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containing
INTERESTING Accounts,
criticAL AND Historical, I--
LIVES AND CHARACTERs, LABourts AND A
OF
EMINENT PERSONs,
in ALL AGES AND countries, conditions AND PRofessions;
classed According to THEIR VARIous TALENTs AND PURsults;
AND ?:
ARRANGED IN CHRONOLOGICAL ORDER;
- SHOWING -
The PROGRESs of MEN AND THINGS, FROM THE BEGINNING of
The world to THE PRESENT TIME.
to which is added
AN ALPHABETICAL INDEX For REFERENCE.
-º-
BY THE
..º.º. REV. JOHN PLATTS, - - - -->
Author of the New SELF-INTERPRETING TESTAMENT,
&c. &c. g. º.º.
- !
“The proper study of mankind is man.” Pope.
COMPREHENDING
THE FIRST SERIES:
from the creation to the BIRth of christ,











LON DO N :
PRINT ED BY R. GILBERT,
sT. John's square.
lf-
gº
§3%
s*o
&.º
*
B.C.
4004
2948
2000
I 574
1252
1120
949
821
CONTENTS.
PERIOD I.
FROM ADAM TO NOAH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I
PERIOD II. .
FROM NOAH TO ABRAHAM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
PERIOD III.
FROM ABRAHAM TO MOSES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
PERIOD IV.
FROM MOSES TO GIDEON * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 50
PERIOD V.
FROM GIDEON TO SAUL * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 71
PERIOD VI.
FROM SAUL TO AHAB ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
2. PERIOD VII.
FROM AHAB TO JEROBOAM II....... ........ 153
PERIOD VIII.
FROM JEROBoAM II. To Josiah............ 170


CONTENTS.
B. C.
648
600
500
400
300
200
100
PERIOD IX. :
PAGE
FROM JOSIAH TO CYRUS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
PERIOD X. -
FROM CYRUS TO ARTAXERXES. . . . . . . . . . . 231
PERIOD XI.
FROM ARTAXERXES I. TO PHILIP II. . . . . . . . . .308
PERIOD XII. -
FROM PHILIP II. TO PTOLEMY EUERGETES 402
PERIOD XIII.
FROM PTOLEMY EUERGETEs To PTOLEMY
PHILOMETOR. • * * * * * * • * * • - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - * 517
FROM PTOLEMY PHILOMETOR TO SPARTA-
& §º % ºf
CUS * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *, *, *, *, * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 580
PERIOD xv.
FROM SPARTACUS To CALIGULA .......... 651

Biography is a subject of universal interest; it is one
of the most attractive and delightful of studies, and
has an abundant power both to charm and to instruct.
It has been properly styled “The Science of Human Life.”
The advantages of this pleasing and popular branch of
human knowledge are great almost beyond compare.
In order to duly estimate them, we have only to review
the tenor of our past life, and reflect how often we have
been excited to virtue, or deterred from vice; how often
we have been roused from indolence, animated to exer-
tion, and impelled to pursuits which haveled to wealthor
fame; to happiness, or to honour, by reading the lives of
the illustrious dead, who have left examples of industry,
fortitude, and perseverance, in the paths of virtue,
“If Caesar wept before the statue of ALExANDER ; if
Burns felt the enthusiasm of a patriot possess his whole
soul in perusing the valiant deeds of WILLIAM WAL-
LACE; if the benevolence of the Catholic has been
kindled by the example of ST. VINCENT DE PAULE; if
the British sailor will for ages to come feel his heart
beat at the name of NELson; all this, and a thousan
times more, is owing to that most fascinating species
of History which is called Biography “.”
a Biography developes the efforts by which knowledge
and virtue have been acquired, and by whichi















vi PREFACE.
and vice have been exterminated; it shows by what
errors felicity has been lost and overlooked, and sorrow
and disgrace incurred. Man is certainly the most in-
teresting object to Man. This is the mirror by which
we adjust our moral dress, and learn to recognize our-
selves. But it is needless to enlarge in recommenda-
tion of a subject which has already the general voice
in its favour, against which not a single whisper has
been heard, nor the slightest token of disapprobation
perceived. .
While, however, little is required in recommendation
of a subject so important in itself, as Biography con-
fessedly is, yet it is highly requisite that the present
writer should give ample and satisfactory reasons to
the reading Public for offering to them “A New Uni-
versal Biography,” and that he should fully detail the
proposed advantages of the work.
The two principal advantages of this “ New Bio-
graphy,” will be found in the completeness of its refe-
rence, and the superiority of its arrangement. There
is no work in existence, The General Biographical
Dictionary of thirty-two volumes not excepted, but
what will very frequently disappoint the reader as a
work of general reference; many hundreds of names,
of frequent occurrence to his mind, he will search for
in vain. The present work will contain every name on
record of any importance; consequently it will be su-
perior in reference to any other Biographical collec-
tion. This will be a very considerable recommenda-
tion. A much greater advantage, however, will be
foundin the superiority of its arrangement. All other
General Biographies are arranged on the alphabetical
plan; a plan which labours under every possible dis-
advantage; and indeed its sole advantage consists in
convenience of reference; a mere petty accommoda-
tion, to which all chronology and classification are com-
subjects presented to the view are generally so oppo-
site, and so incongruous, that no reader, however pa-
tient, can long proceed in a continuous course of read-












PREFACE. vii
ing without experiencing displeasure and fatigue; and
even if he did continue it, such reading would be so
irregular and inconsequent, as to be altogether desti-
tute of any real benefit. The fetters of alphabetical
arrangement, applied to any subject, are always a
source of perplexity and embarrassment to the mind;
the stream of knowledge is constantly interrupted, the
line of thought is continually broken, subjects the most
intimate in their natural connexion, are frequently sepa-
rated by pages, and volumes; and there is nothing but
rent, division, and disorganization *. In this order of po-
sition, every article stands unconnected and isolated, no
part strengthens and illustrates another, and the whole
is in fact but one large index, a confused mass, an ab-
solute chaos of unconnected and heterogeneous parts
jumbled together, without system, without order,
without reason; and every succeeding edition of a
work on this plan completely destroys the preceding
one f. … -
To reduce these discordant materials to something
like order and harmony, is the grand object of this
“New Biography.” The advantage of reference will
be fully preserved by an ample index; so that every
defect of former works will be remedied, without risk-
ing a single advantage. In order to preserve the re-
ference from the alphabetical index as perfect as pos-
sible, every article is rendered complete in itself, the
same as in other General Biographies.
Upon this new plan, we perceive the different cha-
racters of renown seated, as it were, in the circle of
their friends, and illustrious contemporaries. We see
with whom they were capable of holding conversation,
and upon what terms they conversed. We learn what
* Alphabetical arrangement, in general, must shortly give way to a
more rational and philosophical disposal, and, in fact, a Dictionary of
the English Language is now publishing, by Mr. David Booth, in which
the words are placed in the order of their natural affinity, indepen-
dent of alphabetical arrangement, and accompanied with an Index for
convenience of consultation.
+ See the Review of Aikin's General Biography, in the Monthly
Review, for 1779, p. 241. ... . .33%

viii PREFACE.
advantages each person enjoyed from the labours and
discoveries of his predecessors; and of what use his
talents and labours were to his successors. The chro-
nological order of the various classes is generally fol-
lowed as nearly as it could be ascertained, but occasion-
ally a little departed from, whenever it was thought
necessary for keeping up a more regular connection of
facts, events, and relations. With respect to early
chronology, the best authorities have been consulted,
but the subject is so very difficult, and opinions so
various, that in many cases it is impossible to ap-
proach to certainty; we cannot exceed the bounds of
probability.
The characters usually denominated fabulous, are
incorporated in this collection, as whatever degree of
fable may be united with their histories, there is at
least as much evidence for the belief of the existence
of these personages as for the denial of it. The writer
does not intend to enter into a controversy on this
point; he leaves it to be settled by the critical histo-
rians; he has only to observe that he could not con-
sistently omit these characters in a work of Universal
Biography. They are, however, as much as possible,
stripped of their fabulous dress. 2.
Considerable difficulties will always occur in the
classing of the names of a Universal Biography; the
writer has attempted only a general classification; and
the rule observed, has been to place each character
in that class in which he appeared most eminent". No
doubt, a variety of subdivisions might be formed, and
many minute distinctions made, which the writer has
neglected; but he has preferred a general to a parti-
cular division on account of its simplicity, and as an-
swering every purpose he had in view. An extreme
minuteness would produce perplexity.
* An Index, however, to the subjects or classes, will refer the
reader to every individual who shone in more departments than one, to
each of these departments separately, which will tend in a great mea-
sure to obviate every objection that has been advanced against the
classification of biography,




PREFACE. ix.
The work is divided into convenient periods, and
the characters classed in each period, so that the pro-
gress of Government, Law, Philosophy, Science and
Inventions, Literature, Religion, History, Biography
and Antiquities, Geography, Travelling and Naviga-
tion, Music, Mathematics, Astronomy, Painting, Ar-
chitecture, Sculpture, Medicine, &c. &c. may be
distinctly traced, from the first of time, through every
succeeding age, to the present period of human ex-
istence.
It would be presumption, indeed deception, to pre-
tend that this would be a faultless work. Errors may
possibly be detected, and much improvement remain
to be effected, but as the writer has spared no pains
to accomplish his object, in whatever he has failed he
throws himself upon the candour of a discerning Pub-
lic *. One thing, however, he does presume, whatever
faults there may be in the present execution, which
is, that the plan of the work will meet with general
approbation, at least, it will be allowed to possess very
superior advantages over the common plan.
The compiler has consulted every biographical work
of importance, and he begs to make this general ac-
knowledgment to the Dictionaries of Bayle, Moreri,
Aikin, Chalmers, Lempriere, and Watkins; to Rees's
Cyclopaedia, the Encyclopaedias Britannica, Perthensis,
British, and Metropolitana; to the Female Biogra-
phies of Hays, Betham, and Pilkington; to the Dic-
tionaries of Painters, and of other professions, and to
various other works too numerous to mention.
The author's ambition was not, in this work, so
much to attain the reputation of an original writer, as
to communicate the most valuable information in the
most eligible form, therefore he has freely availed him-
self of the labours of his predecessors. He wishes it
to be well understood that the originality of the pre-
.* Two or three instances of slight repetitions in this volume, and of
characters a little misplaced, the reader must pardon; the writer is
happy that these instances are so few.


sent work is more in the plan, than in the substance.
Indeed in a work of this nature originality of matter
could not be expected. It is pertinently observed by
Mr. Chambers, that compilers of universal works
“seem exempted from the common laws of meum and
tuum ; they do not pretend to set up on their own foun-
dation, nor to treat you at their own cost. Their
works are supposed, in great measure, compositions of
other people, and what they take from others, they do
it avowedly, in the open sun. In effect, their quality
gives them a title to every thing that may be for their
purpose, wherever they find it, and if they extract they
do not do it any otherwise than as the bee does, for
the public service. Their occupation is not pillaging,
but collecting contributions; and if you ask them their
authority, they will produce you the practice of their
predecessors of all ages and nations.” .
It may be mentioned, that another object the writer
had in view, was that of producing a work on biogra-
phy as a medium in size and quantity, between the
more voluminous and the smaller Dictionaries. The
former are too heavy for general convenience, the
latter too light for general utility. This work, how-
ever, will be superior to any in point of reference. It
will contain about twenty thousand characters. No
other General Biography contains half the number.
In works of this kind, historical characters have been
frequently omitted, under the pretence of keeping up
a marked distinction between History and Biography;
but as the present writer is not convinced of the pro-
priety of such omissions, he has included all the histo-
rical characters of note in his collection. The histori-
cal introductions at the beginning of each period are
intended to assist the reader in forming a connected
view of the subject before him.
This work is divided into four serieses, forming four
distinct parts, in the following order:-1. From the
creation to Christ. 2. From the birth of Christ to the
Reformation. 3. From the commencement of the six-
teenth century to the close of the seventeenth. 4. From
5





PREFACE. xi
the commencement of the eighteenth century to the
present time. There is a separate Index to each se-
ries; and as the four distinct parts will form one com-
plete whole, there will be a general and complete Index
to the whole work. The Index to the names will be
followed by an Index to the subjects, or classes.
On the whole, the writer humbly hopes that this
“New Universal Biography,” will not disappoint the
expectations of the reader, and that it will be allowed
the merit of approaching to something like the cha-
racter of a scientific, useful, and entertaining history
of Man.
DoNcastER,
May 1, 1824,
PERIOD I.
FROM ADAM To No Ah.
[B. C. 4004.]
REMARKABLE FACTs, Events, AND Discoveries,
CONNECTED with BIOGRAPHY.
B. C. .
4004 The Creation of the World, and of Adam and Eve.
4003 The Birth of Cain. - …
3608 Tents invented by Jabal; musical instruments by Jubal, and metal-
lurgy by Tubal-Cain. :
3074 The Death of Adam.
3017 Enoch, for his piety, translated to Heaven.
THE transactions of men during this period are but little known, as
nothing is recorded of them but what is to be found in the first six
chapters of Genesis. It appears, however, that men were not at this
time in a savage state, as some ancient poets and historians have sup-
posed, for they had made some progress in the arts, had invented
music, and discovered the methods of working metals. They seem
to have lived all in one vast community, without any of those divi-
sions into different nations, which have since taken place, and which
evidently proceeded from the confusion of languages. The most
material part of their history however, is, that having once begun
to transgress the divine commands, they proceeded to greater and
greater length of wickedness, till at last the Deity thought proper
to send a flood on the earth, which destroyed all the human race,
except eight persons, viz. Noah and his family. ~
In the very early periods of the world, we shall not attempt a
particular classification, but a division will take place when men
*: to be more distinctly marked by different pursuits and pro-
6SS1011S,
;emitors of all mankind. They
d the pro-





2 UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. [B. C. 4003.
[. in the garden of Eden, where grew the tree of the
knowledge of good and evil, the fruit of which they were for-
bidden to taste, under the penalty of death. Eve, enticed by
a serpent, eat some of the prohibited fruit; Adam, through
the persuasion of Eve, did the same, and they both were driven
out of Eden. .
After their expulsion from Paradise, they had several chil-
dren; but of these the Scripture records the names only of
three; viz. Cain, Abel, and Seth. &
According to Blair, in his first chronological table, Adam
and Eve were created on Friday, October 28, before Christ,
4004; and Adam died 8074 before Christ, at the age of 930
years. The time of the death of Eve is not recorded in Scrip-
ture; but some have presumed to say, that she survived her
husband ten years. .
How long our first parents continued in Paradise before or
after their É.i. is a question, for the solution of which we have
no sufficient evidence, nor indeed are such questions of any real
importance. It is probable, that they were not removed to any
great distance, and that they found sufficient scope for their
attention and labour near the spot where they were first settled,
and from which they were excluded, according to the literal
acceptation of the Scripture history. The Scripture gives us
no information as to the place where Adam was buried. St.
Jerome inclines to the opinion of those who think, that he was
buried at Hebron, in the cave of Machpelah, afterwards bought
by Abraham for a burying-place. The eastern Christians say,
that he gave orders to have his body embalmed, and deposited
in a cave on the top of a mountain, which cave was called Al-
kenuz, from an Arabic word which signifies to lay up privately;
and it is alleged, that this order was given to prevent his pos-
terity from worshipping his relics. The primitive fathers gene-
rally believed, that he died in the place where Jerusalem was
afterwards built, and that he was interred on Mount Calvary,
on the spot where Christ was crucified; and where a chapel
was erected in honour of him.
The history of Adam and Eve, has left to their descendants
an awful example of the ruinous consequences attending a
wilful disobedience to the commands of the Great Creator.
In the first page of ancient writ we scan,
The varying traits which mark the life of man.
In vain we look for bliss, complete and sure;
Not Eden's blissful bow'rs could that secure.
CAIN, the eldest son of the progenitors of the human race,
Adam and Eve, was born towards the end of the first year of
rld, B.C. 4003. From the concise history of Cain that
hat he devoted himself
e world, B.C.





B. C. 2400.] FROM ADAM to Noah. 3.
to husbandry, and his brother Abel to the keeping of sheep;
that when they brought their respective offerings to God, that
of Abel was accepted, and that of Cain rejected; that this pre-
ference enraged Cain, exciting in his mind jealousy and envy
of his brother; and that the indulgence of these wicked pas-
sions at length terminated in the murder of his brother. As a
punishment of this atrocious crime, God condemned him to be
a fugitive and vagabond on earth. Nevertheless he set a mark
upon him, or gave him a sign, that none might take away his
life in his wanderings. Many ridiculous conjectures have been
made both by Jews and Christians concerning this mark. Some
have supposed that God stigmatized him with a brand in his
forehead, others, that he had a wild aspect and bloody eyes,
which rolled in a horrid manner. The fathers, in general, ap-
prehend, that he had a continual trembling of the body, so
that he could hardly get his food to his mouth, and this opinion
is favoured by the LXX*., which render “a fugitive and vaga-
bond,” lamenting and trembling. Others say, that wherever
he went the earth shook under him; others, again, intimate
that he had a horn growing out of his head, to warn people to
avoid him; and others have indulged him with the sign of the
cross. Le Clerc imagines, that God ordered him to wear some
distinguishing garment, perhaps of some glaring colour, as a
mark or sign upon him for his preservation. To these fanciful
conjectures we may add a more probable opinion of Dr. Shuck-
ford, who renders the words, from the Hebrew, “God gave
to Cain a sign,” or token, probably by some apparent miracle,
that he would providentially protect him; so that none that met
him should kill him. In this sense the word is used, when the
rainbow is called the sign, or token, of the covenant which God
made with Noah, assuring him that he would drown the world
In O more. .
Some writers think Cain did not intend to kill his brother,
Abel, but only to give him a severe beating. Death, except
that of the beasts sacrificed by Abel, was then scarcely known;
and the extent of suffering, which the human body could bear,
without producing death, was totally unknown. This supposi-
tion seems to be favoured by the punishment inflicted on Cain
by the Searcher of hearts; which was only banishment, a
punishment often inflicted since for man-slaughter.
Cain at length settled with his wife and family in the land of
Nod, on the east of Eden, where he built a city, calling it
after the name of his son, Enoch. But Josephus says, that
instead of being reformed by the punishment inflicted on him,
he became more wicked and violent, and headed a band of
thieves, whom he taught to acquire riches by oppression and
* LXx, means the septuagint, or Greek version of the old testament.











B 2 .
UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. [B.C. 3874.
ry. He is said to have corrupted and changed the sim-
olicity and honesty of the world, and to have invented weights
and measures. He was also the first who set bounds to the
fields, and who built and fortified a city, as noticed above.
ABEL, the second son of Adam and Eve, was born in the
second year of the world, B.C. 4002. He was a shepherd, and
offered to God the firstlings of his flock, and his sacrifice was
accepted; whilst that of Cain, his brother, was rejected. This
distinction exasperated Cain, so that he slew his brother.
Abel was the first martyr, although no religious respect is paid
;o his memory in the Greek churches, which have established
feasts for every other patriarch and prophet, and his name does
not occur in any one of the Roman martyrologies before the
tenth century; he, as well as other saints, is made the object
of worship in several Roman litanies, designed for persons at
the point of death. Some calendars commemorate him on the
25th of March; others on the 2nd of January; and others on
the 30th of July. Among the Ethiopians he is honoured
on the 28th of December. The poem, entitled “The Death
of Abel,” written in German by Gesner, and translated into
various languages, has been much admired. . . . . .
ENOCH, the son of Cain. The first city taken notice of
in Scripture, derived its name from him. w
AD, the son of Enoch, and grandson of Cain. Gen. iv. 18.
CHUJAEL, son of Irad, of the race of Cain. Gen. iv. 18.
IUSAEL, son of Mehujael, of the race of Cain.
sº LAMECH, the son of Methusael, of the race of Cain. He
married two wives Adah and Zillah, and is supposed to have
introduced polygamy.
JABAL, son of Lamech and Adah, was father of those who
dwell in tents, and of shepherds, Gen. iv. 20. that is, he was
institutor of those, who like the Arab Bedoweens, live under
tents, and are shepherds.
TUBAL-CAIN, the son of Lamech and Zillah, was the
first metallurgist of whom we have any authentic record. The
Scripture informs us, that he was the father and inventor, or
not very ren
§
erceive the great
fjoy, and dispeller
, a son of Adam, to whom he seems,
3. to have had a very striking
body and mind. By some writers he is ei
hird son of Adam,” which is totally in
% %
3. | $


















































B. c.3382.] FROM ADAM to Noah.
130 years old when Seth was born, and it is extremely impro-
bable, that, after the divine blessing, “increase and multiply,”
Eve should have remained infertile for 126 years, the shortest
period we can estimate from the birth of her second son Abel.
Besides it is contrary to fact; for the first murderer in his
reply to his divine judge, after his sentence, expresses his fears
that “every one that findeth him should slay him,” chap. iv. 14.
which clearly proves, that the world was become considerably
|. before the birth of Seth. By Mr. Whiston's calcu-
ation the descendants of Adam and Eve amounted at the birth of
Seth to above 4000 persons. From all that is said before the
birth of Seth, in Gen. iv. 25. and v. 3., we can only infer, that
Seth was the first son born by Eve after the murder of Abel.
Had Seth been only the third son of Adam, there would have
been no occasion for setting a mark upon Cain, to prevent
others from avenging Abel's death. Seth was the second of
the antediluvian patriarchs, and the father of Enos. Chrono-
logists place his birth in the year B.C. 3874. He lived 912
years. Some writers have asserted he was a great astronomer.
ENOS, the son of Seth, and father of Caiman, was born
B. C. 3769. Moses informs us, Gen. iv. 26. that then “men
began to call upon the name of the Lord,” or, as others trans-
late it, that “Enos began to call upon the name of the Lord;”
or was the inventor of religious rites and ceremonies in the ex-
termal worship. This worship was kept up and preserved in
Enos's family, while Cain's family was plunged in all kinds of
immorality and impiety. Several Jews are of opinion, that
idolatry was first introduced into the world in the time of Enos.
They translate the Hebrew thus, “then men began to profane
the name of the Lord.” Good men, to distinguish themselves
from the wicked, began to take upon them the quality of sons
or servants of God, for which reason, Moses (Gen. vi. 1, 2.)
says, that the sons of God, that is to say the sons of Enos, who
had hitherto preserved the true religion, seeing the daughters
of men, that they were fair, took them wives of all which they
chose. Enos died at the age of 905; B.C. 2864.
CAINAN, the son of Enos, was born B. C. 3679, was the
father of Mahalaleel in 395, and died B. C. 2769; aged 910.
. MAHALALEEL, son of Cainan, and father of Jared. He
lived to the age of eight hundred and sixty-five years, and died
B.C. 27.10. The Orientals assert that this patriarch was one
of the first that undertook to dig mines in the earth, for the
discovery of veins of metals concealed therein; and that he
built houses. They also impute to him the first founding of
the cities Shuster and Babel.
JARED, the son of Mahalaleel. He became the father of
Enoch at the age of one hundred and sixty-two years, and died
in his nine hundred and sixty 3en. v. 18, 19.
y-second year.


















[B. C. 3180.
OCH, the son of Jared, and father of Methuselah, was
. B.C. 3382. Eminently distinguished by his
piety and virtue in a corrupt age, he was translated to heaven
in the 365th year of his age, without undergoing the pains of
dissolution. An apocryphal book, entitled “The Book of the
Prophecies of Enoch,” has been ascribed to this celebrated
antediluvian, and is quoted, as some say, by Jude, in his Epis-
tle, and more certainly by Irenaeus, Clement of Alexandria, and
other ancient fathers. #. the book was probably forged in
e second century. The Mahometans mention Enoch under
the appellation of Edriss, or Idriss, and record many fables
concerning him, which it is needless to mention. .
METHUSELAH, son of Enoch, was born B. C. 3317,
became the father of Lamech, B.C. 3230; and died B.C.2348,
aged nine hundred and sixty-nine years: the greatest age ob-
tained by any mortal man. The rabbins pretend that M.
selah was a very learned man; that he was an hundred years
at the school of his father Enoch, that he wrote several works,
and pronounced to the number of three hundred and thirty
proverbs, or parables.
LAMECH, son of Methuselah, and father of Noah, was an
hundred and eighty-two years old at the birth of Noah; and he
lived after that event five hundred and ninety-five years. His
whole life was seven hundred and seventy-seven years, being
º
born in the year of the world 874, and dying in 1651.




















PERIOD II.
FROM No.AH. To ABRAHAM.
[B.C. 2948.]
REMARKABLE FACTs, Events, AND Discoveries.
2349. The old world destroyed by a Deluge which continued 377 days,
2247 The Tower of Babel built by Noah's posterity, their language con-
< . founded, and the people dispersed into different nations. §§
3237 About this time, Noah is supposed to have left his rebellious off-
spring, and to have led a colony of the more tractable into the
East, where he or one of his successors founded the Chinese
. monarchy. . . . º º º
2234 The celestial observations begun at Babylon, where learning and
the sciences first had their rise. . &
2188 Misraim, the son of Ham, founds the kingdom of Egypt, which
. º: 1663 years. About the same time Nimrod founds that of
. abylon. * a º
2059 Ninus, the son of Belus, founds the kingdom of Assyria, which
lasted above 1000 years. .
. For the history of men during this period, we are almost as much
indebted to the Scriptures as for that of the first. Some time after
the flood, we are informed, that the whole, or the greater part of the
human race were assembled in Babylonia, where they erected a tower,
with the absurd and impious intention of ascending to heaven. The
Deity punished them by confounding their language, whence the di-
vision of mankind into different nations. . º
In this period we have placed one character under the head of Phi-
losophy and Literature, but his period is doubtful. N.
... NOAH, a patriarch and prophet, son of Lamech, was born
in the year B.C. 2948. In his days a general corruption of
manners prevailed among the human race, but he had the for-
titude to preserve himself uncontaminated by the evil examples
which surrounded him, and secured to himself the divine appro-
bation by his piety and other exemplary virtues. He undertook
the office of a public preacher of righteousness, and endea-
voured, by his exhortations and admonitions, to reform the
morals of his contemporaries, and to restore true religion among
* them. His efforts were of no avail, and people sunk
deeper under the dominion of vice, they we arinar %











ERs AL Biography. [B.C. 2448.
struction by a universal deluge, from the effects of whic
and his family were saved, by being directed to build an ark, or
vessel, which should float on the waters, and thus preserve all
those who were admitted into it. This tremendous ruin, re-
corded in the Old Testament, and evidently referred to in va-
rious fabulous authors, took place in the year B.C. 2349, when
Noah was six hundred years old. After this Noah lived till
the year B.C. 1998, and the 950th year of his age. See the
B if Genesis, chap. v.–ix. for various other particulars
relating to Noah and his family. x- .
FOHI, the first Chinese monarch, who is said to have
founded that kingdom about 200 years after the deluge. To
him the Chinese are indebted for musical instruments, a code
#... }
of laws, and the regulation of marriages. He is generally con-
*
sidered to be the same as the Scripture Noah.
JAPHETH, the eldest son of Noah, was born in the 500th
year of this patriarch, and had seven sons, Gomer, Magog,
Madai, Javan, Tubal, Meshech, and Tiras, who “peopled the
isles of the Gentiles, and settled in different countries, each ac-
cording to his language, family, and people.” Gen. x. 5. By
the “isles of the Gentiles,” the Hebrews understood the isles
of the Mediterranean, and other countries whither they could
go by sea only, as Spain, Gaul, Italy, Greece, and Asia Minor.
From the LXX., Eusebius, the Åiº Chronicle, and
Austin, we learn that Japheth had an eighth son called Eliza.
The portion of Japheth was Europe and part of Asia, whose
descendants possessed all Europe, all the islands in the Medi-
terranean, the whole of Asia Minor, and the northern parts of
Asia. Noah, in his benediction of Japheth, prophesies con-
cerning him, Gen. ix. 27. “God shall enlarge Japheth; and
he shall dwell in the tents of Shem; and Canaan shall be his
servant.” This prediction was accomplished when the Greeks
and Romans, who were descendants of Japheth, not only sub-
dued Syrian Palestine, but also pursued and conquered such
of the Canaanites as were any where remaining, as the Tyrians
and Carthaginians, the former of whom were received by Alex-
ander and the Grecians, and the latter by Scipio and the Ro-
mans. In the original of the prediction, “God shall enlarge
heth,” there is a manifest allusion to his name, which sig-
enlargement. This was fulfilled both with regard to the
nd children of Japheth. Th º itories of Japheth's
g



























ºnly four, and shem only five ""
In prophane authors Japheth is known unde
“Japetus,” who is made by the poets father c
º
earth; whose habitation was in
celebrated for his power and violen º 3: " ... ... :;
SHEM, or SEM, the second son of Noah, born about B. C.
2444. His filial piety and modesty, in endeavouring, along
with his elder brother Japheth, to conceal the effects of the only
act of folly which the excellent old patriarch had fallen into,
and which their brother Ham, with probably his son Canaan,
had made a subject of ridicule, are recorded in Gen. ix. 23.
together with the remarkable benediction pronounced upon
them, in consequence, and the dreadful woe upon Ham's pos-
terity, the effects of which continue even to the present period.
The posterity of Shem by his five sons, Elam, Ashur, Arphax-
ad, Lud, and Aram, peopled most of the south part of
Asia and the adjacent islands, and gave rise to the kingdoms
of Persia, Assyria, Phoenicia, Lydia, Syria, &c. In that
branch of it from which the Hebrews descended, from Heber,
the grandson of Arphaxad, the true church, and the true
knowledge of the true God were continued for about 2000
years, till the coming of Jesus Christ, by the promulgation of
whose glorious Gospel among the Gentiles, the prophecy re-
specting the posterity of Japheth, was completely fulfilled.
HAM, the younger son of Noah, who having indecently
exposed the nakedness of his father, was execrated by the
patriarch in the line of Canaan and his posterity. In conse-
& ly conject
hessaly, where
- … " ame slaves, and the colour of thei e.l.
suddenly rendered bla * * : * *
- black, and accordingly they main
all the blacks have descended from Ham and Canaan.
of whom
osterity. -
age is T
it is
by his p












































may, Africa is called the Land
23. cvi. 22. In Plutarch 9
Ham, in Psalm lxxviii. 54.
gypt is called Chemia; and
. w Ham or Cham, Psachemmis,
and Psitta-chemmis, which are cantons of Egypt.
* GOMER, son of Japheth, Gen. x. 2, was father to the people
of Galatia, according to Josephus. The ancient inhabitants of
that country were called Gomares, before the Galatians seized
haldee places Gomer in Africa; Bochart, in Phrygia.
it. The C
It would seem, that the ancient Cimbri, or Cymmerians, and pro-
bably the Welch or Cymri, sprung from Gomer. Michaelis
approves of Bochart's placing the Gomerians in Phrygia. The
p º is, that Gomer received his possession in the regions
north of the Danube; that from hence he spread abroad to the
west, till Germany, France, and Britain, were peopled by him;
and that his posterity still continue marked, if not distinct, in
the ancient Britons now resident in Wales. The Gomerites
might also make excursions east, and crossing the Black Sea,
might colonize Pontus, so that the Galatians were possibly a
branch of Gomer, notwithstanding their distance of time and
place from the main stem. The ancient Britons consider them-
selves as having emigrated from the Crimea, and by that route
from the east. This would be an interesting inquiry, did we not
know that our country has been successively overrun by other
nations; and that the Romans, the Saxons, and the Normans,
ave intermingled themselves so greatly throughout England,
that not a trace, of the early original remains. In Wales the
mountains have afforded means of preserving a purer descent;
some individuals can derive jº pedigree from remote
ty, with great appearance of probability.
SAL, son of Japheth. The Scripture commonly joins
Tubal and Meshech, which makes it thought that they
and I
iogether Tubal and M . º
peopled countries bordering on each other. The Chaldee .
eters, by Tubal and Meshech understand Italy and Asia,
er Ansonio. Josephus thinks Iberia and Cappadocia.
. ihat Tubal represents the Spaniards, heretofore
* , Bochart is very copious to prove, that by
bal are intended the Muscovites and the Tiba-
_** : H am. The sons
mah, Sabtecha, and
* * w of



































































tuhim, Pathusim, and Cashul im, (Gen. x, 6–
13.)
supposed to have been the same with Menes, the KIII
of Egypt, of whom profane history gives the following ac-
count. .
MENES, the founder of the Egyptian empire, was born at
This, a town of Thebais, in Upper Egypt. He built the town
of Memphis, and in the prosecution of his work stopped th
course of the Nile near it, by constructing a causeway several
miles broad, and causing it to run through the mountains.
For his ability and popularity he was deified after his death.
He had three sons, who lived after him, viz. Athoses, who
ruled at This and Thebes; Curudes, who founded the kingdom
of Heliopolis, afterwards the kingdom of Diospoli; and Nec-
teropoles, who reigned at Memphis. . . . . .
PHUT, or º son of Ham. Gen. x. 6. Calmet is of
opinion, that Phut peopled either the canton of PHTEMPHU,
Phtemphuti, or Phtembuti, set down in Pliny and Ptolemy,
whose capital was Tharia in Lower Egypt, inclining towards
Lybia; or the canton called Phtenotes, of which Buthus was
the capital. § 3. . ; ; : * : * * * ,
w AºEK, son of Ham, and grandson of Noah, according
to the Arabians, the probable progenitor of the Amalekites, and
the father of Ad, a celebrated Arabian prince, the progenitor of
the Arabian tribe called Adites, and the grandfather of Schedad
CANAAN, son of Ham. The irreverence of Ham towards
his father Noah is recorded in Gen. ix. The woe denounced by
the patriarch, not against Ham the immediate transgressor, but
against his son Canaan, has occasioned various conjectures.
Some think Moses's chief intent in recording this prediction was
to raise the spirits of the Israelites, then entering on a terrible
war with the children of Canaan, by the insurance that, in con-
sequence of the woe, that people were destined by God to be
Oſł to Jº
subdued by them. For the opinion of those, who imagine al
Ham's race were here execrated, is not only repugnant to th
blain words of Scripture, but is also contrary to fact. Indeed
the prophecy of Noah, that Canaan “should be a servant of
servants to his brethren,” seems to have been wholly completed
in his descendants. It was completed with regard to Shem, no
9nly in that a considerable time part of the seven nations of the























Biography.” [B.c. 2316.
letion of the prophecy, in the successive conquests of the
ks and Romans in Palestine and Phoenicia, where the
re settled; but especially in the total subversion
aginian power by the Romans, besides some inva-
northern nations, as the posterity of Thogarma and
lerein many of them, probably, were carried away
. osterity of Canaan were very numerous. His
n was Sidon, who at least founded and peopled the city
, and was the father of the Sidonians and Phoenicians.
had besides ten sons, who were the fathers of so many
, dwelling in Palestine, and in part of Syria, namely, the
Hittites, the Jebusites, the Amorites, M. Girgasites, the Hivites,
he Arkites, the Sinites, the Arvadites, the Semarites, and
the Hamathites.
ELAM, one of the sons of Shem, and grandson of Noah,
who is supposed to have settled in the southern tract beyond
the Tigris or Euphrates. This is inferred not only from the
authority of Scripture, in which the inhabitants of the said tract
are plainly and frequently denoted by the name of Elam; but
also from the testimony of heathen writers, who mention a
CO
untry in this tract called Elymias, and a city of the same
!. The name Elam, however, is sometimes taken in a
cter sense, as when it is distinguished from Susiana and the
adjoining provinces, and sometimes in a larger sense, so as to
include Susiana and other adjacent provinces. Hence Pliny and
Ptolemy mention the Elymaei, as a people inhabiting on the
Persian gulf; and hence the prophet Daniel speaks of Shushan,
the chief city of Susiana, as lying in the province of Elam,
Dan. viii. 2. The Elamites were a warlike people, living by
rapine, and fighting with bows and arrows, Isa. xxii. 6. Jer. xlix.
35. and they were joined to Susia, as Strabo says, and there
an ingress to them from Persia, and the Susians and Elamites
mentioned apart. . . . . . . . . . .”. . . ;
JR, son of Shem, and progenitor of the Assyrians.
M, son of Shem, father of the Aramites, the founder of
*HAXAD, son of Shem and father of Salah, was born
f 438. Gen. xi. 12, &c. I iſ a
AH, son of Cush, Gen. x. 7, peopled, according to
he country where the Tigris and Euphrates reunite
e themsel the Persian gulf. Th
















































B.C. 2346.]
phrast on Chronicles, understand India. Jonathan says, that
th
“the name of the first river is Phison, which environs the whole
land of India, where there is gold, and the gold of that land is
excellent,” by which some think to be intended India at the head
of the Indus, and not the present Hindoostan.
RAAMAH, son of Cush, peopled the country of
whence they brought to Tyre, spices, precious stones, and gol
Calmet thinks this country to have been in Arabia Felix, at th
entrance into the Persian gulph, Gen. x. 7; Ezek. xxvii. 22.
A late writer observes “the greatest probability is that it is
Reama, in Arabia Felix, which is described by Barthema as a
place of considerable trade; and, as Ezekiel characterises
Raamah as dealing with Tyre, this seems to coincide. Niebuhr
places Rema in N. lat. 15+ not far from Sanaa, and this further
corroborates the conjecture that here we may place Raamah,
says Michaelis.” . tº
MIDIAN, was probably the son of Cush, since Zipporah the
wife of Moses, who was a Midianite, was nevertheless a Cushite,
Numb. xii. 1; and since Habakkuk iii. 7. associates the Mi-
dianites with the Cushites, as if they were synonymous, or at
least neighbours. This Midian peopled the country of Midian,
east of the Red Sea. Into this country Moses withdrew, and
there married Zipporah, the daughter of Jethro, Ex. ii. 15, &c.
It was these Midianites who trembled for fear, when they heard
the Hebrews had passed by the Red Sea, Hab. iii. 7. Abulfeda,
speaking of the city of Midian, says “Madyan is a city, in ruins,
on the shore of the Red Sea, on the side opposite to Tabuc,
from which it is distant about six days’ journey. At Midian may
be seen the famous well, where Moses watered the flocks of
Schoaib, for thus the Mahometans call Jethro. This city was
the capital of the tribe of Midian among the Israelites. Ac-
cording to Ibusaid, the bay of the Red Sea in this plac
about one hundred thousand paces wide.” Tº
It should seem as if the Orientals knew no other Midianites
than those on the shore of the Red Sea, near Mount Sinai,
among whom Moses took refuge. . . . )
- ASHKENAZ, the eldest son of Gomer, and grandson of
Japheth; said to have been the progenitor of the Germans and
. .# .
"ºn
| RIPHAT, or RIPHATH, son of Gomer, and g
ºf ix. 3. In most copies he is called I
was p
*
i.6. The learned are not agreed about the coun
is peopled by the descendants of Riphath. The m
vailing opinion is, that he peopled the Montes Riphaei;
*
R, was the son of Jok




























t. Calmet thinks Mesha to be
sius in Mesopotamia; and Sephar the country of the
Sephal s, or Saspires, which divided Media from Colchis.
The Scripture does not acquaint us who were the descendants
of Ophir, nor what particular province was peopled by him be-
tween Mesha and Sephar; but it cannot be doubted that the
country of Ophir, whatever country that was, was peopled by
the posterity of Ophir, son of Joktan. . . º
SALAH, the son of Arphaxad, and father of Eber. He
died aged 433 years. (Gen. xi. 12, &c.) A town near Susa,
alled Sala, or Sela, is supposed to be named from him. .
HEBER, or EBER, the son of Salah, great grandson of
Shem, and father of Peleg, from whom the Hebrews derived
their name, according to Josephus, Eusebius, Jerome, Bede,
and most of the interpreters of the sacred writings: but Huet
has attempted to prove, that the Hebrews took their name from
the word Heber, which signifies beyond, because they came
from beyond the Euphrates. Heber lived 464 years, and is
supposed to have been born, B.C. 2281. .
PELEG, son of Eber, was born in B. C. 2247. He was
her of Abraham. He was born about the time of the division
SERUG, was son of Reu, and father of Nahor, Gen. xi.
20–22. 1 Chron. i. 26. It is said that Serug was the first after
the deluge that began to worship creatures. He thought he
might adore the images of men, who had distinguished them-
selves by their virtues, and by their good deeds performed for
mankind. This introduced the j. of the dead, and by
consequence, idolatry and polytheism. “From him, Bochart
conjectures that the town of Sarug was named, which was near
Charrae, in Mesopotamia.” . .
ANAMIM, son of Mizraim, Gen. x. 13. Anamim, if we
ay credit the paraphrast Jonathan, the son of Uzziel, peopled
he Mareotis; or . Pentapolis of Cyrene, according to the
st of Jerusalem. . N.
TUHIM, son of Mizraim, and grandson of Ham.
, 13. Calmet thinks his posterity peopled that part of
sia in Africa, between Syrene and Merce, of which Ne-
as the capital; but the opinion of Bochart seems more
, that they peopled Marmarica, west of Egypt, on the
coast of the Mediterranean; where a temple was built to
ld Aptuchus, a name nearly resembling Naphtuhim.
















































the Greeks, who was originally a Lybian, a
his temples
NIMROD, son of Cush. Sacred history informs us, that
“Nimrod began to be a mighty one in the earth;” that he was
a “mighty hunter before the Lord,” even to a proverb; and
“the beginning of his kingdom was Babel, and Enech, and
Accad, and Calneh, in the land of Shinar.” He was probably
a great benefactor to mankind, in following the labours of the
chase, and extirpating wild beasts. It is generally understood
that he grasped at empire, and obtained it. It would seem that
he took the lead of a company in his amusement; this would
give him the habit of commanding, and fit him to be a ruler over
men. It has been thought by some that he projected the
building of Babel, which is not inconsistent with his character.
Nimrod is most probably the Belus of prophane history, who
is supposed to be the same with the Phoenician Baal. See the
following article.
BELUS, in prophane history said to be the founder of the
Babylonian empire; and is most probably the Nimrod of Scrip-
ture, and the Baal of Phoenicia. After his death he was dei-
fied. A temple was erected to him in the city of Babylon, on
the uppermost range of the famous tower of Babel, wherein
were many statues of this deity; and one, in particular, of
massy gold, forty feet high. The whole furniture of this mag-
nificent temple was of the same metal, and valued at 800 talents
of gold. This temple, with its riches, existed till the time of
Xerxes, who, returning from his unfortunate expedition into
Greece, demolished it, and carried off the immense wealth
it contained. It was the statue of this god which Nebuchad-
nezzar, on his return to Babylon, after the end of the Jewish
war, set up and dedicated in the plain of Dura; the history of
which is related at large by Daniel, chap. iii.
usually built on the sea coasts.
NINUS, the founder of the Assyrian empire, was the son of
Belus. He was of a very martial and ambitious disposition, and
is said to have trained up a vast number of his subjects to the use
of arms, and having made an alliance with Arieus, king
Arabians, he marched into the district of Babylonia, the capi-
tal of that name not having yet been founded, and easily sub-
dued it... He then invaded Armenia, the king of which, on
making his submission, he left upon the throne as his vassal.
He next overthrew and put to death the King of Media, and
placing a confidential government over that country, he pro-
ceeded to the conquest of the rest of Asia, all of which excep
Bagtria and India, he reduced under his dominion. Returning
to Assyria, he founded the mighty city of Nineveh. He a
w ook º the field for the pu pose º of conquering Bactri
before resisted his arms, and the troops which he mustered on
this occasion are stated at nearly two millions. He defeated
*
















{B. c.2247.
it made little progress in
n
§ 5 § .33%
1 was seated, e
ntered it, lar
º
red her valour, was afterwards captivated with
throne, and she brought him a son named Ninyas. He
'Semiramis see the next article.
RAMIS, a celebrated queen of Assyria. She became
Menones, the governor of Nineveh, and accom-
to the siege of Bactria; where by her advice and
ń directions, she hastened the king's operations, and
ook the city. These eminent services, together with her un-
:ommon beauty
brought back immense spoils from Bactria. For a more par-
ticular account * . . . . . . . .
vvananasv auty, endeared her to Ninus. The monarch asked
her of her husband, and offered him his daughter Sosana in
er stead; but Menones, who tenderly loved Semiramis, re-
when Ninus had added threats to entreaties, he
himself. No sooner was Menones dead, than Semira-
who was of an aspiring mind, married Ninus, and became
nother of Ninyas. Ninus was so partial to Semiramis, that
er request he resigned the crown, and commanded her to
roclaimed queen and sole empress of Assyria. Of this, how-
he had reason to repent; Semiramis put him to death, to
herself on the throne; and when she had no enemies
home, she §. to repair the capital of her empire,
means Babylon became the most superb and mag-
city in the world. She visited every part of her do-
is, and left every where immortal monuments of her
ess. To render the roads passable and communication
hollowed mountains, and filled up valleys, and water
ed at a great expence, by lar fe and convenient aque-
'en deserts and unfruitful plains.
her ste
warrior. Manvrº

























































B.C. 2247.] FROM NOAH TO ABRAHAM. 17
NINYAS, the son of Ninus and Semiramis, and successor
of the latter in the kingdom of Assyria, whom he is said to
have put to death for her incestuous attachment to him. Little
is recorded of his reign, but that he entrusted the care of his
government to his favourites, and began that inglorious course
of luxury and effeminacy, which, being pursued by his suc-
cessors with increasing folly and extravagance, ended in the
ruin of the empire under Sardanapalus. × s sº º
NAHOR, the son of Serug, and grandfather of Abraham,
was the shortest lived of the patriarchs before Abraham, hav-
ing lived only 119 years. … ---, -}.
TERAH, a patriarch, the son of Nahor, and the father of
Abraham. He is said to have been a statuary.
HARAN, eldest son of Terah, and brother to Abraham
and Nahor. Haran was father of Lot, Milcah, and Iscah.
Nahor married Milcah; and Abraham, according to several
interpreters, married Sarah, otherwise called Iscah; but this
second name of Sarah is very dubious. Haran died before his
father Terah; a circumstance which had not occurred among
mankind till this time. Epiphanius says, that Haran was
smitten by God as a punishment to his father Terah, who had
invented the figures of new gods. The rabbins tell us, that
Haran was accused by Terah for refusing to adore the deity
fire, and was condemned to be cast into a burning furnace,
where he was consumed in the presence of his father. Others
say, that Abraham having set fire to the place where Terah's
idols were, Haran attempted to rescue them from the flames,
and was consumed. : x
NAHOR, the son of Terah, grandson of Nahor, son of Serug,
and brother of Abraham. He resided at Haran, called also
Nahor, in Mesopotamia, and married Milcah, his niece, who
bore him eight sons; viz. Huz, or Uz, the progenitor of the
Uzites, or Auzites, who inhabited the land ..} Uz, on the west
side of the Euphrates, where Job dwelt. Buz, the ancestor of
the Buzites, from whom Elihu was descended. Kemuel, the
father of the Kemelites and of the Arameans or Syrians.
Chesed, the father of a tribe of Chaldeans. Hazo, the ancestor
of the Hazoys, Huzeans, or Chosseans, in Chusistan, in Persia.
Pildash, whom Dr. Hyde makes the ancestor of the Persians.
Jidlaph, and Bethu !" the father of Laban and Rebekah.
or had also other four sons by his concubine Reumah.
Gen. xi. xxii. º 21–24.
CHINE NOUNG
|, emperor of China. He is said to have
his su

















2001.
AEGIALUS, a man who founded the kingdom of Sicyon
C. 2091, and reigned 52 years.
EUROPS, a king of Sicyon, son of Ægialeus, who died
before Christ 1993. % - 3 & # , , ,
BUSIRIS, king of Egypt, built the famous city of Thebes,
and made it the seat of his empire. He lived sometime after
OSYMANDYAS, king of Egypt. Diodorus gives a very
particular description of many magnificent edifices, raised by
this king, one of which adorned with sculptures and paintings
of exquisite beauty, represented his expedition against the
Bactrians, a people of Asia whom he had invaded with four
hundred thousand foot, and twenty thousand horse. In another
part of the edifice, was exhibited an assembly of judges, whose
president wore, on his breast, a picture of truth with her eyes
shut; and himself surrounded with books; an emphatic emblem,
denoting that judges ought to be perfectly versed in the laws,
and impartial in the administration of them. . .
The king likewise was painted here, offering to the gods gold
and silver, which he drew every year from the mines of Egypt,
amounting to the sum of sixteen millions.
Not far from hence, was seen a magnificent library, the oldest
which is mentioned in history. Its title or inscription on the
front was, The Office, or Treasury for the Diseases of the Soul.
Near it were statues, representing all the Egyptian gods, to each
of whom the king made suitable offerings; by which he seemed
to be desirous of informing posterity, that his life and reign had
been crowned with piety to the gods, and justice to men.
His mausoleum discovered an uncommon magnificence; it was
encompassed with a circle of gold, a cubit in breadth, and 365
cubits in circumference. Each of which showed the rising and
setting of the sun, moon, and the rest of the planets. For so
ancient as this king's reign, the Egyptians divided the year
into twelve months, each consisting of thirty days; to which
they added every year, five days and six hours. The spectator
did not know which to admire most in this stately monument,
the richness of its materials, or the genius and industry of the
artists and workmen. * : * * * * * *
UCHOREUS, one of the successors of Osymandyas. He
enlarged the town of Memphis into a city. †. city was 150
furlongs, or more than seven leagues in circuit, and stood at the
point of the Delta, in that part where the Nile divides itself into
al branches or streams. Southward from the city, he
a very high mole. On the right and left he dug very
e the river. These were faced wi
ity, by Strong he whole
he city from the inu



























B.C. 2091.] From NoAh To ABRAHAM. 19
MOERIS, king of Egypt, who made the famous lake, which
went by his name.
PHILOSOPHY, AND LITE RATURE.
PILPAY, or BIDPAY, an Oriental philosopher, who is
said to have lived about 2000 years before the Christian era.
He was counsellor and vizier to an ancient king of India, for
whose use he composed his famous apologues. These apologues
are in the form of dialogues between two animals of a species
very like the European fox. The fame of this work having
reached Persia, Chosroes the king of that country is said to have
sent his physician into India for the sole purpose of procuring a
copy of it. This physician, being permitted to peruse it in the
library of the Indian king, translated it into the ancient Persian,
and gave it the title of the Royal or August Book. This work
has been translated into most of the modern languages. Some
have thought the work bears the impression of a more modern
date than is ascribed to the author. This we cannot decide.



PERIOD III.
from ABRAHAM to Moses.
[B. c. 2000]
REMARKABLE FACTs, events, AND Discoveries.
1921 Abraham leaves Haran to go into Canaan, which begins the so-
journing of 430 years. About this time Hermes is supposed to
have flourished.
1856 Inachus founds the kingdom of Argos in Greece.
1796. The Deluge of Ogyges in Attica. .”
1635 The death of Joseph, prime minister of Egypt.
It appears, that about this period several kingdoms were founded
in different parts of the world; and which were great or small accord-
ing to circumstances. The Scripture mentions the kings of Egypt,
Gerar, Sodom, Gomorrah, &c. in the time of Abraham. The kings
in Scripture, however, were little more than the chiefs of tribes.
In reference to prophane history, it is necessary to observe, that the
early annals of all countries are intermixed with fables. In fact, the
first historians were universally poets, whose metaphors and amplifi-
cations, and allegories, necessarily observed facts, or heightened them
beyond the standard of probability. But, however rude may be the
style of ancient chronicles, or however simple and puerile the obser-
vations with which they may be interspersed, they must not be re-
}. We must endeavour as much as possible to separate fact from
In this period we have a slight notice of philosophy, literature, and
SC1611Ce.
#
ABRAHAM, at first named ABRAM, the founder of the
Hebrew nation, was born at Ur, a city of Chaldea, about two
thousand years before Christ. .
Among the characters which history has transmitted to us
with peculiar honour, is that of the patriarch Abraham. It
ppears from the testimonies of many ancient writers, preserved
Josephus and Eusebius, that the fame of his wisdom and
tue spread far and wide among the nations of the earth. H
is mentioned by Justin, as king of Damascus, and the ancestor
rael. The Arabians, among whom he is celebrated, boast
ir descent from him by Ishmael. The Indians challenged













B.C. 2000.] FROM ABRAHAM to Moses. 21
him for the author and founder of their religion, and gave
their philosophers, from him, the name of Brahmans, or Bra-
hamans. History informs us of his conversing on the subject
of religion with the most learned Egyptians, and being very
highly esteemed by them. His name was held in the greatest
veneration all over the East. The Magians, Sabians, and
Persians, all gloried in him, as the great reformer of their
religion. The memory of him was retained among the Lace-
daemonians for above six hundred years; and under their king
Areus, they claimed kindred from the Jews, as being of the
stock of Abraham. The Persians, it has been observed, ad-
hered so strictly to the religion of Abraham, as for a long
time to kee jº. of the most gross idolatries. His repu-
tation is . so great among the Turks, that they daily in
their public liturgy, pray God to be propitious to Mohammed
and his family, as he was to Abraham and his. The memoirs
of him which the book of Genesis furnishes, are monuments
of his singular virtues, and of the distinction in which he was
held by the neighbouring princes of his day. The character
drawn of him by Josephus exhibits a striking representation
of his excellencies, reputation, and influence. “Abraham,”
saith he, “was a man equally wise and eloquent, of a piercing
judgment, and a universal knowledge. He had the reputation
of an understanding beyond other men; and as he wanted no
skill, so he had courage also to attack the most daring iniquities
of the times; by dint of authority, as well as of reason, to tear
up false opinions in religion by the roots, and to terrify wicked
men into the love and fear of that God they had despised."
This just fame which attaches to the name of Abraham,
arose from the peculiar part which he was called to act by the
providence of God, and from the peculiar favours which his
singular virtues and piety secured to himself and to his posterity,
This illustrious patriarch was a blessing to the farthest cor-
ners of the world, and to the end of time; as from him, in
due season, came the Messiah, in whom all the nations of the
earth were blessed. He was the great ancestor of Jesus, the
light of the world, the Saviour of mankind. The call of the
patriarch, the separation of his posterity from the nations of
the earth, the grant of the land of Canaan to them, and the
succession of generations from their illustrious ancestor, were
all subservient to the appearance of Jesus, the Christ, “a
t tº lighten the Gentiles, and the glory of the peopl
º iculars of the life of
the first book of the Hebrew Sc













sommand of the Lord, who promised that he should be
#
3. father of a great nation, with his wife Sarah, and his
w Lot, removed from Haran, and, traversing a part of
he land of Canaan, took a temporary station at Sichem, where
he erected an altar to the Lord. He was soon obliged by a
famine to go into Egypt, where, to avoid danger which he ap-
p. 1 from his wife's extraordinary beauty, he instructed
her to say, that she was his sister. Returning out of Egypt,
into Canaan, his herdsmen quarrelled with those of Lot, and a
separation ensued; Lot going towards Sodom, and Abraham
pitching his tents on the plains of Mamre. Lot, during a con-
test among the º chieftains of the country, being
aken prisoner by the prince of Elam, Abram armed his ser-
ts and released him. Sarah proving infertile, Abram took
Hagar, an Egyptian of his household, as his concubine, who
bare to him a son named Ishmael. At ninety years of age,
Abram received a renewed promise from the Lord, that he
should be a father of many nations; and, as an expression of
this promise, his name was changed to Abraham, the father
a great multitude. At the same time was instituted the cere-
mony of circumcision; and Abraham, though Sarah was now
far advanced in age, was assured that she should bear a son.
The promise was repeated by three angels, who in a human
form visited Abraham, and were entertained by in his
tent; and who were sent by the Lord to destroy Sodom for its
wickedness. Lot, through the intercession of Abraham was
mitted to escape. The patriarch, again changing his sta-
went towards the south, and settled in Gerar, where he
le use of the same expedient, which he had before employed
in Egypt, to prevent hazard to himself from the temptation
which Sarah's beauty might present to Abimelech, the prince
of the country. Here, according to the promise, when Abra-
lam was an hundred years old, and Sarah ninety, their son
was born. When Isaac was arrived at mature age, the
'd commanded Abraham to offer him up as a sacrifice;
aham obeyed, and prepared for the offering, but at the
moment when his hand was lifted up to slay his son, the Lord,
ving proved his faith, by the voice of an angel prevented
ke, and provided a ram for the altar. Abraham, when
forty years old, sent a faithful servant into his own
o procure a wife for his son; and he obtained for
ekah, the daughter of Milcah, Abraham's sister.
# Sarah, wh lived t the 127th year, Abra-
















































FROM ABRAHAM TO MOSES. 23
session in the promised land. Thus lived and died this distin-
uished patriarch, the great ancestor of the Jews, and the
#. of their history. . . . . .
Numerous fables have been invented concerning the father
of the faithful, which are unworthy of notice. The Scripture
narrative is the best, in which he is exhibited as an eminent
pattern of generous condescension, liberal hospitality, and
religious obedience. A more striking example of kind gene-
rosity, expressed with beautiful simplicity, will not easily be
found than in the proposal which Abraham made to his
nephew Lot, on the dispute which arose between their servants.
“Let there be no strife, I pray thee, between me and thee, and
between my herdmen and thy herdmen, for we are brethren.
Is not the whole land before thee? Separate thyself, I pray
thee, from me; if thou wilt take the left hand, then I will go
to the right; or if thou depart to the right hand, then I will
go to the left.” Gen. xii. xxv. w -
LOT, the son of Haran, nephew of Abraham, and proge-
mitor of the Moabites, and Ammonites. His separation from
Abraham, his captivity by Chedorlaomer, his restoration by
the bravery of his uncle, his extraordinary hospitality, his de-
liverance from the destruction of Sodom, his wife's metamor-
phosis, with his fatal intoxication, and involuntary incest, are
recorded in Gen. xiii. xiv. and xix. His righteous character
is particularly taken notice of by the apostle, 2 Pet. ii. 7, 8.
Some trace the immodest worship of Baal-peor, the god of
the Moabites and Ammonites, from the involuntary incest of
their ancestor. . w .
SARAH, or SARAI, Abraham's wife. Some suppose her
to be the same with Iscah, the daughter of Haran, Abraham's
younger brother by a different mother, and consequently the
sister of Lot. Her beauty and consequent danger in the courts
of Egypt and Gerar; her entertainment of the angels; her
sterility till her 90th year, and birth of Isaac in her 91st; her
turning off Hagar, and other interesting particulars, with her
death and burial in her 123d year are recorded in Genesis xii.
xviii. xx, xxi. xxiii. .
HAGAR, a native of Egypt, the servant of Sarah, concu-
bine of Abraham, mother of Ishmael, and ancestor of the
Arabians. Her history, and the repeated divine interpositions.
for the preservation of her and her son, are recorded in Gen.
xvi. and xxi. .
BE |RA, ki of S
odom, contemporary

























UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. |B.C. 1920.
temporary with Abraham, whose faith and integrity seem to
e much failed him, when the beauty of his wife attracted
he attention of a monarch; insomuch that instead of acknow-
ledging her to be his wife, he styled her his sister, though in
reality she was not. The king, however, being warned in a
dream, reproved the patriarch for deceiving him, but made a
covenant with him, and dismissed him with considerable pre-
Sents. * . . . . . . -
PHARAOH. Pharaoh was a common title of the Egyptian
kings, as Caesar was, long afterwards, of the Roman emperors.
The first Pharaoh known to us is he, in whose time Abraham
went down into Egypt, Gen. xii. 10, &c. in the year of the
world 2084, B.C. 1920, whose officers brought Sarah into that
prince's harem; from which she was not recovered without di-
vine interference. … w.
MAMRE, an Amorite, brother of Aner and Eschol, and
friend of Abraham, Gen. xiv. 13. Mamre dwelt near Hebron,
and communicated his name to great part of the country round
about. Hence we read in Gen. xiii. 18, xxiii. 17, &c. that Abra-
ham dwelt in Mamre, and in the plain of Mamre. But it is
observed, that what we translate the plain, should be rendered
the oak, of Mamre, because the word elon signifies an oak, or
tree of long duration. Sozomen says, that this tree was still
extant, .# famous for pilgrimages and annual feasts, even in
Constantine's time, that it was about six miles from Hebron;
that some of the cottages which Abraham built were still stand-
ing near it; and that there was a well likewise of his digging,
whereunto both Jews, Christians, and Heathens, did at cer-
tain seasons resort, either out of devotion or for trade, because
there was held a great mart. To these superstitions Constan-
time the Great put a stop. N.
MELCHISEDEC, or MELCHIZEDEC, king of Salem,
ind priest of the most high God, is mentioned in the Scriptures,
but without any reference to his genealogy, or to his birth, or
death. And in this sense St. Paul says, he was a figure of
Jesus Christ, “who is a priest for ever, after the order of
Melchisedec,” and not after the order of Aaron, whose birth,
life, and death are known. When Abraham returned from his
victory over the four confederate kings, Gen. xiv. 17–19, &c.
º isedec came to meet him, at the valley of Shaveh, pre-
anted him with a refreshment of bread and wine, and blessed
him; and Abraham offered him the tythes of all the spoils.
ious names have been invented for the parents of Mel
rally agreedom by the learned that when






























B.C. 1920.] From ABRAHAM to Moses. 25
have taken St. Paul's words literally, and contend t was
not of human but divine nature. Origen and Didymus took
him to be an angel; and the author of the Questions upon the
Old and New Testament pretends that he was the Holy
º j host ,
who appeared to Abraham in a human form. The Arabic Ca-
tena, upon the 9th chapter of Genesis, makes Melchisedee to
be descended from Shem by his father, and from Japheth by
his mother. Cedrenus and others derive Melchisedec from an
Egyptian stock. They say his father was called Sidon, and
was the founder of Sidon the capital of Phoenicia. The Jews
and Samaritans believed Melchisedec to be the same with the
patriarch Shem; which opinion has been followed by many mo-
dern writers. M. Jurieu endeavoured to prove that he is the
same as Ham. Peter Cumaeus and Du Moulin asserted, that
Melchisedec, who appeared to Abraham, was the Son of God,
and the patriarch worshipped him, and acknowledged him for
the Messiah. Many modern Christians are of this opinion; a
very material objection to which seems to be, that the type and
the anti-type are thus made one and the same person. The
learned Heidegger supported a two-fold Melchisedec, the one
historical, of whom Moses gives an account in Gen. xiv. that
he was king as well as high-priest of Jerusalem; the other alle-
gorical, whom St. Paul describes, and this is Jesus Christ.
umberless fables have been invented of Melchisedec, which
are totally unworthy of notice. He was most probably the
pious monarch and priest of some neighbouring territory. .
CHEDORLAOMER, king of Elam, the first monarch re-
corded in authentic history, who made other kings tributaries.
His name signifies a generation of bondage; and about B. C.
1926, he subdued the kingdoms of Sodom, Gomorrah, Admah,
Zeboim, and Zoar, which, after serving him twelve years, re-
belled. Determined to reduce them, with the assistance of
Amraphel king of Shinar, Arioch king of Ellasar, and Tidal
king of Gojim, or nations, he marched against them. To
deprive them of all possible aid, he first attacked the neigh-
bouring towers; marching southward on the east of them, h
e
smote the Rephaims, near the source of the river Arnon, and
Fº Ashtaroth-karnaim; he routed the Zuzims at Ham,
the Emims in Shaveth-kirjathaim, and the Horites in mount
Seir. Having proceeded on the south side till he came to
Elparan, he returned, and directed his course to the north-east.
In his way he ravaged the country of the Amalekites, and
smote the Amo. #: : . . sº or. º 3 t, >
morites who dwelt about Hazazon-tan
he attacked the allied troops of
field of battle was full of slime
mountains, possibly those on th sº
e lot of the Re abenites. Ched riaomer and his allies,
lime pits; the army
































UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY, [B.C. 1920.
%s
booty, directed their march northward, in-
n home by the south-east of Syria. But, in-
his nephew, and family, were among the cap-
rith an handful of servants and a few Canaanitish
rsued the conquerors, overtook them at Dan, and routed
m; then pursuing them to Hobah, a little to the north of
mascus, retook their captives and booty. º
IOCH, king of Ellasar, an ally of Chedorlaomer, was one
he nine monarchs who engaged in the first battle of which
have any authentic account. See Gen. xiv.
º, king of Gomorrah, one of the five kings who
- ed against Chedorlaomer; and, after being defeated, were
relieved by Abraham, who refused to accept of any subsidy for
his services. Gen. xiv. ->
ANER and Eschel were two Canaanites that joined their
forces with Abraham in pursuit of the kings Chedorlaomer,
Amraphel, and their allies, who had pillaged Sodom, and car-
ried off Lot, Abraham's nephew. +. did not imitate the
disinterestedness of that patriarch, but retained their share of
the spoil taken from the conquered kings. Gen. xiv. 24.
AMRAPHEL, the king of Shinar, or Babylonia, confe-
derated with Chedorlaomer, king of the Elamites, and two other
kings, to make war against the kings of Pentapolis, that is, of
Sodom, Gomorrah, and the three neighbouring cities. The
kings who were in league with Amraphel beat those of Penta-
polis, plundered their city, and carried off abundance of cap-
COll
e 7, and c. a number of cap-
ISHMAEL, the son of Abraham by Hagar. He became a
very expert archer, and his mother married him to an Egyptian
an. He had twelve sons, viz. Nebajoth, Kedar, Adbeel,
Mishma, Dumah, Massa, Hadar, Jema, Jetur, Nap-
ld Kedemah. He had also a daughter named Maha-
*h, or Bashemath, (Gen. xxxvi. 3.) who married Esau, (Gen.
Kviii. 9.) From the twelve sons of Ishmael are derived the
twelve tribes of the Arabians, which are still subsisting; and
ir descendants inhabited the country between Havilah and
1, &c. He was born about the year of the world 2108.
as father of the Moabites, whose habitation was beyond
B, was the son of Lot, and of his eldest daughter, Gen.





































