy firing and with hot furnaces. COAL CALORIMETER. An instrument for determining the heat value of coal. COAL (CORING). Bituminous coal used for making coke and for blacksmith's fires. COAL (DTU LONG’S FORMULA). A formula for estimating the heating value of coals. B.t.u. per Lb. =14,544C+62,028 (H–(0/8)) +4050S, where C=percent of total carbon, H=percent of total hydrogen, O=percent of oxygen, and S=percent of Sulphur. COAL (FUEL RATIO OF). The content of fixed carbon divided by the content of Volatile matter is called the “Fuel Ratio.” The fuel ratio of anthracite is not less than 10, that of semi-anthracite is 6-10, Semi-bituminous is 3 to 6, and bituminous Coals up to 3. COAL GAS. Gas produced by the distillation of coal, in retorts or muffles. . This gas has a high illuminating value but is expensive. The distillation of Coal is a C- companied by such products as coal tar, benzol, ammonia, etc. Bituminous coal is used in this purpose and the final product is coke. COAL GRADING. See Coal Sizes. COAL (MINE RUN). Bituminous steam coal not graded but of mixed size as it Comes from mine. COAL (MOISTURE IN). The moisture naturally entrained within the coal and held in combination with the ash and sulphur. Not the water that might wet the surface of the lumps. A high percentage of moisture is objectionable for it is not only paid for by weight but also forms steam that reduces the heating Value. COPYRIGHT 1923 COMPILED BY sº Z 30 PETEOLEUM AGE J. B. RATHE UN imº y PETROLEUM GLossary (z-31) Q (A Dictionary of Words, Terms and Phrases) ~ COAL (NON-CAPCING). Coal which does not swell nor fuse when burning. COAL OIL. . An improper name applied to American illuminating oils such as kero. Sene. Petroleum products have nothing to do with coal. - COAL (PLASTICITY). The ash in coal has no true melting point but has different degrees of consistency or plasticity according to the coal and the temperature. Coals ÇOntaining ash which becomes plastic at a low temperature cause trouble by clinkering and are very objectionable when the coal is pulverized for burning. COAL (PULVERIZED). Finely pulverized coal has been used extensively of late, the coal dust being blown into the combustión chamber after preheating. This produces a roaring flame much like a gas or oil flame and gives an intense heat. Low grade, Small sized coal may be used but trouble is often experienced with the molten ash adhering to parts of the boiler. ta COAL (SEMI-ANTHRACITE). A coal containing more volatile matter than true anthracite, the fuel ratio being 6 to 10. CQAL (SEMI-BITUMINOUS). Coal containing less volatile matter than true bitu- nin Ous Coal. Fuel ratio 3 to 6. The semi-bituminous coals are the highest grade Steam Coal in the United States and cover such coals as Pocohontas. They are ſº in the Virginias, Maryland, and in Pennsylvania. Very little is found in the €St. CQAL SIZES (COMMERCIAL). Bituminous coal, as broken up in the mine and Without Screening, to size, is called “Mine Run” or “Run of Mine,” and is the Class most commonly used under boilers. Coal is graded by the mesh of the screen in inches, such as “34” lump, etc. The coal which passes one mesh and will refuse to pass another determines the grade. The actual dimensions of the lumps depend upon the way in which the coal breaks and the kind of screen used, and unfor- tunately there is no standard size of Screen or nomenclature in the different mining districts. Each district has an independent trade name and classification. All anthraclite passing through a 3/32-inch screen, for example, is called Buckwheat No. 4 (Penn.), but in other localities this is known as Birdseye. In the Lehigh region, the four sizes below /2-inch are designated as buckwheat, rice, barley and birdseye. In other localities, everything below stove coal is called “Screenings.” It Should be remembered that the delivered coal is always smaller than the mine Size since it is broken up by frequent handling, by exposure to the Weather, and Other factors. COAL TAR. A mixture of hydrocarbon ring compounds (Unsaturated hydrocar- bons) of the aromatic series, obtained by the distillation of bituminous coal. It is a thick black tarry fluid containing light oils, pyridine bases, phenols, naphthalines, anthracenes, anilines, heavy oils, etc. It varies greatly in composition and may be classified principally into “Retort Gas Tar,” and “Oven Gas Tar,” according to the method of production. The tars may be directly used as fuels, or they may be fur- ther broken up by distillation into benzene (Benzol), Naphthaline, etc. Aniline oil used in dyes is an important commercial product o' coal tar and is also the base of many pharmaceutical preparations. COAL TAR NAPHTHA. . The light oil distilled from goal tar which corresponds to the light products of petroleum. Redistillation of , the light oils results in benzene or automobile benzol, and toluol. In this country, the light Oils are the distillates lighter than water, and the heavy oils are those fractions which Sink in Water. COAL TAR OILS. Oils obtained by the distillation of coal tar, Classified into Light and Heavy oils. A light oil is one having, a specific gravity less than 1.000 and contains the coal tar naphthas. The heavy oils sink in Water and contain Such compounds as creosote, anthracene, anthracene oil, etc. COAL TAR PITCH. The residue left from the distillation of coal tar. Most of the tar is run to soft pitch, having a melting point from 60° C. to 80° C., but harder pitch may be had as well. \ COPYRIGHT 1923 COMPILED BY - §ſº J. B. RATHEUN Z–31 PETROLEUM GLossary (z-32) (A Dictionary of Words, Terms and Phrases) , CQAL TAR DERIVATIVES., Compounds derived from coal tar. This includes the Oils, naphthas, ammonia, sulphuric acid, soda, aniline, phenols, and almost number- less other compounds. COALESCENCE. To combine or unite into One body. Thus a number of rain drops coalesce to form a larger drop. COAT. See Carpet. COAT (WEARING). The top surface of a pavement exposed to traffic, or the layer exposed to wear. COEFFICIENT. A constant quantity or number used for multiplying. Thus, in the expression 27.5 Prmſ, the number 27.5 is the coefficient. (2) In certain engineering and chemical calculations, the coefficient is taken as being a numerical quantity (Constant) which gives the relation between a certain series of changes or events. Thus the ratio of the circumference (C) Of a circle to its diameter (d) is given by C = 3.1416d. In this case, 3.1416 is a constant relation holding between the diameter and circumference and is called the coefficient of the equation. COEFFICIENT OF EXPANSION. (1) LINEAR COEFFICIENT OF EXPANSION is the amount by which a unit length of a substance expands per degree difference in temperature, or is the percentage of expansion. (2) VOLUMETRIC EXTENSION is the increase in volume of a unit volume per degree of temperature change. This applies to Solids, liquids, and gases. COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION (SLIDING). The amount of force required to drag a certain weight referred to the weight acting perpendicular to the sliding surface. If is the measure of friction. The weight multiplied by the coefficient of friction gives the force necessary to drag the body, the force being parallel to the sliding Surface. The coefficient of friction varies with the nature of the surface, the material, and the degree of finish. COEFFICIENT OF FERICTION (STATIC-STARTING). The coefficient of friction obtained by dividing the force required to start the body sliding by the weight acting perpendicular to the surface. This is greater than the sliding friction in nearly all cases except with ball or roller bearings. It takes more force to “break a body loose” than to maintain it in constant motion. COG. See Gear. COGGING ROLLS. The roughing out rolls in a rolling mill. COHESION. The property of adherence between particles of a body which tend to hold the body in shape and which resists deformation by the application of an external force. - COKE. The solid or fixed carbon obtained from carbonaceous mineral matter such as coal or carbon by the distillation of the volatile hydrocarbons. (1) COAL CORE is obtained by distilling coal and driving off the tars and volatile matter. It is a light, brittle substance with a metallic luster and forms a hot smokeless fire. (3) PETRO- LEUM COKE is the coke formed in the still after all of the oils and tars have been driven off by distillation. It is used in making electric arc light carbons and iron moulder’s facing.S. CORING VALUE. (1) The amount of coke produced in a lubricating oil. (2) The amount of coke obtained from a unit quantity of crude petroleum. (3) The percentage of coke obtained per pound of coal. CORE OVEN TAR. Tar obtained by the distillation of coal in coke Ovens, or from byproduct ovens used in the steel industry. Made from bituminous coal. COPYRIGHT 1923 COMPILED BY / Z-32 PETROLEUTM A GE J. B. RATHE UN *. PETROLEUM GLossary (Z-33) (A Dictionary of Words, Terms and Phrases) COLD PRESSING. Chilling paraffine distillate to solidify the paraffine and then pressing it to remove the oil from the Wax. COLD PRESSED OIL. Oils extracted from the matrix or semi-Solid binder by pressing at ordinary termperatures, or at low temperatures. \, COLD TEST. A test made to determine the solidifying or congealing temperature of an oil. Of importances in lubricating oils since this determines the lowest tempera- ture at which the oil will flow through the lubricating system. COLLAR BEARING. See Bearing, Collar. COLLOID. (1) A jelly-like or gelatinous substance. (2) Extremely small particles of gelatinous matter dispersed in a fluid, or very small particles of liquid enclosed by a thin membrane or skin dispersed in a fluid. Thus, colloidal graphite is extremely fine graphite, so finely subdivided that it will remain permanently suspended in a fluid. Petroleum oils may be considered as built up of colloids, the heavier oils having a greater percentage of colloids than the lighter fractions. COLOR. The color of an oil by transmitted light or obtained by allowing the light to pass through a definite thickness of the fluid. The colors of the different petroleum oils are standardized in order to obtain uniformity of grade from a given crude, but this has but little practical value outside of a general classification. Thus we have, Water-White, Straw, Lemon, Pale Lemon, etc., and in some systems the various Colors are given significant numbers according to a standard Scale. COLOR TEST. A test to determine the color of a fluid. (2) A test to determine the Connposition of a fluid by Comparing its color with the color of a standard solution Containing a known percentage of the substance. Thus, in Steel analysis, a Color test is made for manganese and carbon, the color of a solution of the steel being compared with a Standard solution containing a known percentage of either carbon or manganese. COLORIMETER. An instrument for performing a color test or for analyzing by the color Comparison method. (2) PETROLEUM COLORIMETER consists of a device holding a sample tube of the given oil and a tube containing a standard Oil or a standard colored disc. The meter is so arranged that comparison can be quickly and agcurately made. COLZA. OIL. A vegetable oil sometimes known as Rapeseed Oil. It is used as a lubricant and as a Standard illuminant in some European measurements of candle power. (2) MINERAL COLZA. OIL is a petroleum substitute for colza. Oil. COMBUSTIBLE. (1) Capable of taking fire and burning. (2) That part of a fuel (coal or wood) which burns or gives off heat. This includes the carbon, hydrogen and sulphur, but not the ash nor moisture. It is expressed as a percentage of the total weight of the fuel. COMBUSTION. The process of burning or the chemical process of combining oxygen with a fuel to obtain heat, and sometimes light. Heat is developed by the process of combustion when Oxygen enters into connbination with carbon to form carbon monoxide or dioxide, and with hydrogen to form water vapor as a product of combustion. A definite annount of Oxygen is required for the combustion of a fuel. CQMBUSTION. CHAMBER. The clearance space left between the piston at the end of the stroke in an internal combustion engine. This includes all pockets, ports, and passages opening into the clearance space. COMBUSTION (AIR OF). Weight of air required to burn one lb. of combustible COMBUSTION (EXTERNAL). . . When the fuel is bunned outside of the working cylinder of a heat engine, as With the Steam engine where the fuel is burned under a boiler, the combustion is Said to be external, and the engine is known as an “External Combustion Engine.” COMBUSTION (INTERNAL). When the fuel is burned within the working cylinder of a heat engine, as with a gasoline or gas, engine, the combustion is “Internai,” and the engine is an “Internal Combustion Engine.” t COPYRIGHT 1923 COMPILED BY Z 33 F ETROL EU M AGE J. B. RATHE UN - PETROLEUM GLossary (z-34) (A Dictionary of Words, Terms and Phrases) COMBUSTION (RATES OF). (1) The weight of fuel burned per horsepower or pºnd of Water evaporated. (2) The weight of coal burned per square foot of grate SUII*I2,Cé. COMBUSTION (SPONTANEOUS). The combustion of a fuel due to the slow Oxidizing effect Of alr in passes through piles of the material. Fuels not combining With air at Ordinary temperatures are not subject to spontaneous combustion, but Substances such as animal or vegetable oils and other light hydrocarbons which oxidize at room temperatures, gradually healt up during the process until they finally reach the ignition temperature. Sulphur in coal hastens the process when piled in deep piles. Rags Saturated with animal or vegetable oils inflame more quickly than Cans of the oil since the rags greatly extend the surface exposed to the air, and therefore nasten oxidization. COMBUSTION (SURFACE). A method of combustion in which ignition takes place On a solid surface or in a defined zone, the air and fuel being injected together. One example of surface combustion is the gas where a mixture of air with gas Or air with oil vapor is forced through a porous wall, and ignited on the far side after passing through. Since the air is supplied with the gas it will burn along the surface regard- less of the atmospheric conditions. It will even burn under water. The flame Of Sur- Iace combustion is non-lumlnous. COMMUTATOR. A drum built up of insulated copper bars, each bar being connected With the armature winding of an electric dynamo or motor. It is used on continuous or direct current machines to convert the alternating current of the armature into the direct current used or supplied by the external circuit. Brushes pressing On the Com- mutator supply the armature current to a motor or remove the current in the case of a dynamo. There is sliding contact between the brushes and commutator. COMMUTATOR COMPOUND. A waxy substance, generally a compound of paraf- fine and beeswax, used to lubricate the brushes and commutator of a dynamo or motor, and to reduce Sparking and cutting. sº COMPOUND. (1) A complex substance consisting of two or more elements in chemical combination. Water is a compound of hydrogen and Oxygen, petroleum is a compound of carbon and hydrogen. (2) To mix different sorts of oils together, thus a vegetable or animal oil with a petroleum oil. Steam cylinder oils are generally COm- pounds of petroleum oil and some animal oil such as tallow. COMPOUND ENGINE. An engine in which the expansion of the steam is carried out in two cylinders, the high pressure cylinder and the low. Steam from the boiler enters the high pressure cylinder, and after a partial expansion it is exhausted into the second Or, low pressure cylinder where the expansion is completed. COMPRESSION. The act of reducing volume and increasing the pressure of a gas. (2) The mixture of fuel and air in an internal combustion engine is compressed before igniting so as to increase the efficiency of combustion and to increase the power Output Of the engine. COMPRESSION (ADIABATIC). A method of compression in which heat is neither allowed to enter or leave the cylinder. The walls are considered as being perfectly in- sulated against loss of heat. Some exchange, however, always takes place in practice. COMPFESSION GASOLINE. Natural gasoline made by compression system. COMPRESSION (ISOTHERMAL). Compression in which the air or gas is kept at a COnStant temperature. COMPRESSION (NORMAL-POLY TROPIC). Compression as actually carried out in an internal combustion engine or compressor. This lies between the isothermal and a diabatic methods, for as the cylinder walls are of metal and are Water-jacketed, Some heat either enters or leaves the cylinder during compression. COMPRESSION PRESSURE. The compression of the combustible mixture used in an internal combustion engine varies with the class of fuel. With Carbureting engines the compression is higher with high grade or volatile gasolines than with the heavier grades, or is higher than with kerosene. With Diesel type engines which compress only pure air the permissible compression is much higher, say 600 pounds per square inch. COPYRIGHT 1923 COMPILED BY Z 34 PETROL EU M A GE J. B. RATHEUN ,- [. | PETROLEUM GLossary (z-35) * [. Af (A Dictionary of Words, Terms and Phrases) COMPRESSION (STEAM ENGINES). Steam is allowed to be compressed at the end of the stroke of a steam engine piston both to act as a cushion in bringing the reciprocating parts gradually to rest, and to reduce the effects of clearance. When the clearance space is filled with compressed exhaust steam, there is less waste of live Steam Since not so much is taken to uselessly fill the clearance. COMPRESSION SYSTEM. (1) A method of producing Casinghead gasoline in which the wet natural gas is complessed under about 250 pounds pressure. Under this preSSure the gasoline condenses at Ordinary temperatures and may be removed from the gas. (2) A refrigeration system in which a gas is compressed to liquefaction and is then allowed to expand into a gaseous state when in contact with the material to be COOled. The expansion and gasification of the liquid absorbs heat from the Sur- rounding objects. The gases used are annonia, Carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide and ethyl chloride. COMPRESSOR, A pump used to compress or increase the pressure of air or other gases. The former is known as an “Air Compressor,” while the latter is a “Gas Com- pressor.” In a mmonia, refrigeration an ‘‘Ammonia” compressor is used, but the con- struction of all these types is similar, differing only in minor details. COMPRESSOR OILS. Oils used for the cylinders of air compressors. It should not form carbon deposits nor have a tendency to explode under the temperatures and pressures used. It is sometimes colored violet to distinguish it from Other oils. Usually, this is a comparatively light oil of low or medium viscosity, but use alone will tell what is required on any particular compressor. COMPRESSORS (CENTRIFUGAL). Blowers or fans designed for high pressures. COMPRESSORS (SINGLE STAGE). Compression is completed in One cylinder. COMPRESSORS (TURBINE TYPE). Compressors similar in construction to Steam turbines, there being blading on the running wheels which forces the air into corre- sponding stationary blading. They may be called SINGLE STAGE compressors when the compression is completed within one compartment or MUT, TI-STAGE compressors when the air is progressively compressed in a series of chambers. The latter are used for high pressures and efficiencies. COMPRESSORS (TWO STAGE). A compressor in which the air is connpressed progressively in two cylinders or in two stages. It is taken first into the low pressure cylinder (first stage) and compressed to a moderate pressure. After leaving this cylinder it passes through an INTERCOOLER where the heat of compression is removed and then enters the second “High pressure” cylinder where the compression is Com- pleted (second stage). This is more economical than single stage compression. CONCENTRATE. (1) To increase the strength by decreasing the bulk. (2) The material concentrated or the “boiled down” and thickened (strengthened) liquor. CONCRETE (CEMENT). An artificial stone made by mixing crushed stone, gravel Or slag with a mortar made up of sand and a calcined cement such as Portland cement. CONCRETE (ASPHALT). See Asphalt Concrete. CONCRETE FORM OIL. A non-viscous neutral oil used to prevent the concrete from adhering to the wooden or metal concrete, forms. Gravity 34° Baumé, viscosity 80° Saybolt. CONCRETE WATERPROOFTNG OIL. Black Summer Oil. CONDENSE. (1) to make smaller or more compact. (2) To change into a more dense form as in reducing a gas or vapor to a liquid State, this being accomplished by subjecting the vapor to pressure, to a reduced temperature, or both. CONDEN SER. A device used for condensing vapors or gases to liquids. It gen- erally consists of a double, compartment chamber or a series of cooling pipes, one side of which carries the vapor and the other contains the cooling medium. The heat transfer takes place through the intervening walls flowing from the vapor. * COPYRIGHT 1923 COMPILED BY Z 3 5 PETRO LEU M A G E J. B. RATHEUN * ' ,- PETROLEUM GLossary (z-36) (A Dictionary of Words, Terms and Phrases) i CONDENSER (AIR-COOLED). A condenser in which the vapor heat is removed by air currents passing Over radiating surfaces. CONDENSER (BAROMETRIC). See Barometric Condenser. CONDENSER (FRACTIONATING). A condenser arranged so that the various vapors of a compound fluid are condensed in order of their boiling points and hence are separated individually from the compound. Thus with a liquid such as crude petroleum, the various light vapors are condensed progressively as they pass through the condenser, the light gasolines first, the naphthas next, and then the kerosenes, this separating the constituents according to the temperature and distance traveled through the COndenser. : CONDENSER (JET). A condenser in which a jet of water spray is introduced directly into the vapor for condensing purposes, the water coming into direct contact with the vapor. CONT) ENSER (STEAM ENGINE). A condenser is sometimes used for condensing the exhaust steam of a steam engine, the condensation producing a vacuum which decreases the back pressure on the engine and which therefore increases the effective pressure on the piston without calling for an increased expenditure of coal. This increases the output and efficiency of the engine or turbine. It also saves the pure boiler Water, a feature of importance with salt water craft. CONDENSER (SURFACE). A condenser in which the steam (or vapor) is separated from the cooling water by a thin partition, the condensed vapor being kept separate from the cooling medium. In such condensers, the water generally is circu- lated through tubes, the tubes being placed in the steam space. CONDENSATE. The liquid produced by the condensation of a vapor or gas. CONGEAL. To thicken or increase the consistency of a fluid by reducing its temperature, either to a Solid or to a semi-liquid pasty state. CONGEALATION TEMPERATURE. The temperature at which a fluid becomes a solid Or is reduced to a pasty state of standard consistency. Thus various tests on the congealation temperature all give different results as all tests do not agree on the final consistency of that material. In the pour test, the consistency is taken as that which will just prevent the liquid from flowing. As a matter of fact, all liquids suffer some degree Of congealation at all temperatures, CONRAIDSON TEST. See Carbon TeSt. CONSISTENCY. The degree of solidity or “thickness” of a fluid. The reverse of fluidity. Consistency of a fluid is the degree to which the molecules resist deforma- tion or internal motion within the mass. Viscosity or “body.” CONSISTOMETER. An instrument for determining the hardness of consistency of semi-fluids Such as asphalts, lubricating greases or very thick and heavy oils. CONSTANT. An invariable number, or a number which denotes a fixed relation between two or more quantities. CONSTANTIN. A metal having a constant electrical resistance under all tempera- ^ tures. CONSTANT PRESSURE ENGINE. An internal combustion engine in which the pressure of combustion remains constant during a considerable movement of the piston or during a change of volume. The Diesel oil engine is an example of this type. CONSTANT VOLUME ENGINE. An internal combustion engine in which all combustion is completed at a constant volume, the pressure varying through the entire expansion stroke. Engines of the carbureting type belong to this order, or engines that are spark ignited. It is here assumed that all combustion is completed before the working stroke begins. CONTOUR MAP. A map in which the elevations and depressions are indicated by curved lines or “contours,” each line representing an area, that is at a constant elevation marked on that line. CONVECTION. The transfer of heat by movements of a gas or fluid (circulation), the particles of the fluid transferring heat from one surface to another by their move- ments. Such movement is generally induced by difference in temperature existing in different parts of the mass. COIPYRIGHT 1923 COMPILED BY Z 36 PETRO LEU M AG E J. B. RATHE UN -8. PETROLEUM GLossaRY (z-37) s O O * (A Dictionary of Words, Terms and Phrases) CONVERSE. In a reverse sense, or oppositely. Thus. water becomes steam, and conversely, Steam becomes water (by condensation). CONVERSION. Changing from one state to another, or from one term to another. CONVERTER. A deviće for changing alternating current into direct current or direct current intº alternating current. Converters are divided into a number of different types according to their construction: Armature converters, electrolytic con- Verters, and the vibrating reed type. The type of most interest here is the armature type Which has the general outside appearance of a dynamo or motor, but which is provided with double current collecting devices, a commutator for the direct current and a set of collector rings for the alternating current end. This is the type in use in large power stations. CONVERSION FACTORS. Constants or number required to change a set of dimen- Sional units into terms of other dimensional units. Thus, to change inches into milli- meters Or millimeters into inches; pounds to kilograms; British thermal units into horsepower, etc. COOLANT OILS. Oils used in cutting operations to keep the tools cool or lubri- Cated. COOLING SYSTEM. COPPER (Cu). An elementary metal having a reddich cast, soft and heavy. COPPER ALLOYS. Metal mixtures containing copper such as brass, bronze, etc. These are also known as “Non-Ferrous Alloys.” COPPER CHLORIDE (CuCl). A reagent or chemical used for determining the a mount of Carbon monoxide in a gas, the chloride being capable of absorbing large Volumes of CO. Copper chloride is also used to some extent in refining processes, as a Catalytic agent or as a decolorizer. COPPER OXIDE (CuC). Used for removing the odor and color of cracked gasoline. CORE BARREL. CORROSION TESTS FOR OILS. The amount of free acid contained in an oil is indicated by immersing a polished copper strip in the oil for a given length of time and noting the effects produced on the surface. If the copper strip is blackened or Otherwise discolored, acid is present in quantity. COSINE (Cos). Trignometric. Ratio of base to hypotenuse in right angle triangle. COSMOLENE (COSMOLINE). Is a trade name for petroleum jelly or vaseline. COTANGENT (Cot). Trignometric. Ratio of base to altitude of triangle. COTTON SEED OIL (SEMI-DRYING). Is used as a drier but is not suitable for lubrication although often used as an adulterant of rapeseed oil and lard oil. COTTONSEED OIL (BLOWN). Blown cottonseed oil is used as a substitute for blown rapeseed oil in the manufacture of marine steam cylinder oils but is not desir- able. It is used as a cutting oil and produces a finely finished surface. COVE OIL. A 36° Be, mineral oil compounded with a seed oil. COUNTER, CURRENT. When two fluids, on either side of a partition, flow in Opposite directions, the flow is said to be “counter-current flow.” Counter-current Con- densers Or Counter-current heaters are those in which the flow of the water and Steam is in Opposite directions. Cr. Symbol for Chromium. C. R. Abbreviation for Cold Rolled Shaft. CRACK (PYROGENIC DECOMPOSITION). A petroleum is said to be “cracked” when its molecule is decomposed by heat into lower hydrocarbons of the same series, this generally resulting in the production of hydrocarbons of lower Specific gravity than the original petroleum. Pressure plays a part in the decomposition. CRACKING DISTILLATION. A process of petroleum distillation by which the yield of gasolines and light oils is increased over that naturally contained in the crude by high temperature or high pressure distillation. This includes the Burton process, GreenStreet process, and Rittman process. \ CRACKED DISTILLATE. A light distillate that has been produced from a heavier oil by the cracking process. COPYRIGHT 1923 COMPILED BY * PETROLEUM AGE J. B. RATHEUN Z-37 PETROLEUM GLOssary (z-38) (A Dictionary of Words, Terms and Phrases) *; A “CENTER-CRANK ENGINE’’ is one in which a shaft extends on either side of the crank or which has a bearing on either side of the crank. CRANK. . A bar or lever rotating or oscillating at one end about a fixed axis. The free or swinging end is connected by a linkage to a slider to which the crank gives a reciprocating motion. A device for converting rotary motion into reciprocating motion OI VICe VerS2. CRANK ANGLE. The angle made by the centerline of the crank with the center- line of the cylinders or the centerline of the attached slider. (2) The angle through which the Crank turns in a unit time. * CRANK AIRM. The lever or bar member of a crank. (2) The EFFECTIVE CRANP& AIRM is the actual length Of the arm, and is the distance from the center of rotation drawn perpendicular to the line Of force applied to the free end of the crank. This may Or may not be in material form. CRANPC DISC. A form of crank in which a circular disc acts as a crank, the center of rotation being at the center of the circle, while a pin or other connection is made at a point near the circumference. CRANPCCASE. A case enclosing the cranks or crankshaft. CRANPCCASE OIL. A viscous oil placed in the crankcases of engines for the Splash lubrication of the main bearings and cylinders. Subject to high temperatures and preSSures. CRANK (CENTER). A crank which is located near the center of the shaft, or with the central shaft extending on either side Of the crank. There are two crank arms. CRANK END. The end of the cylinder next to the crank. CRANK (OFFSET). A crank whose center does not lie On the center or line of slider. Thus, in Some automobile engines, the center of the shaft is to one side of the cylinder centerline or is “Offset.” This reduces the side thrust and wear of the piston on the cylinder walls. CRANP&PIN (WRIST PIN). A pin or short section of shaft placed at the swinging end of the crank arm to which the connecting rod is attached, or to which the recipro- Cating Slider is attached. CRANKS (QUARTERED). A crankshaft in which two or more cranks are set at “Quarters”; that is, the cranks are placed at right angles with one another. This º: a Steam engine to start by itself from any position as there are now no dead Center S. CRANKSHAFT (CRANKED SHAFT). A shaft containing one or more cranks. CRANK (SIDE). A crank placed at the end of a shaft and outside of the bearings. An Overhanging crank. A SIDE CRANK ENGINE is one having the crank or cranks entirely outside of the bearings or at the end of the shaft. CRANKSHAFT SPEED. Since the crankshaft of the engine drives the load, the Speed of the crankshaft is the same as the ENGINE SPEED. Auxiliary shafts running at any other Speed are given as fractions of the crankshaft speed. Thus in an automo- bile engine the camshaft runs at One-half the engine or crankshaft speed, hence is often Galled the ‘‘Half Time Shaft.” CREAM SEPARATOR OIL. A non-viscous oil for oiling cream separators or other light, high-speed, hand-operated machines. CREEPING OIL. The loss of Oil Occasioned by the adhesiveness and skin tension of the Oil Spreading it over continually increasing areas. Creeping along shafts is pre- vented by the use of oil thrower rings of larger diameter of the shaft which throw the oil back into the reservoir by centrifugal force. With heavy oils and greases, tightly fitting felt washers may be fitted Over the shaft. CREOSOTE OIf. A heavy Oil Obtained by the distillation of wood or coal and having a Strong rank burnt Smell. Coal Creosote oil is used as a Diesel engine fuel, and all ereosotes may be used as timber preservatives. CRESOLS. Basis of Coal distilled Creosote Oil. f COPYRIGHT 1923 COMPILED BY Z 38 PETROL EU M A GE J. B. RATHEUN * PETROLEUM GLossary (z-39) Af (A Dictionary of Words, Terms and Phrases) CRETACEOUS FORMATION. CRITICAL DENSITY. The density at the point, where a physical change in a sub- stance takes place. For example, that density at which crystallization begins. CRITICAL PRESSURE. The pressure that will just liquefy a gas at its critical temperature. CRITICAL SPEED. The speed at which a shaft begins to vibrate badly, or the point where eccentric moments overcome the critical recovery. CRITICAL TEMPERATURE. Any temperature at which a change takes place in the physical form of a substance. The temperature at which a gas is just about to change into a liquid or vice versa, at a given pressure. CROSS-HIEAD. The sliding element of an engine or compressor which forms a support for the outer end of the piston rod and forms a point of attachment for the connecting rod. It takes up the angular side thrust of the connecting rod end. CROSS-HEAD GUIDES. The ways or bars on which the cross-head slides. CROSS-COMPOUND ENGINE. A horizontal compound steam engine in which the high and low pressure cylinders are placed side by side. CROWN WEHIEEL. CROZE. The point where the head and the staves of a barrel connect, the upper end of the staves being grooved (Crozed) for the reception Of the head. CROWN BLOCK. CRUCIBLE. A. melting pot for metals composed of very refractory materials such as silica, magnesite or graphite. CRUCIBLE STEEL. Speel refined in crucible pots, the pots being placed in a cru- cible furnace. The flame does not come into direct contact with the metal. CRUDE. In a rough state or unrefined. Often a term used for crude oil. CRUDE BENZINE. The light hydrocarbon fluids distilled directly from the crude petroleum oil and unrefined. The crude benzine is Subsequently redistilled and sepal- rated into the various gasolines, etc. CRUDE NAPFHTHA. The naphtha, obtained by direct distillation from the crude petroleum oil, unrefined and unpurified. CRUDE OIL (CRUDE PETROLEUM). Mineral petroleum oil in its natural state as obtained from the Oil well. Untreated or unrefined. CRUDE OIL (ASPHALT BASE). Crude oils in which the naphthenes predominate in #. º: after distillation, or crudes having a predominating quantity of asphalt in the residue. CRUDE OIL (PARAFFINE BASE). If the residue after distillation contains pre- donninating quantities Of paraffine wax, then it is a “Paraffine Base” oil. CRUDE OIL STILL. CRUDE YELLOW SCALE. A trade name for unrefined paraffine wax. CRUSHER (COAL). A crusher used for reducing the coal to a powder or to a Small uniform size, as for use in the pulverized coal System of combustion. CRUSHER OIL. An oil used for coal and stone crushers or other heavy rough machinery of a like nature. Generally a half and half mixture of black Summer oil and Steam cylinder Stock. CUBE. (1) A six-sided solid with equal sides and right angles. (2) A number multiplied. CU. SYMEOL FOR COPPER. CUBE ROOT. The cube root of a number is a number which, multiplied by itself three times, will produce the original number. COPYRIGHT 1923 COMPILED BY Z 39 PETRO LEU M AGE J. B. RATHEUN sº PETROLEUM GLossaRY (Z-40) (A Dictionary of Words, Terms and Phrases) CUP GREASE. A. lubricant used for shafts, generally consisting of a lime soap In pregnated with a mlneral oil. CUPOLA. A furnace or “Stack” used for melting cast iron for foundry purposes. It is a vertical cylindrical tank lined With firebrick and is charged with alternate layers of iron and Coke. The fire ZOne is at the bottom and as the melting proceeds, the charge gradually works down to the bottom. The coke is burned in direct contact with the iron, and the iron drops down into a vessel at the bottom from which it is tapped from time to time. The process is continuous since the fuel is fed with the iron through the top of the cupola. & CURVE. A line, which continually changes its direction. (2) A term sometimes applied to a “Graph” or the diagram which shows the relation between two or more quantities by straight or curved lines. CURVE GREASE. A grease used to lubricate the curves of railroad track or the frogs and switch points. It reduces the friction of the car wheels and reduces the wear. CURRIER'S OIL. Used for dressing leather. Nealtsfoot oil or petroleum oil of viscosity 300” Saybolt at 100° F. * & CUT (FRACTION). A group of hydrocarbons obtained by the distillation of crude petroleum which condense or liquefy at a given temperature or which have a certain gravity. The liquefaction temperature and gravity are purely arbitrary, hence a “Cut” may include any desired percentage of the crude. When the distillation stream is “Cut” or discontinued at about 410° F., the fractions included up to this temperature represent commercial gasoline. The “Cut” next below this, or the group in the next fraction of the distillation Will be the kerosenes, and so on. A cut therefore means a certain group of hydrocarbons Which are to be separated and given a certain Com- mercial name or classification. * CUT BACK PRODUCTS. Petroleum tar distillates which have been “Fluxed”, or thinned out by the use of a Small portion of their lighter distillates or other similar lighter distillates. CUT HOUSE (TAIL HöUSE). The house or junction point into which the dis- tillate lines run from all the stills for test and distribution to the various storage tanks. The streams of distillate are all open to inspection so that the gravity and distillation temperature is known and so the various “Cuts” may be assigned to the º sº tanks. It is here that the proper point of cutting is determined for each distillate. w CUTOFF. The point in the stroke of a steam engine piston where the entrance of the live steam is stopped or cut off by the valve. During the remainder of the stroke the steam expands. In FIXED CUTOFF ENGINES the cutoff takes place at a constant percentage of the Stroke, the speed regulation being performed by a governor which “Throttles” the steam to a higher or lower pressure before admission to the cylinder. In a VARIABLE CUTOFF or AUTOMATIC CUTOFF engine, steam is admitted to the cylinders at full boiler pressure, the speed regulation for various loads being controlled by increasing or decreasing the time of steam admission by varying the time of cutoff. CUTTING OIL. Used for cooling and lubricating cutting tools. Lard, Sperm and mineral-lard oils. CYCLE. A complete series of acts or events performed by a mechanism. In a four stroke cycle engine the complete cycle of admission, compression, ignition, com- bustion, expansion, and exhaust are completed in four strokes of the piston or in two revolutions. In a two stroke cycle engine all of the events are completed in two piston strokes or in one revolution. CYCLE (IDEAL HIEAT ENGINE). A series of compressions and expansions in the cylinder of a heat engine which results in a minimum waste of heat. Thus we have the Carnot cycle, Rankine Cycle, etc. These are theoretical cycles used as a basis of comparison in tests and are only approximately approached in practice. COPYRIGHT 1923 COMPILED BY Z 40 PET ROL EU M A GE J. B. RATHE UN gº PETROLEUM GLossary (Z-41) (A Dictionary of Words, Terms and Phrases) * CYCLE (CRACKING). A series of operations or processes in cracking petroleutns into º products, or the series of changes in composition taking place during these Operation S. CYCLE (ELECTRIC-ALTERNATING CURRENT CYCLE). A complete series of Current flow directions of an alternating current, comprising two “Alternations’’ Or two Single vibrations, each in opposite directions. An ALTERNATION consists of a Surge of current in one direction, out or back. A cycle consists of two alternations, Out and back. The cycles numerically are given in terms of the second, or so many Cycles per second. The ordinary lighting current for city distribution is usually a 60 Cycle (per second) current, while the current for factories and mills where there are many motors is often 25 Cycle current. CYCLOBUTANE (C4Hs). A hydro-aromatic hydrocarbon. . CYCLOHEXANE (CoH12). A hydro-aromatic hydrocarbon compound or naphtheme existing in some petroleums. Its use is suggested in certain composite aviation gaso- lines used with high compressions. Boiling point = 80° C & gygiºptANE (C7H14). A hydro-aromatic or naphthene hydrocarbon. Boiling pOint = • C. * CYCLOOCTANE. (CsPH16). A hydro-aromatic or naphthene hydrocarbon. Boiling point = 119° C. CYCLOPENTANE (CsIH10). * CYCLOPROPANE (C8H8). A hydro-aromatic hydrocarbon. CYCLIC COMPOUNDS. See Hydrocarbons, Ring Compounds. CYLINDER. (1) A solid with parallel sides and a circular section or ends. It is the solid described by moving a circle along a straight line. (2) The cylindrical formed working chamber of a heat engine, provided with a movable plug called a piston which permits of a variation in the volume of the working gas. CYLINDER BORE. The diameter of the bore or the diameter of the piston. CYLINDER CLEARANCE. (1) The volume remaining at the inner end of the compression Stroke, or volume between the piston and the end of the cylinder with piston full in. (2) In steam engines the clearance is sometimes taken as being the linear distance between the piston and cylinder head (shop practice). CYLINDER DISPLACEMENT. The volume swept out by the piston in one working stroke, not including the clearance space. It is the volume of an imaginary cylinder described by the full stroke movement of the piston and is equal to the area of the piston multiplied by the stroke. Given in cubic inches. This is a rough means of rating the output of an engine if the performance of a similar type is known. Racing automobile engines are classed according to the total displacement of all cylinders. CYLINDER HEADS. The fixed end walls of a cylinder closing the bore. CYLINDER (H. P.). High pressure cylinder. CYLINDER JACKET. (1) An annular space around the outside of the working cylinder of a gas Or gasoline engine, filled with water and used to keep the temperature down within certain limits. (2) An annular space is also sometimes placed around the cylinder of a steam engine. This space being filled with boiler steam reduces the interior condensation of the expanding steam, and is most often applied to the low pressure cylinders of compound engines. f. CYLINDER (L. P.). Low pressure cylinder. CYLINDER OILS. Oils for lubricating the bore of the cylinder and the wearing face of the piston, and also to increase the tightness of the piston against the leakage of Steam Or ga.S. CYLINDER OILS (COMPOUNDED). Mineral cylinder oils to which a small per- centage of some animal oil Such as tallow oil has been added. This addition of tallow oil increases the adherence of the lubricant to wet cylinder walls or where there is much cylinder condensation. Compounded oils are also used in internal combustion oil engines where water injection is used. f g- COPYRIGHT 1923 COMPILED BY Z 41 PETROLEU M AGE J. B. RATHE UN wº PETROLEUM GLossARY (Z-42) (A Dictionary of Words, Terms and Phrases) CYLINDER OIL (GAS ENGINE), Either straight run or blended petroleum oils used for the lubrication of the cylinders of internal combustion engines. Such oils must have a comparatively high viscosity and flash test owing to the high temperature, and must have as Small a carbon residue as possible. There are a great variety of these oils, graded mostly according to viscosity, owing to the great variation in cylinder temperatures, compression pressures, and methods of lubrication. CYLINDER OIL (LOW COLD TEST). CYLINDER OILS (STEAM ENGINE). The oils for steam engine cylinders Oper- atıng on low pressure saturated steam are usually “Compounded” oils, that is, a mix- ture of a small percentage of acidless tallow oil with the mineral oil base. This insures the adherence of the oil to the wet cylinder walls. With high pressure dry steam or with superheated Steam the use of the tallow oil is not usually desirable or necessary, and straight mineral Oils are mostly used. CYLINDER STOCK (STEAM CYLINDER OIL). These are the steam residues from paraffine base oils. They have a high viscosity and are often compounded With animal or fatty Oils. Viscosity at 212° may be as high as 250 Saybolt. CYMOGENE. A light hydrocarbon, nearly pure butane, obtained by compression from natural gas at high pressure. It has been used as a refrigerating medium in ice machines, and as a local anesthetic where the nerves are to be numbed by the cold obtained by the rapid evaporation of a volatile fluid. It has a boiling point of about O°C, and a gravity averaging 100°Ee. e * ! (D) DAG. Deflocculated Acheson graphite. Very finely divided, air-floated graphite used for lubrication and more particularly for mixing with mineral oils or water. DANFORTH OIL. Petroleum oil, specific gravity 0.70, boiling point 80°C-110°C. DEAD OILS. Coal tar oils having a gravity greater than water. DEAD CENTER. A position in which a single cylinder engine cannot start itself, the crank arm being parallel to the cylinder center line. This occurs when the piston is at either end of the stroke. DEBLOOMING. Bleaching oils by exposing them to the sunlight in shallow pans. The ultra violet rays of the sun bleach out the coloring matter permanently as is not always the case When chemically bleached. 7 DECANE (C10H22). A saturated paraffine hydrocarbon (Chain compound) distilled from petroleum crude. Its gravity and boiling point about correspond With present day motor gasoline. Gravity = 56.7 Be., boiling point, 173.0°C. DECLINE (OIL WELT.). The rate at which the production of a well decreases. DECOLORIZATION. Bleaching or removing color. • DECOMPOSITION. A breaking up or decay of a compound, or a reduction into simpler compounds or elements. DEGRA.S. A fat exuded from the skin of a sheep and taken from the wool. DEGREE (°). A unit of measurement according to some specified scale. (2) AN- GULAR DEGREE is 1/360 of a circular circumference. (2) BAUME DEGREE. A unit of density measurement. (3) THERMOMETRIC DEGREE. A unit of thermometric measurement such as the Fahrenheit or Centigrade Degree. A degree is abbreviated (°), hence we have 23°, 27°Ee., 114°F., etc. DEHYDRATE. To remove water or moisture. With particular reference to the removal of the water of crystallization. DEHYDRATED TAR. Tar free from moisture. DELIQUESCENT. A solid substance which absorbs enough moisture from the air to convert itself into a liquid or to dissolve itself. -* COPYRIGHT 1923 COMPILED BY Z 42 PETROL EU M AGE J. B. RATHETUN *s i O | PETROLEUM GLossary (Z-43) (A Dictionary of Words, Terms and Phrases) DEMAND FACTOR. A factor or percentage showing the relative power require- ments in regard to total consumption or according to a given rate of payment. . Thus, if a certain rate is charged for a full load consumption of power or current, it is evi- dent that a higher rate must be charged if the average horsepower falls below the full load figure, in order to pay off the overhead chargeable to the full load installation. The ratio between the average actual load and the full or maximum load is called the ‘‘Demand Factor.” DEMULSIBILITY. The maximum rate of settling out of an oil from an emulsion in terms of cubic centimeters per hour. DENATURANTS. Substances added to alcohol for the purpose of making it unfit for drinking. DENATURED ALCOHOL. Alcohol containing such denaturants as acetone or benzol, which makes the alcohol unfit for drinking although not necessarily poisonous. Denatured alcohol is used in the arts as a solvent or in limited cases as a fuel. DENSE AIR MACHINE. A refrigerating compressor using air as a transfer me- dium in place of ammonia, or carbon dioxide. Used principally on shipboard. DENSIMETER. An instrument for determining the relative density or the specific gravity Of a Substance. DENSITY. (1) The relative compactness of weight or the weight per unit cubed. Thus the density of a gaS may be expressed as the weight per Cubic foot of that gas, or the relative weight of a unit volume in regard to the weight of a unit volume of Some Other gas taken as a standard. The weight per cubic foot of a substance is usually called the density, while the weight per unit volume relative to the weight of a unit of volume of a standard substance is called the SPECIFIC IDENSITY. (2) The SPECIFIC IDENSITY of a gas is generally referred to the weight of air at Standard pressure and temperature, the Sp.D. of air being 1.000 in this case. In some cases hydrogen is taken as unity or 1.000. In the case of solids or liquids, the specific density 3. water is taken as unity (1.000). The specific density is also known as the “Specific ravity.” DEOIDORIZE. To remove the Odor. DEPETROLIZED PETROLEUM. Crude oil which is “Topped” or from which the gasoline and light naphthals have been removed. DEPHLEGMATE. To remove the excess of water, or to remove a spray from a ga.S. DEPHLEGMATOR. An instrument or device used in a petroleum refinery to arrest and retain the oil spray being carried over mechanically by the vapor during distillation. The heavy oil that would otherwise be carried over in the form of a spray would contaminate the light distillates. (2) A laboratory instrument used to obtain a finer degree of fractionation of a test oil under distillation, or a better and more com- plete separation of the various hydrocarbon compounds. The dephlegmating column prevents heavier fractions being carried over than those corresponding to the tempera- ture of distillation. Such a “Column” is really a sort of trap which aids in the sep- aration of the heavy components and returns then to the flask. DEPRECIATION. Loss of commercial value due either to wear and tear or to market fluctuations. May be given as a total Sum or as a yearly percentage. PERIOD OF 100 PERCENT DEPRECIATION is the time required for a total loss of value as a going concern or operating device, but does not consider the “Scrap” value. DEPOSITS. Precipitated matter thrown down out of solution or suspension. Carbon deposits consist of solid carbon and tarry matter thrown down by cracking or by incomplete combustion. COPYRIGHT 1923 COMPILED BY Z 43 PETROLEUM AGE J. B. RATHE UN -- PETROLEUM GLossaRY (z-44) (A Dictionary of Words, Terms and Phrases) DERIVATIVE. Any substance derived from another substance which is of simpler form than the first. TXERRICK. The framed tower placed over the drilled hole of an oil well for the Support of the drilling tools, for hoisting, or for pulling the casing. DERRICK IRONS. All of the metal work or hardware used in the construction Of an oil well derrick. It particularly refers to the crown block. Pºsiccator. A Jessel used for drying, the moisture being absorbed by a salt OT 2.CIOl. DETONATION. An explosion causing excessive pressure and pounding. Due to Carbon high compression, or low grade gasoline (kerosene). IDEW POINT. The temperature at which moist air reaches a. point of Saturation and begins to condense or form “Dew’’ at a given pressure. DIAGRAM (INDICATOR). A curved outline, drawn to the scale of pressures and volumes, which shows the pressure distribution during the stroke of an engine, and from which the energy of the cylinder heat may be computed. This diagram or CARD shows the pressure at every point in the stroke, hence the valve setting and Other adjustments can be readily determined. DLAGRAM FACTOR. A constant, which when multiplied by the ideal card, gives the probable Value of the actual test card. This factor is determined from other engines of Similar design and therefore affords a means of estimating the performance of another similar design. L)IALYSIS. The separation of different substances in solution by transfusion through a membrane. Thus colloidal substances may be separated from crystalloids, the crystalloidal substances passing through the membrane partition while the gelat- inous colloids will not. DIAMETER. The extreme outside dimension of a circle measured through the Center and from One side of the circumference to the other. DIESEL ENGINE. An engine of the constant pressure type having an extremely high compression pressure and a correspondingly high efficiency. In this engine only pure air is compressed (NO combustible mixture is formed), and at the end of the compression Stroke the liquid fuel is sprayed into the cylinder and is ignited by con- tact with the highly heated air. The speed and load is controlled by increasing or decreasing the duration of the oil injection. This engine may be either of the two stroke cycle Or four Stroke Cycle type. Cheap heavy oils are burned. DIESEL ENGINE FUEL OIL. A fuel oil used by Diesel engines of comparatively low Baumé gravity. Vegetable oils may be but are not frequently used. * DIESEL ENGINE TARS. Tars and tar' oils may be burned in the Diesel engine such as coal tars, anthracene and anthracene oil, Creosotic tar, etc. Some petroleum tars or very heavy oils may also be used. DIFFUSION CELLS. Cells or boxes provided with membrane partitions used for the separation of crystalloids and celloids by diffusion or “Dialysis.” g DIGBOI OIL. Crude petroleum obtained from Assam, or a fuel oil obtained from this Crude. y DILATOMETER. An instrument for measuring the coefficients of oil expansion. DIMETHYLCYCLOHEXANE (CsIH16). A hydroaromatic hydrocarbon. DIMETHYLCYCLOPENTANIE (C7H14). A hydroaromatic hydrocarbon. DISPERSION (CHROMATIC). The separation of a beam of white light into a “Spectrum” or into the colored component rays that form the white beam. DISPLACEMENT. The volume swept out by the piston of an engine during one stroke, expressed in cubic inches. It is equal to the piston area multiplied by the length of the stroke. COPYRIGHT 1923 COMPILED BY Z 44 PETRO LEU M AGE J. B. RATHEUN º O PETROLEUM GLossARY (z-45) (A Dictionary of Words, Terms and Phrases) IXISPLACEMENT FORMUL.A.E. . A mathematical rule for determining the ap- flºº ºpower or an internal combustion engine from its piston displacement IIl CUlOIC IIl Cºle.S. & * * DISPLACEMENT (TOTAL). The displacement of all the cylinders (sum of) in an internal combustion engine. º DISTILLATE. (1) A product of distillation or the fluid condensed from the vapors driven off in the still. Gasoline, naphtha, kerosene, and light lubricating oils are examples of distillates since they are the result of distullation of crude oil. (2) A term for a heavy gasoline or a kerosene having a Baumé gravity of from 45° to 50°. This is much used in California, and on the Pacific coast as an engine fuel. DISTILLATE (ENGINE). See Distillate. DISTILLATE (PRESSED). The oil remaining after the paraffine wax has been removed from wax distillate by a process of pressing and refrigeration. DISTILLATE (WAX). The heavy distillate of the crude which carries the greater part of the paraffine wax in solution. The neutral oil distillate before the separation of the paraffine, and the basis of paraffine wax. This immediately follows the gas oil. DISTILLATE (WATER WHITE). Kerosene. DISTILLATION. The process of separating a volatile fluid or fluids from a heavier fluid by evaporation and condensation. The more volatile liquids pass Out of the heavier liquids and are subsequently condensed into liquid form by contact with cool surfaces. The different components of a compound fluid pass off in the inverse Order of their boiling points, the fluids having the lowest boiling points passing away first. DISTILLATION (CONTINUOUS). A system of distillation in which the crude oil is pumped through a series of stills in succession, each succeeding still being fired at a higher temperature than the stills before it. In this way a fixed group of “Frac- tions” or hydrocarbon compounds are given off at each still until the oil is finally exhausted at the last still in the series. This is a continuous process and proceeds, without interruption. DISTILLATION (BATCHI). Each still is charged separately and the oil is “run down” completely in the still, before a new charge of “Batch” is taken in. This is of course an intermittent process since the still must be cleaned out after every batch is finished, must be charged, and started over again. The distillates are “Cut” at the desired points as the process proceeds or else a fractionating condenser column is used, DISTILLATION (DESTRUCTIVE). A system of distillation in which the tem- perature is carried so high as to decompose the heavier components of the crude as well as to carry over the lighter fractions as in ordinary distillation. See Cracking. DISTILLATION (DRY). See Destructive Distillation and Cracking. DISTILLATION (FRACTIONAL). To separate a compound fluid into its ele- mentary components by a progressive distillation process, separating the components in order of their boiling points. (2) In FRACTIONAL PETROLEUM distillation the distillation of the crude is carried on with steam which reduces the oil vapor pressures and makes a separation of the various “Fractions” possible below their normal boiling points. This avoids cracking or decomposing so great a portion of the products as would be the case with dry distillation. Fractional distillation provides only those fractions that Originally existed in the crude. DISTILLATION (VACUUM). Distillation carried out under a partial vacuum and a low temperature to avoid the decomposition of the heavier hydrocarbons such as the lubricating oils and cylinder Stocks. DOCTOR TEST. A test for the sweetness or sourness of gasoline or presence of Sulphonated compounds. & COPYRIGHT 1923 COMPILED BY Z 4. 