B.C. 1896.1
family, and before the birth of Isaac designed him for his
Eliezer behaved so well, that his master gave him libe
ngth promoted him to the superintendance of all h sp to-
perty. A similar occurrence took place with regard to Joseph,
When Abraham sent Eliezer into Mesopotamia, he said to
him, put thy hand under my thigh, and promise with an oath
that thou wilt not take a Canaanite for a wife unto my son; but
go into the country where my relations live, and there take a
wife unto my son Isaac. Eliezer departed with many camels
and rich presents, and went to the city of Nahor, in Mesopo-
tamia, whence he brought Rebekah for Isaac, Gen. xxiv.
Whether Eliezer might live, so long as to be the person here
mentioned is uncertain; but by his fidelity he seems likely to
have been the same, and so he is usually understood. The
passage is, and Abraham said unto his eldest servant of his
house that ruled over all that he had; in which he is not called
the “son of the house,” possibly because Isaac was now the
natural heir of Abraham. . . :-
ISAAC, the son of Abraham and Sarah, was born at Gerar,
in the land of the Philistines, B. C. 1896., when his father was
an hundred, and his mother ninety years of age. His birth
was previously announced to Abraham, as the son of covenant
and promise, in whose seed all the nations of the earth should
be blessed. His name, according to its Hebrew etymology
which denotes “he has laughed, or shall laugh,” expresses the
pleasure with which his parents received the prediction of his
birth, and augured the honour that awaited his posterity; a
circumstance, however, occurred, which tended to abate their
joy, and this was a divine command to offer Isaac as a sacrifice.
Abraham prepared to obey, but was prevented by an angel.
When Isaac was forty years of age, Abraham sent Eliezer,
the steward of his house into Mesopotamia to procure a
wife for him, from the family of Laban his brother-in-law. .
Eliezer succeeded in the object of his journey, and brought
Rebekah to Isaac. Rebekah being unfruitful, Isaac prayed
for her, and God granted her favour. She was delivered of
twins, Esau and Jacob. Isaac had most inclination for Esau,
and Rebekah for Jacob. Some years after, a famine obl
Isaac to return to Gerar, where Abimelech was king; he re-
ported that Rebekah was his sister; and she was taken from
him, by reason of her beauty %
But Abimelech having observed, that Isaac be
all t






























UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY.
[B.C. 1860.
his tent in the valley of G erar, where he dug new wells, but
Beersheba, where he fixed his habitation. The Lord appeared
tº him, and renewed the promise of "...i him. Abimelech
king of Gerar came thither likewise to make an alliance with
him. Isaac when grown very old, for he was an hundred and
thirty seven years of age, and his sight was extremely weaken-
ed, called Esau his son, and directed him to hunt for him some
venison. But while Esau was gone a hunting, Jacob stole the
prime, the superior blessing of Isaac, so that afterwards Isaac
could only give Esau an inferior blessing. Isaac lived many
years after this. He sent Jacob into Mesopotamia to take a
wife of his own family, When Jacob returned out of that coun-
try, after twenty years, Isaac was living, and continued so
twenty-three years longer. He died aged an hundred four-
score and eight years, in the year of the world 2288, and was
buried with his father Abraham, by his sons Esau and Jacob.
KETURAH, wife of Abraham. Abraham married Keturah
when he was 140 years of age ; and she bare him six sons,
Zimram, Jokshan, Medan, Mää. Ishbak, and Shuah. His
second marriage, at the age of 145 years, shows his faith in the
divine promise, that he should be “a father of many nations;”
for which purpose his constitution might be miraculously re-
newed, as Sarah's was. Besides, Abraham himself was born
when his father Terah was 130 years of age. Abraham settled
the sons of Keturah in the east country of Arabia, near the re-
sidence of Ishmael. : ; * : *
MIDIAN, son of Abraham and Keturah, Gen. xxv.2. The
Midianites, Num, xxii. 4, 7.xxv. 15. xxxi. 2. &c. whose daugh-
ters seduced Israel, even to the worshipping of Baal-peor, were
descendants of Midian, the son of Abraham. The Midianites,
who were overcome by Hadad son of Bedad, king of Edom,
Gen. xxvi. 35, and those who oppressed Israel, and were de-
feated by Gideon, Judg. vi. 1, 2, &c. vii. 1, 2. &c. were also
descended from Midian, son of Abraham, whose habitation was
east of the Dead Sea, and south of the country of Moab.
Their capital city was called Midian, and its remains were to
be seen in the time of Jerome and Eusebius. It was situated
on the Arnon, and south of the city of Ar, or Areopolis.
BIMELECH, II, a king of Gerar, supposed to be the
and successor of Abimelech I. met with a similar disap-
ºnnand s father in the case of Rebekah; whom Isaac
































B.C. 1860.] From ABRAHAM To Moses.
and who, along with Phicol, accompanied him to witness the
alliance made between him and the patriarch Isaac. . .
ANAH, the son of Zibeon the Horite, a ruler of mount Seir,
and father to Aholibamah, the wife of Esau.
LABAN, son of Bethuel, and grandson of Nahor, was bro-
ther to Rebekah, and was father to Rachel and Leah. When
Jacob came into Mesopotamia, B.C. 1759, he was well re-
ceived by his uncle Laban, Gen. xxviii. &c. A month after
his arrival, Laban said to him, must you, because you are my
nephew, serve me without recompence? Jacob proposed to
serve him seven years, for his youngest daughter Rachel, and
Laban consented. Many are of opinion, that Jacob served him
seven years, before he married Rachel; but others assert the
contrary, and think that the words, “My time is accomplished,”
signify I am of age to marry, to support a family. Jacob was
then seventy years of age. Jacob said to Laban, give me my
wife, for my time is accomplished. Laban therefore made a
wedding feast, but conveyed Leah into Jacob's chamber, so
that Jacob did not perceive the fraud. The next morning he
complained sharply of it. Laban replied, that it was unlawful
to marry the younger daughter before the elder; but if he
would serve him seven years more, he would give him Rachel.
To this Jacob consented. .
When Jacob had spent fourteen years in the service of La-
ban, he was desirous of returning to Canaan. Laban, how-
ever, wished to continue him in his service, and bid him ask what
recompence he pleased. Jacob demanded all the young which
his flocks should produce that were of a brown colour, spotted
and speckled, that is, such as seemed least desirable for their
wool and their fleece. Laban agreed, but used much art
against Jacob. Jacob, however, by his superior skill and
cunning accomplished his purpose. . .
After remaining twenty years with Laban, Jacob perceived
that Laban did not regard him with the same kindness as for-
merly, and resolved to depart without the knowledge of Labal
who set out in pursuit of him, and overtook him in Mount G
lead. God appeared to Laban by might, and forbade him to
say any thing harsh to Jacob. When, therefore, Laban saw
Jacob, he only complained of his sudden retreat, of his not
ving him the comfort of embracing his daughters and grand-
children, and of conducting them on their journey with cheer-
II. . On the subject, however, of stealing from him his
»r Teraphim, he made great complaints. ãº
ſing changed the rewards due to him
ighters and my grand-ch
answered, lun
that is vour's is as





























º !e ºlº tººs
acrifices, they eat and drank together;
ning, Laban took leave of his d
|36. When the time of Rebekah's delivery
ame, she had twins, Gen. xxv. 24–26, the first of which was
mairy, and therefore called Esau, that is, a man full grown, or
f perfect age. Some derive Esau from the Arabic gescha,
heva, which signifies a hair-cloth. Esau delighted in
ting, and his father Isaac had a particular affection for
him. One day Esau returned out of the fields greatly fatigued,
and desired Jacob to give him some of his red pottage; to this
Jacob agreed, provided he would sell him his birth-right.
Esau, thinking himself weakened almost to death, sold it, and
by oath resigned it to him. After this, he eat his mess, and
went away, little concerned at what he had done. N.
At the age of 40, Esau married two Canaanitish women,
Judith, the daughter of Beeri the Hittite, and Bashemath the
daughter of Elon. These marriages were very displeasing to
Isaac and Rebekah. Isaac being old, and his sight decayed,
irected Esau to procure him by hunting some venison, that at
his return he might give him his last blessing. Gen. xxvii.
1–3. Esau went to hunt; but during his absence, Jacob,
assisted and disguised by his mother Rebekah, procured from
Isaac his blessing. When Esau returned to Isaac, and under-
stood what had passed, he wept, and asked whether his father
had not reserved one blessing for him? This he with some
lifficulty obtained. The conduct of Jacob caused him to be
hated by Esau, who determined to murder him; but Rebekah
sent Jacob to his uncle Laban, in Mesopotamia, without Esau's
knowledge. Esau married several other wives, who were Ca-
naanites, and also the daughter of Ishmael, sister of Nebajoth,
who brought children. He settled in the mountains east of
Jordan, and became very powerful. :
When Jacob returned from Mesopotamia, he feared the re-
sentment of Esau, and sent messengers to him with presents.
§ essengers were kindly received by Esau, who came him-
00 men to meet his brother. Jacob feared that he
it the intentions of Esau were peaceable,
ients - acob, and offered to accompany him.
ver Jordan. Jacob, h nank
Seir. The nam

























































B.C. 1836.] from ABRAHAM to Moses.
portment towards his brother, and in the speedy and entire for-
getfulness of the injuries which he had received from Jacob.
JACOB, the son of Jacob and Rebekah, was born in the year
B.C. 1836. He was twin-brother of Esau [see Gen. xxv.25.]
of a meek, peaceable disposition, domestic in his habits, in-
clined to a pastoral life, and the favourite of his mother;
whereas, Esau was of a more fierce and turbulent temper, and,
in consequence of his masculine active spirit, the object of his
father's partial affection. Jacob derived his name from the
manner of his birth, as he came into the world holding his bro-
ther's heel, which, in the Hebrew, signifies one who supplants,
or strikes up, his adversary. Gen. xxv. 25. This was indi-
cating some events that occurred in the progress of his years,
particularly the supplanting of his brother. - - - -
We shall not very minutely detail the particulars of his future
history, as they are recited in the book of Genesis, to which the
reader is referred. Here we find, that in order to avoid the
threatened effects of his brother's displeasure, incurred, as we
have already related, under Esau, Jacob was sent by his mother
to her brother Laban. In his journey he had a vision of a pe-
culiar nature, which brightened his prospects, and induced him
to form pious and laudable resolutions. On his arrival at Padan
Aram, he was hospitably received by his uncle, Laban; and in
a little time he conceived an affection for Rachel, his youngest
daughter. In order to obtain Laban's consent to their marriage,
he agreed to serve him seven years; but at the close of this pe-
riod of service, Leah, the elder sister, was substituted for Ra-
chel, and he contracted to serve Laban for a second term on
condition of obtaining the first object of his affection. Upon
the expiration of this term he married Rachel; and during his
abode with Laban, he was singularly prosperous. At length
his situation became intolerably grievous, and he determined to
return with his wives and children, and the property he had
acquired, to his own country. Availing himself of an opportu-
mity, which Laban's absence afforded, he prepared for his jour-
mey; and he had proceeded so far, before his departure
known, that Laban was seven days in pursuing him before he
could overtake him. Upon their interview on Mount Gilead,
Laban remonstrated against, and Jacob justified, the m º
which he had adopted. Rachel, however, before her depar-
ture, had contrived to purloin her father's Teraphim, and
ban, in his remonstrance with Jacob, complained of th
p
inapprized of the fact, consented,
























Universal Biography. [B.C. 1836.
monument should be erected as a testimony of it to future ages.
Jacob acquiesced; a pile of stones was reared, called by Laban,
e Syriac tongue, Jagar Sabadutha, and by Jacob, in He-
brew, Gilead; both signifying the heap of witness. The treaty
was concluded with a sacrifice and a #. and Laban, having
embraced and blessed Jacob and his family, set out on his return
to Padan Aram. Jacob, as he pursued his journey, began to
entertain apprehensions of the unappeased resentment of his
brother Esau; and notwithstanding the conciliatory measures
he had adopted, he soon found that his brother was advancing
to meet him with an armed force, and with seeming purposes of
hostility. Having recommended himself by an act of devotion
to the Divine protection, he prepared a costly present for his
brother. At this time he was favoured with a prophetic vision,
which served to allay his fears and to animate his resolution;
and from a circumstance that occurred on this occasion, he ob-
tained the name of “Israel,” signifying a man who has prevailed
with God; and this became afterwards the name of his poste-
rity. Having joined his family after this vision, he advanced to
meet his brother, who received him in the most kind and affec-
tionate manner, and invited him to settle in his neighbourhood.
Jacob, however, could not easily dismiss his apprehensions of
danger, and chose rather to take up his abode near Shechem,
where he purchased ground, on which he built an altar to the
Lord. A circumstance of a very distressing kind occurred, for
an account of which we refer to the history, which made it ne-
sary for Jacob to remove from the vicinity of Shechem; and
while he was deliberating whither to direct his course, he was
instructed to erect an altar to God at Bethel, a place where he
had received early assurances of the Divine protection and fa-
vour. Having erected an altar at this place, he set out on his
journey to his father; but in the way he was severely afflicted
y the loss of his beloved wife Rachel, who died in child-birth
her son Benjamin. Soon afterwards he arrived at Mamre,
nd continued there till his father's death. At this time Joseph,
ing about 17 years of age, became the object of jealousy to
rethren; who, meditating his destruction, determined at
1 to sell him to a troop of Ishmaelites, and to feign a story,
hich they imposed upon the afflicted father, of his having
to pieces by some wild beast. After the lapse of some
acob received the consolatory news of Joseph's being
ve, and in a station of high honour and power at the
of Pharaoh. The news, we may well imagine, transported
yond measure, and he fainted in the arms of his sons who
oon as he could be persuaded that the
himself surrounded by the I



















































B. c. 1836.1 FROM ABRAHAM TO MO.
SES.
nd his family left, therefore, the valley
Beersheba, where was an altar consecrated Lor Here
he offered sacrifices to his God, thus expressing his gratitude
and his desires of continued protection and blessing. Having
received assurances of divine favour, he pursued his journey
with pleasure; and, as he approached the borders of Egypt, he
received a message from Joseph, requesting him to meet him in
the land of Goshen, situated between the Red Sea and the Nile,
a fruitful territory, and adapted to his pastoral life. The inter-
view between the patriarch, and his son Joseph, is best con-
ceived by a mind of sensibility. Joseph presented his father to
Pharaoh. Jacob having wished this prince all happiness, Pha-
raoh asked him his age. He answered, the time of my pilgri-
mage is an hundred and thirty years; few and evil have my
years been in comparison of the age of my fathers.
Having obtained leave of Pharaoh to settle in the land of
Goshen, Joseph conducted his father and family thither; and
here they prospered and multiplied. Jacob lived 17 years in
Egypt; and when he apprehended that his life was drawing to
a close, he obtained a promise from Joseph that his remains
should be carried to Canaan, and deposited with those of his
progenitors, Abraham and Isaac, in the cave of the field Mach-
pelah, which Abraham had purchased. When he was dying,
he adopted the two sons of Joseph, Manasseh and Ephraim, as
his own; declaring, that in the division of the promised land,
they were to receive a double lot, and to be considered as the
heads of two distinct tribes. Having delivered to his sons, who
were collected round him, his dying predictions of the events
that should happen to their several descendants in future times,
and which exactly corresponded to the patriarch's declaration,
Jacob expired, at the age of 147 years, in the year B. C. 1689.
Joseph faithfully fulfilled his promises, with respect to the bu-
rial of his father. He had him embalmed after the manner of
#. Egyptians, and there was a general lamentation for him in
gypt seventy days. After that time Joseph and his brethren,
with the principal men of Egypt, carried him to the bur
lace of his . near Hebron. After having deposite
remains of their father in the cave of Machpelah, Jacob'
& * - “v.
where they and their posterity remai g
illed, in Hebr







































UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY,
º ºr .
º
.
º 1 he lost his birthright, and all t
if primogeniture. ſº tºº
When Joseph's brethren had taken a resolution to destroy
him, Reuben endeavoured by all means to deliver him. He
proposed to them to let him down into an old water-pit, which
had then no water, that afterwards he might take him up, and
#
restore him to his father Jacob. His brethren took the advice;
but while Reuben was at some distance from them, they sold
Joseph to a party of Ishmaelites. Reuben going to the pit, and
not finding him there, tore his clothes, and said to his brethren,
“ º is not to be found, and whither shall I go.”
. Jacob, when dying, warmly reproaches Reuben with his crime
committed with Bilhah; saying, “Reuben, thou art my first-
born, my might, but unstable as water; thou shalt not excel, be:
cause thou wentest up to thy father's bed, then defiledst thou it.”
SIMEON, second son of Jacob and Leah, born in the year
B.C. 1757, Gen. xxix. 37. Simeon and Levi revenged the
affront, sustained by the defilement of their half-sister Dinah,
on the part of Shechem, the son of Hamor, by entering the
;own of Shechem, and killing all the men they found; after
which they brought away Dinah, in the year B. C. 1739, Gen.
xxxiv. 25. It has been thought that Simeon was the most cruel
to his brother Joseph, and that he advised his brethren to sell
him, Gen. xxxii. 20. The conjecture is founded on the circum-
stance of his being detained prisoner in Egypt, Gen. xlii. 24;
and of his being treated with greater rigour by Joseph than the
rest of his brethren. Jacob, on his death-bed, manifested pe-
culiar indignation against Simeon and Levi, Gen. xlix. 5. Accord-
ingly the tribes of Simeon and Levi were dispersed in Israel.
r - - act lot or portion; and Simeon received for
§ ict dismembered from the tribe of Judah,
l, 2, &c., and some other lands which were over-run
tribe lountains of Seir, and in the desart
f this tribe on the mountains of Seir, and in -
!Chron. iv.24, 39, 42. The Targum of Jerusalem
sen followed by some of th
the rabbins, who have b ºr - - - - - - - - efathers,
ºr ºf º his tribe; and













































B. c. 1750.] From ABRAHAM to Moses. 35
The sons of Simeon were six, and are enumerated Exod. vi.
odus, Numb. i. 22.; but the number of those that entered the
Land of Promise amounted only to 22,000, the rest having died
in the desart, Numb. xxvi. 14. The portion of Simeon was
west and south of that of Judah; having the tribe of Dan and
the Philistines north, the Mediterranean west, and Arabia Pe-
traea south, Josh. xix. 1–9. §
NAPHTHALI, the second son of Jacob, by Bilhah, and the
progenitor of the tribe. . N. * º
LEVI, the third son of Jacob and Leah, and progenitor of
the priests and Levites, was born about B.C. 1750. His treach-
erous and bloody combination with Simeon, to murder the She-
chemites, is recorded in Gen. xxxiv. as well as Jacob's detesta-
tion of it, and his woe denounced against them for it, on his death-
bed, at the very time that he pronounced blessings on Judah,
Joseph, and the rest of his sons, Gen. xlix. 5–7. The predic-
tion of Jacob was verified in the descendants of Levi, who had
no inheritance assigned them among their brethren in the land
of Canaan, but were obliged to live on the tithes and offerings
of the other tribes. However, by their zeal against idolatry,
and the readiness with which they executed the command of
Moses to put to death a number of the worshippers of the gol-
den calf, dº obtained a mitigation of the sentence pronounced
against them in the person f their progenitor. For they were
admitted to the priesthood; which, though subordinate to that
of Aaron and his posterity, entitled them to considerable pri-
vileges and immunities. They were thus appointed the keepers
of the Jewish religion, and instructors of the people; and were
entitled to a place in the judicial courts of every city and town,
and to the property of thirty-five cities, with all their territories,
in which they were supported by a fixed contribution of the
tenths of all kinds of beasts, fruits, and grain in Israel. Levi
died B.C. 1613, aged 137. . . . . . .
JUDAH, the fourth son of Jacob, and father of the chief
iribe of the Jews, distinguished by his name, and honoured by
giving birth to the Messiah, died B. C. 1636. "This patriarch,
though he seems not to have been a very rigid moralist, showed
himself, nevertheless, a man of fine feelings. It was Judah who
delivered that exquisitely affecting piece of natural eloquence,
which may challenge a comparison with the finest productions
of antiquity, and which was immediately followed by Joseph's
discovery of himself to his brethren, Gen. xliv, 18–34. He
persuaded his brethren to sell Joseph, rather thal
and thus saved his life. He was also possessed of a str







































Universal biography. [b. c. 1148.
genitor of the tribe so named from him. Tolah, one of the
idges, and Baasha, one of the kings of Israel, were of this tribe.
DAN, one of the twelve Patriarchs, the fifth son of Jacob,
and the eldest by Bilhah. Of his history nothing is recorded,
except that he had but one son, named Hushim; though his
posterity was afterwards very numerous. & . -
ZEBULUN, the sixth son of Jacob and Leah. Gen. xxx.
20. He was born in Mesopotamia, about B.C. 1748. His
sons were Sered, Elon, and Jahleel. Gen. xlvi. 14. Moses
acquaints us with no particulars of his life; but Jacob, in his
last blessing, said of Zebulun, Gen. xlix. 13. “Zebulun shall
dwell at the haven of the sea, and he shall be for a haven of
ships, and his border shall be unto Zidon.” His portion ex-
tended along the coast of the Mediterranean-sea, one end of it
bordering on this sea, and the other on the sea of Tiberias.
Josh. xix. 10, &c. In the last words of Moses, he joins Zebu-
lun and Issachar together, saying, Deut. xxxiii. 18. “Rejoice
Zebulun, in thy going out, and Issachar in thy tents. They
shall call the people unto the mountain, there they shall offer
sacrifice of righteousness. For they shall suck the abundance
of the seas, and of treasures hid in the sand.” Meaning, that
these two tribes being at the greatest distance north, should
come together to the temple at Jerusalem, to the holy moun-
tain, and should bring with them such of the other tribes as
dwelt in their way; and that being situated on the coast of the
Mediterranean sea, they should apply themselves to trade and
navigation, and to the melting of metals and glass, denoted by
those words, “Treasures hid in the sand.” The river Belus,
whose sand was very fit for making glass, was in this tribe.
When the tribe of Zebulun left £º it had for its chief
Eliab the son of Elon, and comprehended 57,400 men, able to
bear arms. Num, i. 9–30. In another review, thirty-nine
years afterwards, this tribe amounted to 60,500 men, of age to
bear arms. Num. xxvi. 26, 27. The tribes of Zebulun and
Naphtali distinguished themselves with Barak and Deborah
against Sisera, the general of the armies of Jabin. Judg. iv.
5, v. 4. 18. It is thought these tribes were the first car-
ied into captivity beyond the Euphrates, by Put, and Tiglath-
kings of Assyria. 1 Chron. v. 26.
3AD, son of Jacob and Zilpah, Leah's servant. Gen. xxx.
Leah, Jacob's wife, gave him also Zilpah, that by her
ºne hildrer Zilpah bro ight a son, whom Leah
t have children. Zilpah .
n, Eri, Arodi, and Areli. Gen.
all overcome at the last;" Gen. xliv, 19. and Moses,









































B.C. 1745.] FROM ABRAHAM TO MOSES. 37
in his last song, mentions Gad, as “a lion which teareth the
arm with the crown of the head,” &c., Deut. xxxiii. 20, 21...
The tribe of Gad came out of Egypt in number 45,650.
After the defeat of the kings Og and Sihon, Gad and Reuben
desired to have their division in these countries, and alleged
their great number of cattle. Moses granted their request, on
condition that they would accompany their brethren, and assist
in the conquest of the land beyond Jordan. Gad had his in-
heritance between Reuben south, and Manasseh north, with the
mountains of Gilead east, and Jordan west.
ASHER, one of Jacob's sons by Zilpah, and the progenitor
of the tribe so called. . º * * *
DINAH, the only daughter of the patriarch Jacob. Her
misfortune with prince Shechem; his honourable proposal of
repairing the injury by marriage, and the prevention of the ful-
filment of his generous intention by the treachery and barbarity
of her bloody brethren, Simeon and Levi, are recorded in
Gen. xxxiv. -
SHECHEM, the son of Hamor, the Hivite, prince of the
country so named, a contemporary of the patriarch Jacob, who
purchased from him a field for a burial ground. Upon this oc-
casion, or soon after it, the prince, falling in love with Dinah,
the patriarch's only daughter, seduced her; but, contrary to
the villainous practice of most seducers of female innocence ir
ll ages, generously and honourably proposed, to her ºther
er and
brethren, to marry her, and settle a dowry upon her, which
certainly would have completely compensated Dinah for the in-
jury done her. But through the vindictive villainy of her two
brethren, Simeon and Levi, a scene of hypocrisy, cruelty, and
massacre, followed, which has not a parallel in the history of
the most savage nations. Under pretence of religion, the
prince, his father, and the whole men of the city, were mas-
sacred, the women and children carried captives, and the cit
ºl. . these two savages. Gen. xxxiv. The patriarcl
Jacob not only complained at the time, that their barbarity had
disgraced him among the inhabitants, but also noticed it on his
º -bed, when he blessed the rest of his sons. Gen. xlix.
JOSEPH, a Hebrew patriarch. He was the son of Jacob
and his wife Rachel, and born about the year B.C. 1745. As he
was the favourite of his father, on account of his personal and
mental endowments, he became the object of the jealousy and
hatred of his brethren; and they sold him to some Ishmae
*





















[B. c. 1745.
gement. After ten years
…: t º t º º º
m his mis
~ tress's embraces; and thinking only how
impending evil, left his upper garment behind him.
º d resentment instantly supplanted that affection
which had so fiercely raged in the breast of the disappointed
fair one. And fearing that Joseph, from his detestation of the
crime, should betray to her husband the imprudence she had
been guilty of, with the usual subtlety of the abandoned part
of her sex, she determined to turn the accidental circumstance
of the garment to her advantage. She accordingly alarmed the
other servants; and on their entering the room where she was,
informed them, with well dissembled terror, that the Hebrew,
in whom her husband so much confided, had attempted to vio-
late her honour; but on her making resistance he had fled,
leaving the garment which they saw in her hands behind him.
This tale she likewise related to Potiphar on his return home,
who was so exasperated at Joseph's presumption, which he
found corroborated by the testimony of his other servants, that
he ordered him to be sent to the prison in which those belong-
ing to the king's household were usually confined for any mis-
| Here Joseph continued a long time, behaved with so much
prudence and discretion, that the keeper of the prison treated
him with unusual lenity, and committed his fellow-prisoners en-
tirely to his care. During the early part of his confinement, it
happened that Pharaoh's chief butler, or cup-bearer, and his
chief baker, for some misconduct, were sent to this prison. The
former dreamed one night, that he saw three clusters of ripe
grapes hanging from three branches of a vine, which he pressed
into a cup, and presented to his royal master, who received it
from his hands with apparent pleasure. The butler having ob-
served that Joseph was penetrating and learned beyond his
years, applied to him in the morning for the interpretation of
the young Hebrew this faculty, he therefore bid the dreamer
good cheer, for that in three days he should be released
1 his confinement, and be restored to the king's favour. A
f butler seemed to receive great consolation from thi
explanation of his dream, and to be gr
Oil




















































B.C. 1745.]
º
*The same night the chief baker had a similal
of the chief butler, and applied likewise to Joseph for
pretation. He thought in his sleep, that he carried three ba
kets upon his head, two full of loaves, and the third of sweet-
meats, with other eatables, such as are prepared for king
but the birds flew round the baskets, and eat up what
therein, notwithstanding his utmost endeavours to prevent
them. The chief baker having repeated the foregoing dream
to Joseph, he waited with a serene countenance for his inter-
pretation of it, not in the least doubting but it would prove as
favourable as that of the chief butler's, the circumstances being
somewhat similar. But how great was his dejection, when Jo-
seph reluctantly told him, that he much feared he had but
three days to live! his dream seeming to foretell, that in so
short a time he should be crucified, and his body, being ex-
posed to the ravenous fowls of the air, be soon devoured by
them. And the exact completion of both those interpretations
accordingly happened. . -
Joseph, however, remained in confinement, unthought of by
the chief butler, during the space of two years. At the expir-
ation of that time, the unseen hand of Providence released him
from his bonds; and, by one of those unexpected turns of for-
tume, to which mankind are liable, raised him to a height of
gran eur and authority that scarcely ever was equalled, and far
3. #
º Pharaoh himself having seen in his sleep two visions, which
the wisest men in his dominions could not interpret to his satis-
faction, he became extremely uneasy about them, especially as
they seemed to forbode something of an alarming mature. It
was now, for the first time, that the remembrance of Joseph,
and his skill in the interpretation of dreams, occurred to the
king's cup-bearer; and he immediately, not without upbraiding
himself for his ingratitude, related to his master what had passed
whilst he was in prison. . 㺠. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
* Joseph was accordingly brought into the royal presence,
the king repeated to him his two well known dreams of
the seven fat and seven lean kine, which Joseph interpreted to
be seven years of plenty, and the like number of scarcity, that
should happen throughout all the Egyptian dominions. Pha,
raoh being struck with the plausibility of the interpretatic
given by Joseph, and admiring his wisdom and discretion,
l































vicegerent of his kingdom, and authorize
*cution the plan he had so wisely laid.
rch at the same time conferred the high-
, permitting him to make use of his own
urple robes, and to ride in the royal chariot
t all Egypt, in prosecution of the arrangement he
taken. He likewise from the high opinion he enter-
ed of his wisdom and penetration, bestowed on him the
of Psonthom Phanea, which signifies the Revealer of
its. And soon after Joseph, having now attained his 30th
. a person of the #. rank, Asenath, the daughter
Through the prudent management of Joseph during the
en years of plenty, which happened as foretold by him,
when the years of famine arrived, he had not only corn suffi
cient to supply the wants of the Egyptians, but of some of the
neighbouring states. This comfortable intelligence reaching
Canaan, the residence of the patriarch Jacob, which country
likewise grievously afflicted by the dearth, he sent ten of
sons, retaining with him only his youngest child, Benjamin,
purchase corn in Egypt for the use of his family. . . .
Upon their arrival, they applied to Joseph for what they
wanted, as none was disposed of without his consent. They
no sooner appeared before him, than they were known by him;
while from the alteration that had taken place in the lineaments
of his face, the maturer appearance of his person, but more
especially from the pomp and dignity with which he was sur-
rounded, they did not expect that they were applying to a person
whom they had once so well known. &; º ºg jº. º.º.º.
Joseph being impatient to learn some tidings of his father
Jacob, and wishing to do this without discovering himself, he
accused them of being spies, and of coming wi ; a design to
over the nakedness ...}. land; expecting in answer to the
usation, a detail of the real situation of his family. The
that they were the children of one parent, who hº
her of twelve; but one was no more, and the youngest re-
home to take care of their aged father. He con-
assuring him, that they were come solely to pur-
re themselves and their famil
rn, in order to preser ..
ng, and with no treacherous views whatever. Thi
ing satisfactory to Joseph, as he pretended, he
ill he should be more at leisure t


























































nditions only,” said Joseph, “will I
you at Ilberty.”
º dº. at this requisition, the Canaanitish strangers sh
:ears, and said one to another, “this befals us for the severity
we showed our brother Joseph!” Reuben was particularly
severe in his reproaches on the rest. “Did I not war.
said he, “against your cruelty to your brother? Bel º
his blood is required of us !” A general sadness seized them,
and they sincerely repented of their hardheartedness. tº
Little did they think that these recriminations were under.
stood by the Egyptian vicegerent, as he had spoken to them
by an interpreter. Not a word however escaped him; and
he felt their distress with so much pungency, that, overwhelmed
by a flood of fraternal affection, he was forced to retire, to give
vent to the exquisite emotions of his heart. When he was able
to return to them, it was agreed that Simeon should be left as
a pledge with him; and the other nine were suffered to depart.
Before their departure orders had been given that when the
sacks were filled with corn each man's money should be returned
in his sack's mouth. This circumstance, when it was disco-
vered in their journey homewards, very much alarmed them;
and they concluded that this was done in order to furnish a
‘etence for enslaving them when they next visited Egypt.
Jacob heard their adventures with surprise and concern, more
especially when he found that Simeon was left behind in cus-
tody, and that they were pledged to take Benjamin with them
before they could obtain his release. At length, as the scarcity
increased, and their supply was nearly exhausted, Jacob, with
great reluctance, consented to part with Benjamin; and having
ordered them to provide presents for the . of Egypt, and
to carry with them twice as much money as before, he com-
mitted them to the blessing of heaven, and dismissed them.
Upon their arrival in Egypt, they hastened to present them.
selves before Joseph ; and were kindly received and liber
%
entertained at a public dinner which he had provided for them.
Some circumstances occurred on this occasion, which might
have brought their brother to their recollection; but they
again departed with their sacks and money as before, and in
Benjamin's sack was the silver cup out of which Joseph himself
drank. Upon their return towards Canaan, they were followed
ICIe for
º













































turn, they urged various pleas for his being
pany t th was the advocate for hi
º mself as a substitute if he were per-
leph was at length overcome; disguise
some to him; and he could no longer re-
iscovering himself to his brethren. B. C. 1706
This part of the sacred history is wrought up with incom-
parable beauty and pathos, and must suffer by any attempt to
abridge it, or to relate it in different language. The discovery
being made, they were all received, and particularly Benjamin,
intolerably ir!
er by the same mother, with expressions of the ten-
st and most affectionate regard; nor did Joseph lose any
in acquainting Pharaoh with the arrival of his brethren, and
with the circumstances of his father and his family. Such was
the high esteem which Pharaoh had for Egypt, that he imme-
diately gave orders for his kindred being sent for to Egypt,
and for settling them in the richest part of the country. Goshen
was the district which Joseph allotted to them; and there they
were supplied with ample means of subsistence, while the in-
habitants of other parts of Egypt were suffering great distress
on account of the famine. The long duration of this calamity
drained the people of all their money, and constrained them
at length to part with their cattle, their houses, their land,
and even their personal freedom, for support, B.C. 1705.
Thus the whole H. gdom of Egypt, the lands of the priests
cepted, became the demesne of the crown; and all the
e were reduced to the servile condition of the bonds-
o the crown. Moreover, the old owners were separated
one another, and dispersed through different parts of
gdom, that they might thus forget their interest in the
sh they had sold, and be precluded from forming com-
for regaining them. In this instance, Joseph's zeal for
h's interest caused him to overstep the bounds which
nd policy and justice prescribed; and contributed to esta.
h a despotism, which eventually proved very oppressive to
lescendants of Joseph, and the rest of the Israelites. In

































































mains of their father, they were apprehensive th
etaliate the injuries which they had done h
to afford them his protection. Joseph immediately took
portunity of removing their suspicion and anxiety, by repeat
assurances of his unabated . and zealous concern f
their welfare. Having survived his father about 60 years, he
informed his brethren, B.C. 1635, that God, according to hi
promise, would bring their posterity from Egypt, to the land
of Canaan; and he therefore made them pledge themselves on
oath to bury him with his ancestors. Joseph, having occupied
under six sovereigns the office of viceroy of Egypt, during
80 years, retained it till his death, which happened when he
had attained the age of 110 years, in the year B. C. 1635.
When the Israelites took their departure from Egypt, they
observed his injunction concerning the removal of his body;
and as we read in Joshua xxiv. 32. it was buried at Shechem,
in the field which Jacob bought of Hamor. From Jerome we
learn, that the Israelites erected a noble monument to his me-
mory which was to be seen in his time. tº
It m ay be useful to observe, that the principal features in the
history of Jose Sh, are recorded by Trogus Pom eius, a Lati
BENJAMIN, the youngest son of Jacob by Rachel, and his
favourite after Joseph was sold. His mother, in her sufferings,
called him BENONI, the son of my sorrow, which Jacob, by the
spirit of prophecy: changed to Benjamin, the son ºf my right
hand. Chronologists place his birth B. C. 1734. He married
young, and was scarce 32 years of age when he had te
five of whom seem to have died without issue, as the numerous
tribe which descended from him is traced only from the other
five, viz. Bela, Ashbel, Ahiram, Shuppin, and Huppim. Num,
xxvi. 38, 39. . . . . . . . .
o PHARAQH, the second of this name noticed in Scriptu
reigned in Egypt in the time of Joseph, when he was sold
haps
thither by the Israelitish merchants. This prince, or perhap
his successor, had the mysterious dream of the seven f
and the seven full ears of corn, consumed by seven lea
and seven barren ears; and he promoted Joseph to
of the whole kingdom, Gen. xiv. 8, 9. This is t




















































Iversal biography. [B.C. 1734.
is, who had bought him of his brethren; seeing all things
: in his hands, he gave him the superintendance of his
whole house. But, some years after, the wife of Potiphar,
ing an unlawful liking to Joseph, and having even solicited
o the iime of adultery, Joseph repulsed her. Then her
ed. Int
: changed into rage; she accused him to her husband, and
iphar put Joseph in bonds, where his delegate, who had by
ice the charge of the prisoners, laid this care upon Joseph.
ph possessed an extraordinary talent of interpreting
is, which, at length, made him known to pi. who
ppointed him ruler over all Egypt, and gave him in marriage
nath, daughter of Potiphar. Whether this was the same
har who purchased Joseph or not is uncertain.
ASENATH, the daughter of Potiphar, or Potipherah, and
wife of Joseph, prime minister to Pharaoh king of Egypt, who
seems to have made up the marriage, as it is said he gave her
Wo the patriarch, Gen. xli. 45. Some authors suppose Poti-
pherah to be the same with Potiphar, and that Asenath had
endeared herself to Joseph by taking his part in his adversity,
and vindicating him to her father against her lewd mother's ca-
umny, which is indeed extremely probable.
AMALEK was the son of Eliphaz and Timna his concubine,
and grandson to Esau. He succeeded Gatam in the govern-
ment of Edom, south of Judah, Gen. xxxvi. 12, 16. 1 Chron.
i. 36. Amalek was father of the Amalekites, a powerful people,
who dwelt in Arabia Petraea, between the Dead Sea and the
Red Sea, or between Havilah and Shur, perhaps in moving
roops, 1 Sam. xv. 7. We cannot assign the particular place
heir habitation, nor does it appear they had any cities,
though one is mentioned, 1 Sam. xv. 5. They lived generally
arties, in caves, or tents. . .
|NAN, was son of Judah, and grandson of the patriarch
Jacob. Judah having given a young woman named Tamar to
his eldest son Er for a wife, Er died without children. Judah
then caused his second son Onan to marry Tamar, that he
might raise successors to his brother. But Onan perceiving
the children produced by him would be deemed to belong to
other, withheld from Tamar the means of becoming a
er. This was so displeasing to the Lord, that he caused
to : Gen. xxxviii. 6, 7, &c. probably by some extraordi-











































B. c. 1710.] FROM ABRAHAM TO MOSES.
herself as an harlot, and sat in a place where Judah would pass
Judah went in unto her, and gave her as pledges his ring, his
bracelets, and his staff. . - - - -
After some months her pregnancy began to show; Judah
being informed of it, would have had her burned alive. But
when she produced the ring, the bracelets, and the staff, and
said that person was the father of the child who owned those
pledges, Judah acknowledged that she was more just than he
had been. She had twins, of which one was called Pharez and
the other Zarah. This happened about B.C. 1727.
PHAREZ, son of Judah and Tamar, Gen. xxxviii. 27, 28.
&c. so named, from the circumstance attending his birth, by his
mother Pharez, i. e. one breaking forth. His sons are men-
tioned in Num. xxvi. 21. and his posterity down to Mary and
Joseph, in Matt. i. and Luke iii.
MANASSEH, the eldest son of Joseph, and £º.
the patriarch Jacob, Gen. xli. 50, 51. was born A. M. 2290,
and B. C. 1714. a .
EPHRAIM, was the name of Joseph's second son, and Ase-
nath, Potiphar's daughter. He was born in Egypt, B. C.
1710. Ephraim, with his brother Manasseh, was presented by
his father Joseph to Jacob on his death-bed, Gen. xlviii. 8, &c.
Jacob laid his right hand on Ephraim the younger, and his
left on Manasseh the elder. Joseph was desirous to change
his hands, but Jacob answered, I know it, my son; Manasseh
shall be multiplied, but Ephraim shall be greater. . . . . .
The sons of Ephraim having made an inroad into Palestine,
the inhabitants of Gath killed them. Ephraim their father
mourned many days for them, and his brethren came to com-
fort him, 1 Chron. vii. 20, 21. Afterwards he had a son named
Beriah, and a daughter Sherah. He had also other sons, Re-
phah, Resheph, Tela, &c. His posterity multiplied in Egypt
to the number of 40,500 men capable of bearing arms.
__GILEAD, the son of Machir, and grandson of Manasseh.
His posterity had their inheritance allotted them in the moun-
tains of Gilead, so named from him. . º
º, ELIPHAZ, the eldest of Job's three uncharitable friends.
From his being styled the Temanite, it is evident that he was
a descendant of Esau, by Teman, the son of Eliphaz, and grand-
son of Esau, the first duke of Edom; which contributes to
assist the chronologist in fixing the period when Job lived.
... BILDAD, the Shuhite, one of Job's friends, descended from
Shuah the son º Abraham and Keturah. Shuah's
, eastward of the Holy Land



























[B, C, 1674.
ahor, Abraham's brother, and the youngest
able speech to Job, and his senior friends, is recorded in the
ºxxii. and five following chapters. . . . .
OB, an ancient inhabitant of the land of Uz, east of Gilead,
rkable for his patience in the midst of most accumulated
and extreme adversity. Many passages in the book of Job
plainly show, that he flourished in the patriarchal age. The
allusions to the deluge, and the destruction of Sodom, and the
total silence of Job and his friends with respect to the law,
which is never once quoted, and to the departure of the Israel-
ites out of Egypt, show that he must have lived between the
former and the latter of these events. But what fixes the chro-
nology of Job almost to a certainty, is that his aged friend,
Eliphax the Temanite, is expressly recorded to have been the
son of Esau, and the father of TEMAN, Gen. xxxvi. 10, 11. who
is said to have built a city named after himself, in which his
father resided, and was hence called a Temanite. Alstedius,
in his Thesaurus Chronologiae, proceeding upon this probability,
fixes the era of Job's sufferings, B. C. 1673, and B. C. 1674;
and gives two genealogies of Job, by one of which he makes
him. on of Uz or Huz, (mentioned Gen. xxii. 21.) the
eldest son of Nahor, Abraham's brother, and by the other, for
which he quotes the authority of the LXX. in their appendix
to the book of Job, he makes him the same with Jobab, king
of Edom, (mentioned Gen. xxxvi. 33.) the son of Zerah or
Serah, the son of Reuel, and grandson of Esau, by Bashemath,
the daughter of Ishmael. According to this genealogy, Eli-
phaz was Job's grand-uncle, which is not improbable. Alste-
dius also tells us, that Dinah, Jacob's daughter, was Job's wife.
descent of Elihu also (mentioned in chap. xxxii. 27.)
Buz, the second son of Nahor, Gen. xxii. 21. is an addi-
irmation that Job lived about this period.
* Job was a man of great probity, virtue, and religion, and
he possessed great riches in cattle and slaves, which at that
time constituted the chief wealth even of princes in Arabia and
Edom. He had seven sons and three daughters, and was in
at r te all the Eas £ rn Yeo jle on both sides of the
. He had an aversion to injustice, idolatry, fraud,
ity; he avoided evil thoughts, and dangerous looks;
poo s i fath er to th
























































a
Val, 8 e been followe
Latins hold his festival on May 10. Next to the Maccabees.
who were brothers a martyrs, Job is the first saint to
whom the western church decreed public and religious honou.
Among the patriarchs and prophets there is no character to
whom more churches have been consecrated, or chapels dedi-
cated, than to Job. A pretended tomb of him has been shown
in many places. The most celebrated is that of the Tracho-
mites, towards the springs of the Jordan. It is situate between
the cities, still bearing the names of Teman, Shuah, and Naama.
There is another tomb publicly shown for that of the patriarch
in Armenia, where Č.. the Chaldee Paraphrast, contended
that he had lived. And as another Chaldee interpreter placed
his residence in the vicinity of Constantinople, we have also
third tomb of Job exhibited near the walls of this city; but
which, by more sober historians, has been referred to an Arabian
warrior of the same name, who fell at the siege of Constanti-
nople in the year 672. In this city, however, was a monastery,
in the sixth century, dedicated to the patriarch himself; yet the
ecclesiastics did not venture to affirm that it was erected in con-
sequence of their being in possession of his remains, as is usu-
ally done on the foundation of monasteries. . . . . . . "
AMRAM, the son of Koath, and grandson of Levi. He
married Jochebed, who bare unto him Aaron, Moses, and Mi-
riam. Amram died in Egypt, aged 137. Exod. vi. 20. ºl
JOCHEBED, was wife of Amram, and mother of Miriam,
Moses, and Aaron. Several difficulties are started concerning
the degree of relation between Amram and Jochebed, who was
the daughter immediately of Levi, and aunt of Amram, her hus-
band, because, Ex. ii. 1, vi. 20, Numb. xxvi. 59., she is called
He daughter of Levi. Others maintain, that she was only cou-
sin-german to Amram, being daughter of one of Kohath's bre-
thren. The Chaldee, on Exod. vi. 20, says, that she was the
daughter of Amram's sister; the Septuagint, that she was dau
e
. §§§ 3 ; ; ?”;3. … ... º. º. . ... 3 ; daugh-
ter to Amram's brother. Calmet thinks it most probable, that
Jochebed was only cousin-german to Amram. tº
PHARAOH, who persecuted the Israelites, and published a
decree, that all the male children born of Hebrew women should
SHIPHRAHand PUAH, two midwives of Goshen, in Egypt,
*...* celebrated in sacred history, and rewarded by §.






































1111 . **@º r gods, by murdering the
ace who despised their deities.
V H ere we ca not trace the connection between sacred and
unehistory, we shall keep the characters º, although
lomething from the chronological o :: ;
º der.
one of
he ancient kings of the Peloponnesus, died
. Hºls, king of Sicyon, a son of Europs. He died
| LYCAON I. king of Arcadia, son of Pelasgus and Meliboea.
He built a town called Lycosura, on the top of Mount Lycaeus,
in honour of Jupiter. He had many wives; he had a daughter
called Callisto, and 50 sons. He was succeeded by Nictymus,
his eldest son. He lived about B. C. 1820. There was another
king of this name, Lycaon II. celebrated for his cruelties.
INACHUS, a son of Oceanus and Tethys, and the father of
Io. He founded the kingdom of Argos, and was succeeded by
his son Phoroneus, B.C. 1807, and gave his name to a river of
Argos, of which he became the tutelar deity. He reigned 60
OENOTRUS, the son of Lycaon, and sixth in descent from
Phoroneus, king of Argos, who reigned about B. C. 1750, was
the founder of i. first Greek colony in Ital * *
OGYGES, of Greece, a sovereign of Rica and Boeotia,
under whose reign º the inundation, since known by
the name of Ogyges' deluge. Whether this prince was a na-
tive or a foreigner, at what time he lived, and what was the de-
luge which happened under his reign, are questions of no very
easy solution. The epoch of the deluge is placed by Barrier to-
ward the year B. C. 1796, agreeably to the Greek history, and
to the opinion of Petavius and Marsham. In Blair's table, the
reign of Ogyges, in Attica, is fixed in the year B. C. 1796, and
his death in B. C. 1764, when the deluge happened; which dis-
aster is said to have laid waste the country of Attica for 200
years, even till the coming of Cecrops.
Philosophy, LITE RATURE,






















B. c. 1687.) FROM ABRAHAM To Moses. 49
on physic. Clemens Alexandrinus has given a catalogue of his
works; but none of them are extant, except a piece entitled
Poemander, but even this is of doubtful authority. He taught
the Egyptians chemistry, the art of land-measuring, the cultiva-
tion of the olive, the division of time into hours, and the use of
hieroglyphics. He is supposed to have flourished about B. C.
1928. 2: 3%
PROMETHEUS, supposed to have been the first discoverer
of the art of striking fire by flint and steel; which gave rise to
the fable of his stealing fire from heaven. He was a renowned
warrior, but his history is involved in fable. He flourished about
1687, B. C. The poetical account is, that he formed a man of
clay, of such exquisite workmanship, that Pallas, charmed with
his ingenuity, offered him whatever in heaven could contribute
to finish his design, and for this purpose took him up with her
to the celestial mansions, where he stole some fire from the cha-
riot of the sun, with which he animated his image. At this
theft Jupiter was so enraged, that he ordered Vulcan to chain
him down on Mount Caucasus, and sent a vulture to prey on his
liver; which was every night renewed, in proportion to the quan-
tity eaten up in the day-time, until at last he was delivered by
the vulture being killed. . . . . . . . . .
As T Ro No MY.
ATLAS, an ancient king of Mauritania, brother to Prome-
theus, and a great astronomer. From his taking observations
of the stars from a mountain, the poets feigned him to have been
turned into a mountain, and to sustain the heavens on his shoul-
ders. Being an excellent astronomer, and the first who taught
the doctrine of the sphere, they tell us that his daughters were
turned into stars; seven of them forming the Pleiades, and the
other seven the Hyades. &
VOL. I.

§
of Elisheba, the wife of A
OM MOSES TO GIDEON.
B. C. 1574.
REMARKABLE FACTs, Events, AND Discoveries.
1574 Aaron born in Egypt.
1571 Moses born, adopted by Pharaoh's daughter, and educated in Egyp-
3. tian learning. r
1656 A colony of Saites brought from Egypt into Greece by Cecrops, who
begins the kingdom of Athens. w
1555 Moses performs many miracles in Egypt, and departs from that
º kingdom with 600,000 Israelites, besides children, which com-
pletes the 430 years of sojourning. Soon after he delivers the
law, and establishes the tabernacle and ark.
1546 Troy founded by Scamander. .
1515 Thirty-one kingdoms of Canaan subdued by Joshua: and the king-
dom of Israel established in their stead. The Sabbatical year
. Cornhºlen C68.
1500 The deluge of Deucalion. r
1496 The council of Amphictyon established at Thermopylae.
1493 Cadmus carried the Phenician letters into Greece, and built the cita-
del of Thebes. %
1485 The first ship that appeared in Greece, brought from Egypt, by Da-
. maus, to Rhodes.
1452. The Pentateuch written in the land of Moab.
1451 bº * Moses; and the Israelites, under Joshua, pass the river
&::$ & . or ſiah.
1406 Iron found in Greece, from the accidental burning of the woods.
1344. The kingdom of Mycenae begins. .
1326 The Isthmian games instituted at Corinth.
1825 The Egyptian canicular year began July 20th.
In this period a remarkable revolution takes place, in the migration
of the Israelites out of Egypt, and their establishment in the land of
Canaan. We have in this period, under the head of Literature, Cad-
mus and his son.
AMINADAB, or AMMINADAB, the son of Aram, great
grandson of Judah, and the father of Naashon, one of the pro-
genitors of the royal house of David, He was also the father
㺠º ºš aron, and thus theF. in the
ine of the high priests, as well as of the kings of Ju-




B. c. 1571.J. FRom Moses to GideoN. 51
AARON, the brother of Moses, and first high priest of the
Israelites, was great-grandson of Levi, by the father's side, and
grandson by the .. He had a considerable share in all
his brother's exertions, for the deliverance of that people from
the tyranny of the Egyptians; and seems only to have erred in
the matter of the golden calf, which, according to some authors,
he made, in compliance with the people's desire, being afraid of
alling a sacrifice to their resentment. He continued in his high
station, till, at a very advanced period, in the presence of the
assembled people, he transferred the robes of his office to his
son Eleazer, and died upon Mount Hor in the 123d year of his
age, B. C. 1452. -
MOSES, the son of Amram and Jochebed, was born in
Egypt B.C. 1571. Pharaoh, the king of that country, per-
ceiving that the Hebrews were becoming a powerful pe |.
issued a mandate, under severe penalties, that every male child
born of Hebrew parents should be drowned in the Nile. By
the operation of this cruel edict, the monarch hoped, in time,
to exterminate the whole nation of Israel. Parents were even
enjoined to become the executioners of their own offspring, or
at least to give such information of their birth as to enable the
officers of the king to accomplish the savage act. The reason
of this decree, according to Josephus, was the prediction of an
Egyptian prophet, that a Hebrew child was about to be born
who would hereafter diminish the power of Egypt, and increase
that of the Israelites. #
At the birth of Moses, it is said that the natural reluctance
of his parents to obey such a decree, was increased by the love-
liness of the child, though mothers, probably, always see beauty
in their own little infants, which, for obvious reasons, is a very
wise provision of Providence, and they ventured to keep him
in concealment during the space of three months. At length,
the extreme danger of a discovery which would have proved
fatal to themselves as well as the infant, reduced them to the
cruel necessity of exposing him. His mother took a small
ark, made of the ligneous part of the papyrus, and having be-
Smeared it with bitumen, to render it water-tight, placed the
infant in it, and set it down among the rushes, on the marshy
brink of the river. Anxious, however, about his fate, she
Placed her daughter Miriam at a certain distance, to watch the
*rcumstances that should occur. Soon after this, the daugh-
ter of Pharaoh coming to the river, with her female attendants,
order to bathe, discovered the ar! ds
to
º
---. * <, and sent one of her mai
it. ermined to save the life of the child, and
º, * Own: Miriam approa


















52 UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. [B. C. 1571.
child, and she was strictly enjoined to treat him as her own,
under the promise of being amply rewarded for her services.
About three years afterwards, the princess adopted him for her
own, called his name Moses, and caused him to be diligently
instructed in all the learning of the Egyptians. But his father
and mother, to whom, as we have seen, he had been restored,
were at great pains to instruct him in the history and religion
of his country. It is highly probable that the manner in which
his life had been saved led them to hope he was intended for
some great work, and hence they would be doubly careful of
his education; and when arrived at years of discretion, they,
probably, by relating to him the secret of his birth and of the
attendant circumstances, inspired him with similar notions.
Many things are related by Josephus and other historians, con-
cerning the early periods of the life of Moses. Josephus relates,
that when Moses was only three years old, that is, when he
was specially introduced to Pharaoh's daughter as her adopted
son, no one who saw him could avoid being struck with the
singular beauty of his countenance, and he adds, people about
their common business would leave it to gaze at him. Philo
says, that at his birth he had a more elegant and beautiful ap-
pearance than denoted an ordinary person. According to Jo-
sephus and Eusebius, Moses acted as a leader in the wars, dis-
tinguished himself, and obtained many signal victories. When
he was about forty years of age he left the court of Pharaoh,
and went to visit his countrymen the Hebrews, who groaned
under the ill-usage and oppression of their unfeeling masters.
On a time he perceived an Egyptian smiting an Hebrew; look-
ing about and seeing no one near, he ran to the defence of the
latter, and having killed the Egyptianin the struggle, he buried
him in the sand. In consequence of this act, which it is
difficult to justify, he was obliged to flee into the land of Mi-
dian, in Arabia, there to seek that safety which he was aware
he could not expect in Egypt. Here he married Zipporah,
daughter of the priest of Jethro, who bare him two sons. At
this period he was employed by his father-in-law, in attending
upon his flocks. As he was following this business upon Mount
Horeb, he had an extraordinary vision, which occasioned his
return into the land of Egypt. In this vision he saw, or thought
he saw, a bush in flames, but which was not consumed, and
from the midst of the flames a voice proceeded, announcing the
presence of Almighty God, and commanding the shepherd to
go and deliver his brethren from the state of bondage in which
they had been so long involved. Moses was desirous of excus-
ing himself from this high and very important office, till he was
assured, by miraculous signs, that he should be accompanied
in his mission by the divine power. Upon his return to Egypt,
with his brother Aaron, went to the court of Pharaoh, and




B. c. 1571.] FROM MOSES TO GIDEON. 53
told the king that God commanded him to let the Hebrews
depart, and go three days’ journey into the desert, for the pur-
pose of celebrating a religious festival, without giving offence to
the Egyptians, by making them the witnesses of their peculiar
rites and ceremonies. The monarch was deaf to their entrea-
ties, and so far from regarding the message delivered by Moses
and Aaron as one sent from a superior power, declared that he
acknowledged no such power, and in contempt of them, he
ordered the labours of the Israelites to be increased, instead of
allowing them any relaxation of which they made a demand.
In the anguish of their hearts, under an additional load of mi-
sery, the Hebrews now attributed their sufferings to Moses and
Aaron, who had attempted to free them from their bondage.
The want of success which had attended his first application to
the king of Egypt, would have prevented Moses from appear-
ing again before him, had not God encouraged him by fresh
assurances of his determination to rescue the Israelites with a
triumphant arm, and invested him with a miraculous power
over Pharaoh, to be exercised in such displays of divine judg-
ment on that proud monarch and his people, as should force
him to dismiss them. Thus encouraged, Moses presented him-
self again before Pharaoh, and confirmed his former message
by a miracle; which was followed, at different periods, by nine
others, as may be seen in the books of Exodus, inflicting the
most dreadful calamities upon the Egyptians, as punishments
for their continued oppression of the children of Israel. The
tenth and last miracle, or plague, brought upon the Egyptians,
was the death of all the first born in the land, who were all cut
offin one night. This dreadful calamity seems to have sub-
dued the heart of Pharaoh, and he consented to allow the peo-
ple of Israel to depart from his kingdom.
As soon as Moses had returned to Goshen, among his people,
he made signals for collecting the whole body of the Israelites
at a place of rendezvous, whence he began his march at their
head before the break of day. They consisted of 600,000 men,
besides women and children, and a multitude of strangers, who
were probably proselytes of the gate, or persons who had re-
nounced idolatry, though they were not yet circumcised, and all
their flocks and herds. They proceeded till they reached the
borders of the Red Sea; in the mean time Pharaoh, who had
suddenly raised an immense army, pursued them and overtook
them in this position. The Israelites were now hemmed in by
the sea, impassable mountains, and Pharaoh's army; there was
no way of escape left, and they, reduced to the utmost distress,
began to reproach Moses for leading them out of Egypt to pe-
rish under the sword of their enemies. Moses comforted them
with the assurance, that this would be the last time of their seeing
the Egyptians; and he had no sooner dismissed them, than God



sal, BIOGRAPHY, [B. C. 1571.
ommanded him to direct their march towards the sea, promis-
ing that upon his stretching out his rod over it, the waters would
lººr?. make way for the Israelites to go through on dry
ind, while Pharaoh and his mighty hosts, venturing to pursue
lem, should perish in the returning waves. The event }. Z- ;
§ #3 0.
hded with this promise, Moses instituted a festival
ays, in commemoration of this memorable event. Moses
how entered upon the arduous task of conducting his people
towards the promised land. . For an account of their march we
must refer to the Scriptures; it will be sufficient to observe, that
the afflictions which they endured in the course of their journey,
were intended to train them to a fitness for the divine blessings,
to correct them of that fondness for superstition and idolatry to
which they were strangely prone; to prepare them for a pecu-
liar system of legislation which was to be formed and established
among them, and which was calculated to preserve them from
the corruptions of the rest of the world; and to maintain the
belief, in one living and true God, before they were to enter on
th *..." inheritance.
They arrived at the foot of Mount Sinai, on the third day of
the ninth month after their departure from Egypt. Moses hav-
ing ascended several times into the Mount, received the law
from the hand of God, that is, in a miraculous manner, in the
midst of thunders and lightnings, and concluded the famous
covenant between the Almighty and the children of Israel.
When he descended from Sinai, he found that the people had
fallen into the idolatrous worship of a golden calf. Moses,
shocked at such an instance of ingratitude towards the Al-
mighty, and agitated at the alarming consequences that might
follow from such a dereliction of principle, let fall the tables of
the law which he was carrying in his hand, and caused all those
to be put to death who would persist in the idolatrous worship.
After this he again ascended into the mountain, and obtained
new tables of stone, on which the law was inscribed. On the
descent of Moses his face shone with such brightness, that the
Israelites did not dare to look upon him till he had covered
- himself with a veil. ---- § §
. The next act of Moses was to call an assembly of the people,
in which he announced God's renewal of his covenant with
them; enjoined the strict observance of the sabbath; declared
his command which he had received, to erect a tabernacle of
the most costly materials; and invited them to contribute libe-,
º ing. The tabernacle was finished in six months, when
consecrated by Moses, who anointed Aaron as the high
d his sons as assistants in the worship, and thus com-
year B. C. 1490, that pompous worship of the
dapted to the then existing state of the Is-
º





























B. c. 1571.] FROM Moses to GIDEon. 55
raelites, who were incapable of being affected with a purer and
more spiritual one. is tabernacle served the Israelites in-
stead of a temple till the time of Solomon.
After the camp had remained almost a year in the neighbou
hood of Mount Sinai, the Israelites re-commenced their marches
through the wilderness, under the immediate direction of the
Most #. God, who governed them immediately by means of
his servant Moses, whom now he had chosen to be the inter-
preter of his will and the promulgator of his commands among
the people, but he required all the honours belonging to their
king to be paid to himself. He assumed to dwell in the taber-
macle ºil. was always in the midst of the camp, and he de-
mounced punishments against the transgressors of his laws.
This was properly the period of the theocracy, taken in its full
extent, for God was not only considered as the true and proper
object of religious worship, but as the sovereign to whom the
honours of supreme majesty were paid. In their long journies
through the wilderness, every measure both of the leader and
of the people, was done by the direction of the Almighty. After
Moses had regulated every thing regarding the civil adminis-
tration, and the marching of the troops, he led the Israelites
to the confines of Canaan, to the foot of Mount Nebo. It was
from this mountain he was to take a view of the promised land,
which it was not permitted him to enter. Being apprized that
he was to die on the mountain, he diligently employed his few
remaining days in settling the affairs . the people. His first
care was to have Joshua confirmed his successor, in the most
solemn manner. Moses also appointed the limits of the land
which they were to conquer, and the distribution of it by lot,
according to God's command, and enjoined several other regu-
lations relative to civil and ecclesiastical affairs. He next as-
sembled the people around him, and recapitulated to them, in
a long and pathetic discourse, all that had taken place since
their departure from Egypt to that time. In a subsequent as-
sembly he caused the whole nation to ratify the covenant which
their fathers had made with God in Mount Horob, and con-
*luded with calling heaven and earth to witness the truth of
what they heard from him, the reasonableness of those laws
which God had given them, and the certai .
WS
º - inty of the blessings
º º evils which would follow the observance, or the breach of
hern, º
The last transaction of Moses with the Israelites, was to sum-
mon them again to receive his farewell and prophetic blessing
upon the people in general, and upon each tribe in particular
As soon as he had de ed his last blessing, he went up alone
to mount Nebo, and fr 1, its highest eminence, had a


























UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY, [B.C. 157 1.
the age of 120 in the year B. C. 1451, when his mental facul-
ties were in perfect order, and neither his eye-sight nor his
matural vigour was in the least impaired.
Moses was certainly an extraordinary character, and an emi-
mently great and wise man. He is commended as the meekest
of men, and of magnanimity, to bear as he did for forty years
the trying provocations which he received while governing and
instructing a most obstinate and rebellious people. His zeal
for the honour of the one living and true God, forms a conspi-
cuous feature in his character, and so indeed the principle
which at once lies at the foundation, and constitutes the central
point of all his institutions. When we observe the peculiarities
in which his institutions and dogmas differ from those of the
legislators and moralists who were the most famed for their
wisdom among other ancient nations, we are satisfied that, con-
sidering his circumstances, and those of the Israelites at the time
when they were established and promulgated, they ought not
to be attributed to a human, but to a divine origin. .
MIRLAM, sister of Aaron and Moses, makes some re-
markable appearances in Scripture. It was owing to her that
her mother was employed by Pharaoh's daughter as nurse to
Moses. She put herself at the head of the women of Israel,
after their passage over the Red Sea, in order to sing the song
which the men had sung before. She died before her brothers,
though in the same year, and was buried at the public expense.
HUR, son of Caleb, son of Esron, different from Caleb, the
son of Jephunneh. According to Josephus, Hur was husband
of Miriam, the sister of Moses; but others say, that he was
her son. When Moses had sent Joshua against the Amalekites,
he went up the mountain with Hur and Aaron, Exod. xvii. 10.
and whilst he lifted up his hands in prayer, Aaron and Hur
supported his arms, to prevent their growing weary. When
Moses ascended Mount Sinai to receive the law, he referred
the elders, if any difficulty should arise, to Aaron and Hur.
Exod. xxiv. 14. . 2... . .
ABIHU, one of Aaron's four sons, who with his brother
Nadab, was struck with fire from heaven, for using strange fire
in their censers. ...: ; : . . . * : *
ELEAZER, the third son of Aaron, and his successor in
the dignity of high priest. * : * : : * . . ;
AHIEZER, a prince of the tribe of Dan, who was selected
to assist Moses in numbering the Israelites.
SHELOMITH, daughter of Dibri, of the tribe of Dan,
was mother of that blasphemer, who having blasphemed
the name of the Lord in the camp, was condemned to be
ſtoned. The Scripture tells us that Shelomith had this blas-
§ ... . .'; . . . . . . . . . . . »tian; which should be naturally under-
n Egyptian who had married her; but the rabbins
in it otherwise. They say, Shelomith was a very hand-













B.C. 1571.] FROM MOSES TO GIDEON. 57.
some and virtuous woman, who having been solicited to cri-
minal conversation by an Egyptian, an overseer of the He-
brews' labours, without complying; he at last found an op-
portunity, by night, of stealing into the house and bed of
Shelomith, in the absence of her husband, and abused her
simplicity. . . tº
he day following, when this woman discovered the injury,
she bitterly complained of it to her husband when he returned.
He at first thought of putting her away, but kept her some time
to see if she should prove with child by the Egyptian. After
some months her pregnancy becoming evident, he sent her
away, and with words he assaulted the officer who had done this
outrage. The Egyptian abused him still farther, both by words
and blows. Moses coming hither by chance, and hearing of this
injury done by the Egyptian to the Israelite, he took up his de-
fence, killed the Egyptian, and buried him in the sand. .
The others of Shelomith, seeing their sister put away like
an adultress, pretended to call her husband to account for it,
and to make him take her again. He refused; and they came
to blows. Moses happened to be there, and wished to recon-
cile them; but the husband of Shelomith asked him what he
had to do in the matter? Who had made him a judge over
them? and, whether he had a mind to kill him also, as yester-
day he killed the Egyptian? Moses hearing this, fled from
*# into the country of Midian. x
PHARAOH, before whom Moses performed many miracles,
and in whose sight Egypt was visited with ten dreadful plagues.
Exod. vii-x. This Pharaoh having at last been compelled to
send away the Hebrews, and to suffer them to go out of Egypt,
repented of the leave he had given, and pursued them at the
head of his army with his chariots. But he was drowned in
the Red Sea, wherein he had rashly entered in the eagerness
of his pursuit. Exod. xiv. Some historians give us the name
ºf this Pharaoh, Appion calls him Amasis; Eusebius calls him
Chenchris; Usher calls him Amenophis. . . . .
BEZALEEL, the son of Uri, of the tribe of Judah, and
Aholiab, the son of Achisamah, of the tribe of Dan, were ex-
ºf artificers, employed by Moses in erecting the tabernacle.
, TTPAL, was king of nations, or of Goim. Gen. xiv. 1.
Some think he was ii. of Galilee of the Gentiles, beyond
Jordan... Symmachus translates it king of Pamphylia; the
.."...ºf º the º ; Joshua speaks of a king of the na-
90s of Gilgal, or of Galilee, according to the Septuagint.
Josh. xii. ; - game. according to the serum .
ABIRAM, a seditious Levite, who rebelled against Moses
and AARON, with a view of obtaining a share in the govern-
ment, " . with |. and Dathan, concerned with the
Were swallowed up alive by the opening earth. See K
KORAH, was the son of 1. of the race o





UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY, [B.C. 1452.
s, a celebr y among the Levites. Korah being dis-
fied with the rank he held among the sons of Levi, and
envying rity of Moses and Aaron, formed against them
a party, in which he en †. Dathan, Abiram, and On, with
two hundred and fifty of the principal Levites. Numb. xvi. 1,
2, 3, &c. Korah, at the head of the rebels, went to Moses and
Aaron, and complaimed that they alone arrogated to themselves
all the authority over the people of the Lord. Moses, falling
N. t
1er of Ash
with his face on the earth, answered them as follows: To-mor-
row in the morning, the Lord will discover who are his. Let
every one of you take therefore his censer, and to-morrow he
shall put incense into it, and offer it before the Lord; and he
shall be acknowledged priest whom the Lord shall choose and
approve. .
The next day, Korah, with two hundred and fifty of his fac-
tion, presenting themselves with their censers before the Lord,
the glory of the Lord appeared visibly over the tabernacle; and
a voice was heard to say, “Separate yourselves from among this
congregation, that I may consume them in a moment.” Upon
this Moses and Aaron, falling upon the ground, said, “O God,
the God of the spirits of all flesh, shall one man sin, and wilt
thou be wroth with all the congregation?” And the Lord said
unto Moses, “Command all the people to depart from about the
tents of Korah, Dathan, and Abiram.” When, therefore, the
people were retired, Moses said, if these men die the common
death of all men, then the Lord hath not sent me; but if the
earth open and swallow them up quick, ye shall know that they
have i. the Lord. As soon as he had spoken, the
earth opened from under their feet, and swallowed them up
with what belonged to them.
There was one thing which added to this surprising wonder,
and which was, that when Korah was thus swallowed up in the
Barth, his sons were preserved from his misfortunes.
OG, a king of Bashan, of a most gigantic stature. His
stead was of iron, and was nine cubits loug, and four broad;
which, according to some calculations, is sixteen feet five inches
long, and above seven feet three inches broad. The learned
Calmet, however, makes it only fifteen feet four inches long, and
above seven feet three inches broad. Wolsius makes Ogmore
than thirteen feet high. The Rabbies pretend, that he lived
* the flood, and preserved himself during the time of it, by
on the outside of the ark and receiving food from
&c. When me defeat of Sihon, king of the
3d all his troops and attacked th
. routed, himself
immonites some time
Num. xxi. Deut. iii.



































B. c. 1451J FROM MOSES TO GIDEON. 59
SIHON, a king of the Amorites, on the East b º
Jordan. He invaded the kingdom of Moab, and seized a con
siderable part of it. About B.C. 1452, having refused a pas-
sage to the Israelites through his territories, Moses attacked
him, subdued and depopulated his country, and gave it to the
Reubenites. (Numb. xxi. 21–31. Deut. ii. 26–34.)
JOSHUA, succeeded Moses in the government of the
Israelities, in the year 1451 B.C., at the age of ninety years,
and was their conductor to the land of Canaan. He was the
son of Nun, of the tribe of Ephraim, and born in the land of
Goshen in the year B. C. 1536. At the period of the Exodus,
Joshua was distinguished by his talents and virtues, so that he
was taken into the confidence of Moses, and selected to com-
mand the Israelites, when they were attacked by the Amalekites,
in their march from Mount Horeb to Mount Sinai. He was
likewise honoured with the privilege of accompanying Moses to
Mount Sinai, and of remaining with him forty days, when he
received directions for the future government of the Israelites,
and the laws written on the tables of stone. He also accom-
panied Caleb, and the other ten persons who had been deputed
to examine the land of Canaan, previous to the invasion of it by
the Israelites. When Moses was apprized of his approaching
dissolution, he confirmed Joshua as his successor in the most
public and solemn manner. Although he was advanced in
years when he conducted the Israelites to Canaan, he performed
this arduous undertaking with singular prudence and valour.
When they were passing the river Jordan, in the extraordi-
nary war which is recorded in their history, he directed two
monuments to be erected as a memorial of their miraculous
passage, one on the spot where the ark had stood in the bed of
the river, and the other on the shore, and from the banks of
Jordan, he proceeded towards the plains of Jericho, and pitched
his tent for the first time in Canaan, the land of which he had
taken possession of at Gilgal. For the conflicts and successes
that attended his future progress, we refer to his history.
Having surveyed and divided the lands among the several tribes
B.C. 1445, he governed Israel in peace; and when he became
sensible that the termination of his life could be at no great
distance, he summoned all the tribes of Israel to Shechem, and
recited the extraordinary operations of the providence of God
in their favour, and having awakened in their minds a becoming
sense of gratitude, enforced upon them the wisdom and duty of
persevering obedience to his laws, and exhorted them to renew
the covenants by which they had already engaged to worship
and serve him. This transaction was then . registered,
and a monument for perpetuating it was erected near a great
oak which was in Shechem. Soon after this event, viz. in the









UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. [B.C. 1452. .
year B.C. 1426, Joshua, having exhibited ample evidence for
the propriety of his name, which denoted “Saviour,” died in his
retreat at Timnath-Sera, at the age of 110 years. The book of
Joshua, supposed to have been written by himself and to have
received some additions from Samuel and Ezra, may be divided
into three parts; the first of which is a history of the conquest
of the land of Canaan; the second, which begins with the twelfth
chapter, is a description of that country, and the divisions of it
among the tribes; and the third, comprised in the two last
chapters, contains the renewal of the covenant, he caused the
Israelites to make, and the death of their victorious leader, and
governor. The whole comprehends a term of seventeen, or
according to others, of twenty-seven years.
- CALEB, the son of Jephunneh, of the tribe of Judah, one
of the twelve spies who were sent to view the land of Canaan,
and the only one who joined with Joshua in giving a favourable
report of it. Numb. xiii. and xiv. His capture of Hebron,
defeat of the Anakims, and the portioning of his daughter
Achsah, are recorded in Josh. xiv. 6—15. xv. 13–19. and
Judg. i. 9–15. This hero had three sons, and a numerous
posterity. - º s -
BOHAN, a Reubenite, who appears to have done some
great exploits in the conquest of Canaan; a stone having been
erected to his honour, on the frontier between Judah and Ben-
jamin. Josh. xv. and xviii. 17.
ADONI-ZEDEK, a heathen king of Jerusalem, who, jealous
of the rapid success of the Israelites under Joshua, and pro-
voked at the Gibeonites for forming an alliance with them,
entered into a combination with four neighbouring princes, to
stop their progress, by attacking their new allies. The battle
that followed this vain attempt, the extraordinary circumstances
attending it, with the defeat, flight, disgrace, and death of the
combined kings, the capture of their dominions, and the exter-
mination of the inhabitants, are narrated in the tenth chapter
of Joshua. * . . . .
* RAHAB, an hostess of the city of Jericho, who received
and concealed the spies sent by Joshua. The Hebrew calls her.
Zona (Joshua ii. 1.) which Jerome and many others understand
of a prostitute. Others think she was only an hostess or inn-
keeper, and that this is the true signification of the original
word. Had she been a woman of ill fame, would Salmon, a
prince of the tribe of Judah, have taken her to wife? or could
he have done it by the law Besides, the spies of Joshua would
hardly have gone to lodge with a common harlot; they who
were charged with so nice and dangerous a commission.
But whatever was Rahab's profession, when the spies were
entered her house, notice was given to the king of Jericho, who
sent to Rahab to produce those men; but she hid them, and
º









B. C. 1451.] FROM MOSES TO GIDEON. 61.
told the messengers, that such men had been at her house,
but when the gates of the city were being shut, they went out.
Pursue them quickly, she said, and you may overtake them.
They pursued in vain, for they were concealed on the terrace
of Rahab's house. : . . . . . . . . .
When the king's messengers were going away, Rahab went
up to the terrace, or roof, of her house, and said to the spies, I
know the Lord has delivered this country into your hands;
promise me, now, that you will save the lives of me and my
family, when you take this city. The spies promised her, with
an oath, and bid her tie a scarlet string to her window, that her
house might be distinguished when the Israelites should enter
Jericho. . . .
Then she let them down by a rope; for her house joined to
the walls of the city; advising them to return by the mountains,
for fear of meeting those who had been sent in quest of them;
and to continue on the mountains three days, in which time the
messengers would return, after which they might proceed. The
spies followed Rahab's council exactly, and at the end of three
days arrived at Joshua's camp, to whom they related all they
had discovered at Jericho, and their promises to their bene-
factress Rahab. When Joshua took the city, he sent the two
spies to the house of Rahab, to bring her out safe, with all her
relations. Rahab married Salmon, a prince of Judah, by whom
she had Boaz ; from whom descended Obed, Jesse, and king
David. . . .
JABIN, was a king of Hazor, in the northern part of Canaan.
Josh. xi. 1–3, &c. Amazed at the conquests of Joshua, who
had already subdued the south of Canaan, Jabin engaged the
other kings in the northern part along the Jordan and on the
Mediterranean, and in the mountains, in a league offensive and
defensive. These kings and their troops rendezvoused at the
waters of Merom. Joshua marched against them, attacked
them suddenly, defeated them, and pursued them to great Zidon
and the valley of Mizpeh. He lamed their horses, and burnt
their chariots. He took Hazor, and killed king Jabin.
ANAK, the father of Anakim, was the son of Arba, who
gave his name to Kirjath-arba, or Hebron, Josh. xiv. 15.
Anak had three sons, Sheshai, Ahiman, and Talmai, chap. xv.
15. and Numb. xii. 22. who, as well as their father, were giants,
and with their posterity, were of terrible fierceness and extra-
ordinary stature; and in comparison of whom the Hebrews,
who were sent to view the land of Canaan, reported that they
were but as grasshoppers. Numb. xiii. Their fierce looks.
and extraordinary stature, quite terrified the unb ng spies,
which Moses sent to view the promised land. Numb. xiii. 33.
About forty-five years after, Caleb begged to hav %
lence to be his portion in Canaan, that he migh







viºus IIP tº ICII º ºv,
Ephew and son-in-law, expelled t m Debir
chart thinks the remains of the Beneanak, or children of
Anak, retired northward to the territories of Tyre and Zido
nd gave thereto the name of Phoenicia. . ºe
ACHAN, or ACHAR, the son of Carmi, of the tribe of
Judah. His covetousness, which led him to attempt to elude
the all-searching eye of Omniscience, the fatal consequences to
he Israelites, with his detection, confession, and signal punish-
ments, are recorded in Josh. vii.
MICAH, of the tribe of Ephraim, was son of a rich widow,
who became an occasion of falling to Israel, Judg. xvii. and xviii.
PHINEAS, or PHINEHAS, the son of Eleazar, and grand-
son of Aaron. He was the third high priest of the Jews, and dis-
charged this office from B.C. 1433 to B.C. 1414. He is particularly
commended in Scripture for the zeal he showed for the preser-
vation of his countrymen from idolatry, on two different occa-
sions; as recorded in Num. xxv. 7–15, and Josh. xxii. 13–34.
The just vengeance he executed on Zimri, a prince of Simeon,
and Cozbi, a princess of Midian, happened B. C. 1451. As
Phineas lived after the death of Joshua, and before the first
servitude under Cushan-rishathaim, during the republic, Judges
xvii. 6. xviii. 1. xxii. 24, his death is supposed to have happened
B. C. 1410. .” # 3.
OTHNIEL, judge of Israel, the son of Kenaz, of the tribe
of Judah. We are told, Josh. xv. 17. and Judg. i. 13. that he
was Caleb's younger brother. But if Caleb and Othniel had
been brothers, the latter could not have married his niece Ach-
sah, the daughter of Caleb. The Scripture mentions Kenaz
as fat thniel, and Jephunneh as the father of Caleb. It
*
id that othieſ and Caleb were cousingermans, and
ser ing to the language of Scripture.
nse to be brothers, accord
h
us Achsah being but second-cousin in respect of Othniel, he
might marry her consistently with the letter of the law. The
heroism by which he obtained Achsah, is recorded in Joshua
ess of the Israelites, and jealous of thei
Balaa him to curse them. Hi
repeated €1.























































B. c. 1285.] FROM MOSES TO GIDEON.
more powerful enchantments of the fair Moabitesses, appear to
have been the only weapons i. by Balak against the pro-
perty of Israel; for we find Jephthah urges it as an argumentil
his manifesto against the king of the Ammonites, Judg. xi. 25.
that Balak never actually fought against them.
BALAAM, the son of Beor, a prophet and diviner of Pethor,
upon the Euphrates, whose practices with Balak, king of the
Moabites, are recorded in Num. xxii.-xxiv. as ji as his
involuntary prophecies of the prosperity of Israel. º º
SHAMGAR, the son of Anath, Judge of Israel after Joshua.
He delivered his country from the yoke of the Philistines, and
slew 600 of them with an ox-goad, about B. C. 1347.
EGLON, a king of the Moabites, who oppressed the Isra-
elites for eighteen years. See Judges iii. 12. : .
SISERA, a general of the Canaanites, under king Jabin, was
defeated by the Israelites under Deborah and Barak, with great
slaughter of his troops, and obliged to flee for refuge to Jael the
wife of Heber, who caused his death. ; :
JAEL, or JAHEL, the wife of Heber, the Kenite, who killed
Sisera, general of the Canaanitish army. Sisera having fled to
her tent, and sleeping there, Jael seized her opportunity, and
drove a large nail through his temples with a hammer, in the
year of the world 2719, and before Christ 1285, Judg. iv. 1721.
BARAK, the son of Abinoam, of Kedesh Kºši. one of
the deliverers of Israel from the oppression of the Canaanites.
The particulars of his call by the prophetess Deborah, of his
cowardly refusal to go out against Jabin, unless she went with
him, together with his complete victory over the Canaanitish
tyrant and his numerous forces, are fully narrated in Judg. iv.
We must now take our leave of sacred history, for this period,
and pursue the path of heathen record, on which we must travel
with cautious steps, as it is yet a dark and doubtful way.
CECROPS, the first king of Athens, is said to have been an
Egyptian by birth, and to have brought a colony from the city
of Sais in Egypt, which he conducted, after a tedious voyage, to
the shores of Attica, and settled on the rock, that became after-
wards the side of the city of Athens. The period to which this
point is referred is, according to the Eusebian chronicle, abou
B. C. 1556. On this spot Cecrops built a fortress, ca
Cecropia; and having taken possession of a country inhabited
barbarous people, divided into districts, introduced laws,
tº the arts, social polity and religion; and, on this
deserved tº *: º the founder Atheni
rho























UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. [B. c. 1500.
" which they retained to the time of Erectheus. Cecrops
º iter a reign of fifty years. He had espoused Agraulis, the
daughter of Acteus, one of the principal iº of Attica,
who brought him a son, who died before him, and three daugh-
ters, to whom the Athenians afterwards decreed divine honours.
His tomb was long preserved in the temple of Minerva; and his
memory was perpetuated in the constellation of Aquarius, which
was consecrated to him. After Cecrops, there reigned seventeen
princes, during an interval of about 565 years, the seventh of
whom was called Cecrops, and the last Codrus. 3: 3: ... 3
DEUCALION, king of Thessaly. The flood said to have
happened in his time, about B. C. 1500, is supposed to have
been only an inundation of that country, occasioned by heavy
rains, and an earthquake that stopped the course of the river
Peneus, where it usually discharged itself into the sea. Ac-
cording to the mythology, he was the son of Prometheus. He
governed his people with equity; but the rest of mankind being
extremely wicked were destroyed by a flood, while Deucalion
and Pyrrha his queen, saved themselves by ascending Mount
Parnassus. When the waters were decreased, they went and
consulted the oracle of Themis, on the means by which the
earth was to be re-peopled; when they were ordered to veil their
heads and faces, to unloose their girdles, and throw behind their
backs the bones of their great mother. At this advice Pyrrha
was seized with horror; but Deucalion explained the mystery, by
observing, that their great mother must mean the earth, and her
bones the stones; when, taking them up, those Deucalion threw
over his head became men, and those thrown by Pyrrha, women.
Dr. Bryant and others have supposed, that Deucalion was the
same with the patriarch Noah; and that his flood in Thessaly,
as well as that of Ogyges in Attica, were the same with that of
Noah recorded in Scripture. .
PYRRHA, the daughter of Epimetheus and Pandora, and
wife of Deucalion, king of Thessaly, in whose reign the flood
happened. She was the mother of Amphictyon, Helen, and
Protogenia, by Deucalion.
AMPHICTYON, the son of Deucalion and Pyrrha. If
this Amphictyon was the founder of the Amphictyonic council,
he must have possessed extensive views of policy. This coun-
cil, from a league of twelve cities, became a representative as-
sembly of the states of Greece, and had the most admirable
political effects in uniting the nation, and giving it a common
est. This august assembly consisted of 12 persons, who
nto consideration all matters of difference which might
between the different states of Greece. Before they pro-
to business, the Amphictyons sacrificed an ox to the
n and unanimity prevailed in the sev
º -
feral cities which






















B.C. 1495.] FROM MOSES TO GIDEON.
they represented. Their decisions were held sacred and in-
violable, and even arms were taken up to inforce them. It is
asserted by some writers that it was another Amphictyon, son
of Helenus, grandson of Priam, who established this council.
HELLEN, son of Deucalion and Pyrrha, reigned in
Phthiotis about 1495 years before the Christian era, and gave
the name of Hellenians to his subjects. He had, by his wife
Orseis, three sons; Æolus, Doris, and Xuthus, who gave their
names to three different nations, known under the name of Æ-
olians, Dorians, and Ionians. These last derive their name
from Ion, son of Xuthus, and from the difference either of ex-
pression, or pronunciation in their respective languages, arose
the different dialects well known in the Greek language.
SCAMANDER, a son of Corybas and Denodice, who
brought a colony from Crete into Phrygia, and settled at the
foot of mount Ida, where he introduced the festivals of Cybele,
and the dances of the Corybantes. He some time after lost
the use of his senses, and threw himself into the river Xanthus
which ever after bore his name. His son-in-law Teucer suc-
ceeded him in the government of the colony. He had two
daughters, Thymo and Callirhoe.
TEUCER, a king of Phrygia, son of Scamander by Idea:
According to some authors, he was the first who introduced
among his subjects the worship of Cybele, and the dances of
the Corybantes. The country where he reigned was from him
called Teucria. His daughter Batea married Dardanus, a
Samothracian prince, who succeeded him in the government of
Teucria. . g . .
SESOSTRIS, king of Egypt, of whom the accounts are so
much mixed with fable, and so obscured by antiquity, that it
has been found extremely difficult to form a consistent and pro-
bable story. Historians are even divided as to the identity of
the name Sesostris with that of some other resembling names in
the Egyptian history, and several hold him to be the same with
Sesac or Seshec of the Hebrew Scriptures. The following is
regarded as the most probable account of this monarch. #.
is generally placed by chronologers in the 16th century B. C.
and is by some thought to have been the son of Amenophis.
Educated in manly exercises with a number of companions, he
is said to have been sent, by his father, at an early age, upon
an expedition into Arabia; and after subduing that country,
intº Africa. While engaged in the conquest of the latter, his
father died; and his successes having inflamed his ambition, he
resolved to grasp at universal empire. Before his departure
from Egypt, he ingratiated himself with the people by many
acts of kindness, and divided the country into thirty-six depart-
ments, to each of which he assigned a governor. Then hav-
ing constituted his brother Armais regent, he marched with a
VO L. I. w F









66 UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. [B.C. 1495.
numerous army into Ethiopia, which he rendered tributary, and
penetrated near to the straits of Babelmandel. As he now
perceived that he could not carry on his great designs without
a navy, he fitted out two fleets, notwithstanding the aversions
of the Egyptians to maritime occupations, one in the Mediter-
ranean, and the other in the Red Sea. By means of the former
he reduced the countries of Phoenicia, Cyprus, and several of
the Cyclades, and with the latter he sailed into the Indian gulf,
and made himself master of its coasts. Then, pursuing his
conquests by land, he is represented as having overrun all Asia,
and even as having crossed the Ganges. On his return, he in-
vaded the country of the Scythians and Thracians, in which,
however, he lost a great part of his army. It is commonly
thought that he left an Egyptian colony at Colchis, but Thrace
was his farthest progress westward. On his arrival at Pelusiam,
after an absence of nine years, laden with spoils, and attended
with a vast number of captives, he was received by his brother
Armais with pretended joy and submission, though he had
formed a plot against him. For this traitorous attempt he ex-
pelled Armais from Egypt, and then, disbanding his army, he
sat down to the improvement of his country. He erected mag-
nificent temples in all the cities of Egypt, in the building of
which none but his captives were ºi. He raised obe-
lisks, with inscriptions recording his conquests and revenues.
He built a wall of great length, on the eastern boundary of
Egypt, to protect it from the incursions of the Arabians, and
he dug a number of canals, branching from the Nile in all di-
rections, for the purpose both of commerce and navigation. He
is said, in the height of his pride, to have harnessed tributary
kings to his chariots, till one of them, pointing out to him the
rotation of the wheels, by which each part was successively at
top and bottom, brought him to reflection. Becoming blind in
his advanced years, he finished his course by a voluntary death.
BUSIRIS, of Egypt, infamous for his cruelties, exercised
his tyranny at this time on the banks of the Nile; and barba-
rously cut the throats of all foreigners, who landed in his coun-
try; this was probably during the absence of Sesostris.
PHERON, of Egypt, succeeded Sesostris in his kingdom,
but not in his glory. Herodotus relates but one action of his,
which shows how greatly he had degenerated from the religiou
sentiments of his ancestors. In an extraordinary inundation
Nile, which exceeded eighteen cubits, this prince enraged at
§: ihereby to chastise its insolence;
anished for his impiety, i
Egypt. Some time afte






















B.C. 1495.] FROM MOSES TO GIDEON. 67
between the brothers, and Danaus set sail with his fifty daugh-
ters in quest of a settlement. He visited Rhodes, where he
consecrated a statue to Minerva, and arrived safe on the coast
of Peloponnesus, where he was hospitably received by Gela-
nor, king of Argos. Gelanor had lately ascended the throne,
and the first years of his reign were marked with dissensions
with his subjects. Danaus took advantage of Gelanor's unpo-
pularity, and obliged him to abdicate the crown. The success
of Danaus, invited the fifty sons of AEgyptus to embark for
Greece. They were kindly received by their uncle, who either
apprehensive of the number, or terrified by an oracle, which
threatened his ruin by one of his sons-in-law, caused his daugh-
ters, to whom they were promised in marriage, to murder them
the first night of their nuptials. His fatal orders were exe-
cuted, but Hypermnestra alone spared the life of Lynceus.
Danaus at first persecuted Lynceus with unremitted fury, but
he was afterwards reconciled to him, and he acknowledged him
for his son-in-law, and successor, after a reign of 50 years.
He died about B. C. 1425 and after death he was honoured
with a splendid monument in the town of Argos, which still
existed in the age of Pausanius. According to Æschylus,
Danaus left Egypt, resolving not to be present at the marriage
of his daughters, with the sons of his brother, a connection
which he deemed unlawful and impious. The ship in which
Danaus came to Greece, was called Armais, and was the first
that had ever appeared there. It is said that the use of pumps
was first introduced into Greece by Danaus.
NITOCRIS, a celebrated queen of Babylon, who built a
bridge across the Euphrates, in the middle of that city, and
dug a number of reservoirs for the superfluous waters of that
river. She ordered herself to be buried over one of the gates
of the city, and had an inscription on her tomb, which signified
that her successors would find great treasures within, if ever
they were in need of money; but that their labours would be
but ill repaid if ever they ventured to open it without necessity.
Cyrus opened it through curiosity, and was struck to find
within it these words: } thy avarice had not been insatiable,
thou never wouldst have violated the monuments of the dead.
PANDION I., a king of Athens, son of Ericthon and Pa-
* who succeeded his father; became father of Procne
si
ź
personally
there was such an abundance of corn, wine and oi
publicly reported that Bacchus and Minerva h
visited Attica. He successful war against Labd
. antial ar his daughter Procne in marriag
ad assis :ed im. º T 1. º . N.















68 Universal biography. [B.C. 1365.
reus, was the source of much grief to Pandion, and he died
through excess of sorrow, after a reign of forty years.
ERECTHEUS, son of Pandion I., was the sixth king of
Athens. He was father of Cecrops II., Metion, Pandorus,
and four daughters, Creusa, Orithya, Procris, and Othonia,
by Praxithea.
CECROPS II., was the seventh king of Athens, and the
son and successor of Erectheus. He married Metiadusa a
daughter of Eupalemus, by whom he had Pandion. He
reigned 40 years. w º
PYLAS, a king of Megara, who having accidentally killed
his uncle Bius, resigned his kingdom to his son-in-law Pandion.
PANDION II., son of Cecrops II., by Metiadusa, who suc-
ceeded his father on the throne of Athens. He was driven
from his paternal dominions, and fled to Pylas, king of Megara,
who gave him his daughter Pelia in marriage, and resigned his
crown to him. Pandion became the father of four children,
called from him Pandionidae, AEgeus, Pallas, Nisus, and Lycus.
The eldest of these children recovered his father's kingdom.
AEGEUS, king of Athens, son of Pandion, being desirous
of having children, he went to consult the oracle, and in his
return, stopped at the court of Pittheus, king of Troezene, who
gave him his daughter Æthra in marriage. He left her preg-
mant, and told her, that if she had a son, to send him to
Athens as soon as he could lift a stone under which he had
concealed his sword. By this sword he was to be known to
AEgeus, who did not wish to make any public discovery of a
son, for fear of his nephews, the Pallantides, who expected his
crown. AEthra became the mother of Theseus, whom she
accordingly sent to Athens with his father's sword. When
Theseus came to Athens, an attempt was made to poison him;
but he escaped, and upon showing Ægeus the sword he wore,
discovered himself to be his son. When Theseus returned
from Crete, after the death of the Minotaur, he forgot, agree-
able to the engagement made with his father, to hoist up white
sails as a signal of his success; and AEgeus, at the sight of
black sails, concluding that his son was dead, threw himself
from a high rock into the sea; which from him, as some sup-
pose, has been called the Ægean. AEgeus reigned 48 years,
and died B. C. 1235.
ABAS, the eleventh king of Argos, was famous for his ge-
ius and valou father to Proetus and Acrisius, and
... * - s
##: ...º.º.º. sº Y. º §
I., king of Crete. He gave laws to his subjects,
ined in force in the age of the philosopher Plato. .
nd moderation procured him the titles of the fa-











B.C. 1266.] FROM MOSES TO GIDEON. . 69
gislator in every city of Greece; and, according to the poets,
he was rewarded for his equity after death, with the office of
supreme judge of the infernal regions. In this character he is
represented sitting in the shades and holding a sceptre in his
hand. The dead plead their causes before him; and the im-
partial judge shakes the fatal urn, which is filled with the des-
tinies of mankind. He married Ithoma, by whom he had Ly-
castes, the father of Minos II. . .
LABDACUS, king of Thebes. He was father to Laius.
LAIUS, son of Labdacus, king of Thebes, married Jocasta,
by whom he had OEdipus; but understanding by the oracle he
should be killed by his own son, he delivered the babe to a
shepherd to destroy it, who bound the infant's legs with a
twisted twig, and hanging him on a tree, left him there to
perish; but Phorbus, shepherd to Polybus, king of Corinth,
found him, and presented him to the king, who brought him
up, and CEdipus fulfilled the oracle. <
JOCASTA, daughter of Creon, king of Thebes, and wife
of Laius, was mother to OEdipus, whom she afterwards igno-
rantly married, and had by him Polynices and Eteocles, who
having killed one another in a battle for the succession, Jocasta
destroyed herself for grief.
POLYBUS, king of Corinth, who preserved GEdipus
when he was exposed, educated him at his court, and owned
him for his son. 3
CEDIPUS, the unfortunate king of Thebes, whose history
is partly fabulous, flourished about 1266 B. C. He was given
by his father to a shepherd, who was ordered to put him to
death, to prevent misfortunes with which he was threatened
by an oracle. But the shepherd unwilling to kill him with his
own hands, tied him by the feet to a tree, that he might
be devoured by wild beasts. The infant was however found in
this situation by another shepherd named Phorbas, who carried
him to Polybus king of Corinth, where the queen having no
children, educated him with as much care as #. had been her
own son. When he was grown he was informed that he was
not the son of Polybus, on which, by order of the oracle, he
went to seek for his father in Phocis; but scarce was he arrived
in that country, when he met his father on the road, and killed
him without knowing him. A short time after, having deli-
vered the country from the monster called the Sphinx, he mar-
ried Jocasta, without knowing that she was his mother, and
had four children by her, but afterwards being informed of his
incest, he quitted the throne, and, thinking himself unworthy
of the light, put out his eyes. Eteocles and Polynices, who
were celebrated amongst the Greeks, were born of this inces-
tuous marriage.
ANTIGONE, the daughter of GEdipus, king of Thebes,

who led her father, when blind and banished. She was slain
by the usu § Creon, whose son Haemon, being in love with
her, killed himself upon her tomb. Her death was avenged
upon Creon by Theseus. -
MINOS II, the grandson of Minos I. and king of Crete.
He increased his dominions by the conquest of the neighbour-
ing islands, but showed himself cruel in the war against the
Athenians, who had put to death his son Androgeus. He took
Megara by the treachery of Scylla; and obliged the vanquished
to send annually to Crete, seven chosen boys and seven virgins
to be devoured by the Minotaur *. This bloody tribute was
abolished when Theseus destroyed the monster. Minos was
slain by Cocalus, king of Sicily, about 35 years before the
Trojan war.
ANDROGEUS, son of Minos, king of Crete, was murdered
by the Athenians for his success at the Attic games. .
LITE RATURE.
CADMUS, king of Thebes, the son of Agenor, king of
Phoenicia, and the brother of Phoenix, Cilix, and Europa.
Cadmus was the first who introduced the use of letters into
Greece; but some maintain, that the alphabet which he brought
from Phoenicia, was only different from that which was used by
the ancient inhabitants of Greece. This alphabet consisted of
only 16 letters, to which Palamedes afterwards added four, and
Simonides of Melos, the same number. By some, the inven-
tion of letters is attributed to Cadmus, as in the following lines:
The noble art to Cadmus owes its rise,
Of painting words, and speaking to the eyes;
He first in wondrous magic fetters bound
The airy voice, and stopp'd the flying sound ;
The various figures, by his pencil wrought,
Gave colour, form, and body to the thought.
The . many of the Egyptian and Phoenician deities
was also introduced by Cadmus, who is supposed to have come
into Greece 1493 years before the Christian aera, and to have
died 61 years after. . . . . * * * * * * * * *
L_POLYDORUS, a king of Thebes, the son of Cadmus
Hermione, who married §. by whom he had Labdacus
the father of Laius and grandfather of CEdipus.
* A celebrated monster.















PERIOD V.
FROM GIDEON TO SAUL.
[B.C. 1252.]
REMARKABLE EACTS, EVENTS, AND Discoveries.
B.C.
1252 The city of Tyre built,
1250 Jephthah defeats the Ammonites.
1233 Carthage founded by the Tyrians.
1225 The Argonautic expedition.
1193 The Trojan war begins.
1184 The destruction of Troy.
1176 Salamis in Cyprus built by Teucer.
1 117 Samson exerts his extraordinary strength, and dies.
IN this period the Greeks begin to make other nations feel the ef-
ſects of that enterprising and martial spirit, for which they were so
remarkable, and which they had undoubtedly exercised upon one
another long before. Their first enterprise was an invasion of Colchis,
for the sake of the golden fleece. Whatever was the nature of this
expedition, it is probable they succeeded in it; and that this specimen
of the produce and riches of Asia inclined them to Asiatic expeditions
ever after. .
At this time Greece was divided into a number of small principa-
lities, most of which seem to have been in subjection to Agamemnon,
king of Mycaena. .
In this period, after the first class, which is still miscellaneous, we
have placed five other classes, viz. Philosophy, Poetry and Music
Literature, History, and Medicine. . . .”
GIDEON, the son of Joash, of the tribe of Manasseh. He
dwelt in the city of Ophrah, and had a very extraordinary call,
to deliver i. from the oppression of the Midianites. After
the deaths of Barak and Déborah, Judges vi. 1, 2, the Midian-
ites so distressed the Hebrews, that they were forced to flee
into caves, from B. C. 1252, to B.C. i2.45. Israel, over-
whelmed with misfortunes, cried to the Lord, who deputed a
prophet to them, who reproached them sharply with,
ingratitude. At the same time, God sent his angel to Gide






72 $. UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY, [B.C. 1245.
who was threshing out his corn privately, near a wine-press,
under an oak, to conceal from the Midianites what he was do-
ing, and be able to flee away immediately with his corn, as soon
as they appeared. The angel saluted Gideon, and said, the
Lord is with thee, thou mighty man of valour. Gideon hesi-
tated; but the angel answered, Go, in this thy might, thou
shalt save Israel from the Midianites. Gideon excused himself;
but the Lord said to him, “I will be with thee, and thou shalt
beat the Midianites, as if they were but one man.” Gideon
asked a sign of him, that he might be convinced it was no de-
lusion; he made ready a kid, and unleavened cakes, which he
brought and presented to him. The angel said, “put them
on this rock, and pour out the broth.” Then the angel, with
the end of his staff that was in his hand, touched the flesh and
unleavened cakes; fire issued out of the rock and consumed
them. The angel disappeared. Gideon exclaimed, “alas! O
Lord God, for I have seen an angel of the Lord face to face.”
The Lord said to him, “Fear not, thou shalt not die.” In
that same place he erected an altar to the Lord, which he called
the place of the Lord. The night following, God commanded
him to cut down the grove, and the altar º Baal, to build an
altar to the Lord upon the top of the rock, where he had
lately offered, and to make a burnt sacrifice of one of his fa-
ther's two bullocks. Gideon obeyed. The next day the in-
habitants of Ophrah told Joash, that Gideon must be slain,
for this affront offered to Baal. Joash answered, are ye to
defend Baal? If Baal be God, let him avenge himself. From
that time, Gideon was called Jero-baal, that is, let Baal see, or
let Baal contest with him, who has thrown down his altar.
The Midianites came and encamped in the valley of Jezreel;
and Gideon assembled the Israelites of the house of Abiezer,
who dwelt nearest him ; also Manasseh, Asher, Zebulun, and
Naphtali. Gideon, to assure them that God intended their
deliverance, prayed for a sign, that God would let the dew fall
on a piece of wool, spread on the ground, while all around was
dry. After this, he desired another sign, quite the contrary,
that the fleece of wool should remain dry, while all the earth
about it abounded with dew.
Gideon ordered three hundred men to hold themselves in
readiness and gave to each a trumpet, a lamp, or light, and an
empty pitcher to conceal that light. Stealing over to the ene-
my's camp, he heard a Midianite relating his dream, of a cake
&
ley bread, which rolling into the camp of Midian, overset
the general's tent. The hearer replied, “This is the sword of
Gideon.” Gideon returned to his people, encouraged them,
id them take their lamps, their pitchers, and their trum-
.."...". "...".
three companies, of one hundred men each; which advanced






B.C. 1245.] FROM GIDEON TO SAUL, 73
three different ways towards the camp of the Midianites. At
the beginning of the second, or middle-watch, at midnight,
on a signal given by Gideon, the three companies blew their
trumpets, broke their pitchers, showed their lights, and shouted
“The sword of the Lord, and of Gideon,” and stood every man
in his place; as if they were the advanced guard of the whole
army of Israel, whom they were lighting to attack the camp,
All the host of the enemy, “ran, and cried, and fled" through
the openings between the three companies, and in their panic of
terror, put each other to the sword. The neighbouring tribes
of Manasseh, and Naphtali, came in and pursued them; Gi-
deon, with his three hundred warriors, passed the Jordan, fol-
lowed the Midianites to Succoth and Penuel, Judges viii. 1–3,
&c., defeated them, took their two kings, Zeba and Zalmun-
na, and returned towards Succoth and Penuel before sun-set.
As these two cities had refused to supply him with provisions
and refreshments, when he passed them in the pursuit of the
enemy, at his return he took a terrible vengeance on them. He
put Zeba and Zalmunna to death, and took away the golden
ornaments, (crescents,) which were about their camels' necks,
and which were probably consecrated to the moon, who was
worshipped in that neighbourhood, before the time of Abraham,
under the title of Ashtaroth Kamaim, “the shining cow two-
horned.” Gen. xiv. 5. … . . . . . . . .
After this victory, Israel said to Gideon, “Rule thou over
us.” Gideon answered, “I will not rule over you, nor my son
shall not rule over you, the Lord shall rule over you t” but,
“give me, every man, the ear-rings of his prey;" for the Mi-
dianites were accustomed to wear gold pendants at their ears.
Of these Gideon made an ephod, and placed it in the city of
Ophrah. This ephod seems to have included not only the
priest's dress, but also a sacerdotal establishment in his own
town; and this establishment infringing on that at Shiloh,
Judg. xviii. 1. proved a “snare to Gideon and his family,” or
a seduction to idolatry, in worshipping the true God in an im-
proper manner. - . . . . .
Gideon had seventy sons, born of many wives, whom he
had married; and besides these, he had another, Abimelech,
the son of a concubine, who reigned three years at Shechem.
It has been observed that the spirit of the Lord, by which
Gideon was animated to undertake the deliverance of his coun-
try, was a spirit of fortitude and of prudence, and of all the
virtues requisite in a commander. Judg. vi. 7–40, Gideon
was a consummate judge; he possessed all the qualifications
requisite for that arduous station among a contumacious, a
divided, and a rebellious people.
sº ABIMELECH, the natural son of Gideon by Druma, his
§
concubine. His barbarous murder of his brethren, with his







blic of Israel, into a monarchy, in
--> - the civil war that followed, and
deserved death, in the third year of his usurpation, are
orded in the book of Judg
CS
which the inhabitants of Ophrah made of his seventy brethren,
illed in the presence, and by the order of Abimelech, Gideon's
natural son, Judges ir. 5, 6, &c. The people of Shechem
created this same Abimelech king, because he was their coun-
tryman. Jotham, therefore, went up to Mount Gerizim, and
thence addressed himself to the inhabitants of Shechem, in the
famous fable of the trees, who offered their kingdom, which
the valuable trees declined, and at length they elected the
bramble. He then fled to Beer. We know not what became
of him after this, but his prediction against Shechem and Abi-
melech was soon accomplished, Judg. ix. 5, &c.
JAIR, of Manasseh, possessed beyond Jordan the whole
country of Argob to the borders of Geshur and Maachati.
Judg. x. 3. He succeeded Tola in the government of Israel,
and was succeeded by Jephthah. His government continued
twenty-two years, from B. C. 1209, to B. C. 1187.
JEPHTHAH, one of the Judges of Israel, was a son of
Gilead, his mother being one of Gilead's concubines. In con-
sequence of Gilead's marriage, Jephthah was expelled from
the house ; and retiring into the land of Tob, became captain
of a band of rovers. The Israelites, who inhabited beyond
Jordan, being pressed by the Ammonites, applied to Jephthah
for assistance, and offered to place themselves under his com-
mand; accordingly he consented to succour them on condition
t the end of the war they would acknowledge him for their
B. C. 1187. Jephthah, having been invested with the
mmand, remonstrated with the king of the Ammonites
the injustice of the war in which he was engaged, and
taining no satisfactory reply, he levied a powerful army, and
marched against him to battle. But before he engaged, he
made a vow to the Lord, that he would sacrifice, or consecrate
to him, the first living creature that should come out of his
house to meet him on his return. The contest was soon de-
1 by a complete victory; and the conqueror, as he ap.
er zpeh, perceived his daughter, an only
ulate him on his success, with music
f filial affection. tino
fal : a ow, She


















































B.C. 1174.] FROM G1DEON TO SAUL. 75
ulated interval, she returned to her father, “who
ccording to the vow which he had vowed.”
daughter was really offered up to him for a burnt #}
whilst others are of opinion, that she was devoted to celibac
or dedicated to the service of God. This matter depends or
the acceptance of a single particle which is taken for either
AND or or ; for the same Hebrew particle vau may signify
either. The passage may be thus rendered: “Whatever comes
to meet me, f will devote to the Lord, or, I will offer it up a
burnt-sacrifice.” Otherwise, “Whatever comes to meet me, I
will devote to the Lord; AND, that is Also, I will offer up to
him a burnt-sacrifice:” or, AND I will offer up to him that
which comes out of my house. It ought likewise to be ob-
served, that Jephthah's rashness had time to cool, as his daughter
went two months to bewail her virginity, that is, her consecra-
tion to God, which obliged her to remain single without pos
terity, &c. It is said, that she went to bewail her º
not her sacrifice. Besides, the Israelite women went yearly
four times to mourn for—rather witH–the daughter of Jeph-
thah; to lament her seclusion from the world, and the hardship
of her situation, as cut off from domestic life and enjoyment.
Now, if in the course of two months no person could have sug-
gested to Jephthah a ransom for his daughter, yet surely she
must have been alive, though dead to him and his family, as his
only child, and to the world by her seclusion, if the Israelite
women went to condole with her. We may also observe, that
it is not said afterwards that he sacrificed her, but, “ He did
with her according to his vow.” It is added, she knew no man;
if she was sacrificed, this remark is frivolous, but if she was
consecrated to perpetual virginity, this idea coincides with the
visits of the Israelitish women. On the whole, we may safely
conclude, that Jephthah's daughter was not sacrificed, but de-
oted to a state of celibacy; and if there were at that time
women attendants at the taberna cle, she mig ht, probably, join
ELON, the twelfth judge of Israel, and the second af
r
Jephthah, succeeded Ibzan, B. C. 1174, or, according to Als
dus, º C. 1233. He was of th
overnmg tº
lech dying, Na
e republic ten years, died about B.C. 1167.
Ruth, and Chilon to
§ lso * ** ſhi º i t ºrrºr
without
















































76 UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. [B.C. 1167.
ey came thither, the report was soon spread in the neighbour-
hood, and the people came to welcome her. She told them,
that they must no longer call her Naomi, that is fair; but
Mara, that is bitterness. “For the Lord, says she, has heaped
trouble upon me. I went away full, but the Lord has brought
me back empty and desolate.” One day as Ruth went to glean,
she happened to enter the field of Boaz, who encouraged her to
follow his reapers, and made her eat among his harvesters. At
her return home, Naomi informed her, that Boaz was her near
kinsman, and she advised the proceedings of Ruth so warily,
that 1. ºugh about the desired marriage of Boaz and Ruth.
BOAZ, the son of Salmon, and Rahab, the second husband
of Ruth, and great grandfather to David.
RUTH, a Moabitess, the widow of Mahlon, an Israelite,
whose interesting history is recorded in the Old Testament;
and has been imitated by Thompson in his history of Palemon
and Lavinia. - - - .
During the period in which the judges ruled over the chil-
dren of Israel, §: was a grievous famine in the land. Among
great numbers who left their habitations to seek for bread in
other countries, a certain man of Bethlehem Judah, named Eli-
melech, went to sojourn in the country of Moab. He took with
him his wife, whose name was Naomi, and his two sons; and
soon after their arrival, the two young men married two Moab-
itish women, the name of one of whom was Orpah, and the
other Ruth. . * . . . . .” º " ; , ,
After a residence of ten years, during which time Naomi
buried her husband and her two sons, she determined to return
to her own native country. But, concluding it would not be
agreeable to her two daughters-in-law to leave the place of their
nativity, and follow her into a strange land, she desired them,
st before her departure, to return each to her mother's house;
And may the Lord deal kindly with you,” said the good old
woman, “as ye have dealt with the dead and me!” She then
tenderly embraced them. . . . . .
Affected by this regardful behaviour of their mother-in-law,
Orpah and Ruth both wept, and said, “ Surely we will return
with thee unto thy people.” But Naomi continuing to dissuade
, Orpah was at length prevailed on to remain with her
ther. Ruth, however, would not listen to any calls but
of tenderness for Naomi. “Intreat me not to leave thee,”
he to her, “ or to return from following after thee; for
thou goest, I will go, and where thou lodgest, I will
thy people shall be my people, and thy God my God:
thou diest will I die, and there will I be bu he
die, and t e buried; t
more als eath part th
io, if aught but d






























B. c. 1167.] FROM GIDEON TO SAUL. 77
When they arrived at Bethlehem, they appear to have been
in such distressed circumstances, that Naomi, upon hearing her
old acquaintance exclaim, “Is not this Naomi?” replied, “ Call
me not Naomi, but Mara, for the Almighty hath dealt bitterly
with me. I went out full, and am returned empty.”
In the same city lived a young man, whose name was Boaz;
he was nearly related to Elimelech, Naomi's late husband, and
was a person of great wealth. It being now the beginning of the
barley-harvest, Ruth proposed to her mother-in-law, as the
most probable means of procuring a present subsistence, that
she should suffer her to go into the fields belonging to Boaz, and
there to glean after his reapers, hoping to find greater indulgence
from one to whom they were related than from a stranger.
Having received Naomi's permission, and dressed herself as
decently as her present circumstances would allow, Ruth went
as proposed into the fields. Her beauty and comeliness did not
remain long unobserved by Boaz. Seeing a stranger, he en-
quired who she was ; and being informed, treated her with
great kindness; not only allowing her to glean, but ordering
the reapers now and then to let fall a handful on purpose for
her. sº º ºs
When he had learned from some of his servants the whole of
her story, he graciously accosted her, saying, “ It has been
showed unto me all that thou hast done unto thy mother-in-law
since the death of thine husband, and how thou hast left thy
father and thy mother, and the land of thy nativity, and art
come unto a people which thou knewest not heretofore. The
Lord recompense thy works, and a full reward be given thee
of the Lord of Israel, under whose wings thou art come to
trust!” Having said this, he gave directions that she should
partake of what was prepared for his people, and be permitted
to pursue her employment as long as the harvest lasted. Ruth
received those . of favour with a grateful humility, and
thanked him for the friendly notice he had taken of her.
... When she returned to Naomi in the evening, and showed
her the great quantity of corn she had collected, and likewise
acquainted her with the favourable reception she had met with
from Boaz, the good old woman began to entertain views for
he future benefit of her dutiful and beloved daughter-in-law,
which she had never before contemplated.
As Boaz was so near a relation of her late husband, was
unmarried, and therefore, agreeable to the custom of the Jews,
the most proper person to take her to wife; she meditated how
to bring about an union between them. The difference in their
circumstances, she flattered herself, would not prove an irre.
moveable bar, as, to a man of Boaz's generous dispositi



















78 UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. [B.C. 1155.
tudential instructions for ingratiating herself still farther into
ſºº # # ~ ngr ~ * #
the esteem of their rich relation, that in a short time he mar-
Thus was an obscure Moabitish damsel, through her prudent
and virtuous behaviour, raised from a low estate, to such an
eminence, that mighty kings descended from her. º:
-- NOAH, or MANUEH, was the father of Samson, of
the tribe of Dan, of the city of Zarah (Judg. xiii. 1, 2, 3, &c.).
An angel of the Lord having appeared to the wife of Manoah,
and promised her a son, Manoah desired of the Lord that he
might see him who had thus appeared, that he might know from
him how to treat this son when born. The Lord heard his
prayer, and the angel appeared again to his wife, who was in
the fields, and who ran to acquaint her husband. Manoah
went to him, and obtained from him directions respecting his
son. Manoah then said my Lord, I pray you be pleased to let
us prepare you a kid. The angel replied, I must not eat any
food; but you may offer it for a burnt-sacrifice to the Lord.
Manoah, perceiving that it was an angel, said to his wife, we
all certainly die, since we have seen the Lord. But his wife
wered him, if the Lord would have killed us, he would not
have conferred such favours on us; he would not have received
our burnt-offering, nor predicted to us the birth of a son.
SAMSON, a judge of the Israelites, and celebrated for the
extraordinary transactions by which he checked the pride of the
Philistines, their oppressors, was born at Zarah, belonging to
the tribe of Dan, about the year B. C. 1155. He was the son
of a person called Manoah, whose wife, till she became pregnant
with Samson, had long been infertile. When she had, probably
given up all hopes of a child, it was announced to her that she
should bring forth a son, who would prove instrumental in
mmencing the emancipation of his country from the yoke of
their tyrants. Upon the birth of the promised child, his pa-
rents called him Samson; and as he advanced in years, we are in-
formed that he exhibited early marks of extraordinary endow-
ments. When arrived at the age of manhood, he conceived
an affection for a young woman among the Philistines, and re-
quested his parents to procure her for him in marriage. They
accordingly accompanied him to Timnath, the place of her resi-
ś attacked by a young lion, which #



















































B. C. 1155.] FROM GIDEON TO SAUL.
took away part of it, for the sake of the honey which it contained,
and which he eat as he travelled on, presenting his father and
mother with a portion of it. At the marriage feast he proposed
a riddle to the young Philistines, on the solution of which a
wager was to depend. This riddle, in allusion to the lion and
the honey, was, “out of the eater came meat, and out of the
fierce came sweetness.” Seven days were given for the young
men to unravel the meaning of these words; after the expiration
of three or four days without success, they applied to Samson's
wife, desiring her to obtain from her husband the proper clue,
and threatening her, if she did not, to inflict the severest pu-
nishment upon i. and all her kindred, as persons who had intro-
duced a stranger among them, to plunder them of their property.
Samson yielded to her importunity, and disclosed to her the
mystery on the morning of the seventh day, and she communi-
cated it to her countrymen, who, by this means, won the prize.
Filled with indignation at the treacherous arts by which the
secret had been drawn from him, to take his revenge on the
Philistines, he deserted his wife. When his resentment had
subsided, he went to seek his wife, but was then debarred ac-
cess to her by her father, who told him, that, considering his
sudden desertion of his daughter as a proof that she did not
possess his heart, he had given her in marriage to another.
At the same time dreading, however, the effects of his anger,
he offered Samson her sister, who, as he said, was younger and
handsomer. This offer he did not accept, but departed with a
determination of vengeance on a people who had offered him
such insults. With this view he collected three hundred jack-
alls, and let them loose among the standing corn of the Philis-
times, having previously fastened to their tails burning torches,
by which means their crops of corn, their vines, and their olive
trees were destroyed. When the Philistines found that this
device for the destruction of their property had been projected
by Samson, and attributing it to his resentment for the injuries
which he had sustained from his wife and her father, they ir
their wrath arose in a tumultuous body, and set fire to the
house, causing both those wretched persons to perish in the
flames, as the original authors of their calamity. This savage
act of vengeance Samson amply retaliated, by falling on them,
when they were assembled on some public occasion, and making
a great slaughter, he then withdrew to a fastness in a rock
Philistines now raised an army, and marched against the
men of Judah, who did not dare to meet them in the field; but,
upon remonstrating against the injustice of their invasi
-- should not be commence
# *
























UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. [B.C. 1155.
be bound and led away towards his enemies. So soon as he
brought within sight of the camp of the Phi
&:3: p ilistines, they
rent the air with shouts of joy, supposing that now their dread-
ful enemy was in their power. Their triumph, however, was of
very short duration, for Samson burst his bonds asunder, and
j. no other weapon than the jaw bone of an ass, which lay
upon the ground, attacking the exulting foe with such irresist-
ible fury that he soon killed thousands of them, and put the
rest to ignominious flight. Some time afterwards Samson went
into disguise to Gaza, one of the principal cities of the Philis-
times, where he was soon recognized; the citizens instantly fas-
tened the gates of the town, and thinking they had him quite
secure, they prepared to kill him. But Samson apprized of
their design, arose at midnight, and by the exertion of his
bodily strength tore up the posts on which the gates of the city
were hung, and carried both to a considerable distance from
the place, on the top of a hill within sight of Hebron, where
they appeared a monument of his wonderful deliverance, both
to the Israelites and Philistines. ź
Some time after this, Samson became enamoured of a woman
mamed Delilah, whom the Philistines made use of as an instru-
ment for betraying him; and after some vain attempts, she at
length found that his great strength depended entirely upon his
hair, he saying, that if he were deprived of that, he should become
as weak as . men. She now caused his hair to be cut off,
and then gave him up into the hands of his enemies, who put
out his eyes and carried him away to Gaza, where he was laden
with fetters, and condemned to the servile employment of grind-
ing corn in the common prison. In this situation he continued
a considerable time, subject to a thousand insults, till at length
his hair was again grown, and his strength restored with it,
when a great festival was to be celebrated by the Philistines, in
honour of their god Dagon, and by way of thanksgiving, for
his having delivered their dreadful enemy into their hands. On
this occasion, all the lords of the Philistines, and some thousands
of men and women, being assembled either in the temple of that
idol, or, as some think, in a building erected for the purpose,
Samson was sent for, that they might exult over him, and gr
tify themselves by exposing him to abuse and derision. Wit
this view he was placed in the centre, between the two pilla
which supported the roof of the building, and he resolved to
humble the pride of the oppressors of Israel, though the act
ild prove fatal to himself. He accordingly tore away the
»f the building, and the whole assembly was buried in the
This happened about the year B. C. 1117. Samson
ºl. pries Of 1 he Israelites, an d judge of that peo-
rs, was a descendant of Thamar, the younge
5 -





























B. c. 1155.] FROM GIDEON TO SAUL. 81
branch of Aaron's house, and united the offices of high priest
and judge about the year B. C. 1156. He is charged with con-
tributing to the degeneracy of the people over whom he pre-
sided, however pious and good with respect to his own charac-
ter, by want of resolution to reprove and punish immorality, and
by a culpable inattention to the conduct of his own sons. The
negligence of Eli in the discharge of his office, entailed calami-
ties both on the Israelites and on his own family. The former
were defeated by the Philistines, the two sons of Eli were slain,
and the ark, which was a symbol of the divine presence, was
captured by the enemy. The afflictive intelligence overpowered
the remaining strength of Eli, so that he fell backwards from
his seat, and broke his neck, and died in the 98th year of his age.
HOPHNI and PHINEHAS, sons of Eli, the high priest,
were, says the Scripture, sons of Belial, wicked and dissolute,
1 Sam. ii. 12, 13, &c. They knew not the Lord, nor per-
formed the functions of their ministry in the tabernacle as they
ought. To the irregularities of his sons, the high priest Eli
was no stranger. He reproved them, but so faintly, that they
did not change their behaviour. The Lord, therefore, sent a
threatening message to Eli and his sons, to be threatened by the
young prophet Samuel. Accordingly, the Philistines having
declared war against Israel, Israel lost about 4000 men. The
elders of Israel said, bring thither the ark of the Lord, that it
may save us from our enemies; and the two sons of Eli, Hophni
and Phinehas, brought the ark into the camp. But God permit-
ted the Philistines to obtain another victory; and they killed
30,000, among whom were Hophni and Phinehas, and carried
away the ark of the covenant. . .
HANNAH, wife of Elkanah, a Levite, and an inhabitant of
Ramah, having gone to the usual sacrificial festival at Shiloh,
availed herself of an opportunity of “pouring out her soul be-
fore God” at the tabernacle, requesting the removal of the re-
proach which she daily suffered from Peninnah her copartner
in the embraces, though far her inferior in the affections of El-
kanah, by the bestowal of a son. The fervent, yet silent man-
ner of her appeal, induced Eli to mistake her emotions for in-
toxication, with which he most precipitately accused her; but
upon the circumstance being explained, he as readily retracted,
and changed the uncharitableness into that of benediction.
The acceptance of Hannah's prayer, was at length corroborated
in the birth of a child, whom her piety and gratitude concurred
to name SAMUEL, that is “ asked of God.” Having been de-
voted as a Nazarite from his infancy, he was no sooner weaned,
than his parents presented him to Eli for the service of the ta
bernacle, by whom he was invested with the distinguishing ephod.
PENINNAH, the second wife of Elkanah, the father of
Samuel. Her fertility, and Hannah's barrenness are recorded
WOL. I. . G .




82 UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. [B.C. 1155.
in 1 Sam. i.; with several interesting circumstances, which
show the folly and inconvenience of polygamy.
SAMUEL, an eminent prophet and judge of Israel for seve-
ral years, was the son of Elkanah and Hannah, of the tribe of
Levi, and of the family of Kohath, 1 Sam. i. 1, 2, 3, &c.
1 Chron. vi. 23. He commenced the exercise of his judicial
office at about forty years of age, and maintained it during his
whole life, Towards the close of his life, he appointed his sons
to the subordinate office of judges; but as they abused their
trust, the elders of Israel applied to Samuel, requesting him to
appoint a king over them, and soon after Saul was inducted into
this office, during whose reign he retained a considerable degree
of authority, both with respect to Saul himself, and to all the
people. The last authoritative act which he seems to have per-
formed, was that of anointing David, and investing him with the
royal authority in the place of Saul. After this act he returned
to Ramah, and dwelt there during the remainder of his life, as-
sociating with the prophets, who formed a kind of community
under his conduct. Samuel died at the age of 98 years, about
two years before Saul, A. M. 2947, B.C. 1057, and was buried
at Ramah, 1 Sam. xxv. 1. § w
Samuel was a character of a very superior cast; of irre-
proachable integrity, undaunted fortitude, unabating zeal, un-
affected and unblemished piety; sincere as a friend, gentle as a
man, virtuous as a judge, and holy as a prophet. º:w
ABNER, the son of Ner, and uncle to king Saul, as well as
his father in law, and general of his army. After that monarch's
death he placed his son Ishbosheth, on the throme, and for seven
rears supported his interest with various success; but the young
king offending him, by challenging him for an amour with Riz-
pah, one of his father's concubines, Abner went over to David,
with offers of making all Israel declare for him, which were
readily accepted; but the kindness shown him by David, on
that occasion, having excited Joab's jealousy, he treacherously
§
murdered him.
We shall now, as usual, step aside into prophane history,
and although in these remote periods we are still involved in
fable, yet we shall find much that is interesting with respect to
º gress of men and things. . " . . . . . . .
THESEUS, a famous hero of antiquity, ranked among the
-gods. He was the son of Ægeus, king of Athens. He
Sciron, a cruel robber, down a precipice; fastened Pro.
, tyrant of Attica, to a bending pine, which, being let
ore him asunder; killed the Minotaur kept in the laby-
gave him a clue, escaped out












B. C. 1228.] From giDEoN To saul.
r
*
of that labyrinth, and sailed with his deliverer to the Ot
Naxos, where he had the ingratitude to leave her. Theseus
afterwards overcame the Centaurs, subdued the Thebans, a
defeated the Amazons. He established the Isthmean ga.
in honour of Neptune; united the twelve cities of Attica, and
founded a republic there, B.C. 1236. Some time after, taking
a voyage into Epirus, he was seized by Aidenius, king of the
Molossians, meanwhile Menestheus rendered himself master of
Athens. He excited a general discontent against Theseus,
Overpowered by faction, and finding his affairs irretrievable,
Theseus dismissed his children privately into Euboea, to Elphe-
nor, taking refuge himself in lº court of king Lycomedes, in
the isle of Scyros. In this state of voluntary exile he died,
and
whether by accident or by treachery is not ascertained; some
threw him down in order to acquire the friendship of Menes-
theus. Theseus had seven wives; the first of whom was the
by whom he had Hippolytus; and the last, Phaedra, sister to
Ariadne, who punished him for his infidelity to her sister, by her
“The actions of Theseus,” remarks the Abbé Barthelemy,
“and the impressions they made on the minds of men during
his youth, at the commencement of his reign, and at the end of
his life, present to us successively the image of an hero, a king,
§ ints of vie
he merited the admiration, the love, and the contempt of the
Athenians.”
He was the son of Pelops by Hippodamia, and brother of *it.
theus, Troezen, Thyestes, and Chrysippus; the latter being an
resolved to remove him, and for this purpose she endeavoured
ments proving vain, she executed it herself. Pelops was griev-
2d at his son's death, and the brothers bein ected, they
nephew, Eurystheus king of Arg º
ceeded to that throne. Some writers say he married Ær
ind Agamemnon; but according to others, Ærop
the wife of Plisthenes, by whom she had Agamem
affirming that he fell down a precipice; others, that Lycomedes
beautiful Helen; the second Hippolyte, queen of the Amazons,
incestuous passion for his son Hippolytus.
and an adventurer; and under these different poi º,
ATREUS, king of Mycenae and Argos, about B. C. 122
illegitimate son, and a favourite with his father, Hippodami
to persuade Thyestes and Atreus to murder him; but her argu-
fled from his presence. Atreus retired to the court of his
: 3 or's daughter, by whom he had Plish
laus, and Agam
the reputed sons of A


































| 84 UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. [B.C. 1228.
banished his brother from his court; but resolving to have
more ample revenge for the violence offered to his bed, he soon
after recalled him, and invited him to a sumptuous feast.
Thyestes was served up with the flesh of the children he had
by his sister-in-law the queen; and when the entertainment was
over, to convince him of what he had feasted upon, the arms
and the heads of the murdered children were shown him. This
action appeared so horrid that the sun is said to have with-
drawn his light. Thyestes fled directly to the court of Thes-
protus, and thence to Sicyon, where he violated his own daugh-
ter Pelopea, in a grove sacred to Minerva, not knowing who
she was; though some say he committed this incest intentionally
to revenge himself on his brother Atreus, as the oracle had
promised him satisfaction for the cruelties he had suffered,
only by the hand of a son who should be born of himself, and
his own daughter. Pelopea brought forth a son, whom she
named Ægisthus, and soon after she married Atreus, who had
lost his wife. Atreus adopted Ægisthus, and sent him to mur-
der Thyestes, who had been made prisoner. Thyestes knew
his son, and made himself known to him, when instead of mur-
dering his father, he espoused his cause and avenged his
wrongs, by returning to Atreus and assassinating him.
PLISTHENES, a son of Atreus, king of Argos, father of
Menelaus and Agamemnon, according to Hesiod and others.
Homer, however, calls Menelaus and Agamemnon sons of A-
treus, though they were in reality the children of Plisthemes.
The father died very young, and the two children were left in
the house of their grandfather, who took care of them, and in-
structed them. From his attention to them, therefore, it seems
probable that Atreus was universally acknowledged their pro-
tector and father, and thence their sirname of Atridae. x
ADRASTUS, king of Argos, son of Talaus and Lysianissa,
daughter of Polybius king of Sicyon, acquired great honour in
the famous war of Thebes, in support of Polynices his son-in-
law, who had been excluded the sovereignty of Thebes by
Eteocles his brother, notwithstanding their reciprocal agree-
ment. Adrastus, followed by Polynices and Tydeus his other
son-in-law, by Capaneus and Hippomedon his sister's sons, by
Amphiaraus his brother-in-law, and by Parthenopaeus, marched
against the city of Thebes; and this is the expedition of the
Seven Worthies, which the poets have so often sung. They
all lost their lives in this war except Adrastus, who was saved
his horse called Arrian. This war was revived ten years
ter, by the sons of those deceased warriors, and was called
of the Epigones, and ended with the taking of Thebes.
*m lost their lives except AFgialeus, son of Adras-
tus; afflicted th ch, that he died of grief
in Megara, as he was leading back his victorious army.
