5 PETROLEU M AGE J. B. RATHEUN | gº PETROLEUM GLOSSARY (Z-46) (A Dictionary of Words, Terms and Phrases) \ DOLOMITE. A natural stone similar in appearance to limestone and consisting principally of carbonates of calcium and magnesium. DOME. A geological formation where the strata is bent up to form a dome. DRAGON'S BLOOD. A powder used for testing benzol. It is a bright red color and is used in tritration tests. DRACORUBIN PAPER. A paper saturated with an ester of dragon’s blood, and used for testing the purity of benzol. DRAFT. The difference in pressure between the ashpit and a point above the fuel bed, or the pressure that tends to move the air through the fuel bed and the smoke stack. STACPC DRAFT is the difference of the pressure inside and outside of the Stack, and is given in terms of inches of water or the height of the Water column Supported by the draft pressure. DRAFT (FORCED). A system of artificial draft in which the air is blown under pressure into the ashpit and under the fuel bed. DRAFT (INDUCED). A draft system in which a fan is placed between the boilers and the Stack, the fan drawing the gases from the boiler and discharging them up the Stack. The gases pass through the blower. DRAFT (NATURAL). Draft produced by the difference in the weight of the heated gas column within the stack and the weight of the cool outside air. It is the draft produced by the Stack and, varies with the height of the stack and the tem- perature difference. * DRAFT (MECHANICAL). Any draft system produced by fans, blowers or other machinery. --- DRAINED SALTS. Naphthalene Crystals obtained from the crude carbolic and creosote coal tar oils by a system of settling, crystallizing and decantation. * DRAWING OIL. Used for wire drawing dies (lubrication). DRIP. A drain or drain connection. (2) An attachment to a natural gas well or ; * to arrest any liquid that might find its way into the gas mains and cause TOUl Ole. dri Pºyº. Any power transmission system. Thus we have the belt drive, chain rive, etc. DRIVER AND DRIVEN. That part of the mechanism supplying the energy is called the driver while that to which the energy is given is called the driven. Thus we have driving and driven wheels. DRIVER'S OIL. Non-viscous petroleum oil for coal mines (34° Be...) or paint oil. DROPPING POINT (TEMPERATURE). That temperature at which some of the j placed on the end of a test thermometer softens sufficiently to drop of its own weight. } DRUM. A metal container or barrel for shipping oil. DRY GA.S. Natural gas for Wells that produce gas Only (no petroleum), and conse- quently a gas which contains no gasoline or other liquids. DRY POINT. The temperature at which the still finally becomes dry or at which no more liquid is distilled or given off. The temperature of the heaviest fraction. Commonly called the “End Point.” DUCT. A. passage or tube. DUCTILITY... The amount, of “Stretch” or “Give” in a solid possible without cracking or breaking. The unit of plasticity or of the internal adhesion of particles. DUCTILITY OF ASPHALT. The measure of the ability of an asphalt cement to contract and expand without cracking or breaking. COPYRIGHT 1923 COMPILED BY Z 46 PETROL EU M AGE . J. B. RATHEUN sº O y PETROLEUM GLoss ARY (z-47) (A Dictionary of Words, Terms and Phrases) Pl ºctile. Capable of being drawn out into a small diameter or thinner section. a.St.E.C. DUOSCOSANE (C22H46). A heavy paraffine hydrocarbon, 36.9° Baumé, Boiling point 122° F. in a vacuum. DUODECANE (C12H26). A paraffine hydrocarbon falling in the class of heavy gasoline Or light kerosene. Baumé gravity 51.8°. Boiling point 214° F. DUOTRIACONTANE Cs2H66). A heavy paraffine hydrocarbon of the heavy lubricating oil and paraffine class. Baumé gravity 35.0°, boiling point in vacuum. DUST LAYING OIL. Roald Oii. DUTCH OVEN. An extended boiler furnace for Smokeless combustion. DUTY OF PUMPS. A rating given to steam pumps regarding their economy. The “Duty” of a pump is the work done in foot pounds per 1,000 pounds of dry steam or per 1,000,000 B.t. u. furnished by the boiler. Although the latter is more rational, yet ; is not so commonly used as the output in foot pounds per 1,000 pounds of dry Stea,II]. DYNAMO OIL. A viscous neutral oil used for lubricating dynamos. Viscosity approximately 145-250 depending on the size of the dynamo, etc. DYNAMOMETER. A device for measuring the horsepower developed by an engine Or motor, or the torque and efficiency. The dynamometer places a known load on the machine either by friction, by creating air currents or by generating electric current. The latter is the quickest and simplest for testing motors. DYNE. The metric unit of force. It is the force required to accelerate One gram by On centimeter per second. It is a very small force generally used in physics or in electrical measurement. (E) E. Symbol for EARTH (BITUMINOTS). See Bituminous Earth. EARTH (FLORIDA). See Fuller's Earth. + EARTH (FULLER'S). A non-plastic clay of porous texture used in the filtering and decolorization of oils. EARTH NUT (ARACHIS NUT). EARTH WAX. See Ozokerite. EBANO. A residual pitch from Mexican crude. EBULLITION. Boiling or bubbling. EDWARD’S BALANCE. A balance for determining the specific gravity of gases, ECCENTRIC. (1) Off center or offset. (2) The Special form of crank user for moving the valves of a steam engine. t ECONOMIZERS. A device used for heating boiler feed water by means of the hot waste gases passing from a boiler and irito the Stack. EFFICIENCY. The ratio of the work done by a machine to the work supplied to it. Thus, if an engine develops 230 foot pounds of energy from the 1,000 foot pounds Of º; to it in the form of fuel energy, then the efficiency will be: 230/1,000 = 0.230 = 23 percent. EFFLUX. The rate of flow out of a vessel or from an orifice. EFFUSION. The exit or exhaust of a gas through an orifice. EFFUSION METHOD OF SPECIFIC GRAVITY. A means of determining the specific gravity of a gas by comparing the times required for the exit or effusion of the gas through a standard orifice with the time for air. COPYRIGHT 1923 COMPILED BY Z 47 PETRol-EUM AGE J. B. RATHEUN - PETROLEUM GLossary (Z-48) (A Dictionary of Words, Terms and Phrases) J ELAINE. Commercial oleic acid, of a fair degree of purity. ELATERITE. A bitumen known as “Mineral India. Rubber” having great elasticity. ELLIOTT TEST. A tester used for determining the flash and fire points of an Oil. This is a closed type tester. ELECTRIC TEST OF OIL. A test made to determine the insulating qualities of an oil or the dielectric strength of the oil. This test is performed on the oils used for electric transformers and oil switches and is done with high tension current. ELECTRIC SWITCH OIL. An oil used for submerging certain types of electric switches, circuit breakers and motor starters. When the switch jaws open under the *: oil chills and breaks down the arc. It is a light oil, moisture proof and C2, I’OOIn 11’ee. EIAECTRIC TRANSFORMER OIL. A light limpid oil, free from moisture and having little tendency toward forming sludge. It is used for filling the cases of transformers where it aids in maintaining the insulation of the coils and transfers the heat generated in the coils to the outer casing where it is radiated to the air, ELECTROLYTIC PROCESS (ELECTROLYSIS). The chemical effect of electric current passing through a fluid, the current breaking the fluid up into its elementary form. Thus, water is broken up into hydrogen and oxygen, copper Sulphate is broken up into metallic copper and sulphuric acid, and so forth. ELECTROLYTIC COPPER sis copper reduced from the ore by the electrolytic process. ELECTRONS (CORPUSCLES). It is generally believed at the present time that the atom is built up of very small particles known as “Electrons” or “Corpuscles,” very much smaller than the atom itself. All of these electrons are alike, the differences between the atoms of different elements being due to the different numbers and arrangement of the electrons. ELEMENT. A form of matter of the simplest type and one which cannot be reduced into matter weighing less without decomposition taking place. An element combines with other elements to form a compound, hence an atom is the Smallest part of an element capable of entering into chemical combination, or further, the atom and the element are identical. EMULSION. A combination or mixture of water and an oil in which the oil is permanently suspended in the Water as in the Case of the fatty particles in milk. The Oil and water are made “miscible,” or mixable by the addition of a third substance to the solution which acts as a saponifying agent or as an assistant in forming a skin of One liquid over a droplet of the other. JEMULSIFICATION TEST. A test made on a mineral oil to determine its tendency toward forming an emulsion with Water, or the amount of emulsion possible with an animal or vegetable oil. Mineral oils should form as little emulsion as possible, especially lubricating oils as the emulsion obstructs the flow of the oil in pipes, produces slimy deposits and reduces the lubricating or fuel value. On the other hand, animal and vegetable oils are often used as soaps and in this case a high emulsifying value is essential. s EMULSIFIER. A. machine of the mixing type used for mixing oils and water to make emulsions. (2) The agent added to the oil and water that causes the two to combine and to form an emulsion. EMPIRICAL FORMULA. A rule or equation that is not based on rational develop- ment but which represents “Fule-of-the-thumb-practice.” It is not a logical develop- ment but one which has proved in practice to be at least approximately correct. END POINT (DRY POINT). The temperature at which the last drop evaporates in a distillation test of an oil, or the temperature of the heaviest component of the oil. A test made principally on motor gasolines and benzols. ^ \ COPYRIGHT 1921 COMPILED BY i Z–48 PETROL EU M AGE J. B. RATHE UN sº z t W * PETROLEUM GLossary (Z-49) (A. Dictionary of Words, Terms and Phrases) END OTHERMIC. Heat absorbing. An endothermic reaction is one in which heat is absorbed as in the expansion of a gas or in the evaporation of gasoline. Any process by which the working substance absorbs heat is an endothermic process. ENERGY. The ability to do work, or the ability to overcome a force or resistance. ENERGY (KINETIC). Energy, or motion or the energy expended by a force producing motion. The energy of steam is kinetic when it is expanding and moving the piston against a load. ENERGY (POTENTIAL). Latent or hidden energy. Energy not released. Thus the heat energy in coal is potential energy since it has not yet been released by the process of combustion. The boiler steam contains potential energy for it has not yet delivered its energy through expansion. TCNGINE. A device for transforming energy from one state into another, but in general, is considered as being a device for transforming all forms of energy into mechanical energy of force and motion. Thus, an engine converts heat or electrical energy into mechanical energy or work. DiNGINE (ATOMIZING). An engine in which the fuel is sprayed into the cylinder during suction. ENGINE (CARIBURETING). An internal combustion engine using liquid fuels, the fuels being atomized or vaporized in a device external to the engine known as a “Carbureter.” In this type of engine the correct mixture of air and vaporized fuel is drawn into the cylinder and compressed. ENGINE (DIESEL). See Diesel Engine. TENGINE (EXTERNAL COMBUSTION). Engine with the heat burned outside of the working cylinder. ENGINE (FOUR STROKE CYCLE) (FOUR CYCLE). An internal combustion engine having One working stroke or power impulse every fourth stroke of the piston Or every Second revolution. Thus there is one impulse every other revolution. ENGINE (GAS). An internal combustion engine using gas as a fuel. HNGINE (HEAT ENGINE). An engine which converts heat energy into mechan- ical energy, common examples being the gasoline engine and steam engine. Here the heat energy of the fuel is liberated by combustion and is then transformed into mechanical energy by expansion in the cylinder of the engine. ENGINE (HOT AIR). A heat engine expanding hot air, the air being heated Within the working cylinder but with the flame on the outside. This is therefore a type of external combustion engine. ENGINE (INJECTION TYPE). An oil engine in which the fuel is sprayed into the cylinder. ENGINE (INTERNAL COMBUSTION). A heat engine in which the fuel is burned º Within the Working Cylinder. The gas and gasoline engine are examples of this type. ENGINE (KNIGHT). A gasoline engine with two sliding sleeve valves in the cylinder bore, the mutual sliding of the sleeves opening and closing the intake and exhaust ports. The piston is inside of the sleeves. ENGINES (OIL ENGINES). An internal combustion engine using heavy oils for fuels such as kerosene, solar oil, fuel oil, gas oil, distillate, etc. See Diesel Engine. ENGINE OIL. An oil used for lubricating the external bearings of large steam and gas engines. NOT CYLINDER OIL. This is an oil of medium viscosity, the grade varying with different sizes of engines and engine speeds. Cylinder oil is much heavier and must not be confused with this oil. ENGINE (SEMI-DIESEL). An oil engine in which the fuel is sprayed into a heated chamber, extended from the cylinder, this vaporizing the heavy fuel and also igniting it. The chamber is maintained at a red heat and easily ignites heavy oils at the end of the compression stroke. ENGINE (TRIPLE EXPANSION). An engine in which the steam is successively expanded in three cylinders, the high-pressure, intermediate, and low pressure cylinders. Only a part of the total expansion is performed in any of the separate cylinders. ENGINE (TWO STROKE CYCLE) (TWO CYCLE). An internal combustion engine in which there is an explosion or power impulse every other Stroke or one impulse per revolution. This gives twices as many impulses as the Four Stroke Cycle Engine. COPYRIGHT 1921 COMPILED BY Z- 49 PETROL EU M AGE J. B. RATHEUN PETROLEUM GLossartY (Z-50) (A Dictionary of Words, Terms and Phrases) ENGINE (UNIFLOW). A steam engine with a central exhaust port cut into the cylinder walls which is uncovered by the piston at the end of the stroke, the exhaust therefore being controlled by the piston. As the admission valves are located in the cylinder heads, the steam flow in One direction (Uniflow) from the heads to the center of the cylinder thus avoiding much of the loss due to cylinder condensation. ENGLER DEGREE (ENGLER VISCOSITY). A unit of viscosity in which the time of flow (Efflux) of an oil sample is compared to the time required for the efflux of an equal amount of water (200 c.c.). This is really specific viscosity, and is considerably different than the Saybolt unit commonly used for lubricating, oils. The Engler degree is used principally for the determination of fuel oil viscosity in this country, although it is used universally in Europe. HNGLER FLASK. A flask used in a distillation test of petroleum oils. The Engler flask has a spherical bottom and a long straight neck, a thin inclined Outlet tube being attached to the side and at about the middle of the neck. A thermometer is placed within the neck and just level with the outlet so that the temperature of the distilled vapor may be taken as it leaves for the condenser through the outlet. ENGLER-UBBELOPHDE APPARATUS. A distillation oil testing device consist- ing of an Engler flask connected with a water jacketed condenser. The percentage of the various fractions distilling at different temperatures may therefore be easily determined by measuring the condensed distillate leaving the Condenser. EQUIVALENT (DECIMAL). The decimal equivalent is a decimal expression of a fractional part of a number. Thus 0.25" is the decimal equivalent of #4 inch, or 0.3333 is the decimal equivalent of 4 inches when expressed as a decimal of a foot. Usually, a decimal equivalent is taken as being a decimal equal to a fraction of an inch unless otherwise Specified. EQUIVALENT EVAPORATION. The weight of water which would be evaporated (under assumed Standard conditions) by the amount of healt actually absorbed by the boiler is called the EQUIVALENT EVAPORATION FROM AND AT 212° F. The A. S. VI. E. define a boiler horsepower as the equivalent evaporation of 34.5 pounds of water from and at 212° F. This is the same as 33,479 B.t.u. per hour. With the steam at any other temperature, it must be reduced to this equivalent evaporation. ERG. This is the metric unit of work (energy) based on the C. G. S. system. It is equal to “1 Dyne-centimeter,” or the work accomplished by a force of one dyne acting through a distance of one centimeter. ESHECA METHOD. A. method of determining the sulphur content in petroleum oil. ESTER, 93.0 Eghani (C2H6). A very light hydrocarbon of the paraffine series, boiling point— ETHER. A very volatile distillate made from alcohol and used as a solvent and a general anesthetic. ETHER (PETROLEUM). A group of the most volatile hydrocarbons obtained from natural gas or from the distillation of petroleum. It is of the paraffine series, has a low boiling point, and is highly inflammable. It is used as a Solvent and as a local anesthetic. ETHYL CHLORIDE. A liquid of low boiling point often used as a refrigerating medium on small ice machines, and also as a local anesthetic. ETHYLENE (C2H4). A member of the Olefine or “Ethylene” series of unsaturated hydrocarbon compounds. Not often contained in natural crude but may be produced by subjecting crude to high temperatures or in cracking processes. ETHYLENE SERIES (OLEFINES). A series of unsaturated hydrocarbons also called the olefines, and containing Such compounds as ethylene, propylene, butylene, amylene, etc. These hydrocarbons contribute much of the disagreeable odor to unre- º; gasoline and may be removed by sulphuric acid. This odor is intensified by Sulphur. COPYRIGHT 1923 COMPILED BY Z 50 PETROLEU M AGE J. B. RATHEUN ſº º *A L PETROLEUM GLossary (Z-51) * (A Dictionary of Words, Terms and Phrases) TEUPION. A fragrant, inflammable, oily liquid produced by the dry distillation of bones and similar organic matter. It contains the higher hydrocarbons of the paraffine Series. EVAPORATION. To convert into vapor, or fluid loss through vapor passing off from the surface. In evaporating, a fluid absorbs an amount of heat known as the “Latent Heat” of evaporation or the heat necessary to mechanically break up the liquid particles and convert them into vapor. On condensing the vapor to a liquid, this heat is given up. Owing to the complex nature of petroleum it has no single temperature of evaporation but has a series of such temperatures corresponding to the evaporation temperature of each of the components. EVAPORATION (EQUIVALENT). See Equivalent Evaporation. EVAPORATION (FACTOR OF). The factor of evaporation is, the ratio of the heat required to generate 1 lb. of steam under actual conditions (at boiler pressure) to that required to generate 1 lb. of steam from and at 212° F. EVAPORATION LOSS. The loss of fluid volume or weight due to , the time evaporation of the fluid. It varies with the temperature, the amount of fluid Surface exposed, the boiling temperature of the fluid, the velocity of air over the Surface, and tightness of tank. Since petroleum products are not homogeneous fluids, the rate of evaporation is not constant, being greatest at the beginning when the largest percentage of light volatile hydrocarbons are present and slowest When evaporation has proceeded so far that only heavy residues are left. The loss of gasoline and light fractions is, of course, greater than with heavy oils under the salmo conditions. EVAPORATION (MUI.TIPLE EFFECT). A process used in evaporating or dry- ing fluid compounds such as salt solutions, milk, beet Sugar, etc., in Which the Solution is evaporated in two or more stages and generally under Vacuum. The solu- tion enters the first stage (first effect), and is here reduced by a certain armount, then it passes to the second evaporator where more of the fluid is disposed of, and then to the third effect where more is evaporated, the temperature in each successive effect being higher. We may have “Double Effect, Triple Effect, or Quadruple Effect” evaporators depending upon how many independent stages are passed through. The more the effects or stages, the more economical is the fuel consumption. EVAPORATION TEST. A test to determine the rate of evaporation of a fluid under standard conditions. |BVOLUTION. To produce or throw off. (2) A mathematical process involved in “Squaring” or “Cubing” numbers. |HXHAUSTER. A fan used for removing foul air or for moving vapor. JEXOTHERMIC. Elements producing heat when combining to form compounds. EXPANSION (PETROLEUM). Increase of volume due to heat varies with dif- ferent oils. See table for Expansion Correction of Oils and table of Specific Gravity. EXPANSION. To increase in length or volume. (2) To increase in length or volume due to changes in temperature. This is the usual acceptance of the term, although not necessarily applicable to all conditions. EXPANSION BENDS. Pipe bends or loops used to take up pipe movements due to changes in temperature, the bend flexing more easily than the straight pipe reduces the stress or strain on the pipe and fittings. EXPANSION (COEFFICIENT). See Coefficient of Expansion. EXPANSION COIL. Cooling coil in refrigeration system, pipe coil containing the expanded gas. 3. EXPANSION (COMPOUND). Expansion in two stages or completed in two cylinders. EXPANSION FLUID. & EXPANSION (GASES). The increase in volume of a gas due to changes in tem- perature or pressure. The expansion is said to be ADIABATIC when no heat is taken from or added to the gas When expanding. The expansion is said to be ISOTHERMAL when the gas is held at constant temperature by adding heat. EXPANSION LINE. The line on a graph or diagram of pressures and volumes which shows the pressure variation during the period of expansion. f lºansion (LINEAR). The expansion in length or width measured in units Of length. COPYRIGHT 1923 COMPILED BY Z 51 PETROLEUM AGE J. B. RATHEUN * ºn PETROLEUM GLossary (Z-52) --- (A Dictionary of Words, Terms and Phrases) EXPANSION (POLY TROPIC). A class of gaseous expansion taking place (ap- proximately) in heat engines and expressed by PVn = Constant. Different conditions are met by Changing the Value Of the exponent (n). This exponent represents the ratios of the specific heats Of the gas at constant pressure and constant volume. EXPANSION RATIO. The ratio of the gas volume after expansion to the gas volume before expansion. (2) The ratio of the low pressure cylinder volume to the high pressure cylinder volume in a steam engine. (3) The ratio of the expansions taking place in the low and high pressure cylinders of an engine. EXPANSION VALVIE. A special valve used in refrigerating systems through which the liquefied gas (under high pressure) is allowed to escape into a lower pres- sure and thus expand into a gas. This expansion absorbs heat from surrounding objects and produces the refrigerating effect. TXPLOSION. An instantaneous collapse of a compound resulting in high pres- sures. A detonation or high pressure Surge. This is often a misused term especially when applied to internal combustion engines. (2) IN GAS AND GASOLINE ENGINES the fuel does NOT explode in the proper sense when the engine is in normal Opera- tion, but is burned very rapidly according to the usual laws of combustion. The rapidity of the combustion in the cylinder has resulted in the improper but popular use of the Word “Explosion.” However, when the cylinders are filled with incandescent carbon or when the compression pressure is too high for the fuel being used, then We have real “Explosions” or detonations due to the simultaneous collapse of large masses of vapor. This produces pounding or “Pinking,” and builds up excessively high pressures and StreSSes., EXPLOSION ENGINE. See Engine, Internal Combustion. EXPLOSION (LIMITS OF). The limiting percentages of a vaporized fuel in a mixture with air which will include the range of combustible mixtures. The high and low limits of fuel and air mixtures which will burn in the cylinder of an engine. EXPLOSION (RATE OF), (FLAME PROPAGATION). The rate at which a gas * fººture burns or the rate at Which the flame spreads through the volume of the mixture. EXPLOSION RATIO. The ratio of the air to the vaporized fuel. (2) The ratio of the explosion pressure to the compression pressure. EXPLOSION WAVE. A high velocity wave or surge of energy developed by a true explosion or the detonation of an unstable fuel. It is indicated by a sharply peaked wave on the engine indicator card. EXPORT OIL. Light illuminating oil, 44° Be or lighter. For export. EXTERPOLATION. From known values and laws governing them, to estimate or predict values beyond or outside of the given values. EXTRACTION. To withdraw... (2) To remove by a mechanical process such as by distillation, percolation, or similar means. To dissolve out chemically. EXTRACTION TUF.B.INE. See Bleeder Turbines. EXTRUDE. To “Squirt” out or to squeeze out. Applied to the manufacture of metal parts by Squirting the plastic semi-liquid metal, through dies, thus producing “Extruded Metal.” Electric light carbons are extruded before baking. EXUDE. To discharge through pores or porous membranes. Discharge through microscopic openings. (F) F. * Abbreviation for Fahrenheit Degree. FACTOR. A number representing the numerical relation between several quan- tities. ... (2) A mathematical process of finding the components of a number which when miultiplied together Will give that number. PACTOR OF EVAPORATION. See Evaporation, Factor of. FACTQR OF SAFETY. A number, showing the ratio of the actual breaking strength of a material to the load actually applied to that material, COPYRIGHT 1923 COMPILED BY Z PETROL EU M A GE J. B. RATHEUN –52 PETROLEUM GLossARY (Z-53) \ (A Dictionary of Words, Terms and Phrases) FAHRENHEIT IOEGREE. The unit of temperature given on a Fahrenheit ther- mometer. The Fahrenheit Degree is the 1/180 part of the temperature difference between freezing and boiling water. On the Fahrenheit scale water freezes at 32° F. and boils at 212° F. at sealevel pressure. FA.HRENHEIT SCALE. See Fahrenheit Degree. FAN (CENTRIFUGAL). See Centrifugal Fan. FAT. An oily or greasy substance in the tissues of animal or in the Seeds of plants. These are generally built up from acids and alcohol radicals. (2) Meaning an “excess of" as in the case of an asphalt cement where the asphalt is in excess of the proper proportion. FAT (ANIMAL). Such substances as tallow, lard, lard oil, fish oil, etc. May be used alone as lubricants or by compounding with mineral oils. FAT (SOLID). Any fatty oil which solidifies above 0° F. FAT (VEGETABLE). Oily compounds having their source in vegetation. FATTY ACIDS. The acids contained in “Fixed Oil’’ (Animal or Vegetable) which combine with alkalis such as caustic soda. Or, anmonia, to form compounds called soaps. There are a great number of these acids, but the great majority are included in the following series: Acetic, Oleic, Linolic, Recinoleic. Among the in- dividual acids under this series are: Capric, Palmitic, Stearic, Oleic, and Rapic." FAT CONTENT. The amount of fatty acid contained in an oil, generally given in terms of the amount of oleic acid per cubic centimeter Of the Oil. FAT LUX. TEST. A means of determining the fatty Oils in liquids. FATTY OILS. All fixed oils of the animal and vegetable class which are fluid above 0° F. All fats become oils above 125° F. EAULT. The point at which a geological strata, “breaks off” or is sheared off by the dropping of a section of the strata due to settling. In many formations, a strata, will drop down suddenly along a straight line of shear for many feet below the original trend of the Strata. FEED. To supply or the rate of supply. --- FEED WATER. The water supplied to a boiler to make up for evaporation. FEED WATER HEATER. A device used to heat the feed water by means of the exhaust steam taken from the engine, turbine, or other auxiliary machinery. A OPEN HEATER is One in which the Steam COnnes into direct contact with the Water. A. CLOSED HEATER is one in which the water is conveyed through the steam space in pipe coils and therefore does not come into contact with the steam. FEED WATER OIL SEPARATOR. A device used for removing the cylinder oil from the Steam. FEED WATER PUM.P.S.. Pumps used for supplying, feed water, to , the boilers. A DUPLEX pump is one having two steam and water cylinders placed side by side. FELT (ROOFING). A felt saturated with a waterproofing compound such as asphaltun. FIBER GREASE. A. lubricating grease, so treated that it is of fibrous nature, small fibers or strings of grease being produced. There are no vegetable fibers ol threads introduced in the grease, the fibers being of the grease itself. FILLER. (1) Any substance used to weight a grease or oil or to increase its consistency artificially as with talc, soapstone, etc. An adulterant. (2). A fine dust used in asphaltic cements or Wearing surface of pavements to fill the voids or spaces between sand particles. Increases resistance to abrasion and waviness. FILTER. To purify or to remove suspended impurities by passing a fluid through a porous material such as filter paper, cloth, sand, charcoal or Fuller's earth. (2) A device for filtering. COPYRIGHT 1923 COMPILED BY Z 5 3 PETROL EU M AGE J. B. RATHEUN º PETROLEUM GLossARY (z-54) (A Dictionary of Words, Terms and Phrases) FILTER (GRAVITY). A filter in which the fluid flows through the medium by its own weight. f FILTER PRESS.. A machine for the separation of paraffine or other Wax from a fluid or semi-fluid by pressure extraction, the pressure squeezing out the fluid con- tent and leaving cakes of the Wax in the press. FILTRATE. The residue left after filtration or filtering. FILTRATION (BATCH). A system by which a small, amount or “Batch”...of lubricant can be removed from the engine at one time for filtration, and Without dis- turbing the remaining lubricant. FIRE. See Combustion. FIRE BRICK. A brick having a high resistance to fire or high temperatures. FIRE CLAY. A clay used in the manufacture of firebrick, or used as a mortar in bonding firebrick in walls. FIRE EXTINGUISHER. A device or substance used for extinguishing fires. ...Any material which will envelope the flame in a non-combustible blanket of gas or liquid (Foam), or which will chill the flame. It may be a gas, liquid, Solid or Semi-gaS aS in the case Of Foamite. FIRING OFIDER. The Order in which the cylinders of an internal combustion engine are fired or ignited. Thus in a four cylinder engine the usual firing order is 1-3-4-2, the figures being the successive number of the cylinders starting at the front end of the engine With cylinder No. 1. * FIRE POINT. See Fire TeSt. FIRE,TEST. A test made on an oil which determines the temperature at which - the oil will burn continuously when ignited by a small flame applied to its surface. Every oil has a fixed temperature at which it will catch fire and continue to burn. FIRE TUBE BOILER. A. boiler with a cylinder shell containing numbers of tubes through Which the hot gases pass. FISH OIL. Oils obtained from fish or sea mammals used for lubrication, or for quenching metals in the hardening and tempering operations...This name is also given to certain tempering or quench oils which have large additions of mineral oils. FITTINGS (PIPE). Attachments for pipe such as valves, tees, elbows, etc., which tº: connection between pipes or are used in controlling the flow of fluid through e plpe. FIXED CARBON. See Carbon, Fixed. FIXED CYLINDER ENGINE. An engine with stationary cylinders. º FIXED OILS. Oils which cannot be distilled without decomposition or by chang- ing their chemical composition. Such oils are the vegetable and animal oils. A fixed Oil generally produces a squeaking noise when the cork of a bottle is twisted with the oil between the cork and glass. Fl. Symbol for Florine. FLASH POINT. The temperature to which an oil must be raised to produce enough vapor for a momentary flash when the vapor is ignited under certain standard conditions. There must be enough vapor to obtain momentary ignition but not enough to cause continuous burning. There are a number of standard methods of obtaining this result Such as the Abel, Abel-Pensky, Cleveland, Tagliabue, and others, and all of them give somewhat different results. They may be divided into two classes, the open Cup and closed cup types. - #AME PROPAGATION. The rate at which flame spreads through a combustible In IXture. FLASK. A vessel, usually of glass, and of bottle form, used in the laboratory for º ºurne, Or filtering liquids. (2) The box used for holding the sand mould In a foundry. FLEXIBILITY (MOTOR). The speed variation possible with throttle controls. COPYRIGHT 1923 COMPILED BY Z 5 4 PETROLEU M AGE J. B. RATHEUN º- PETROLEUM GLOSSARY (Z-55) O (A Dictionary of Words, Terms and Phrases) FLOODING (OIL WELL). Entrance of water into an oil well, interfering With or spoiling production. FLOOR OIL. A light non-viscous oil used for laying dust. FLOAT TEST. To determine the consistency or viscosity of a very Viscous material such as a Sphaltunn. FLOCCULENT. In flakes Or flaky suspended matter in fluids. ' *Loc TEST. To determine the presence of flocculent or suspended matter in a fluid. FLORIDIN. Fuller's earth from certain parts of Florida. FLORIDA CLAY. Fuller’s earth. FLOW (PIPE LINE). The rate at which oil flows through the pipe line or capacity of line. FLOW. POINT. The temperature at which non-crystalline hydrocarbons such as º begin to flow, or become fluid enough to give a visible flow. The measure of fluidity. e FLOW SHEET. A diagrammatic drawing showing the sequence of manufacturing or refining Operations in the production of such compounds as petroleum oils and W2X62S. GLUE. (1) A stack or passage for burned gases or smoke. (2) The tubes used in Fire Tube boilers to increase the heating surface. The hot gases and Smoke from the furnace pass through the flues on their way to the Stack. FLUE GAS. The gases from the fire or the products of combustion consisting principally or carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, Oxygen and nitrogen. FLUE GAS ANALYSIS. The chemical analysis of the flue gases made to determine the state of combustion. This analysis enables one to determine whether air is being jºied in proper volume for the complete combustion or whether an excess is being UIS601. FLUE GAS RECORDER. A device which traces the percentage of carbon dioxide On a sheet of paper so that the condition of combustion can be determined at any hour. Sometimes called a “CO2 Recorder.” FLUID. A physical form of matter in which there is an indifferent attraction between the molecules so that the matter does not tend to maintain its form. Gases and liquids are both fluids in this sense. A fluid requires support if it is to maintain any given form or to maintain any given figure, and therefore possesses the property of “Flow” or of moving from one point to another by virtue of its weight or an external pressure. It can adapt itself to any form with little applied force. FLUID (PERFECT). An ideal fluid (non-existent) which is perfectly fluid and In OI! - WISCOUIS. FLUIDITY. The degree of being fluid expressed by the amount of force required to deform or distort the matter. A fluid may be “Thin” or “Thick” or, even, entirely gaseous, and this is often expressed as viscosity. The limpedness or fluidity is deter- mined by the internal shearing forces between the molecules. It is interesting to #: that air is about 14 times more viscous than water when compared density for enSlty. FLUORESCENCE. A property possessed by some materials of changing the wave length of light reflected from their surfaces and thus producing different reflected colors than that of the original light. In some cases, the matter will convert invisible light rays or vibrations into bands and streams of color making the substance appear self- luminous. Thus “X” Rays only become visible