B. c. 12 sq. From GIDEON TO SAUL, 85
MNESTHEUS, a son of Pereus, who so insinuated him-
self into the favour of the people of Athens, that, during the
long absence of Theseus, he was elected king. The lawful
monarch at his return home was expelled, and Mnestheus esta-
blished his usurpation by his popularity and great moderation.
As he had been one of Helen's suitors, he went to the Trojan
war at the head of the people of Athens, and died, on his re-
turn, in the island of Melos. He reigned 23 years, B. C. 1205,
and was succeeded by Demophoon the son of Theseus.
DEMOPHOON, son of Theseus and Phaedra, was king of
Athens, B. C. 1182, and reigned 33 years. At his return from
the Trojan war, he visited Thrace, where he was tenderly re-
ceived and treated by Phyllis. He retired to Athens, and for-
got the kindness and love of Phyllis, who hanged herself in
despair. .. .
HERCULES, a famous Theban hero, to whom the heathens
paid divine honours. He was born about the time when
Gideon was judge of Israel. Who this Hercules was it is diffi-
cult to say; and we shall not enter at large into his history, as
it may be found in any common book of mythology. Several
circumstances in the life of Joshua, Samson, and Moses, have
been confounded with that of Hercules; and the heathens re-
lated much the same thing of this hero as we do of Jonah.
There are certainly many particulars in the history of Hercules
which show some resemblance between him and Samson.
Hercules was of a very advantageous stature, and of an almost
incredible strength. He gave himself up to the love of women,
and we know that story tells us of his amours with Omphale,
who domineered over him, and obliged him, it is said, to
take the distaff. All this agrees but too clearly with Samson,
who resigned himself entirely to Delilah, and was treated in so
injurious a manner by her. Hercules fought for the gods
against the giants. Samson defended the people of God
against the Philistines who oppressed them, and among whom
there were men of a gigantic stature. To exaggerate the
strength of Hercules, they tell us, that he fought against the
Pygmies, and inclosed them in his lions' skin; this may describe
the enemies wherewith Samson defeated the Philistines, who
came to bind and take him. Hercules killed several lions, one
of Cithera, another of Citheron, and another of Nemaea; one he
strangled, and tore off his jaws; all which we find in the history
of Samson, who strangled a lion that fell upon him with dread-
ful roarings.
Samson delivered to the Philistines after discovering the
secret of his strength to Delilah, and set to hard and mean
labours, is a figure of Hercules abandoned to Eurystheus, by
the hatred of Juno, and obliged to undergo the severest trials,
in order to deliver himself from servitude. The two pillars of




UNIversal, biography. [B.C. 1228.
esented by those which Samson
º 'Ivºv LIVA 3rated for her love to her country,
was of Thebes, in Boeotia. That state was at war with the
Orchomenians, they consulted the oracle, which answered,
they would be victors, if the most noble amongst them would
incur a voluntary death. Antiopoemus, the father of Andro-
clea, was then most illustrious by birth amongst the Thebans,
but did not feel disposed to make that sacrifice for their wel-
fare. Androclea, and her sister Alcis, more courageous or
more generous than their father, fulfilled this duty in his stead;
and the Thebans, in gratitude, erected the statue of a lion to
their honour in the temple of Diana. .
JASON, the Greek hero who undertook the Argonautic
expedition, the history of which is obscured in fabulous tradi-
tions. He was the son of Æson and Alcimede, and was edu-
cated by Chiron the Centaur. His uncle Pelias having usurp-
ed his father's kingdom, Jason boldly demanded it of him, but
him first to go to Colchis, and recover the £h
was advised by co º:
den fleece previous to the restoration of it. He accompli
the arduous enterprise by the assistance of Medea, daughter
of AEtes, king of Colchis. Jason married Medea, but after-
wards divorced her, and married Glauce, daughter of the king
of Corinth. After this, he lived an unsettled and melancholy
life. As he was one dav rº posing himself by the side of the
ship which had carried him to Colchis, a beam fell upon his
head, and he was crushed to death. N.
APANEUS, a captain at the siege of Thebes, and the
put a ladder to scale the walls of the town, On
made war against Ju-
CEta and Hypsea, and brother of
º :* W. ºn tº a ºn aw ay wit n Ot y whOn she a S-
in carrying off the golden fleece, she was pursued by her
; but in order to retard his progress, she tore Absyrtus
s, and strewed his limbs in the way.
l, the sister of Medea, who taught antidotes against
… šº us
$.
alicus; though Servi
º
º, ubjects were
d obliged them to wait







































































B.C. 1228.] FROM GIDEON TO SAUL. - 87
daughter of Cychreus a king of Salamis. He was brother-in-
law to Telamon the son of Eacus. .
POLYPEMQN, a famous thief, who plundered all the
travellers about the Cephisus, and near Eleusis in Attica.
He was killed by Theseus. Ovid calls him father of Procrus-
tes, and Apollodorus of Sinis.
PROCRUSTES, a famous robber of Attica, killed by The-
seus, near the Cephisus. He tied travellers on a bed, and if
their length exceeded that of the bed, he used to cut it off, but
if they were shorter, he had them stretched to make their
length equal to it. He is called by some Damastes, and by
others Polypemon.
LATINUS I. king of the Latins, in Italy, was the son of
Faunus and Marica. Lavinia, his only daughter, married
AEneas, after that Trojan prince had killed Turnus king of the
Rutuli. .
MELANTHUS, MELANTHES, or MELANTHIUS, a
son of Andropompus, whose ancestors were kings of Pylas.
He was driven from his paternal kingdom by the Hebrachidae
and came to Athens, where king Thymotes promised to resign
the crown to him, provided he fought a battle against Xanthus,
a general of the Boeotians, who made war against him. He
fought and conquered, and his family, sirnamed the Neleidae,
sat on the throne of Athens, till the age of Codrus.
EURYSTHENES, a son of Aristodemus, who lived in per-
petual dissention with his twin brother Procles, while they both
sat on the Spartan throne. It was unknown which of the two
was born first; the mother, who wished to see both her sons
sit on the throne, refused to declare it, and they were both
appointed kings of Sparta by order of the oracle of Delphi.
After the death of the two brothers, the Lacedaemo-
nians, who knew not to what family the right of seniority
and succession belonged, permitted two kings to sit on the
throne, one of each family. The descendants of Eurysthenes
were called Eurysthenidae, and those of Procles, Proclidae; it
was inconsistent with the laws of Sparta for two kings of the
same family to ascend the throne together, yet that law was
sometimes violated by oppression and tyranny. Eurysthenes
had a son called Agis who succeeded him. His descendants
were called Agidae. There sat on the throne of Sparta 31 kings
of the family of Eurysthemes, and only 24 of the Proclidae; the
former were the more illustrious. .
. PROCLES, a king of Sparta, the son of Aristodemus and
sº win brother of Eurysthenes, who reigned joint.
y was . him, and gave rise to the two royal families of
rr. clidae and Eury sthenidae, wh w
henturies, exhibiting the singular
inarchy, or two hereditary |
* * sº
limited power.












88 UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. [B.C. 1184.
ARISTODEMUS, son of Aristomachus, was one of the
Heraclidae. He, with his brothers Temenus and Chrespontes,
invaded Peloponnesus, conquered it, and divided the country
among themselves. tº :
PELOPS, the celebrated king of Phrygia, lived at this period.
Pelops came to Pisa, where he became one of the suitors of
Hippodamia, the daughter of king CEnomaus, and he entered
...}. against the father, who promised his daughter only to
him who could out-run him in a chariot race. Pelops was not
terrified at the fate of thirteen lovers who before him had entered
the course against OEnomaus, and had, according to the con-
ditions proposed, been put to death when conquered. He pre-
viously bribed Myrtilus, the charioteer of OEnomaus, and there-
fore he easily obtained the victory. He married Hippodamia,
and threw headlong into the sea Myrtilus, when he claimed the
reward of his perfidy. Pelops after death received divine
honours, and was revered above all the heroes of Greece.
We shall now introduce the reader to the heroes concerned in
thesiege of Troy. The story is, that Paris, the son of Priam, king
of Troy, seduced Helen, the daughter of Tyndarus, and wife of
Menelaus, whom he carried to Troy. The whole Grecian states
united to revenge this affront offered to a single Greek, and
neither the power of Troy, nor the wealth of king Priam, could
overcome this confederacy. Troy was taken after a siege of
ten years, B. C. 1184. The fate of Paris may inform princes
that yielding to an unworthy passion may prove the ruin of their
country. We shall first introduce the Trojans, and afterwards
the Greeks concerned in this great enterprize.
PRI.AM, the unfortunate king of Troy at the time of its
destruction, was the son of Laomedon, and when Troy was
taken and his father slain, he was carried away captive into
Greece, with his sister Hesione. He succeeded to the throne
of Laomedon, and to prevent a renewal of the disaster which
had befallen his capital, he surrounded it with strong walls.
The discovery of a gold mine on his territories enabled him to
undertake many public works, and to decorate Troy with stately
:es, so as to render it the most splendid city in that part of
»rld. He raised and maintained a considerable army,
h enabled him to extend his dominions till at length he was
regarded as the most powerful prince of Lesser Asia. His first
wife was Arisba, by whom he had only one son; but his second
wife was Hecuba, who made him father of a numerous family.
at prosperity till the perfidy of 1 n Paris, in
len, the wife of the Spartan king Me avr.
n hospitably entertained
from the confederated kings



















B. C. 1184.] FROM GIDEoN To saul. 89
so celebrated under-the name of the Trojan war. After a
struggle of ten years, in which he saw his territories laid waste,
his bravest sons slain, and the capital taken, he was himself slain.
at his own domestic altar by the savage Pyrrhus, the son of
Achilles. * §. ... : :
HECUBA, the second wife of Priam, and mother of Hector
and Paris, was, according to Homer, the daughter of Dymas,
or as Virgil, following Euripides, says, of Cisseis, king of Thrace,
and sister of Theaio, the priestess of Apollo at Troy during the
war. After the capture of Troy, she attempted to revenge the
death of her son Polydorus, and was stoned to death by the
Greeks. Some say that she became a slave to Ulysses, and
that this prince left the unfortunate princess in the hands of her
enemies, who caused her to be stoned. It is probable, however,
that Ulysses himself was the cause of her death; because, it
is said, that upon his arrival in Sicily, he was so tormented with
dreams, that in order to appease the gods, he built a temple to
Hecate, who presided over dreams, and a chapel to Hecuba.
PARIS, the son of Priam, king of Troy, by Hecuba. When
his mother, in the first months of her pregnancy, had
dreamed that she should bring forth a torch which would set
fire to her palace, the soothsayers foretold the calamities •
which were to be expected from the imprudence of her future
son, and which would end in the ruin of Troy. Priam, to pre-
vent so great a calamity, ordered his slave Archelaus to de-
stroy the child as soon as he was born. The slave only exposed.
the child on mount Ida, where the shepherds of the place found
him, and educated him as their own. Though educated
among shepherds and peasants, he gave very early proofs of
courage and intrepidity; and from his care in protecting the
flocks of mount Ida from the rapacity of the wild beasts he was
named Alexander, a helper of men. He gained the esteem of
all the shepherds, and his manly deportment recommended him
to OEnone, a nymph of Ida, whom he married, and with whom
he lived in the most perfect tenderness. Their conjugal
peace was, however, of no long duration. At the marriage of
Peleus and Thetis, Ate, the goddess of discord, who had not.
been invited to partake of the entertainment, showed her dis-
pleasure, by throwing into the assembly of the gods who were
at the celebration of the nuptials, a golden apple, on which were
written these words, Let it be given to the fairest. All the
goddesses claimed it as their own, and the contention at first be-,
came general; but atlast only three, Juno, Venus, and Minerva,
wished to dispute their respective right to beauty. The gods,
unwilling to become arbiters in an affair so delicate in its nature,
appointed Paris to adjudge their prize. The goddesses
peared before their judge v without covering or ornament










UnivERsAl Biography. [B. c. 1184.
each endeavoured by promises to influence his judgment. Juno
promised him a kingdom; Minerva, wisdom and military glory;
and Venus, the fairest woman in the world for his wife. After
he had heard their several claims and promises, Paris adjudged
the prize to Venus, and gave her the golden apple. This deci-
ion drew upon the judge and his family the resentment of the
wo other goddesses. Such is the fabulous, or poetical account.
Soon after, Priam proposed a contest among his sons and other
princes, and promised to reward the conqueror with one of the
finest bulls of Mount Ida. His emissaries were sent to procure
the animal, and it was found in the possession of Paris, who re-
luctantly yielded it. But he went to Troy, and entered the lists
of the combatants. He was received with applause, and ob-
tained the victory over his rivals, Nestor the son of Neleus,
Cyenus son of Neptune, Polites, Helenus, and Deiphobus, son
of Priam. He likewise obtained a superiority over Hector him-
self, who, enraged to see himself conquered by an unknown
stranger, pursued him closely; and Paris must have fallen a
victim to his rage, had he not fled to the altar of Jupiter. This
sacred retreat preserved his life; and Cassandra, the daughter
of Priam, struck with the familiarity of the features of Paris with
those of her brothers, enquired his birth and his age. From
these circumstances she discovered that he was her brother, and
as such introduced him to her father and to her brothers. Priam
acknowledged Paris as his son, and all jealousy ceased among
the brothers. . - .
Paris did not long remain inactive; he equipped a fleet as if
willing to redeem Hesione, his father's sister, whom Hercules
had carried away, and obliged to marry Telamon the son of
£acus. This was the pretended motive of his voyage, but the
causes were far different. Helen was the fairest woman of the
age, and Venus had promised her to him. He therefore went
ied Menelaus.
Sparta, the residence of Helen, who had marrie
e was received with great respect; but he abused the hospi-
ity of Menelaus, and while the husband was absent in Crete,
rsuaded Helen to elope with him and to fly to Asia. Priam
2d h
eceived her without difficulty, as his sister was then detained
in a foreign country, and as he wished to show himself as hos-
e a ile to the Greeks. This affair was soon productive
of serious consequences. When Menelaus had married Helen,
all her suitors had bound themselves by a solemn oath to de-
fend her from every violence, and the ded them
& ir engagements, and called up over her.
this all Gree. chosen
hem to rec






























































B.C. 1184.] FROM GIDEON TO SAUL.
subjects, to oppose the enemy; but he fought with little cou-
rage, and at the very sight of Menelaus, whom he had so re-
cently injured, his courage vanished and he retired from the
army. It is said, however, that he wounded in battle, Ma-
chaeon, Euriphylus, and Diomedes; and, according to some, he
killed with an arrow the great Achilles. The death of Paris is
differently related; some say he was mortally wounded by one
of the poisoned arrows of Philoctetus; and that when he found
himself languid by his wounds, he ordered himself to be carried
to the feet of CEnone, whom he had basely abandoned, and who
had foretold him that he would solicit her assistance in his
dying moments. He expired before he came into the presence
of OEnone, who threw herself upon his body, and stabbed her-
self to the heart. According to others, Paris did not immedi-
ately go to Troy when he left the Peloponnesus, but he was
driven on the coasts of Egypt, where Proteus, the king of the
country, detained him. He died about 1188, B. C.
CASS ANDRA, daughter of king Priam, a celebrated per-
sonage, appears to have had a real º in the tragedy of the
Trojan events. She seems to have laboured under a fancied
inspiration, which made her, º the siege of Troy, utter
various predictions of impending calamities, disregarded at the
time, but many of them naturally verified in the event. During
the plunder of that metropolis, she took refuge in the temple of
Minerva, where she was barbarously violated by Ajax, son of
Oileus. In the division of the spoil she fell to the lot of Aga-
memnon, who brought her home, where she excited the jea-
lousy of Clytemnestra. In consequence, when that prince was
assassinated by the contrivance of his wife and her gallant, she
also fell a victim. She is said to have been very beautiful, and
to have had several suitors in the flourishing time of Troy.
HECTOR, the son of Priam and Hecuba, and the father of
Astyanax, celebrated for the valour with which he defended the
eity of Troy against the Greeks. He was killed by Achilles,
who dragged his body, fastened to his chariot, thrice round the
walls of Troy, and afterwards restored it to Priam for a large
railson. : ::::...?
ANDROMACHE, the wife of the valiant Hector, the mother
of Astyanax, and daughter of Eetion, king of Thebes, in Cilicia.
After the death of Hector and the destruction of Troy, she
married Pyrrhus; who afterwards gave her to Helenus, the so
ASTYANAX, the only son of Hector and
º
Or and
of a tow

























92 UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. [B, C, 1184.
slave of Pyrrhus, who gave her to him in marriage, because his
predictions had been favourable to him. He was the only one
of Priam's children who survived the ruin of his country. After
the death of Pyrrhus he reigned over part of Epirus, called
Chaoniae. His son, Cestrinus, succeeded to a part of his father's
dominions, called Cestrina. Helenus is said to have learned
the art of divination from Cassandra his sister, the priestess of
Apollo. Possessed of this art, he was much respected by the
Trojans; and was at length prevailed upon to inform the ene-
mies of his country, that Troy could not be taken while it was
in possession of the Palladium, nor before Polydorus, leaving
his retreat at Lemnos, joined in supporting the siege. When
his country was ruined he became the property of Pyrrhus,
whose life he saved, by warning him to avoid a dangerous tem-
pest, which proved fatal to all those who set sail. Thus, as we
have already said, he gained the favour of Pyrrhus, and his fa-
vour was introductory to the other events that occurred. It is
said that Helenus received AEneas when on his voyage towards
Italy, and predicted to him some of the calamities that befel his
MEROPS, a celebrated soothsayer of Percossus in Troas,
who foretold the death of his sons Adrastus and Amphius, who
were engaged in the Trojan war. They slighted their father's
advice, and were killed by Diomedes.
POLY DORUS, a son of Priam and Hecuba. As he was
young and inexperienced when Troy was besieged by the
Greeks, his father removed him to the court of Polymnestor,
king of Thrace, and also entrusted to the care of the monarch
a large sum of money, and the greatest part of his treasures, till
his country was freed from foreign invasion. No sooner was
the death of Priam known in Thrace, than Polymnestor made
himself master of the riches which were in his possession, and
to ensure them the better, he assassinated young Polydorus,
and threw his body into the sea, where it was found by He-
cuba. - - * -
THYMCETES, a Trojan prince, whose wife and son having
been killed by order of king Priam, he, in revenge, advised
the Trojans to admit the wooden horse of the Greeks, by which
Troy was destroyed.
EUPHORBUS, a famous Trojan, son of Panthous. He
was the first who wounded Patroclus, whom Hector killed. He
perished by the hand of Menelaus, who hung his shield in the
temple of Juno, at Argos. :: ...?
HELEN, the motheautiful woman of the age in which she
d, was the daughter of Tyndarus, king of Sparta, and Leda,
his wife. Helen was so universally admired, that she was car-
ried off, when very young, by Theseus. Pausanias records that
she had a daughter by Theseus, who was entrusted to the





B. C. 1184.] FROM GIDEON TO SAUL. 93
care of Clytemnestra. This violence offered to her virtue did
not in the least diminish, but rather augmented her fame; and
her hand was eagerly solicited by the young princes of Greece.
The most celebrated of her suitors were Ulysses son of Laertes,
Antilochus son of Nestor, Sthenelus son of Capaneus, Diomedes
son of Tydeus, Amphilochus son of Cteatus, Meges son of Phi-
leus, Agapenor son of Ancaeus, Thalpius son of Eurytus, Mnes-
theus son of Peteus, Schedius son of Epistrophus, Polyxenus
son of Agasthenes, Amphilochus son of Amphiaraus, Ascala-
phus and Talmus sons of the god Mars, Ajax son of Oileus,
Eumelus son of Admetes, Polypoetes son of Pirithous, Elphe-
nor son of Chalcodon, Podalyrius and Machaon sons of Æscu-
lapius, Leontius son of Coronus, Philoctetes son of Paean, Pro-
tesilaus son of Iphiclus, Eurypylus son of Evemon, Ajax and
Teucer sons of Telamon, Patroclus son of Manaetius, Menelaus
son of Atreus, Thoas, Idomeneus, and Merion. Tyndarus was
rather alarmed than pleased at the sight of such a number of
illustrious princes who eagerly solicited each to become his son-
in-law. He knew he could not prefer one without displeasing all
the rest, and from this perplexity he was at last drawn by the
artifice of Ulysses, who began to be already known in Greece
by his prudence and sagacity. This prince, who clearly saw his
pretensions to Helen would not probably meet with success in
opposition to so many rivals, proposed to extricate Tyndarus
from all his difficulties if he would promise him his niece Pene-
lope in marriage. Tyndarus consented, and Ulysses advised
the king to bind, by a solemn oath, all the suitors that they
would approve of the uninfluenced choice which Helen should
make of one among them; and engage to unite together to de-
fend her person and character if ever any attempts were made
to force her from the arms of her husband. The advice of
Ulysses was followed, the princess fixed her choice upon Me-
melaus and married him. Hermione was the early fruit of this
union, which continued for three years with mutual happiness.
The events which followed are fully detailed in the biography
of this period. Helen is represented by Homer as so extremely
beautiful, that during the siege of Troy, though seen at a dis-
tance, she influenced the counsellors of Priam by the brightness
of her charms. She was put to death by Polixo. º
POLYMNESTOR, a king of the Thracian Chersonesus,
who married Ilione, the eldest of Priam's daughters. When
the Greeks besieged Troy, Priam sent the greatest part of his
treasures, together with Polydorus, the youngest of his sons, to
Thrace, where they were intrusted to the care of Polymnestor.
The Thracian monarch paid every attention to his brother-in-
law; but when he was informed that Priam was dead, he mur-
dered him to become master of the riches which were in his
possession. At that time the Greeks were returning victorious

94. UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. [B. c. 1184,
from Troy, followed by all the captives, among whom was He-
cuba, the mother of Polydorus. The fleet stopped on the
coasts of Thrace, where one of the female captives discovered
the body of Polydorus, whom Polymnestor had thrown into the
sea. The dreadful news was communicated to Hecuba, his
mother, who to revenge her son's death, called out Polymnestor;
when the female captives rushing upon him, put out his eyes
with their pins, while Hecuba murdered his two children, who
had accompanied him. Euripides says, that the Greeks con-
demned Polymnestor to be banished into a distantisland for his
perfidy; but Hyginus relates the story differently, and tells us,
:hat when Polydorus was sent to Thrace, Ilione, his sister, took
him instead of her son Deiphilus, who was of the same age,
being afraid of her husband's cruelty. The monarch, acquainted
with the imposition, looked upon Polydorus as his own son, and
treated Deiphilus as her brother. After the destruction of
Troy, the conquerors wished the house and family of Priam to
be extirpated, and therefore offered Electra, the daughter of
Agamemnon, to Polymnestor, if he would destroy Ilione and
Polydorus. Polydorus, who passed as the son of Polymnestor,
consulted the oracle, and being informed that his father was
dead, his mother a captive in the hands of the Greeks, and his
country in ruins, he communicated the answer to Ilione, who
told him what she had done to save his life, upon which he
avenged the perfidy of Polymnestor by putting out his eyes.
ARCHEPTOLEMUS, son of Iphitus, king of Elis, went to
the Trojan war, and fought against the Greeks. As he was
fighting near Hector, he was killed by Ajax, son of Telamon.
It is said that he re-established the olympic games.
TECHMESSA, the daughter of Teuthras, king of Phrygia,
who was carried captive by Ajax, and became mother of a son,
Erysaces, by him. She afterwards prevented him from killing
himself; which forms a scene in one of Sophocles' tragedies.
PENTHESILEA, queen of the Amazons, succeeded Osy-
thia, and gave proofs of her courage at the siege of Troy, where
she was killed by Achilles. Pliny says she invented the battle-
AENEAS, a famous Trojan prince. At the destruction o
Troy, he bore his aged father on his back, and saved him from
the Greeks; but being too solicitous about his son and house-
hold gods, he lost his wife, Creusa, in the escape. air
hat he retired to Mount Ida, where he built a fleet of
º and sat sail in quest of a settlement. Af :er a
even years, and f thirteen ships, he came to
imus. the king e country received him with hospitality






































B.C. 1184.] FROM GIDEON TO SAUL. 95
many battles, the war was decided by a combat between the
two rivals, in which Turnus was killed. Lavinia became a prize
to the foreign conqueror, who, by the death of his father-in-law,
succeeded to the throne of Latium. After a short reign in
peace, a new war with the Tyrrhenians, under their king Me-
zentius, broke out, which proved fatal to Æneas, who, during a
combat, was forced into the river Numicus, and there drowned.
He was succeeded by his son Ascanius, and became himself,
one of the Dii Indigetes of the country. The story of the
loves of Dido and Æneas, which forms so strong a part in
the AEneid, is allowed to be a mere poetic ornament, brought in
by a violent anachronism. .
CREUSA, a daughter of Priam, king of Troy, by Hecuba,
she married Æneas, by whom she had Ascanius. When Troy
was taken, she fled in the night with her husband; but they
were separated in the confusion, and Æneas could not recover
her. Some pretend that Cybele saved her, and carried her to
her temple, of which she became priestess. .
ASCANIUS, son of Æneas, and Creusa, succeeded his fa-
ther in the kingdom of the Latins, and overturned Mezentius,
king of Tuscany, for refusing to make peace with him B. C.
1089, and reigned thirty eight years. :-
NISUS, the son of Hyrtacus, a young Trojan who accom-
panied Æneas to Italy. He was united in the closest friendshi
with Euryalus. They signalized themselves in the war º;
the Rutulians; went into their camp in the night, and committed
great slaughter, but returning victorious, were perceived and
killed by the Rutulians. . Their friendship became proverbial.
ATYS, a Trojan, who accompanied Æneas to Italy, and
. yºn it is supposed the family of the Atii at Rome des-
CCI101CCH. .
THYMGETES, a Trojan prince, son of Hicetaon, and
grandson of Laomedon, who accompanied Æneas into Italy,
where he was killed by Turnus. . .
ACESTES, son of Crinisus and Egesta, was king of the
country near Drepanum in Sicily. He assisted Priam in the
Trºjan war, and kindly entertained AEneas during his voyage,
and helped him to bury his father on Mount Eryx. In comme-
moration of this, AEneas built a city there, called Acesta, from
Acestes.
The followin
against Troy.
are the Greeks, and others, who engaged
CAMILLA, daughter of Metabus, king of the Volsci, as-
cended the throne after her father's death; she was an heroic
princess, assisted Turnus against Æneas , but in the field of
battle lost her life.
§ *








96 UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. [B.C. 1184.
MENELAUS, king of Sparta, famous in ancient history for
the share which he took in the Trojan war, was son of Plis-
thenes, king of Argos, and brother of Agamemnon. He mar-
ried Helen, the daughter of Tyndarus, king of Sparta, and in
her right succeeded to the crown of that country. The cause
of the Trojan war, (See Paris) was Paris's seducing and carry-
ing off the fair Helen, the wife of Menelaus. This injury was
made a common cause by the petty kings of Greece, who, with
a powerful army under the command of Agamemnon, laid siege
to Troy. Menelaus was present as a leader of the confederates.
In the tenth year of the Trojan war, Helen obtained the for-
§. and favour of Menelaus, by introducing him with
Ulysses, the night the city was reduced to ashes, into the cham-
ber of Deiphobus, whom she had married after the death of
Paris. This perfidious conduct totally reconciled her to her
first husband, and she returned with him to Sparta, where Tele-
machus is represented in the Odyssey, as finding them living in
peace and prosperity. Menelaus is said to have been succeed-
ed in his kingdom by two illegitimate sons, who were expelled by
Orestes, son to Agamemnon. The palace which Menelaus once
inhabited was still entire in the days of Pausanias, as well as
the temple which had been raised to his memory by the people
of Sparta. . .
AGAMEMNON, the son of Atreus, was captain general of
the Trojan expedition. It was foretold to him by Cassandra,
that his wife Clytemnestra would be his death; yet he returned
to her, and accordingly was murdered by Ægisthus, who had
corrupted his wife in i. absence, and by her means got the go-
vernment in his own hands. . . .” r .
His son Orestes afterwards took revenge on the murderers;
and the events of horror afforded by the history of this family
have been favourite subjects of the tragic muse of ancient
Greece, and its imitators in modern times. . -
ACHILLES, the son of King Peleus and Thetis, and the cele-
brated hero of Homer's Iliad, is said to have been born at Phthia
in Thessaly. His mother entrusted him to Chiron the Centaur,
who it is said fed him with the marrow of wild beasts to strength-
enhim for the toils of war. To prevent him from goingto the siege
of Troy, Thetis disguised him in the dress of a young woman,
and attempted to conceal him among the daughters of King
Lycomedes, one of whom became pregnant by him. Ulysses,
however, persuaded him to accompany the other Grecian chiefs
in their crusade against Troy; when he distinguished himself by
his valour, till Agamemnon by taking from him Briseis, a female
captive, provoked him to withdraw himself in disgust. But
s friend Patroclus being killed by Hector, in order to avenge
his death, he returned to the camp, slew the prince, and bar-
barously dragged his dead body round the walls of Troy at his







B. c. 1184.] FROM GIDEON to saud. 97
chariot wheels; that afterwards falling in love with Philoxena,
one of Hector's sisters, he was mortally wounded with an arrow
in the heel, by her brother Paris, while treating about the mar-
riage; and, in conclusion, that he was buried on the promontory
of Sigaeum, where the Greeks sacrificed the unfortunate prin-
cess on his tomb, according to the barbarous custom of that
age, and agreeable to his dying request, that he might enjoy
her company in the Elysian Fields. His death is supposed to
have happened about B. C. 1183. Alexander the Great is said
to have visited his tomb, and placed a crown upon it, saying
that “Achilles was happy, in having such a friend as Patroclus
in his life, and such a poet as Homer, to celebrate him, after
his death.” N. .
Homer has been blamed for making his hero Achilles of too
brutal and unamiable a character. Dr. Blair vindicates Homer,
as well as his hero, from this charge, in the following passage.
“Achilles is passionate, indeed, to a great degree; but he is
far from being a contemner of laws and justice. In the contest
with Agamemnon, though he carries it on with too much heat,
yet he has reason on his side. He was notoriously wrong, but
he submits, and resigns Briseis peaceably when the heralds
came to demand her; only he will fight no longer under the
command of a leader who had affronted him. Besides his won-
derful bravery and contempt of death, he has several other qua-
lities of a hero. He loves his subjects, and reveres the gods.
He is distinguished by strong friendships and attachments; he
is, throughout, high spirited, gallant, and honourable; and,
allowing for a degree of ferocity which belonged to the times,
and enters into the characters of most of Homer's heroes, he is,
upon the whole, abundantly fitted to raise high admiration,
though not pure esteem.” §
PYRRHUS, son of Achilles and Deidamia, is said to have
had his name from his red hair. He was brave, but rough
and savage. One of his first exploits was the killing of Eu-
rypilus, son of Telephus. This conquest pleased him so ex-
tremely, that he set up the Pyrrhic dance upon the occasion.
He was one of the most forward to venture into the wooden
horse *. He was inferior to none of the Grecian warriors in
valour, and Ulysses and Nestor alone could claim a supe-
riority over him in eloquence, wisdom, and address. His
cruelty however was as great. Not satisfied with breaking
down the gates of Priam's palace, he exercised the greatest
barbarity upon the remains of his family, and without any re-
with
armed men, and led away their army from the plains, as if to return home.
The Trojans brought the wooden horse into their city, and in the §
Greeks rushed from their hiding place and opened the gates to their com-
panions, who had returned to the siege, See Simon.
• According to the poets, the Greeks filled a large wooden ...;




IVERSAL BIOGRAPHY.
gard to the sanctity of the place where Priam had taken refuge,
he slaughtered him without mercy; or, according to others,
dragged him by the hair of his head, to the tomb of his fa-
ther, where he sacrificed him, cut off his head, and carried
it in exultation through the streets of Troy, fixed on the point
of a spear. He also had for his share Andromache, the widow
of Hector, and Helenus, the son of Priam. With those he
departed for Greece, and he probably escaped from destruc-
tion by giving credit to the words of Helenus, who foretold
him that if he sailed with the rest of the Greeks, his voyage
would be attended with fatal consequences, and perhaps with
death. This obliged him to take a different course from the
other Greeks, and he travelled over the greatest part of
Thrace, where he had a severe encounter with queen Harpa-
lyce. Andromache, Hector's widow, he afterwards made hi
wife. Authors are not agreed where he settled after the sack-
ing of Troy; some say he went to Phthia in Thessaly, and took
possession of his father's dominions. Others affirm he went
straight to Epirus, and founded a government there. He had
three wives, Hermione, Lanassa, and Andromache. The kings
of this name, who reigned in Epirus, are thought to be de-
scended from him. The cause of his death is variously re-
lated. Menelaus, before the Trojan war, had promised his
daughter Hermione to Orestes, but the service he experienced
from the valour and the courage of Pyrrhus during the siege of
Troy, induced him to reward his merit by making him his son-
in-law. The nuptials were accordingly celebrated, but Her-
mione became jealous of Andromache, and because she had no
children, she resolved to destroy her Trojan rival, who seemed
to steal away the affections of their common husband. In the
absence of Pyrrhus at Delphi, Hermione attempted to murder
Andromache, but she was prevented by the interference of
Peleus, or according to others, of the populace. When she
saw her schemes defeated, she determined to lay violent hands
upon herself, to avoid the resentment of Pyrrhus. The sud-
den arrival of Orestes changed her resolutions, and she con-
sented to elope with her lover to Sparta. Orestes at the san
time, to revenge and to punish his rival, caused him to be as-
sassinated in the temple of Delphi, and he was murdered at
the foot of the altar by Machareus the priest, or by the hands
of Orestes himself, according to Virgil, Paterculus and Hygi-
nus. Some say that he was murdered by the Delphians, §.
had been bribed by the presents of Orestes.
AJAX, the son of Oileus, was one of the principal generals
nt to the siege of Troy. He violated Cassandra,






































B.C. 1184.] FROM GIDEON TO SAUL.
his table, and followed him like a dog. The Locrians had a
singular veneration for his memory. . . . . . .
ºAX, the son of Telamon, was, next to Achilles, the most
valiant general among the Greeks at the siege of Troy. He
commanded the troops of Salamis, and performed many great
actions, of which we have an account in the Iliad, in Dictys
Cretensis, and in the 23d book of Ovid's Metamorphoses. He
was so enraged that the arms of Achilles were adjudged to
Ulysses, that he became insane and killed himself. The Greeks
erected a magnificent monument to his memory upon the pro-
montory of Rhetium.
IPHIGENIA, daughter of Agamemnon and Clytemnestra.
When the Greeks, going to the Trojan war, were detained by
contrary winds at Aulis, they were informed by a soothsayer,
that to appease the gods they must sacrifice Iphigenia, Aga-
memnon's daughter, to Diana. The father, who had provoked
the goddess by killing her favourite stag, heard this with the
greatest horror and indignation; and rather than shed the
blood of his daughter, he commanded one of his heralds, as
chief of the Grecian forces, to order all the assembly to depart
each to his respective home. Ulysses and the other generals
interfered, and Agamemnon consented to immolate his daugh-
ter for the common cause of Greece. As Iphigenia was ten-
derly loved by her mother, the Greeks sent for her on pretence
of giving her in marriage to Achilles. Clytemnestra gladly
permitted her departure, and Iphigenia came to Aulis. Here
she saw the bloody preparations for the sacrifice. She im-
plored the forgiveness and protection of her father; but tears
and entreaties were unavailing. Calchas took the knife in his
hand; and as he was going to strike the fatal blow, Diana re-
lented, caught away Iphigenia, who suddenly disappeared, and
a goat of uncommon size and beauty was found in her place
for the sacrifice. This supernatural change animated the
Greeks, the wind suddenly became favourable, and the com-
bined fleet set sail from Aulis. Calchas, the Grecian priest,
in this affair seems to have acted with the same human policy
that the bishop of Beauvois did in the case of Joan of Arc.
THERSANDER, a son of Polynices, and grandson of
GEdipus, king of Thebes. He went with the Greeks to the
Trojan war, and was killed by Telephus.
THERSILOCHUS, a general of the Paeonians, in the Tro.
jan war. He was killed by Achilles.
PYLADES, a son of Strophius, king of Phocis, by a sister
of Agamemnon. He was educated along with his cousin
Orestes, with whom he formed the most inviolable friendship,
and whom he assisted to revenge the murder of Agame
y assassinating Clytemnestra and Ægysthus. He also a

















3. n 2
UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY, [B.C. 1184.
es rewarded him by giving him his sister Electra in mar-
riage. Pylades had by her two sons, Meden and Strophius.
The friendship of Orestes and Pylades became proverbial.
NESTOR, king of Pylos and Messenia, who led his subjects
to the Trojan war, where he distinguished himself among the
rest of the Grecian chiefs, by eloquence, address, wisdom, jus-
tice, and an uncommon prudence of mind. Homer displays his
character as the most perfect of all his heroes; and Agamem-
non exclaims, that, if he had ten generals like Nestor, he should
soon see the walls of Troy reduced to ashes. After the Trojan
war, Nestor retired to Greece, where he enjoyed, in the bosom
of his family, the peace and tranquillity which were due to his
wisdom, and to his old age. The manner and the time of his
death are unknown; the ancients are agreed that he lived three
generations of men, which some suppose to be 300 years, though,
more probably, only 90, allowing 30 years for each generation.
From that circumstance, therefore, it was usual among the
Greeks and the Latins, when they wished a long and happy
life to their friends, to wish them to see the years of Nestor.
He had two daughters, Pisidice and Polycaste; and seven
sons, Perseus, Straticus, Aretus, Echephron, Pisistratus, An-
tilochus, and Trasimedes. Nestor was one of the Argonauts,
according to Valerius Flaccus. sº
TELAMON, a celebrated Grecian hero, the son of Æacus
and Endeis; brother of Peleus and Phocus, and father of Teucer
and Ajax. Having accidentally killed his brother Phocus, he
fled from Megara, his birth place; and arriving at Salamis,
married Glauce, the daughter of king Cychreus, whom he suc-
ceeded. w.
º TEUCER, son of Telamon, king of Salamis, by Hesione the
daughter of Laomedon. He was one of Helen's suitors, and
i. accompanied the Greeks to the Trojan war, where
he signalized himself for his valour and intrepidity. It is said
that his father refused to receive him into his kingdom because
he had left the death of his brother Ajax unrevenged. This
severity of the father did not dishearten the son; he left Salamis
and retired to Cyprus, where, with the assistance of Belus, king
of Sidon, he i. a town which he called Salamis, after his
native country. He attempted to no purpose to recover the
island of Salamis after his father's death. He built a temple to
Jupiter in Cyprus, on which a man was annually sacrificed till
the reign of the Antonines. Some suppose that Teucer did
it return to Cyprus, but that, according to a less received
to settle in Spain, where new Carthage was
Ad theneº intº Galatia. , , , , , , , ,
ged



























B. C. 1184.] FROM GIDEON TO SAUL. . 101
Hunt
from the temple of Minerva in Troy; and assisted in murdering
Rhesus king of Thrace, and carrying off his horses. At his
return from the siege of Troy, he lost his way in the darkness
of the night, and landed in Attica, where his companions plan-
dered the country, and lost the Trojan Palladium. During his
long absence, his wife AEgile had prostituted herself to Co-
metes one of her servants. The infidelity of AEgile was highly
displeasing to Diomedes, and rendered him very unhappy. He
resolved to abandon his native country, which was the seat of
his disgrace; and the attempt of his wife to take away his life
hastened his departure. He came to that part of Italy which
has been called Magna Graecia, where he built a city, which
he called Argyrippa, and married the daughter of Daunus the
king of the country. He died there in extreme old age; or,
according to a certain tradition, he perished by the hand of
his father-in-law. His death was greatly lamented by his com-
panions. Altars were raised to Diomedes as to a god, one of
which Strabo mentions at Timavus. * * *
PATROCLUS, a Grecian chief, signalized in the Trojan
war, was the son of Menoetius by Sthenele, who is named by
some authors Philomela, or Polymela. The murder of Cly-
sonymus, the son of Amphidamus, by accident, in the time of
his youth, obliged him to flee from Opus, where his father
reigned. He went to the court of Peleus, king of Phthia, was
very cordially received, and contracted the most intimate friend-
ship with Achilles, the king's son. When the Greeks went to the
Trojan war, Patroclus accompanied them at the express desire
of his father, who had visited the court of Peleus, and he ac-
cordingly embarked with ten ships from Phthia. He was the
constant companion of Achilles; lodged in the same tent; and
when he refused to appear in the field of battle, because he
had been offended by Agamemnon, Patroclus imitated his
example, and by his absence was the cause of much evil to the
ğ. At length, however, Nestor prevailed upon him to
return to the war, and Achilles permitted him to appear in his
armour. The bravery of Patroclus, together with the terror
which the sight of the arms of Achilles inspired, soon routed
the victorious army of the Trojans, and obliged them to fly to
the city for safety. He would have broken down the walls,
but Hector dismounted from his chariot to attack him as he at-
tempted to strip one of the Trojans whom he had slain. This
engagement was obstinate, but Patroclus was at length over-
powered by the valour of Hector. His arms became the property
of the conqueror, and Hector would have beheaded him, had not
Ajax and Menelaus prevented it. His body was at last re-
covered, and carried to the Grecian camp, where Achilles re-
ceived it with the loudest lamentations. His funeral ob sº
were observed with the greatest solemnity. Achilless
military glory. He went with Ulysses to steal the Palladi









UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. [B.C. 1184,
ar the burning pile twelve young Trojans, four of his horses,
nd two of his dogs; and the whole was concluded by the ex-
ibition of funeral games, in which the conquerors were libe-
ally rewarded by Achilles. The death of Patroclus gave rise
to new events. Achilles forgot his resentment against Aga
memnon, left the field to avenge the fall of his friend; and his
anger was . only by the slaughter of Hector, who had
more powerfully kindled his wrath, by appearing at the head of
the Trojan armies in the armour which had been taken from
the body of Patroclus. . .
ACAMAS, son of Theseus and Phaedra, went with Dio-
medes to demand Helen from the Trojans after her elopement
from Menelaus. In his embassy he had a son by Laodice the
daughter of Priam. He was concerned in the Trojan war, and
afterwards built the town of Acamantium in Phrygia, and call-
ed a tribe after his own name at Athens. He was one of the
Sººn who afterwards concealed themselves in the wooden
TOrse. gº ſº .
IDOMENEUS, king of Crete. He accompanied the Greeks
to the Trojan war. He made a vow to Neptune in a danger-
ous tempest, that if he escaped from the fury of the seas and
storms, he would offer to the god whatever living creature pre-
sented itself to his eye on the Cretan shore. Unfortunately
his son came to congratulate him upon his safe return. Ido-
meneus performed his vow, but the inhumanity of this sacrifice
rendered him so odious in the eyes of his subjects, that he left
Crete, and migrated in quest of a settlement. He came to
Italy, and founded a city on the coast of Calabria, which he
called Salentum. He died in an extreme old age, after he had
had the satisfaction of seeing his new kingdom flourish, and his
subjects happy. According to the Greek scholiasts of Lyco-
phron, v. 1217, Idomeneus, during his absence at the Trojan
war, entrusted the management of his kingdom to Leucos, to
whom he promised his daughter Clisithere in marriage at his
return. Leucos at first governed with moderation, but he was
persuaded by Nauplius #. of Euboea to put to death Meda
the wife of his master, with her daughter Clisithere, and to
seize the kingdom. After these violent measures he strength-
ened himself on the throne of Crete, and Idomeneus at his re-
turn found it impossible to expel the usurper. .
PALAMEDES, a distinguished Greek, was the son of
Nauplius, king of the isle of Euboea. At the time of the Gre-
cian confederation for the expedition against Troy, Palamedes
sº tratagem to have detected the counterfeited insanity
no had acted the madman, in order that he might
rom accompanying the other princes. In resent-
his exposure, Ulysses contrived to bury a sum of
ent of Palamedes, and then to charge him with
:ived a bribe from Priam, The discovery of the





















B.C. 1184.] FROM GIDEON TO SAUL.
treasure was deemed evidence of the fact, and Palamedes was
stoned to death for the crime of treason. To him some have attri-
buted the invention of weights and measures, the art of draw-
ing up a battalion; the regulation of the year by the course of
the sun, and of the month by that of the moon; likewise the
games of dice, and even chess, have been ascribed to him. He
has been mentioned as a poet, and Suidas says his poems were
suppressed by Agamemnon, or by Homer. Palamedes is also
famed for his skill in physic. * * * ,
ULYSSES, king of Ithaca, the son of Laertes, and father
of Telemachus, was one of those heroes who contributed much
to the taking of Troy. After the destruction of that city, he
wandered for ten years, and at last returned to Ithaca, where,
with the assistance of Telemachus, he killed Antinous and other
princes who intended to marry his wife Penelope, and seize his
dominions. He at length resigned the kingdom to his son Te-
lemachus; and was killed by Telegonus, his son by Circe, who
did not know him. This hero is the subject of the Odyssey.
PENELOPE, the daughter of Icarus, who married Ulysses,
by whom she had Telemachus. During the absence of Ulysses,
who was gone to the siege of Troy, and who staid twenty years
from his dominions, several princes, charmed with Penelope's
beauty, told her that Ulysses was dead, offered to marry her,
and pressed her to declare in their favour. She promised com-
pliance on condition they would give her time to finish a piece
of tapestry she was weaving; but at the same time she undid in
the night what she had done in the day, and thus eluded their
importunity until the return of Ulysses.
ALCINOUS, a king of the Phoenicians in the island now
called Corfu, who received Ulysses with great hospitality, when
a storm had cast him on his coast. His gardens have immor-
talized his memory. º .
TELEMACHUS, the son of Ulysses and Penelope, was in
the cradle when his father went with the rest of the Greeks to
the Trojan war. When a child he fell into the sea, but was
brought ashore by a dolphin. At the end of that war, Tele.
machus went to seek his father; and as the place of his resi.
dence, and the cause of his long absence, were unknown, he
visited the courts of Menelaus and Nestor to obtain information.
He afterwards returned to Ithaca, where the suitors of Pene-
lope had conspired to murder him, but he avoided their snares
two days before him e of Eumaeus.
aughter of Ci





















UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY, [B.C. 1184,
He some time after had the misfortune to kill his mother-in-law
Circe, and fled to Italy, where he founded Clusium. From the
stories, collected from Homer and the other poets, the cele-
brated Fenelon, archbishop of Cambray, composed his well
known Adventures of Telemachus; which, though not in verse,
is justly esteemed a poem. N. sº
SINON, a son of Sisyphus, who accompanied the Greeks to
the Trojan war, where he distinguished himself more by his
frauds and villanies, than by his merits. By such means, how-
ever, the Greeks became victors, after their ten years siege of
Troy. The Greeks having completed their famous wooden
horse, as a sacred present to the gods of Troy, Sinon fled to the
Trojans, with his hands bound behind his back, pretending to
have just escaped from being sacrificed by them; assuring
Priam, that they had just sailed for Asia, and advised him to
admit their farewell present of the wooden horse. Priam, giving
him full credit, admitted the horse, and at night Sinon completed
his perfidy, by opening that machine and letting out the armed
Greeks, who admitted their fellow soldiers, and massacred the
people, and burnt the city. Famous as the Trojan war has
been, chiefly through the merit of Homer's poem on it, the cap-
ture and destruction of that unfortunate city, by such compli-
cated treachery and hypocrisy, redound nothing to the honour
of the Grecian heroes. - .
_THERSITES, an officer among the Greeks during the
Trojan war, infamous for his scurrility, and remarkable for his
deformity. He ridiculed the chief generals, particularly Aga-
memnon, Ulysses, and Achilles; but the latter killed him with a
stroke, for ridiculing his grief for Penthesilea.
PROTESILAUS, a i. of part of Thessaly, the son of
Iphiclus, grandson of Phylacus, and brother of Alcimede. He
was the first Greek who landed on the coast of Troy, and the
first slain by the Trojans. His wife Laodamia, to assuage her
grief, solicited the gods for a sight of his shade; which, it is
said, obtaining, she expired in his embraces. Protesilaus was
also called Phylacides, from Phylace, a town of Thessaly, or
rather from his grandfather Phylacus. º
MEZENTIUS, a king of the Tyrrhenians, infamous for his
cruelties. Among other barbarities he tied the living and dead
together. Being expelled by his subjects he fled to Turnus, and
fought under him against Æneas, by whom he was slain, with
s son Lausus. .
HENELUS, son of Capianus and Evadne, an officer of
in the siege of Troy, and one of those who went into the
horse, in order to surprise the city.
º.º.º.º.º.
rojan war, the friend and minister of Agamemnon
















B. c. 1184.] FROM GIDEoN To saul. 105
POLYXO, a native of Argos, who married Tleopolemus.
She followed him to Rhodes after the murder of his uncle
Licymnius; and when he departed for the Trojan war with the
rest of the Greek princes she became the sole mistress of the
kingdom. After the death of Menelaus, Helen fled from Pelo-
ponnesus to Rhodes, where Polyxo reigned. Polyxo detained
her; and to punish her, as being the cause of a war in which
Tleopolemus had perished, she ordered her to be hanged on
a tree by her female servants, disguised in the habit of furies.
PROTEUS, king of Egypt. He was of Memphis, where,
in the time of Herodotus, his temple was still standing, in which
was a chapel dedicated to Venus the stranger. It is conjectured
that this Venus was Helen. For, in the reign of this monarch,
Paris the Trojan, returning home with Helen whom he had
stolen, was drove by a storm into one of the mouths of the Nile,
called the Canopie; and from thence was conducted to Proteus
at Memphis, who reproached him in the strongest terms for his
perfidy and guilt, in stealing the wife of his host, and with her
all the effects found in his house. He added, that the only
reason why he did not punish him with death, as his crime
deserved, was, because the Egyptians did not care to imbrue
their hands in the blood of strangers; that he would keep Helen
with all the riches that were brought with her, in order to
return them to their owner; that as for himself, Paris, he must
either quit his dominions in three days, or expect to be treated
as an enemy; the king's order was obeyed. Paris continued his
voyage, and arrived at Troy, whither he was closely pursued
by the Grecian army. The Greeks summoned the Trojans to
surrender Helen, and, with her, all the treasures of which her
husband had been plundered. The Trojans answered, that
neither Helen, nor her treasures, were in their city. And indeed
was it any way likely, says Herodotus, that Priam, who was so
wise and aged a prince, should choose to see his children and
country die before his eyes, rather than give the Greeks the just
and reasonable satisfaction they desired. But it was to no purpose
for them to affirm with an oath that Helen was not in their city;
the Greeks, being firmly persuaded that they were trifled with,
persisted obstinately in their unbelief. The Deity, continues
the same historian, being resolved that the Trojans, by the total
destruction of their city, should teach the affrighted world this
lesson; THAT GREAT crimes ARE ATTENDED with as great
AND SIGNAL PUNIshments, FRoM THE offended gods. Mene-
laus, in his return from Troy, called at the court of king Proteus,
who restored him Helen with all her treasure. Herodotus
proves, from some passages in Homer, that the voyage of Paris



UNIVERSAL Biography. [B.C. 1228.
1 CADEMUS, an Athenian citizen, whose
hou employed as a philosophical school in the time of
Theseus, he had the honour of giving his name to a sect of
philosophers, or rather three sects, called Academics. The old
academy had Plato for its chief, the second Arcesilaus, and the
last Carneades, Cicero called his country-house at Puzzolanum,
Academus. No one was suffered to laugh in the academy at
Athens, under the penalty of expulsion.
DAEDALUS, the son of Eupalamus, descended from
Erectheus, king of Athens. He was the mostingenious artist of
his age; and to him we are indebted for the invention of the
wedge, with many other mechanical instruments, and the sails
of ". He made statues which moved of themselves, and
seemed to have been endowed with life. Talus his sister's son
promised to be as great as himself by the ingenuity of his
inventions; and therefore from envy he threw him from a window
and killed him. After this murder, Daedalus, with his son Icarus,
fled from Athens to Crete, where Minos gave him a cordial
reception. Daedalus incurred the displeasure of Minos, who
ordered him to be confined in a labyrinth which he himself had
constructed. Here it is reported he made himself wings, and
flew away; and i.; at Cumae, he built a temple to Apollo.
He afterwards directed his course to Sicily, where he was kindly
received by Cocalus, who reigned over part of the country.
He left many monuments of his ingenuity in Sicily, which still
existed in the age of Diodorus Siculus. He was despatched
by Cocalus, being afraid of the power of Minos, who had
declared war against him because he had given an asylum to
Daedalus. The flight of Daedalus from Crete with wings is
explained by observing that he was the inventor of sails, §
in his age might pass at a distance for wings. %
se being e.
PO ETR Y AND MUSIC.
OLENUS, or OLEN, a Greek poet, born at Xanthe, a
city of Lycia. He composed several hymns, which were sung
in the island of Delos upon festival days. Some persons have
supposed Olenus to have been one of the founders of the
§ §: :le at Delphi; to have been the first who filled at that place
the of . *
fice of priest of Apollo; and to have given responses in
S-
LINUS, an ancient poet and musician of Greece. Note
timony does more honour to the memory of Linus than that
of Herodotus, who has the following passage: “Among other
memorable customs, the Egyptians sing the song of Linus, like




















FROM GIDEON TO SAUL. 107
that which is sung by the Phoenicians, Cyprians, and other
nations, who vary the name according to the different languages
they speak. But the person they honour in this ºf is evi-
dently the same that the Grecians celebrate; and as I confess
my surprize at many things I found among the Egyptians, so
I more particularly wonder whence they had the knowledge of
Linus, because they seem to have celebrated him from time im-
memorial. The Egyptians call him by the name of Maneros,
and say he was the only son of the first of their kings, but
dying an untimely death, in the flower of his age, he is la-
mented by the Egyptians in the morning song, which is the
only composition of the kind used in Egypt.”
Diodorus Siculus, who is very diffuse in his account of Linus,
lib. iii. cap. 85, tells us from Dionysius of Mytilene, the his-
torian, who was contemporary with Cicero, that Linus was the
first among the Greeks who invented verse and music, as Cad-
mus first taught them the use of letters. The same writer like-
wise attributes to him an account of the exploits of the first
Bacchus, and a treatise upon Greek mythology, written in
Pelasgian characters, which were also those used by Orpheus,
and by Pronapides, the preceptor of Homer. Diodorus gives
to him the invention of rhythm and melody, which Suidas, who
regards him as the most ancient of lyric poets, confirms. He
is said by many ancient writers to have had several disciples of
great renown, among whom were Heracles, Thamyris, and,
according to some, Orpheus. .
Heracles, says Diodorus, in teaching Linus to play upon
the lyre, being extremely dull and obstinate, provoked his
master to strike him, which so enraged the young hero, that
he instantly seized the lyre of the musician, and beat out his
brains with his own instrument. Heroes are generally impa-
tient of controul, and not often gifted with a taste for refined
pleasures; hence, relying merely on corporeal force, their
mental faculties, feeble perhaps by nature, are seldom fortified
by education. . ~ .
With respect to the dirges, which Plutarch, from Heraclides
of Pontus, mentions as written by Linus, we find no account of
them in any other ancient author. It appears, however, that
his death has given birth to many songs of that kind, which have
been composed in honour of his memory. A festival was like-
wise instituted by the name of the Linia, for the celebration of
his virtues: “The Thebans, says Pausanias, in Boeotia, assure
us, that Linus was buried in that city; and that Philip, the son
of Amyntas, after the battle of Cheronaea, which was fatal to the
Greeks, excited by a dream, removed his bones into Macedon,
whence, by council received in another dream, he sent them
back to Thebes ; but time has so defaced his tomb, that it is no
º: § .
§ N. %. § 3.3% # ## . & * * † a º
longer discovered." Homer, lib. xiii. ver, 569, has paid a tribute







UNIVERSAL Biography. B.C. 1184.
he memory of Linus, in his description of the shield of
“To these a youth awakes the warbling strings,
Whose tender lay the fate of Linus sings;
In measur'd dance behind him move the train,
Tune soft the voice, and answer to the strain.”.
Pope in his note, on this passage, says, from Pausanias, that
“before the yearly sacrifice to the Muses on mount Helicon, the
obsequies of Linus were performed, who had a statue and altar
erected to him in that place.” Homer alludes to that custom in
this passage, and was doubtless fond of paying this respect to
the old father of poetry. ~
ORPHEUS, a celebrated poet and musician of antiquity,
according to Sir Isaac Newton, was the AEagrus, who received
Thrace from Lesac when he conquered that country. With
the kingdom, the latter gave AEagrus one of his singing women
to wife, who brought him Orpheus. Hence his mother was
fabled to be Calliope. On account of the great antiquity of
Orpheus, numberless fables have been intermingled with his
history, but there can be no doubt of his existence. To his
father he was indebted for his first instruction in religion, and
he afterwards became a disciple of the Idea Dactyli in Crete.
Thence he travelled into Egypt and became a proficient in all
kinds of literature. From the latter country he transplanted
the whole fables of Osiris into Greece, adapting it to the family
of Cadmus. The people held him in the hi 㺠veneration,
supposing him to be possessed of the secrets of expiating crimes,
curing diseases, and appeasing the gods. . He promulgated an
idea of hell, instituted the mysteries of Hecate among the
AEginetes, and those of Ceres at Sparta. He is chiefly famed
for his music, which is poetically represented to have had the
effect of taming the most ferocious animals, and making the
trees of the forest dance in concert to his lyre, Eurydice made
a deep impression on the melodious musician, and their nup-
tials were celebrated. Their happiness, however, was but
short; for Aristaeus became enamoured of her, and as she fled
from her pursuer, a serpent bit her foot, and she died of the
poisoned wound. Her loss was severely felt by Orpheus, and
he resolved to recover her or perish in the attempt. With his
lyre in his hand, he entered the infernal regions, and gained
an easy admission to the palace of Pluto. Having charmed all
hell with his strains, Pluto and Proserpine consented to re-
re Eurydice, provided he forbore looking behind him till he
a to the extremest borders of hell. The conditions
dly accepted, and Orpheus was already in sight of the
gions of the air, when he forgot his promise, and turn-
o look at his wife, lost her for ever. The only com-


















B. c. 1184. FROM GIDEON TO SAUL. 109
fort he could find was to soothe his grief by the sound of his
musical instrument in grottos, or on mountains. He totally
separated himself from the society of mankind; and the Thra-
cian women, whom he had offended by his coldness to their
amorous passions, attacked him while they celebrated the orgies
of Bacchus; and after they had torn his body to pieces, they
threw his head into the Hebrus, which still articulated Eury-
dice / Eurydice / as it was carried down the stream into the
AEgean sea. Others say, that as he attempted to conjure his
wife from the dead, which they understand by the story of his,
going down to hell, he thought he saw her; and when after-
wards, on looking back, he missed her, he died of grief. Pau-
sanias speaks of a temple in Thesprotia, where Orpheus went
to call up the ghost of Eurydice. Some say that he was killed
by a thunderbolt. He was buried at Pierai, in Macedonia,
according to Apollodorus. The inhabitants of Dion boasted
that his tomb was in their city, and the people of Mount Libe-
thrus in Thrace, claimed the same honour; and reported that
the nightingales, which built their nests near his tomb, sang
with greater melody than all other birds. Orpheus, after death,
received divine honours; the Muses gave an honourable burial
to his remains, and his lyre became one of the constellations.
Tzetzes explains the fable of his drawing his wife Eurydice
from hell, by his great skill in medicine, with which he pro-
longed her life, and thus snatched her from the grave. ith
respect to the writings of Orpheus, he is mentioned by Pindar
as author of the Argonautics, and Herodotus speaks of his Or-
phics. His hymns, says Pausanias, were very short, and but
few in number. Those poems that bear his name, were pub-
lished at Nuremberg 1702, and reprinted at Leipsic, in 1764.
MUSAFUS, an ancient Greek poet, who was, according to
Plato and Diodorus Siculus, an Athenian, the son of Orpheus,
and chief of the Eleusinian mysteries, instituted at Athens in
honour of Ceres. According to others, he was the disciple of
Orpheus; but from the great resemblance between his talents
and those of his master, he was called his son. Musaeus is one
of the first poets who verified the oracles. Laertius says, that
Musæus not only composed a theogony, but formed a sphere
for the use of his companions; yet, as this honour is generally
given to Chinon, Sir Isaac Newton supposes that he enlarged
it with the addition of several constellations after the conquest
of the golden fleece. The sphere itself shows that it was deli-
neated after the Argonautic expedition, which is described in
the asterisms, together with several other more ancient histories
f the Greeks, and without anything later; for the Argo was
the first long yessel which they had built. Hitherto they had
used round ships of burthen, and kept within sight of the shore;
but now the princes of that country sailed rapidly through the
*



110 UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. [B. c. 1184.
ded
1 guide ships by the stars. Musæus is cele-
t by Virgil in the character of hierophant, or priest of
Ceres, at the head of the most illustrious mortals who waited a
place in Elysium. Here he is made the conductor of Æneas
to the recess where he meets the shade of his father Anchises.
The works which went under his name, like those of Orpheus,
were by many attributed to Onomacritus. Nothing remains of
them now, nor were any of his writings extant in the time of
Pausanias, except a hymn to Ceres, which he made for the
Lyconides. And as his hymns were likewise set to music, and
sung in the mysteries by Musaeus himself, in the character of a
priest, he hence, perhaps, acquired from after times the title
of musician; the performance of sacred music being probably
at first confined to the priesthood in these celebrations, as it
had been before in Egypt, whence they originated. However,
he is not enumerated among ancient musicians by Plutarch.
OLYMPUS, of Mysia. Plato, Aristophanes, Aristotle,
and Ovid, cite his verses. Aristoxenus relates that he com-
posed, in the Lydian mode, the air for the flute which ex-
ressed the funeral sorrows for the death of Python. To him
ikewise are ascribed the Cerulean, Minervan, Harmatian, and
Spandean modes. Plutarch, in his dialogue on music, informs
us that Alexander, in his “History of the Musicians of Phry-
gia,” pretends that Olympus was the first who introduced the
Greeks to the knowledge of stringed instruments; and that
he instituted the custom of celebrating, with the flute, hymns
to the polycephalic momes, in honour of the gods.
Plato says, that his music inflamed his auditors; Aristotle,
that it exalted the soul; and Plutarch, that it surpassed in sim-
plicity all other music. Plutarch also attributes to him the
polycephalic nome, in honour of Apollo; though others ascribe
it to Crates. . N.
There was another musician of the same name about this
period, called the Younger Olympus.
PHANTASIA, the daughter of Nicarchus of Memphis, in
Egypt. It has been said that she wrote a poem upon the Tro-
jan war, and another on the return of Ulysses to Ithaca, from
which compositions Homer copied the greater part of his Iliad
yssey, when he visited Memphis, where they were de-
º
e
d
e
H
r
S
and Ody
posited. See Chiron.
Lite RATURE.
RON, a famous personage of antiquity, who flourished
s period, styled by Plutarch, in his dialogue on mu-
aur. He is said to have been born in Thes-
ntaurs, who were the first Greeks that had
of breaking and riding horses; whence the

















B.C. 1184.] FROM GIDEoN To saul. 111
poets, painters, and sculptors, have represented them as com
pounds of man and horse; and perhaps it was at first imagined
by the Greeks, as it was by the Americans, when they first saw
cavalry, that the horse and the rider constituted the same
animal. x
Chiron was represented by the ancients as one of the first
inventors of medicine, botany, and chirurgery, a word which some
etymologists have derived from his name. He inhabited a
grotto at the foot of Mount Pelion, which, from his great know-
ledge, became the most frequented school throughout Greece.
Almost all the heroes of the time were fond of receiving his
instructions, and Xenophon enumerates the following among his
disciples. Cepalus, AEsculapius, Melampus, Nestor, Amphia-
raus, Peleus, Telamon, Meleager, Theseus, Hippolitus, É.
medes, Ulysses, Mnestheus, Diomedes, Castor, Pollux, Ma-
chaon, Podalirius, Antilochus, AEneas, and Achilles. From
this catalogue it appears, that Chiron frequently instructed
both fathers and sons; and Xenophon has given a short eulo-
gium on each, which redounds to the honour of the preceptor.
The Greek historian, however, has omitted several others of
his scholars, such as Bacchus, Phoenix, Cocytus, Aristaeus,
Jason, Medeus, Ajax, and Protesilaus. It is pretended that
Bacchus was the favourite scholar of the Centaur; and that he
learned of this master the revels, orgies, bacchanalia, and other
ceremonies of his worship. Plutarch says, that Chiron taught
Hercules music, medicine, and justice, though Diodorus Sicu-
lus tells us, that Linus was the music master of this hero. But
among all the heroes who have been disciples of this Centaur,
no one reflected so much honour upon him, as Achilles, whose
renown he in some measure shared ; Apollodorus tells us, that
he taught him music, as a bridle to the impetuosity of his tem-
per. One of the best remains of antique painting now existing,
is a picture dug out of the ruins of Herculaneum, in which
Chiron is teaching young Achilles to play on the lyre. The
death of this philosophic musician was occasioned, at an ex-
treme old age, by an accidental wound in the knee with a poi-
soned arrow, shot by his scholar Hercules at another. He was
placed after his death by Musaeus among the constellations, in
gratitude for the great service which he had rendered the people
of Greece. Sir Isaac Hewton says, that the constellations were
formed by Chiron and Musaeus for the use and honour of the
Argonauts; as a proof of which, nothing later than the expedi-
tion was delineated on the sphere; and he adds, that Chiron
was then eighty eight years old, and lived till after the Argo-
nautic expedition, in which he had two grandsons. The an-
cients attribute to him several writings, among which, acc
… as, precepts, in verse, composed for the use of At
medical treatise on the diseases incident to hors
º









gives a list of the works attribut-
: claims which have been made for
ings; and gives him a distinguished
ancient literati.
HIs To RY.
WCHONIATHON, a Phoenician historian, born at Bery-
cording to others, at Tyre. He flourished a few years
the Trojan war, and wrote in the language of his
iry, an history in nine books, in which he amply treated of
the theology and antiquities of Phoenicia, and the neighbouring
places. It was compiled from the various records found in
cities and the annals which were usually kept in the temples of
the gods among the ancients. This history was translated into
Greek by Philos, a native of Byblus, who lived in the reign of
the emperor Adrian. Some few fragments of this Greek trans-
lation are extant. Some, however, suppose them to be spu-
rious, while others contend that they are true and authentic.
DARES, a Phrygian, who lived during the Trojan war, in
which he was engaged, and of which he wrote the history in
Greek. This history was extant in the age of Ælian; the
Latin translation now extant, is universally believed to be spu-
rious, though it is attributed by some to Cornelius Nepos.
DICTYS, surnamed Creterius, or the Cretan, from his coun-
try, a very ancient historian, who served under Idomeneus king .
of Crete, in the Trojan war, and wrote the history of that ex-
edition in nine books. Tzetzes tells us, that Homer formed his
Iliad upon the plan of that history. The Latin history of
Dictys, which has come down to us, is supposed to be spurious.
AESCULAPIUS, the famous physician of antiquity, who
makes a conspicuous figure in the heathen mythology, is sup-
posed to have lived a short time before the Trojan war. . . . .
MACHAON, an illustrious hero and physician, who, with his
brother Podalirius, accompanied the Grecian army in the expe-
dition against Troy, and performed great services among the
** These two persons were deemed the sons of Æscu-
us; and Machaon appears to have been the elder brother.
achaon appears to have been most highly esteemed by the
unded by Tyndarus, first wip º












































B. c. 11s. FRom GIDEon to saul. 113
on his foot. It appears, too, from the writings of the poets,
that Machaon was a brave and active soldier; for he is men-
tioned as engaged in some of the most dangerous enterprises,
with the other celebrated leaders. Homer tells us, of a wound
which he received in the shoulder, in one of the sallies of the
Trojans; and Virgil and Hyginus inform us, that he was one of
the brave warriors who entered the wooden horse, from which,
according to the former, he was the first to descend. He is said
to have lost his life in single combat with Nereus. It is assert-
ed by Pausanias, that the remains of Machaon were preserved
by Nestor, and conveyed to Messenia, where they were buried.
Machaon married Anticlea, daughter of Diocles, king of
Messenia, by whom he had two sons, Nichomachus and Gor-
gasus, who resided at Pherae, and possessed the territory of
their grandfather, until the Heraclidae, on their return from
Troy, made themselves masters of Messenia, and the rest of the
Peloponnesus. Machaon is supposed to have been a king,
either in his own right, or that of his wife, since Homer in two
or three places, calls him “Pastor of the people,” a title which
he gives to Agamemnon and the other kings. Pausanias men-
tions three other sons of Machaon, namely, Sphyrus, Alexanon,
and Polemocrates, who are supposed to have been the fruit of
another marriage.
PODALIRIUS, an illustrious physician, and reputed son of
AEsculapius is celebrated by Homer as having accompanied the
Grecian army in the Trojan war, together with his brother
Machaon. He appears to have been the younger brother, and
to have been on the whole less distinguished than Machaon,
though, like him, he was married to the daughter of a king. On
his return from the siege of Troy, he was shipwrecked on the
coast of Caria, where he was hospitably received by a shepherd,
who, having learned that he was a physician, took him to king
Damaetus, whose daughter had accidentally fallen from the
top of the house. Podalirius bled her in the arms, after which
she recovered, which so delighted the king, that he gave him
his daughter in marriage, with the Chersonesus as a portion.
Here Podalirius built two cities, the one of which he called
Syrnum, from his wife Syrma, and the other Bybassus, which
was the name of the shepherd who had received him when ship-
wrecked. Among other children, he had a son, called Hippo-
lochus, from whom, in a direct line, Hippocrates considers him-
self as descended. . º
MELAMPUS, a physician, was enumerated among the early
civilizers of Greece, who taught that it was necessary to travel
into Egypt to qualify themselves for the high employments at
which they aspired in their own country. Orpheus proceeded
"Wºº jº and philosopher; and Melampus, who had





UNIVERSAL Biography. [B.C. 1184.
ifferent views, commenced at his return, a physician and di-
viner, arts which in Egypt were |...", Apollodo-
rus says, that he was the first who cured diseases by medicinal
potions. Physic had its miraculous powers during the infancy
of the art as well as music; and life and health being esteemed
more precious and solid blessings than the transient pleasures
of the ear, bore a much º price; for though bards were
often distinguished by royalty, and their talents recompensed
by gifts and honours, yet we do not find in ancient records that
any of them ever experienced such munificence as Melampus.
It is related by Pausanias, that having cured the daughter of
Praetus, king of Argos, of an atrabilarious disorder with helle-
bore, he was rewarded with one of his royal patients for a wife,
and a third part of her father's kingdom in dowry,








PERIOD VI.
FROM S.A. UL TO A HAB.
[B.C. 1120.]
REMARKABLE FACTs, EVENTS, AND DISCOVERIES,
B. C. . . § {
1104 The expedition of the Heraclidae into Peloponnesus, the migration
of the Dorians thither, and the end of the kingdom of Mycenae.
1102 The kingdom of Sparta commenced. º
1070 The kingdom of Athens ended, and Archons established.
1051 David besieged and took Jerusalem.
1044 Migration of the Ionian colonics, Smyrna built.
1008 The temple built and dedicated by Solomon.
& .
IN this period, the kingdom of Judea, under king David, approached
its utmost extent of power. In its most flourishing condition, however,
it never was remarkable for the extent of its territory. According to
the accounts given in scripture, however, the magnificence of Solomon
was superior to that of the most potent monarch then on earth. This
extraordinary wealth was owing partly to the spoils amassed by David
in his various conquests, and partly to the commerce with the East
Indies, which Solomon had established. Of this commerce he owed
his share to the friendship of Hiram, king of Tyre, a city in Phoenicia,
whose inhabitants were now the most famed for commerce, and skill in
maritime affairs of any in the world. -
. After the death of Solomon, which happened about 975 B.C. the
Jewish empire began to decline, and soon after many powerful states
arose in different parts of the world. . º
The first shock given to the Jewish grandeur was the division of the
kingdom into two, through the imprudence of Rehoboam. .
About this time the Syrians had become a considerable people, and
were bitter enemies both to the kings of Israel and Judah; constantly
seeking the conquest of both their nations.
. On the authority of Geoffrey of Monmouth, the biography of Britain
first appears. In this period we have slight notices of the dawnings of
philosophy, literature, astronomy, and painting.
e SAUL, the son of Kish, of the tribe of Benjamin, was the
first king of the Israelites. Kish having lost his she asses, sent
his son Saul to seek them. After he had in vain travelled over
a considerable country, and was on the point of returning to


Í16 UNiversal, Biography. [b. c. 1120.
Gibeah to his father, a servant who was with him, said here is
a very famous prophet hard by, let us consult him, so they went
to Ramah, where they learned that the prophet Samuel was:
Saul asked him where the seer or prophet lived 2 Samuel
answered, it is I who am the seer; and Samuel made Saul and
his servant enter the room where the feast was kept, placed
them at the head of the table, and by way of distinction, served
up to Saul the shoulder of the sacrifice. After supper, Samuel
conducted Saul to his lodging on the terrace of the house, and
on the next morning he brought him down, and came with
him below the city of Ramah. Afterwards he anointed him,
kissed him, and told him of the kingdom to which he was
divinely appointed; of the certainty of which he gave him seve-
ral signs. All that Samuel had foretold him was fulfilled that
same day, and God changed him into another man. All those
who saw him, said with wonder, what has happened to the son
of Kish : Is Saul also among the prophets? And this after-
wards became a kind of proverb.
Some time after this, Samuel assembled the people at Miz-
peh to give them a king, as they had desired. He cast lots on
all the tribes of Israel, and the lot fell on the tribe of Benja-
min. He cast them on all the families of this tribe, and it fell
on the family of Matri. Lastly, he cast them on the family of
Kish, and the lot fell on the person of Saul. He was imme-
diately sought for, but could not be found; they took him, how-
ever, from his concealment, and when he was among the peo-
ple, he º taller than the rest by the whole head. The
people shouted, and cried, God save the king ! and Samuel
declared before the people, the laws and conditions of the king-
dom, and then dismissed the assembly. Saul returned to Gi-
beah, accompanied by a part of the army, consisting of men
whose hearts the Lord had inclined to his interests. Others
despised Saul, and said, how shall this man save us? But Saul
affected not to hear them. .
... About a month afterwards, Nahash, king of the Ammonites,
besieged the city of Jabesh-Gilead; and messengers were sent
from Jabesh to Gibeah, to acquaint the people, that the king
of the Ammonites had attacked the city, and threatened to put
out every man's right eye, and to make it a reproach to Israel.
Saul happening to return from the field, and seeing the people
weep, he asked the reason of it; then he took his oxen, and
cut them in pieces, and sent them into all Israel, saying,
thus shall it be done to the oxen of whoever will not follow
Saul and Samuel. Saul attacked the Ammonites in three
places at once, killed a great number of them, and so dispersed
them, that hardly two could be found together. After this, all
the people returned to Gilgal, where they renewed the inaugu-
ration of king Saul. This happened in the first year of Saul,
1 Sam. xiii. 1–3, &c. - N.


B. c. 1120.] FROM S.AUL TO AHAB. 117
We shall not follow Saul through his whole history, but
merely refer to the Scripture for the rest. His rash sacrifice
in the absence of Samuel, his equally rash curse, his victories
over the Philistines and Amalekites, his sparing of king Agag,
with the judgment denounced against him for it, his jealousy
and persecution of David, his barbarous massacre of the priests
and people of Nol, his repeated confessions of his injustice to
David, his consultation of the witch of Endor, with his defeat
and suicide, are recorded in 1 Sam. ix.-xxxi. He reigned
forty years, and died B. C. 1055.
AGAG, a king of the Amalekites, equally cruel and effemi-
nate, who was spared by Saul, notwithstanding the express
command of the Almighty, and deservedly slain by Samuel,
because his sword had made many women childless. His
cowardly dread of death, recorded in 1 Sam. xv. affords a
proof, of which there are many recorded in history, that those
persons who put no value on the lives of others, are generally
most anxious to preserve their own. < -
NAHASH, a tyrant of the Ammonites, whose disgraceful
terms offered to the people of Jabesh, gave occasion to the
first great victory obtained by king Saul. I Sam. xi.
JONATHAN, the son of Saul, king of Israel, one of the
greatest and most distinguished heroes recorded in history,
sacred or prophane. His courage and patriotism in venturing
into the host of the Philistines, accompanied by no one but his
armour-bearer, by which he began and accomplished a most
important victory over the enemies of his country, 2 Sam. xiv.
have hardly been equalled, much less excelled, by any of the
boasted heroes of ancient or modern times. But his astonish-
ing affection for David, the man whom human pride and ambi-
tion might have been expected to have led him to detest and
persecute, as his rival in the kingdom, is so entirely without a
parallel, that it can be accounted for only from those powerful
principles, of firm faith in the Almighty and implicit submission
to his will, which appear to have been the ruling motives of
this prince's actions. He was at last killed in battle, fighting
bravely against the Philistines, B. C. 1055. º
ISHBOSHETH, is the same as Ishbaal, the man of Baal.
Ishbosheth, or Ishbaal, was the son and successor of Saul.
Abner, Saul's kinsman, and general, so managed that Ishbo-
sheth was acknowledged king by the greater part of Israel,
whilst David reigned at Hebron over Judah. Ishbosheth re-
sided at Mahanaim, beyond Jordan. He was forty-four years
old when he began to reign, and he reigned two years tolerably
peaceful. Afterwards, there was war between the house of
David and that of Saul; but whilst the former continued to in-
crease in strength, the latter became weaker every day, 2
Sam. ii. 8., &c. % . . . . . . . . . .”




118 UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. [B.C. 1120.
º
Saul had had a concubine named Rizpah. Abner was ac-
cused of having made too free with her. Ishbosheth, therefore,
said to Abner, “Why hast thou come near my father's concu-
bine?” Abner, provoked at this reproach, swore he would
endeavour to transfer the crown from the house of Saul to
David, but he was treacherously killed by Joab. When Ish-
bosheth was informed of the death of Abner, he lost courage,
and all Israel fell into great disorder. Ishbosheth also at the
same time was assassinated in his own house by two captains of
his troops, who coming into his palace, while he was sleeping
on his bed, during the heat of the day, stabbed him with their
poniards. Then cutting off his head, they came and presented
it to David at Hebron, thinking to receive a considerable re-
ward. But he commanded these two murderers to be killed,
and their hands and feet to be cut off, and hung up near the
pool in Hebron. He placed the head of Ishbosheth in Abner's
sepulchre at Hebron. With Ishbosheth ended the royalty of
Saul's family. . . .
| RIZPAH, was daughter of Aiah, concubine to king Saul.
That prince having put to death a great number of the Gibe-
omites, on what occasion is not known, God, to punish this
massacre, sent a famine into the land of Israel, which lasted
three years. 2 Sam. xxi. 1–3, &c. To expiate this, David,
who was then king, gave up to the Gibeonites Armoni and
Mephibosheth, two sons of Saul by Rizpah, the daughter of
Aiah; also five sons of Michal, the daughter of Saul, by Adriel,
the son of Barzillai, or rather by Phaltiel. 1 Sam. xxv. 44.
These they hanged on the mountain near Gibeah, at the be-
ginning of barley harvest. - 3. * :::: ; :
Rizpah, the daughter of Aiah, took a sackcloth and spread
it ". the rock; and continued there from the beginning of
the harvest, till water from heaven fell on them; or till the
Lord sent his rain on the earth, and restored its former fertility.
She hindered the birds from tearing the bodies by day, and
the ravenous beasts from devouring them by night. When
this action of Rizpah was related to David, he was moved with.
compassion, and sent to fetch the bones of Saul and Jonathan,
which were at Jabesh-gilead, brought them to Gibeah, and
put them in the tomb of Kish, the father of Saul; together
with the bones of the seven men who had been executed by the
Gibeonites. . N. %
f i oon after the death of Saul, Abner, the general of his a
fell
n love with Rizpah, and took her. Ishbosheth, son of
in his regal state, only by the credit of Abner's va-
. this, and upbraided him with it. Abner was so


















B.C. 1085.] FROM satil to AHAB. * 119
sheth, and leagued with David, to bring over to his interest all
the adherents of Ishbosheth. 2 Sam. iii. 7. 11.
MEPHIBOSHETH, son of Saul, and of his concubine
Rizpah, was delivered up by David to the Gibeonites, and to
be hanged before the Lord. 2 Sam. xxxi. 8, 9. -- . . . .
GOLIATH, a famous giant of Gath, who presented himself
between the armies of the Philistines, encamped between
Shochoh and Azekah, and defied the Hebrews. He was six
cubits and a span high, about twelve feet and a half, reckoning
the cubit at twenty-one inches; or, as Mr. Parkhurst thinks,
nine feet six inches. His armour was suitable to his stature.
At length, David coming to his camp, to bring provisions to
his brothers, declared that he would encounter this giant.
Accordingly, David marched against Goliath, and slung at him.
with a stone, which struck the giant with such force, that he fellº
down, David running upon him, drew the giant's sword, and
cut off his head. Goliath was descended from Avapha; that
is the old Rephaim. An author who has examined the weight
of his armour, finds, that allowing a proportionable weight to
each part, it must have been two hundred and seventy-two
pounds thirteen ounces. * . - .
ABIMELECH, the priest who gave to David Goliath's
sword which had been deposited in the temple, and some of the
shew-bread, at the time this prince fled from the persecutions
of Saul. 1 Sam. xxi. 1. * *
ADRIEL, the son of Barzillai, married Merab, the daugh-
ter of Saul, who had been first promised to David. 1 Sam."
viii. 19. She bare to Adriel five sons, who were delivered to
the Gibeonites, to be put to death before the Lord, in revenge
for the cruelty which their grandfather Saul had exercised to-
wards the Gibeonites. The text of the second book of Samuel,
xxi. 8, imports, that these five were the sons of Michal and
Adriel; but it appears extremely probable, that the name of
Michal is put for }. of Merab, or that Michal had adopted."
the sons of her sister Merab. ; : 3
MERAB, was the eldest daughter of king Saul. She was
promised to David in marriage, in reward for his victory over"
Goliath; yet Saul gave her to Adriel, the son of Barzillai, the
Meholathite. 1 Sam. xiv. 49. xviii. 17–19. Merab had by
"... sons, who were delivered to the Gibeonites, and
DAVID, king of Israel, and an Hebrew poet, was born atº
Bethlehem in 1085, and died B. C. 1014: after having reignet
seven years and a half in Hebron, and thirty-two in Jerusa
No hero, whose actions are recorded in sacred or propha
or a more surprising mixture of the m
the most fervent piety, with the




















UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY, | B. C. 1085.
Both are fully and impartially related in the Scriptures. And
while the former have led many well-meaning Christian authors
almost to idolize the royal psalmist as a saint, the latter have
§. occasion to infidel writers to degrade him to a level with
Nero and the worst of tyrants, and to ridicule revealed religion,
for styling such a character “ the man after God's own heart.”
Neither the one party nor the other seem to have adverted,
that this expression º only to David's government of the,
kingdom, in establishing purity of worship, and preserving the
Israelites from those idolatries to which they were so prone.
In this sense, and this alone, David was never equalled by any
of his successors either in Israel or Judah. The context, Acts
xiii. 21, 22. shows plainly, that it was in that sense only that
David “fulfilled all God's will.” We find an expression nearly
similar, used by the Almighty, upon a similar occasion, to a
monarch much less eminent for piety, and whom no one ever
supposed to deserve the character of a man according to God's
own heart, though in this instance he acted properly. “Thou
hast done well,” said the Lord to Jehu, 2 Kings x. 30. upon
his extirpating the idolatrous worship of Baal, “in executing
that which is right in mine eyes, and hast done according to all
that was in mine heart.” But to return to David, we may ob-
serve that Jesse, his father, was descended from Boaz and
Ruth, and held a respectable rank in the Hebrew nation, but
not so elevated as to afford him the least room to expect that
the brows of any of his descendants would be encircled with a
crown. However, it pleased Providence to confer that honour
on his youngest son.
We read in the history of the kings of Israel, that Saul, the
first sovereign of that people, having so highly offended the
theocratic head of the Jewish empire, by disobeying his com-
mands relative to the destruction of the Amalekites, as to make
him form the resolution of taking the kingdom from him; the
prophet Samuel was directed by divine inspiration to go to
Bethlehem, to anoint one of the sons of Jesse, in order that he
ight become the successor of Saul, when the train of events
** to render such an event necessary, should be com-
Samuel naturally thought that the eldest of Jesse's sons was
to be the object of choice, not only on account of the priority
his birth, but the superior dignity of his person to any of the
ers. But God, who judgeth not as man judgeth, by the out-
ppearance, preferring the mental qualifications and in-
he youngest, directed the prophet to fix on him;
was accordingly anointed after the usual form. . . .
anding, this young man did not equal his eldest,
height of his stature, and majesty of his deport-
wanted no personal or mental endowment that














B.C. 1085.] FROM S.AUL TO AHAB, 121
could render him worthy of the honour intended him. His
person was formed after one of nature's most perfect models,
such as we see delineated by the pencil of Coreggio; and that
both his natural and acquired accomplishments were far above
#. level of the times, appears from every circumstance of his
ife. . . . . - - - . . . . .
In the following, the observation is remarkably conspicuous.
Soon after David's selection to the future sovereignty of Israel,
Saul being attacked with strange melancholy complaints, it was
proposed by his physicians, as the most effectual remedy they
could point out for the cure of his perturbed mind, that a per-
son should be sought for, who was skilful in playing upon the
harp, and in reciting hymns, in order to perform before the king.
Upon this occasion, when it is rational to suppose the most able
judges directed the choice, David, though the youngest son of
a person at a distance from the royal residence, and whose
usual employment it was to tend his father's sheep, was fixed
on, in preference to all others, for the purpose; a certain proof
that his abilities in that line were of the first rate. And we
find he exerted them so happily, that whenever the evil spirit
became turbulent, the melody of his voice, aided by the sweet
reverberations of his harp, restored the mind of Saul to its
usual placidity. -> >
But what raised David so high in the estimation of his
countrymen, and served as the foundation of his future glory,
was his combat with Goliath, which, for its singularity, re-
quires more than a cursory recital. %. 3



The Philistines having with a great army invaded the country
of the Israelites, Saul marched with the forces to oppose them.
While the two armies lay encamped on two hills opposite to each
other, one of the Philistines, named Goliath of Gath, came daily
into the valley between the two camps, defying any one of the
Israelites to meet him, and decide the contest by single combat.
“If,” exclaimed Goliath, “the man you shall choose vanquishes
me, then will we be your servants; but if I prevail against him, and
kill him, then shall ye be our servants, and serve us.” And this
he continued to do for forty days, to the great terror of Saul
and his troops, not a man daring to accept the challenge on ac-
count of his gigantic size, he being above four cubits in height,
clad in complete armour, and bearing weapons proportionable to
his enormous bulk. . : - . . . . . .
. About the expiration of this time, it happened that Jesse sent
his son David to the camp, to carry some refreshments to his
three elder brothers, who were with the army, and to enquire
after their welfare; from whence we must conclude, though
there appears to be a chasm in the history here, that as soon as
Saul's disorder had been removed by the musical exertions of




* ...:*::. ſ:
§ 3. . . ; * . . . g gº º 'º. -
tº . ~ . . . . . . . - - ... . . . . . ;
[B.C. 1085.
David, he returned to his former occupation of tending his fa-
Just as David arrived at the camp, the Philistine came to his
wonted station, and repeated aloud his defiance and reproaches.
On hearing so glaring an insult offered to his countrymen, the
#. man found his indignation aroused; and he instantly de-
clared, that he would accept the challenge of this vaunting infidel.
Nor could the discouragement he met with from his eldest bro-
ther on making this declaration, who, despising his youth and
want of military skill, reproved him for his presumption, and bidſ
him return to his flocks, deter him from adhering to his resolu-
tion. Impelled by that invisible Power who was planning his
future elevation, he was not to be silenced, but continued pub-
licly to express his design, till at length it attracted the atten-
tion of the king. .
As soon as Saul received the information, he ordered David
to be brought before him, and interrogated him relative to the
truth of the report, upon which David thus addressed him.
“Be not dismayed, O king ! at the insolence of this uncircum-
cised Philistine, for I will go down and meet him; and I trust,
hough there is such a vast disproportion in our strength and
tature, that I shall be able to rid thee of so troublesome an
enemy. X. %
Saul admired the spirit of the young man; but reflecting on
the disparity of the age, size, and military knowledge of the two
combatants, would have dissuaded him from undertaking the
combat. “How canst thou,” said the king, “attempt so hazar-
dous an encounter, who art but a stripling, and thy opponent
not only a man exceeding all others in strength and bulk, but
one that has been a warrior from his youth 2" & .: & … . . . * *
“Judge not of my abilities by my appearance, O king !” re-
lied David, while firmness, tempered by modesty, beamed from
i engaging countenance ; “ º not long ago, as I kept my
N. G
father's flock, an hungry lion rushed from the thicket, and car-
ried off a lamb. Although unarmed, I instantly pursued him,
and rescued the bleating animal from his savage gripe; upon
which he turned to attack me, when I seized him by the beard,
slew him. A bear, likewise, upon another day, seized one of
ock, and I vanquished him with the same ease. Thy ser-
O king! slew both the lion and the bear; and God, in
rength I go to meet this uncircumcised Philistine, will,
itrust, enable me to vanquish him with the same facility I did
two wild beasts. He who delivered me out of their power,
wise deliver me out of his.”.
hilistine;
o, he laid












































B.C. 1085.] FROM S.AUL TO AHAB.
it aside; and taking his staff in his hand, went to a neighbour-
ing brook, from whence he chose five smooth stones, which he
put into his scrip; and with these and his sling only, advanced
towards his gigantic adversary. -
Goliath seeing David approach with such trivial weapons,
and the bearer of them such a stripling, he condemned and
ridiculed him, saying, “Am I a dog, that thou comest against
me with staves 7" After which he cursed him by his gods.
But the son of Jesse, not in the least intimidated, marched
boldly on, and, as he came near him, thus said: “ Thou
comest towards me with a sword, a spear, and a shield; but
I meet thee in the name of the Lord of Hosts, the God of the
armies of Israel, whom thou hast defied; and this day will
he most assuredly deliver thee into my hands, and the whole
of the army to which thou belongest also into the hands of my
countrymen; and we will give your carcases to the fowls of the
air, and to the wild beasts of the earth, that all the world may,
know there is a God in Israel, who saveth not with the sword
and the spear, but by His mighty power.” , , §
Having said this, David moved on; and taking one of the
pebbles from his scrip, slung it with so much strength and dex-
terity, that it entered the forehead of the vaunting Philistine,
and, sinking deep into his skull, brought his gigantic body to
the ground. As soon as he fell, his conqueror took the sword
which belonged to him, having brought none of his own, and
with it severed the head from the body. . . . .
The Philistines no sooner saw that their champion, whom,
they thought invincible, was overcome, than they were struck,
with a sudden panic, and fled with great precipitation. The
Israelitish army, taking advantage of their dismay, fell instantly
upon them, and having totally overthrown them, pursued them.
with great slaughter into their own dominions. Thus, by the
unexpected, but providential interference of this young shep-
herd, was Saul delivered from the adversaries he had lately so
much dreaded. - * ; : tº
From that moment, a friendship, founded on a similarity of
temper and manners, took place between David and Jonathan,
the son of king Saul, a young man of the most amiable dispo-
sition and virtuous sentiments. “The soul of Jonathan,” as
emphatically expressed in sacred writ, “ was knit with the
soul of David, and Jonathan loved him as his own soul.” And,
so rapid was the progress of this intellectual union, that the
very day after the battle, they entered into a solemn covenant,
with each other, as a confirmation of their sincerity, in which
Jonathan presented his new friend with the robe he then wore,
together, with , all his habiliments, even to his sword, his
affection. º















UNIVERSAL Biography. [B. C. 1085.
The friendship of Nisus and Euryalus, which the pen of
Virgil has immortalized, does not appear to have been more
sincere, or more fervent than that which now subsisted between
Jonathan and David. And on every occasion, where the for-
mer could promote the interest of the latter, or soften the re-
sentment which was soon after generated in the bosom of his
father against him, he did it with the utmost alacrity, and with
unabated perseverance. - .
The war being thus happily concluded, Saul would not per-
mit the conqueror of Goliath to return to his pastoral employ-
ment, but took him with him, and having conferred many
favours upon him, appointed him to a post of considerable im-
portance in his armies. . . . . . .
But the unhappy disposition of the king did not suffer this
pleasing reverse of David's fortune to remain long undisturbed;
for, even while the army marched back from the overthrow of
the Philistines, Saul became exasperated against him, through
an incident which arose from his merit, and the esteem he was
held in by the people. . …
According to the custom of those times, the women came out
of the cities and towns near which the troops passed, to wel-
come their victorious defenders. Upon these occasions they
sung responsively the martial deeds of those whom they thus
honoured, accompanying their voices with their cymbals, ta-
brets, and other instruments of music. Unfortunately for
David, they ascribed to him, in their songs, the greatest de-
gree of merit, saying, “Saul has slain his thousands, and David
has slain his ten thousands.”
This partiality in favour of David, excited in the breast of
Saul a jealousy, which was never after eradicated. From thence
forward he beheld him with an envious eye; and he took every
step in his power, without drawing on himself the censure of
the people, to bring about his destruction. Instead of bestowing
his eldest daughter Merab upon him, agreeable to a proclama-
tion he had caused to be issued out when the gigantie Philistine
daily insulted him, she was given to another; and after he had
learned that his daughter Michal loved David, he would not
consent to their union, but on condition of his undertaking an
enterprize against the Philistines, which would be attended
with extreme hazard. David, however, completed it in safety;
and the king being now unable to form a further pretext for
withholding the fulfilment of his daughter's promise, their mar-
riage was soon after solemnized.
The more i. ly and uprightly David acted, and the
more popular he became thereby, so much more Saul's rancours
nd jealousy increased, till at length it arrived at so great a
h sight, that he enjoined his son Jonathan and his principal
*






B.C. 1085.] FROM S.AUL TO AHAB. 125
chieftans to put him to death, whenever a favourable opportu-
nity should offer.
But Jonathan, whose friendship for David increased with
the knowledge of his worth, on receiving the sanguinary man-
date, thus remonstrated with his father in behalf of his friend:
“Let not the king, my father, be thus incensed against his
servant David. His conduct has not deserved such treatment
at thy hands. Did he not venture his life beyond any other,
for the service of thee and thy people, when he combated the
gigantic Philistine : Was it not entirely through his success in
that encounter, that their army was afterwards totally over-
thrown 2 And has not the whole of his conduct since, in the
stations to which thou hast raised him, been perfectly conform-
able to rectitude and prudence? Has he not, by repeated acts
of valour, arrived at the honour of being thy son-in-law’ Why,
then, wilt thou so soon make thy daughter a widow 2 Reflect
a moment, my father, and I have no doubt you will see the im-
propriety of your commands.”
Saul, overcome by these affectionate remonstrances, yielded
to the wishes of his son, and promised to lay aside his resent-
ment towards David, confirming it with an oath. Jonathan no
sooner received this favourable declaration, than he flew with
transport to his friend, and communicated to him the joyful
tidings; nor would he rest satisfied, till he had led David to
his father, and brought about an apparent reconciliation be-
tween them. The Philistines having some time after made a
fresh irruption into the Hebrew territories, Saul gave the com-
mand of his army to David, and sent him against them. In
this expedition he was likewise successful. He defeated them
with great slaughter, and returned once more crowned with
honour.
This success reviving the jealous apprehensions of the king,
he again sought to destroy David and he found an early op-
portunity of attempting it; for a paroxysm of his melancholick
complaint returning, he sent to David to play and sing before
him as usual, and while he was engaged in his employment,
seized a spear which stood by him, and threw it at him with all
his might. David, however, being aware of the king's design,
dexterously avoided the weapon, and hastily retired from i.
royal presence. .
From this time, David became the object of Saul's persecu
tion; nor was it in the power of Jonathan to mitigate, save for a
few intervals, his father's enmity against him. David was con-
sequently constrained to seek for shelter in several distant places,
and continued in exile for some years. During that period,
various adventures befel him; but our limits not permitting a
recapitulation of them, we must refer those who wish to trace





UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. [B.C. 1085.
him through every m
to Josephus. w º,
The following proofs of David's moderation must not how-
ever be omitted; as they tend to show, that he harboured no
inveteracy against Saul, notwithstanding his ummerited perse-
cution, but, on the contrary, that his heart was stored with
loyalty and forbearance to an uncommon degree. . -
At Engedi was a cave of some considerable extent, in which
David and some few attendants, had secreted themselves, when
Saul came into it to rest, or for some other temporary purpose.
His men now urged David by every consideration of justice and
propriety, to avail himself of this complete committal of their
common enemy into his hand. David advanced toward the
mouth of the cave, and cut away a part of Saul's outer robe,
but strictly forbad his men to touch the person of the king.
When Saul had withdrawn, he presented himself with this
irresistible proof of his forbearance before the rival troops.
Addressing Saul with the utmost respect, and appealing to God
for the pureness of his motives, he again subdued the guilty
conscience of the king before the voice of truth and reason;
until Saul acknowledged, with an ill-founded humiliation, the
superiority of David's character, and his conviction that he
would ultimately possess the throne. -
We soon after read, that on another occasion, nearly a similar
circumstance happened at a place named Hachilah, while Saul
was again in pursuit of his exiled son-in-law. Here David
entered the camp of Saul, just before the morning dawned, and,
making his way to the royal tent, found the king and his prin-
cipal officers asleep. But, being actuated by the same modera-
tion, and the same veneration for the Lord's anointed, as when
Saul lay at his mercy before, he only carried off his spear and
his cruse of water, which stood by his bed-side, without offering
any injury to his person, as a proof of his having possessed the
power of acting otherwise. A reconciliation now likewise took
place, but of the same weak tenure as the former. ---
After this, we find, that David, so closely was he pursued by
Saul, was obliged to take refuge in the territories of the Philis-
times, where Achish, king of Gath, gave him a village, named
Ziklag, for the residence of himself and his companions. And
here he abode for a year and four months; about the expiration
of which time, the kings of the Philistines united themselves
together, and made an inroad into the Hebrew dominions.
And now the period arrived when the denunciations against
Saul that he should be cut off from his kingdom and people,
and be succeeded by the man he persecuted he ź .2
vement, to the First Book of Samuel, and
plished. Saul collected all his forces, and marched to repel the
invaders, but without success. The two armies met, and the
Israelites, beingoverpowered, were defeated with greatslaughter.

















B.C. 1085.] FROM S.AUL TO AHAB.
Jonathan, with two other of the king's sons, were among the
slain. As for Saul himself, being sorely wounded, and finding
the event of the day greatly in his disfavour, he requested his
sword-bearer to dispatch him, lest he should fall into the hands
of his enemies, and they should treat him in an ignominious
manner before they slew him. But his attendant being unwilling
to embrue his hands in his master's blood, the king fell upon
his own sword; and, as soon as he had done so, his armour-
bearer followed his example. - ; : :
This sad catastrophe was made known to David, who still
resided at Ziklag, the third day after it had happened. But,
far from rejoicing at the death of the man that had so long and
so unjustly persecuted him, he felt the sincerest sorrow at the
melancholy event, and lamented the loss of him and his sons,
particularly of his beloved friend Jonathan, in such pathetic and
expressive langnage, as plainly spoke the reality and magnitude
of his woe. Some of the sentences uttered by him on this
occasion have been handed down to us, and contain all the
flowery beauties of the Eastern poetry.
After the death of Saul, David left the dominions of the
Philistines, and returned with his small band of faithful adhe-
rents to his own country. And when he arrived in the city of
Hebron, the principal men of Judah came to him, and chose
him for their king. This was a capital step to David's exalta-
tion, but it was upwards of seven years, through the opposition
he met with from a surviving son of Saul, before he attained the
throne of Israel. At the expiration of that time he mounted it,
amidst the acclamations of a united people, and reigned over
Judah and Israel more than forty years. At the commencement
of his reign, he conquered from the Jebusites the city of Jeru-
salem, together with the strong fortress of Sion that commanded
it, to which he gave the name of the city of David, whither he
transferred the seat of government, and constituted it the
metropolis of the kingdom of Israel. Afterwards he was at
different periods involved in war with the Philistines, the
Moabites and Edomites, the Ammonites and Syrians, over
whom he obtained the most brilliant victories, and not only
recovered the territories which the imbecility of the preceding
reign had lost to the Jewish crown, but obtained such accessions
of dominion and wealth, as raised him to a high and distin-
guished rank among the monarchs of the east. While these
glorious scenes were transacting, he appears on one occasion to
have been so far intoxicated by prosperity, that his passions
obtained the complete mastery over him, and led him to the
commission of complicated crimes, which must ever continue a
dark stain on his character and memory. We refer to the
affair of Bathsheba and Uriah, in which, from a wicked indul-
gence to his loose desires, he was first led to commit adultery,








5 º .
128 Universal, Biograph' [B.C. 1085.
and afterwards, to conceal the consequences of his crime, gave
directions for the treacherous murder of an innocent, faithful,
and deserving subject. Notwithstanding the sincere repentance
which he discovered when awakened to a sense of guilt by
Nathan's elegant parable of the ewe lamb, the sacred history
has very properly left those transactions on record, in the most
odious colours, in testimony at once of the veracity of its nar-
rative, and of the indignation with which vice ought ever to be
spoken of, even when discovered in the occasional transgressions
of the most illustrious characters. Some time afterwards he
was severely punished for his crimes, by the fatal effects which
an indulgence to the passions of lasciviousness and revenge
produced in his own family. Amnon, one of his sons, had the
wickedness to deflower by violence one of his sisters, by another
mother, and was killed by Absalom, her maternal brother, out
of revenge for a crime which David's weakness prevented him
from punishing as its enormity deserved. And when time had
in some measure allayed his grief at these afflictive events, and
he had suffered himself to be reconciled to Absalom, that
unworthy son embittered his father's peace still farther, by
breaking out into open rebellion, and assuming to himself the
ensigns of royalty. The effects of the desertion of many whom
he esteemed his friends, which David experienced on this
occasion, and the distress to which for a time it reduced him,
are pathetically related in the sacred writings; as is also the
account of his poignant grief, when, among other circumstances
attendant on the extinction of that rebellion, he found that
Absalom had been put to death. This rebellion was followed
by an insurrection under Sheva, a Benjamite, who had been
probably one of Absalom's commanders, which was soon sup-
pressed, and every obstacle to David's repossession of his throne
and dignity removed. The most memorable circumstances
during the remainder of his reign, excepting the premature
attempt of his son Adonijah to secure to himself the succession
to the crown, were fresh conquests over the Philistines, and a
dreadful pestilence which carried off 70,000 of the Israelites.
The latter appears to have been inflicted on them as a punish-
ment for their luxury and vices; and it was also a seasonable
check to the ambitious views with which their late victories seem
to have inspired them, and into which David appears fully to
have entered, by the command which he issued out for number-
ing the people. Various are the opinions of the ablest ex-
positors in explaining the criminality that was connected with
this act of state, which it does not fall within our province to
discuss and settle. The last days of David were disturbed by
an attempt of Adonijah to obtain the crown, which he effectually
rushed by causing his son Solomon to be consecrated, and pro-
ng with all the usual solemnities, during his life-time.








B. c. 1085.] FROM S.AUL TO AHAB,
As an author and poet the merits of David have long been
universally acknowledged, both by Jews and Christians. It
may possibly be objected, that there can be but little merit in
an author whose works are the immediate effects of divine
inspiration. To this objection we can make no reply, as we do
not mean to combat the principle upon which it is founded.
But those who deny, that there has ever been such a thing as
any inspiration or divine revelation, given by the Almighty to
his creatures, in any age or country, would do well to study the
Psalms of David, and compare them with the writings of the
most celebrated authors in the pagan world, and see if there is
any thing equal to them in point of grand and sublime concep-
tions of the Deity, to be found in the best of the heathen authors.
Upon such a comparison, the ideas given by Homer himself of
his deities, will be found quite puerile and contemptible. Let
those who then deny revelation, account for this phenomenon,
how a man born in an early age and a barbarous country, where
the arts had made little progress, and the sciences much less,
and bred up in one of the lowest stations of life, though after-
wards raised to the highest, should have been capable, in the
midst of much persecution, vicissitude of fortune, and cares of
government, if not inspired, of composing a set of poems, which,
in sublimity of sentiment, and just conceptions of the Deity, far
excel the most admired productions of Greece and Rome, in
their highest periods of refinement? . . º
Such was David. Brave and skilful in war, the habit of his
soul was peace; successful as a commander, he is most con-
spicuous for his pious dependence upon God; as a friend his
attachment to Jonathan never was surpassed; as an enemy his
conduct to Saul is matchless; born in obscurity, he left his son
the richest prince of his age; nursed in adversity, his counsels
were remembered and practised by the wisest and most pros-
§
perous of men. “ In youth a hero, in manhood a monarch; in
age a saint.” He died at Jerusalem, aged seventy.
MICHAL, was the daughter of king Saul. The Hebrews
think that she was also named Eglah, and was mother of Ith-
ream, 2 Sam. iii. 5, but this opinion has no foundation. Michal
falling in love with David, and her father Saul being informed,
he was not a little glad, saying, I will give her to David for a wife,
that he may fall by the hands of the Philistines. Saul there-
fore bid his confidants insinuate to David to improve his good
fortune. David at first declined, but finding his valour might
serve instead of a dowry, he doubled what Saul required as
proofs of his victory over the Philistines, and Saul gave him his
an ighter Michal. . . º º º sº s ; : . . . . º º § º
. n the morrow. But Michal .
VOL. I.











UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY, [B. c. 1085.
rid's bed, and put a pillow of goat's hair for its bolster, and co-
vered it with a cloth. Saul sent next morning to take David,
and gave orders that he should be brought in his bed; but they
found nothing except a figure, and Michal excused herself by
saying,
David threatened to kill her if she did not favour
his escape. Some time after, Saul gave Michal to Phalti, or
Phaltiel, son of Laish of Gallim. z:
David, when he came to the crown, caused Michal to be re-
stored to him; and this was one condition that he stipulated
with Abner. Then David sent messengers to Ishbosheth, who
sent her back to David, and Phaltiel never came near Michal,
who in strictness could not be his wife, since she never had
been divorced from David. Some maintain that Michal had
five sons by Phaltiel, whom the Gibeonites executed, 2 Sam. xxi.
David, from the very beginning of his reign, had formed a
design of translating the ark of the covenant from Shiloh to Je-
rusalem, where he had fixed his habitation. This pious design
he executed with great pomp and ceremony; he himself leaping
and dancing for joy in *. solemnity. Michal observing this at
a window, where she had placed herself to see the procession,
conceived no small contempt for king David; and when he re-
turned to his palace, she upbraided him with descending to such
meannesses, as to dance and play among his servants, acting ra-
ther like a buffoon than a king. David vindicated himself by
telling her, that he would dance and appear still more vile be-
: e Lord, who had preferred him to be king of Israel, be-
her father and all his family. Michal bare no children to
her hushand, which the Scripture seems to impute to these
reproaches made to David. The time of Michal's death is
not known. :
ºf HSHEBA, or BATHSHUA, the daughter of Eliam
Ammiel, was wife of Uriah the Hittite. While her husband was
employed at the siege of Rabbah, she happened to bathe her-
self in her garden; and was noticed by David from the top of
his adjacent palace, who, after enquiring who she was, sent
her to his bed. Proving pregnant, she informed David
'eof, that he might devise how to conceal their guilt; upon
ºº:: Uriah, as if he wished to know something
is wife, and so be reputed the father of the child.
ne, and after a few questions respecting the army, the
s reu him. hOn] i. house, and sent a col ation f
his own table, after him. But Uri etermined by he
































B.C. 1985.] FROM S.AUL TO AHAB, . 131
made him drink heartily, and then ordered him home; but
Uriah again slept with the guards, and excused himself to the
king, by º that it was improper for him to indulge in
pleasures while Joab and the army, may the ark of God, were
encamped in the open field. Thus disappointed, David sent
him back to the army with a letter, directing Joab to place him
in the front of the army, where the battle was the hottest, that
he might be slain. Bathsheba, quickly hearing of her husband's
death, and having mourned for him after the ordinary manner,
was sent for by David, who married her. Besides the child of
adultery, which died soon after its birth, Bathsheba was ho-
noured to bear David four other sons, of whom Solomon and
Nathan are reckoned in the genealogy of Jesus Christ.
PHALTI or PHALTIEL, son ºLaish. He married Mi-
chal, after Saul had taken her from David ; but David after-
wards took her away from Phalti, 1 Sam. xxv. 44; 3 Sam, iii.
15. It appears from 2 Sam. xxi. 8, that Michal had children
by Phalti, as it is certain she had none by David. See 2 Sam.
vii. 23.
MEPHIBOSHETH, son of Jonathan, otherwise named
Meribbaal. Mephibosheth was very young, when his father
Jonathan was killed in the battle of Gilboa, 2 Sam. iv. 4. His
nurse was in such consternation at this news, that she let the
child fall, who from this accident was lame all his life. When
David found himself in peaceable possession of the kingdom, he
sought for all that remained of the house of Saul, that he might
be kind to them in consideration of the friendship between him
and Jonathan. He learned that there was a son of Jonathan's
called Mephibosheth, in the care of Ziba, a servant of Saul.
The king sent for him, and told him that for the sake of Jona-
than his father, he would show kindness to him, that he should
have his grandfather's estate, and eat always at his table. At
the same time he told Ziba, that he had given Mephibosheth
all that belonged to Saul, 2 Sam, ix.1, &c. Mephibosheth left
a son named Micah. The time of his death is not known,
1 Chron. viii. 34. For a fuller account of Mephibosheth see
the next article Ziba. s . ... ." ... ::::::3
ZIBA, was a servant to Saul. 2 Sam. ix. 2, 3, &c. King
David having resolved to show kindness to some descendants
of Saul, for the sake of Jonathan, he asked Ziba if there was
any remaining of his house? Ziba mentioned one of Jonathan's
sons, named Mephibosheth, who was lame, and dwelt at the
house of Machir, at Lodebar. David sent for him, and gave
him the privilege of his table all the rest of his life. He said to
Ziba, I have given to Mephibosheth all that belonged to Saul;
therefore make the best of his estate, that your master r
have sufficient subsistence. Ziba replied, my Lord
vant will obey your commands; and Me
. K 2 ---. . . . .-->







132 UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. [B.C. 1085.
served at my table, when he shall please to be there, as one of
the king's sons. Now Ziba had fifteen sons, and twenty ser-
wants, who were employed to attend Mephibosheth, and to
make the best of his estate. But Mephibosheth eat at the
king's table, though he dwelt with Ziba. N. .
Some years after, (2 Sam. xvi. 1, 2, &c.) when David was
expelled from Jerusalem by his son Absalom, Ziba went to meet
David, with two asses loaded with provisions. The king asked
him, what do you mean by these ? Ziba answered, the asses
are to mount some of the king's officers, and the provisions are
for those that attend you. David then asked him, where is
Mephibosheth? Ziba replied, he continues at Jerusalem, say-
ing, the house of Israel will now restore me to the kingdom of
my father. The king then said to Ziba, I will give you all that
belongs to Mephibosheth.
After the defeat of Absalom, Ziba came to meet the king,
with his fifteen sons and twenty servants. Mephibosheth also
came to meet the king, and in such a plight as sufficiently
showed his trouble for the king's absence. For from the time
of David's flight, he had neither washed his feet, nor trimmed
his beard, nor taken any care of his dress. David asked
Mephibosheth, why he did not go with him, but stay at Jeru-
salem. Mephibosheth replied, My Lord, my servant Ziba
deceived me, for being, as you know, lame of my feet, I bid
him prepare me an ass to follow you; but, instead of that, he
went himself to accuse me falsely. The king interrupted him,
and said, Say no more, what I have determined shall stand;
you and Ziba divide the estate.
NABAL, was a very rich, but very churlish man, of little
understanding, of the tribe of Judah, and the race of Caleb.
His ordinary dwelling was probably at Maon, one of the most
southern cities of Judah, and he had a great number of flocks
upon Mount Carmel, not far from Maon. This Carmel is very
different from the Mount Carmel on the coast of the Mediter-
ranean sea, between Dora and Ptolemais. While David, fear-
ing Saul, was obliged to hide himself in the wilderness of Paran,
and near to Carmel, he always took care that none of his followers
should injure Nabal, but rather assist his shepherds and herds-
men. Being therefore informed, that Nabal was come thither
to shear his sheep, he sent ten young men of his company
to compliment him, and to ask him civilly for something
to refresh himself and followers. But Nabal answered them,
Who is David; who is the son of Jesse ? We are pestered
ery day with servants that run away from their masters.
ke the flesh of my sheep, and the provisions I have
ly own servants, and give them to strangers? The
avid had sent went back, and acquainted him with
s answer. 3.





B.C. 1085.] FROM SAUL To AHAB. 133
Then David, in his anger, caused four hundred of his people
to arm themselves, and went with a resolution to put Nabal
and all his family to the sword. But in the mean time, one of
Nabal's servants, having acquainted his wife Abigail with what
had passed, who was a wise and prudent woman, and having
justified also David's people, she presently prepared provisions
and refreshments, with which she met and appeased David.
Abigail then returned to Nabal, and found him in his house
making a feast, as it were for a prince. His heart swelled with
joy, and he was quite drunk. Abigail said nothing to him till
next morning; but after he had slept, she told him of the danger
in which he had been. This account had such an effect upon
him, that he became as immoveable as a stone; and his heart
was so struck with fear, that he died in ten days. 1 Sam. xxv.
25, &c.
ABIGAIL, wife of Nabal, averted, by her submissive de-
meanour, the vengeance which her husband's insolence towards
David had brought upon him. The monarch, struck with her
beauty, married her after Nabal's death, B. C. 1057.
AHITHOPHEL, a native of Giloh, one of king David's
counsellors, and highly esteemed for his political sagacity. He
was undoubtedly the Machiavel of his age both for wisdom and
wickedness. His advice to Absalom, who followed the wicked
part of it, but left the wise part unaccomplished, together with
the deserved tragical end of this disappointed politician, who is
the first recorded in history that committed suicide, are well
known. It is indeed astonishing, that in a country favoured
with divine revelation, any monster of a politician should have
been found, capable of giving such horrid counsel. It is still
more so, that the darling son of a fond father should have been
so monstrously depraved as to follow it; and that such a nume-
rous body of Israelites should have been willing, after such a
flagrant and public breach of morality, to risk their lives in so
iniquitous a cause as to make the incestuous monster king.
But it is a circumstance still more astonishing, that among
ten women, holding nearly the highest rank in the º:
being in reality, a sort of secondary queens, not one should
have been found so virtuous as to resist. If only one of the
ten had been possessed of but half the courage and virtue
of Lucretia, she would have put an end to the rebellion at once,
and preserved the lives of thousands of her countrymen. See
2 Sam. xv. xvi. xvii. w
HUSHAI, the Archite, David's friend, who being informed of
Absalom's rebellion, and that David was obliged to flee from
Jerusalem, met his king and his friend upon an eminence without
the city, with his clothes rent, and his head covered with earth.
David told him, that if he went with him he would be a bur-
ld
den to him, but that he might render him important service,





UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. [B.C. 1985.
#
ained, and l
if he remained, and pretended to be in Absalom's interest, in
order to defeat the counsel of Ahithophel.
Hushai, therefore, returned to Jerusalem, and saluted Ab-
salom as king. Absalom said, “Do you use your friend in this
manner? Why are you not with Davidº” Hushai answered, “I
will be with him whom the Lord has chosen; whom this people,
even all Israel, have acknowledged.” After this, Hushai, by
opposing the counsel of Ahithophel, and #º time for David,
to whom he sent advice, was the cause of Ahithophel's suicide,
and of Absalom's miscarriage. 3 * .
OBED-EDOM, son of Jeduthun, a Levite, and father of
eight sons, one of which was Joab. He had a numerous family,
says the Scripture. 1 Chr. xvi. 38. and xxvi. 4. “for God
blessed him.” The reason of this blessing is recorded in
2 Sam. vi. 10–12. and 1 Chr. xiii. 13, 14. Afterwards Obed-
edom and his sons were appointed keepers of the doors of the
temple. 1 Chr. xv. 18. 21. In 2 Sam. vi. 10. he is called the
Gittite, probably because he was of Gathrimmon, a city of the
Levites beyond Jordan. Jos. xxi. 24, 25. &
JOAB, a brave general of the Israelites under king David,
son of Zeruiah, David's sister, and brother of Abishai and
Asahel. His defeat of the army under Abner, his capture of
the fort of Zion from the Jebusites, and his victories over the
Moabites, Philistines, Edomites, Syrians, Ammonites, and the
rebels under Absalom and Sneba; as well as his intercession for
Absalom, and his judicious advice to David against mourning
for his death, and against numbering the people, are recorded
in 2 Sam, ii.-xxiv. He was a faithful adherent to his royal
uncle, in his adversity as well as in his prosperity, and seems to:
have merited a more grateful return than he met with on several
occasions. In one instance, indeed, he served David rather too
faithfully, by procuring the murder of the brave Uriah. But
his disobedience to David's orders respecting Absalom, by
putting to death that ungrateful monster, was certainly an act
of public justice, as well as of mercy to his deluded followers.
Joab's greatest crimes appear to have been his treacherously
murdering Abner and Amasa; for there seems to have been
ng criminal or treasonable in his joining the party of
onijah, the heir apparent; and for these murders he was
sº death by Solomon's order, B.C. 1014.
ABishAI, son of Zeruiah, and brother of Joab, was one of
warriors of his time, and a principal general in


































B.C. 1085.] FROM S.AUL TO AHAB.
Gibeon, he pursued Abner with so much obstinacy, that he
was obliged to kill him in self defence, though it would appear
with reluctance. 2 Sam. ii. 19—23.
ARAUNAH or ORNAN the Jebusite, a public-spirited
husbandman, under David king of Israel, who generously offered
the king a free gift of his threshing floor, wheat, oxen, and field,
when he heard of David's intention of purchasing them to build
an altar and sacrifice unto the Lord, that the calamity then
raging in consequence of the royal folly might cease. The king
however, refused his offer in these remarkable words, “Nay,
but I will verily buy it for the full price, for I will not take that
which is thine for the Lord, nor offer burnt offerings without
cost.” He accordingly paid Ornan 600 shekels of gold for the
field, and fifty shekels of silver for the threshing floor, cattle, &c.
REZON, or RAZON, son of Eliadah, revolted from his
master Hadadezer, king of Zobah, while David made war against
him, and heading a band of robbers made excursions into the
country about Damascus [1 Kings xi. 23.]. He at last became
master of this city, and was acknowledged king. w
NATHAN, a faithful prophet and historian of Israel, under
David and Solomon; supposed to be the author of the 2nd book
of Samuel, and of the latter part of the first book: be that as it
may, we are certain, that he wrote the history of David and
Solomon. (1 Chron. xxix. 29; 2 Chron. ix. 29.) Nathan's
affecting parable of the ewe-lamb, his bold reproof of David for
his crimes, his prohibition of his building the temple, and his
seasonable advice, whereby the usurpation of Adonijah was
overthrown, are recorded in 2 Sam. vii. xii.; and 1 Kings i.
ASAPH, the son of Berachiah, a Gershomite, and a famous
musician and psalmist under David king of Israel, Twelve of
the Psalms bear his name. . - 3.
AMNON, the eldest son of David king of Israel, by Ahinoam
of Jezreel. His ungovernable passion for his sister Tamar, his
*incestuous rape committed upon her, his sudden and unaccount-
able aversion to her afterwards, with his deserved death,
had it been performed by the sword of justice, instead of the
murderous hands of his parricidal brother Absalom's menial
assassins, are all that we know of his history, and are fully nar-
rated in 2 Sam. xiii. These events happened B. C. 1030 and
ABSALOM, the son of David, by Maacha, a man as de-
prayed in mind, as he was beautiful in person. His murder
of his brother Amnon, the least of his crimes, in revenge for
the injury done to his sister Tamar; his political manoeuvres to
gain popularity, his hypocrisy in pretending a religious vow,
his unnatural rebellion against his kind father, his shocking
incest with his father's concubines, and his deserved death, are
particularly recorded in the second book of Samuel; as well as
62 . %
º
a.




UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY, [B.C. 1085.
David's partial fondness for, and lamentations over him; which
surely have been much better bestowed on his deluded
'ollowers, who were slaughtered in his iniquitous cause. He
died B.C. 1030.
AMASA, the son (by some supposed illegitimate), of Abigail,
the sister of David, by Jether. He joined his cousin Absalom
in his rebellion, and was general of the rebel forces against
David; notwithstanding which, his royal uncle not only forgave
him, but made him general of his army, in place of his loyal
nephew, Joab, who had crushed the rebellion, restored the
kingdom, and saved his life! The murder of Amasa that took
place soon after his promotion, 2 Sam. xx. 10, no person will
justify, and much less the treacherous manner in which Joab
committed it. But in a rude and barbarous age, wherein hu-
man life was held in very little esteem, we cannot be surprised,
that a general degraded by the sovereign, whose life and king-
dom he had preserved, should have taken the advantage, which
the accident, as it would seem, of his sword dropping out of
his sheath, afforded him, of cutting off so formidable a rival as
his cousin Amasa.
NATHAN, a son of David by Bathsheba, probably named
after the prophet, the lineal ancestor of our Saviour by the
maternal line. Š º: .
SHIMEI, son of Gera, a kinsman of Saul's, who when
David was obliged to retire to Jerusalem, began to curse him,
and throw stones, &c. 2 Sam. xvi. 5–8, &c.
But when David returned to Jerusalem, after the defeat and
death of Absalom, Shimei hastened with the men of Judah,
and with a thousand men of Benjamin, to come before David;
he threw himself at his feet, desiring him to forget and forgive
his fault. Abishai, the son of Zeruiah, expostulated in an
angry manner; but David disapproved of Abishai's zeal, and
promised Shimei, with an oath, that he would not put him to
death. And in truth he suffered him to existin peace, while he
himself lived; but before his death, he recommended to Solo-
mon, not to let Shimeigo entirely unpunished, but to exercise
his discretion upon him.
When Solomon therefore ascended the throne, he confined
Shimei to Jerusalem, where he dwelt three years, till some
of his slaves ran away from him, and took sanctuary with
Achish, king of Gath. Shimei went after them, and brought
Jerusalem. The king being informed of this, caused
i to come before him, and said to him, “Did not I assure
at the day you quitted your confinement, you should be
to death?” So he gave orders to Benaiah, the son of Je-
A, the son of Bictrii, a Benjamite, who attempted
ion, after the days of Absalom; but was pur-














B.C. 1085.] FROM S.AUL TO AHAB. 137
sued by Joab, and beheaded by the º of Abel-Beth-
maacha, to whom he had fled, and who delivered his head to
Joab, who thereupon raised the siege of the city.
GAD, a prophet who attended David during his persecution
by Saul, and gave him various admonitions afterward. He
wrote a history of David's life, which is lost.
BAANAH, the son of Rimmon, a Benjamite, who, with
his brother Rechab, being officers under Ishbosheth, treacher-
ously murdered the young monarch, and carried his head to
David, in hopes of a handsome reward, but received from him
the reward justly due to their villainy, being both instantly ex-
ecuted for the murder, and their hands and feet cut off.
2 Sam. vi. 2.3%
AMASAI, the son of Elkanah, a principal officer under
Saul, who with a number of his friends, joined David in his
exile. 1 Chron. xii. 15. & .
ACHISH, king of Gath. His
hospitable entertainment of
David, and his followers, for sixteen months, his present of
Ziklag to them, with their deceitful and bloody transactions
during that period, are recorded in 1 Sam. xxix. gº
BARZILLAI, a Gileadite of Rogelim, who supplied David
and his few faithful friends with provisions, while they lay at
* during the usurpation of Absalom. 2 Sam. xvii.
HANUN, son of Nahash king of the Ammonites, is famous
for his insult to David's ambassadors, who came to compliment
him after his father's death, 2 Sam. x.; 1 Chron. xix. David,
exasperated at this dishonourable treatment, declared war
against the Ammonites, and sent Joab against them. The
Ammonites procured assistance from Syria, and from beyond
the Euphrates; but Joab, giving part of the army to his bro-
ther Abishai, attacked the Syrians, while Abishai fought the
Ammonites. They conquered the enemy on both sides. Da-
vid being informed of this success, passed the river Jordan in
person, with the rest of his troops, and defeated the Syrians
in + * battle. … . ….….. -- *... " " ...--. ...x
e year following, David sent Joab to besiege Rabbah,
their capital. During this siege, David committed the sin of
adultery with Bathsheba, and procured the death of Uriah by
the Ammonites. When the city was reduced to extremities,
Joab informed David, who came with the rest of Israel, took
the city, enslaved the inhabitants, and carried off a great booty.
... HADAD, son to the king of East Edom, was carried into
Egypt by his father's servants, when Joab, general of David's
troops, extirpated the males of Edom. Hadad was then a
child. The king of Egypt gave him a house, lands, and every
necessary subsistence, and married him to the sister of Tah-







138 Universal Biography. [B. C. 1085.
penes, his queen. By her he had a son, named Genubath,
whom queen Tahpenes educated in Pharaoh's house with the
king's children. Hadad being informed that David was dead,
and that Joab was killed, desired leave to return into his own
country. Pharaoh wished to detain him, but at last permitted
his return to Edom. Here he began to raise disturbances
against Solomon; but the Scripture does not mention parti-
Cºllar’S, #.
Josephus says, that Hadad did not return to Edom till long
after the death of David, when Solomon's affairs began to de-
cline, by reason of his impieties. He also observes, that not
being able to engage the Edomites to revolt, because of the
stron ; garrisons which Solomon had placed there, Hadad got
together such people as were willing, and carried them to
Razon, then in rebellion against Hadadezer, king of Syria.
Razon received Hadad with joy, and assisted him in conquering
part of Syria, where he reigned, and from whence he insulted
Solomon's territories. .
PHARAOH, who gave protection to Hadad, son of the
king of Edom, who gave him to wife the sister of his own queen,
enriched him with lands, and brought up his son Genubath in his
own court. 1 Kings xi. 17–22. .
BENAIAH, son of Jehoiada, one of David's heroes, and
captain of his guards. Having adhered to Solomon, in oppo-
sition to Adonijah, he was appointed general instead of Joab.
He appears also to have been appointed public executioner, an
office, it would seem, not held dishonourable in those days;
we find him ordered to put to death Joab and Adonijah. His
personal prowess, in killing the lion, the Egyptian, and the two
Moabitish champions, is recorded in 2 Sam. xxiii. 20.
OBADIAH, a valiant man of David's army, who came to
join him in the wilderness, with several others of the tribe of
Gad, 1 Chron. xii. 9. nº lºº
ABISHAG, a beautiful young virgin, who cherished David
in. . old age, and was afterwards coveted by his son, Ado-
Illall. : % N.
. "p ONIJAH, son of David by Haggith, and the fourth
prince born in Hebron. His splendid º for royalty,
his father's previous partial indulgence to him, his fruitless at-
tempt to be established on the throne before his father's death,
his forgiveness for that attempt, with his unfortunate applic
tion for Abish h §





















B.C. 1085.] FROM S.AUL TO AHAB. 139
marry the young Shunamite, the death of this prince must be
* as a deliberate murder committed by royal au-
thority. .
ºffitub, the son of Phineas succeeded his grar
Eli, as high-priest of Israel.
AHIJAH, the son of Ahitub, and great grandson of Eli,
the high-priest of Israel under King Saul.
AHIMELECH, the son of Ahitub, and brother of Ahijah.
whom he succeeded in the high-priesthood. At that time, the
tabernacle was at Nob, where A. with other priests,
dwelt. David finding it necessary to retire from Saul, went to
Nob, to the high-priest Ahimelech, who was very much sur-
prized to see him, and said, “Why art thou alone, and no man
with thee?” David pretended urgent business which belonged
to the king, and persuaded the priest to give him the shew-
bread, recently brought from the sacred table in the holy º:
Ahimelech having no other in his house. David also took the
sword which he had won from Goliath, and of which he said,
“There is none like that, give it me?” Afterwards, David
fled to Achish, king of Gath. It happened that Doeg the
Edomite was at Nob, when David went thither, 1 Sam. xxi. 1.
&c. Sometime after, when Saul was complaining to his officers,
that no one was affected with his misfortune, or informed him
of what was carrying on against him, Doeg related what had
happened when David came to Ahimelech the high priest. Im-
mediately Saul sent for Ahimelech and the other priests, and
said to Ahimelech, “Why have ye conspired against me, thou
and the son of Jesse, in that thou hast given him bread, and
a sword, and hast enquired of God for him.” Ahimelech, in
vindication, answered the king, “Who is so faithful among
all thy servants, as David, which is the king's son-in-law, and
goeth at thy bidding, and is honoured in thine house? Did I
then begin to enquire of God for him?” By this last interro-
gation Ahimelech meant, that he had often before enquired of
God for David. Saul commanded his guards that were about
him to slay the priests; but they refused to commit so barba-
rous an action, as to kill the priests of the Lord. However,
Doeg, who had been their accuser, by the king's command be
came their executioner, and with his sacrilegious hand slew
eighty-five of them, though the Septuagint and the Syriac ver-
sion read three hundred and fifty. He afterwards went to Nob,
and put to the sword men, women, children, and cattle, but one
of Ahimelech's sons, by name Abiathar, escaped the slaughter,
and retired to David, 1 Sam. xxii. 8, &c. This happened
ABLATHAR, son of Ahimelech, was the high priest of the
Jews, and the friend of David. After that monarch's death,
he espoused the cause of Adonijah, in consequence of which
. father 2.
º l



















14 UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. [B.C. 1085.
he was deposed by Solomon and sent into banishment, B. C.
ZADOK, or SADOC, son of Ahitub, high priest of the
Jews, of the race of Eleazer. From the time of Eli, the high-
priesthood had been in the family of Ithamar, but was restored
to the family of Eleazer, in the time of Saul, in the person of
Zadok, who was put in the place of Ahimelech, slain by Saul
in the year of the world 2944. 1 Sam. xxii. 17, 18. While
Zadok performed the functions of the priesthood with Saul,
Ahimelech performed it with David; so that till the reign of
Solomon, there were two high priests in Israel, Zadok of the
race of Eleazer, and Ahimelech of the race of Ithamar. 2 Sam.
viii. 7. .
When David was forced to quit Jerusalem, on account of
the rebellion of his son Absalom, Zadok and Abiathar would
have accompanied him with the ark of the Lord. 2 Sam. xv.
24. But David would not permit them. To Zadok he said,
“O seer, return into the city with Ahimaaz, your son, and let
Abiathar and his son Jonathan return also. I will conceal
myself in the country, till you send me news of what passes.”
Zadok and Abiathar returned therefore to Jerusalem; but
their two sons Ahimaaz and Jonathan hid themselves near the
fountain of Rogel; and when Hushai, the friend of David, had
º the counsel of Ahithophel, they communicated this to
After the defeat of Absalom, David sent word to Abiathar
and Zadok to persuade the elders of Judah to shew their zeal
for the king, by making haste to come and invite his return
into his metropolis. 2 Sam. xix. 11, 12. . ×
The high priest Zadok did not engage in the party of Ado-
nijah, who aspired at the kingdom to the exclusion of Solo-
mon. 1 Kings i. 5, 10, &c.; and David sent Zadok with
Nathan, and the chief officers of his court, to give the royal
unction to Solomon, and to proclaim him king instead of his
After the death of David, Solomon excluded Abiathar from
the high-priesthood, because he had espoused the party of
Adonijah, and made Zadok high-priest alone. 1 Kings ii. 35.
It is not very well known when he died; but his successor was
his son Ahimaaz, who enjoyed the high-priesthood under Re-
PHARAOH, who gave his daughter in marriage to Solo-
jn, 1 Kings iii. 1. Having taken Gezer, he set it on fire, drove
naanites out of it, and gave it for a present to Solomon,
u of a dowry for his daughter. 1 Kings is. 16.
|LOMON, a king of the Jews, eminently distinguished
~ alth, and extent of territory, was the son of
formerly the wife of Uriah, and born in
















B, C, 1033.]
the year B.C. 1083. By the influence of Bathsheba, and the
recommendation of Nathan, Zadok, and other friends, who
thought it necessary to counteract the views and measures of
Adonijah, David's eldest son, he was proclaimed the destined
successor of his father before his death. When this event took
place, B.C. 1015, he ascended the throne of all Israel, not
only without opposition, but amidst the acclamations of the
people. For his greater security, he cruelly ordered Adonijah
and Joab, who was attached to his interest, to be put to death.
As soon as he was confirmed in his kingdom, he contracted an
alliance with Pharaoh, king of Egypt, and married his daugh-
ter, whom he brought to Jerusalem, and for whom he after-
wards built a sumptuous palace, receiving for her dowry the
city of Gezer, which had been taken from the Canaanites.
About this time he led his troops, and all Israel, to Gibeon,
where he offered a thousand burnt offerings upon the brazen
altar. In the following night he is said to have been favoured
with a vision, in which God promised to grant him whatsoever
he desired; and as the object of his prayer was wisdom for dis-
charging the duties of his office, his request was fully granted.
Upon his return to Jerusalem, he offered a great number of
sacrifices on the altar, before the ark of the Lord, and made
a great feast for his servants. As an instance of his wisdom,
he decided a dispute between two mothers, who claimed the
same child. 1 Kings iii. 16–28. In token of the acceptable-
ness of his petition, he also obtained, more than he asked for,
a gratuitous donation, on the part of God, of riches and ho-
mour; which were amply displayed in the magnificence of his
court, the amount of his revenues, the multitude of his sub-
jects, the number of his civil and military establishments, and
a variety of other circumstances, which rendered him one of
the most celebrated monarchs of the East. His reign was
peaceful and prosperous; Judah and Israel were united and
secure, and his neighbours either formed an alliance with him,
or paid him tribute. His dominions extended from the Eu-
phrates to the Nile; and his reputation for wisdom was spread
through all nations. º
As soon as Hiram, king of Tyre, heard of his accession to
the throne of Israel, he deputed ambassadors to congratulate
him; and with the acknowledgment of this message, he re-
quested to be supplied with wood, and able artificers to assist
in constructing the temple at Jerusalem, which, in deference
of his father's vow, he had undertaken to execute. The com-
pletion of this magnificent edifice conferred singular celebrity
on the reign of Solomon. It was begun in the fourth year
his reign, and the second after the death of David, B. C. 10 5,
and 480 years after the Exodus. In the various department
of this great work, he employed no less than 183,00 0 per




This wonderful structure was completed in the eleventh year
Solomon, or in the short space of seven years; and it was
solemnly dedicated on Friday, Oct. 30, B. C. 1000 years.
Solomon afterwards built two palaces, one for himself and ano-
ther for his queen; and the constructions of the temple and
palaces occupied a period of twenty years. He also built the
walls of Jerusalem; and he repaired and fortified a great num-
ber of cities. The great expence which he thus incurred was
defrayed by a commerce which he carried on from Ezion-Ge-
ber and Elath, on the Red Sea, to Ophir. . .
Hiram, king of Tyre, furnished him with mariners, who in-
tructed the subjects of Solomon. They performed this voyage
three years, and brought back abundance of curiosities, and
great riches in gold and other things. % .
Solomon, however, notwithstanding the wisdom which ren-
dered him so famous, had not sufficient fortitude for resisting
the temptations that accompanied his prosperity. He was be-
trayed, in the most culpable and disgraceful manner, into the
vices attendant on luxury and sensuality. Besides 700 wives,
00 concubines; and in his declining age, though he
he had 300 §
ad erected a temple for Jehovah the true God, and was thus
implicitly pledged to preserve the religion of the Jews pure
and uncorrupted, the influence of those heathen women caused
him to degenerate into the most inexcusable idolatry, setting
up as objects of worship, Ashtoreth, goddess of the Sidonians,
Moloch, the idol of the Ammonites, and Chemosh, the god of
the Moabites, and building for them temples on the Mount of
Olives, over-against the east of Jerusalem. As a just pu-
ishment of his culpable conduct, the sovereigns of Edom and
were excited against him, and he saw, before his death,
commencement of that revolt which terminated in the divi-
in of the kingdom. . .
Solomon closed his life and reign in the year B. C. 975, at
e age of 58, having reigned 40 years. . %
MAKEDA, or Balkis, queen of Sheba, or Seba, a country
Arabia Felix or Abyssinia. In the reign of king Solomon
queen, hearing of that monarch's fame for wisdom and
hes, waited on him personally, accompanied by a numerous
train of attendants, and bringing a vast quantity of costly pre-
º recorded in the . cha ter of 1 Kings. According
sinian historians, this lady was a pagan at the time
ndertaken; but being struck with admiration
became a convert to the true religion. Another
history, by no means inconsistent with the character
is, that she returned in a state of pregnancy, aſ
enºſe #, Menilech
3s: ch, or Menelehe ºk ; v

















































B. C. 1033.] F. OM SAUL TO AHAB. ~
another self. When he grew up, he was sent to be educated
at the court of his father Solomon; where having staid some
time, he was accompanied home by many doctors of the law,
and other Israelites of distinction, particularly Azariah, the son
of Zadok the high priest. By these the Jewish religion was
established in Abyssinia, where it continued till the introduc-
tion of Christianity. The Abyssinian historian further informs
us, that the young prince Menilek was anointed and crowned
king in the temple of Jerusalem, before he returned to his own
country; that Azarias was constituted high priest; that he
brought with him an Hebrew transcript of the law; and though
this book is now lost, having been burnt along with the church
of Axurn, the office is still continued in the line of Azarias,
whose successors are styled, Nebrits, high priests, or keepers of
the church, in that city; both church and state being modelled
after that of Jerusalem. §
The compilers of the Universal History are of opinion, as
well as Mr. Bruce, that the queen of Sheba was really sovereign
of Ethiopia. “Ethiopia, say they, is more to the south of Judea,
than the territory of the kingdom of Saba in Arabia Felix;
consequently had a better claim than that country for the do-
minions of the princess, whom our Saviour calls the Queen
of the South. Ethiopia is styled the remotest part of the
habitable world by Herodotus and Strabo; and therefore better
agrees with what our Saviour has said of the queen of Sheba,
that she came from the uttermost parts of the earth, than
Arabia. Nor can it be deemed a sufficient reply to this argu-
ment, that Arabia Felix was the uttermost part of the earth in
respect to Judea, since it was bounded by the Red Sea; for
that not only Egypt, but Ethiopia, regions beyond that sea,
were known to, and had a communication with the Jews both
before and in our Saviour's time, is indisputably clear. Lastly,
from what has been suggested, it appears no improbable con-
jecture, that Judaism was not only known, at least in a part of
Ethiopia, but nearly related to the established religion there,
at the beginning of the apostolic age, if not much earlier. After
all, these two opinions, so contrary in appearance, may be made
consistent without great difficulty; since it is agreed, that Arabia
and Ethiopia have anciently borne the same name, been in-
cluded during certain intervals in one empire, and governed by
one prince. Part of the Arabs and Ethiopians had the same
origin, and very considerable numbers of the Abaseni trans-
ported themselves from Arabia Felix into Ethiopia; a circum.
stance which sufficiently proves the intercourse that formerly
subsisted between the Cushites or Ethiopi ans of Asia and
Africa.”
his father under the reign' of Solomon, B.C. 1( ol.















[B.C. 1033.
a tº a d very important services during the war
with his father Zadok was in Jerusalem
with Hushai, the friend of David, Ahimaaz and Jonathan re-
mained without the city near En-rogel, or the fountain of Rogel,
whither a maid-servant came to tell them the resolutions of
Absalom's counsel. They immediately departed to give the
intelligence to the king; but being discovered by a young man
who informed Absalom, they were pursued. Ahimaaz and Jo-
nathan fearing to be taken, retired to the house of a man of
Bahurim, in whose court-yard was a well, in which they con-
cealed themselves. Upon the mouth of this well a woman
spread a covering, and on the covering corn ground, or rather
parched; when Absalom's people came and inquired after
Ahimaaz and Jonathan, the woman answered, “They are over
the little water, being in great haste.” Deceived by this equi-
vocation, the pursuers passed over a brook at no great distance,
but not finding them, returned to Jerusalem. Afterwards
Ahimaaz and Jonathan continued their journey to David.
Sam, xx. 29., &c.; xvii. 17, &c. .
After the battle of Joab and Abishai, in which Absalom was
slain, Ahimaaz desired leave of Joab to carry the news to
David; but Joab first sent Cushi, and afterwards at his re-
peated entreaty, Ahimaaz, who went by the way of the plain,
and out-ran Cushi. The sentinel, who kept watch upon the
roof over the gate, seeing him, gave notice to the king, and
said, “the running of the foremost messenger is like the run-
ning of Ahimaaz, the son of Zadok.” The king said, “he is a
good man, and bringeth good tidings.” Ahimaaz coming near,
called and said, “All is well;” and he fell down to the earth on
his face before the king, and spoke as follows: “Blessed be
the Lord thy God, who hath delivered up the men that lift up
their hand against my lord the king !” The king said, “Is
the young man, Absalom, safe 7" Ahimaaz, from prudence, or
. ignorance, or unwillingness to declare the truth, replied
Only,
“When Joab sent the king's servant, I saw a great tu-
ilt, but I knew not what it was.” The king said, “Turn
aside, and stand here,” 2 Sam. xviii. 19, 20, &c. He was suc-
cº º in the high-priesthood by his son Azariah. 1 Chron.
ABIJAH, one of the descendants of Eleazer, the son of
on. He was chief of one of the four-and-twenty companies
riests whom David distributed into so many classes. (1
r º, contemporary with Solomon, wh lom -
old, silver, and many other materials




























B.C. 1000.] FROM S.AUL TO AHAB.
Solomon's temple, and other public buildings at Jerusalem,
flourished, B. C. 1015. %
JEROBOAM, son of Nebat, who made Israel to sin, is
often characterised in Scripture as the author of the schism
and idolatry of the ten tribes. He was the son of Nebat, and
of a widow named Zeruah, and was born at Zereda in Eph-
raim. Jeroboam was bold and enterprising ; and Solomon
gave him a commission to levy the taxes of Ephraim and Ma-
masseh. As Jeroboam was going alone one day out of Jeru-
salem into the country, he was met by the prophet Ahijah
wearing a new cloak, (1 Kings xi. 29.) Only these two were
in the field. Ahijah rent his cloak in twelve pieces, and said
to Jeroboam, take ten to thyself; for the Lord will rend the
kingdom of Solomon, and give ten tribes to thee. Jeroboam,
who was already disaffected, began to excite the people to re-
volt; but Solomon being informed of his designs, Jeroboam fled
into Egypt, where he continued till the death of Solomon.
Rehoboam, who succeeded, behaved in a haughty and menac-
ing manner, and ten of the tribes separated from the house of
David. Jeroboam returning from Egypt, these ten tribes in-
vited him among them to a general assembly, in which they
appointed him king over Israel. He fixed his residence at
Shechem, and died after a reign of twenty-two years, and was
succeeded by his son Nadab. .
PHARAOH, or Shishak, who entertained Jeroboam in his
dominions, when he fled from Solomon. He also declared war
against Rehoboam, besieged and took Jerusalem, and carried
away the king's treasures, and those of the house of God, par-
ticularly the golden bucklers which Solomon had made. Some
think he was the brother of Solomon's queen, and that he did
this to revenge the neglect of his sister by Solomon.
REHOBOAM, the son of Solomon, king of Israel, suc-
ceeded his father about B. C. 975. By his folly in totally re-
fusing the people any redress of grievances, he occasioned the
revolt of the ten tribes. (1 Kings xii. 1–24.) After an unfor-
tunate reign of seventeen years, during which his capital was
invaded and his temple plundered of its treasures by Shishak,
king of Egypt, he died B. C. 958.
ABIJAH, the son of Jeroboam, who was the first king of
the ten tribes of Israel. Abigail predicted, that he wo
the only person of his family who should receive funeral
nours. (1 Kings xiv. 13.) gº: :----->
ADORAM, or Had
under king Rehoboam, who
very unpopular, by the v
stoned to death by the re
1
)


















[B.C. 1000.
otherwise his character, as an ambassador, ought to have pre-
served him. # %
AHIJAH, an inhabitant of Shiloh, and an inspired prophet
of Israel, who tore Jeroboam's new garment in twelve pieces,
and gave him ten of them, as an emblem that the ten tribes,
over which he foretold that Jeroboam should reign, would be
rent from the house of David. He also foretold the death of
Jeroboam's son, and wrote a history of the reign of Solomon,
which is lost. He flourished B. C. 958. &
SHEMAIAH, an inspired prophet of Judah, in the reign of
Rehoboam, who prevented a civil war between Israel and
Judah, and prevailed on Rehoboam's new raised army of
180,000 warriors to disband, by assuring them that the division
of the kingdom which had just taken place, was ordained by
the Almighty. (1 Kings xii. 21–24.) He delivered other two
messages to the king and to the people. Shemaiah was also an
author, and wrote the History of Rehoboam, which is quoted in
2 Chron. xii. 5.7. 15.
ABIJAH, or Abijam, was the name of a king of Judah, who
succeeded Rehoboam. After a reign of three years, during
which he imitated the impiety and bad conduct of his father,
he died B. C. 955. - .
ASA, king of Judah, succeeded his father Abijam. He
abolished idolatry, restored the worship of the true God, and,
with the assistance of Benhadad, king of Syria, took several
towns from the king of Israel. He died B. C. 914, and was suc-
ceeded by his son Jehoshaphat. .
HANANI, a prophet who came to Asa, king of Judah, and
said (2 Chron. xvi. 7.) Because thou hast put thy trust in the
king of Syria, and not in the Lord; the army of the king of
Syria is escaped out of thine hands. We know not on what
occasion the prophet spake thus; but Asa ordered him to be
seized and imprisoned. Some suppose, that this Hanani was
ather to the prophet Jehu ; but this does not appear clear
from Scripture. Jehu prophesied in Israel; Hanani, in Judah.
Jehu was put to death by Baasha, king of Israel, who died
B. C. 929; and Hanani reproved Asa, king of Judah, who
reigned from B. C. 955, to B. C. 914. . z. &
BENHADAD. I., the son of Tabrimon, king of Syria,
*d by Asa, king of Judah, broke his league with Baasha,
king of Israel, ravaged the northern parts of his kingdom, and
built market places, or rather citadels in Samaria. 1 Kings
º: Hadai, one of the four princes of Eph.
9 seconded the human advice of the prophet Obed, to
e 200,000 captive women and jū. whom the
h had carried off from Judah; and whose kind-


























FROM S.AUL TO AHAE
ness and attention to these prisoners are to their honour re-
corded. 2 Kings xxviii. 15. .
BAASHA, the son of Ahijah, and the third king of Israel,
after its separation from Judah; one of the many monarchs who
have waded through blood to a throne. His murder of his
predecessor, Nadab, his extirpation of the whole family of Je-
roboam, his wars with king Asa, his idolatries, and the judg-
ments denounced and executed against his house, are recorded
in 1 Kings xv. and xvi. He died in the twenty-fourth year
of his reign. .
ELAH, the son of Baasha, the fourth king of Israel after the
separation of the ten tribes from Judah. He was murdered
while he was in a state of intoxication by Zimri, when he had
reigned only two years. .
OMRI, was general of the army of Elah, king of Israel.
Being at the siege of Gibbethon, and hearing that his master
Elah was assassinated by Zimri, who had usurped his kingdom,
he raised the siege of Gibbethon, and, being elected king by
his army, marched against Zimri, attacked him at Tirzah, and
forced him to burn himself and all his family in the palace in
which he had shut himself up. Zimri reigned only seven days.
1 Kings xvi. 9. .
After the death of Zimri, half of Israel acknowledged Omri
for king; the other half adhered to Tibni, the son of Ginath.
This division continued four years. When Tibni was dead,
the people united again in acknowledging Omri as king of all
Israel, who reigned twelve years; six years at Tirzah, and six
at Samaria. .
Till that time Tirzah had been the chief residence of the
kings of Israel. But when Omri purchased the hill of Shemer
(1 Kings xvi. 24.), B.C. 924, for two talents of silver (684!.);
he there built a new city, which he called Samaria, from the
name of the first possessor Shemer, and in which he fixed his
royal seat. From this time Samaria was the capital of the
kingdom of the ten tribes.
Omri did evil before the Lord, and his crimes exceeded
those of his predecessors. He walked in all the ways of Jero-
boam, the son of Nebat. He died at Samaria, B.C. 918.
ELIJAH, or ELIAS, was one of the most distinguished of
the Jewish prophets. He commenced the exercise of the pro-
phetic office about 920 years B.C. and his first commission
was directed against Ahab, whose impious character and encou-
ragement of idolatry merited reproof. The sovereign, however,
was incensed, and the prophet was obliged to withdraw
the threatened effects of his indignation. During his
ment, providence miraculously afforded him
ince. In the mean time the coun































UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. [B.C.950.
ion of this distress, which lasted three years, the prophet made
another attempt, under Divine admonition, to reclaim Ahab
from the profligacy of his conduct. The first interview pro-
duced mutual recrimination; but Elijah determined to evince
to the full satisfaction of the assembled Israelites the absolute
nullity of those Sidonian deities, in whom, Ahab confided.
The contest between the prophet and the priests of Baal is
beautifully narrated in the Sacred Writings; the result, how-
ever, was the complete triumph of the former, and the ignomi-
nious defeat of the latter, who became victims to the indigna-
tion of the people whom they had deluded into the practice of
idolatry, and the violation of the divine law. The dominion of
Jehovah, as the only true God, was signally displayed; and
Elijah manifested his divine commission, by the succeeding
event. The country was delivered from the distress occa-
isioned by a severe drought; for in answer to the prayers of
phet, and in fulfilment of his promise, rain fell in great
ce. Jezebel, Ahab's wife, was enraged, and Elijah
§§ ged to withdraw into the kingdom of Judah, and to
conceal himself for some time in the wilderness, depending for
his support on the extraordinary interpositions of Providence.
Such interpositions, in an age of ... were suitable to the
character of one who stood almost alone against an empire.
“Among innumerable false, unmov’d,
Unshaken, unseduc’d, unterrified,
His loyalty he kept, his love, his zeal |
Nor number, nor example, with him wrought
To swerve from truth, or change his constant mind,
Though single.” - :
Elijah was afterwards employed in various commissions, which
he executed with a fidelity and fortitude very honourable to his
racter. His companion in the closing scenes of his life was
ha, who was selected to be his successor in the prophetic
office and who was permitted to be witness of his miraculous
translation, by which he was exempted from the common lot of
mortality. This event took place B. C. 896. Ż ... ." §
ELISHA, a Hebrew prophet, was the son of Shaphat, and
| by Elijah, from the pursuits of agriculture, to be his
r in the prophetic office. Many instances occur in the
of his history, contained in the sacred writings, which
miraculous powers with which he was endowed,
stimonies to his prophetic
-> fer the reader for an ac









































B.o.1100.] from saul to Ahab,
that prophet, and was concerned in whatever happened to him,
till, being overcome by avarice, he went in the prophet's name,
as if the prophet had sent him, and solicited from Naaman a
talent of silver, and two changes of raiment; (2 Kings v. 20, &c.)
Naaman gave him two talents. When Gehazi returned, Elisha
demanded of him whence he came 2 Gehazi answered, he had
been no where. Elisha said to him, Went not my heart with
thee, when thou didst receive money and garments : The
leprosy, therefore, of Naaman shall cleave unto thee, and unto
thy seed for ever. Immediately, Gehazi was seized with a
leprosy, and from that time quitted Elisha. The king of Israel
would sometimes cause Gehazi to relate the wonders which God
had wrought by Elisha (2 Kings viii. 4, 5, &c.)
We now proceed to prophane history.
BRUTUS or BRUTE, according to the ancient history of
England by Geoffrey of Monmouth, was the first king of Britain,
and reigned about iºn hundred years before the Christian era.
He is said to have been the son of Sylvius, and grandson of
Ascanius the son of Æneas, and born in Italy. Having acci-
dentally killed his father, he fled into Greece, where he took
king Pandarus prisoner, who kept the Trojans in slavery, whom
he released on condition of providing ships, &c. for the Trojans
to emigrate with them. Being advised by the oracle to sail west
beyond Gaul, he after some adventures, landed at Totness in
Devonshire. Albion was then inhabited by a remnant of giants,
whom Brutus destroyed; and he called the island after his own
name Britain. He built a city called Troja Nove, or Trognovant,
now London; and having reigned twenty-four years, at his death
divided the island among his three sons; Locrine had the middle,
called Loegria, now England; Camber had Cambria, now Wales;
and Albanact Albania, now Scotland. Brutus having thus de-
termined and settled his worldly affairs, he died in his capital in
the twenty-fourth year after his arrival in this island, and was
there interred with great honours, and deplored by his people
The reader should be apprized that the history of Geoffrey has
not obtained much credit. . :
... CODRUS. The 17th and last king of Athens, is celebrated
for the noble act of sacrificing his life for his country. He was
the son of Melanthus, and had reigned twenty years, when the
Heraclidae made war against Athens. On this occasion the
Delphic oracle was consulted, who declared that victory w
... charge to spare the life of C
monarch, resolving to enrol his name among the
nus P eople, . disguised .
mself as a pe.
º O


















150
[B.C. 1080.
retreated. From this period, the Athenians regarded Codrus
as the father of his country, and to pay the highest possible
regard to his memory, they resolved that no man was fit to
reign asking after him; the monarchy was accordingly abolished,
and the government placed in the hands of elective magistrates,
entitled archons, of whom the first was Medon, son of Codrus,
who sustained the office twenty years.
MEDON, son of Codrus the 17th and last king of Athens,
was the first archon that was appointed with regal authority,
B.C. 1070. In the election, Medon was preferred to his brother
Neleus, by the oracle of Delphi, and he rendered himself popular
by the justice and moderation of his administration. His suc-
cessors were called from him Medontidae, and the office of
archon remained more than 200 years in the family of Codrus
under twelve perpetual archons.
NELEUS, the 2nd son of Codrus, the patriotic king of Attica,
who, after the abolition of monarchy at Athens, led a colony of
Ionians to Asia, where he built Ephesus, Miletus, Prien, Colo-
phon, Myus, Feos, Lebedos, Clazomenae, &c.
AGIS, the son of Eurystheus, the 2nd king of Lacedæmon,
of the race of the Heraclidae, was contemporary with David
king of Israel, and Medon the first archon of Athens.
LATINUS, the fifth king of the Latins, was the son of
AEneas Sylvius, and grandson of Æneas the Trojan by Lavinia.
He succeeded his father, in the kingdom of Latium, and was
succeeded by his son Alba. . .”
DAN, a king of Denmark, flourished about B. C. 1050.
Almost all historians agree that he was the son of Humble, a
native of Zealand. His possessions and influence were very
sonsiderable, not only in Zealand, but in the islands of Langland
and Mona. It was his courage, and skill in the art of war, that
induced the inhabitants of Denmark to choose him for their king.
He was called to the assistance of the Jutlanders upon an
irruption of the Saxons upon their territories, and promised the
sovereignty of the country if he drove out the enemy. On this
he raised an army, gained a complete victory over the Saxons,
and obliged them to leave the country, and he was accordingly
elected king. .
LAOBóTAS, or LABOTAS, a Spartanking, of the family
of the Agidae who succeeded his father Echestratus, B.C. 1023.
During his reign war was declared against Argos, by Sparta.
He sat on the throne for thirty-seven years, and was succeeded
by his son Doryssus. . .
§
ations, to whom


























B. C. 1080.] FROM S.AUL TO AHAB. 151

and fables, which are calculated to display the moral doctrines
of the ancient Arabians. There have been many hypotheses
concerning the country in which he lived, and the period at
which he flourished, but the greater part of the Mussulman
doctors make him contemporary with David and Solomon. It
has been supposed that he was a native of Ethiopia or Nubia,
and in rather a servile condition; that he had been a slave in
different countries, that he was at length sold among the
Israelites. His wisdom has been ascribed to divine inspiration,
which he received in the following manner. While asleep at
moon-day, angels came to the place where he was reposing,
saluted him, without rendering themselves visible, and declared
that God would make him a monarch and his lieutenant on
earth. He signified his submission to the will of his Maker, but
would rather have preferred to remain in a low condition. On
account of this answer, God bestowed upon him wisdom in so
eminent a degree, that he was enabled to instruct mankind by a
great variety of maxims, sentences, and parables, amounting to
ten thousand in number. The anecdotes which are recorded
concerning the life of Lokman are found scattered in the writ-
ings of several of the orientals; of these we shall notice only a
few. As he was once seated in the midst of a circle of auditors,
a man of high rank asked if he was not that black slave whom
he had before seen attending upon the flocks in the field; he
replied, he was ; how then, said the other, have you attained to
such wisdom, and so high reputation; “By following exactly,”
said Lokman, “ these three precepts; always to speak the
truth; to keep inviolably the promises made ; and never to
meddle with what does not concern me.” It was Lokman who
said, that “ the tongue and the heart were both the best and
the worst parts of man.” Mahomet frequently refers to the
authority of Lokman in support of his own opinions and doc-
trines, and he is still regarded by the followers of the Mahometan
religion as a saint and a prophet. They represent him to have
been as virtuous and pious as he was wise, and on that account
was peculiarly blessed of God. Some writers assert that he
embraced the Jewish religion, and entered into the service of
king David, who entertained a high esteem for him, and that
he died at a very advanced age. The scanty relics of the fa-
bles of Lokman were published by Erpenius, in Arabic and
Latin, and Tanaquil Faber gave an edition of them in elegant
Latin verse.

PO ETR Y.
LAMIRAS, a famous poet and musician of Thrace, who,

according to some authors, was the inventor of the Dorian
3.
152 % UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. [B.C. 1000.
mode. He lived before Homer, and is said to have been the
first musician who united the voice to the sound of the
LITERATURE.
THERSIPPUs, an Athenian dramatic writer, who died
B. C. 954.
ASTR ON O M Y.
TCHEOU-KONG, a celebrated Chinese astronomer, who
flourished about 1000 years before the Christian era, and is
said to have invented the mariner's compass. He erected a
tower in the city of Ho-man for an observatory; and there is
still to be seen in it an instrument which he made and used for
finding the shadow at noon, and determining the latitude.
PA IN TI N G.
CLEANTHUS, one of the first inventors of painting in
Corinth. He is said to have learned the art from one Ardices,
his countryman, and was one of those painters who were styled
monochromists, because their art extended to no farther than
to draw the simple outline of the figure, and fill it up with one
colour only. Strabo, however, describes some large composi-
tions of this master. The period of Cleanthus is doubtful; but
he probably lived about this time. x- .

PERIOD VII.
FROM AHAB To JE ROBO AM II.
[B.C. 949.]
REMARKABLE FACTs, EVENTS, AND DISCOVERIES.
«wºg
B.C.
886 Homer's Poems brought from Asia into Greece.
884 Lycurgus reforms the constitution of Lacedaemon.
869 Scales and measures invented by Phidon.
864 The city of Carthage enlarged by Dido.
IN this period we perceive liberty and laws paving the way for the
appearance of those great men, of whom the world has reason to be
proud. Fabulous divinities and barbarous heroes begin to retire, that
more interesting characters may occupy their space.
In this period, poetry and music make a respectable figure.
AHAB, the son of Omri, the king of Israel, succeeded his
father, B. C. 918. Of this monarch, it is difficult to deter-
mine, whether his wickedness and impiety, in establishing ido-
latry, and persecuting the true prophets of the Almighty, not-
withstanding repeated warnings and extraordinary visitations
both of judgment and mercy from heaven, or his weakness and
folly in being thus led to his destruction by the advices of a
beautiful but abandoned woman, were greatest. His marriage
with Jezebel, his multiplied idolatries; the repeated warnings
he had from Elijah and other prophets; the extraordinary fa-
mine of three years' continuance; the still more extraordinary
circumstance attending the restoration of fertility and plenty;
the insolent messages sent him by the haughty Benhadad; his
repeated and signal victories over the proud boaster, notwith-
standing his numerous forces, and the combination of kings
that accompanied him; his ill judged mercy to, and covenant
with, that late imperious and now cringing tyrant; his discon-
tent at Naboth's refusing to sell his patrimonial vineyard, with
the dreadful judgments denounced against the j family in
consequence, and the complete execution of the threatened
vengeance by the extirpation of the whole race, are record
the first and second books of Kings and Second of Chronicles




154 - UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. [B. C. 949.
and are well known to every reader of the Scriptures. The
history of the prince affords a useful lesson both to sovereigns
and subjects. To the latter it exhibits a dreadful picture of an
arbitrary government, where the most innocent are not secure
of either life or property; and to the former a no less striking
warning of the fatal consequences of the abuse of power, by
º the innocent. Ahab was slain at Ramoth Gilead,
JEZEBEL, was daughter of Ethbaal, king of the Zido-
nians, and wife to Ahab, king of Israel. 1 Kings xvi. 31.
This princess introduced into the kingdom of Samaria the pub-
lic worship of Baal, Astarte, and other Phoenician deities, which
God had expressly forbidden; and with this impious worship a
general prevalency of all those abominations which had formerly
incensed the Lord against the Canaanites, and procured their
utter extirpation. Jezebel was so zealous for the honour of
this false religion, that she fed at her own table four hundred
prophets belonging to the goddess Astarte; and her husband,
Ahab, in like manner kept four hundred of Baal's prophets as
ministers of his false gods. 1 Kings xviii. 1., &c. Jezebel
seems to have undertaken the utter abolition of the worship of
the Lord in Israel, by persecuting his prophets; and she would
have destroyed them all, had not a part been saved by some
good men. Elijah, who lived at this time, having brought fire
from heaven on his burnt-offering in sight of Ahab and all
Israel, assembled at Mount Carmel, and the people having
killed four hundred and fifty of Baal's prophets, Jezebel sent
to Elijah, and declared that the next day he should be dis-
patched. On hearing this he fled. I Kings xix. 1., &c.
Some time after, Ahab was desirous of buying Naboth's
vineyard, but met with a refusal from Naboth. Jezebel, there-
fore, wrote in the king's name to the principal men of Jezreel,
and required them to accuse Naboth of blaspheming God and
the king, and to punish him capitally. These orders were too
punctually executed. Ahab returning from Jezreel, was met
by Elijah, who threatened his destruction in the name of God;
and that Jezebel, who had been the cause of this evil, should
be eaten by dogs in the portion of Jezreel, or, according to the
Hebrew, by the outward wall of Jezreel. The predictions were
verified, when Jehu, son of Nimshi, rebelled against Ahab,
ehu coming to Jezreel, Jezebel painted her eyes with anti-
make them appear larger and blacker, decked her
with all her ornaments, and looking out of a window,
was in the apartment over the city-gate, and seeing Jehu
entered riding in his chariot, she cried out, “ Had Zimri
who slew his master?” Jehu, lifting up his head, asked
chu bid them throw her d few her out of
mony, to
mic
he
§
§
























B. c. 940.] FROM A
HAB to JEROBOAM II. 155
the window, and she fell into the inclosure of the outward wall,
where she was eaten by dogs. Jehu afterwards said, “Go, see
what is become of this unhappy woman, and bury her, for she
is a king's daughter.” They went and found only her skull, her
feet, and the palms of her hands. *:::::::::::::::... ...: :
NAAMAN, a brave Syrian general, of whose miraculous
cure of a leprosy, by washing in the Jordan, upon the advice
of Elijah, a very interesting account is recorded in 2 Kings v
The Rabbies have a tradition, that it was Naaman who drew
the bow at a venture, and killed Ahab. 1 Kings xxii. 34.
AMON, governor of Samaria, whom Ahab ordered to im-
prison the prophet Micaiah, till he should return safe from the
battle of Ramoth Gilead, which he never did. 1 Kings xxii. 26.
BENHADAD II, king of Syria, the son and successor of
Benhadad I., was a still more terrible scourge to the Israelites.
His barbarous ravages of that country in the reign of Ahab ;
he insolent demand of that monarch; the subsequent defeat
of his powerful army by a small number of Israelites; his folly
in thinking that the God of Israel was only the god of the hills;
his second terrible defeat, wherein 100,000 of his forces were
slain on the spot, and 27,000 more, who fled, were killed by the
walls of Aphek falling on them; his dastardly supplication to
Ahab for his life; his subsequent ingratitude in making war
upon Ahab's son; and besieging his capital, till the famine be-
came more dreadful than any almost recorded in history; his
sudden flight, sickness, consultation of the prophet Elisha, and
deserved death, though treacherously executed, are fully nar
rated in 1 Kings xx-xxii. and 2 Kings v. 8.
MICALAH, the son of Imlah, an Ephraimite, a faithful
prophet of Israel, under Ahab, who predicted the death of
that monarch. 1 Kings xxii. 8–28. . . . .
OBADLAH, the prophet, is believed to have been the same
with the governor of Ahab's house, mentioned in the first book
of Kings, xviii. 3, &c. who hid and fed the hundred prophets
whom Jezebel would have destroyed; and some say, that he
was that Obadiah whom Josiah made overseer of the works of
the temple. 2 Chron. xxxiv. 12. The truth is, that when he
lived or prophesied is uncertain; though most writers plac
him about this time. :. . . . . . . . . .
JEHOSHAPHAT, king of Judah. He was the son and
successor of Asa, king of Judah. His mother was Azabah,
the daughter of Shilhi, Jehoshaphat ascended the throne at
the age of thirty . advantage over
Baasha, king of Israel ns in the






















156 UNIVERSAL biography. LB. C. 924.
priests and Levites, through all the parts of Judah, with the
e people. The Philistines and
book of the law, to instruct th . º:-- . . . . . . . . . . .” .
him. He built several houses in
1 fortified several cities. He
'en hundred thousand men, with-
º his strong holds. This number
seems prodigious for so small a state as that of Judah; but,
probably, these troops were only an enrolled militia. Jeho-
shaphat died after a reign of twenty-five years, and was buried
in the royal sepulchre; and his son, Jehoram, reigned in his
stead, B. C. 889.
JEHORAM, son and successor of Jehoshaphat, king of
Judah, was born B.C. 924. 2 Kings iii. 2, 3, &c. His father
associated him in the kingdom, B. C. 892. He began to reign
alone, after the death of Jehoshaphat, B. C. 889, and died,
according to Usher, B. C. 886. He married Athaliah, daugh-
ter of Omri, who engaged him in idolatry and sins, which
caused all the misfortunes that attended his reign. Jehoram
being settled in the kingdom, commenced his reign with the
murder of all his brothers, whom Jehoshaphat had removed
from public business, and placed in the fortified cities of Judah,
with good pensions. God, to punish Jehoram's impiety, per-
mitted the Edomites, who, since the reign of David, had been
subject to the kings of Judah, to revolt, in the year B. C.
888. 2 Kings viii. 20, 21; 2 Chron. xxi. 8, 9. Jehoram
marched against them, and defeated their cavalry; but the
Edomites from that time continued free from the Hebrew yoke.
About this time Libnah, a city of Judah, also rebelled.
The Philistines and Arabians ravaged the territories of Judah,
plundered the king's palaces, carried away his wives and his
children, and none remained except Jehoahaz, the youngest.
It is also related that God smote Jehoram with an incurable dis-
ease in his bowels, and he died after a sore sickness of two
years. The people refused to pay him the same honours that
they had paid his predecessors, by burning spices over their
H. was buried in Jerusalem, but not in the royal se-
*
pulchre. . x º ºg
ATHALIAH, the daughter of Ahab, king of Israel, by
Jezebel, and wife of Jehoram, king of Judah. She was worse,
if le, than her worthless parents, for she not only fol-
ed their idolatrous example, but added murder and parricide
other crimes. Hearing that Jehu had slain her son
, along with the rest of Ahab's posterity in Israel, she
yal power, 3 - --~~& -> *---------- - - -2
* nce denounced against her father's house
aboth, by extirpating all the blood-royal
g her own grand-children; all of whom
infant prince Joash, who was rescued
and to secure herselfin it contributed

































p.c. stol FROM Ahab to JERoboam II.
from his grandmother's ambitious fury, by his aunt Jehosheba,
and hid by her and her husband Jehoiada, for six years in the
temple, during the usurpation of this woman. In the seventh
year, Jehoiada, the high-priest, engaging the leading men of
the kingdom in his interest, produced the young prince in
public assembly, in the court of the temple; caused the people
to take an oath of fidelity to him; and engaged both them and
their king to serve the Lord. Among the Levites and other
friends, with weapons deposited in the temple, he appointed
one part of them to guard the royal person; the rest to secure
the gates of the sacred courts; he next brought forth the
young prince, crowned him and proclaimed him king. Alarmed
with the shouts of the people, Athaliah ran to the temple,
when shocked with the sight of the king on his throne, she
rent her clothes and cried, “Treason, treason.” By Jehoiada's
orders, the guards carried her out and slew her.
AHAZIAH, king of Judah, the son and successor of Je-
horam, by Athaliah the daughter of Ahab, came to the crown,
B. C. 886, and reigned only one year. During this short pe-
riod, however, he gave sufficient evidence of his being more
inclined to follow the bad example of his mother, and her ido-
latrous and bloody house, than the good one set by his paternal
grandfather Jehoshaphat; but he was stopped in his career,
and mortally wounded by Jehu, king of Israel, the avenger of
the blood of Naboth. .
JORAM, or JEHORAM, king of Israel, the best monarch
of Ahab's bloody house. His abolition of the worship of Baal,
though he still adhered to the political idolatry of Jeroboam I.
his alliance with Jehoshaphat, his conferences with Elisha and
Gehazi, and other transactions, are recorded in 2 Kings ii—x.
He was killed by Jehu, B.C. 884. .
JOASH, the son of Ahaziah, king of Judah, the only one
of the blood-royal who was preserved from his grandmother's
bloody massacre. His preservation, coronation, relapse into
idolatry, and ungrateful murder of his cousin Zechariah, the
son of his benefactors, with his consequent misfortunes, and
merited death, B.C. 843, are recorded in 2 Kings xi. xii. and
2 Chron. xxiii. xxiv. .
... AMAZIAH, the eighth king, and including the usurper
Athaliah, the ninth monarch of Judah, succeeded his father
Joash. He is one of the few sovereigns of that people who
are said to have done right in the sight of God; although not
in every thing, for he certainly erred in challenging Joash,
king of Israel, and he suffered accordingly; being taken pri-
soner, and his capital plundered and dismantled by that mo-
narch. The particulars at challenge and defeat, as well
…tº mites, his folly in adopting their
f his victory ov . Avily uſ ºr."

















[B.C. 870.
him, his flight to
his reign, and
phat, and gr
he troops king of Israel. He slew Joram,
was himself made king. He reigned twenty-eight years
Israel, and was succeeded by his son Jehoahaz. 2 Kings
35, 36. The four descendants of his family who go, .
* him, were Jehoahaz, Joash, Jeroboam II., and Zechariah.
reign of Jehu was perplexed with war against Hazael,
ring of Syria. - …
JEHOAHAZ, son of Jehu, king of Israel, succeeded his
father in the year B. C. 856, and reigned seventeen ye
Kings xiii. He did evil in the sight of the Lord, like Jero-
boam, the son of Nebat. Therefore, the anger of the Lord
delivered Israel during all his reign to Hazael,
and Benhadad, the son of Hazael. Jehoahaz, overwhelmed
with so many misfortunes, prostrated himself before the Lord,
and the Lord heard him, and sent him a saviour in Joash, his
son, who re-established the affairs of Israel, and secured his
people from the kings of Syria. Of all his soldiers Jehoahaz
had only fifty horsemen left, and ten chariots, and 10,000 foot;
he king of Syria had defeated them, and made them like
the dust of the threshing-floor. :* : * * * *
HAZAEL, an officer belonging to Benhadad, king of Syria,
who caused that prince to be put to death, and reigned in his
tead. He defeated Joram, Jehu, and Jehoahaz, kings of Is-
rael: and after his death was succeeded by Benhadad his son,
JOASH, the son of Jehoahaz, king of Israel. Though he
copied the political idolatry of Jeroboam I., he seems to have
had an uncommon respect for Elisha. His last visit to that
rophet, and his repeated victories over the Syrians, and over
aziah, king of Judah, with his pillage of Jerusalem, are re-
led in 2 Kings xiii. xiv. and 2 Chron. xxv. He died B.C.
6, and was succeeded by Jeroboam II. . §:... ::: ... . ;
BENHADAD, the son of Hazael. Joash, king of Israel,
recovered from Benhadad all that Hazael had taken from Je-
hoahaz, king of Israel, his predecessor. 2 Kings xiii. 3, 24, 25.
h defeated him three times, and compelled him to sur-
ider all the country beyond Jordan, that is, the lands be-
3% to Gad, Reuben, and Manasseh, which Hazael had
ad, that is, son of Hadad
benefits of t
king of Syria,
%










































































ment, and particularly because they adorned the city of Da-
mascus with magnificent temples. º
We now proceed to prophane history.
DIDO or ELISSA, a daughter of Belus king of Tyre, who
married Sichaeus of Sicharbas her uncle, priest of Hercules. He
brother, Pygmalion, who succeeded Belus, murdered Sichaeus
to get possession of his immense riches; and Dido, disconsolate
for the loss of her husband, whom she tenderly loved, and by
whom she was equally esteemed, set sail in quest of a settlement
with a number of Tyrians, to whom the cruelty of the tyrant
became odious. According to some accounts, she threw into the
sea the riches of her husband, which Pygmalion so greedily
desired, and by that artifice compelled the ships to fly with her
that had come by order of the tyrant to obtain the riches of
Sichaeus. But it is more probable that she carried the riche
along with her, and by their powerful influence prevailed on the
Tyrian tars to follow her. During her voyage, Dido visited the
coast of Cyprus; where she carried away fifty young women, and
gave them as wives to her Tyrian followers. A storm drove her
fleet on the African coast, where she bought of the inhabitants
as much land as could be surrounded by a bull's hide cut into
thongs. Upon this land she built a citadel called Byrsa; and
the increase of population, and the rising commerce among her
subjects, soon obliged her to enlarge her city and the boundaries
of her dominions. Her beauty as well as the fame of her enter-
prize, gained her many admirers; and her subjects wished to
compel her to marry Jarbas, king of Mauritania, who threatened
them with a dreadful war. Dido begged three months to give
her decisive answer; and during that time she erected a funeral
pile, as if wishing by a solemn sacriflee to appease the manes of
Sichaeus, to whom she had promised eternal fidelity. When all
was prepared, she stabbed herself on the pile in presence of her
people; and by this uncommon action obtained the name of Dido,
“valiant woman,” instead of Elissa. According to Virgil and
Ovid, the death of Dido was caused by the sudden departure
of Æneas, of whom she was deeply enamoured, and whom she
could not obtain as a husband. This poetical fiction represents
Æneas as living in the age of Dido, and introduces a violent
anachronism. This chronological error proceeded not from the
ignorance of the poets, but from a voluntary fiction. While
Virgil describes, in a beautiful episode, the desperate love of
Dido, and the submission of Æneas to the will of the gods, he
traces the origin of the hatred which existed between the re-
publics of Rome and Carthage, from their very first foundation,
nd pretends that it was kindled by a more remote caus
the jealousy and rivalship of two flourishing empires. Dido
after her death was honoured as a deity by her subjects.
:































[B. C. 926,
LYCURGUS, the celebrated legislator of Sparta, supposed
to have been born about the year B.C. 926, was son of Eu-
nices, king of that country, and brother to Polydectus. He
might have succeeded to the throne himself on the death of
Polydectus, but knowing that the deceased king's widow was
pregnant, he publicly declared that he would now hold the
crown in trust for the child, provided it should prove a son.
The queen, ambitious of retaining her place and dignity, pro-
posed to marry Lycurgus, and destroy the infant before its
birth. Lycurgus took measures to prevent the completion of
her wicked proposals; she was, in due time, delivered of a son,
which being brought to him, as he was sitting at the tables.
with the magistrates, he took it in his arms, placed it in the
chair of state, and exclaimed, “Here, Spartans, is your king.”
Lycurgus faithfully discharged the duty as regent and guardian
during the minority of his nephew Charilaus; and as soon as
the young prince came to years of maturity, he readily resigned
all authority into his hands, left Sparta, and travelled into se-
veral foreign countries, with the view of obtaining a knowledge
of their laws and customs. He first visited Crete, at that time
governed by the laws of Minos. These laws he studied most
carefully, and contracted a friendship with Thales, whom he
persuaded to settle at Sparta. He thence passed over to Asia,
making observations on the principal Ionian cities, which were
overwhelmed in luxury and effeminacy. Here he met with the
works of Homer, which he transcribed and brought into Greece.
The confusion which followed his departure from Sparta, made
his presence again necessary, and he returned home at the
earnest solicitation of his countrymen. Perceiving that the dis-
orders of the state admitted no other effectual remedy than a
total change of the laws and constitution, he prepared to give
a new legislative system to Sparta. He took care to fortify his
authority with the sanctions of religion, and obtained from the
oracle of Delphi a declaration, that the constitution he was
about to establish, would be the most excellent in the world.
His principal object, as a patriot, was to render his country
great and respectable among surrounding nations; this he at-
tained, and Sparta, under the laws of Lycurgus, became a
nation of invincible warriors, who, for a series of years, bore
the greatest sway in the affairs of Greece, and were the bul-
wark of their friends, and the dread of their foes. Lycurg
been compared to Solon, the legislator of Athens. The
e of Lycurgus demanded resolution, and he showed himself
ºrable and severe. The Lacedaemonians showed their re-
for this great legislator, by annually celebrating a festival
onour, at which his praises were reiterated, and which
several ages. It is not agreed in what manner,
ied; according to Plutarch, he voluntarily put an




























B.C. 825.] FROM AHAB To JEROBOAM II. |61||
end to his life by abstinence, while he was yet of an age to en-
joy it. Lucian says he died at the age of eighty-five. The
laws of Lycurgus were abrogated by Philopoemen in the year
B. C. 188; but the Romans very soon re-established them.
AGESILAUS I. king of Lacedaemon, was contemporary
with Lycurgus, the famous Spartan legislator.
CHARILAUS, a son of Polydectes king of Sparta, educated
and protected by his uncle Lycurgus. He made war against
Argos, and attacked Tegea. He was taken prisoner, and
released on promising that he would cease from war, an engage-
ment he soon broke. He died in the 64th year of his age.
ANNA, the daughter of Belus, king of Tyre and sister of
Dido, whom she accompanied in her flight. She was wor-
shipped, as a goddess, by the ancient Romans, under the title
of Anna Perenna, and sacrifices were offered to her both publicly
and privately.
PYGMALION, king of Tyre, son of Belus, and brother of
Dido, who founded Carthage. He succeeded his father, but
became odious by his avarice and his cruelty; and among others
murdered Sichaeus the husband of Dido, in a temple of which
he was priest, on which Dido fled with her husband's treasure.
He died in his 51st year, and 47th of his reign.
PHIDON, a man who enjoyed the sovereign power at Argos,
and is supposed to have invented scales and measures, and coined
silver at Ægina. He died B. C. 854. º
CHEOPS, or CLEOPHES, an ancient king of Egypt, is
placed by Herodotus next in the list to Rhampsinitus. Dio-
dorus, who calls him Chemmis, places him the eighth from that
king. He is said to have begun his reign with forbidding the
Egyptians to offer any sacrifices to the gods; and then to have
sent vast numbers of them to dig stone in the quarries of Arabia,
and transport it into Egypt, where he built the largest of the
three great pyramids. Herodotus tells an improbable story,
that having exhausted all his treasures, he obliged his daughter
to prostitute herself for money; and that by demanding a stone
from each of her gallants, she herself raised a small pyramid.
The reign of Cheopsis asserted to have lasted fifty years. He
flourished B. C. 825. >
MYCERINUS, king of Egypt. He was the son of Cheops,
but of a character opposite to that of his father. So far from
walking in his steps, he detested his conduct, and pursued
quite different measures. He again opened the temples of the
gods, restored the sacrifices, did all that lay in his power to
comfort his subjects, and make them forget their past miseries;
and believed himself set over them for no other purpose but to
exercise justice, and to make them taste all the bles
an equitable and peaceful administration. He heard the
plaints, dried their tears, eased their miseries, and thought
VOL. I.











himself not so much the master as the father of his people.
This procured him the love of them all. Egypt resounded
. his praises, and his name commanded veneration in all
Ola CCS, §§§ .
p It might naturally have been concluded, that so prudent and
humane a conduct, must have drawn down on Mycerinus the
protection of the gods. But it º far otherwise. His
misfortunes began from the death of a darling and only daugh-
ter, who formed all his felicity. He ordered extraordinary ho-
mours to be paid to her memory, which were still continued in
Herodotus's time. This historian informs us, that in the city
of Sais exquisite odours were burnt, in the day time, at the
tomb of this princess, and that it was illuminated with a lamp
by night. . -
N. "ß". told by an oracle, that his reign would continue but
seven years. And as he complained of this to the gods, in
enquiring the reason, why so long and prosperous a reign had
been indulged his father and uncle, who were equally cruel and
impious; whilst his own, which he had endeavoured so care-
fully to render as equitable and mild as it was possible for him
to do, should be so short and unhappy, he was answered, that
these were the very causes of it; it being the will of the gods
to oppress Egypt during the space of one hundred and fifty
years, to punish its crimes; and that his reign, which was ap-
pointed like those of the preceding monarchs to be of fifty years'
continuance, was shortened on account of his too great lenity.
Mycerinus likewise built a pyramid, but much inferior in di-
mensions to that of his father. . . . . .
ASYCHIS, king of Egypt. He enacted the law relating to
loans, which forbid a son to borrow money, without giving the
dead body of his father by way of security for it. The law
added, that in case the son took no care to redeem his father's
dy, by restoring the loan, both himself and his children
ºld be deprived for ever of the rights of sepulture.
. He valued himself for having surpassed all his predecessors
by the building a pyramid of brick, more magnificent, if this
king was to be credited, than any hitherto seen. The follow-
ing inscription, by its founder's order, was engraved upon it.
* ComPARE ME NOT witH PYRAMIDs BUILT OF STONE ; which
1. As MUCH Excel. As JUPITER DoES ALL THE OTHER GODS.”
AXYLUS, an ancient hero of Arisba, celebrated by Homer
is hospitality, which gained him the appellation of the
ind of Mankind;’ which few of those celebrated
sir ism, ei cient or modern times, have
[LUS, a Samian, who hospitably entertained
*
a t
&































B. C. 820.] FROM AHAB TO JEROBOAM II.
SARDANAPALUS, the last king of Assyria, whose cha-
racter is one of the most infamous in history. He is said to
have sunk so deep in depravity, that as far as he could, he
changed his very size and nature. He cloathed himself as a
woman, and spun amidst companies of his concubines. He
painted his face, and behaved in a more lewd manner than the
most lascivious harlot. In short, he was immersed in the most
unbounded sensuality. Having grown odious to his subjects, a
rebellion was formed against him by Arbaces, the Mede, and
Belesis, the Babylonian. They were attended, however, with
very bad success at first, being defeated with great slaughter in
three pitched battles. With great difficulty Belesis prevailed
upon his men to keep the field only five days longer, when they
were joined by the Bactrians, who had come to the assistance
of Sardanapalus, but had been prevailed upon to renounce
their allegiance to him. With this reinforcement they twice
defeated the troops of Sardanapalus, who shut himself up in
Nineveh, the capital of his empire. The city held out for a
year; at the end of which, Sardanapalus dreading to fall into
the hands of an enraged enemy, retired into his palace, in a court
of which he caused a vast pile of wood to be raised; and heap-
ing upon it all his gold and silver, and royal apparel, and at the
same time inclosing his eunuchs and concubines in an apartment
within the pile, he set fire to it, and thus destroyed himself and
all together, B.C. 820. & . Nix
ARBACES, a governor of Media, under Sardanapalus.
Seeing him spinning among a company of his women, he stirred
up his people to revolt, and dethroned Sardanapalus, who there-
upon burnt himself in his palace. Arbaces being crowned,
began the monarchy of the Medes, which lasted 317 years
under nine kings, till Astyages was expelled by Cyrus. Arbaces
reigned twenty-two years. * . . .
BALADAN, the Scripture name for a king of Babylon,
(Isa. xxxix. 1. 2 Kings xx. 12.) called by prophane authors
Belesis, or Nanybrus, and said by ancient historians to have
been the founder of the Babylonian empire, and in conjunction
with Arbaces the Mede, to have put an end to the kingdom of
the Assyrians, by the defeat and death of Sardanapalus. Be-
lesis is represented both as a hero, and a crafty knave by his-
torians. It is said he was base enough to circumvent Arbaces,
his colleague and friend, in the most shameful manner, by pre-
tending he had in the midst of the war, made a vow to his god
Belus, that if the event was successful, and the palace of Sar-
danapalus was consumed, as it then was, he would be at the
charge of removing the ashes to Babylon, where he would heap
them up into a mound near the temple of his god, to stand as
a monument to all d navigate the Euphrates, of the
s
ºn of the Assyrianº, p

















164 UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY, [B.C.820.
He previously had been informed by a eunuch, of the im-
mense treasure which had been consumed in the conflagration
at Nineveh; and knowing it to be a secret to Arbaces, not only
granted him his request, but appointed him king of Babylon,
with an exemption from all tribute. Belesis thus carried a
prodigious treasure with him to Babylon; but when the secret
was discovered, he was called to an account, and tried by the
other chiefs who had assisted in the war, and who, upon his
confession, condemned him to lose his head. But Arbaces, a
magnificent and generous prince, freely forgave him, left him
in possession of the treasure, and also the independent govern-
ment of Babylon, saying, the good he had done ought to serve
as a veil to his crime: and thus he became at once a prince of
great wealth and dominion. Under the successor of Arbaces,
he became a man of dress, show, and effeminacy, unworthy of
the kingdom he held. Understanding a certain robust Mede,
called Parsondas, held him in the utmost contempt, and had
solicited the emperor of the Medes to divest him of his domi-
nions, and to confer them upon himself, he offered a very great
reward to the man who should take Parsondas, and bring him
to him. Parsondas hunting near Babylon with the king of the
Medes, and straggling from the company, happened to fall in
with some of the servants of Nanybrus, who were purveyors to
the king; and Parsondas being thirsty, asked a draught of
wine, which they not only granted, but prevailed upon him to
take a meal with them. As he drank freely, suspecting no
treachery, he was easily persuaded to pass that night with
some beautiful women, brought on purpose to detain him.
But, while he was in a profound sleep, the servants of Na-
mybrus bound him, and carried him to their prince, who re-
proached him for endeavouring to estrange the king of the
Medes from him, and by that means place himself in his room
on the throne of Babylon. Parsondas did not deny the charge,
but with intrepidity owned, that he thought himself more worthy
of a crown, than such an indolent and effeminate prince as he
was. Nanybrus, highly provoked, swore by the gods Belus
and Mylitta, that Parsondas himself should soon become so
effeminate as to reproach none with effeminacy. Accordingly
he ordered the eunuch who had the charge of his music women,
to shave, paint, and dress him after their manner, and, in short,
to transform him as much a possible into a music woman. His
orders were obeyed; and the manly Parsondas soon exceeded
the fairest female in singing and playing, and other arts of al-
lurement. In the mean time, the king of the Medes, having in vain
SQ fter his favourite servant, though he offered great re-
% or any information concerning him, concluded that he
after seven years, the Mede was informed of his condition by a







B.C. 900.] FROM AHAB TO JEROBOAM II. 165
eunuch, who being cruelly scourged by Nanybrus's orders,
fled, at the instigation of Parsondas, into Media, and there dis-
closed the whole to the king, who immediately despatched an
officer to demand him. Nanybrus pretended to know nothing
of any such person; upon which another officer was sent by the
Mede, with a peremptory order to seize on Nanybrus if he
persisted in the denial, and lead him to immediate execution.
Upon this the Babylonian owned what he had before denied,
and promised to comply with the king's demand; invited the
officer to a banquet, at which one hundred and fifty women,
among whom was Parsondas, made their appearance, singing
and playing upon various instruments. Nanybrus enquiring of
the Mede which he liked best, he immediately pointed at Par-
somdas. At this, the Babylonian falling into an immediate fit
of laughter, told him who the person was whom he thus pre-
ferred to all the fine ladies; adding, that he could answer for
what he had done before the king of the Medes. The officer was
less surprised at such an astonishing change, than his master
afterwards, when Parsondas appeared before him. The only
favour Parsondas begged of the king, for all his past services,
was, that he would avenge on the Babylonian the base and
injurious treatment he had met with. The Mede marched
accordingly to Babylon, and notwithstanding the remonstrances
of Nanybrus, urging, that Parsondas had, without the least
provocation, endeavoured to deprive him of both his life and
kingdom, declared that in ten days he would pass sentence on
him as he deserved, for presuming to act as judge in his own
cause, instead of appealing to him. But Nanybrus having
bribed Mitrophernes, the Mede's favourite eunuch, the king
was by him prevailed upon to sentence the Babylonian only to
a fine, which made Parsondas curse the first discoverer of gold,
for the sake of which he was to live the derision of an effemi-
nate Babylonian. . ;
Sir Isaac Newton supposes Baladan to have been the son of
Pul, king of Assyria, and to have had Babylon for his portion.
LEAR, a British king, said in ancient chronicles to have
succeeded his father Bladud, about B. C. 844. The story of
this king and his three daughters, is well known from Shaks-
peare's excellent tragedy founded upon it.
Poet RY.
PRONAPIDES, an ancient Greek poet of Athens, who was
}. to Homer. He also first taught the Greeks to write
from the left to the right, as they formerly wrote in the oriental
manner from right to left. . . . . . . .