when they strike a fluorescent sub- stance such as taungState of calcium. The surface of some oils possess fluorescence showing variable bands of color often called the “Bloom.” FLUX. Any material which cleans the surfaces of molten or softened materials so that they will adhere or enter into combination to form a single integral substance. FLUX OIL (ASPHALT). Used to control the consistency of asphalt, or to increase or decrease the penetration. ** COPYRIGHT 1923 COMPILED BY *~ Z 5 5 PETROLEUM AGE J. B. RATHEUN ºmº PETROLEUM GLOSSARY (Z-56) (A Dictionary of Words, Terms and Phrases) / FLUX (ASPHALTIC). Asphalt fluxes of great density and free from paraffine scale. Contain a predominating quantity of unsaturated hydrocarbons. For paving. ITLUX (MEXICAN). Obtained from Mexican petroleum and contains a high per- centage of paraffine scale. About 80 percent is soluble in 88° Be. Naphtha. For 93.VIIlg. FLUX (PARAFFINE). The residuals obtained from paraffine base oil and con- taining a high percentage of saturated hydrocarbons. For paving. FLUX (PITTSBURGH). A blown residual oil high in bitumen. For paving. FLUX (SEMI-ASPHALTIC). These fluxes have a higher density than the paraf- fine fluxes, contain less paraffine scale, and will dissolve Gilsonite. For paving. FOAM. (1) A mixture of a gas with a fluid, the fluid being viscous enough to form a series of air cell bubbles, each bubble being covered with a strong and enduring skin of fluid. (2) FOAMING IN BOILERS may be caused by impurities in the water or by oil in the water. The water boils up forming a strong foam that is carried over into the steam mains with the Steam and causes trouble. FOAMITE. A fire extinguishing fluid that forms a carbon dioxide foam Over the surface of burning oil and thus smothers out the flame. This will float on Oil. FOOTS OIL. Oil from which the paraffine has been sweated. FOAM OIL. Paint oil 45° Be. Illuminating oil or mineral seal are used for paper mill foam Oils. FORCE. That which tends to increase or diminish the velocity of a body. FORCED DRAFT. A system of mechanical draft in which the air is blown into the alsh pit above atmospheric pressure. FORCE FEED. A. lubrication system in which the oil is pumped to the individual bearings under pressure. FORMIOLIT REACTION. A reaction indicating the presence of the naphthene Series of hydrocarbons. FORM OIL. Used to keep concrete forms-from Sticking to concrete. FQRMUL.A. . A rule or form of solving a problem, or a rule governing the making of a Chemical mixture or compound. FORMUL.A.E. Plural Of Formula. - FRACTION. (1) A part of the whole or a quantity expressed as a part of 1.00 whole unit (Vulgar Fraction), thus: 44, 3%, sº, etc. The division is here expressed but is not carried out in actual figures. (2) One unit of a compound substance or a Component of a compound. FRACTION (PETROLEUM). An elementary compound or a series of compounds whose, boiling point lie within a certain range. Thus, for example, if 10 percent of the oil is given off at a temperature of 150° F., during a distillation test, then this is an arbitrary “fraction” of that oil, and contains the hydrocarbon oils evaporating at that temperature. The fraction can be anything we choose to make it, or will include any number of the compounds that we desire. FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION. An analytical distillation by which the various “fractions” or component compounds of a fluid are separated by a process of dis- tillation in order of their boiling points. Thus, petroleum refining is based on frac- tional distillation since the various components of petroleum, such as gasoline, naphtha, kerosene, etc., are driven off in groups and separated by distillation. FRACTIONAL GRAVITY. The gravity of a “Fraction” or a group of hydrocar- bons obtained in fractional distillation. ... FRACTIONAL COLUMN. ... An apparatus arranged to separate the variation frac- tions of petroleum by 'Single distillation, the condenser or “Column” being tapped off at different points along its length, so as to separate the various fractions in order of their condensing temperatures (Boiling Points). FRASCH METHOD. A method of determining or removing sulphur from Detroleum. COPYRIGHT 1923 COMPILED BY Z-5 PETRO LEU M AGE J. B. RATHEUN –56 PETROLEUM GLOSSARY (Z-58) (A. Dictionary of Words, Terms and Phrases) FUEL OIL. (1) Any petroleum oil used for the production of heat or power. Usually, however, fuel oil in a commercial sense is a heavy grade of oil and does not include such light fractions as gasoline or kerosene. (2) A crude oil or a heavy dis- tillate of petroleum crude Oil. FUEL OIL (BUNIXER). Oil used in the Navy or marine service. FUEL OIL (DISTILLATE). A heavy residual oil left after topping the crude for gasoline and kerosene. It generally, although not always, includes the next frag- tion the kerosene called “Gas Oil.” Light fuel oil distillates average 34°–36° Be., while the heavy or “Reduced” fuel oils may run around 22°–28° Be. ITUEL OIL (CRUDE). When the crude oil contains little or no gasoline , or kerosene and carries little lubricating oil of value, as with some Mexican crude oils, the crude oil is burned just as it comes from the well. Cracking processes have much reduced the amount of such oil used as a fuel. PUEL OIL (DIESEL). A high grade fuel oil free from water, tarry deposits, paraffine and other impurities used as a fuel for Diesel engines. FURNACE. (1) A chamber in which combustion is carried on. (2) A BOILER FURNACE is that part of the boiler in which the fuel is combined with the air and in which the major part of the combustion takes place. (3) An INDUSTRIAL FURN ACE is a furnace used for heating material in the process Of manufacture Or for melting Solids. FURNACE (AIR). A furnace used for melting cast iron and semi-steel. The metal is carried on a flat bed. IFURNACE (ANNEALING). A furnace in which metal is heated and allowed to cool slowly to soften and toughen the grain. FURNACE (MUFFLE). A furnace arranged with pots or pigeon holes so that the flame does not come into direct contact with the material being heated. FURNACE (OPEN HEARTH). A type of furnace in which steel is melted, the Steel being placed in a horizontal hollowed out bed called the “hearth.” The flame passes over the surface of the metal. FURNACE (REGENERATIVE). A furnace in which the air supply is heated before coming into the furnace proper, the heat being obtained from the waste gases of the furnace. This is an economical means. (G) GAGE. (1) To measure. (2) An instrument for measuring. GAGE PRESSURE. The pressure in pounds per square inch (Or atmospheres) shown by the pressure gage. This shows the pressures above or greater than atmos— pheric pressure and does not show the ABSOLUTE PRESSURE. . The latter pressure is measured from vacuum and is equal to the gage pressure plus the atmospheric pressure, or approximately is equal to the gage pressure plus 14.7. The gage pressure is equal to the absolute pressure minus 14.7 (Approximately). GAGE (MERCURY). A gage consisting of a column of mercury, the height of the mercury being proportional to the pressure per unit area. Result may be given either in terms of pounds per Square inch or in inches of mercury measured from surface to surface. GAGE (METAL). A standardized thickness of metal known as a “Gage” or “Gauge Number” is sometimes used in ordering sheet or strips. ... There are a great number of these gages, applying the metal below %", but the U. S. Standard Gage is mostly used for the plates and sheet used in the construction of tanks. * COPYRIGHT 1924 COMPILED BY Z 58 PETRO LEU M AGE J. B. RATHE UN. sº PETROLEUM GLOSSARY (Z-59) (A Dictionary of Words, Terms and Phrases) GAGE (WATER). (1) A glass tube used to show the height of water in a boiler. , (2) A gage used for measuring low pressures such as the air pressures of fans and Smoke Stack draft. The readings are generally given in “Inches of water.” GAL. Abbreviation for Gallon. GALLON. A unit of volume used for liquids or in “Liquid Measure.” The U. S. Standard gallon contains 231 cubic inches (wine gallon), while the British Imperial gallon contains 277 cubic inches. G.A.S. A fluid in which there is repulsion existing between the molecules so that the gas constantly tends to occupy a greater space. (1) A popular term for Gasoline. GAS (ACETYLENE). A hydrocarbon gas. See Acetylene. GAS (AEROGENE). A fuel gas obtained by carbureting air with gasoline. ºš BALANCE. A scale or balance used to weigh gas or to obtain its specific gravity. * GAS BLACK. See Carbon Black. A soot obtained by burning natural gas with insufficient air of combustion. GAS (BLAST FURNACE). Gas obtained from the waste gases issuing from blast furnaces. It is very lean and can only be burned successfully within the cylin– ders of a gas engine. It is a byproduct of the furnaces. GAS (CARBURETED). Gas which has been treated with oil vapor to increase its luminosity. GAS COAL. Bituminous coal from Which illuminating gas is made. GAS (CORE OVEN). A rich coal gas obtained as a byproduct of coking ovens where the volatile matter forming the coal is driven or distilled off leaving the coke. This gas is usually processed for the removal of benzene, benzol, annonia, etc. GAS COMBINATION. Natural gas containing much oil vapor. GAS (DRY, NATURAL). Natural gas free or nearly free from oil and gasoline Vapor. GAS COMPRESSOR. A compressor used for compressing gas, similar to an air compressor. GAS ENGINE. An internal combustion engine using gas as a fuel, or sometimes oil gas or vapor. GAS ENGINE OIL. Oil for the lubrication of the gas engine cylinders. An oil having a high viscosity and flash test. Made in many grades. GAS HOUSE TAR. Coal tar produced in the retorts of an illuminating gas plant. GAS (ILLUMINATING). A gas containing, much hydrocarbon vapor to produce a luminous flame. This may be coal gas obtained by the distillation of bituminous coal in retorts, or it may be water or producer gas carbureted with oil vapor. The illuminating value of a gas is not of so much importance as formerly owing to the general adoption of incandescent mantle burners. GAS (LIQUEFIED). Gas put into steel containers under high pressure for port— able use. GAS MANTLES. Cones of some highly refractive salt of thorium or cerium which are heated to incandescence by a gas flame. Used for illumination. GAS (NATURAL). A gas coming from wells, generally rich in such combustibles as methane and ethane. If the gas is “Wet,” that is contained absorbed vapors of the light petroleum hydrocarbons, it is used in the manufacture of casinghead gaso— line. GAS OIL. A petroleum oil of medium gravity which follows the kerosene and precedes the light lubricating oils. It is used for enriching or carbureting water gas to increase its luminosity or is used as a high grade fuel oil. It is a good fuel for internal combustion engines (Oil engines). & t COPYRIGHT 1924 COMPILED BY Z 59 PETRO LEU M A GE J. B. RATHEUN. tº w L PETROLEUM GLOSSARY (Z-60) (A Dictionary of Words, Terms and Phrases) GASOLINE. An indefinite name for a light distillate of petroleum which covers a wide range of gravities and boiling points. Everything down to 56° Baume can be S Considered as gasoline at present or any distillate having an end point higher than 470° F. There is no fixed definition owing to the necessity of continually making deeper “Cuts” into the crude. Gasoline is one of the most valuable constituents of petroleum being used as a fuel for automobile, tractor, boat and truck engines, as a solvent in many manufacturing Operations, as a cleanser, etc. . GASOLINE (CASINGHEAD). A gasoline made by mixing the casinghead gaso— line obtained from natural gas with naphtha. A motor fuel. (2) The extremely light and volatile gasoline obtained from wet casinghead natural gas. GASOLINE (CRACKED). Gasoline obtained by high temperature and high pressure distillation of petroleum. The heavier components of the crude are “Cracked” or decomposed so as to furnish a greater yield of gasoline than is naturally contained in the crude. GASOLINE (STRAIGHT RUN). Gasoline obtained by the fractional distillation of crude petroleum. This is the gasoline naturally contained in the crude, and con- sists of a series of consecutive distillates with uniformly varying boiling points. GASOLINE (SYNTHETIC). Artificial gasoline from substances other than petroleum or petroleum products. GAS (PRODUCER). Gas produced by blowing a jet of steam through an in- can descent bed of coal. Its principal heat Value is due to the large percentage of carbon monoxide contained. GAS SAND. A Strata. Of sand or porous sandstone from which natural gas is obtained. GAS TRAP. A device for separating and saving the natural gas from the Oil in oil wells that produce much gas. The mixture of gas and oil enters a large chamber where the velocity is sufficiently reduced to allow the gas to separate from the Oil. GAS WELL. A well devoted to the production of natural gas alone. GASSER. A well discharging both gas and oil, the gas predominating. GAUGE. See Gage. GEAR. A toothed wheel. (2) An assemblage of mechanical units or linkage designed to perform some series of Operations or movements. GEAR CASE. An enclosure for gears. In an automobile this generally refers to the case of the transmission gearS. GEAR CASE OIL. Oil suitable for the lubrication of gears such as the trans— mission gears of an automobile. This is a heavy oil, strongly adhesive, and should be as little affected by changes in temperature as possible. GEAR GREASE. A compounded grease having Strong adhesive properties, one that will not throw off by centrifugal force nor “Track.” GEAR (MESHING). (1) Gears are in mesh when the teeth of connected wheels enter into each other to the proper depth, or “Run on the pitch line.”... (2) The act of entering the teeth of gears into contact or shifting from one gear ratio to another as in changing speeds with an automobile transmission, gear. GEAR (SPIRAL). (HELICAL GEAR.) A gear with the teeth curved across the face (Slanting). More properly called a “Helical Gear.” The shafts can be parallel or at right angles. GEAR (SPUR). (1) A gear having Straight teeth parallel to the shaft centerline. GEAR TRAIN. A series of meshing gears. COPYRIGHT 1924 COMPILED BY Z-60 PETRO LEU Me AGE - J. B. RATHE UN. PET ROLEUM GLOSSARY (Z-61) (A Dictionary of Words, Terms and Phrases) GENERATOR (ELECTRIC). An electric machine also known as a dynamo used to generate electric current. A rotating member, wound with wire, turns in a mag— netic field in such a way that the armature wires cut the magnetic flux and generate electric currents. The generator is driven from some source of power such as a Steam or gas engine. GEOLINE. A vaseline or petrolatum. GEOI,OGY. That science treating of the earth’s structure, the formation and occurrence of minerals, and the analysis of mineral strata. GEOI/OGIC AGE. The age of a given strata or the estimated period in which it was formed. This is purely a, relative estimate. GEOMETRY. A mathematical science treating of the laws governing plane figures and solids, the relations of their sides and angles and the theory of their , construction. The basis of linear, Surface and solid measurements. GILSONITE (UINTAITE). A brilliant black and brittle variety of asphalt having * ºl fracture. It fuses easily and is soluble in carbon disulphide, alcohol, and urpen Ulne. GLANCE PITCH. These are very hard and brittle bitumens of low saturated hydrocarbon content. GLAND. A stuffing box or means of making a piston rod or shaft steam tight at the point where it passes through a partition. GLY CERIDE. An ether found in fixed fats in which the alcohol glycerine (Glycerol) exists With a fatty acid. GLYCERINE (GLYCEROL). Obtained from fats, . A syrupy colorless or very light yellow fluid. Apparently an Oil but a very poor lubricant, and while it is thick yet this apparent viscosity seems to be of little avail in lubrication. Chiefly interest— ing because of its connection with fats and fatty oils. GLYCEROL. See Glycerine. GO-DEVIL. (1) A weight dropped down the bore of an oil well to explode a charge of nitroglycerine placed at the bottom. “Shooting a well.” (2) A plunger with self-adjusting spring blades used for cleaning and scraping out a pipe line, this plunger being forced ahead by the oil pressure. GOOSE NECPC. The vapor pipe line On a sill. re GRAHAMITE. A black hydrocarbon, soluble in carbon disulphide and chloroform 'but not in alcohol. It is fusible and has a concoidal fracture. GRAM. The metric unit of Weight. GRAM–CALORIE. The metric unit of heat quantity. The quantity of heat re- quired to raise 1 gram of water (at about 15° C.) one degree centigrade. GRAPHITE. A form of the element carbon. It is intensely black, has a greasy feeling, a metallic luster, and leaves a black mark On paper. It occurs naturally and is also produced artificially in the electric furnace. Graphite is a natural lubricant and may either be used alone in the pure State or combined with a grease or oil to facilitate its application to a bearing. It is incombustible and forms a protective coating on metals. , Besides its service as a lubricant, graphite is used in paints, in the manufacture of lead pencils, stove blacking, etc. GRAPHITE (ACHESON). An artificial graphite prepared in an electric furnace. i It is free from grit and , organig, impurities making it more suitable for use as a lubricant than the natural graphite. COPYRIGHT 1924 COMPILED BY - PETRO LEU M AGE J. B. RATHE UN. * Z-61 PETROLEUM GLOSSARY (Z-52) (A Dictionary of Words, Terms and Phrases) GRAPHITE (ACHESON). Artificial graphite made by the Alcheson Company. GRAPHITE (AMORPHOUS). Uncrystallized graphite or graphite having particles of no definite crystalline form. Used in paints, lubrication, packing, electrodes, and pencils. . When used as a lubricant, dry or mixed with oil, it must be entirely free from grit or acid. GRAPHITE (AQUADAG). Deflocculated graphite mixed with water. A lubricant for cylinders. GRAPHITE (ARTIFICIAL). Graphite made in the electric furnace from anthra- cite coal and sand. GRAPHITE (COLLOIDAL). Graphite powdered to an extremely fine sub-divi- Sion, the particles not being much larger than colloids. The finer the sub-division of the particles the more effective lubricant it becomes and the longer it will stay in Solution With water and oil. A colloid is less than microscopic, nearly approaching molecular dimensions. GRAPHITE (DEFLOCCULATED). Amorphous graphite in a very finely divided state, the particles being nearly of colloidal size. This form of graphite (Acheson Graphite Company) will stay in solution permanently with oil being in a state of colloidal suspension or flotation, and when tannic acid is added, it will remain in Suspension in Water. This powder is used mixed with oil, water or grease, these three elements acting simply as vehicles for the graphite. GRAPHITE (FLAFCE). Graphite in the form of small flat scales. Used as a , stove polish, crucibles and refractories, paints, foundry facings and pencils. Crucibles made from graphite are capable of Standing the highest degrees of temperature met. with in crucible steel furnaces, and the graphite foundry facings protect the moulding sand against the intense heat of the molten metal. GRAPHITE (NATURAL). Natural graphite is mined in the United States and in Ceylon. This is well suited for some purposes, but Owing to the grit and organic matter contained in the crude graphite, it is not always a suitable medium as a lubricant. There is always danger of grit in natural graphite, no matter how care— fully it may be treated. GRAPHITE (OILDAG). Deflocculated graphite mixed with mineral oil. A lubricant. GRAPHITE (PLUMBAGO). An incorrect term often applied to graphite, par— ticularly by foundries. Plumbago is a salt of lead and not carbon. GRAPHITE (REFRACTORY). Graphite has a high resistance to heat and oxidi– zation at high temperatures. Graphite refractory bricks are used for lining furnaces and are called “KRYPTOL” when the graphite is mixed with carborundum and clay. The latter is a conductor of high resistance and is used in the resistors of electric furnalCeS. GRATE AREA. The area of the Space covered by the grate bars of a furnace, wall to wall. The grate area for different fuels has a relation to the heating surface and output of a boiler. * GRAVIMETER. An instrument for determining the specific gravity. GRAVITY (ACCELERATION IDUE TO). The attraction of the earth for objects on its surface, known as “Gravity,” is a force that produces a constant acceleration in falling bodies. This acceleration, which is indicated by (g), amounts to 32.16 feet in this latitude, or accelerates at the rate of 32.16 feet per second. GRAVITY (CENTER OF). The point at which a body will balance if supported at that point by a frictionless pivot. , (2) CENTER OF GRAVITY OF AREA is that point which is effectively, central between all points, in the outline of the figure. it is the “Balancing point” of the figure, or that point at which all moments acting on the plane are balanced. OPYRIGHT 1924 COMPILED BY sº ºf J. B. RATH Bl]N Z-62 PETROLEUM GLOSSARY (Z-63) (A Dictionary of Words, Terms and Phrases) GRAVITY (SPECIFIC). The ratio of the weights of equal volumes of two sub- stances, one of which is taken as a standard. Water is taken as a standard of com- parison for liquids and solids and air is generally taken as the standard for gases, although hydrogen is also used in some cases. The specific gravity is taken at a standard temperature, , usuelly 60° .F. in this country. The specific gravity is a decimal for materials of less density than the standard. Thus if an oil has a specific gravity of 0.7888, then the oil weighs 0.7888 of the weight of an equal volume of Water. Specific gravity is a unit of density. * . GRAVIMETRIC. ANALYSIS. A method of chemical analysis based on units, of Weight, in which all of the substances entering into the reaction, are weighed. This is distinct from VOLUMETRIC ANALYSIS in which volumes of standardized solu- tions are used as the unit of comparison. Gravimetric methods are more precise. GRAVIMETRIC UNITS. Various units of force, work and power in terms of Weight. This may be either avoirdupois or metric. This is to distinguish units based On the pound, gran or kilogram from the ABSOLUTE UNITS based on mass. To obtain gravimetric values in pounds, the absolute values must be multiplied by 32.16, the acceleration due to gravity. GREASE. A. solid or semi-solid lubricant properly applied only to the fatty or Oily matter of animal origin, but also applied to compounds of fats and mineral oils. The latter type are composed of a fat emulsion impregnated with a mineral oil, the emulsifiable “soap” simply being a carrier for the true lubricant which is the mineral Oil. See Section. On GREASES. GREASE CUP. A receptacle used for supplying grease to a bearing, the cup usually being provided with some screw or spring device by which the grease is forced into the bearing surfaces. The grease proper for such a device is called a CUP GREASE. i GREASE DROPPING POINT. The temperature at which a grease drops from the bulb of a thermometer under its own weight. The softening temperature of the grea.Se. GREASE GUN. A. syringe or hand plunger pump used to force grease into gear housings and other casings. GREEN NAPHTHA. A naphtha, obtained from Scotch shale oil. GREEN OIL. It is the first run distillate of Scotch shale oil from which the lighter shale oils are fractionated. GREEN TAR. A heavy petroleum hydrocarbon from Barbados. GUIMMY. Viscuous but without lubricating power, resinous, sticky but not oily. GUN OIL. The oil used for cleaning guns, filling the recoil cylinders, and for hydraulic cylinders. It is a non–Viscuous oil, free from acid. GUSHER. An oil well having a heavy flow of oil caused by high gas pressure. HAMMER OIL. A steam cylinder oil. (2), A light non-viscuous oil used for pneumatic hammers and chippets. These two definitions are rather conflicting and embrace two entirely different oils. HANGERS. Line shaft bearings supported from the ceiling or from posts. The latter are called “Post Hangers.” HARNESS OIL. Either the pure neatsfoot (animal oil), or a compound of neats— foot oil, petroleum and wax. An oil for softening leather. A HARVESTER OIL. An oil of high fire test and viscosity. Pure castor oil, heavy mineral oil, or a compound of either with graphite. PETRO LEU M AGE COMPILED BY Z 63 COPYRIGHT 1924 J. B. RATHE UN # - * [. PETROLEUM GLOSSARY (Z-64) (A Dictionary of Words, Terms and Phrases) HEAD (HYDRAULIC). The height of a fluid column, usually considered as water, which maintains a pressure on a surface. This pressure head may be given in terms of the pressure square inch or simply as the height of a water column in feet or inches. With low pressures, as in measuring smoke stack draft, the head is fly; in inches of water, while in computations for water power the head is given II]. I e6?t. HEADLIGHT OIL. A petroleum illuminating oil used for the headlights of loco- motives having a fire test of 150° F. ... HEAT. A form of energy which is convertible into mechanical, energy through its property of causing expansion. Heat energy may be considered as due to , the yibration of molecules and causes molecular vibration, an increase of temperature increasing the orbits or the range of the path taken up by the vibrating molecule. Heat may be produced by the chemical process of combustion, by the expenditure of mechanical or electrical energy in overcoming resistance, by hammering and Compact- ing or by mechanically mixing certain substances. HEAT BALANCE. According to the laws of the conservation of energy, energy can neither be created nor destroyed. Hence there must always be a perfect balance or equality between the heat energy supplied and the energy given out by a machine. he number of heat units supplied to a boiler in the form of Coal must exactly “balance” the useful energy developed by the engine plus the heat and frictional losses that take place during the transformation of the heat into mechanical energy. A HEAT BALANCE SHEET shows the heat delivered in the form of fuel set Out and against the useful energy produced and the various losses. HEAT (COMBUSTION). Heat produced by the chemical combination of oxygen with the carbon and hydrocarbons of a fuel. nºt CONDUCTION. The transfer of heat taking place by travel along a solid Or 110 uld. &º HEAT CONTENT. The quantity of heat contained in a solid, gas or fluid. (2) The quantity of heat available in a fuel. HEAT (CONVECTION). The transfer of heat from one body to another by circulating currents of air or a liquid. HEAT CONVERSION FACTORS. Factors or constants for converting units of heat energy into units of mechanical or electrical energy. HEAT ENGINE. A mechanism for converting heat energy into mechanical energy, such as the steam engine or gas engine. HEAT ENGINE. CYCLE. . The series of expansions and compressions, undergone by the working medium of a heat engine (Air, Steam, or Gas), in going through the complete series of events. Thus we have, the Carnot Cycle, Rankine Cycle, etc. HEAT (EXPANSION BY). An increasing temperature increases the linear di— mensions and volumes of most substances due to the fact that the molecules are driven further apart by their increased activity. The degree of expansion that takes place depends upon the increase in temperature, the properties of the material, and the original length of the object. Reduction of temperature is met by decreased , lineal dimensions and volume. Expansion is a function of temperature—not heat quantity. HEAT INSULATOR. A material which conducts little or no heat. A non- conducotr. COPYRIGHT 1924 COMPILED BY PETROLEUM AGE J. B. RATHE UN Z-64 PETROLEUM GLOSSARY (Z-65) (A Dictionary of Words, Terms and Phrases.) ... HEAT LATENT. When a body is heated to the boiling point or melting point its physical Structure undergoes a change, and a certain quantity of heat is used to tear the body apart into its new form, the temperature remaining constant at the boiling or melting point until completely evaporated or melted. The heat that is thus Supplied in changing form is called the “Latent Héat” or the “Hidden Heat,” since the Supply of heat causes no increase in temperature nor external evidence of its presence. Thus in boiling at atmospheric pressure, water rises to the boiling tem— perature (212° F.) and no higher until all of the water is converted into steam. The latent heat is quoted in B. t. u. or Calories. HEAT (LATENT HEAT OF EVAPORATION). The quantity of heat absorbed (B. t., u) or Calories. to change, the substance, from a liquid into a vapor. . The quantity required depends upon the nature of the substance, the pressure and the quantity evaporated. HEAT (LATENT HEAT OF FUSION). This is the quantity of heat required to melt a solid at a fixed temperature, or to convert it from a solid into a liquid. Thus, a piece of ice raised to 32° F. Starts to melt and continues constantly at this tem— perature until all of the ice is melted. The latent heat in B. t. u. depends upon the HEAT (OF LIQUID). The heat required to raise a pound of water from 32° F. to the boiling point, the boiling temperature depending upon the pressure. Thus the heat of liquid is greater at high pressures than at low for the reason that the boiling temperature is higher. HEAT (MECHANICAL EQUIVALENT). A factor used to convert heat units into mechanical units. One B. t. u. = 778 Foot—Pounds. HEAT QUANTITY (INSENSIBLE HEAT). The quantity or volume of heat is not sensible to the touch, and is therefore often called the “Invisible Heat.” This is as different from the temperature or “Sensible Heat,” as gallons are from pounds per square inch. Heat quantity is the amount of heat energy absorbed in raising the temperature of a body or converting it into another physical State, and in the latter case is not accompanied by a change in temperature. It is the same thing as ‘‘Work” in mechanics, the temperature corresponding to the force or pressure acting while the heat quantity corresponds to the distance displaced. Heat quantity is given in terms of “Heat Units,” the British thermal unit (B. t. u.) or the calory. HEAT (RADIATION). HEAT (SPECIFIC). The quantity of heat required to raise one unit of weight of a given substance by one degree. . In this country, the Specific heat is the amount of heat required to raise one pound of matter, one degree Fahrenheit. Water is taken at unity, it requiring one B. t. u. to raise one pound of Water, One degree Fahrenheit. In the metric system the GRAM–CALORY is the amount of heat required to raise one gram of material one degree centigrade, hence the Specific heat in metric units is the heat required to raise one gram of the material One . degree centigrade, water being taken at unity. The specific heat of gases is given in relation to the heat required to raise a unit weight of air or hydrogen One thermometer degree. HEAT (TEMPERATURE). (SENSIBLE HEAT). The degree of heat “Pressure” indicated by the thermometer. . The intensity of heat or the degree of heat concen— tration. The temperature is given in Fahrenheit or Centigrade degrees. HEAT TREATMENT. A process of changing the structure of a material (gen-º’ erally a metal) by a system of heating and cooling. Thus, tempering and hardening steels are heat treatment methods. HEAT UNIT. The unit of , heat quantity such as the British Thermal Unit (B. t. u.) or the