HOMER, justly celebrated as the prince of poets, flourished,
according to Blair, about nine hundred years before the Chris-
tian era, though Priestley and others place this event half a cen-
tury later. Seven cities disputed the glory of having given him
birth, viz. Smyrna, Rhodes, Colophon, Salamis, Chios, Argos,
and Athens; but the probability is, that he was born either on
the continent of Lesser Asia, or upon one of the islands near it.
We have nothing certain respecting the life of this poet; critics
have usually thrown aside as spurious and fabulous the life of
Homer, said to have been written by Herodotus. There
seems no doubt, that notwithstanding the high reputation and
vast celebrity which he has enjoyed for nearly three thousand
years, he spent his life in poverty, wandering about from city
to city, and from the court of one prince to that of another,
obtaining temporary patronage from the recital of his poems.
If he were blind, he probably became so in his old age. The
origin and composition of the poems attributed to Homer, are
involved in as much obscurity as the facts relating to his birth-
place and life. In his celebrated poems, entitled, the Iliad and
Odyssey, the poet has displayed the most consummate know-
ledge of human nature, and rendered himself immortal by the
sublimity, the fire, the sweetness, and elegance of his poetry.
In his Iliad, Homer has described the resentment of Achilles,
and its fatal consequences in the Grecian army before the walls
of Troy. In the Odyssey, the poet has for his subject the re-
turn of Ulysses into his country, with the many misfortunes
which attended his voyage after the fall of that city. These
poems are each divided into twenty-four books, the same num-
ber as there are letters in the Greek alphabet, and though the
Iliad claims an uncontested superiority over the Odyssey, yet the
same force, the same sublimity and elegance prevail, though
divested of its more powerful fire; and the great author of the
“Sublime” compares the Iliad to the mid-day, and the Odyssey
to the setting sun; and adds, that the latter still preserves its
original splendour and majesty, though deprived of its meridian
heat. Whether they were epic poems in the sense now
attached to the word, primarily formed upon a determinate
plan, and constituting a whole;—whether they were a fortuitous
assemblage of detached parts, connected by some later hand,
by means of an assumed subject; or, lastly, whether these rhap-
sodies were the work of one author or of several, are questions
which have exercised, and which still continue to exercise the
lº of critics. There is no doubt that the constituent
parts of these poems long wandered separately through the
cipal cities of Greece, and the whole of them are said by
; and their first arrangement, in the order we now have












B.C.900.] FROM AHAB TO JEROBOAM II. 167
them, is ascribed to Pisistratus. But whatever doubt these
circumstances might throw upon the original plan of their
composition, it is contended that all the parts so manifestly
conspire to that general purpose which is proposed in the
Exordium, that they must have flowed from uniform design.
The difficulty of conceiving how such long works could be
accurately transmitted by memory through ages, previously to
the use of writing, increases the intricacy of the question; but
in answer to this it has been observed, that the poetry of
Homer was so universally admired, that, in ancient times, every
man of learning could repeat with facility any passage in the
Iliad and Odyssey. These poems, it appears, from the very
earliest times, were consulted as authorities for local claims, and
controversies were decided respecting boundaries and preroga-
tives, by lines from the catalogue of Homer's ships. Modern
travellers have been astonished to behold the different scenes
which the poems of Homer described 3000 years before, still
existing in the same unvaried form; and the navigator who
steers his course along the AEgean sea, finds all the promonto-
ries and rocks which appeared to Nestor and Menelaus, when
they returned victorious from the Trojan war. By the ancients
Homer was venerated and worshipped as a god. The inhabi-
tants of Chios celebrated vestals in his honour every fifth year;
and the people of Cos considered it as their greatest glory that
the poet of Greece was buried in their island. Alexander was
so much attached to the works of Homer, that he usually placed
them under his pillow, with his sword; and he deposited the
Iliad in one of the richest and most valuable caskets of Darius,
observing, that the most perfect work of human genius ought to
be ºned in a box the most valuable and precious in the
WOTIC1. .
The best editions of Homer are those of Barnes, Clarke,
and Heyne. Pope has translated Homer into rhyme; and
Cowper, into blank verse. Pope's translation will always be
popular, while Cowper's will never be read. . &
HESIOD, an ancient Greek poet, supposed to have been a
contemporary with Homer, though some have dated the era in
which he flourished a century later. He was probably born at
Cinna, in AEolia, but removed in his infancy with his father to
Ascra, asmall town in Boeotia. Those who contend that he was
a contemporary of Homer affirm, that he even obtained a
poetical prize in competition with him. He is, at any rate, the
first that is known to have written a poem on agriculture.
This is entitled “The Weeks and Days,” being a kind of ca-
lendar rival of occupations; but besides the instructions which
are given to the cultivator of the ground, the reader is gratified.
ocrates Or a
moral reflections worthy of a S
by a variety of









UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. [B.C. 000.
heogony" is a miscellaneous narration, executed
wi out much art or judgment; yet it has been highly esteemed
for the faithful account it gives of the gods of antiquity.
“The shield of Hercules” is but the fragment of a much larger
poem, in which it is imagined the author gave an account of the
most celebrated heroines among the ancients. Hesiod is said
to have written several other works which are lost. He is ad-
mired for the elegance of his diction, and the sweetness of his
poetry. Pausanius says, that in his age the verses of Hesiod
were written on tablets, in the temple of the muses of which the
poet was a priest. Virgil, in his celebrated Georgics, has
imitated the manner of Hesiod, though he has gone far beyond
the model in every kind of excellence. The Greeks were so
partial to the poetry and moral instruction of Hesiod, that they
ordered their children to commit them to memory. Hesiod,
being accused of assisting in a rape, was murdered by the sons
of Gangetor of Nampactum, and his body thrown into the sea.
The best editions of Hesiod are that of Milan, 1493, fol.;
Graevius, Amst. 1667; Gr. et Lat. and Loesner, Leips. 8vo.
1778. There is an English translation of this º: by
Cooke, 1729. .
SYAGRUS, an ancient Greek poet, who flourished in the
same age with Homer, to whom he was a rival, being the first
who wrote on the Trojan War. Diogenes calls him Sagaris.
M Us I c.
THALETAS, of Crete, a famous Lyric, celebrated by all
antiquity as a medical musician, is said to have delivered the
Lacedaemonians from the pestilence by the sweetness of his
lyre; but credulity in the powers of music must be very strong
indeed, in those who could believe it possible for music to
drive away the pestilence. Thaletas, however, was universally
believed to have possessed this power; but it is impossible to
render the fact credible, without qualifying it by several cir-
cumstances omitted in the relation. In the first place, it is
certain that this poet was received among the Lacedaemonians
during the plague, by command of an oracle; that by virtue of
this mission, all the poetry of the hymns which he sung, must
have consisted of prayers and º in order to avert
the anger of the gods against the people, whom he exhorted to
sacrifices, expiations, purifications, and many other acts of de-
votion; which, however superstitious, could not fail to agitate
the minds of the multitude, and to produce nearly the same
effects as public fasts, and, in Catholic countries, processions, at
present, in times of danger, by exalting courage, and by ani-












B.C.900.] FROM AHAB TO JEROBOAM II. 169
mating hope. The disease having probably reached its highest
Sitch of malignity when the musician arrived, must afterwards
}. become less contagious by degrees; till, at length, ceasing
of itself, by the air wafting away the seeds of i. and
recovering its former purity, the extirpation of the disease was
attributed by the people to the music of Thaletas, who had been
thought the sole mediator, to whom they owed their happy de-
liverance. This is probably what Plutarch means, who tells
the story; and what Homer meant in attributing the cessation
of a plague among the Greeks, at the siege of Troy to music.

“With hymns divine the joyous banquet ends,
The paeans lengthen'd till the sun descends,
The Greeks restored, the grateful notes prolong,
Apollo listens, and approves the song.” .
Pope's HomeR.
For the poet in this passage seems only to say, that Apollo
was rendered favourable, and had delivered the Greeks from
the scourge with which they were attacked, in consequence of
Chryseis having been restored to her father, and of sacrifices
§. offerings. Thaletas was contemporary with Lycurgus the
artan. a
. 'sºvicus, an ancient Greek musician, said to have been
a great improver of music. He lived after Homer. According
to Pliny, Simicus added an eighth string to the lyre of Mercury.
PERIOD viii.
FROM JEROBO AM II, To Jos IAH.
[B.C. 821.]
REMARKABLE FACTs, EvºNTs, AND Discoveries.
B.C.
814 The kingdom of Macedon begins.
801 The city of Capua in Campania built.
799 The kingdom of Lydia began.
786 The ships, called Triremes, invented by the Corinthians.
779 The race of kings in Corinth ended.
776 The era of the Olympiads begin.
760 The Ephori established at Sparta.
758 Syracuse built by Archias of Corinth.
754. The government of Athens changed to a republic.
748 Rome built by Romulus, which gives rise to a new aera.
747 The era of Nabonassar commenced on the 1st day of Thoth, or the
26th of February. 3.
746 The government of Athens changed into a republic.
743. The first war between the Messenians and Spartans.
724 Mycenae reduced by the Spartans.
723. A colony of the Messenians settled at Regium.
720 Samaria taken; the kingdom of Israel ended, and the ten tribes car-
ried captive by Salmaneser.
718 Gela in Sicily built.
703 Corcyra built by the Corinthians.
685 The second Messenian war under Aristomenes.
670 Byzantium built by a colony of Athenians.
666 The city of Alba destroyed.
WHILE the Eastern nations, during this and the former period were
weakening and destroying each other, the foundations of very formid-
able empires were laid in the West. The Grecian states became more
civilized, and their history becomes less obscure. The institution, or
rather the revival and continuance of the Olympic games, in 776,
B.C. also greatly facilitated the writing not only of their history, but
that of other nations; for as each Olympiad consisted of four years,
the chronology of every important event became indubitably fixed by
referring it to such and such an Olympiad. In 748, B.C. or the last
- 3. of the 17th Olympiad, the foundation of Rome was laid by Ro-
IIlullûS. >
In this period we have six classes, viz. Government, Religion, Phi-
losophy, Poetry, Music, Painting, Architecture, and Sculpture.

B. C. 821.] FROM JEROBOAM II, TO JOSIAH. 171.
GO W E R N M ENT.
Under this head will be placed all characters in any way connected
with government. As it is not desirous to multiply the divisions un-
necessarily, miscellaneous characters, such as cannot well be included
under the other general heads, will also be placed in this class.
JEROBOAM II, king of Israel, was son of Jehoash, and
succeeded his father in the year B. C. 821. He reigned forty-
one years. He walked in the ways of Jeroboam, the son of
Nebat. 2 Kings xiv. 23. Yet, he restored the kingdom of
Israel to its splendour, from which it had fallen under his pre-
decessors; he re-conquered those provinces and cities which
the kings of Syria had usurped; and he extended his authority
over all the countries on the other side Jordan, to the Dead
Sea. N.
Under Jeroboam II., the prophet Hosea, Amos, and Jonah,
rophesied. It is evident from their writings, that in his reign,
idleness, effeminacy, magnificence, and injustice corrupted Is-
rael; that the licentiousness of the people with regard to reli-
§ was extreme; that they frequented not only Dan and
Bethel, the golden calves, but Mizpah in Gilead, Beersheba,
Tabor, Carmel, Gilgal, and almost all the high places in Israel,
and wherever God had, at any time, appeared to the Patri-
archs. They did not always worship the idols there; but they
exposed themselves to disorders, by frequenting assemblies of
so much hilarity, gaiety, and pleasure. .
BENHADAD. III., the son of Hazael, king of Syria, was
contemporary with Joash and Jeroboam II. kings of Israel, who
repeatedly defeated him in various pitched battles, and forced
him to restore what the tyrants who preceded him had taken
from the Israelites; as recorded in 2 Kings xii. xiv.
AZARIAH, or UZZIAH, king of Judah, began to reign
at sixteen years of age, and reigned fifty-two years at Jerusa-
lem. . 2 Kings xv. His mother's name was Jecholiah. He
did right in the sight of the Lord, but did not destroy the high
places. This prince, who is called Uzziah, 2 Chron. xxvi. 16,
17, presuming to offer incense in the temple, an office peculiar
to the priests, was struck with a leprosy, and continued with-
out the city, separated, to his death. Josephus says, that on
this occasion a great earthquake was felt; that the temple
opened at the top, and a ray of light darted on the forehead of
the king, who was instantly struck with a leprosy. He adds,
that the earthquake was so violent, as to divide the mountain
west of Jerusalem, and the earth moving along a
a space of four


172 UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY, [B.C. 761,
furlongs, (500 spaces) till it met the mountain east of the city,
closed up the high way, and covered the king's gardens. We
know, indeed, that there was a great earthquake in the reign
of Uzziah; it is expressly mentioned in Amos, (i. 1.) Zechariah,
(xiv. 5.) Kings, and Chronicles. . But that it happened at the
very time when Uzziah presumed to offer incense, is very un-
certain. The beginning of Uzziah's reign was very happy; and
he obtained great advantage over the Philistines, Ammonites,
and Arabians. He added to the fortifications of Jerusalem,
and had an army of 307,500 men, with great magazines of
arms for attack or defence. He was a great lover of agricul-
ture, and employed numerous husbandmen in the plains, vine
dressers in the mountains, and shepherds in the vallies. He
died in the year of the world 3246, and before the Christian
era 758. As he was a leper, he was not buried in the royal
sepulchres, but in an adjacent field.
ZACHARIAH, king of Israel, succeeded his father Jero-
boam II., in the year B. C. 758. He reigned but six months,
and did evil in the sight of the Lord, 2 Kings xiv. 29.
Shallum, the son of Jabesh, conspired against him, killed
him in public, and reigned in his stead. Thus was fulfilled
what the Lord had foretold to Jehu, that his children should
sit on the throne of Israel to the fourth generation, 2 Kings
xv. 8–11. . ~
MANAHEM, or MENAHEM, was the sixteenth king of
Israel, and son of Gadi. He revenged the death of his master
Zachariah, by that of Shallum, son of Jabesh, who usurped
the crown of Israel, in the year of the world 3232, 2 Kings
xv. 18, &c. Manahem, general of the army of Zachariah, was
at Tirzah when he received the news of his master's death. He
immediately marched against Shallum, who had shut himself
up in Samaria, slew him, and reigned in his stead. He re-
turned to Tirzah, but that city shutting its gates against him,
he vented his passion on Tipshah, a town in the neighbour-
hood of Tirzah, and probably a sharer in its revolution. After-
wards he took Tirzah, ruined it entirely, and exercised many
barbarities in it. He reigned in Samaria ten years, and did
evil in the sight of the Lord. ... § 3. . ; .
PHUL, or PUL, king of Syria; a renowned warrior. He
invaded Israel in the reign of Manahem, who became tributary
to him, and paid him 1000 talents of silver as the price of a
eace. . . 2. 3
PEKAHIAH, son and successor of Manahem, king of Is-
2 Kings xv. 22, 23, in the year B.C. 761, reigned only
ars. He did evil before the Lord, and followed the
of Jeroboam, the son of Nebat, who made Israel to sin.
h, the son of Remaliah, conspired against him, and slew
n in his own palace.
*









B, C, 742.] FROM JEROBOAM II. T0 JOSIAH. 173
PEKAH, son of Remaliah, was general of the army of Pe-
kahiah, king of Israel. He conspired against his master, 2
Kings xv. 25, in the year B.C. 759; attacked him in the tower
of his royal palace of Samaria; and being seconded by Argob
and Arieh, and by fifty men of Gilead, he slew him, and reigned
in his place twenty years. Perhaps Argob and Arieh may
here signify the cities of Argob and Areopolis, beyond Jordan,
which were parties in the conspiracy of Pekah. Pekah did
• evil before the Lord, and followed the wicked example of Je-
roboam, the son of Nebat, who made Israel to sin. Under
the reign of Pekah, came Tiglath-pileser, king of Assyria,
into the country of Israel, and took ljon, Abel-beth-maachah,
Janoah, Kedesh, Hazor, Gilead, and all the country of Naph-
tali, and carried away all the inhabitants into Assyria. At
last Hoshea, son of Elah, formed a conspiracy against Pekah,
slew him, and reigned in his stead. .
JOTHAM, son and successor of Uzziah, otherwise Azariah,
king of Judah. Azariah having been smitten with a leprosy
for attempting to offer incense, 2 Chron. xxvi. 16, 17, &c. the
government was committed to Jotham, his son, in the year
B. C. 783. He governed twenty-five years; he then assumed
the title of king, and reigned alone till the year B. C. 742.
Hence it appears that he governed Judah forty-one years;
sixteen alone, and twenty-five during the life of his father. He
did right in the sight of the Lord, and imitated the piety of his
father Uzziah. Yet he did not destroy the high places. He
built the great gate of the temple, and other works on the walls
of Jerusalem, in Ophel. He caused forts and castles to be
erected upon the mountains, and in the forests of Judah. The
Ammonites, who had been brought into subjection by Uzziah
his father, having shown an inclination to revolt, he defeated
them, and imposed on them a tribute of a hundred talents of
silver, and ten thousand measures of wheat, with as many of
barley. Towards the end of his reign, the Lord sent against
him Rezin, king of Syria, and Pekah, king of Israel. It ap-
pears from Isaiah i. 1, 2, 3, 4, that the land of Judah was in a
very melancholy condition in the beginning of the reign of
Ahaz, the son and successor of Jotham. .
AHAZ, the son of Jotham, king of Judah, succeeded his
father, B. C. 742, and during his short reign of sixteen years,
proved to be one of the worst princes that had reigned in that
state, from the first conversion of the commonwealth into a
monarchy. He not only imitated the neighbouring monarchs
in their idolatrous worship, but had the barbarity to copy the
very worst part of it, by sacrificing his son to Moloch, by fire.
The various judgments that followed his thus establishing ido-
latry, and abolishing the true religion; the repeated invasi ins
of his kingdom, by Pekah, king of Israel, and Rezin, king of
§ º



174 |B.C. 743.
Syri slaughter of 120,000 of his men in one
day, the capture of 200,000 men, women, and children, by
these tyrants; with the restoration at the request of the pro-
phet Oded; the ravages committed by the Edomites and Phi-
listines; his bribing Tiglath-pileser with the gold of the temple
to assist him against them, the consequent death of Rezin and
the destruction of his kingdom, with the other particulars of
his unfortunate and infatuated reign, and his death, B.C. 726,
are recorded in 2 Kings xv. and xvi. 2 Chron. xxvii. and Isaiah
VII. 3.
ABIJAH, was the name of the wife of Ahaz, the mother of
Hezekiah, king of Judah. She was the daughter of Zechariah,
and was thought by some to be the person who was killed by
the command of Joash, between the temple and the altar. 2
Chron. xxiv. 21. .
TIGLATH-PILESER, or TIGLATH-PILNESER, king
of Assyria, was son and successor of Sardanapalus; he began
to reign at Nineveh, in the year B.C. 747. 1 Chron. v. 6; 2
Kings xv. 29; xvi. 10. He restored the kingdom of Assyria,
after the dismembering it by Belesis and Arbaces.
Ahaz, king of Judah, finding himself pressed by Rezin,
king of Syria, and Pekah, king of Israel, and º to op-
pose them, sent ambassadors to Tiglath-pileser, to desire his
assistance against these kings. 2 Kings xvii. 7–9, &c. At
the same time he sent him all the gold and silver found in the
treasuries of the temple, and of the palace. Tiglath-pileser
marched against Rezin, slew him, plundered Damascus, and
transported the inhabitants to places on the river Cyrus. Ahaz
went to meet this prince at Damascus, 2 Chron. xxviii. 20, 21.
Tiglath-pileser was not satisfied with the presents of Ahaz,
but entered Judea, where he found no opposition, and ravaged
the whole country. . .
He did the same in Samaria, carried away the tribes of Reu-
ben and Gad, and the half tribe of Manasseh, and transplanted
them to Halah, Habor, and Hara, upon the river Gozan. 1
Chron. v. 26. He took also the cities Ijon, Abel-bethma-
achah, Janoah, Kedesh, Hazor, Galilee, and the countries of
Gilead, and Naphtali, and carried away the inhabitants into
Assyria. 2 Kings xv. 29. Tiglath-pileser reigned nineteen
years at Nineveh; he died in the year B.C. 728. His succes-
sor was his son Salmaneser. .
REZIN, or RASIN, king of Syria, agreed with Pekah,
on of Remaliah, king of Israel, to invade Ahaz, king of Ju.
n. xxviii. 5–7. The
rusalem; but not being
















B.C. 726.] from JeroboAM II. To Josiah. z 175
took the army and the country of Ahaz. After this they
separated their armies; and that of Rezin plundered every
where, and carried away captives to Damascus.
. About the same time, Rezin took Elath on the Red Sea; he
drove out the Jews, and settled the Idumeans in their room,
who, probably, had engaged him to undertake this war. -
Ahaz finding himself not strong enough to withstand Rezin
and Pekah, applied to Tiglath-pileser, king of Assyria, and
with a very large sum of money bought his assistance. Tiglath-
Sileser marched against Damascus, took the city, and slew
}. he also carried away his people to Kir, probably the
river Cyrus in Iberia. 2 Kings xvi. 9.
HOSEA, or HOSHEA, son of Elah, was the last king of
Israel. Having conspired against Pekah, son of Remaliah,
king of Israel, he slew him, in the year of the world 3265,
and before Jesus Christ 739. However, the elders of the land
seem to have taken the government into their hands; for Hoshea
was not in possession of the kingdom till nine years after, 2
Kings xv. 30. xvii. 1. Hoshea did evil in the sight of the
Lord, but not equal to the kings of Israel who preceded him;
that is, say the Jewish doctors, he did not restrain his subjects
from going to Jerusalem to worship, if they desired; whereas
the kings of Israel, his predecessors, had forbidden it, and had
placed guards on the road to prevent it. 3 & " ":: º3
Sälmaneser, king of Assyria, being informed that Hoshea
meditated a revolt, and had concerted measures with Io, king
of Egypt, to shake off the Assyrian yoke, marched against
him, and besieged Samaria. After a siege of three years, in
the ninth year of Hoshea's reign, the city was taken, and was
%
reduced to a heap of ruins, in the year of the world 3282. The
king of Assyria removed the Israelites of the ten tribes to coun-
tries beyond the Euphrates.
SALMANESER, or SALMANEZER, the son of Tig-
lath-pileser, king of Assyria, succeeded his father, B.C. 728.
He took Samaria, put an end to the kingdom of Israel, and
carried the Israelites into captivity, B.C. 720. He was after-
wards defeated by the Tyrians, and died about B. C. 714. He
was succeeded by his son Sennacherib. . . 3 ::3%
HEZEKIAH, or EZEKIAS, one of the best kings of Ju-
dah, succeeded his father Ahaz, B.C. 726. His reformation
of his subjects from idolatry; his grand and solemn celebration
of the passover; his invitation to the Israelites to assist in it;
his throwing off the Assyrian yoke; his miraculous deliverance
from the invasion by Sennacherib, after the blasphemous de-
fiance of Rabshakeh; his mortal disease, prophetic prayer,
and miraculous recovery, with the fatal consequences of his va-
#
nity after it, are recorded in 2 Kings xviii. xx. 2 Chron: xxix.
xxxii. and Isaiah xxxv, xxxix. He collected a part of Solo.







mon's Proverbs, See Prov. xxvi. Upon the miraculous re-
trogression of the shadow of Ahaz's dial, we need say little.
Those who doubt the existence of a Deity, or deny his power
over the material world, will not be convinced by any argu-
ments. But those who believe that the Almighty, when he
gave existence to matter, and subjected it to certain laws, did
not thereby limit his own infinite power, will not think it more
incredible, that he who created light by his word, should invert
the shadow of the gnomon, so as to make it appear to have gone
ten degrees backward, than that a watch-maker should turn
back the hour or minute hand of a clock in a direction contrary
to the natural motion which he himself has given it. How this
was done, whether by a momentary retrograde motion given to
the terrestrial globe, or only by an inversion of the usual mo-
tion of the solar rays upon the gnomon, it is neither necessary
nor possible to determine. The latter supposition seems most
probable. Upon the former supposition it must have been ob-
served over one half of the globe. That it was however ob-
served by the Chaldean astronomers at Babylon, seems evident
from Merodach-Baladan's congratulatory embassy on Heze-
kiah's recovery. Hezekiah died in the 54th year of his age,
and 27th of his reign, B.C. 697. .
MERODACH-BALADAN, was son of Baladan, king of
Babylon. On rceiving information that Hezekiah, king of Ju-
dah, had been sick, and was recovered in a miraculous man-
ner, he sent ambassadors to Hezekiah with letters and presents.
The king of Judah, extremely pleased with the arrival of those
ambassadors, showed them the riches and beauties of his pa-
lace. Afterwards God sent Isaiah to inform Hezekiah that
every thing in his palace, with the sight of which he had enter-
tained these foreigners, would be carried to Babylon, 2 Kings
xx. 1, 2, &c. -
PHARAOH, king of Egypt, with whom Hezekiah made a
league against Sennacherib, king of Assyria, B.C. 714. He
is probably the same whom Herodotus names Sethon, priest of
Vulcan, who came to meet Sennacherib before Pelusium, and
to whose assistance Vulcan was believed to have sent an army
of rats, which gnawed the bowstrings and thongs of the buck-
lers of Sennacherib's soldiers. . . .
TIRHAKAH, king of Ethiopia, is of the land of Cush,
bordering on Palestine and Egypt. This prince, at the head
of a powerful army, attempted to relieve Hezekiah, then at-
tacked by Sennacherib, 2 Kings xix. 9, in the year B.C. 713.
Sennacherib was then engaged in the siege of Lachish; yet he
raised the siege, and went out to him. But the angel of the
Lord smote his army that night, and killed of them to the
Ill of 185,000 men. . It does not appear that this prince
en Tirhakah battle; his army was routed before he











B.C. 713.] FROM JEROBOAM II. TO JOSHAH. 177
came up to him. Tirhakah is called Thearchon by Strabo.
This geographer quotes Megasthenes, who related that this
prince had carried his conquests as far as Europe, and even to
the pillars of Hercules.
SENNACHERIB, king of Assyria, succeeded his father
Salmaneser, about B.C. 714. Hezekiah, king of Judah, hav-
ing refused to pay him tribute, though he afterwards submitted,
... he invaded Judaea with a great army, took several forts, and
after repeated insolent and blasphemous messages, besieged
Jerusalem; but his army was suddenly smitten with a pesti-
lence, which cut off 185,000 men in the night, he returned to
Nineveh, where he was murdered in the temple of Nisroch by
his sons Adrammelech and Sharezer, and was succeeded by his
other son, Esar-haddon. 2 Kings xviii. and xix. Herodotus
tells us, that he also attempted to invade Egypt, but was de-
feated by an army of rats. -
ESARHADDON, or ASSAR-ADDAN, the son of Sen-
macherib, and his successor in the kingdom of Assyria. He
united the kingdoms of Nineveh and Babylon; conquered Ethi-
opia and Syria; and sent a colony to Samaria. He made the
conquest of Jerusalem, and his generals took king Ma-
masseh, and carried him in chains to Babylon. He reigned
twenty-nine years at Nineveh, from A. M. 2394 to 3322; and
thirteen at Babylon, in all forty-two years. He died B. C. 668,
and was succeeded by Saosduchinus. * -
ADRAMMELECH, one of the sons of Sennacherib, king.
of Assyria, who joined with his brother Sharezer, in murdering
the superstitious old tyrant as he worshipped Nisroch, one of
his gods. If any thing can vindicate the parricide, it is the pro-
bability that they did it in self-defence, to prevent their father
from sacrificing them to his idols; a circumstance which is
rendered extremely credible by their flight immediately after-
wards to Armenia; as this proves, at least, that ambition, which
has caused so much royal, as well as plebeian blood, to flow in
all ages, had no share in the sanguinary deed.
ilºsa, was secretary under king Hezekiah. 2 Kings
xviii. 18.
RABSHAKEH, was sent by Sennacherib, king of Assyria,
to summon Hezekiah, which he did. Rabshakeh spoke to him
in a very haughty and insolent manner, and told him in Hebrew
that he ought not to put any confidence, either in the king of
Egypt, or the Lord, who had ordered Sennacherib to march
against Judea. 2 Kings xviii. 17.
After this Rabshakeh returned to his master, who had quitted
the siege of Lachish to meet the king of Egypt, then coming
to assist Hezekiah. But in this march the destroying angel
slew 185,000 of the army of Sennacherib; and he was obliged
VOL. I.

178 UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. [B. C. 821.
to hasten back to Nineveh, where he was slain by his own
sons. Isaiah xxxvii. 36, 37, &c. 2 Kings xix. 35–37.
MANASSEH, the fifteenth king of Judah, the son and
successor of Hezekiah. His acts are recorded in 2 Kings xx,
xxi. and 2 Chron. xxxiii. .
AMON, son of Manasseh, king of Judah. His wicked and
short reign of two years, with his murder of his own servants,
Kings xxi. and 2 Chron. xxxiii.
in 2
We shall now introduce the Jewish prophets, &c. of this
period, under the head of Religion.
R E L J G 1 O N.
HOSEA, the prophet, lived in the kingdom of Samaria. He
delivered his prophecies under the reign of Jeroboam II., and
his successors, kings of Israel; and under the reigns of Uzziah,
Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah, kings of Judah. His principal
design is to publish the gross idolatry of the people of Judah
and Israel, to denounce the divine vengeance against them, and
to foretel the captivity of Assyria. “His style,” says Bishop
Lowth, “exhibits the appearance of very remote antiquity; it is
pointed, energetic, and concise. It bears a distinguished mark
of poetical composition, in that pristine brevity aud condensa-
tion, which are observable in the sentences, and which later
writers have in some measure neglected.” This peculiarity has
not escaped the observations of Jerome. “He is altogether,”
says he, speaking of this prophet, “ laconic and sententious.”
URIJAH, chief priest of the Jews under Ahaz, king of
Judah. Ahaz, going to Damascus to meet Tiglath-pileser, king
of Assyria, saw there an altar, whose form pleased him so much,
that he sent a model of it to the high-priest Urijah, with orders
to set up such a one in the temple of Jerusalem, which Urijah
too well performed (2 Kings xvi. 10–12.) Ahaz also ordered
the high-priest to remove the brazen altar from before the
Lord; and on this new altar to offer the morning and evening
sacrifices, &c. reserving to himself to dispose of the great brazen
altar at his pleasure. Urijah obeyed the orders of this wicked
sing in everything, in the year B.C. 740. Urijah succeeded
Zadok the second, and was succeeded by Shallum.
ODED, a prophet of the Lord, who, being at Samaria when
Israelites returned from the war, with their king Pekah,
together with 200,000 of the people of Judah, captives, by a
seasonable admonition prevailed on the victors to restore their
captive brethren to liberty, as recorded in 2 Chron. xxviii.
JONAH, the son of Amittai, and a native of Gathhepher, a
and the vengeance taken of them by the people, are recorded














B. C. 821.] FROM JEROBOAM II, TO JOSIAH. 179
town belonging to the tribe of Zebulon, in Lower Galilee. It
is related in the book of Jonah, that he was ordered to go and
prophesy the destruction of the Ninevites; but that disobe-
diently attempting a voyage another way, he was discovered by
the rising of a sudden tempest, and cast into the sea, where he
was swallowed up by a large fish. Having lodged three days
and three nights in the belly of the fish, he was disgorged
upon the shore; whereupon, being sensible of his past danger,
and surprising deliverance, he betook himself to the journey
and embassy to which he was appointed. Arriving at Nineveh,
the metropolis of Assyria, he, according to his commission,
boldly laid open to the inhabitants their sins and miscarriages,
and proclaimed their sudden overthrow; upon which the whole
city, by prayer and fasting, and a speedy repentance, happily
averted the Divine vengeance, and escaped the threatened ruin.
Jonah, instead of admiring the Divine clemency, was indignant
under the apprehension that his veracity would be suspected,
and that he would be deemed by the people to be a false pro-
phet. Having retired from the city, he prepared for himself a
booth, over which a plant sprung up miraculously in one night,
which, by its spreading foliage, sheltered him from the burning
heat of the sun. But the plant suddenly withering away, so
that he was exposed to a suffocating wind and the sun's scorch-
ing beams, he again expressed his impatience, and his wish to
die rather than to live in such circumstances of distress. At
length, having been reproved for his impatient, querulous tem-
per, and the conduct of Providence in sparing the Ninevites,
having been justified to his full conviction, his complaints were
silenced. Of his further history we have no authentic ac-
COunts. *: : # , º, ø, º].
AMAZIAH, the priest of Bethel, under Jeroboam II, king
of Israel, and probably one of the time-serving priests, who
found his advantage in keeping up the idolatrous worship of
the golden calves, established by Jeroboam I., was an informer
against the prophet Amos, and wished either to silence or banish
him; for which a severe judgment was denounced against him
and his family, as recorded in Amos vii. 17.
AMOS, the prophet, who in his youth had been a herdsman
of Tekoa, a small town about four leagues south from Jerusa-
lem, was sent to the king of Rasban, that is, to the people of
Samaria, or the kingdom of Israel to bring them back to repen-
tance, and amendment of their lives; whence it is thought pro-
bable that he was born within the territories of Israel, and only
retired to Tekoa on his being driven from Bethel, by Amaziah
the priest of the golden calves at Bethel. Amos was called to
the prophetic office in the time of Uzziah, king of Judah, and
Jeroboam, the second king of Israel. - . . .
The time and manner of this prophet's death are riot!





N 2
180 UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. [B. c. 68%
Some old authors relate that Amaziah, priest of Bethel, pro-
voked by the discourses of the prophet, had his teeth º,
in order to silence him. Others say that Uzziah, the son of
Amaziah, struck him with a stake upon the temples, knocked
him down, and wounded him much, in which condition he was
carried to Tekoa, where he died, and was buried with his
fathers. . § {
NAHUM, the seventh of the twelve minor prophets, was a
native of Elhoshai, a little village of Galilee. The subject of
his prophecy is the destruction of Nineveh, which he describes
in the most lively and pathetic manner; his style is bold and
figurative, and can hardly be exceeded by the most perfect mas-
ters of oratory. His prophecy forms a regular and perfect
poem; the exordium is not merely magnificent, it is truly ma-
jestic; the preparations for the destruction of Nineveh, and
the description of its downfall and desolation, are expressed in
the most vivid colours, and are in the highest degree bold and
luminous. This prophecy was verified at the siege of that
city by Astyages, in the year of the world 3378, 626 years
before Christ. #
The time of Nahum's death is unknown; the Greek meno-
logies and the Latin martyrologies place his festival on the first
day of December. N.
#sº the first of the four greater prophets, was of the
royal blood, his father Amoz being brother to Uzziah, king of
Judah. The five first chapters of his prophecy relate to the
reign of Uzziah: the vision in the sixth chapter happened in
the time of Jotham; the next nine chapters to the fifteenth,
include his prophecies under Ahaz; and those that were made
under Hezekiah and Manasseh, are related in the next chapters
to the end. Isaiah foretold the deliverance of the Jews from
their captivity in Babylon by Cyrus, one hundred years before
it came to pass. But the most remarkable of his predictions
are those concerning the Messiah, which describe not only his
descent, but all the principal circumstances of his life and
death, so particularly, that he is justly styled the evangelical
prophet. His style is noble, nervous, and sublime. Grotius
calls him the Demosthenes of the Hebrews. He also wrote a
history of king Uzziah's reign, 2 Chron. xxvi. 22. which is not
extant. During the persecution under Manasseh, he was sawn
asunder, about B.C. 685. after having prophesied ninety-six
years, from the 28th of Uzziah to the 12th of Manasseh.
ZECHARIAH, the son of Barachiah, a prophet in the
reign of Uzziah, whom he encouraged in well-doing, but op-
posed when he attempted to encroach on the priest's office,
*On, XXVI. O. . . . . . . ."
MićAH, the eventh of the twelve lesser prophets. H
cited by Jeremiah, and prophesied in the days of Jotham, Ahaz,






B. C. 814.] FROM JEROBOAM II. TO JOSIAH. 181
and Hezekiah. He censures the reigning vices of Jerusalem
and Samaria, and denounces the judgments of God against both
kingdoms. He also foretels the confusion of the enemies of
the Jews, the coming of the Messiah, and the glorious success
of the church.
JOEL, the son of Pethuel, the second of the twelve minor
prophets. His style is figurative, strong, and impressive.
G O V E R N M E N T.
(continued.)
CARANUS, one of the Heraclidae; the first who laid the
foundation of the Macedonian empire, B. C. 814. He took
Edessa, and reigned twenty-eight years, which he spent in
establishing and strengthening the government of his newly
founded kingdom. He was succeeded by Perdiccas. :
CANDAULES, or MYRSILUS, son of Myrsus, was the .
last of the Heraclidae who sat on the throne of Lydia. He
exposed his wife naked to Gyges, one of his ministers; and the
queen was so incensed, that she ordered Gyges to murder her
husband, 718 years before the Christian era. After this mur-
der Gyges married the queen, and ascended the throne. .
GYGES, the minister and favourite of Candaules, king of
Lydia, rebelled against his sovereign, and having slain him,
ascended the throne in his stead. This event is placed about
B.C. 718. He made war upon the people of Miletus and
Smyrna, and conquered the whole district of Troas. He is
said to have reigned 38 years. This is the account given by
Plutarch. Gyges, by other authors, is made the subject of a
fable, which gives him the possession of a magical ring that had
the property of rendering the wearer invisible. This fact is al-
luded to by many of the best classical authors. Herodotus
gave another account of the subject. He tells us that Can-
daules exposed the naked charms of his wife to Gyges, which,
when she discovered, so enraged her, that she sent for the mi-
nister, and gave him the choice of losing his own life, or taking
away that of his sovereign, and occupying his place on the
throne and in her bed. He chose the latter, stabbed the king
in his sleep, married the queen, and took possession of the
kingdom, over which he was permitted to reign in peace after
he had procured the sanction of the Delphic oracle. .
TELECLES, or TELECLUS, a Yºun king, of
the family of the AEgidae who reigned 40 years.
ALCAMENES, one of the AEgidae, king of Sparta, known
by his apophthegms. He succeeded his father Teleclus, and
reigned 37 years. The Helots rebelled in his reign. .



182 UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. [B. c. 682.
POLYDORUS, son of Alcamenes, king of Sparta. He put
an end to a war which had lasted 20 years between his sub-
jects and the Messenians; and in his reign the Spartans plant-
ed two colonies, one at Crotoria, the other at Locri. He was
highly respected, yet was assassinated by a villian named Pole-
marchus. w -
AUTOMENES, one of the Heraclidae, king of Corinth.
At his death, B.C. 779, annual magistrates were chosen at
Corinth, which were called Prytanes; by whom the Corinthians
were governed for 90 years, till Cypselus and his son Peri-
ander assumed absolute power. #
ALCMAEON, the 13th and last perpetual archon of Athens,
died B. C. 754, after reigning only two years.
ARISTODEMUS, a king of Messenia, who maintained a
famous war against Sparta. After some losses, he recovered
his strength, and so effectually defeated the enemy's forces,
that they were obliged to prostitute their women to re-people
their country. The offspring of this prostitution were called
Partheniae, and 30 years after their birth they left Sparta, and
seized upon Tarentum. Aristodemus put his daughter to
death for the good of his country; but being afterwards perse-
cuted in a dream by her manes, he killed himself, after a reign
of six years and some months, in which he had obtained much
military glory, B. C. 724. His death was lamented by his
countrymen, who did not appoint him a successor, but only in-
vested Damis, one of his friends, with absolute power to con-
tinue the war, which was at last terminated after much blood
shed and many losses on both sides. x
ARCHIAS, a Corinthian descended from Hercules. He
founded Syracuse, B.C. 732. Being told by an oracle to
make choice of health or riches, he chose the latter.
PERDICCAS, the fourth king of Macedonia, B.C. 729,
was descended from Caranus. He increased his dominions
by conquest, and in the latter part of his life, he showed his
son Argeus where he wished to be buried, and told him, that
as long as the bones of his descendants and successors on the
throne of Macedonia were laid in the same grave, so long would
the crown remain in their family. These injuctions were ob-
. till the time of Alexander, who was buried out of Mace-
donia. . . . . ... ."
NECHO I, king of Egypt, began to reign B. C. 690, and
was killed eight years after by Sabacon, king of Ethiopia.
Psammetichus his son succeeded him, and was the father, as
Herodotus informs us, of Necho II.
ARISTOCRATES, grandson of Aristocrates, king of Ar-
cadia, was stoned to death for taking bribes, during the second
Messenian war, and being the cause of the defeat of his Mes-
semian allies, B.C. 682. -


B.C. 657.] FROM JEBOBOAM II. TO JOSIAH. 183
ARISTOMENES, a famous general of Messenia, who en-
couraged his countrymen to shake off the Lacedaemonian yoke,
under which they had laboured for about thirty years. He once
defended the virtue of some Spartan women, whom his soldiers
had attempted; and when he was taken prisoner and carried
to Sparta, the women whom he had protected interested them-
selves so warmly in his cause, that they procured his liberty.
He refused to assume the title of king, but was satisfied with
that of commander. He acquired the sirname of Just, from
his equity, to which he joined the true valour, sagacity, and
perseverance of a general. He often entered Sparta without
being known, and was so dextrous in eluding the vigilance of
the Lacedaemonians who had taken him captive, that he twice
escaped from them. As he attempted to do it a third time, he
was unfortunately killed, and his body being opened, his heart
was found all covered with hair. He died B. C. 671. It is
said that he was author of some dramatic peices.
THEOPOMPUS, a king of Sparta, of the family of the
Proclidae, who succeeded his father Nicander, and distinguish-
ed himself by the many regulations he introduced. He created
the Ephori, and died after a long and peaceful reign, B.C. 723.
While he sat on the throne, the Spartans made war against
Messenia. .
DEJOCES, the first king of the Medes, raised to that
honour from the rank of citizen, on account of his zeal in the
administration of justice and equity among his countrymen.
His influence as a private man was so great, that when he
ceased to act, anarchy and confusion seemed always and
immediately to prevail; he was, in consequence of this, chosen
sovereign about the year B. C. 709. He soon obtained
all the honours attaching to that rank in life, and did not fail
to magnify the importance of his situation; and to excite in the
minds of his subjects an awe of his person, he would not suffer
himself to be seen by any but those of his immediate house-
hold. He transacted all his business through the medium of
servants and ministers. By these means, and by employing a
multitude of spies in all parts of his dominions, he established
a perfect despotism, which he administered with judgment,
and with some degree of severity. Prideaux and Usher sup-
pose this prince to be the Arphaxad mentioned in the book
of Judith, as Arphaxad is said to be that king of Media,
who was the founder of Ecbatana. Calmet however main-
tains that Arphaxad is the same with Phraortes, the son of this
king. Dejoces reigned fifty-three years, and at his death was
succeeded by his son Phraortes.
PHRAORTES, the son of Dejoces, and the second king
of the Medes, succeeded his j. about B. C. 657, and




reigned twenty-two years. He was killed in a fruitless attempt
184 UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY, 3% [B. c.657.
on Nineveh, and was succeeded by his son Cyaxares I. Hero-
dotus informs us, that Phraortes first subdued the Persians,
and afterwards almost all Asia; but at last coming to attack
Nineveh and the Assyrian empire, he was killed in the twenty-
second year of his reign. If this be the Arphaxad of the
book of Judith, he built Ecbatana; and was defeated in the
plains of Ragan, which were probably about the city of Rages,
in Media. . .
CYPSELUS, a man of Corinth, son of Eetion, and father
of Periander. He destroyed the Bacchiadae, and seized upon
the sovereign power about 659 years before Christ. He reign-
ed thirty years, and was succeeded by his son.
PSAMMETICHUS, a king of Egypt, was the son of Ecus,
who was put to death by Sabbaco on the conquest of Egypt.
He avoided his father's fate by flying into Syria; and after the
death of king Sethen, was one of the twelve lords who assum-
ed the government of the country, and divided it between them.
This part was the sea coast, which being the least valuable, he
was induced to cultivate commerce with the Phoenicians, Greeks,
and other nations, by which he acquired wealth and foreign
connections. His prosperity excited the envy of his colleagues,
who made war upon him, but by the assistance of foreign
mercenaries or allies, he proved superior to, and finally sub-
dued them, and then made himself sole monarch of Egypt.
This event is dated B. C. 670. He rewarded his allies with
lands upon the Nile, and from this era a Grecian colony sub-
sisted in Egypt, which maintained an intercourse with their
countrymen, and rendered the transactions of that kingdom
a part of genuine history. Psammetichus carried on war in
Syria, where he beseiged the city of Azotus, which resisted
his arms for the space of twenty-nine years. The preference
which he gave to foreign soldiers caused a defection of a great
body of his own subjects, who marched away into the con-
fines of Ethiopia, where they formed a settlement. To repair
this loss, he attended still more assiduously to the advancement
of commerce, and opened his ports to all strangers. He also
renewed his alliances with the Athenians and other Greeks.
After a long and prosperous reign of fifty-four years Psamme-
tichus died, and was interred in the temple of Bubastis at Sais.
He was founder of several magnificent edifices, and is said to
have introduced the culture of the vine in Egypt, and to have
sent an expedition for discovering the sources of the Nile.
NEBUCHADNEZZAR, NEBUCHADRESOR, NE-
BUCHADONOSOR, &c. king of Assyria, otherwise called
Saosduchinus, began to reign at Nineveh in the year B. C.
369. In the twelfth year of his reign, in a set battle he over-
came Arp haxad, king of the Medes, in the plains of Ragan,





B.C. 657.] . FROM JEROBOAM II, TO JOSHAH. 185
Nebuchadnezzer sent to Cilicia, Damascus, Mount Libanus,
Phoenicia, Judaea, and the other nations adjoining, even to
Ethiopia, to require them to acknowledge him as king, and to
submit to his empire. But these people sent back his ambas-
sadors with disdain, and slighted his menaces. Nebuchad-
mezzar, enraged, swore by his throne that he would be re-
venged; and in the thirteenth year of his reign he assembled
his chief officers, and acquainted them with his resolution of
bringing the whole earth under his own government. He ap-
pointed Holofernes his generalissimo, gave him his instructions,
put large sums of money in his hands, and sent him with a
reat army to reduce all those nations. w
HOLOFERNES, a lieutenant-general of the armies of Ne-
buchadonosor, king of Assyria, who, having in a remarkable
encounter overcome Arphaxad king of the Medes, sent to all
the neighbouring nations requesting them to submit to his em-
pire, and pretending that there was no power capable of re-
sisting him. At the same time he passed the Euphrates, at
the head of a powerful army, entered Cilicia and Syria, and
subdued almost all those provinces. Being resolved to con-
quer Egypt, he advanced towards Judea, little expecting any
resistance from the Jews. But he was soon informed that they
were preparing to oppose him. See the next articles, Achior
and Judith. r .
ACHIOR was the name of the general of the Ammonites,
who, in the expedition of Holofernes into Egypt, joined that
commander's army with the auxiliary troops of his country.
The inhabitants of Bethulia having shut their gates against
Holofernes, and refused to execute his orders, he called the
princes of Moab, and the commanders of the Ammonites, and
in a great passion demanded of them who these people were
that opposed his passage, for he thought the Moabites and
Ammonites, who were neighbours to the Hebrews, could best
inform him of the truth. Then Achior, general of the Am-
monites, answered, “ My lord, these people were originally of
Chaldea; their ancestors dwelt first in Mesopotamia; and be-
cause they would not worship the gods of the Chaldeans, they
were obliged to leave their country and settle in the land which
they at present possess.” He continued to relate to him Jacob's
descent into Egypt; the miracles wrought by Moses for the
deliverance of the Israelites; and their conquest of the land of
Canaan. Lastly, he told him, that this people had been al-
ways invincible, and as long as they continued faithful to God,
were visibly protected by him, but that as soon as they showed
any infidelity, God never failed to punish them. Now, there-
fore, he added, learn whether these people have committed any
fault against their God; if they have, attack them, for he will


186 UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. [B.C. 657.
deliver them into your hands; but if they have not, we shall
not be able to conquer them, because God will undertake their
defence, and cover us with confusion. Judith v. 2, 3, &c.
On hearing these words, the great men of Holofermes's army
were inclined to kill Achior. Holofernes himself was trans-
ported with fury, and said to him, “Since you have undertaken
the office of a prophet, and have told us that the God of
Israel would be the defender of his people, to prove to you that
there is no other god besides Nebuchadomosor, my master,
after we shall have destroyed all these people with the edge of
the sword, we will also kill you ; and you shall understand, that
Nebuchadonosor is lord of all the earth. That you yourself
may experience the vanity of your own prophecy, I will cause
you to be carried to Bethulia, where you shall undergo the same
dangers with this people whom you consider as invincible.”
They carried him, therefore, through the hill countries, till
they were pretty near the city, when they tied his hands be-
hind him, and fastened him to a tree, that the people of Be-
thulia, who had come out against him, might take him, and
carry him into the city. In the midst of the elders, and in a
full assembly of the people of Bethulia, Achior declared to
them what he had said, and what had befallen him. Then all
the people of the city bowed their heads to the ground, and
with great cries begged God's assistance, beseeching him to
vindicate the honour of his name, and to humble the pride of
their eneimes. After this, they comforted Achior; and Ozias,
one of the leader's of the people, received him into his house,
and entertained him splendidly. Judith vi. 2, 3, &c. -
Achior continued in Bethulia as long as the siege lasted; but
when God had delivered Holofermes into the hands of Judith,
and she was returning to the city with his head, Achior was
called. Seeing the head of Holofernes, he was so terrified
that he fell with his face to the ground, and his spirits failed
him; but recovering soon after, he abandoned the superstitions
of the heathens, believed in God, was circumcised, and re-
ceived into the number of the Israelites. .
JUDITH, of the tribe of Reuben, daughter of Merari, and
widow of Manasseh, was celebrated for the deliverance of
Bethulia, besieged by Holofermes. Judith, after she became a
widow, made a private chamber for herself on the top of her
house, where she remained shut up with the young woman
who attended her. She was of uncommon beauty, and great
riches, and was much esteemed. Being informed that Ozias,
who was the chief of Bethulia, had promised to deliver it up
within º: to Holofernes, she sent for Chabris and Carmis,
sile
people, and said to them, “Who are you that have
5d this day?” She added, “I am resolved to depart






B.C. 657.] From JERoBoAM II. to Josiah. 187

this night out of the city with my maid servant; you shall stand
at the city gate, and let me go, without enquiring my design,
and some days hence I will return.” Judith after this prayed,
dressed herself in her best attire, and pretending to have fled
from the city, went over to the camp of Holofermes. When
that general saw her he was captivated; and his officers said,
certainly the Hebrews are not so contemptible a people, since
they have such beautiful women. Judith fell prostrate at the
feet of Holofernes, who, ordering her to be raised, said, “Be
of good courage, and fear not, for I never did any prejudice to
any one who was willing to submit to Nebuchadonosor. Judith
continued with Holofermes, but had the liberty of going out of
the camp every might. On the fourth day, Holofernes sent
Bagoas, his eunuch, to invite her to pass the night with him.
Judith went decked with all her ornaments. She eat and drank,
not at Holofernes's table, but what her maid had prepared for
her; and Holofernes was so transported with joy at the sight
of her, that he drank more wine than he had ever done at any
entertainment in his life. Evening being come, his servants re-
tired, and Bagoas shut the chamber doors, and departed.
Judith was left there with her maid, and Holofernes, through
excess of wine, slept very soundly. Judith, therefore, ap-
pointed her maid to stand without and watch. Then having
put up her prayer to God, she took down Holofernes's sabre
which hung on a pillar at his bed's head, and having drawn it
out of the scabbard, she seized him by the hair of his head,
and said, Strengthen me this day, O Lord. Then she struck
him twice upon the neck, cut off his head, wrapped him up in
the curtains of the bed, gave Holofermes's head to her maid,
and directed her to put it in her bag. After this they both
went out of the camp, according to their custom. Judith and
her maid returned to Bethulia, and displaying the head of
Holofernes over the walls of the city, struck his army with dis-
may. Their consequent defeat was extraordinary, and the
whole country was enriched with their spoils. The high-priest
Joachim, came from Jerusalem to Bethulia, to compliment
Judith. Every thing which they thought belonged to Holo-
fermes they gathered together; his clothes, gold, silver and pre-
cious stones, and gave them to Judith, who sung a hymn to the
honour of God, and taking the arms of Holofermes, and the
curtain of his bed, consecrated all of them to the Lord. After
having lived an hundred and five years at Bethulia, and made
her maid free, she died, and was buried with her husband at
Bethulia; and all the people lamented her seven days.
HAMLET, a prince of Denmark, whose history has been
rendered interesting, by being the subject of one of the noblest
tragedies of Shakspeare. Adjoining to a royal palace, which



8
188 . UNIVERSAL Biography, [B.C. 657.
stands about half a mile from Cronburg in Elsineur, is a garden,
which Mr. Coxe informs us, is called Hamlet's Garden, and is
said to be the spot where his father was murdered. The house
is of modern date, and is situated at the foot of a sandy ridge
near the sea. The garden occupies the side of the hill, and is
laid out in terraces rising above each other. The original
history, from which the poet derived the principal incident of
his play, is founded upon facts, but so deeply buried in remote
antiquity, that it is difficult to discriminate truth from fable.
Saxo Grammaticus, who flourished in the twelfth century, is
the earliest historian of Denmark, who relates the adventures
of Hamlet. His account is much altered by Belleforest, a
French author, a translation of whose romance was published
under the title of the History of Hamlet, from which Shaks-
peare formed the ground-work of his play. The following short
sketch of Hamlet's history is recorded in the Danish annals.
Long before the introduction of Christianity into Denmark,
Horwendillus, king of Jutland, was married to Gertrude, daugh-
ter of Ruric, king of Denmark, by whom he had a son ..i.
Amletus, or Hamlet. Fengo murders his brother Horwendil-
lus, marries Gertrude, and ascends the throne. Hamlet, to
avoid his uncle's jealousy, counterfeits insanity, but is such an
abhorrer of falsehood, that though he constantly frames the
most evasive and even absurd answers, yet he artfully contrives
never to deviate from truth. Fengo suspecting the reality of
his madness, endeavours by various methods to discover the
real state of his mind. Among others, he places a young woman
in his way, upon which Shakspeare's Ophelia is grounded. At
last Fengo departs from Elsineur, concerts a meeting between
Hamlet and Gertrude, concluding that the former would not
conceal his sentiments from his own mother; and orders a cour-
tier to conceal himself, unknown to both, to overhear their
conversation. The courtier repairs to the queen's apartment,
and hides himself under a heap of straw. Hamlet, upon enter-
ing the cabinet, suspecting the presence of some spy, imitates,
after his usual affectation of folly, the crowing of a cock, and
shaking his arms like wings, jumps upon the heap of straw;
till feeling the courtier, he draws his sword and instantly des-
patches him. He then cuts the body to pieces, boils it, and
gives it to the hogs. He then avows to his mother that he only
personated a fool, reproaches her for herincestuous marriage with
the murderer of her husband; and concludes his remonstrances
by saying, “Instead, therefore, of condoling my insanity, de-
lore your own infamy, and the deformity of your own mind.”
The queenissilent, but is recalled to virtue by these admonitions.
Fengoreturns to Elsineur, sends Hamlet to England under the
care of two courtiers, and requests the king, by a letter, to put
him to death. Hamlet discovers and alters the letter; so that



B.C. 657.] FROM JEROBOAM II. To Josiah
upon their arrival in England, the king orders the two courtiers
to immediate execution, and betroths his daughter to Hamlet,
who gives astonishing proofs of a most transcendant under-
standing. At the end of the year he returns to Denmark, and
alarms the court by his unexpected appearance; as a .
of nis death had been spread, and preparations were making
for his funeral. Re-assuming his affected insanity, he purposely
wounds his fingers in drawing his sword, which the by-standers
immediately fasten to its scabbard. He afterwards invites
the principal nobles to an entertainment, makes them intoxi-
cated, and in that state covers them with a large curtain, which
he fastens to the ground with wooden pegs; he then sets fire
to the palace, and the nobles, being enveloped in the curtain,
perish in the flames. During this transaction he repairs to
Fengo's apartment, and taking the sword which lay by the side
of his bed, puts his own in its place; he instantly awakes him,
and informs him that Hamlet is come to revenge the murder of
his father. Fengo starts from his bed, seizes the sword; but,
being unable to draw it, falls by the hand of Hamlet. The
next morning, when the populace were assembled to view the
ruins of the palace, Hamlet summonses the remaining nobles;
and in a masterly speech, lays open the motives of his own
conduct, and proves his uncle to have been the assassin of his
father. This speech had the desired effect; the greater part
of the assembly shed tears, and all present unanimously pro-
claimed him king, amid repeated acclamations. Hamlet soon
after this sails to England, and orders a shield to be made, on
which the principal actions of his life are represented. The
king receives him with a feigned joy, falsely assures him that
his daughter is dead, and advises him to repair to Scotland as
his ambassador, and to pay his addresses to the queen Her-
metrudd. He gives this insidious advice, in the hopes that
Hamlet may perish in the attempt; as the queen, who was
remarkable for her chastity and cruelty, had such an aversion
- to all proposals of marriage, that not one of her suitors had
escaped falling a sacrifice to her vengeance. Hamlet, in oppo-
sition to all difficulties, performs the embassy; and, by the as-
sistance of his shield, which inspires the lady with a favourable
opinion of his wisdom and courage, obtains her in marriage,
and returns with her to England. Informed by the princess
to whom he had been betrothed, that her father meditates his
assassination, Hamlet avoids his fate by wearing armour under
his robe; puts to death the king of England; and sails to Den-
mark with his two wives, where he is afterwards killed in a
combat with Vigletus, the son of Ruric This Ruric, whom
Alstedius calls Roricus, is ranked by him as the fourteenth
king of Denmark from Dan, who, he says, flourished B.C.
1050. N.


Ro M. E.
We have now arrived at a remarkable event in the history of
the world, which is the first founding of Rome.
NUMITOR, son of Procas, king of Alba, and the bro-
ther of Amulius. Procas, before his death, made his two sons
joint heirs to the crown; but Amulius, on getting possession
of the throne, excluded Numitor, whose son Lansus he put to
death, and obliged Ilia, or Rhea Sylvia, Numitor's only daugh-
ter, to become a vestal. This princess becoming pregnant, de-
clared that she was with child by the god Mars; and after-
wards brought forth Remus and Romulus, who at length killed
Amulius, and restored Numitor to the throne, B.C. 754.
ARCA LAURENTIA, was the wife of Faustulus the shep-
herd, and nurse to Remus and Romulus. The Romans made
her a goddess, and devoted a holiday to her service. .
ROMULUS, and REMUS, twin brothers. These tw
children were thrown into the Tiber by order of Amulius, who
usurped the crown of his brother Numitor, king of Alba. Nu-
mitor was grandfather to the twins. The children were found
and preserved by Faustulus, one of the king's shepherds, who
educated them as his own children. When they grew up and
were informed of their real origin, they put Amulius to death,
and restored the crown to their grandfather Numitor. They
afterwards undertook to build a city, and to determine which
of the two brothers should have the management of it, they
had recourse to omens and the flight of birds. Remus
saw first a flight of six vultures, and soon after, Romulus,
twelve; and therefore, as his number was greater, he began to
lay the foundations of the city, hoping that it would become a
warlike and powerful nation, as the birds from which he had
received the omen were fond of prey and slaughter. Romulus
marked with a furrow the place where he wished to erect
the walls; but their slenderness was ridiculed by Remus, who
leaped over them with the greatest contempt. This irritat-
ed Romulus, and Remus was immediately put to death.
When the walls were built, the city was without inhabitants;
but Romulus, by making an asylum of a sacred grove, soon
collected a multitude of fugitives, foreigners and criminals,
whom he received as his lawful subjects. They were how-
:ver despised by the neighbouring inhabitants, and none were
ng to form matrimonial connections with them. But Ro-
mulus obtained by force what was denied to his petitions. The
Romans celebrated games in honour of the god Consus, and
3rcibly carried away all the females who had assembled there
to be spectators of these unusual exhibitions. These violent









B. C. 748.j FROM JEROBOAM II. To JOSIAH. 191
measures offended the neighbouring nations; they made war
against the ravishers with various success, till at last they en-
tered Rome, which had been betrayed to them by one of the
stolen virgins. A violent engagement was begun in the middle
of the Roman forum; but the Sabines were conquered, or, ac-
cording to Ovid, the two enemies laid down their arms, when
the women had rushed between the two armies, and by their
tears and entreaties raised compassion in the bosoms of their
parents and husbands. The Sabines left their original posses-
sions, and came to live in Rome, where Tatius, their king,
shared the sovereign power with Romulus. The introduction
of the Sabines into the city of Rome was attended with the most
salutary consequences, and the Romans, by pursuing this plan,
and admitting the conquered nations among their citizens, rem-
dered themselves more powerful and more formidable. After-
wards Romulus divided the lands which he had obtained by
conquest; one part was reserved for religious uses, to erect
temples, and to consecrate altars; the other was appropriated
for the expences of the state; and the third part was equally
distributed among his subjects, who were divided into three
classes or tribes. The most aged and experienced, to the num-
ber of 100, were also chosen, whom the monarch might consult
in matters of the highest importance, and from their age they
were called senators, and from their authority patres. The whole
body of the people was also distinguished by the name of patri-
cians and plebeians, patron and client, who by mutual interest
were induced to preserve the peace of the state, and to promote
the public good. Some time after Romulus disappeared as he
was giving instructions to the senators, and the eclipse of the
sun, which happened at that time, was favourable to the rumour
which asserted that the king had been taken up into heaven,
B.C. 714, after a reign of thirty-nine years. This was further
confirmed by J. Proculus, one of the senators, who solemnly
declared, that as he returned from Alba, he had seen Romulus
in a form above human, and that he had directed him to tell
the Romans to pay him divine honours, under the name of Qui-
rinus, and to assure them that their city was doomed one day
to become the capital of the world. This report was immedi-
ately credited, and the more so, as the senators dreaded the
resentment of the people, who suspected them of having of-
fered him violence. A temple was raised to him, and a regular
priest, called Flamen Quirinalis, was appointed to offer him
sacrifices. Romulus was ranked by the Romans among the
twelve great gods, and it is not to be wondered that he received
such distinguished honours, when the Romans considered him
as the founder of their city and empire, and the son of the god
of war. He is generally represented like his father, so much
that it is difficult to distinguish them. The fable of the two chil-


192 UNIVERSAL biography. [B.C. 715,
dren of Rhea Sylvia, being nourished by a she-wolf, arose from
Lupa, Faustulus's wife, having brought them up. . . . . . º.
HERSILIA, the wife of Romulus, the first king of Rome.
After her death, she was deified, and worshipped under the
names of Horta and Orta. . -
TITUS, TATIUS, king of Cures among the Sabines, made
war against the Romans after the rape of the Sabines. The
gates of the city were betrayed into his hands by Tarpeia, and
the army of the Sabines advanced as far as the Roman forum,
where a bloody battle was fought. The cries of the Sabine
virgins at last stopped the fury of the combatants, and an agree-
ment was made between the two nations. Tatius consented to
leave his ancient possessions, and with his subjects, the inha-
bitants of Cures, to come and live in Rome. He shared the
2 royal authority with Romulus, and lived in the greatest union.
He was murdered about six years after, at Lanuvion, B.C. 742,
for an act of cruelty to the ambassadors of the Laurentes. This
was done by order of his royal colleague, according to some
authors. . ... ~
TARPEIA, a vestal virgin, who betrayed the citadel of
Rome to the Sabines, on condition they should give her the
golden bracelets on their arms, which they did, and she was
#. with the weight of them. From her name the mountain
was called Tarpeian. º:
NUMA, second king of Rome, a Sabine, the son of Pompi-
lius Pompo, a person of illustrious family. The Sabines at this
time were distinguished for the simplicity and strictness of their
manners; and Numa, whose mind was improved by the philo-
sophy which he had imbibed in his youth, became himself emi-
ment for wisdom and virtue. Such was the reputation of Numa,
that Tatius, the Sabine associate of Romulus in his kingdom,
bestowed upon him his daughter. At the death of Romulus
the Romans fixed upon him as their king, and two senators
were deputed to acquaint him of the fact. Numa at first re-
fused their offer, but was at length prevailed upon, with much
difficulty, to accept the crown. He was not, like Romulus,
fond of the arts and practice of war, but applied himself to
tame the ferocity of his subjects, to inculcate a reverence for
the Deity, and to quell their dissensions, by dividing all the
citizens into different classes. He established different orders
of priests, and encouraged the report which was spread of his
paying regular visits to the nymph Egeria, making use of her
name to give sanction to the laws and institutions which he had
introduced. He impressed upon the Romans the idea that the
afety of the empire depended on the preservation of the sacred
shield, which, it was then genérally believed, fell from heaven.
He dedicated new temples, particularly that of Janus, which
was to remain shut in the time of peace, and to stand open in









B. C. 572.] FROM JEROBOAM II. TO JOSIAH. 193
time of war. He made several laws for the reformation of man-
ners, and promoted agriculture, by assigning portions of the
conquered lands to those who had no other occupation. He
endeavoured to break the distinction which subsisted, when he
came to the crown, between the Romans and Sabines, by dis-
tributing the citizens, generally, into companies, according to
their trades and occupations, thus uniting the individuals of the
two nations by the subordinate ties of communities of interest
and employment. Another reform he attempted, which ap-
pears not only wonderful, but almost beyond belief, had we not
ample evidence as to the fact ; this was the reformation of the
calendar, the principle of which was the division of the year
into twelve lunar months, which he made correspond with the
course of the sun by intercalations. Numa likewise marked out
the boundaries of the Roman territories, which Romulus had
declined doing ; and, therefore, seemed to renounce the idea
of future aggrandizement by the operation of warfare. His
whole reign was wholly pacific; and had his successors been like
himself, Rome would have been ranked only among the petty
states of Italy; he may, however, be justly denominated one of
the founders of the Roman greatness, from the stability which
he conferred on the constitution by his civil and religious insti-
tutes. He died, after a reign of forty-three years, having ar-
rived at the age of eighty-three. Previously to his death he
ordered his body to be interred in a stone coffin, contrary to the
custom of the times, and his book of ceremonies, which con-
sisted of twelve in Latin, and as many in Greek, to be buried
by his side. These, it was said, was taken up about 400 years
after; and, because it was thought impious to communicate the
mysteries they contained to the common people, they were burnt
by order of the senate. He left behind him one daughter,
called Pompilia, who married Marcius Numa, and became the
mother of Ancus Marcius, the fourth king of Rome.
TULLUS HOSTILIUS, was elected king of Rome, after
the death of Numa, in the year B.C. 672. He began his reign
with rendering himself popular, by dividing a portion of the
regal lands amongst those who had no such property; but de-
viating from the course pursued by his pacific predecessors, he
contrived, by a stratagem, to engage the Romans in a war with
the Albans. The Albans declining a combat, Tullus proposed
a union between Rome and Alba, and for the accomplishment
of this object, that the principal Alban families should settle at
Rome. To this proposal the Albans objected, but it was
agreed that the superiority of either city should be decided by
a combat between three persons of each city. The superiority
of Rome having been º determined, Tullus proceeded to
punish the federates, for their alleged misconduct in the Alban
wars; and having summoned Mettius Fuffetius, the Alban dic-
• VOL. I. - O


194 Universal Biography. [B.C. 672.
tator, to join him with the troops of his nation, the dictator
apparently complied, but in an engagement that ensued, proved
treacherous. The Romans, however, obtained a complete
victory. Tullus and Mettius practised the same kind of dissi-
mulation; whilst the former courteously received the congratu-
lations of the latter, he sent a body of troops to demolish the
city of Alba in the absence of its soldiers, and at the same time
ordered the Roman and Alban troops to attend him in his
camp unarmed, but he privately instructed the Romans to pro-
vide themselves with swords under their garments. Charging
Mettius with perfidy, he ordered him to be seized, and to be
fastened between two chariots, and thus to be torn asunder, as
an emblem of his attempt to dissolve the union of the two
states. His accomplices were also put to the sword. The rest
of the Albans were conveyed to Rome, and henceforth formed
one people with the Romans. , Alba, with the exception of its
temple, was razed ; and for the accommodation of these new
*. Mount Caelius was taken into the compass of
*Oºle, . .
Having subdued the Fudenates, Tullus made war against
the Sabines, and conquered them, and then summoned the
Latin towns dependent upon Alba to acknowledge the supre-
macy of Rome, whose country, on their refusal, he invaded.
In his old age, however, he exchanged his military prowess for
the weakness of superstition; and terrified by prodigies and
apprehended tokens of the displeasure of the gods, he had re-
course to a variety of expiatory rites. The manner in which
his life terminated has been differently represented. Some say
that his palace was struck by lightning, which destroyed him
and his family; whilst others have charged his murder on An-
cus Marcius, his successor, who is also suspected of having set
fire to his palace. He died, however, after a reign of thirty-
three years, during which he enlarged the size and population
of Rome, with little addition to its territories. . -
MARCIUS NUMA, the son-in-law of Numa Pompilius,
aud the father of king Ancus, was made governor of Rome by
Tullus Hostilius. -
SEQUINIUS, an illustrious citizen of Alba, had two daugh.
ters; one married to Curiatius, a citizen of Alba, and the
other to Horatius, a citizen of Rome. These two sisters were
brought to bed on the same day, each of three male children,
who were at this interesting period in the same flower of their
ge, and remarkable for their strength and dexterity. The
lban general having fixed on the three Curiatii, the king of
Rome had his attention directed to the three Horatii, proposed
he matter to them, who consulted their father on the occa-
sion. The father, dreading the event, and apprised of the be-
trothment of one of his daughters to one of the Curiatii, he-




B, C, 672.] FROM JEROBoAM II, to Josiah. - 195
sitated for some time in complying with the wishes of his sons;
but the love of his country ultimately prevailing over every
other consideration, he left his sons to their own choice. When
he was informed that in imitation of the Curiatii, they preferred
a glorious death, or an important victory, to an inglorious life,
he lifted up his eyes to heaven, and, embracing his children,
exclaimed, “I am a happy father!” and then commanded
them to announce to the king his consent. . .
The combat of the Horatii and the Curiatii being proclaimed
in both camps, Tullus led the former, and Fuffetius the latter,
whilst the people strewed the way, as they passed, with flowers,
and put garlands on their heads; for they were considered as
victims, who had voluntarily devoted themselves for their coun-
try. A plain lying between the two camps was chosen for the
combat; and the two kings advanced with their champions
and heralds to the middle, where, before the combat began,
they concluded a treaty, which served as a pattern for most of
the treaties that were ever after made by the Romans. When
this solemnity was finished, the champions advanced with a
slow pace towards each other; and before they commenced the
hostile attack, they embraced each other with all the expres-
sion of the most tender and sincere friendship. The spectators
shed tears at the sight, and muttered complaints against the
kings for causing such affectionate relations to shed the blood
of one another. The tenderness of the young heroes, how-
ever, did not abate their courage; each of them resumed his
arms, and selected his adversary. The combat then began
with great impetuosity; the moise of their arms was heard at a
great distance, and the air resounded with a confused mixture
of shouts and acclamations from both camps, as either of the
combatants appeared to have the advantage. The victory was
long held in suspense, by the skill and valour of the combatants.
At length the eldest of the Horatii received a mortal wound,
and fell. At this sight the Albans triumphed, and the Romans
were thrown into great consternation, which was soon followed by
despair when they saw the second Horatius, pierced through by
another of the Curiatii, expire on the body of his brother.
However, the three Alban brothers were wounded, and the
surviving Horatius appeared unhurt and vigorous. Thinking
he was an unequal match for the three brothers together, he
had recourse to a stratagem, and retreated as if he fled. Upon
this the Curiatii pursued him at different distances, as their
respective strength allowed; Horatius perceived the success of
his stratagem, and that they were separated from each other,
hastily returned, and slew them all singly, before one could
advance to the assistance of the other; and, elated with his
victory, seized the spoils of the vanquished:—the Roman camp
in the meanwhile resounding with joyful acclamations in honour
o 2. x. .