calory. See British Thermal Unit and Calory. } HEAT VALUE. The heating value of a fuel in B. t. u. Or Calories. COPYRIGHT 1924 COMPILED BY tº º PETRO LEU M AGE J. B. RATHE UN Z 65 O * * e PETROLEUM GLossaryz (-66) (A Dictionary of Words, Terms and Phrases.) HEAT VALUE (HIGHER). The total heat value of a fuel including the heat of the products of combustion, the latter being cooled down to the temperature of the Original fuel temperature. In a calorimeter test of a fuel, carbon dioxide and water Vapor are produced by the combustion of the carbon and hydrogen elements respec- tively, and if these are allowed to escape at , a high temperature they carry off con- siderable heat, especially the water vapor which contains the latent heat of vaporiza– tion. In the determination of the “Higher Heating Value,” the water vapor is con— densed Within the calorimeter and this heat is thus abstracted and recorded. This is equivalent to actual practical conditions where the gases are cooled to low tempera— - ..". case, however, which seldom occurs. This value is given in heat units, B. t. u. QI* C2,10]"IeS. p . HEAT VALUE (LOWER). The “Lower Heating Value” of a fuel neglects the heat carried off by the products of combustion since in the majority of actual prac— tical cases the gases are not cooled down nor Condensed on the heating surfaces. (See Higher, Heating Value.) The lower heating value is therefore equal to the total heat of combustion (Higher Heating value) minus the quantity of heat carried off in the vapor. Since the walls of internal combustion engines and those of boiler furnaces and walls are always very high, the vapor of combustion is never condensed to per— form work but passes unchanged out of the exhaust or stack. For this reason, the lower heating value is the value to use. Given in terms of B. t. u, or calories. HEATER (FUEL OIL). A device for heating and reducing the viscosity of heavy fuel oils so that they will flow to the burners more readily. This is generally a tank heated by a steam coil or a hot water heating coil. It is absolutely necessary in cold climates or with oils lower than 26° Be. - HEATER (FEED WATER): A form of heater used for heating boiler supply water before it is pumped into the boiler. See Feed Water Heater. HEATING VALUE OF COAL. Given in terms of B. t. u. per pound. HEATING VALUE OF GAS. Given in terms of B. t. u. per cubic foot at Sea. level pressure and standard temperature. HEATING VALUE OF OIL. In this country, the heat of oil is generally given in terms of B. t. u. per pound or B. t. u. per U. S. standard gallon. The heat per gallon is the more logical unit, since oil is sold by the gallon and not by the pound, but in tests, the consumption is usually given “per pound” unit. HEATING SURFACE. The area in square feet of the boiler surface actually coming into contact, with the flame and hot gases of combustion. In a firetube or tubular boiler this includes the lower third of the shell, the area of the flues or tubes, and the net area of the heads. HEAVY HYDROCARBONS. Hydrocarbon fluids which have a high specific gravity or a low Baumé gravity. - HEAVY LUBRICATING, OILS. ... While in some instances, this may apply to lubricating oils, of high specific gravity (Low Baumé gravity), it is the general prac— tice to use this term with reference to high Viscosity oils. - * +. HEAVY OIL (COAL TAR DISTILLATE). (ANTHRACENE OIL). The third fraction obtained from the distillation of crude Coal tar. It is heavier than water, Specific Gravity = 1.04, and most of it distills between 200° F. and 300° F. HELIUM (He). An inert gas found in the atmosphere and in certain natural gases. It is non-combustible and Very light, and has been proposed as a substitute for hydrogen in balloons and dirigibles. It is very expensive because of its rarity and the difficulty met with in extracting it. - - \ - . - - (COPYRIGHT 1924 COMPILED BY r ####jº ºf J. B. RATHBUN < \ Z-66 PETROLEUM GLOSSARY (z-67) (A Dictionary of Words, Terms and Phrases.) HELICAL GEARS (SPIRAL GEARS). A helical gear, often misnamed “Spiral Gear,” is a Special form of worm gear, the teeth slanting in helical curves across the face of the gear. Unlike the spur gear, the teeth of meshing helical gears slide over one another and for this, reason they must be continuously lubricated by immersing them in a bath of oil. Since the teeth of helical gears are virtually bearing surfaces, ºfear is made of hardened steel while its mate is of bronze or similar soft tough Iſletall. HELIX. A screw thread or the path, traced by a revolving point which at the same time moves forward along a straight line. This is the curve formed by coil Springs, the teeth Of helical gears and the threads of screws. HEPTANE (C7H16) (Heptyl Hydride) (METHYL HEXANE). One of the liquid paraffine Series of petroleum hydrocarbons of the saturated order. It forms a part of gasoline ang is a volatile and inflammable liquid. Specific gravity = 0.694, boiling - point = 96 HERRINGBONE GEARS. A double helical gear with the teeth Slanting both ways from the center of the face in a series of “V’s.” It is generally made by plac— ing two helical gears (right and left) side by side. It is very strong and practically noiseless. As with helical gears, it must be lubricated by an oil bath. HEXAGON. A plain six sided figure. HEXANE (CeBIT 4). A light and volatile paraffine hydrocarbon fluid forming a part of gasoline. Specific gravity = 0.660, boiling point = 69° C. It is highly in- flammable. HIGHER HEATING VALUE. See Heat Value, Higher. •- HOOKE'S JOINT. See Universal Joint. * HORSEPOWER (H. P.). The commercial unit of mechanical power or the rate of doing work. It is equal to the expenditure of 33,000 foot-pounds per minute or 550 foot—pounds per second. The force or weight moved in pounds multiplied by the velocity in feet per minute gives the foot pounds per minute. This product divided by 33,000 gives the horsepower HORSEPOWER (ACTUAL). See Rrake Horsepower. EHORSEPOWER AUTOMOBILE. See Horsepower, Gas Engine. HORSEPOWER (ERAKE) (B. H. P.). See Brake Horsepower. HORSEPOWER (ELECTRICAL) (K. W.) (FC. V. A.). The electrical unit of power is the “KILOWATT’’ which is equal to 1,000 watts, or approximately 1.33 me— chanical horsepower. More exactly, the kilowatt = 1,000/746 mechanical horsepower since 746 watts are the equivalent of a horsepower. With alternating current ma– chinery it is customary to rate the machine in “Kilo-Volt-Amperes” (K. V. A.), which is the same thing as the kilowatt when the power factor of the alternating current is unity. HORSEPOWER (GAS ENGINE). With a given size cylinder the horsepower of a gas engine is a variable quantity. It varies with the Compression pressure, the valve size, the fuel used, the altitude, piston Speed, and a number of other factors. Even with the same engine and fuel the power varies from day to day because of atmospheric variations. Formulae, for calculating power will be found under the chapter dealing with Internal Combustion Engines. ...” FIORSEPOWER (INDICATED) (I. H. P.). The horsepower as calculated from the indicator cards. This is the power developed WITHIN the cylinder of the engine and is less than the power delivered by the amount of mechanical friction. COPYRIGHT, 1924 COMPILED BY. Z-67 PETRO LEU M A GE J. B. RATHETJN, f * O PETROLEUM GLossary (z-68) (A Dictionary of Words, Terms and Phrases.) HORSEPOWER-HOUR (H. P. Hr.). One horsepower expended for one hour, or the horsepower multiplied by the hours. This unit is used in computing the fuel con– Sumption of an engine, the fuel being given as the number of pounds of fuel per horsepower—hour. HORSEPOWER (NOMINAL). See Rated Horsepower. ... HORSEPOWER (RATED). The maximum horsepower recommended by the builder of the motor of engine. This is a rather indefinite term even among builders of the same type of machine. One maker will give the rated horsepower, as the maximum horsepower that the engine can produce under ideal conditions, while an— other rates his engine at the horsepower at which the efficiency is greatest and the fuel consumption least. The latter method is becoming the more common. If the engine is rated at its most economical loading, then it will be certain that it can actually develop more horsepower than this in an emergency. Builders of electric motors base their power rating on the temperature rise of the windings, the power being so much with such and such a temperature increase. HORSEPOWER (STEAM ENGINE). The power of a given steam engine de— pends upon the boiler pressure, the speed, and the “Point of Cut-Off,” or the degree of expansion in the cylinders. It of course also depends upon the cylinder bore and stroke. The point of cutoff, whether at #8 or 4% the stroke determines the average or “Mean effective pressure” acting on the piston throughout the stroke. This is best determined from an indicator card or brake test, and can only be approximated by direct calculation. HOT AIR ENGINE. A type of engine in which hot air is the medium in place of steam. It is built only in small sizes (for pumping) owing to the fact that the engine delivers little power. Used where inexperienced help is employed and where a steam engine would be dangerous. Not much used at present. HOT WATER ENGINE (STORED HEAT ENGINE). A form of steam engine in which the heat energy is stored in tanks in the form of hot water under high pressure. As soon as the water, is released from the tank, its high temperature causes it to burst into steam and is then fed into the engine. This is used principally for short haul night traffic on street car systems where the main power plant is shut down after midnight (“Owl Cars”). HOT WHELL. A well or tank into which the hot Water from the condensers is collected, or the storage for the condenser discharge. HUMIDITY. The degree of moisture contained in the air. This is expressed as the “Relative Humidity,” and is the ratio of the moisture actually contained to the amount required to saturate the air at the same temperature. Thus if the relative humidity is 0.75, the air contains 0.75 of the amount required to Saturate the air at that temperature. When the humidity approaches or exceeds 1,000, then moisture is precipitated in dew. HYDRAULIC ACCUMULATOR. A constant pressure storage for fluids under higb pressure. HYDRAULIC OIL (HYDRAULIC PRESS OIL). A light non-viscous, neutral oil used as a fluid in hydraulic cylinders, in the recoil cylinders of gun carriages, or in hydraulic piston hoists. Freezing point from 0° F. to 20° F. HYDRAULIC PRESS. A machine for pressing or forcing, operated by the pres— sure of a fluid on a piston or “Ram.” . Either water or oil can be used as the fluid, but oil is the best since it also acts as a lubricant and freezes at a lower temperature. HYDROCARBONS. A compound containing only a combination of carbon with hydrogen. This excludes such compounds as alcohol which also contain oxygen, in addition to the carbon and hydrogen. There are a large number of these compounds and they form the basis of all petroleum products. They may exist as gases, as liquids or as solids, examples being methane, . Hexane, and , asphaltum, respectively. várious hydrocarbons are also contained in bituminous coal and the tarry residues obtained from this coal. COPYRIGHT, 1924 COMPLED Q = PETRol-EUM AGE J. B. RATHEUN Z-68 PETROLEUM GLOSSARY (Z-69) (A Dictionary of Words, Terms and Phrases) HYDROCARBON (ALIPHATIC). One of the three main groups of the hydro- Carbon series which includes the paraffine hydrocarbons and the olefines. HYDROCARBON (AROMATIC). A hydrocarbon series so named from their fragrant smell which exist principally in coal tar distillates but which are also found in some California crudes. They have a very high rate of specific gravity to distilling temperature and are acted upon by nitric acid. They can be produced from paraffine base hydrocarbons or olefines by high temperature destructive distillation. HYDROCAF BON (ASPHALTIC). A petroleum hydrocarbon containing a con– trolling percentage of asphaltun in the residue. HYDROCARBON BASE. According to the predominance of certain compounds in these residual products and to certain compounds mixed with the main body, petroleum hydrocarbons are considered to originate from one of two bases: (1) The paraffine base petroleum which contains predominating quantities of paraffine in the residue, and (2) Asphaltic base petroleums which contain predominating quantities of asphaltunn in the residue or else large quantities of the naphthene series. There are intermediate hydrocarbons or “mixed” compounds which contain varying or equal Quantities of both. w HYDROCARBON (BENZENE). The light hydrocarbons obtained from the dis— tillation of coal tar or from crude coal tar benzenes. EHYDROCAFBON BILACK. See Carbon Black. HYDROCARBONS (CHAIN). A hydrocarbon series, such as the paraffine series, in which the hydrogen atoms are bound to the carbon atoms in chain form, or with * jºine carbon atoms aligned along a Straight line with a hydrogen atom on either side. HYDROCARBON (COAL). See Hydrocarbon, Aromatic. HYDROCARBON (COMPOUND). A compound of chemically combined carbon and hydrogen, with no other element entering into the molecule. See Hydrocarbon. HYI) ROCARBON (HYDRO-AROMATIC), (NAPHTHENES). A hydrocarbon “Ring” compound found in some light petroleums but nearly always found in quantity in heavy petroleums. HYDROCARBONS (METHANE SERIES). Petroleum hydrocarbons of the par- affine series. See Hydrocarbons, Paraffine Base. - HYDROCARBONS (METHYLENE). A non-existing order of hydrocarbon (theo— retical) with unity carbon or: (CH2). An olefine equivalent to the paraffine derivative methane or (CH4). HYDROCARBONS (PARAFFINE SERIES). A series of petroleum hydrocarbons having the general formula: (CnH2n * 2), and including Methane, Ethane, Prepane, Butane, Pentane, etc. HYDROCARBON RADICAL. Hydrocarbon compounds with a deficiency of hydro- gen, one or two hydrogen atoms being removéd from the molecule, which have an “Unsatisfied Valence,” or which have a strong tendency toward uniting internally or with Other free atoms. A HYDROCARBONS (RING COMPOUND). A hydrocarbon molecule in which the carbon atoms are arranged in ring, form to which one hydrogane, atom is connected (to each carbon atom) in radial position. This is also known as a “Cyclic Compound.” HYDROCARBON SERIES. A group Of hydrocarbon COmpounds which follow the same general law of molecular arrangement and composition, the arrangement fol— lowing ring or chain order and the composition Covering the proportion of the carbon to the hydrogen atoms. HYDROCARBONS (SATURATED). Hydrocarbon molecules which are unable to absorb more hydrogen atoms, Such as the paraffine series. # COPYRIGHT 1924 COMPILED BY Z 69 PETRO LEU M AGE J. B. RATHE UN tºº / \ f **r. PETROLEUM GLOSSARY Z-70) (A Dictionary of Words, Terms and Phrases) HYDROCARIBONS (UNSATURATED). Hydrocarbon compounds which have the ability to absorb additional hydrogen than naturally existing in the compound. Thus the olefines or ethylenes are unsaturated hydrocarbons and form new compounds When additional hydrogen is supplied. HYDROCARBON VALENCE. The bond Or tie between the carbon atoms of a hydrocarbon compound. An expression of the “Valence” or attraction between the carbon atoms which holds the carbon, constituents of the molecule in place. This is indicated graphically in , molecule diagrams by one or more short parallel lines between the atoms. Thus, if the valence between two carbon atoms is 1.00 or unity, as in “Chain compounds of the paraffine type” then the single valence is indicated by single dashes as in: C–C–C–C–C. If the valence is two, then the valence is shown graphically by: C=C=C=C=C=C, and so on. PHYDROCARBONS (VOLATILE). The tarry and easily distilled hydrocarbons contained in the bituminous coals. These are driven off in the manufacture of coke, or are driven off first and consumed before the solid carbon when the coal is burned. HYDROGEN. A gaseous element, the lightest known, which is odorless, taste— less and colorless. It combines with carbon in a great many proportions to form “Hydrocarbons.” HYDROGEN CONTENT. The percentage or net quantity of hydrogen in a fuel. HYDRO-ELECTRIC. An electric power plant driven by water power. HYDROGENIZE. To introduce hydrogen into a compound, or to produce a chemical reaction in a compound by the introduction of hydrogen. . Thus “Hydro- genized” oils are oils which have been changed by the introduction of carbon. HYDROLITH. A compound which gives off hydrogen gas when Immersed in water. (2) A stone or concrete formed by water treatment or “Hydration” of the materials. It means “Water Stone.” HYDROLYSIS. The chemical decomposition of a compound caused by water, new compounds being formed. As an example, is the decomposition of calcium car— bide to form acetylene. HYDROMETER. An instrument used for determining the density of specific gravity of a fluid by the principle of flotation. ... The hydrometer is floated in the fluid and sinks to a greater or less depth, depending upon the density, the amount of submergence being indicated by graduations or divisions on the stem of the instru– ment. These divisions vary according to Various systems, and may be marked according to the specific gravity, Baumé, or Twaddell density system of measure— ments. See Baumé, and Gravity, Specific. HYDROMETER (BAUMſ). A hydrometer graduated in “Baumé Degrees,” or SO hº the hydrometer stands at division 10.000 when floating in pure water. Used with oils. * HYDROMETER (SPECIFIC GRAVITY). A. hydrometer which indicates the specific gravity, or the relation of the weight of the given fluid per unit volume to the weight of a unit volume of water. Used for all fluids, oils included. EHYDROMETER (THERMOMETRIC). A hydrometer with any scale which is provided with a thermometer to take the temperature of the fluid at the same time that the density is measured. This is of importance, as the density of a fluid varies with the temperature. HYDROMETER (TWADDELL). A hydrometer used for liquids heavier than water, and marked with the Twaddell scale, which when multiplied by 0.005 give the specific gravity. HYDROSTATICS. The science of the behavior of fluids at rest or their pressures, flotation, etc. HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE is the pressure due to a column of liquid. HYDRO-OXY OIL GA.S. A process by which the illuminating value of an oil gas is increased by the addition of Oxygen. ! COPYRIGHT 1924 COMPILED BY Z–70 PETRO LEU M AGE J. B. HATHE UN tº * PETROLEUM GLOSSARY (Z-71) (A Dictionary of Words, Terms and Phrases) HYGROMETRY. The measurement of the percentage of moisture in the air or the “Relative Humidity” of the air. See “Humidity, Relative.” This is of im— portance in computing oil vapor and air mixtures since the absorption of oil vapor is affected somewhat by the moisture in the air, the moisture tending to displace the oil vapor. HYGROSCOPIC. Bodies which tend to absorb moisture from the air such as alcohol, sulphuric acid, and calcium chloride. When they absorb a sufficient amount of moisture to liquify the material, they are said to be “Deliquescent.” HYGROSTAT (PSYCHROMETER). An instrument for determining the amount of moisture in the air or the relative humidity. It is also used to determine the “Dew Point” or point of saturation at which water is precipitated from the air. Such instruments are used in gas engine tests and in plants where drying processes are carried out as in drying lumber or fabrics. z HYSTERESIS LOSS. A loss of power by internal molecular friction or to the cohesion between the molecules. This is a predominating factor in the resistance of fluids and lubricants, and in the resistance of ball and roller bearings. I. Symbol for Iodine. ICE MACHINE. See Ammonia Compressor or Compressor, Ammonia. ICE MACHINE OIL. Lubricating oil for the cylinders of ammonia compressors or ice machine. ICHTHYOL. An oil obtained by the distillation and sulphonation of bituminous shales, afterwards neutralized with annonia, and salt. This oil is soluble in water. I.D. Abbreviation for Inside Diameter. IDI.E.R.S. Guide pulleys, gears or sprockets used in the support and guidance of belts, chains and ropes, or for communicating motion from the driver to the driven, the idler not being Connected to a driving shaft. Idler pulleys and sprockets are also used for tightening belts Or chains or to maintain a uniform tension in the Strands of the belt or chain. The idlers turn on their shafts, not with them. IDLER TRAIN. A series of gears placed between the driving and driven gears used to transmit motion between the two gears, but not so that they drive a shaft directly. Such gears turn on the shaft, not with it. IDLING ADJUSTMENT. A carbureter adjustment for slow speed running. IDLING. Applied to an automobile engine when running slowly and without load. Clutch released. An engine may “Idle Well” or “Idle Poorly” according to whether it runs smoothly or irregularly at low speed with the load off. IDLING JET. A gasoline nozzle or jet placed in a carbureter for supplying gasoline when the engine is idling or running slowly. Found on compound car- bureterS. IDLING LOSSES. The power or fuel consumed by a machine when running idle Or When not performing their normal functions. Sometimes called “Standby Losses.” IGNITION. To light Or inflame by raising a small portion of the substance to the point where it will start to combine with Oxegen. To start combustion. IGNITION APPARATUS. Any apparatus or device used to ignite or to start combustion. The accepted meaning refers to the apparatus used for the ignition of the gaseous mixtures within the cylinders of internal combustion engines. Copyright 1924 COMPILED BY Z–71 PETRO LEU M AGE J. B. RATHE UN O \ O PETROLEUM GLOSSARY (Z-72) (A Dictionary of Words, Terms and Phrases) IGNITION (BATTERY). An electric system in which the ignition spark is pro- duced directly or indirectly by current drawn from a chemical battery. IGNITION (CATALYTIC). Ignition by means of a platinum wire or other metal which condenses hydrogen or hydrocarbons so strongly that they are ignited. Plat- inum and a few other rare metals possess the property of condensing hydrogen SO quickly when placed in contact with the metal that the latent heat liberated brings the temperature of the metal up to the ignition temperature of the gas (Red Hot). This effect is increased when the metal is covered with platinum black. This has been the basis of many patented cigar and gas lighters. IGNITION (COMPRESSION). Ignition of the fuel in an internal combustion engine (Diesel Type) in which the air is compressed to such a pressure that the heat liberated is of sufficient intensity to ignite the fuel. See Diesel Engine. IGNITION (ELECTRIC). Ignition of the charge of an internal combustion en— gine by the heating effect of an electric current, the heat being produced by an ºrie spark or by a hot wire electrically heated. The latter method is no longer UlSéCl. IGNITION (FLAME). An old system of engine ignition, now seldom if ever used, in which flame is drawn into or injected into the combustion channber of the engine. This was used on the early Otto and Lenoir engines. IGNITION (HIGH-TENSION ELECTRIC). An electric ignition system in which a high tension current (10,000 to 20,000 volts) is made to jump between two Spark points or electrodes and produce an electric spark in the midst of the combustible mixture. This is the system mostly in use today on automobile, aeroplane and sim— ilar gasoline engines. Either batteries with spark coils or high tension magnetos supply the current. IGNITION (HOT BULB). A system used in some low compression oil engines in which a portion of the combustion chamber is left without a water jacket thus allowing the walls to become red hot. Oil is injected into the chamber at the end of the compression stroke and on striking the hot walls, and by the combined effect of the compression temperature, the oil is ignited. Improperly called a “Semi- Diesel Engine.” IGNITION (HOT TUBE). A system formerly much used on stationary gas and gasoline engines in which the combustible mixture is forced up into the interior of a red hot tube at the end of the compression stroke. On making contact with the hot tube the gases are ignited. While very simple, this has also many faults such as the burning Out of the tube, misfiring due to decreasing compression, etc. IGNITION LAG. The amount by which the actual time of ignition lags behind the proper IGNITION (LOW TENSION). An electric ignition system, sometimes used on low speed engine in which a Spark is produced within the cylinder by “Breaking” a low tension current (Low voltage). . A coil included in the battery circuit provides “Inductance” to increase the intensity of the flash when the jaws of the breaker are separated. This means that moving parts must be included within the cylinder, a feature not desirable, particularly With high speed engines. IGNITION (MAKE AND BREAK). See Ignition, Low Tension. A low tension system in which a battery or magneto current is alternately “Made” and “Broken.” º the combustion chamber of the engine, a Spark being produced at each “Brea, k.” IGNITION (MAGNETO). An electric ignition system in which the current is produced by a “Magneto’’ or a special dynamo. If this, magneto, produces only low voltage current it is a “Low Tension Magneto System.” If a high tension voltage is generated directly within the magneto it is called a “High Tension Magneto System.” IGNITION POINT. The temperature at which a body takes fire or at which combustion begins. IGNITION (PRE) (PREIGNITION) (PREMATURE IGNITION). A condition in which the mixture, is ignited too early in the compression stroke or prematurely. This may be caused by defective ignition apparatus, by an overheated mixture due to carbon or incandescent metal in the compression chamber. Preignition causes pounding and excessive stress on the engine. It tends to reverse rotation, and will reverse it if the speed drops down low enough. This results in power loss and over- heating as Well. Copyright 1924 COMPILED BY \ PETRO LEU M AGE J. B. RATHE UN Z–72 PETROLEUM GLOSSARY (Z-73) (A Dictionary of Words, Terms and Phrases) IGNITION (RETARDED). A condition in which the ignition occurs after the end of the compression stroke or after the piston has started down on the working stroke. The spark is retarded in starting an engine or when it is pulling hard at low speed. This prevents pounding or hammering at low speed. IGNITION (SPONTANEOUS). The temperature at which a fuel or mixture ex- plodes without an igniting spark, the entire mass of the fuel decomposing si- multaneously and causing a detonation or explosion wave of much higher pressure than given by the ordinary process of combustion. This causes knocking in the en— gine. Each fuel has a critical temperature at which it detonates, the critical tem— Pºe of petroleum products being much lower than for alcohol or coal tar dis— tillates. IGNITION TEMPERATURE. See Ignition Point. ILLUMINATING GAS. Gas which has a sufficient hydrocarbon content to burn with a luminous flame from an open jet. This hydrocarbon content may be inherent With the gas as with Oil gas or retort coal gas or it may be introduced in the form of an oil vapor as, in the case of carbureted water gas. ILLUMINATING OILS. Illuminating oils are the oils used with wick lamps such as kerosene Oil, seal oil, or mineral celza. PCerosene is the most commonly used grade of mineral Oil, and is the next fraction following gasoline in the distillation of petroleum. Almost any oil is an illuminating oil if burned under the proper con— ditions, but in practice this Only applies to those oils which can be safely used with wick lanps, and where the flame itself provides the illumination. IMPREGNATE. To saturate or force into the pores of a substance. IMPREGNATING COMPOUNDS. Compounds which are used for waterproofing or to increase the strength or resistance to Wear, these compounds being forced into the pores of such materials as WOOd, fabrics, or stone. Electrical impregnating com- pounds are used to increase the electrical resistance of certain porous materials and to keep out the moisture which would cause internal short circuits. Timber is im— pregnated with creosote to preserve the wood against decay and insects. IMPOSITE. An asphalt somewhat similar to Albertite but is not soluble in turpentine. IMPULSE TURBINE. . A steam turbine which operates by the direct impact of the steam jet and without an axial component of the pressure. The jet acts in the plane of rotation. INCANDESCENT. Glowing or giving of light due to high temperature. Red to white hot matter contained in the combustion chamber of an internal combustion engine. INCLINED PLANE. A plane making an angle to the horizontal. INDETERMINATE. A quantity which may assume any one of several values, or a quantity which cannot be determined. An indeterminate equation is one which may give almost any number of results. INFLAMMABLE. Easily set on fire at Ordinary atmospheric temperatures or with— out such preliminary heating. INDICATOR. An instrument used for drawing a graphical diagram of the pres— sure distribution in the cylinder of a heat engine. It is by this instrument that we can tell whether ignition, compression or expansion are taking place properly, whether the valves are opening or closing at the proper time, and by which the internal or indicated power of the engine can be calculated. (2) Any instrument which shows numerical values of physical qualities. w INDICATOR CARD. The pressure—volume graph or diagram traced by an en— gine indicator which shows the pressure distribution within the cylinder and which affords a means of computing the horsepower developed within the cylinder. Copyright 1924 COMPILED BY º PETRO LEU M AGE J. B. RATHEUN Jº Z 73 PETROLEUM GLOSSARY (Z-74) (Dictionary of Words, Terms and Phrases) INDICATOR DIAGRAM. See Indicator Card. INDIRECT HEATING.. Heating systems for buildings in which the radiators are not placed directly in the rooms. Air is blown through steam heating coils, and the Warm air is introduced into the rooms through registers or ducts. INDUCED CURRENTS. Electrical currents caused in a conductor by the action of magnetism, there being no direct electrical connection with an outside circuit. An INDUCTION COIL, is an apparatus in which high voltage gurrents are magnetically impressed in a coil of wire, there being no direct connection with the low voltage battery circuit which supplies the energy. INDUCTION MOTOR. An alternating electric motor in which there is no direct connection between the supply mains and the rotating “Rotor.” The current in the rotor is “Induced” by the magnetic field of the stationary portion. INERTIA. The tendency of a body to remain at rest and to resist starting into motion, Or to Continue in a state of motion. Thus the inertia of a bullet tends to keep it in flight at a uniform velocity until Overcome by the effects of friction or air resistance. If it were not for friction, a body would continue to move at a uniform rate forever When Once Started from rest. This must not be confused with mornenturm which is the “Quantity of Motion.” INERTIA FORCE (PRESSURE). The force or pressure produced at the end of each piston Stroke by the inertia of the reciprocating parts of the engine acting on the bearings. A heavy Stress is brought On the bearings every time that the piston is brought to rest at the end of the stroke and again when the piston is started out at the beginning of the next stroke. INERTIA IMPACT. The blow struck by Suddenly checking the speed of a In OVing ºdy, such as the blow struck by bringing the piston to rest at the end of the Stroke. INFUSORIAL EARTH (RIESELGUHR). A chalk or clay type of earth (Tripoli) of very porus texture. It is soft and is used as a polishing powder or in scouring soaps, and because of its porosity is used to absorb nitroglycerine thus making dynamite. It is not affected by acids, hence is suitable as a filtering medium for cer– tain acidulous fluids. INSUILATION. A non-conducting substance used to interrupt the flow of healt or electricity. A HEAT INSULATOR is used for covering surfaces to reduce heat loss, while an ELECTRICAL INSULATOR is used to prevent loss of electrical current or to break a circuit. There is no such thing as a perfect insulator for all materials conduct to a greater or lesser extent, but some insulators very closely approach true insulators in introducing high resistance to energy. INTENSIFIER (HYDRAULIC). A device used on high pressure, hydraulic press systems to increase the fluid pressure above the pressure created by the pumps. It is used for higher pressures than are practicable With pumps. INSECT OIL (INSECTICIDE OIL). A kerosene emulsion used for killing plant lice and other destructive insects. Other emulsifiable Oils are also used. INSPISSATED. Thickened or made gummy by evaporation and oxidization, as with petroleum asphalts and gums formed from oil seepages. INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE. See Engine, Internal Combustion. INTERPOLATION. The process of estimating an intermediate value of a quantity when the values lying on either side of it, higher and lower, are known. ISOTHERMAL. At constant temperature. When a gas is expanded or com— pressed and is kept at constant temperature, the expansion and compression are said to be isothermal. e COPYRIGHT 1924 COMPILED BY - PETROLEU M AGE J. B. RATHEUN Z–74 PETROLEUM GLOSSARY (Z-75) (Dictionary of Words, Terms and Phrases) INVERSE. Reversely proportional to. ... Thus if one quantity is inversely pro- portional to another, then one increases at the same rate that the other decreases. IODINE, (I). A non-metallig element of deep purple or almost black color, and existing in the form of thin scales having a metallic luster. It combines with other elements and compounds to form the “Iodides.” IODINE VALUE. The percentage of iodine absorbed by an oil, or the number of grams of iodine absorbed by 100 grams of oil. Iodine value is the indication of the tendency of a fixed oil toward oxidization, since iodine, quickly combines with those ingredients in a fixed oil which have a tendency to oxidize. f º MONOCHLORIDE. A solution used for determining the iodine value Of 2,1]. O11. ISOMERIC. Two bodies which are composed of the same elementary substances and have these elements combined in the same proportion (chemically similar) are said to be “Isomeric.” There are a number of isomeric hydrocarbon compounds of exactly the same composition but which have widely different physical properties. ISQTHERMAL. At constant temperature. When a gas is expanded or com- pressed at a constant temperature, the expansion or compression is said to be ‘‘ISOthermal.” (J) JELLY (MINERAL). See Petroleum. JET. (1) A very black lustrous solid used as an ornament for dresses, etc., and made from a variety of ligniteS. (2) A nozzle or Orifice arranged for the efflux of a fluid. Thus a CARBURETER JET is the nozzle through which the liquid gasoline sprays into the carbureter. (3) A stream of fluid. JET BLACK. A name for Carbon Black or Lamp Black, JACKET. An annular space surrounded a cylinder by which the cylinder is Cooled or warmed by the flow of water or Steam through the Space. A COOLING jacket is placed around the cylinder of a water cooled cylinder while a STEAM JACKET surrounds the cylinder of a steam engine to reduce the internal condensa— tion within the cylinder. JET CONDENSER. A steam engine condenser in which a jet of cooling water is sprayed into direct contact with the exhaust steam, the Cooling and condensation of the steam producing a partial vacuum. JOINT (UNIVERSAL). A shaft joint which permits moving the ends out of line without bending or cramping the shaft or bearings. Thus the universal joint or coupling in an automobile, allows the propeller shaft to transmit power between the engine and rear axle notwithstanding the up and down motion of the springs. These joints also allow power to be transmitted “around a corner.” JOULE. An electrical unit of work. Sometimes taken as a mechanical unit of Work. JOULE'S LAw. The heat produced by an electrical current is proportional to the square of the current in amperes multiplied by the resistance in ohms. This is the energy loss in an electric circuit. JOURNAL. That part of a rotating shaft which rests and rubs in the bearings. The bearings are thus often called the “Journal Boxes.” JUMP SPARK SYSTEM. See Ignition, High Tension System. KEROGEN. The bituminous matter in Scotch Oil Shales. REROSELENE. A group of light hydrocarbons...obtained from coal or albartite oil which are the equivalent of petroleum ether. Boiling point about 90° F. REROSENE. A fraction of . petroleum distillation which lies between gasoline and gas oil, the temperature of distillation ranging between 150° and 300°F., although this is somewhat variable owing to different . Specifications. , Kerosene is made in several grades such as Expesrt, White, Standard White and Water White. It is used as an illuminating oil and as a fuel for internal combustion engines. While kerosene lies close to the gasoline fractions, it has a Very different Smell. *s COPYRIGHT 1924 COMPILED BY Z–7 5 PETROLEU M AGE J. B. RATHEUN ºf / O O * y [. e PETROLEUM GLOSSARY (Z-76) (Dictionary of Words, Terms and Phrases) q KEROSENE DISTILLATE (KEROSENE STOCK). That fraction of ethe distillate taken from the crude used in making kerosene. The kerosene stock or distillate is treated With Sulphuric acid, neutralized with an alkali and is then filtered producing refined kerosene. * BCEROSENE ENGINE. An internal combustion engine using kerosene or kerosene -distillate as a fuel. The kerosene may either be vaporized in a special heated car- bureter or it may be injected directly into the combustion chamber in the form of a spray at the end of the compression stroke. RIESELGUHR. See Infusorial Earth. PCILO. Abbreviation of Rilogram. JKILOGRAM. The metric unit of weight. Approximately 2.2 pounds. RILOGRAM–CALORIE. A metric unit of heat quantity comparable with the B.t. u. The PCilogram-Calorie is the amount of heat required to raise one kilogram of Water One degree centigrade. PCILO—VOLT—AMPERE. A power rating of alternating current electric ma— chinery, and is one kilowatt at unity (1.00) power factor. RILOWATT. Equal to 1000 watts, or 1000/746 horsepower. Approximately 1.33 horsepower. RIR. A. Russian petroleum asphalt produced by the evaporation and oxidization Of crude petroleum. ENITTING MACHINE OIL. A spindle lubricating oil of about 150” Saybolt viscosity at 70° F. * (L) LABYRINTH PACPCING. A form of packing used for steam turbin shafts. It consists of a series of grooves or “Labyrinths” cut in the metal surrounding the shaft. The Steam condenses in these grooves and seals the joint. LACQUER. A very transparent form of varnish used for the protection of pol— ished metal surfaces. LARE OIL. A. Russian fuel oil, specific gravity 0.895 to 0.935. LAKE PITCH. Natural asphalt from Trinidad. The lake pitch is richer than the asphalt found along the shore. LAMPELACK. See Carbon Black. LAMP (HARCOURT STANDARD PENTANE). A standard lamp used in Europe (except Germany) for determining candle power. Pentane is used as the illuminant. LAMP (HEFNER). A standard lamp for determining candlepower in which amyl acetate is used. t LAMP OIL. See Illuminating Oil LAND PITCH. Asphalt obtained from the shores of Lake Trinidad. LANOLINE. Purified degree (Sheep’s wool oil) with the addition of about 25 per cent of water. LARD, Fat of SWine. LARD OIL. Oil expressed from lard. Used mostly as a cutting and cooling oil for metal working tools and for compounding with mineral oils. * A. COPYRIGHT 1924 COMPILED BY PETRoleum Age J. B. RATHEUN Z–76 PETROLEUM GLOSSARY (z-77) (Dictionary of Words, Terms and Phrases) LATENT. HEAT OF WAPORIZATION. The quantity of heat required for con- Verting a fluid into a vapor at a constant temperature called the “Boiling Point.” The latent heat of vaporization, given in B. t. u, or calories, is the heat energy re- quired for breaking up the , liquid state and setting the molecules in such an ampli– tude of vibration that the indifferent equilibrium between the molecules actually be— Comes a molecular repulsion. During the process of vaporization the temperature remains Constant. LATHER OIL. A stainless compound oil used in the textile industries built up of about 35 per cent of a fixed oil such as rape and whale oil with a water white Oil. LEA RECORDER. A recording flow meter for water of the ‘‘Vee Notch” type Which records the flow on a paper chart. LEAD (Pb). A soft metallic element having a high specific gravity. This metal is not readily attacked by acids and is therefore used for lining vats and tanks where chemical process are carried out. (2) LEAD (Pronounced Leed), is the dis— tance traveled by a worm or screw in one revolution. (3) STEAM LEAD is the ºt by which the valve of a steam engine is open when the engine is on dead CeIntel". “, LEAD ACETATE (SUGAR OF LEAD). A poisonous white Crystalline salt of lead used in desulphurizing petroleum. LEAD HYDROX] DE (LEAD HYDRATE). A lead salt used in petroleum refining. LEASE (BLOCK METHOD). A lease on oil land in which the royalty is ar- ranged on a sliding scale basis, a fixed rate of royalty being paid on all oil produced up º, a Certain output, and after a lower rate for all production in excess of this In Olllll. LEASE (CLASS METHOD). A lease on oil land in which all wells are given a fixed classification at the beginning with a different royalty rate for each class. This is based on the percentage of earnings or the ratio of the value of the oil produced to the cost of production. LEASE (PERIOD METHOD). A method in which the royalty rate is based On the production of the well per unit of time (Usually in barrels per day), and the rate is changed when the well produces less than the stipulated amount. LEASE (UNIFORMLY DIGRESSIVE METHOD). When the oil well produces less than the estimated flow, no royalty is paid. LEATHERS (HYDRAULIC PACKING). Leather rings of “U” shaped section placed around the plungers of high pressure hydraulic presses or pumps. The pres— sure acting inside of the “U” forces the leather tightly against the surfaces, the higher the pressure, the tighter the packing becomes. LEATHER OIL. An oil used for softening leather. Neatsfoot oil (Animal) is excellent, but a non-viscuous neutral mineral" oil of low viscosity can also be used. LEN'S SHAPED. A body having double convex sides shaped like the lens of a magnifying glass. The shape of many Seeds. IENTICULAR. See Lens shaped. LENTZ ENGINE. A steam engine particularly designed for use with superheated steam, the valves being of the “Poppet” type, like those of a gasoline engine. Very high steam temperatures are ordinarily carried in this engine and ordinary com- pounded steam cylinder oils are not well adapted for it. Straight run mineral products of high viscosity are most generally used. LIGHT . OIL. A comparative term for all groups of oils, this referring, to the oils of the lowest specific gravity or highest Baumé degree in each class. Thus we have light gasolines, light lubricating oils, and light fuel oils which may be the lightest of their class but which may not be light in regard to those of other classes. / COPYRIGHT 1924 COMPILED BY * Z 77 PETRO LEU M AGE J. B. RATHE UN $º ^, *. O PETROLEUM GLossARY (z-78) (Dictionary of Words, Terms, and Phrases) is,. HºHT HOUSE OIL. Oil for lighthouse lamps, flash point, 140° F.; fire test, LIGHTERA.G.E. A charge made for transferring a cargo from a steamer to the Wharf by means of a vessel called a “Lighter.” LIGNITE (BROWN COAL). An intermediate solid fuel lying between bitumi- nous coal and peat, or in other words, an uncompleted or unfinished bituminous coal of more recent origin. Lignite is soft and decomposes rapidly when exposed to the air. In color, it varies from a brown to a black. It is of vegetable origin and is extensively used in the West as a fuel both for direct burning or as the base for producer gas. Its distillation produces certain valuable products. LIGNITE TAR. The destructive distillation of lignite produces a soft tar which can be used directly in a Diesel engine or which can be re-distilled to obtain products somewhat similar to the distillates of coal tar. This tar usually contains large quantities of paraffine and unsaturated hydrocarbons, and, upon exposure, absorbs oxygen from the air. The distillates of lignite tar furnish motor fuels of mixed paraffine and aromatic base, illuminating oils, lubricating oils and paraffine Wax. The lignite motor fuels are very similar to those obtained from oil shale. LIGROIN. A light petroleum oil having the same general characteristics as benzoline, but one whose properties are not strictly defined. LIME (QUICRLIME). A white or gray substance obtained by calcining (roast- ing) a natural rock known as limestone. It consists mainly of calcium oxide with Which magnesium is also generally found. It has strong caustic and alkaline prop- erties and is therefore often used to neutralize a clois in petroleum refineries, as in the case where the acidity of a distillate is to be eliminated after the acid treatment. The calcined lime is often called “Quicklime.”... This may be hydrated by the addi- tion of Water producing calcium hydrate or “Slaked Lime.” When Water is added to quick lime much heat is evolved. LIME (HYDRATED). A fine powder obtained by “Slaking” lime by the addi- tion of Water. LIME (MAGNESIUM). A lime obtained by calcining limestone or “Dolomite” rock which contains a high percentage of magnesium. This lime often contains as high as 40 percent of magnesium oxide. It can be hydrated or “Slaked”, by the addition of water, and does not evolve as much heat as limes containing high per- centages of calcium oxide. LIME (MILE OF). A paste made with hydrated or slaked lime and water. LINE (ALIGN). To adjust or fit up a machine in proper working order so that the bearing centers, gear centers and shaft Centers are all in agreement and do not bind or jam. This process is called “Lining Up.” ful NEAR. “Along a line,” or measurements of length taken along a line. The linear units are the inch, foot, meter, centimeter, etc. LINEAR, VELOCITY. Speed or velocity along a line given in terms of feet per second, feet per minute, miles per hour, etc. LINER (BEARINGS). (1) The small sheets or “Shims” placed between the halves of a split bearing for the adjustment or takeup of the bearing for wear. (2) The soft metal lining of a bearing. LINE-SHAFT. A main shaft used for the transmission of power in a mill or factory. This shaft may transmit power from the engine to the machines directly or through smaller auxiliary shafts called “Jack–Shafts” or “Counter-Shafts.” LINSEED OIL. The vegetable oil made from flaxseed. Used as a vehicle for paints and varnishes. It is a drying oil. Not used as a lubricant. LINSEED STUBSTITUTE. A petroleum product used as a substitute for the more expensive vegetable linseed oil. COPYRIGHT 1924 COMPILED BY Z 78 PETROLEU M AGE J. B. RATHEUN - PETROLEUM GLossARY (z-79) (Dictionary of Words, Terms, and Phrases) LIQUEFACTION OF GASES. A gas may be liquefied by subjecting it to pres- sure and then cooling it to its critical temperature. This is done commercially with ammonia gas, sulphur dioxide and carbon dioxide in refrigerating plants. LIQUID. A form of matter in which there is indifferent relations between the molecules, the attraction and repulsion between the molecules being in a balanced State. Such matter will not retain any definite form without support and possesses the property of “flowing” when such support is removed. LIQUID FLOW. The flow of liquids is generally given in terms of gallons or cubic feet per minute. This depends upon the impressed pressure (unbalanced), the viscosity of the fluid, its temperature, the nature of the surfaces over which it flows, and the shape of the orifice through which it passes. The flow may be experimentally determined by dams or “Weir,” by “Vee Notches,” by meters, or by a venturi tube. LIQUID FUELS. Any fluid which may be burned to produce healt by the method of combustion. This includes the majority of petroleum products, alcohol, some tars, and coal tar distillates. Almost any hydrocarbon fluid is a potential fuel. * LIQUID MEASURE. The standard units of volume and weight are both used for the measurement of liquids, although the volumetric units are by far the more Commonly used. These units are the gallon, pint and quart, and the liter of the metric System. In laboratory work the cubic centimeter is most commonly used. LIQUID PETROLATUM. LIQUID PHASE. In liquid condition or while in liquid state. LITER. Metric unit of liquid measure. LITHARGE. Lead monoxide. Used as material for making tight joints in pipe fittings and as an active material for the plates of storage batteries. LIVERED OIL. Jelly-like oil. LOAD. The resistance offered to an engine or motor. The power taken to pro- duce motion against resistance. The load may be given in terms of horsepower or kilowatts. LOAD FACTOR. The load factor of a power plant is the ratio of the average power taken to the maximum power available at the engines or motors, taken at Some particular time of the day. In other words it is the percentage of the total power absorbed by the average load. * LOADING RACPCS. Standpipes (pivoted) used for filling tank cars. LOGARITHMS (COMMON). A system of factors (exponents) used to shorten Such mathematical operations as multiplication, division, involution, and evolution. It not only shortens these processes but sometimes is the only available method for Solving Some problems such as fractional powers or fractional roots. Thus A2 is easily solved arithmetically by multiplying (A) by itself or, AXA-2. This is sim- ple but when we have a quantity such as A9'99", we must use logarithms. LOGARITHMS (HYPER BOLIC) (NAPERIAN). A system of logarithms or exponential derivatives used in the compution of expansion and compression. LOVIBOND TINTOMETER. An instrument used for determining the color of refined petroleum oils, reading in “Lovibond Color” numbers. * LOW. PRESSURE STEAM TURBINES. Steam turbines operated on the exhaust Steam of Steam engines or other Steam pressures of a few pounds per square inch. LOWER HEATING VALUE. See Heating Value, Lower. - LTJ BRICANTS. A substance used to reduce rubbing friction and wear between rubbing surfaces. . . They may be fluid, semi-ſluid or solid, as with lubricating oil, grease, and graphite respectively. LUBRICATING FILM. The thin layer of oil or grease between the rubbing surfaces. This film may be considered as subdivided into a series of thin sheets or laminations parallel to the surface, each lamination shearing or sliding over the other when movement between the surfaces takes place. The film clings to both surfaces, hence opposite sides of the film are dragged in opposite directions, shearing the film at an almost infinite number of planes. COPYRIGHT 1924 COMPILED BY Z 79 PETROL EU M AGE J. B. RATHETUN * =º * O PETROLEUM GLOSSARY (z-80) z (Dictionary of Words, Terms, and Phrases) LUBRICANTS (COLLOIDAL). A lubricant in which the main constituent is a very finely subdivided solid matter in a colloidal state, such as colloidal graphite. As a matter of fact nearly all lubricants are of a colloidal nature, consisting of minute particles floating in a liquid, but unless these particles are artificially intro- duced into a fluid they are not called by this name. More particularly, the term applies to an oil or water containing colloidal graphite suspended in solution. LUBRICANTS (COMPOUNDED). A mixture of a mineral oil with an animal or vegetable oil. * LUBRICANTS (CUTTING AND COOLING). Oils or emulsions used for lubri- Cating and cooling metal cutting tools. LUERICANTS (CYLINDER). (1) A lubricant, generally an oil, used for lubricating the piston and cylinder walls of a heat engine. The class of lubricant depends upon the conditions to be met with within the cylinder, whether there is an extremely high temperature with gaseous products of combustion, or whether the temperatures are comparatively low with much free moisture in evidence. (2) GAS ENGINE CYLINDER OIL must be of high viscosity, oil having little tendency to carbonize. This is generally a straight mineral oil, except for certain oil engines where water injection is used. (3) STEAM. ENGINE CYLINDER OILS may be a mineral oil compounded with some fixed oil where the temperatures are low and where much water is present, or they may be straight mineral products With Superheated Steam. The use of a fixed animal oil compounded with the min- eral Oil Causes the oil film to adhere to wet walls, and is not as readily washed off as with straight mineral oils. LUBRICANTS (FIXED OILS) (FATTY OILS). Lubricating oils of vegetable or animal origin such as rapeseed, castor, tallow oil, sperm oil, etc. These oils are not commonly used alone in this country, but are “compounded” with mineral oils to obtain some peculiar property for a given service. Castor oil is sometimes used : in the lubrication of special types of gasoline engines, but this is not common practice. LUBRICANTS (GREASES). These are semi-solid or plastic compounds used Where a bearing is not inspected frequently, where leakage must be guarded against, or where the motion is slow and under heavy pressure. The greases are made up With a “Soap” base made from saponified fixed oils or fats, and the true lubricants jºins of a mineral oil. The soap simply acts as a sponge in holding the min- 6. I’all O.I.I. Q LUBRICANTS (MINERAL OIL). Lubricating oils obtained from petro- leum, oil shale or lignite. More commonly considered as being products of petro- leum. These are the most commonly used lubricants. LUBRICANTS (NON-OLEAGINOUS). Lubricants which are not true oils, Such as talc, soapstone, glycerine, sulphuric acid or water. LUBRICANTS (PROPERTIES OF). A lubricant should primarily reduce fric- tion and Wear. All other properties are subsidiary to this main idea. Modifications are imposed on the main characteristics so as to adapt the lubricants to the supply Systems, bearing pressures, working temperatures, etc. The most important phys- ical characteristics in a Specification for a lubricating oil are viscosity, cold test, flash point, fire test, carbon residue, emulsifiability, and color. With greases we have the “body” or consistency at a given temperature, the melting point, and the solidifying temperature. BRICANTS (SEMI-FLUID). These include the thickened oils which are compounded to increase the body and to make them more suitable for gear housings Where leakage must be avoided. * LUBRICANTS (SEMI-SOLID). Greases or plastic lubricants. See Lubri- cants, Greases. LUBRICANTS (SOLID). Inherently solid lubricants such as graphite, talc, soapstone, or tart. BRICANTS (STICKY). That class of lubricants in which adhesiveness is of greater importance than lubricating value as in rope, cable and link chain oils and grea.SeS. * COPYRIGHT 1924 COMPILED EY Z 80 PETRO LEU M AGE J. B. RATHE UN wº PETROLEUM GLossary (z-81) (Dictionary of Words, Terms, and Phrases) LUBRICATION. The act of applying lubricants to rubbing surfaces. LUERICATION SYSTEMS. The devices or methods adopted in applying the lubricants, or the piping and connections between the lubricating devices when the latter are supplied from a common source. LUBRICATION (AUTOMATIC). Lubrication performed mechanically and without attention. fel Hºrication (CAPILLARY). Bearings fed from the oil well by a wick or elt pad. ty LUERICATION (CIRCULATING). A lubricating system in which the oil is pumped to the bearings, the excess draining back to the pump Suction Where it is again pumped through the system, the same oil being used over and over again. LUBRICATION (BATH) (FLOODED). A method in which the bearing is immersed in a bath Of Oil. / LUBRICATION (CIRCULATING AND SPLASH). A combination of the cir- culating system and splash system in which each splash pool is filled independently by the circulating system and so that a constant level is maintained in the Splash pools. The excess oil dripping from the Splash pools and the .splash is returned to the pump for recirculation. See Lubrication, Splash. LUERICATION (CIRCULATING, EXTERNAL). A system where a part of the oil is circulated outside of the machine proper for cooling and for settling out impu- rities. The oil may be pumped through an oil radiator or through an oil cooler fitted with cold water coils. Also called a SCaV enging Oil System. LUEFICATION (GUP). Bearings fed by small cups placed directly on the bearings and feeding oil drop by drop. \ LUBRICATION (CENTRIFUGAL). Lubrication in which the oil is picked out of the reservoir by the rim of a wheel and is lifted up to a point where it is removed from the wheel by a scoop. From the scoop, the oil flows by gravity to the different bearings. This is the system adopted in the IFord Model “T” engine. LUBRICATION (DRY SUMP). A system applied to certain types of gasoline engines, notably of the aeronautic type, in which no oil is Stored within the crank- case or “Sump.” This reduces the contamination of the oil and keeps it cool and V1SCOllS. LUBRICATION (FORCE IFEED). A system in which the oil is pumped into the bearings under comparatively high pressure, the excess oil returning to the purnp where it is recirculated. Feeding Oil under pressure in the bearings insures a proper oil film under all operating conditions. & LUBRICATION (FULL FORCE FEED). A system in which all of the bear- ings and cylinders are fed from the pump under high pressure. This is a positive system which operates with the engine, feeding definite quantities at each revolu- tion. LUBRICATION (FOFCE AND SPLASH). A system used with certain auto- mobile engines, in which the oil is fed to the main bearings and wrist pins under pressure, the drip from these parts being thrown into the cylinders and camshaft bearings by splash. The splash and drip fall into the lower half of the crankcase where they are collected for recirculation. This is a compromise system, half force, half Splash. * LUERICATION (GRAVITY SYSTEM). A system in which oil is fed into the bearings ſron an elevated tank. This is also used as a Central supply system for a number of engines or units in a power plant. LUBRICATION (HYDROSTATIC). A lubrication system for steam engine cylinders, the oil being forced into the steam pipe by the hydrostatic pressure of a column of water. The oil in the lubricator chamber is displaced by the weight of water condensed in a siphon coil, and floats up through the water in drops which then float into the Steam line. ) COPYRIGHT 1924 COMPILED BY Z 81 PETRO LEU M AGE J. B. RATHE UN * | # ł | r b PETROLEUM GLossary (z-82) ” (A Dictionary of Words, Terms and Phrases) LUBRICATION (INDIRECT). Feed through a sight feed glass by mechanical Or pressure feed, a sight feed glass being placed at every bearing. LUBRICATION (POSITIVE). Lubrication supplied positively by pressure pump running, direct to each bearing. Full pressure feed. LUBRICATION (RING OILING). A system of bearing lubrication in which the oil in the well or reservoir is carried up on the shaft by the rotation of a ring which hangs on the shaft. The revolution of the shaft turns the ring which in . turn feeds oil in direct proportion to the speed of the shaft. LUBRICATION (SPLASH). A spray system by which oil is splashed on all bearing surfaces by the beating of the connecting rod ends in pools of oil located in the crankcase. At each revolution, the connecting rods whip through the oil puddle and Splash the Oll all through the crank chamber. WícK FEED SYSTEM. A wick feed oil from the supply well to the bearing by Capillary attraction, the lower end of the wick dipping in the oil while the upper end touches the Shaft. LYE. A caustic potash solution obtained by leaching wood ashes. This is Strongly alkaline and caustic. (M) MAQADAM (PAVING). A road built of crushed stone, the larger stones being bonded together with a top dressing of finely crushed stone. MACHINE OIL (GENERAL). A lubricating oil of varying viscosity used for the lubrication of bearings and sliding surfaces at ordinary room temperatures. Usually a red oil. The viscosity varies with the service being low for lightly leaded bearings and high for heavy duty bearings or bearings running at a fairly high temperature. This oil is generally a viscous neutral, refined or filtered, and has cold test of from 20° F to 30° F. } MACHINE GUN OIL. An oil for lubricating and cleaning machine guns and Small arms. It is a straight petroleum product, the viscosity at 100°F being from 70 to 95 Saybolt second. This corresponds to a non-viscous neutral. MACMICHAEL VISCOSIMETER. An instrument for determining the viscosity of oil by measuring the opposition offered to a flat disc. The disc is suspended in a cup of the fluid and the fluid is rotated, thus tending to drag the disc after it. The torsional deflect of the wire supporting the disc is measured. MAGNESIUM (Mg). A metallic element, exceedingly light in weight, and in- flammable. It forms alkaline oxides when burnt in air. This metal is the basis of flashlight powders and is one of the constituents of magnalium and duralumin. MAGNETO (IGNITION). A special form of high tension generator used for §º: the ignition spark for internal combustion engines. The magneto is riven by the engine in fixed relation to the piston travel, and not only produces the Spark but times it as well. .* MAGNOLIA METAL. A soft white metal similar to babbitt used as an anti- friction lining for bearings. | MAGRUDER WISCOSIMETER. A plunger type viscosimeter., MALTHA. A dark colored and viscous natural hydrocarbon insoluble in Water but completely soluble in carbon disulphide, benzol, etc. MANOGRAPH. An optical form of indicator used for determining the pressure distribution in high speed engine cylinders. A mirror mounted on a flexible diaphragm, causes a ray of light to trace, a pressure diagram and can be used to obtain a photographic record or to show the cycles visually. W COY PRIGHTED 1924 COMPILED BY Z 82 PETRO LEU M AGE J. B. RATHE UN - PETROLEUM GLoss ARY (z-83) * (A Dictionary of Words, Terms and Phrases). MANOMETER. A pressure gas in which the pressure is indicated by the height of a liquid column supported by the gas. This column may be water, alcohol or mercury according to the pressures measured. MANTLE BURNER... A burney for illumination consisting of a bunsen burner (blue flame) over which a thin Čone of corium oxide or other highly refractive material is supported. This cone or “Mantle” becomes incandescent and provides the light, hence any gas may be used regardless of its illuminating value. MARINE OIL. An illuminating oil used on ships. It is a refined petroleum distillate of high fire test (225°F) with a specific gravity averaging 0.840. MAIRPCETER. A sales agent or distributor for One or more oil refineries or producers. *RSH GAS (CH4). A gas also called Methane, the simplest paraffine hydro- Car OOI). • MASS. A physical unit denoting quantity of matter and given in terms of the “Geepound.” It is equal to the weight in pounds divided by the acceleration due to gravity, or M-W/32.16 in this latitude. This is also called the “Poundal.” MASTIC. A road bed material consisting of a mixture of bituminous matter jº, Some fine granular earthy material. It is applied hot in a semi-molten con- 1 til OIl. g MASTIC ASPHALT. Mastic melted and Iaid without rolling or compacting under pressure. MASTJT (MAZOUT). A topped Russian crude remaining after the distillation of the benzine and naphthas. MATRIX. A binder for holding the aggregate or coarse stone together in asphaltic concrete or road bed construction. NAUMENE NUMBER. A number indicating the amount of fatty oils or rosin oil contained in mineral oils, either used for compounding or as adulterants. MEAN (ARITHMETICAL). The average value of a number of quantities ob- tained by adding the values of the quantities together and then dividing the sum by the number of quantities. bl MECHANICAL DIRAFT. Draft for boilers or furnaces provided by fans or OW erS. MECHANICAL EQUIVALENT OF HEAT. The conversion factor for transform- ing heat units into mechanical units of work. One B. t. u. = 778 Foot-pounds. MELTING POINT. The temperature at which a body melts or becomes fluid. MENHADEN OIL. Fish oil from fish of the herring family. MENISCUS. The curved surface, either convex or concave, of a fluid in a tube. MENSURATION. The science of the measurement of surface and volume. MERCURY (Hg). A very bright white metal, fluid at ordinary temperatures. METALLURGICAL. Pertaining to the treatment and production of metals. A metallurgical furnace is one used for melting or heat treating metals. METER. (1) An instrument for measuring and recording the volumes of gases and liquids. (2) The metric unit of length. One meter = 39.37 inches. METEOR OIL. A. Russian illuminating oil with a flash point not below 28°C by the Abel-Pensky instrument. METER OIL. A very thin oil used for the lubrication of water and gas meters, and one having a very low cold test. This oil is also used for ice machine lubrica.- tion or for filling the systems of hydraulic presses. COY PRIGHTED 1924 COMPILED BY f Z 83 PET ROLEU M AGE J. B. RATHE UN º * PETROLEUM GLossary (z-84) J O \ (A Dictionary of Words, Terms and Phrases) METHANE (CH4). The simplest hydrocarbon of the paraffine series. A gas at Ordinary temperatures.—which methane is the base. The Paraffine Series. METHANE SERIES. A hydrocarbon series of temperature. METHYL CHLOIRIDE (CH2Cl). Used as a solvent and as a refrigerating medium for small cooling and ice plants METRIC SYSTEM. A system of measurement used commercially in Europe and in the laboratories of all Countries. It is so arranged that there is a definite relation between the units of length, weight and volune, and so that the subsidiary units in each group are decimal parts of the primary unit. While this system of units is convenient in certain scientific Operations yet there is a question as to whether it will prove successful in this country when applied to commercial and shop measurement. MICA. . A transparent mineral occurring in thin sheets or laminations. Used as an electrical insulator and in Some cases as a base for greases. ~ MICROMETERS. An instrument used for making precise measurements. As ol dinarily made for shop use, the smallest scale measurement is 0.001 inch. MID-CONTINENT OIL FIELDS. The oil fields of the United States lying west of the Mississippi River. MILLING MACHINE. A machine tool used for cutting slots, gear teeth, machin- ing plane surfaces, cutting keyways, etc. The cutting tool consists of a toothed wheel or “Öircular saw” which is rotated and fed forward by the milling machine. This is called a “Milling Cutter.” Various forms of milling cutters are used to obtain the various forms of slots or surfaces. MINERAL ACIDS. ' Resinous or naphthenic acids. MINERAL BURNING OILS. See Illuminating Oils. , MINERAL COLZA. OIL. See Mineral Seal Oil. ti MINERAL DISTILLATES. Light fractions of Mineral Oils obtained by distilla- IOI 1. MINERAL ETHERS. Very light petroleum distillates. See Ether, Petroleum. MINERAL GELATINE. A thickening agent or base for caster machine oils. MINERAL LARD OIL. A compound of mineral oil and lard oil containing above 30 per cent of lard Oil. MINIERAL LUBRICATING OILS. Lubricating Oils obtained from petroleum, oil shale or lignite, but as a rule, petroleum oil is inferred When this term is used. MINERAL OIL. Any Oil obtained from mineral formations, such as petroleum, shale oil or lignite oil. Owing to the greater quantity of petroleum available the term more generally applies to petroleum oil and its products. MINERAL PITCH. See Asphalt. MINERAL RESINS. Solid bitumens or bituminous materials. MINERAL SEAL OIL. A petroleum distillate falling under the head of illumi- nating oils. Density about 39°Eaume, or a little heavier than kerosene oil. It is used for light house and locomotive headlights, and also as an absorbent oil in the manufacture of casing head gasoline. It can be used in filling oil switches or electric motor starters. MINERAL SPERM OTL. See Mineral Seal Oil. t COY PRIGHTED 1924 COMPILED BY Z 84 PETROLEUM AGE J. B. RATHE UN - - PETROLEUM GLossARY (z-85) (A Dictionary of Words, Terms and Phrases) MINERAL SPIRITS. A light petroleum distillate similar to naphtha used for #. jºyent for paints and for cleaning. Flash point not less than 85 °F. by Elliott eSter. MINERAL TAR. A soft natural asphalt. Very viscous. \ MINERAL TURPENTINE. A petrołeum distillate solvent used as a substitute Of turpentine. MINERAL WAX. Waxes obtained from petroleum residues and coal tar dis- tillates Such as paraffine, ozokerite, etc. f MINE MACHINE OIL. Used for the lubrication of mining machinery or similar rough machinery. This is a non-viscous oil of low cold test of the same order as black lubricating oil. MINERS’, OIL. An oil used in miners’ lanps. It Iſlay be a straight mineral neutral oil of the non-viscous order of 36° Baume. MINERS’ SUNSHINE. A soft paraffine wax used for miners’ lamps. MINERS’ WAX. See Miners’ Sunshine. MINSEED OTL (MINERAL SEED OIL). A petroleum substitute for linseed Oil. A trade name. MODULUS. Meaning “Measure of,” or “Magnitude of.” MOISTURE IN AIR. See Humidity. MOLDERS’ OIL. An oil used to prevent material from sticking in a mould. , he same as summer black oil or compressor oil. MOLECULE. Any substance is supposed to be' composed of a great number of identical particles called molecules, there being a definite form of molecule for each Substance. The small molecules in turn consists of a group of still Smaller “Atoms,” the atoms being the smallest division of matter possible that will enter into chemical combination. The atoms are the smallest particles of materials that we call “Elements,” that is, the atom of an element has the same characteristics shown by the elementary substance itself. Thus, the stems of hydrogen, carbon, and oxygen are identical with these elements. When two elements enter into chem- ical combination with one another they form chemical “Compounds” and the mole- cule of such a compound consists of a group of atoms from each of the combining elements. When carbon and hydrogen combine to form a hydrocarbon compound, the hydrocarbon molecule consists of a group of hydrogen and carbon atoms. MOLECULAR WEIGHT. The molecular weight of a compound is equal to the sum of the weights of the atoms in that molecule, the relative weight of the hydrogen atom being taken as unity (1,000). . By the use of the molecular weight we are enabled to determine the weights of , the various substances entering into a com- pound. For example, we can determine the theoretical amount of air required to burn a pound of a given hydrocarbon compound. MOMENTUM. The quantity of motion or the energy of motion. MOND FUEL G.A.S. A producer gas made from low grade coals and lignites, the generation of the gas being so controlled that the various by-products are re- tained. ~. MOTOR. Any machine used to convert heat or electrical energy into mechan- ical energy. MOTOR. FUEL. A fuel for supplying heat energy to a motor. In practice, this term more particularly applies to the fuels used for automobile motors such as gasoline, benzol, etc. MOTOR GASOLINE. A. commercial term for gasoline sold for use with auto- mobiles. The quality and characteristics of such a fuel are variable and cannot be strictly defined. It may be straight run, blended casinghead, or cracked, gasoline, The gravity may run from 55° Be. to 64° Be., depending upon refinery conditions COYPFIGHTED 1924 COMPILED BY Z 85 PET FOL EU M A GE J. B. RATHE UN tº- * * * * PETROLEUM GLOSSARY (Z-86) (A Dictionary of Words, Terms and Phrases.) MOTOR OIL (GASOLINE MOTOR). A lubricating oil for the cylinders of auto- mobile and motorcycle engines. This is a highly viscous neutral oil particularly adapted for high temperatures and producing little carbon residue under high tem- peratures. A Gas Engine Cylinder Oil. MOTOR. OIL (ELECTRIC). A viscuous oil similar to general machine oil. Used for lubricating the bearings of electric motors. MOTORCYCLE OIL. A highly viscuous gas engine cylinder oil used for motor- cycle engines, and particularly adapted for the high temperatures encountered with air Cooling gasoline engines. The temperature of motorcycle engines are considerably higher than those of water cooled automobile engines and demand a more vis– CuOuS Oil. MQTOR SPIRIT. Génerally considered as being a straight run motor gasoline derived from paraffine base crude, and of higher volatility than the usual, grade of motor gasoline. This is an English term for gasoline, hence the specifications gov– erning it are assumed, to be based on English standards. (N) N. Symbol for Nitrogen. NAPHTHA. A series of pefroleum fractions lying between kerosene and gasoline. They may be graded into two groups, “Light Naphtha’’ and, “Heavy Naphtha.” The extremely light and heavy naphthas overlap the lower gasoline and higher kerosenes respectively. NAPHTHA (LIGHT). A petroleum distillate running from 58° to 60° Beaume. . Used , as a solvent in the manufacture of paints and varnishes and as a cleaning fluid in dry cleaning. NAPHTHA (COAL TAR). The lighter aromatic distillate Oils obtained from CO2.I ta, T. NAPHTHA (HEAVY). . A petroleum, distillate running from 48° to 54°, Beaume. Used for blending with casinghead gasoline to produce motor gasoline, and for tur— pentine substitute. *te NAPHTHA. GAS. (1) Vaporized naphtha mixed with air to form a heating gas. (2) Illuminating gas charged with heat treated naphtha, vapor. NAPPHTHA (SHALE GREEN). A light distillate obtained from shale oil. NAPPHTHALENE (C10Hs). A white solid Crystalline hydrocarbon of the aromatic series obtained by the distillation of coal tar. Whon melted, it can be used as a motor fuel, and in solution of certain tar distillates it forms an important fuel for Diesel engines. NAPIHTHALENE OIL (I). A liquid aromatic hydrocarbon obtained by the dis— tillation of coal tar, and contains about 40 per cent of Solid naphthalene. Boiling point from 180° to 230°. * NAPHTHALENE (II). A fraction of an aromatic hydrocarbon distilate obtained from coal tar, heavier than Naphthalene (I). Boiling point between 200° C and 280° C. NAPHTHENE SERIES. A hydrocarbon series having the general formula (CnH2n), These are ring or cyclic compounds very seldom found in the lighter, frac- tions of petroleum but frequently found in the heavier fractions. Some Louisiana, oils contain lighter naphthenes. The naphthenes Contain Such compounds as Cyclo- propane, Cyclobutane, Cyclopentane, Cyclohexane, etc. NAPHTHENIC ACIDS. Petroieunn acids belonging to the series CnH2n-202. NAPHTHOGENY. Treating of the Origin of petroleum. NAPHTHOLOGY. The ,subject of petroleum and its products. NATURAL G.A.S. A hydrocarbon gas found in nature, of variable composition, which is usually high in mathame and elefine gases. It may or may not be associated directly with petroleum. It is used extensively as a fuel and for the manufacture of casinghead gasoline. COPYRIGHT 1925 COMPILED BY Z 86 PETROLEU M AGE J. B. RATHE UN * PETROLEUM GLOSSARY (z-87) (A Dictionary of Words, Terms and Phrases.) NATURAL GASOLINE. See Casinghead Gasoline. * NATURAL QILS (LUBRICATING), Oils which are lubricating oils in their natural State and which undergo no refining. An example is the Franklin County, Pa., First Sand Oil. NATURAL, OILS (LIGHT DISTILLATES). The lighter hydrocarbons such as gasoline, naphtha. and . kerosene which are separated by fractional distillation of the crude, without pyrogenig (Heat) decomposition. The light distillates obtained without Cracking the heavier oils. , NEATSFOOT. QIL. An animal oil obtained by boiling the hoofs of cattle and skimming, the oil from the surface of the water. This oil is used principally for SOftening leather, for dressing friction clutch leathers, and for belt dressings. INEUTRAL. Between or halfway. ... (2) A, CHEMICAL, NEUTRAL substance is One that is neither acid nor alkaline. (3) Derived by fractional distillation. ., NEUTRAL OILS. Neutral petroleum oils are the oils obtained from pressed dis— tilates, or the oils remaining, after the wax has been removed from the distillate. The distillates are those coming off after the second grade of illuminating oils, and are commonly known as “Wax Distillate.” . After the separation_of_the_wax, the pressed distillate is divided into two principal grades (1) THE VISCUOUS NEU's TRALS having a viscosity of over 135 Saybolt, and the NON-VISCUOUS NEUTRALS having a viscosity less than 135 Saybolt. They are afterwards filtered to remove the free Carbon. () NICKEL BABBITT. A high grade white metal containing nickel used for auto- mobile bearing liners. NITRIC ACID (HNO3). A powerfully active acid which combines with nearly all metals, and which has a strong Oxidizing effect on organic materials. NITRIC OXII) E (NO). A colorless gas often known as “Laughing Gas.” It is present in certain amines or sub-nitrogen compounds. NITROGEN" (N). A gaseous non-metallic element having but little chemical affinity, for other elements. . . It forms many unstable compounds, the most noted of Which is dynamite. In itself it is inert and does not enter into the process of Com- bustion although it constitutes about, 77 per cent of the atmosphere. . Many natural gas wells produce great volumes of nitrogen gas and this is detrimental for the rea— son that it lowers the heat content of the natural gas by displacing the methane and ethane. NITROGIYCERINE. An extremely explosive and unstable nitrogen compound used in blasting and shooting oil wells. It is the basis of dynamite. It is a heavy oily fluid which freezes, at , a comparatively high temperature. Dynamite is simply nitroglycerine absorbed in infusierial earth for convenience in handling. NONANE (CoHoo). A hydrocarbon of the paraffine series contained in gasoline Boiling point 150° C. NON-CARBON OIL. An oil containing little or no free carbon in suspension with a very small content of unstable hydrocarbons which will decompose and form deposits. NON-FLUID OILS. Oils or thin greases thickened with oil pulp to prevent leak— age out of gear housings, etc., and to prevent slop and drip from bearings. NON-OLEAGINOUS LUBRICANTS. Lubricants which are not inherently oily, such as glycerine, talc, soapstone, Sulphuric acid, etc. NON-VISCUOUS NEUTRAIL OILS. Oils obtained from pressed distillate which have a viscosity lower than 135 Saybolt Seconds at 100°F. NON.—CONDENSING ENGINE. A steam engine exhausting directly into the at— mosphere without a condenser. NON-FERROUS METALS. Metals outside of the iron and Steel type such as copper, brass, aluminum, etc. \ COPYRiGHT 1925 COMPILED BY Z–87 PETROLEUM AGE J. R. RATHEUN -f } ! t * sy SALES ORGANIZATION (A-20-10) z Transportation. ... DISTANCES BETWEEN AMERICAN CITIES. The following table shows the distances between the principal American cities by the shortest usually traveled rail— road routes. Compiled from the War Department's official table of distances. O FROM .3 § ~ 'S .º: • *- Gly % £: Čſ) g g C b0 º § O O Q) F: O Cº. Ö º 5 9. -: TO . P- ; : & 5 3 : : : 3 G 3 CS --> rº- GL) CS R. U} • * §: ..? :- H &M) +: > §: 9. -4–) Q) : 4) *: *: --> O Q & p CS : g : Z O PH do ſº ſº O ſº U2 ſº- Ö - Albany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 832 236 1,028 202 333 480 297 3,106 567 724 917 Atlanta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 876 733 785 611 1,106 688 736 919 2,805 S05 492 818 Baltimore . . . . . . . . . . . . 1S8 802 97 934 418 . . . . . 474 39S 3,076 334 593 887 Boston . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 1,034 321 1,230 . . . . . 418 682 499 3.308 674 926 1,119 Buffalo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442 525 416 731 499 398 183 . . . . . 2,799 270 427 610 Chicago . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 912 . . . . . 821 284 1,034 802 357 525 2,274 468 298 85 Cincinnati . . . . . . . . . . . 757 298 666 341 926 593 244 427 2,572 313 . . . . . 385 Cleveland . . . . . . . . . . . . 584 357 493 548 682 474 . . . . 183 2,631 135 244 442 Columbus, O. . . . . . . . . 637 314 546 428 820 511 13S 321 2,588 193 116 399 Denver . . . . . . . . r = < * * * * 1,934 1,022 1,843 916 2,056 1,850 1,379 1,537 1,371 1,490 1,257 1,107 iXetroit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 693 272 669 488 750 649 173 251 2, 546 321 263 357 uluth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,391 479 1,300 728 1,513 1,281 701 1,004 2,238 947 777 422 1 PaSo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,310 1,465 2,219 1,245 2,414 2,179 1,703 1,915 1,287 1,866 1,586 1,550 Galveston . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,792 1,144 1,691 860 2,012 1,594 1,408 1,591 2,157 1,481 1,157 1,229 Grand Rapids, Mich... 821 178 815 462 878 796 332 379 2,452 462 308 (263 Helena. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,452 1,540 2,361 1,549 2,574 2,342 1,897 2,065 1,250 2,008 1,838 1,455 Indianapolis . . . . . . . . . . 825 183 T34 240 965 TQ4 283 466 2,457 381 111 268 Jacksonville, Fla. . . . . . 983 1,097 - 892 975 1,213 . T95 1,085 1,193 3,098 1,057 841 1,182 Ransas City . . . . . . . . . 1.342 458 1,251 277 1,466 1,211 755 967 1,981 898 618 543 Los Angeles . . . . . . . . . . 3,149 2,265 3,058 2,084 3,273 3,013 2,562 2,774 - 475 2,705 2,425 2,350 Louisville . . . . . . . . . . . . S71 304 780 274 1,040 703 358 541 2,468 427 114 389 Memphis . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,157 527 1,066 311 1,387 969 738 921 2,439 807 494 612 Milwaukee . . . . . . . . . . . 997 85 906 369 1,119 887 4 |2 610 2,359 553 3S3 . . . . . Minneapolis . . . . . . . . . . 1,332 420 1,241 586 1,454 1,222 777 945 2,096 SSS 718 335 Mobile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,231 929 1,140 647 1,461 1,043 1,029 1,212 2,623 1,098 785 1,014 Montreal, P. Q. . . . . . . 3S6 841 477 1,05 330 574 623 434 3,115 704 826 926 Newark, N. J. . . . . . . . . 9 903 82 1,056 226 179 575 405 3,177 435 748 988 New Haven . . . . . . . . . 76 980 , 167 1,141 140 - 264 628 445 3,254 520 833 1,065 New Orleans . . . . . . . . 1,372 912 1,281 699 1,602 1.184 1,073 1,256 2,482 1,142 829. 997 New York . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 912 91 1,065 217 188 584 442 3,186 444 757 997 Ogden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,496 1,494 2,315 1,414 2,528 2,296 1,851 2,019 780 1,962 1,792 1,579 Omaha. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,405 493 1,314 413 1,527 1,295 1,750 1,018 1,781 961 791 578 Philadelphia. . . . . . . . . . 91 821 . . . . . 97.4 321 97 493 416 3,095 353 666 906 Pittsburgh . . . . . . . . . . . 144 468 353 621 674 334 135 270 2,742 . . . . . 313 55.3 Portland, Me. . . . . . . . . 332 1,149 436 1,345 115 533 797 614 3,423 789 1,041 1,234 Portland, Ore. . . . . . . . 3,204 2,292 3,113 2,212 3,326 3,094 2,649 2,817 772 2,760 2,590 2,378 Providence . . . . . . . . . . . 190 1,034 281 1,230 45 378 682 499 3,308 634 926 1,119 Quebec . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 530 1,013 621 1,343 402 718 795 612 3,287 876 1,039 1,098 Richmond, Va. . . . . . . . 343 879 252 918 573 155 553 553 3,153 417 581 964 Rochester, N. Y. . . . . . 373 603 361 .. 799 430 35'ſ 251 68 2,877 338 495 688 St. Joseph, MO. . . . . . . 1,392 470 1,301. 327 1,474 1,261 875 1,058 1,867 948 66S 555 St. Louis . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,065 284 974 . . . . . 1,230 934 5 #8 731 2,194 621 341 369 St. Paul . . . . . * * * * * * * * * 1,322 410 1,231 576 1,444 1,212 767 935 2,086 878 708 325 San Antonio . . . . . . . . . 1,943 1,204 1,852 920 2,150 1,755 1,468 1,651 1,911 1,541 1,217 1,289 San Francisco . . . . . . . 3,186 2,274 3,095 2,194 3,308 3,076 2,631 2.799 . . . . . 2,742 2,572 2,359 Seattle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,151 2,239 3,060 2,332 3,273 2,941 2,596 2,764 957 2,707 2,537 2,154 Spokane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,812 1,900 2,721 1,932 2,934 2,702 2,257 2,425 1,205 2,368 2,198 1,815 Springfield, Mass. . . . . 139 935 230 1,131 99 327 583 400 3,209 583 827 1,020 Tampa, Fla. . . . . . . . . . . 1,195 1,309 1,104 1,187 1,425 1,007 1,297 1,405 3,310 1,269 1,053 1,394 Toledo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 705 244 615 437 795 595 113 296 2,518 26] 203 329 COPYRIGHT 1925 COMPILED LEU M AGE J. PETRO B. RATHEUN BY A–20–10 PHYSICAL UNITs (c-50-10) * Commercial Testing. U. S. GOVERNMENT STANDARD METHODS. The U. S. Government standard test methods for petroleum and petroleum products are set forth in detail in TECH- NICAL PAPER 323A, Čovering the U. S. Government Specifications No. 2C. These Specifications were adopted by the Federal Specifications Board on February 3, 1922, and revised on March 18, 1924. The index numbers for the various tests, together with the method numbers of the American Society for Testing Materials to which they correspond, are given in the following table. List of Methods for Testing Petroleum Products. Method No. Title. A. S. T. M. No. 10.11 . . . . . . . . Color by Saybolt chromoneter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D156–23'T 10.2 . . . . . . . . Color by Union colorimeter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D155-23T 20.11 . . . . . . . . Cloud and pour points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D97–22T 30.4 . . . . . . . . Viscosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A s • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ID88—23T 40.1 . . . . . . . . Melting point of paraffin wax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . t = < * * * D87–22 40.3 . . . . . . . . Melting point of petrolatum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D127–22T 100.12 . . . . . . . . Distillation of gasoline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . None *ra. 100.22 . . . . . . . . Distillation of kerosene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . None 110.1 . . . . . . . . * Flash point of Yolatile flammable liquids by the Tag D56–21 * Closed tester. 110.21 . . . . . . . . Flash point by means of the Pensky–Martens closed D93–22 te Ster. 110.31 . . . . . . . . Open Cup flash and fire test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _D92–23T 120.11 . . . . . . . • Spot test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . None 130.1 . . . . . . . . Flock test for kerosene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . None 130.2 . . . . . . . . Flock test for mineral seal Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . None 200.1 . . . . . . . . Wick feed test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . NOne 210.31 . . . . . . . . Burning test for long-time burning oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . None f 210.41 . . . . . . . . Burning test for mineral seal oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . NOne 210.6 . . . . . . . . Burning lest for kerosene (16 hours) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . None 300.11 . . . . . . . . Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D95-23 T 300.2 . . . . . . . • Sediment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . None 300.3 . . . . . . ... Water and sediment by centrifuge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D96–21 T 300.41 . . . . . . . . Water by Centrifuge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . None * 310.1 . . . . . . . . Precipitation number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . T)91-21'ſ 320.11 . . . . . . . . Emulsion test at 130° F. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... None 320.21 . . . . . . . . Emulsion "test at 180° F. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . None 320.31 . . . . . . . . Demulsibility at 130° F. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... None 320.41 . . . . . . . . T) emulsibility at 180° F. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . None 400.1 . . . . . . . . Protection test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . None 410.11 . . . . . . . . Breakdown test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ID48–17'T and ID1 17–21T 500.11 . . . . . . . . Carbon residue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . INone 510.1 . . . . . . . . Reaction test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . None 510.2 . . . . . . . . Acidity in gasoline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . None 510.3 . . . . . . . . Free acid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D47–21 520.1 . . . . . . . . Sulphur in burning oils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D90–21 T 520.21 . . . . . . . . Sulphur. In fuel oil . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D129.-22T 520.3 . . . . . . . . Doctor, test (sodium plumbite) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . N'one 530.1 . . . . . . . . Corrosion test (Copper dish) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . N'On e 530.21 . . . . . . . . Corrosion test at 122°F. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D130-22T 530.31 . . . . . . . . Corrosion test at 212° F. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . None 540.1 . . . . . . . . Saponification number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D94--21'T 540.2 . . . . . . . . Fatty Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . N'One 550.2 . . . . . . ... Unsaturation in transformer Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . None W COPYRIGHT 1925 COMPILED BY C 50 10 PETRO LEU M AGE , J. B. RATHEUN *sº sº PIPE LINES (HH-1-10) Statistics. GENERAL. By far the greater part of the crude oil in the United States is moved by pipe lines to the refinery, and from data at hand, probably less than five per cent of the total is handled by the railroads. In fact, it is not likely that the tremendous production of the present time could be moved by any other means, and certainly not as cheaply as by pumping it through the distributing network of pipe. Pumping requires a minimum of labor and fuel, and the investment in the lines and equipment is much less than the money required for the purchase of tank cars and loading equipment for handling an equal armount of oil. According to statistics compiled in 1916, the saving of pipe line transportation over rail shipping ranged from 11.1c to 84.6c per barrel, depending upon the loca– tion. In new territory the investment may be greater in the pipeline construction giving a smaller net saving, but where the lines are permanently established with econd mical power plants and efficient organization, the cost of oil pipeline transport can be reduced to a Very low figure. Approximately 300,000 tons of oil is moved daily through an average distance of 500 miles by pipe line. This is about ten per cent of the total freight traffic of the United States, a comparison which shows the magnitude of the problem very clearly. In 1920 very complete statistics were compiled which are shown below: Pipe Line Statistics (1923). Total length of trunk pipe line in United States, miles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40,000 Total length of gathering lines, miles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20,000 Total length of all pipe lines, miles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60,000 Average length of pipe lines, miles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 600 Longest pipe line, miles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,610 Pipe line length percentage of railroad length, per cent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Average cost of trunk pipe lines per mile, not including the cost of equipment, etc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $9,700 Value of pipe lines in 1923. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $700,000,000 The cost of pipe line installation is greatly affected by the viscosity, as a heavy viscuous crude demands pumping stations at closer intervals than with a light crude. The average seasonal temperature also affects the cost of the pumping equipment in the same way. In the east, with light crudes, the stations average 34 miles apart along the line while in California they average 12 miles. / OPYRIGHT 1925 COMPILED BY t ######, #e J. B. RATHEUN HH-1-10 \ PIPE LINES (HH-1-20) Cost of Operation and Maintenance. GROSS COST OF OPERATION. The cost of operation naturally involves a great many variable factors, but as direct and overhead charges. The length of line, size of pipe, geographical features, viscosity of the crude, cost of labor, right of way, all Combine to make the problem a complicated one. The following table gives a general idea of the cost of transporting oil by pipe line in terms of barrels. This was compiled from the 1913 report of the Federal Trade Commission and applies to average conditions in the Mid-continent field. Cost of Pipe Line Operation (1913). Item Distance, ,-Cost Per Bbl. (c)—— Total Trunk Line No. Miles. Trunk Line. Gathering. Total Cents/Bbl./Mile 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 2.64c 3.99 C 6.63C 0.0566C 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 ° 3.48c 5.45C 8.933 0.0652C 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449 11.34c 5.45C 16.79C 0.0374C 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479 19.16G 5.45C 24.61c 0.0514C 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505 8.45C 3.99C 12.44c 0.0246C 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513 22.03C 3.990 26.02c 0.0507C 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 583 21.61C 5.08C 26.69C 0.0459C 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 686 11.03C 3.996 , 15.02c 0.0219C Average . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0442c It is difficult to make an analysis of the figures in this table for it will be seen that there is a considerable difference in the cost per barrel per mile in the last column, varying from a minimum of 0.0246c to 0.0652c. The maximum is only a little less than three times the minimum value for practically the same grades of oil in the same general territory. ~ The costs for gathering lines is more uniform than for the main trunk line operation, but even here there are one or two items which show a wide divergence from the minimum and average costs. A cost of 5.45c per barrel for the gathering lines seems to hold for the majority of trunk lines to which they are connected regardless of the length of the trunk lines. OPYRIGHT 1925 COMPILED BY \ ######, AGE J. Q} RATHE UN HH-1–20 REFINERY OFERATIONS (J-5-10) Organization. CHEMICAL LABORATORY. Every refinery 1s equipped with a chemical laboratory for the maintenance of certain standards in the manufactured products and for the efficient operation of the plant in general. In addition to the routine testing Of the products, most of the laboratory workers carry on experimental and research work for the development of new and competitive products and for the utilization Of the waste occurring in the manufacture of the regular product. Upon the chemist rests the responsibility of the selection of the raw materials or else the processes nëcessary for the handling of given raw materials. He is also the judge of the Standards maintained by the company and devises ways and means for meeting com— petitive products. In general, the laboratory of an oil refinery is divided into four parts: (1) Testing. (2) Analytical, (3) Experimental, and (4) Research. Minor subdivisions exist in the laboratories of very large refineries, but in general the four groups given above exist in some form whether one or 50 chemists are employed. TESTING LABORATORY. The testing laboratory is equipped with the instru– ments demanded by the Standard Specifications now in force, and it is from this department that the control of the product is had. From the testing laboratory the stillman gets information as to the proper time for making the “Cuts’’ or for shutting down the still, and tests are made on the oils as they are being transferred from One working tank to the other. A last examination is made when the oil is in the storage tank ready for shipment. In this way, the plant knows the condition and physical characteristics of all oils under manufacture at all times, and when certain specifications are received for a certain grade of oil it is a comparatively simple matter to re-route certain of the partially manufactured products so that the Specifications can be fulfilled. Uniformity in a petroleum product is most essential from a commercial stand— point, and it is from the testing laboratory that the control of the finished product is had before shipment is made. ANALYTICAL LABORATORY. The analytical work, which is frequently a branch of the testing laboratory, carries out a chemical analysis on the raw material re- ceived as well as the product, Here is recorded, the composition of all compounded products, greases, or similar trade specialties of the plant which are mixtures built up of simpler oils, Here also, tests and comparisons are made on competitors products which appear from time to time on the market. COPYRIGHT 1925 COMPILED BY 5–10 PETRO LE U M AGE J. B. RATHEUN J-5- REFINERY OFERATIONS (J-5-11) Organization. EXPERIMIENTAL LABORATORY. One of the most important functions of the experimental laboratory is the examination of the various crudes and their contents expressed in terms of commercial products. When a new field is brought into pro- duction, the contents of the crude are carefully studied in the experimental laboratory by working it up in one barrel lots or in stills of one barrel capacity. These one- barrel Stills are models of the larger stills in the plant so that comparisons under actual Working conditions are easily and cheaply made. Quantitative distillation is One of the most valuable methods of examining crude, to determine the range of boiling points and to study the physical characteristics of the fraction obtained from them. * After the nature of the crude has been determined, a chart or “flow sheet” for the “Work-up” of the oil is devised so that the plant will know just how to handle this crude should any be purchased at some future time. The flow sheet is a general outline of the method of working up the crude showing the various distillations, acid treatments advisable, and the various other plant operations. In addition to the investigation of new crudes, the experimental laboratory is the place where new ideas are developed, and where the data. On still types, cracking processes, methods of running, etc., are worked out on a Small scale. RESEARCH LABORATORY. This laboratory may be a part of the experimental laboratory or it may not, but in large organizations the research work in chemistry is carried along independently of the plant experimental work described above. The research laboratory investigates the basic chemical nature of the crude and finished product rather than means of manufacture, and is essentially theoretical rather than a means of practical plant Operation: * The various chemical and physical laws governing the composition of the various hydrocarbons are studied together with the possibility of producing new and valuable compounds from them. Here, too, the chemist makes a study of the removal of injurious substances, such as sulphur, from the products and the introduction of the various compounding agents required to give certain desired characteristics to lubri– cating oils or to impart anti—knock properties to motor fuels. It is generally in this department that new trade marked products originate, and it is the seat of advance— ment in the sciences of fuels and lubrication. This branch of the petroleum industry is comparatively new, and advances in the chemistry of hydrocarbons are in their infancy. COPYRIGHT 1925 COMPILED BY J-5-11 PETRO LEU M AGE J. B. RATHE UN * * REFINERY operations (J-10-20) Oil Distillation. FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION. As crude petroleum consists of a great many elementary hydrocarbon compounds, each having a different boiling point or vaporiz— ing temperature, , it is possible to separate these compounds by distillation processes, by which the temperature of the fluid is regulated to the Vaporizing temperature of the compound desired. At this temperature the desired compound is Separated from the rest by heat, the vapor passing off to suitable condensers where it is afterwards reduced to liquid form. The separation of the various “fractions” of petroleum by this means is known as “fractional distillation,” and is the most important com— mercial process in the refining of petroleum. * After the vapors of the elementary compounds, fractions or “cuts” are thus dis– tilled from the crude and condensed, they are subjected to further redistillation whereby certain impurities are removed or other compounds are obtained. Fractions of similar boiling points are then combined from the numerous distillations, and the process is repeated until the proper mixture is obtained. * The many elementary compounds in petroleum have a wide range of boiling point, varying from the extremely light and Volatile casing—head ethers which evaporate rapidly at ordinary temperatures to the heavy lubricating fractions which demand a high temperature for their Čistillation. Even lighter are the so-called natural gases, which separate from the crude immediately when it issues from the well, and which have a very low liquifaction temperature, many degrees below zero. The light volatile fractions are mostly hydrocarbon compounds of the nethane series, and it is this series that composes gasoline. $ Gasoline hydrocarbons begin with pentane having a boiling point of 36.3° C at 760 mm., and then after passing through numerous other fractions, and with undecane having a normal boiling point of 195.0° C. according to the present commercial definition of the word “Gasoline.” With the cut made at undecane for gasoline, we proceed further with our distillation to obtain the kerosene fractions, all of which have higher boiling points than those of gasoline. The kerosene hydrocarbons range from 214° C. to 317° C. The heavier members of the paraffine series are found in the succeeding distillates known commercially as gas oil, lubricating oil and paraffine. ANALYTICAL DISTILLATION. Fractional distillation is one of the most useful methods of analyzing petroleum, for from the range of boiling points of a sample under . examination, we can closely determine the physical characteristics of the various fractions. It is a simple and effective means of determining the percentage of gasoline in a crude or other source and is thus a means Of estimating the value of the crude. * COPYRIGHT 1925 COMPILED BY 10–20 PETRO LEU M AGE J. B. RATHE UN J-10- REFINERY OFERATIONS (J-10-21) Oil Distillation. BOILING POINT IN VACUUM. The boiling point of any liquid is the tempera— ture at which the vapor pressure of the vaporized liquid exceeds the pressure of the atmosphere. When the pressure of the vapor exceeds that of the atmosphere, which is pressing down upon it, the vapor will pass off from the liquid and the liquid will lose weight. By increasing the atmospheric pressure it is evident that the temperature of vaporization will rise, and by reducing this temperature, the temperature of vaporiza– tion will be reduced. If the fluid is heated in a vacuum, the atmospheric pressure Will be overcome by the vapor pressure at a lower temperature, and therefore the boiling temperature will be reduced. Heating a petroleum crude above 275° C. almost always causes decomposition or “cracking” to take place, hence by the use of a Vacuum we can distill off a greater percentage of the crude before cracking starts than under atmospheric pressure as we do not reach the cracking temperature so early in the process. Conversely, we can hurry “cracking” by increasing the pressure over the liquid, thus raising the boiling point at all times during the distillation. Distillation of certain lubricating oils has long been conducted under vacuum to decrease the tendency toward decomposition and cracking and hence the production Of free Solid carbon within the liquid. STEAM DISTILLATION. By conducting the distillation in the presence of steam, the Steam reduces the boiling point in a sormewhat different manner than above. When steam is introduced in the oil vapor, the total pressure of the mixture is equal to the sum of the two partial pressures of the oil vapor and steam, hence the boiling point of the mixture must be less than i he boiling point of the lower boiling point of the oil constituent. - Normal octane has a boiling point of 125.8° C. at 760 mm., but iſ the hydrocarbon is distilled with steam at a temperature of 37.8° C., the resulting vapors will contain 77.8 per cent of normal octane. At 37.8° C. the partial pressure of the water vapor is 487 mm. while that of the normal octane is 274 mm., the sum being 760 mm. Steam distillation has the additional advantage of heating the oil uniformly and prevents supersaturation of the vapor, preventing super-heating of the liquid with— Out the emission of the proper proportion of vapor. TOWER STILLS. When the crude oils contain large amounts of gasoline and kerosene stocks, they are run in stills having one or more fractionating towers, the latter increasing the efficiency and yield of the system with such crudes. The towers Separate the vapors into light fractions which pass through the columns in the form of vapor, while the heavy fraction is condensed and returned to the still for re- distillation. we ! COPYRIGHT 1925 COMPILED BY PETROLEUM AGE J. B. RATHEUN REFINERY OFERATIONS (J-10-22) Oil Distillation. TOWER STILLS CONTINUED The vapor goes up while the condensed liquid runs down, hence the contact between the two is more or less intimate during this counter—current circulation in the tower. The vapors passing up through the tower are washed by the descending liquid, and certain lighter portions are re-evaporated by the hot vapors from the liquid, and the heavier portions of the ascending vapor are condensed. The liquid and the vapor at the bottom of the tower are richer in heavy vapors than at the top. f In distilling the lighter hydrocarbons, a little overheating at the still also vaporizes some of the heavier Compounds, her Ce the heat exchange explained above tends to eliminate these heavier compounds from the ascending column of light vapor, and to maintain a more nearly uniform grade of light distillate. By the use of two or three towers per Still, the efficiency of fractionation is con— siderably increased. Separation takes place in all of the towers as in the first tower, and all liquids condensed Out are returiled to the Still through the “run back” for redistillation. With two or more towers, the vapor from the top of the first tower is entered in the bottom of the Second, and from the top of the second, it is led to the lower part of the third, a series Connected System which is highly effective. The condensate from such towers is free from the greater part of the heavy con– stituent which would have to be removed by a second distillation if the towers were not employed. Towers increase the percentage of gasoline recovered from the crude in straight- run distillation or fractionation, and the dry point of the distillate is nearer equal to the temperature ât which the cut, was made. Without to Wers, and with a greater percentage of the heavy ends remaining in the distillate, the actual end point would |be higher than the desired end point at which the cut was made. For example, when working on a certain crude With the Salme Stills in either case, the initial point without the towers was 176° F. while with three towers the initial point was 130° F. with the cut made at the same temperature. The end point in the first case (without towers) was 493° F., while with towers the end point was 473° F., a considerable difference in quality. In the distillation of paraffine base Crudes where paraffine distillate occurs, the towers are equipped with pans for the Collection of the paraffine distillate. During the first part of the distillation and at low temperatures, the fractions caught by the pans are returned to the stills with the rest of the liquid. . When the temperature has reached the cracking point, say about 625° F., the paraffine distillate is then allowed to collect on the pan and to pass to the running tanks. The paraffine is separated from the heavy tars by this means, the tars collecting in the bottom of the tower. IGHT 1925 COMPILED BY tº Käe J. B. RATHE UN J-10-22 REFINERY OFERATIONs (J-10-23) Oil Distillation. g THE RERUN STILLS. The paraffine distillates with the cracked distillates that are formed with them are given a second distillation in the rerun stills where they are Separated into the various connmercial products. These may be stills of the Steam heated variety, and either of the batch or continuous type depending upon local Conditions. BATCH STILLS. In batch stills, the contents of the still are run down con— tinuously without refilling, and when the batch has been exhausted, they are cleaned out and started out on the second batch. / A batch still is the simplest form of still and is less expensive to install than the Continuous type. They are also better adapted for service where the quality and the quantity of the material distilled is frequently changed, and for this reason they are best adapted to small scale Operations where the equipment must be pre- pared for meeting many different conditions. CONTINUOUS STILLS. Batch stills require much fuel, and from many stand- points are more expensive and less desirable than the continuous stills in whićh a COntinuous stream of the Supply passes through them at a constant rate and term— perature. Every time that a batch still 1s filled with a new charge, additional fuel is required to bring the batch up to the temperature of distillation, or from the cold to the boiling state. This warming up of the charge takes place every time that a new batch is put into the still, while with the continuous system, the still remains at a constant tennperature when it is once started in operation. The continuous still System has the advantage that the distillate remains the same at any point in the system, providing that the rate of feed and the quality of the material fed into the system remain constant. In the batch type, the nature of the charge changes continuously from the start to finish. It follows that Con— tinuous stills are best adapted for service where large quantities of a fairly uniform Imaterial are handled, and where the temperature can be maintained at a uniform point. Pressure legulators are required for the Steam supplied to continuous stills so that the temperature will be held constant regardless of fluctuations in the boiler temperature and pressure. Topping plants located in large fields, as in the Mid-continent fields employ con– tinuous stills for the removal of the gasoline and 11ghter fractions as the stocks are fairly uniform and are handled continuously under about the Same conditions. When continuous stills are used, we can employ hcat exchangers by which the cold charge can be heated up on entering the Suill without the consumption of additional fuel. The heat exchangers consist of pipe coils where the incoming feed is warmed up nearly to the boiling point by the hot residuum from the stills. With steam stills running a naphtha feed, the naphtha is heated by passing through coils in the tower. COPYRIGHT 1925 COMPILED BY PETRO LEU M AGE J. B. RATHEUN * J-10-23 REFINERY ENGINEERING (JJ-10-50) * Still Operation. COMPARISON OF CRUDE STILLS. In general, there are three methods of distilling crude petroleum : (1) By batch Stills, (2) By continuous Stills, (3) By Tube or Pipe Stills. The elementary nature of these stills and their advantages and s disadvantages have already been entered into to some extent so that We will take up the question of production and actual figures obtained in practice at this point. BATCH STILLS. The batch still is decidedly inefficient. In the first place heat is lost on every charge in bringing the cold charge up to the distillation temperature and there is little opportunity of using heat exchangers to their full advantage. Sec- ondly, the nature of the heating surface, and the relatively small area presented to the heating agent causes serious losses in the transmission of the heat to the oil. Probably, never more than 30 per cent of the heat supplied is ever applied usefully to the evaporation of the oil within the still, which means that the fuel oil burned will amount to about six barrels for each 100 barrels of distillate produced under ordinary conditions. As there are no flues, as in the case of a horizontal tubular Steam boiler, the heating surface is restricted to about 2/3 the area of the Outer shell. If (D) is the diameter in feet, and (L) is the length of the still in feet, then the effective heating surface will annount to about 0.666 x D X L, in Square feet. Under Ordinary con– ditions of operation and initial filling of the stili, about 0.85 barrel of distillate will be f produced per day for each square foot of surface fired. This considers 2/3 of the circumference being available for heating. The hourly output of distillate will amount to about 2/5/gallon per hour per square ſoot of heating Surface. A batch still is Ordinarily filled as full as possible, making allowance at the same time for expansion and initial evaporation. It may also be charged above the fire line, and additional crude run in, but for this practice special tower dephlegmators will be required. * CONTINUOUS STILLS. The construction of the continuous stills is very similar to that of batch stills, but they differ in the charging method. In continuous dis— tillation, the crude runs from one still, to the other, a certain percentage of the dis– tillation being performed in each still, and with each of the Stills producing different products. This arrangement is decidedly more efficient than batch distillation and from 140 to 1.43 barrels of distillate may be expected per day per square foot of firing surface under ordinary conditions. This amounts to about 2.5 gallons of dis– tillate per hour, per square foot of Surface. } About five barrels of fuel oil will be required for distilling each 100 barrels of distillate with a fuel efficiency of approximately 40 per cent. * t PYRIGHT 1925 COMPILED BY Eğüº ºãe J. ŁºśN JJ-10-50 REFINERY ENGINEERING (JJ-10-51) Still Operation. PIPE OR TUBE STILLS. The output of a pipe still is a function of the tube diameter (d), this amounting approximately to: 3000°, the result being in barrels per day. The still or vaporizer will have a capacity of 2.3 barrels of distillate evaporated per barrel of still capacity. The velocity of the oil through the tubes should be more than four feet per second to attain these results. The thermal efficiency of a pipe still is far greater than that with either the batch or continuous stills, largely for the same reason that a water-tube boiler is more efficient than a tubular fire tube type. The evaporation depends to a great eXtent upon the amount of oil coming into contact with the heated surfaces, and the higher oil velocities in the pipe still account for the greater output. The fuel ef- ficiency of a tube still ranges from 65% to 80%, an efficiency which corresponds to a COn Sumption of about three barrels of fuel oil, per 100 barrels of distillate produced. The heating is done in a specially constructed furnace from which the oil is delivered to the still or vaporizer, and the shell still on the vaporizer is used simply for vaporizing. The limit to the vaporizing capacity of the still is its capacity in Volume and the area of the vaporizing surface. By circulating the oil back and forth between the vaporizer and furnace, there is no danger of overheating the oil in the tubes when, the still is reduced to a very low bottom and where the fired area is greater than the area. Covered with Oil. - TABLE OF COMPARISON. The following table is taken from an article by Dr. Roy Cross which appeared in PETROLEUM AGE. It shows the comparative dimen— Sions and performance of different types of stills. § 3 ;4 rd & §g g ă =F # *ā & #5, #3; # Bbls. distillate = 2. × - # , §§§ 5, per day Oper- % 3: 6: §º o ż * { a PHeating ated as Q} §: ăţ. a * =% ºf 3. Size Capacity, bbis, area. batch, G. 3- 94- $E 3.3% ± D. L. Total charge. Sq. ft. continuous. P- < 5 < S U2 o' Unº, gº U2.: 7’X21’. . 151 120 150 175 215 350 12,000 $1,200 7m %. %. 8’x 24'. . 225 180 194 225 275 500 16,000 1,600 8” 14. %. 9'x27’. . 310 250 248 290 355 750 20,000 2,000 9” 14" %. 10'x30’. . 440 350 307 360 440 1,000 25,000 2,500 10” #4 !. %. 11’X33’. . 580 465 373 435 530 1,350 33,000 3,300 11” %. %. 12’x36’. . 760 605 444 520 635 1,750 42,000 4,200 12" 9/16" 7/16" 13'x39’. . 965 770 521 600 750 2,250 50.000 5,000 13. 3/16" 7/16" 14'x42’. . 1,200 965 604 700 860 2,750 56,000 3,600 14” 9/16” 7/16” 15'x45’. . 1,480 1,190 694 800 990 3,500 65,000 6,500 15” 5%" 14. " 16:43: ... 1.300 1,440 790 9.25 1,130 4,000 75,000 7,500 16” 5%" 14" COPYRIGHT 1925 COMPILED BY 10 51 p PETRO LEU M AGE J. B. RATH BUN JJ- - GASOLINE (KK-4.60) General Properties. VOLATILITY AND VAPOR PRESSURE. Volatility and vapor pressure, because of their relation in the cylinders and carburetors of the engines, and also for the reason that they have a strong bearing on the subject of fires and fire protection, directly affect the ignition in the cylinders and the fire hazards attaching to the handling and shipment of oils. According to the kinetic theory, vapor is formed by the evolution of the mole- Cules of the liquid into the space about it. Condensation is the reverse process by Which the vapor molecules are returned into a liquid, an equilibrium which is attained When the number of molecules evolved from the liquid equals those which are returned from the vapor. In equilibrium, the vapor pressure of the liquid is the Same as the pressure exerted by its vapor. Vapor pressure increases with the temperature and is independent of the presence of other gases which are mixed with the vapor, and should another gas be mixed with the vapor, the pressure of the gas is simply added to that of the vapor, increasing the total pressure in the container. The pressure of the gas and vapor taken independently are known as the “partial pressures.” Practically, the vapor pressures of oils may be regarded as the pressure upon the walls of confining vessels. Fig. 1* shows the relations that exist between the temperature and pressure with several petroleum products, ranging from Casinghead gasoline to transformer oil, and also those of water. This graph is taken from the Bureau of Mines Report, Serial No. 2400, dated September, 1922, written by S. H. Ratz and N. A. C. Smith of the Bureau of Mines. The Curves show that the pressures increase with the tem— perature in all cases, but as the graphs are curved lines, it is evident that this is not a simple nor a direct relation. When confined in a closed tank, the oil vapors form just like steam in a steam boiler, and with the lighter and more volatile' , gasolines a dangerous pressure may be set up in such tanks during summer weather by atmospheric heat or the heat of the sun. For this reason, the Interstate Com— merce Commission has restricted shipment of casinghead gasoline which develops vapor pressures of from 10 to 15 pounds per square inch at 100° F. to tank cars tested to 60 pounds pressure per Square inch. Gasolines having greater pressures at 100° F. cannot be shipped in tank cars at all. Fig. 2* shows the distillation temperature of there liquids, which will give a good idea as to their composition and characteristics. Fig. 3 is a graph of vapor pressures as determined by Burrell and Boyd on several grades of gasoline, Vapor pressures of heavier distillates are similar in form to those of the gasoline and naphtha, but at equal temperatures the pressures are less. Volatility is represented by Fig. 2. *Table RK-4-62 following. OPYRIGHT 1925 GOMPILED BY º LEU M AG E J. B. RATHEUN KK-4–60 } GASOLINE (KK-4-61) General Properties. VAPOR MIXTURES. Burrell and Boyd in discussing Chart No. 3 state that air will mix uniformly with almost six times as much vapor from 73° B. gasoline at 17.5° C. (63.5° F) as with cleaner's naphtha, and this is an index of the effects of vola- tility upon obtaining a proper mixture for ignition. The völatility of a gasoline is high when its distillation temperature range is low. " DISTILLATION RANGE. Fig. 2 shows the distillation range of typical petroleum products, and with the exception of the transformer oil, the same oils were used for the determinations in Fig. 3.” It has been found that it is possible' in many cases to Check the distillation test by means of the vapor pressure test, and as the vapor test can be easily performed with a few simple instruments instead of requiring laboratory equipment as with the distillation test, it is likely that oils can be tested more cheaply and rapidly by this means than before. The Bureau of Mines is studying methods of making the substitute vapor test, and improverments may be devised which will make this method practicable and easy for the average man to handle. W EXPLOSIVE LIMITS. Combustion in the engine cylinders will not take place When there is an excess or a deficiency of air. Experiments’by the Bureau of Mines found that flammation occurs Only when the gasoline vapor in air ranges be— tween 1.4 and 6.4 per cent by volume. (Burrell and Boyd.) The most power is developed, according to Fieldner and Jones, when the gasoline vapor forms 2.2 per cent by volume. Explosive limits change somewhat with the temperature and the density of the air. The lower limit for gasoline is decreased to 1.22 per cent at a termperature Of 300° C. (Burrell). Very light hydrocarbons have higher low limits of inflammability and wider range, and the reverse is true for the heavier hydrocarbons. From a standpoint of safety at ordinary room temperatures, the explosive range of from 1.4 to 6.4 per cent can be accepted. IGNITION TEMPERATURES. Gasoline or petroleum vapors in air are perfectly safe from exploding or firing while the gases remain at Ordinary temperatures. To cause ignition, it is necessary to raise the mixture to a temperature at which the gas fires and is able to transmit flame from this point by itself. At low temperatures, localized ignition can take place without the flame Spreading through the vapor mass, just as vaporization can take place below the boiling temperature. Taffanel and Le Floch found 481° C. as the minimum ignition temperature of a commercial auto fuel, ratio 2.2 per cent in air. From 2 to 3 per cent pentane required 512° C., and 5 per cent benzine required 578° C. The ignition temperatures decrease with an increase in the number of carbon atoms of a series. A visible glow occurs' at about 500° C., hence a glowing object should cause ignition with petroleum vapors, and objects below glowing temperature will ignite ether at 225° C. ‘see table KK-4-63 following. «» COPYRIGHT 1925 COMPILED BY PETRO LE U M A G E / J. B. RATHEUN KK-4-61 GASOLINE (KK-4-62) § General Properties. /4ſo ºze & Cº. /oº -- /4ſo /25 2/2 246 264 Jao S55 392 428 4764. Soo "A" 72/7/24 Ap.3.7.6//?&T FIGURE 1.-TEMPERATURE-PRESSURE RELATIONS OF PETROLEUM PRODUCTS AND OF WATER AT HIGH TEMPERATURES. Araceavy Dzszzz zea. &O 39C) Po//y 7- FIGURE 2,-TYPICAL DISTILLATION CURVES OF PETROLEUM PRODUCTS. COPYRIGHT 1925 COMEPILED BY PETROLEUM AGE J. B. RATHE UN . KK-4-62 GASOLINE (KK-4-63) -- \ General Properties. 2/O / /9.5 y s? A3 /80 f Z -º -S-Lºs • * - -- sº: * * **:-->e 3. *33 .s.ºx^ <º a ‘. sea Teppº § §§ º ...,x* * N * - - - tamivſ; - Ski - …sº **º-º’’ ‘’’.<-- ~~ & rºvº º >3. "S ; } % §§ 3 sº- ..º:: 2 <&- . i § ; 3. § i S.§ : :S % Ş & s: º > § i : * : : j §: §•. § *. § ** § ; $c wº-- ** o sº. Kºº. Y: … • ... .” ” & § i | 3.: * * * tº jº. # ; : $ § § § “sº • * …" & --> * Yºst Nº. :* : * >x. * , , ºr * ~ * > **...} & ... ** { § # ; º w ; º º Ä Y& * § ; z & w = { ? { ... * º: i § § f &- * : - , º, ... “ w § ; : : ; i. # - - : *...*&^ - » «», tº.” ... x, ºr 4°." - S. . . . . . ... " * * * :*. sº, Ǻ º . ; $4. #: §§ k-w . . .s...}}** es; º' ', ... a. *** - * . & # *: --. § j ; $ § ; ** Sºº-y ºr “º , . . . * *... º. vºv § : $3. - : ; § ; à - S. | f $ § R . - # º & Jºſs-A S.<< * • * * ~ r • - - , , , - . . . * * • r * - o,-z &’” “ «»” 5-? ... . A • , sº - R > * * - ºf º ady c. * ºf , ovº. Fity * . . W “s, Fits; Figs &rhº; S. ~ & Spe xxº~ * * - “tºº is . . ºr sº -x z," " ... Sºº T. * ...~~~ SEND FOR THIS READY REFERENCE EOOKLET which meet all oil-field, refinery and pipe- line requirements. Write to Crane Co., Chicago, for Booklet No. 177. It is free. Everything you need for any piping in- To make it easy for you to find what you stallation is supplied by Crane service. need for any pipe-line, Crane has prepared a convenient new booklet briefly describ- ing dependable valves, fittings and special- ties in a broad range of types and sizes GENERAL OFFICES: CRAN E BUILDING, 836 S. MICH IGAN AVENUE, CHICAGO CRANE LIMITED: CRANE BUILDING, 386 BEAVER HALL SQUARE, MONTREAL Branches and Sales Offices in One Hundred and Forty-eight Cities National Exhibit Rooms: Chicago, New York, Atlantic City, San Francisco and Montreal Works: Chicago, Bridgeport, Birmingham, Chattanooga, Trenton and Montreal The National Supply Company, Distributors Exclusively of Crane Materials CRANE EXPORT CORPORATION: NEW YORK, SAN FRANCISCO, SHANGHAI CRAN E-BENNETT, LTD., LONDON Cº. CRAN E: PARIS, NANTES, BRUSSELS § § § :- t § a º Crane Enameled Iron Wash Sink No. Y-391