UNIVERSAL biography. [B.C. 672.
of their hero. Thus Rome gained the superiority over Alba,
its mother city; which Fuffetius acknowledged on the field of
battle, saluting Tullus as his sovereign, and asking him what
were his commands. Tullus replied, “I command you to keep
the Alban youth in readiness to march at my orders, in case I
make war with the Veientes.”
As Horatius was returning to the city, he was met by his
sister, who, perceiving him loaded with the spoils of the three
brothers, among which was a military robe which she had
wrought with her own hands for the Curiatius, to whom she
had been betrothed, she could not forbear tearing her hair,
beating her breast, and reviling her brother with the most re-
proachful and provoking words, for imbruing his hands in the
blood of his relations. Horatius, flushed with his late victory,
and enraged at his sister's unseasonable grief, killed her upon
the spot, and then proceeded to the house of his father, who
not only approved the action, but would not allow his daughter
to be buried in the sepulchre of the Horatian family. How-
ever, upon the return of Tullus to Rome, Horatius was brought
by some illustrious citizens before the tribunal, to take his trial.
Thinking it dangerous to relax the rigour of the laws in favour
of conquerors, they insisted on his being tried, and condemned,
if found guilty. Tullus, anxious to manifest his regard for the
laws, and at the same time solicitous for saving young Hora-
tius, and also foreseeing that he would be censured by some
for condemning, and by others for acquitting the criminal, dex-
terously changed the affair into a state crime, the cognizance
of which did not belong to him, but to two commissioners, or
decemviri, whom the king was to name. The crime was noto-
rious, nor was it disowned by the prisoner; the decemviri,
therefore, without delay, pronounced sentence against him, in
these words: “We judge you to be guilty of treason; go,
lictor, and tie his hands." As soon as judgment was given,
Horatius, by the king's advice, appealed to an assembly of the
people, who revoked the sentence of the decemviri, rather
through admiration of his courage, says Livy, than for the
justice of his cause. However, that the crime might not escape
wholly unpunished, Horatius was condemned to pass under the
yoke, an ignominy with which it was usual to treat prisoners
of war, who had surrendered their arms. The king also ap-
pointed expiations to pacify the anger of the gods, provoked
by this violation of the laws. .
ORATII, three Roman brothers, who, in the reign of
us Hostilius, fought against the three Curiatii, who be-
d to the army of the Albans. The two armies being
hree brothers on each side were chosen to decide the
of superiority. Two of the Horatii were first killed;
is address, successively slew the three Cu-
he hiº













B. c. 10s) FROM JERoboAM II, to Josiah. 197
riatii, and by this victory rendered the city of Alba subject to
the Romans. See the next article.
CURIATII; these, in Roman history, are three brothers,
who were selected by the Alban general as champions for a
contest with the three other brothers, named Horatii, chosen
by Tullus Hostilius, king of Rome, in order to decide the dif-
ference subsisting between Alba and Rome, B.C. 667. On an
interview between the two commanders of the hostile armies,
the Alban general declining to terminate the dispute by a single
combat with Tullus Hostilius, according to the proposal of the
latter, suggested that three champions should be chosen out
of each camp for terminating the quarrel. As soon as the
agreement was known to the two armies, it excited a strong
emulation among the young warriors for the honour of being
chosen to this important combat. During the intermediate
suspense, Fuffetius cast his eyes upon three Albans, of the
circumstances of whose birth, are recorded under the article
Sequinius, page 194. .
PHILosop HY.
ABARIS, a personage of antiquity, concerning whom there
is more fable than truth. Our author says, that the world
being visited with the pestilence, the oracle required that the
Athenians should offer prayers for all other nations, on which
various countries sent their ambassadors to Athens, among
whom was Abaris the Hyperborean. His learning and ac-
complishments are spoken of highly by several writers, but
from what country he came is an undecided question. Some
say he was a Scythian, and a modern makes the Hyperborean
countries to be the western islands of Scotland. Abaris pro-
bably lived B. C. 768. Rejecting the fabulous, there is little
doubt but such a man lived, and that his talents and character
were extraordinary. Himerius relates, that he was affable and
pleasant in conversation, in dispatching great affairs secret
and industrious, quick sighted in present exigencies, in pre-
venting future dangers circumspect, a searcher after wisdom,
desirous of friendship, trusting indeed little to fortune, and
having everything trusted to him for his prudence. Neither
the Academy nor the Lyceum, says M. Toland, could furnish
out a man with better qualities to go so far abroad, and to such
wise nations, about affairs no less arduous than important.
But if we attentively consider his moderation in eating and
drinking, and the use of all those things which our natural ap
his manners, with the solidity and wisdom of his answers, all



UNIVERSAL Biography. [B. C. 750.
which we find sufficiently attested; it must be owned, that the
world at that time had few to compare with Abaris.
GEBER, or GIABER, a celebrated philosopher, chemist,
and mathematician of Arabia, supposed to have been the in-
ventor of Algebra. He is said to be the author of several tracts
on chemistry, or rather alchemy. •
PIT ºt. a philosopheras wellas warrior. Heisplaced
under the head of philosophy, as he is reckoned among the seven
sages of Greece. He was born at Mitylene, in Lesbos, about
the year 650 B.C. In a war between his countrymen and the
Athenians, he challenged to a single combat their general
Phrymon, a man of great strength, who had been a victor in the
Olympic games, and vanquished him by means of a concealed
net, which he threw over the enemy's head. As a reward for
his valour he was offered a very large tract of land, which he
had recovered from the enemy, but he would accept no more
than he could measure by a single cast of the javelin, and of this
even he consecrated half to Apollo. He afterwards expelled the
tyrant Melanthius from Mitylene; and having liberated his
country, was placed by his fellow citizens at its head. He now
#. with as much wisdom as he had fought with bravery.
He enacted many useful laws, and in order that he might be the
better remembered he comprehended them in 600 verses. In
one of these he gave a severe check to the propensity of the
people to drunkenness, by enjoining a double punishment for
crimes committed in that state. After having held the reins of
ſovernment during ten years with . reputation, he resigned
his authority, and spent the remainder of his life in study and
retirement. He died about the year 570 B.C. The maxims of
Pittacus were held in such high esteem, that many of them were
inscribed upon the walls of the temple of Delphi. The following
may be given as specimens of them: “Power discovers the
man;” “Whatever you do, do it well;” “Be watchful for
opportunities.”
PO ETR Y.
CALLINUS, of Ephesus, a very ancient Greek poet, inventor
of elegiac verse; some specimens of which are to be found in the
collection of Stobaeus. He flourished B. C. 776.
EUMELUS, one of the Bacchiadae, who wrote, among other
things, a poetical history of Corinth, B.C. 750, %. , 3. . . . . .3
§ 3: NTA, or NICOSTRATA, an ancient poetess of
lourished before the foundation of Rome, in which
ine honours were paid her. It is supposed to be
name that verses were named Carmina by the Latins.













B.C. 724.] FROM JEROBOAM II, TO JOSHAH. 199
She was skilful also in the Greek language, of a quick and lively
wit, and conversant in divers kinds of learning. . . .
ARCHILOCHUS, a famous Greek poet and musician, was,
according to Herodotus, contemporary with Candaules and
Gyges, king of Lydia, who flourished about the fourteenth
§º. and B. C. 724. -
He was born at Paros, one of the Cyclades. His father,
Telesicles, was in so respectable a station, that he was chosen
by his countrymen to consult the oracles at Delphos concerning
the sending a colony to Thaos; but his mother Euripo, was a
slave, whom Telesicles, notwithstanding his high rank, made
his wife. Though Archilochus showed an early attachment to
poetry and music, these arts did not prevent his going into the
army; but at the first engagement at which he was present, the
young poet, like Horace, and our own Suckling, lost his buckler,
though he saved his life by the help of his heels. “It is much
easier,” said he, “to get a new buckler than to get a new exist-
ence.” This pleasantry, however, did not save his reputation;
nor could his poetry or prayers prevail upon Lycambes, the
father of his mistress, to let him marry his daughter, though
she had long been promised to him. After these mortifications,
his life seems to have been one continued tissue of disgrace and
resentment, so that the rage of Archilochus became proverbial;
and the provoking of this satirist was compared to the treading
on a serpent; a comparison not too severe, if it be true that Ly-
cambes and his three daughters were so mortified by his satire,
as to be driven to the consolation of a halter. In this piece,
many adventures are mentioned, full of defamation, and out of
the knowledge of the public. There were likewise many loose
passages in it; and it is said to have been on account of these
that the Lacedaemonians laid a prohibition on verses. However,
Plutarch says, there is no bard of antiquity by whom the two
arts of poetry and music have been so much advanced as by
Archilochus. To him is attributed particularly the sudden tran-
sition from one rhythm to another of a different kind; and the
manner of accompanying those irregular measures upon the
lyre. Heroic poetry, in hexameter verse, seems to have been
solely in use among the more ancient poets and musicians; and
the transition from one rhythm to another, which lyric poetry
required, was unknown to them; so that if Archilochus was the
first author of this mixture, he might with propriety be styled
the inventor of lyric poetry, which after his time became a
species of versification, wholly distinct from heroic. To him is
likewise ascribed the invention of epodes. He is also generally
reckoned among the first victors .."the Pythic games; and we
learn from Pindar, that his muse was not always a termagant;
and though no mortal escaped her rage, yet she was at times.
§
hº
sufficiently tranquil and pious to dictate hymns in praise




UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. [B. c. 670.
gods and heroes. One in particular, written in honour of
Hercules, acquired him the acclamations of all Greece; for he
sung it in full assembly at the olympic games, and had the satis-
faction of receiving from the judges the crown of victory con-
secrated to real merit. The hymn, or ode, was afterwards sung
in honour of every victor at Olympia, who had no poet to cele-
brate his particular exploits. Archilochus was at last slain by
one Callondas Corax, of the island of Naxos ; who, though he
did it in battle, according to the laws of war, was driven out of
the temple of Delphi, by command of the oracle, for having
deprived of life a man consecrated to the muses. The name of
Archilochus and Homer were equally revered and celebrated in
Greece, as the two most excellent poets which the nation had
ever produced. This appears from an epigram in the Antho-
logia; and from Cicero, who ranks him with poets of the first
class, and in his Epistles tells us, that the grammarian Aristo-
phanes, the most rigid and scrupulous critic of his time, used
to say, that the longest poem of Archilochus always appeared to
him the most excellent. N.
LYCAMBES, the father of Neobule. He promised his
daughter in marriage to the poet Archilochus, and afterwards
refused to fulfil his engagement when she had been courted by
a man whose opulence had more influence than the fortune of
the poet. This irritated Archilochus, who wrote a bitter invec-
tive against Lycambes and his daughter, and rendered them
both so desperate by the satire of his composition, that they
hanged themselves. º -
ALCMAN, a lyric poet, was born at Sparta, and flourished
in the twenty-seventh Olympiad, B.C. 668. He composed
several poems, of which only some fragments remain, quoted by
Athenaeus and some other ancient writers. He was very
amorous, accounted the father of gallant poesy ; and is said to
have been the first that introduced the custom of singing love
songs in company. He is reported to have been one of the
greatest eaters of his age. 2.
MEGALOSTRATA, a Grecian poetess, friend of Alcman,
the lyrist. None of her poems remain; but there are satires
written against her. . .
Music.
TERPANDER, one of the most renowned musicians of
antiquity. It is recorded in the Oxford Marbles, that he was
he inventor of characters to express musical sounds in the
1 genera; which event is placed about six hundred and
y years before the Christian era. Indeed all writers who
antion the progressive state of music in Greece, are unanimous







B.C. 672.] FROM JEROBOAM II. TO JOSIAH. 201

in º: talents of Terpander. The Marbles inform
us likewise, that “he taught the nomes, or airs, of the lyre and
flute, which he performed himself upon this last instrument, in
concert with other players on the flute.” Several writers tell
us, that he added three strings to the lyre, which before his
time had but four; and in confirmation of this, Euclid and
Strabo, quote two verses, which they attribute to Terpander
himself. . ~

“The tetrachord's restraint we now despise,
The seven-stringed lyre a noble strain supplies.”
If the hymn to Mercury, which is ascribed to Homer, and in
which the seven stringed lyre is mentioned, be genuine, it robs
Terpander of this glory. The learned, however, have great
doubts concerning its authenticity. Among the many signal
services which Terpander is said to have done to music, none
was of more importance than the notation that is ascribed
to him for ascertaining and preserving melody, which was before
traditional, and wholly dependent on memory. The invention,
however, of musical characters, has been attributed by Alyficus
and Jandentius, two Greek writers on music, and, upon their
authority, by Boethius, to Pythagoras, who flourished full two
centuries after Terpander. It will be necessary, therefore, to
tell the reader upon what grounds this useful discovery has
been bestowed upon him. Plutarch, from Heraclides of Pon-
tus, assures us that Terpander, the inventor of nomes for the
Cithera, in hexameter verse, “set them to music,” as well as
the verses of Homer, in order to sing them at the public games.
And Clemens Alexandrinus, in telling us that this musician
wrote the laws of Lycurgus in verse, and “set them to music,”
makes use of the same expression as Plutarch, which seems
clearly to imply a written melody.

PA INT IN G.
CYDIAS, an ancient Greek painter, who made a painting
of the Argonauts in the eleventh Olympiad. This celebrated
piece was bought by the orator Hortensius for 164 talents.
A R C H ITECT U R E A N D S C U L P T U R E.

HERMOGENES, the first and most celebrated architect of
antiquity, was, according to Vitruvius, born at Alandada, a city
in Caria. He built a temple of Diana at Magnesia, another of

UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. [B. C. 670.
Bacchus at Tros; and was the inventor of several parts of ar-
chitecture. He wrote a book on the subject, which is lost,
CLEETA, an ancient Greek architect and sculptor. He
built the Palaestra, or large court near Olympius, used for the
horse and chariot races at the celebrated Olympic games, which
were held in this place at the close of every olympiad, that is,
every fifth year. I
t was magnificently decorated with porticos
and other ornaments; and the author was so proud of his per-
formances, that he introduced the following inscription under
one of the statues which he had made on Athens; “Cleeta, the
SOIt of Aristocles, who invented the Palaestra of Olympius, did
this." . .



P E. RIO D IX.
FROM JOSIAH TO CY RUS.
B. C. 648.
REMARKABLE FACTS, EVENTS, AND DISCOVERIES.
B.C.
648 Cyrene in Africa founded.
634 Cyaxares besieges Nineveh, but is obliged to raise the siege by an
incursion of the Scythians, who remained masters of Asia for
twenty-eight years.
624 Draco published his inhuman laws at Athens.
610 Pharaoh Necho attempted to make a canal from the Nile to the Red
Sea, but failed.
607. By his order some Phoenicians sailed from the Red Sea round Africa,
and returned by the Mediterranean.
606 The first captivity of the Jews by Nebuchadnezzar. Nineveh de-
stroyed by Cyaxares.
THIS period is remarkable for producing those characters who
brought about the total ruin of the Jewish monarchy. The kingdom
of Israel had fallen B. C. 717, after it had subsisted 264 years. The
kingdom of Judah still continued, but B. C. 514; it was also demolished
after it had existed 468 years, from the beginning of the reign of
David ; and 388 years from the separation of Judah and the ten tribes.
G O W E R N M ENT.
.JOSLAH, king of Judah, renowned for his wisdom and
piety, and memorable for the events that occurred in the course
of his reign. He succeeded to the throne, upon the assassina-
tion of his father Amon, at the age of eight years, in the year
B.C. 649, and at a period when idolatry and wickedness, en-
couraged by his father's profligate example, very generally
prevailed. Josiah, who manifested the #º of pious and
virtuous principles at a very early age, began in his sixteenth
year to project the reformation of the kingdom, and to adopt
means for restoring the worship of the true God; at the ag
twenty years he vigorously pursued the execution of the jla ns



204 UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. [B.C. 631.
which he had meditated. He began with abolishing idolatry,
first at Jerusalem, and then through different parts of the
kingdom; destroying the altars which had been erected, and
the idols which had been the objects of veneration and worship.
He then proceeded, in his twenty-sixth year, to a complete
restoration of the worship of God, and the regular service
of the temple. Whilst he was prosecuting this work, and re-
pairing the temple which had been long neglected, and which
had sunk into a state of dilapidation, the j of the law, which
had been concealed in the temple, was happily discovered.
This was probably a copy of the Pentateuch, which had been
lodged there for security by some pious priest in the reign of
Ahaz or Manasseh. Josiah, desirous of averting from himself
and the kingdom the threatened judgments, determined to ad-
here to the direction of the law, in the business of reformation
which he had undertaken, and to observe the festivals enjoined
by Moses, which had been shamefully neglected. With this
view he assembled all the elders of the people in the temple of
Jerusalem, and having ascended the throne, read the book of
the Mosaic law, and then entered into a solemn covenant to
observe the statutes and ordinances which it enjoined. To this
covenant the whole assembly testified their consent. The ark
was restored to its proper place, the temple was purified, idola-
trous utensils were removed, and those appropriate to the
worship of God substituted in their room. After these prepa-
rations, the passover was observed with singular zeal and mag-
nificence. This took place in the eighteenth year of Josiah's
reign. But in pursuing the laudable plans of reformation, he
was resisted by the inveterate habits of the Israelites, so that
his zealous and persevering efforts were ineffectual. Their
degeneracy was so invincible, that the Almighty Sovereign was
provoked to inflict upon them those calamities which were de-
nounced by the prophet Zephaniah. In the thirty-second year
of Josiah's reign, Pharaoh Necho, king of Egypt, advanced
with his army against Carchemish, a city situated on the river
Euphrates; and he was opposed by the king of Judah, so that
a bloody battle ensued at Megiddo, in which Josiah received a
mortal wound, which terminated in his death, after he had been
conveyed to Jerusalem, in the thirty-ninth year of his reign,
. His death was greatly lamented by all his subjects, and an
elegy was written on the occasion by the prophet Jeremiah,
SADYATTES, the son of Gyges, king of Lydia, father of
ttes II, and grandfather of the famous Croesus. He suc-
2d Andynes II., about B.C. 631; carried on a war against
ins for six years, and died B. C. 619, in the thir-
rof his reign, ºf
#











B.C. 631.] FROM JOSIAH TO CYRUS. 205.
ALYATTES II, king of Lydia, of the family of the Mer-
nadae, and was father to Croesus. He drove the Cimmerians
from Asia, and made war against the Medes. He died when
engaged against Miletus, after a reign of thirty-five years. A
monument was raised on his grave, with the money which the
women of Lydia had obtained by prostitution. An eclipse of
the sun terminated a battle between him and Cyaxares.
CYAXARES I., king of the Medes, who succeeded his
father, Phraortes, B.C. 635, was a prince of great courage, ex-
traordinary abilities, and devoted to the military profession.
In the preceding reigns, much of the kingdom had been con-
quered by the Assyrians; but, by the prowess and skill of
Cyaxares, it was retaken. He not only defeated his enemies
in a battle, on which almost every thing depended, but laid
siege to Nineveh, their capital. Scarcely however had he ob-
tained this object, when the Scythians successfully invaded his
country, and made themselves masters of Media, and a great
part of Upper Asia, which they held for nearly thirty years.
Wearied with their oppression, Cyaxares resolved to free him-
self from them by stratagem. He accordingly invited them to
a general feast, which was given in every family; and when
they were off their guard by intoxication, he caused a massacre
to take place, and thus freed himself from his enemies. He
then attacked the Lydians for having aided or succoured the
fugitive Scythians. These, however, were not easily subdued;
and after five years' war, which was carried on with various
success, a most obstinate engagement took place; but a total
eclipse of the sun, which happened during the heat of battle,
had so powerful an effect on the superstition of both parties,
that with one accord they retreated; peace was concluded, and
a marriage was brought about between the daughter of the
Lydian king and Astyages, the eldest son of Cyaxares. This
business being settled, Cyaxares entered into a strict alliance
with Nabopolassar, king of Babylon, and in conjunction
with his new friend, he resumed the siege of Nineveh, slew
Sarac the king, and levelled that proud metropolis with the
earth. This important circumstance gave rise to the great suc-
cesses of the allied monarchy, and laid the foundation of the
collateral empires of the Medes and Babylonians. Enriched
with the plunder of very many subjugated nations, they divided
their forces, Nabopolassar pursuing conquests in the west,
and Qyaxares sallying upon the provinces of Armenia, Pontus,
and Cappadocia, which he subdued with great slaughter of the
inhabitants. After these achievements, the armies united again,
and completed the conquest of the Assyrian empire. Cyaxares
died in the fortieth year of his reign, and was succeede
Astyages.


UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. (B.C. too.
NABOPOLASSAR, a prince of Babylon, united with
Astyages against Syria, which country they conquered, and
having divided it between them, founded two kingdoms, that of
the Medes under Astyages, and that of the Chaldaeans under
Nabopolassar, in the year B.C. 626. Necho, king of Egypt,
jealous of the power of the latter, declared war against him,
and defeated him. Nabopolassar died after a reign of twenty-
one years. - &
NECHO, king of Egypt, called in scripture Pharaoh Necho,
succeeded his father Psammetichus, B. C. 616, and is celebrat-
ed in history for attempting, though in vain, to cut a canal
from the Nile to the Arabian gulf. No less than 12,000 men
perished in the attempt. He carried his arms as far as the
Euphrates, and conquered the city of Carchemish. This
prince is known by the name of Necho in prophane history, as
well as in Scripture. He raised great land armies, and fitted
out vast fleets, as well upon the Mediterranean as upon the
Red Sea; he gave battle to the Syrians near the city of
Migdol; routed them, and made himself master of the city of
§. , The learned however, are not agreed about Cadytis.
Some will have it to be Cades in Arabia Petraea; others Jeru-
salem ; and others say it is the city of Cedes, Kedesh, in Gali-
lee, in the tribe of Naphtali. The Scriptures acquaint us with
the whole expedition of Necho in all its particulars. It hap-
pened B. C. 610. See 2 Kings xxii. 29, &c. and 2 Chron.
xxxv. 20, 21., &c. Jeremiah informs us, ch. xlvi. 2. that Car-
chemish was taken from Necho by Nebuchadnezzar; and
Josephus adds, that this monarch reduced the whole country
between Egypt and the Euphrates; so that Necho's conquests
were very short lived.
JEHOAHAZ, otherwise Shallum, son of Josiah, king of
Judah. Jer. xxii. 11. Josiah dying of his wounds at Megiddo,
Jehoahaz succeeded him, 2 Kings xxiii. 30, 31, 32, though he
was not Josiah's eldest son. He was twenty-three years old
when he began to reign, and he reigned about three months in
the year B.C. 609. Necho, king of Egypt, returning from his
expedition against Carchemish, was provoked that the people
of Judah had placed this prince on the throne without his par-
ticipation. Necho sent for him to Riblah in Syria, divested
him of the kingdom, loaded him with chains, and sent him
pt, where he died. Jeremiah xxii. 11, 12. Jehoiakim,
im, his brother, was made king in his room. §: º, . ;
UKIM, or ELIAKIM, brother and successor of
g of Judah, was made king by Necho, .."; of
; his return from an expedition against Carchemish in
l, and set on him a ransom
to Jehoiakim, . --- - - - - - - ansom
f silver, and ten talents of gold. To
6
















B. C. 606.] From Josiah to cyrus. 207
raise this money, Jehoiakim laid heavy taxes on his people, in
proportion to their fortunes. Jehoiakim was twenty-five years
old when he began to reign, and he reigned eleven years in
Jerusalem. . x -
About four years after Jehoiakim had been seated on the
throme of Judah, Nebuchadnezzar, king of the Chaldaeans,
having recovered what Necho had taken on the Euphrates,
came into Phoenicia and Judea, subdued the city of Jerusalem,
and subjected it to the same burdens and conditions which it
suffered under the king of Egypt. 2 Kings xxiv. 1, 2. Je-
hoiakim was taken, and Nebuchadnezzar put him in fetters, in-
tending to carry him to Babylon; but he restored him to
liberty, and left him in his own country, on condition of his
paying a large tribute. ? §§º:
After this, Jehoiakim rebelled against Nebuchadnezzar, who
sent troops of Chaldaeans, Syrians, Moabites, and Ammonites,
that ravaged all the country, and carried a great number of
Jews to Babylon, in the year B. C. 603. Four years after,
Jehoiakim himself was taken, slain, and thrown into the com-
mon sewer, according to the prediction of Jeremiah. He was
succeeded by his son Jehoiachin. x-
JEHOIACHIN, or JECONIAH, 1 Chron. iii. 17, the son
of Jehoiakim, king of Judah, and grandson of Josiah, reigned
only three months over Judah. 2 Kings xxiv. 8; 2 Chron.
xxxvi. 9. Some think that he was born about the time of the
first Babylonish captivity, B.C. 606, when Jehoiakim, or Elia-
kim, his father, was carried to Babylon. Jehoiakim return-
ed from Babylon, and reigned till B. C. 599, when he was
killed by the Chaldaeans in the eleventh year of his reign. Je-
hoiachin succeeded him, and reigned about three months and
ten days; but he reigned ten years in conjunction with his
father. By this distinction, 2 Kings xxiv. 8, is reconciled with
2 Chron. xxxvi. 9. In the second book of Kings, it is said that
he was eighteen years of age when he began to reign; and in
Chronicles, that he was only eight, that is, he was only eight
years old when he began to reign with his father, and eighteen
when he began to reign alone. on
About three months after the death of Jehoiakim, Nebuchad-
mezzar came in person to the siege of Jerusalem, Jehoiachin
being unable to defend the city, surrendered himself, with his
mother and family, to Nebuchadnezzar, and was sent to Baby-
chadnezzar having made himself master of Jerusalem
remaining treasures of the temple, and of the kin
with great numbers of captives, to Babylon. º
Jeremiah xxii. 24, mentions Jehoiachin
whose sins had incurred the indignation of
lieved, that he repented, and that God treate


























UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. [B. c. 606.
for Evil-Merodach, Nebuchadnezzar's successor, used him
honourably, took him out of prison, spoke kindly to him, and
placed his throne above the throne of other princes who were
at his court. 2 Kings xxv. 27., &c.; Jeremiah lii. 31.
ZEDEKIAH, the son of Josiah, and the last king of Judah
before the captivity, so named by Nebuchadnezzar, who made
him king, upon carrying his nephew Jeconiah captive. But
rebelling eleven years afterwards, the king of Babylon put out
his eyes, killed his sons, and sent him in chains to Babylon,
where he died. . & . . &
PHARAOH HOPHRAH, king of Egypt, who entered
into an alliance with Zedekiah, king of Judah, and attempted
to assist him against Nebuchadnezzar.
PELATIAH, son of Benaiah, was a prince of the people,
who lived under Zedekiah, king of Judah, and opposed the
advice given to Jeremiah, to submit to Nebuchadnezzar.
Ezekiel being a captive in Mesopotamia, had a vision, chap. xi.
1, 2., &c., in which he saw twenty-five men at the door of the
temple of Jerusalem, among whom Jaazaniah, the son of Azur,
and Pelatiah, the son of Benaiah, were the most remarkable.
The Lord said to him, Son of man, these are the men who have
thoughts of iniquity, and who are forming pernicious designs
against this city, &c. As he was prophesying in this manner,
Pelatiah, the son of Benaiah, died. . . . . . . . . .
NEBUCHADNEZZAR, or NABUCHODONOSOR,
the second king of Babylon, son of Nabopolassar, and styled
the GREAT, was associated by his father in the empire, B. C.
607, and the following year he took Jehoiakim, king of Judah,
prisoner, and proposed to carry him and his subjects into cap-
tivity into Babylon; but upon his submission, and promising
to hold his kingdom under Nebuchadnezzar, he was permitted
to remain at Jerusalem. In 603 Jehoiakim attempted to shake
off the Babylonian yoke, but without success, and this revolt
brought on the general captivity. ºr ºf
Nebuchadnezzar took away several persons from Jerusalem;
among others Daniel, Hananiah, Mishael, and Azariah, all of
the royal family, whom the king of Babylon carefully instruct-
ed in the language, and in the learning of the Chaldaeans, that
ight be employed at court. Dan. i. 1–3, &c. º
ebuchadnezzar being at Babylon in the second year of his
l, had a mysterious dream, in which he saw a statue com-
of several metals, a head of gold, a breast of silver, belly
§§ brass, legs of iron, and feet half iron, and half
e rolling by its own impulse from the
atue, and broke it. This dream gave
t afterwards he forgot it, and could not
is diviners and
ulatiºn.























B.C. 606.] from Josiah to cyrus.
dream, or the interpretation. Nebuchadnezzar, in wrath, or-
dered them all to be put to death, which was about to be put in
execution. Daniel being informed of it, went immediately to the
king, and desired him to respite the sentence a little, and he
would endeavour to satisfy the ſº desire. God in the night
revealed to him the king's dream, and also the interpretation,
to the following effect. Yourself, said Daniel, is represented by
the golden head of the statue. After you, will arise a kingdom
inferior to your's, represented by the breast of silver; and after
this another still inferior, denoted by the belly and thighs of
brass. After these three empires, º Chaldaeans, Persians,
and Greeks, will arise a fourth, denoted by the legs of iron, the
Romans. Under this last empire, God will raise a new one
of greater strength, power, and extent, than all the others.
This last is that of the Messiah, represented by the little stone.
coming from the mountain, and overthrowing the statue.
Then the king raised Daniel to great honour, set him over
all the wise men of Babylon, and gave him the government of
that province. At his request, he granted to Shadrach, Me-
shach, and Abednego, the oversight of the works of the same
province of Babylon.
Jehoiachin, king of Judah, having revolted against Ne-
buchadnezzar, this prince besieged him in Jerusalem, and forced
him to surrender. Nebuchadnezzar took him, with his chief
officers, captive to Babylon, with his mother, his wives, and the
best workmen of Jerusalem, to the number of ten thousand
men. Among the captives were Mordecai, the uncle of Esther,
and Ezekiel the prophet. He took also all the vessels of gold
which Solomon made for the temple and the king's treasury;
and he setup Mattaniah, Jehoiachin's uncle by the father's side,
whom he named Zedekiah.
Zedekiah continued faithful to Nebuchadnezzar nine years; .
being then weary of subjection, he revolted, and confederated
with the neighbouring princes. The king of Babylon came in-
to Judea, reduced the chief places of the country, and besieged
Jerusalem, but Pharaoh-Hophra coming out of Egypt to assist
Zedekiah, Nebuchadnezzar overcame him in battle, and forced
him to retire into his own country. After this he returned to
the siege of Jerusalem, and was three hundred and ninety days
before the place, before he could take it. But in the eleventh
year of Zedekiah, B. C. 581, the city was taken. Zedekiah
attempted to escape, but was taken and brought to Nebuchad-
mezzar, who was then at Riblah in Syria. #. king of Baby-
lon condemned him to die, caused his children to be put to
death in his presence, and then bored out his eyes, loaded
with chains, and sent him to Babylon. . . . .
Three years after the Jewish war, Nel ne :::::::::::::33:3:
ld th s.
P .
wist Nebuchad
the city of Tyre, which siege held thirteen year
WOL. I.






§
ed five years after the destruction of Jerusalem, consequently
§§§"...º.º.º.".
who was then king, was put to death, and Baal succeede
Nebuchad r after this, made an easy conquest of Egypt,
because the Egyptians were divided by the civil wars among
themselves; he enriched himself
triumph to Babylon, with a great number of captives.
this interval, he made war also on the Sidonians, Moabites,
Ammonites, and Idumaeans, and these he treated in nearly the
same manner as the Jews, Josephus says, these wars happen-
* * * * * al,
dihim,
enriched himself with booty, and returned in
Nebuchadnezzar being at peace, applied himself to the
adorning, †"; and enriching of Babylon with magni-
supported by arches, reckoned among the wonders of the
world; and also the walls of Babylon, though many give the
honour of this work to Semiramis. : ; ; *... < 2. 3. . . . . . &. §
About this time Nebuchadnezzar had a dream of a great
tree, loaded with fruit, Suddenly an angel descending from
heaven, commanded that the tree should be cut down, and the
branches, leaves, and fruit be shaken off, yet the trunk and the
root should be preserved in the earth, that it should be bound
with chains of iron and brass, &c. among the beasts of the field
&
for seven years. The kin
him that this dream regarded himself. You, says Daniel, are
represented by the great tree; you are to be brought low, to
be reduced to the condition of a brute, &c. but you shall after-
wards be .*.*. first situation. .
A year after, as
which I have built for the house of the kingdom, by the might
of my power, and for the honour of my majesty º Scarcely
had he pronounced these words, when he fell into a distemperor,
distraction, which so altered his imagination, that he thought,
himself to be metamorphosed into an ox, and assumed the man-
ners of that creature. After having been seven years in this
state, his understanding was restored to him, and he recovered
his royal dignity. º &
or in the yea
lo
g appoint
; ld, that all . § 3; 3% & 3.
n the penalty of being cast into a
m some ascribe those famous gardens,
… …x." ~ xx. " ... … ... iś diviners in the
country, but none could explain his dream, till Daniel informed
A year after, as Nebuchadnezzar was walking on his palace
of Babylon, he began to say, “ Is not this great Babylon,
Nebuchadnezzar's repentance was neither solid nor sincere.
§ fear of his restoration, according to Calmet, he
1 a golden statue, whose height was sixty cubits, and
Ith six cubits, in the plains of Dura, in the province of
§º: lving appointed a day for the dedication of this
Fº officers of his kingdom, and
should adore this image, at
cast into a burning,

























B. c. 606.] FROM JOSIAH TO CY RUS. 211
Nebuchadnezzar commanded Shadrach, Meshach, and Abed-
nego to be called; and he asked them, why they presumed to
disobey his orders ? They replied, that they neither feared
the flames, nor any other penalty; that the God, whom only
they would worship, knew how to preserve them; but if the
Lord should not think fit to deliver them out of his hands, yet
they would obey the laws of God rather than men. At these
words the king caused them to be bound, and be thrown into
the furnace, which being vehemently heated, the flame con-
sumed the men that cast them in, but it spared Shadrach, Me-
shach, and Abednego. An angel of the Lord abated the
flames, so that the fire did not touch them. Nebuchadnezzar
seeing this miracle, was much astonished, and said to his nobles.
From whence is it, that I see four men walking in the midst of
the flames? and the fourth is like the son of God. Nebu-
chadnezzar approaching the mouth of the furnace, called the
three Hebrews, who came out of the furnace in perfect health,
to the great astonishment of the whole court. Then Nebu-
chadnezzar gave glory to the God of Shadrach, Meshach, and
Abednego, and he exalted the three Hebrews to great dignity.
in the province of Babylon. Dan, iv. 1, 2, &c. * 3:
It is observable, that Dr. Hales states the erection of the
golden image, by Nebuchadnezzar, to have taken place after
the dream, which it follows in detail, and about the end of the
same year in which the first dream happened. This, indeed,
appears to be more agreeable to the order of Daniel's narra-
tive.
Nebuchadnezzar died B.C. 562, after having reigned forty-
three years. Concerning the metamorphosis of this prince, the
most received opinion is, that by the effect of divine power,
Nebuchadnezzar fell into a black melancholy, and in his frenzy.
imagined that he was become an ox, as in the disease called
lycanthropy, a man is persuaded he is changed into a wolf, a
dog, a cat; which arises solely from his distempered brain and
heated imagination, since those about him perceive no su
change in his outward figure, but only in his inclinations an
behaviour; hence he howls and bites like a wolf, eats raw meat,
runs into the fields, and avoids the society of men, &c. Thus'
Nebuchadnezzar imagining himself an ox, imitated the actions
of an ox. His people, astonished at such a change, bound him."
as madmen or idiots are bound, but he fled into the fields,
park, or garden of his palace, living there naked, exposed toº
. % §
. - to *
the dew of heaven, and the other inclemencies of the weather;
so that his hair grew like the feathers of an eagle, and his nails.
like the claws of a lion. Nothing more is required to account."
for all that the Scripture says of Nebuc Radºzarº
. A question is moved, concerning th
Some maintain that the Persians disti
guishing their year












212 UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. [B.C. 606.
two seasons, winter and summer, the seven years of Nebuchad-
mezzar must be reckoned in this manner, which will reduce it
to three years and a half. The word time, Dan. iv. 25, by
which is generally understood a year, denotes, according to
others, the space of a month only; and hence the king's disor-
der continued no longer than seven months. But a year was a
common measure of time among the Chaldaeans, especially in
the chronicles of their kings. Besides, we need no other inter-
preter for Daniel, than Daniel himself. It is certain that this
prophet by “a time” means a year; and that by a time, and
": and half-a-time, is denoted the space of three years and
AHIKAM, the son of Shaphan, and father of Gedaliah,
the viceroy of Jerusalem, under Nebuchadnezzar, a prince of
Judah, who was one of those employed by king Josiah to con-
sult Haddah the prophetess, and who, in the reign of his son
Jehoiakim, protected and preserved the prophet Jeremiah.
GEDALIAH, son of Ahikam, was left by Nebuchadnezzar
in Palestine, after the destruction of Jerusalem and the temple;
Jer. xl. xlii. 2 Kings xxv. 22, to govern the remainder of the
Jewish people, and to gather again those who had fled. Jere-
miah .#. to him at Mizpeh; and many Jews who had fled
into Moab and Ammon, came thither also. Gedaliah assured
them of Nebuchadnezzar's protection, provided they lived
peaceably. Ishmael, son of Nethaniah, of the royal family of
Judah, came also to see Gedaliah, who had been informed
that Ishmael was sent by Baalis, king of Ammon, to kill him;
but Gedaliah would not believe it, nor would permit any one to
prevent the designs of Ishmael. He received him at his table,
and entertained him; and when the banquet was ended, Ish-
mael and his associates massacred Gedaliah, and all those about
him, as well Jews as Chaldaeans. .
BAALIS, a king of the Ammonites, who had sent Ishmael,
the son of Nethaniah, to murder the brave Gedaliah, the vice-
roy appointed by Nebuchadnezzar over the remnant of the
Jews, whom he had left in Jerusalem. Jer. xi. 17. For this
he was justly punished by Nebuchadnezzar, who soon after in-
vaded his country, and reduced it to a desert. . .
EVIL-MERODACH, king of Babylon, succeeded his fa-
ther Nebuchadnezzar the Great. He had governed the king-
dom during the lunacy of his father, who after seven years
recovered his understanding, once more ascended the throne,
and imprisoned his son Evil-Merodach. In this confinement,
it is supposed that Evil-Merodach made an acquaintance and
friendship with Jehoiachin, king of Judah, who had been car-
ried to Babylon by Nebuchadnezzar. However, it is certain,
that, soon after his accession to the throne, he delivered the
king of Judah out of prison, after a confinement of thirty-seven
years, heaped many favours on him, and placed him above all


B. C.606.] FROM JOSIAH TO CYRUS. 213
the other kings who were at the court of Babylon. 2 Kings
xxv. 27. Jer, lii. 31. Evil-Merodach reigned but one year,
according to the chronology of Archbishop Usher; but Dr.
Prideaux says, he reigned two years, and was succeeded by
Neriglissar, his sister's husband, who had been at the head of
the conspiracy formed against him. Others are of opinion that
he reigned three years, and was succeeded by his son Bel-
shazzar. . 3. . .
NITOCRIS, the wife of Evil-Merodach, and mother of
Belshazzar, king of Babylon, was a woman of extraordinary
abilities. After the death of Evil-Merodach, she took the bur-
den of all public affairs upon herself; and, while her son fol-
lowed his pleasures, did all that could be done by human pru-
dence to sustain the tottering empire. She perfected the works
which Nebuchadnezzar had begun for the defence of Babylon.
Several writers assert that the first men in the kingdom scru-
pled to acknowledge Evil-Merodach, under an idea that Ne-
buchadnezzar was still living; on which he ordered the body
of his father to be taken out of the grave, and exposed to pub-
lic view; in order that the most incredulous might be perfectly
satisfied that there was no chance for Nebuchadnezzar the
Great, ever to reign again in the present world. :
BELSHAZZAR, NABONADIUS, or LABYNITUS,
the last king of Babylon, is generally agreed to have been the
son of Evil-Merodach, by the celebrated Nitocris, and grand-
son of Nebuchadnezzar the Great. He succeeded upon the
deaths of his uncle-in-law Neriglissar, and his infant cousin
Laborosoarchod, with whom some authors confound him. He
is said to have reigned seventeen years, but was so devoted to
his pleasures, that nothing is recorded of him, excepting his
folly, dissipation, and impiety; till the last day of his reign and
life; when the miraculous vision of the hand-writing on the
wall, denouncing the immediate overthrow of his empire, alarmed
him and his impious nobles, in the midst of their guilty festival,
and led him to apply for advice, when too late, to the long neg-
lected prime minister and prophetic instructor of his grand-
father. The wonderful events of that night, with the inter-
pretation and fulfilment of the vision, are fully recorded by Da-
niel, chap. v. Babylon was taken by Cyrus, Belshazzar slain,
and the kingdom transferred to the Medes and Persians, A. M.
3410, or 3466, and about B.C. 538.
SALATHIEL, was son of Jehoiachin, and father of Zerub-
babel. 1 Chron. iii. 17. He died at Babylon during the cap-
tivity. Salathiel was also son of Neri, according to St. Luke
iii. 27. He descended from Solomon by Rehoboam, according
to St. Luke. In Salathiel were united the two branches of this
illustrious genealogy; so that Salathiel was son to Jehoiachin,
according to the flesh, as appears from Chronicles, which say,

214 [B.C.628.
ions, Assir and Salathiel, at Babylon.
3 he might be son of Neri by adoption, or by having mar-
l the heiress of Neri's family ; or, as proceeding from the
of Neri according to the law. St. Luke does not tell us
n what sense he was son to Neri. Dr. Hales says, that Sala-
thiel must have been the grandson of Neri, by his mother's
ASTYAGES, son of Cyaxares. He dreamed, that from
the womb of his daughter Mandane, married to Cambyses, king
of Persia, there sprung up a vine that spread itself over all
Asia. She being pregnant, he resolved to kill the infant as
soon as born. Its name was Cyrus; but Harpagus being sent
to destroy it, preserved it; which Astyages hearing of long
after, he caused Harpagus to eat his own son. Harpagus, in
revenge, called in Cyrus, who dethroned his grandfather. Thus
the old tyrant lost his kingdom, by the barbarous means he
took to preserve it. - *.
~ RELIGION.
JEREMIAH, a divine writer, was the son of Hilki
Anathoth, in the tribe of Benjamin. He was called when very
oung to the prophetic office, about the thirteenth of Josiah,
ğ
or B.C. 628; and continued in the discharge of it above forty-
one years. Jeremiah's life was often exposed to danger, and
he was committed to prison, on account of his remonstrances
ºld inst the kings of Judah, and t InS (16 2d by
which announced the calamities t ; 98 I'-
icularly under the reign of Jehoi . K A.
ter the conquest of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar, he was set
at liberty by order of the king, and it was left to his option
either to accompany Nebuzaradan, the general of Nebuchad-
mezzar, to Babylon, or to remain in Judea with Gedaliah, who
was appointed governor of the miserable remnant of the people
that was left in that country. Jeremiah preferred the latter
ilternative, and went to reside with Gedaliah at Mizpeh. Af.
ter the assassination of Gedaliah, Jeremiah, accompanied by
Baruch, removed to Egypt. Of the subsequent events of his
we have no authentic account. He is said by St. Jerome,
ºc. to have been stoned to death by the Jews at Tahpantes,
where he resided, for preaching against their idolatry; but it
it likely that he died in Egypt, much advanced in years,
iken by the calamities whic imself and
e rabbies, however, assert, that he returned
Neriah, the disciple and amanuensis
9 ells us, he was descended
h happened to hi
others say that he went to Babylon, and d
º
º th prop














































B. C. 606.] FROM JOSIAH TO CYRUS. . 215
of a noble family; and it is said in his prophecy, that he wrote
it at Babylon; but at what time is uncertain. . . . . . .
EZEKIEL, a celebrated prophet and priest among the
Jews, who was carried captive to Babylon with Jecomiah, and
began his prophecies in the fifth year of the captivity, B
595. He was contemporary with Jeremiah, who prophesied
the same time in Judea. He foretold many events, particularly
the destruction of the temple, the fatal catastrophe of those who
revolted from Babylon to Egypt, and the happy return of the
Jews to their own land. ‘. .” & “... §
SERAIAH, was son of Neriah, and brother of Baruch, the
companion and secretary of Jeremiah. Seraiah was sent to
Nebuchadnezzar at Babylon, in the fourth year of the reign of
Zedekiah, in the year B. C. 595. N.
When Seraiah went to Babylon with king Zedekiah, as some
interpreters understand the original, Jeremiah sent a letter by
him, which was to be read to the captives there. This letter
contained a prophecy of the fall of Babylon; and after it was
read, Seraiah was ordered to tie it to a stone, and to throw it
into the Euphrates, and say, “Thus shall Babylon sink, and
not rise from the evil that I will bring upon her.” Baruch went
with his brother Seraiah upon this commission. N.
URIJAH, a prophet of the Lord, son of Shemaiah of Kir-
jath-jearim, Jer. xxvi. 20, 21, who prophesied at the same time
as Jeremiah, and declared the same things against Jerusalem
and Judah. Jehoiakim, king of Judah, and his great men,
resolved to secure him, and put him to death; but Urijah
escaped into Egypt; he then put him to death with the sword,
and ordered him to be buried dishonourably in the graves of
the meanest of the people. …
ZEPHANIAH, the prophet, the son of Cushi, and grand-
son of Gedaliah, prophesied in the reign of Josiah, and was
contemporary with Jeremiah. º
DANIEL, the prophet, was born in Judea of the tribe of
Judah, about the 25th year of the reign of Josiah; B.C. 606.
He was led captive to Babylon, with other young Hebrew lords,
after the taking of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar, who took him
into his service, when that prince gave them masters to instruct
them in the language and sciences of the Chaldeans, and ordered
them to be fed with the most delicate viands; but they, ſºaring
that they should eat meat forbidden by the law of Moses, desired
the king's officers to allow them only pulse. The wisdom and
conduct of Daniel pleasing Nebuchadnezzar, that monarch gave
him several posts of honour. It is said that, when but twelve
years of age he made known the innocence of the chaste
Susannah; but the learned are not agreed, that the young
Daniel who confounded the old men was the same with this
prophet; and some consider the whole story but fabulous. But







216 UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY, {B. C. 606.
he explained Nebuchadnezzar's dream of the mysterious statue
which foretold the four great monarchies, on which account he
was made prefect of the province of Babylon. He afterwards ex-
plained that monarch's other dreams which foretold his insanity.
In the reign of Darius the Mede, he refused to adore the gold
statue of the king, and was cast into the lions' den, when those
beasts, though pinched with hunger, did him no hurt. And he
explained the characters written on the wall of the room where
Belshazzar was feasting. It is believed that Daniel died in
Chaldea, and that he did not take advantage of the permission
ranted by Cyrus to the Jews of returning to their own country.
St. Epiphanius says he died at Babylon; and herein he is
followed by the generality of historians. :
SHADRACH, MESHACH, and ABEDNEGO, names
given by the prince of the Babylonian eunuchs, to the three
captive Jewish princes, Hamaniah, Mishael, and Azariah, the
companions of Daniel. Their temperance, wisdom, and pro-
motions along with Daniel, their heroic refusal to worship Ne-
buchadnezzar's golden image, and their miraculous deliverance
from the fiery furnace, with the destruction of their enemies,
and subsequent promotion over the province, are recorded in
Daniel, ch. i. and iii.
ZEPHANIAH, the second priest or sagan, under Seraiah,
in the reign of Zedekiah, who often consulted Jeremiah by him,
though he did not follow his advice, Jer. xxi. xxvii.
HABAKKUK: nothing is certainly known concerning the
tribe or birth-place of Habakkuk. He is supposed to have pro-
phesied about the year 605 before Christ, and to have been
alive at the time of the final destruction of Nebuchadnezzar.
It is generally believed, that he remained and died in Judea.
The genuine works of Habakkuk are contained in three chap-
ters. The style of this prophet is highly poetical, and his ode,
or hymn, on the mercy of God is, perhaps, unrivalled for its
union of sublimity, simplicity and piety.
HANANIAH, son of Azur (Jerem. xxviii. 1), a false prophet
of Gibeon, who coming to Jerusalem in the fourth year of
Zedekiah king of Judah, in the year B.C. 595, said to Jeremiah
and all.the people. “Within two full years will Ibring again into
this place all the vessels of the Lord's house, that Nebuchad-
nezzar king of Babylon hath carried to Babylon.” At the same
time Hananiah laid hold of the chains, or yokes, which Jeremiah
ad about his neck, as emblems of the future captivity of Judah,
and breaking them, said, “Thus saith the Lord, even so in two
years I will break the yoke of Nebuchadnezzar, king of Baby-
lon.” Jeremiah answered, “Thou hast broken the yokes of
wood, but thou shalt make for them yokes of iron; thou shalt
die this year, because thou hast taught rebellion against the
Lord.” Hananiah died within the year.







B.C. 624.] FROM JOSIAH TO CYRUS. 217
AHAB, the son of Kolaiah, a false prophet, who, along with
another, named Hananiah, seduced the Jewish captives at Ba-
bylon, with deceitful hopes of a speedy deliverance, and thus
excited their enmity against Jeremiah. But their pretences to
inspiration were severely punished, Jer. xxix. 22. :: *
PRO PH A N E H IS TO R Y.

BATTUS I. a Lacedaemonian who built the town of Cyrene
with a colony from the island of Thera. He was son of Polym-
nestus and Phronimee, and reigned in the town he had founded,
and after death received divine honours. The difficulty with
which he spoke, first procured him the name of Battus.
PHERETIMA, the wife of Battus, king of Cyrene, and the
mother of Arcesilaus who was driven from his kingdom in a
sedition, and assassinated. After her son's death, she recovered
the kingdom by the aid of Amasis king of Egypt, and to avenge
the murder of Arcesilaus, she caused all his assassins to be
crucified round the walls of Cyrene, and she cut off the breasts
of their wives, and hung them up near the bodies of their hus-
bands. It is said she was devoured by worms; a punishment
from heaven for her unparalleled cruelties.
PHRYNO, a celebrated general of Athens who died
B.C. 590. -
DRACO, succeeded Triptolemus as legislator at Athens, in
the 39th Olympiad, 624 years B. C. When the laws of Trip-
tolemus were become obsolete, or found insufficient for the re-
gulation of the state, Draco instituted a new code, which was so
extremely rigorous, that his laws were said to be written in
blood. Under his system of legislation, death was the penalty
for every kind of offence, in vindication of which he alleged,
that as small faults seemed to him worthy of death, he could
find no severer punishment for the greatest crimes. Such, how-
ever, was his abhorrence of the crime of taking away life, that
he directed a prosecution to be instituted even against inani-
mate things, which had been instrumental to this purpose, and
sentenced a statue which had fallen upon a man and killed him,
to be banished. This circumstance, if the report of tradition
be well founded, affords sufficient evidence of the rude state
of legislation in his time. His laws, however, were the result of
age and experience, and they owed their effect to the opinion
that was entertained, of his virtue and patriotism. The Athe-
nians could not endure their rigour, and the legislator himself
was obliged to withdraw to the island of Ægina. Here his po-
pularity was such, that he was suffocated at the public theatre,
amidst the applauses of the people. The rigour of his discipline
was, in some measure, relaxed by Solon, in the 46th Olympiad.
SOLON, one of the seven wise men of Greece, was born at


218 UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY, [B. C. 624.
Salamis, and descended from the truly patriotic king, Codrus.
He had recourse to merchandise for his subsistence. He had,
however, a greater thirst after knowledge and fame than after
riches, and made his mercantile voyages subservient to the in-
crease of his intellectual treasures. He very early cultivated
poetry, and applied himself to the study of wisdom. The shame-
ful decree, that none, under the pain of death, should propose
the recovery of Salamis, grieved him so much, that, having
composed an elegy of one hundred verses, such as he thought
would be most proper to inflame the minds of the people, he ran
into the market-place, as if he had been mad, with his night-cap
on his head, repeating his elegy. A crowd being gathered
round the pretended madman, his kinsman Pisistratus mingled
among the rest, and observing the people moved with Solon's
words, he seconded him with all the eloquence he was master of;
and between them, they prevailed so far as to have the law
repealed. Solon's popularity was extended through Greece in
consequence of a successful alliance which he formed among the
states in defence of the temple at Delphos against the Cirrhaeans.
When dissensions had arisen at Athens between the rich creditors
and the poor debtors, Solon was created archon, with the united
powers of supreme legislator and magistrate. He soon restored
harmony between the rich and poor : he cancelled the debts
which had proved the occasion of so much oppression, and
ordained that in future no creditor should be allowed to seize the
body of the debtor for his security; he made a new distribution
of the people, instituted new courts of judicature, and framed a
judicious code of laws, which afterwards became the basis of the
laws of the twelve tables of Rome. Among his criminal laws are
many wise and excellent regulations; but two of them were very
exceptionable; the permission of a voluntary exile to persons that
had been guilty of premeditated murder, and the appointment of
a less severe punishment for a rape than for seduction. Solon
died in Cyprus, in his 80th year, B. C. 558. Statues were
erected to his memory both at Athens and Salamis. Among the
precepts which have been ascribed to Solon, are the following:
“Laws are like cobwebs, that entangle the weak, but are broken
through by the strong. He who has learned to obey, will know
how to command. In every thing you do, consider the end.”
MILTIADES, an Athenian general, son of Cypselus. He
obtained a victory in a chariot-race at the Olympic games. He
led a colony of Athenians to the Chersonesus. The causes of
this appointment are striking and singular. The Thracian
Dolonci, harassed by a long war with the Absynthians, were
directed by the oracle of Delphi to take for their king the first
man they should meet in their return home, who should invite
them to come under his roof, and partake of his entertainments.
They met Miltiades, whom their appearances, with their strange
2



B.C. 628.] FROM JOSIAH TO CYRUS. 219
arms and garments, struck. He invited them to his house, and
was made acquainted with the commands of the oracle. He
obeyed; and when the oracle of Delphi had approved a second
time the choice of the Dolonci, he departed for the Cherso-
mesus, and was invested by the inhabitants with sovereign
power. The first measure he took was to stop the furtherin-
cursions of the Absynthians, by building a strong wall across
the Isthmus. When he had established himself, and fortified
his dominions, he turned his arms against Lampsacus. He
was taken in an ambuscade. His friend Croesus, king of Lydia,
was informed of his captivity, and procured his release. He
lived a few years after he had recovered his liberty. As he
had no issue, he left his kingdom and possessions to Stesagoras,
the son of Cimon, who was his brother by the same mother.
The memory of Miltiades was greatly honoured by the Dolomci;
and they regularly celebrated festivals, and exhibited shows, in
commemoration of a man to whom they owed their greatness
and preservation. & .
PERIANDER, a tyrant of Corinth and Corcyra, was the
son of Cypselus, who before him had obtained an unjust autho-
rity over his fellow citizens. Periander succeeded him about
the year B. C. 628; and in order to secure his power, put
death the principal persons in Corinth. In almost every other
respect, he well merited the title of tyrant, which has ever been
attached to his name; but he was very inimical to that luxury
which involved the inhabitants of the city, and he kept the
country in peace by means of his fleet, which gave him the con-
troul of the sea. #. is also applauded for not having imposed
taxes upon his people, excepting those which resulted from
the export and import of merchandize. His private life was
stained with enormous crimes. He murdered his wife in his
fury. He banished his son Lycophron to Corcyra for showing
an abhorrence of the cruelty inflicted on his mother; but in
his old age he sent to recall him, in order to govern Corinth in
his stead, while he himself intended to retire to Corcyra. The
people of that island prevented the exchange, by putting th
prince to death. Periander took a just and †. revenge on
the savage perpetrators of the deed ; but not contented with
this, he indulged the most cruel resentment on the innocent,
by sending three hundred youths of the best families to be
made eunuchs by king Alyattes of Sardis. These victims to
royal madness, stopping :
the people, and it has
to Peri
age of eighty, in the year B.C. 5
talents, and the following inscription LOIII
preserved by Laertius, proves that his country re.
as a wise and able ruler.



















UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY, [B.C. 628.
UIUI
Periander lies within Corinthian ground,
For power and wisdom above all renowned.
He was traditionally reckoned among the seven wise men of
Greece, and some of his maxims, which are rather prudential
than moral, seem to justify the title. The maxim most known
is, “There is nothing which prudence cannot accomplish.”
LYCOPHRON, son of Periander, king of Corinth. The
murder of his mother, Melissa, by his father, had such an effect
upon him, that he resolved never more to speak to him. This
resolution was strengthened by his uncle Proclas, king of
Epidanius, who took Lycophron and his brother under his
Fº When the infirmities of Periander obliged him to
ook for a successor, Lycophron, who was then in the island
of Corcyra, refused to come to Corinth while his father was
there, and he was induced to promise to settle in that city,
only on condition that his father would come and dwell on the
island which he left. So fearful, however, were the Corcyra-
nians of the tyranny of Periander, that they killed the son to
prevent the meditated exchange from taking place.
BATTUS II., was grandson to Battus I., and son of Arcesi-
laus. He succeeded his father on the throne of Cyrene, and
was surnamed Felix, and died B. C. 554.
PHALARIS, tyrant of Agrigentum, in Sicily, who rendered
himself famous by the cruelties which he committed, but of
whose personal history very little is known. He is thought to
have been born in Crete, and to have been banished from that
island on account of his political intrigues. He went to Sicily,
and by his abilities was enabled to obtain the sovereignty of
Agrigentum about the year B. C. 571. He found it necessary
to maintain by harshness and severity, the place to which he
had risen by force or fraud, and he became one of the most de-
tested of tyrants. The most marked instance of his cruelty is
his punishment by the brazen bull. The letters under his name
are undoubtedly spurious. .
CYAXARES II., king of the Medes, son of Astyages, and
uncle to Cyrus. This prince is supposed to be the same with
“Darius the Mede,” mentioned in the Old Testament. In
concert with his nephew, Cyaxares, after the reduction of Ba-
bylon, arranged the affairs of the new empire, and divided it
into a hundred and twenty provinces, which were entrusted to
the care of those persons who had distinguished themselves
luring the war, over whom three presidents were appointed;
he prophet Daniel, on account of his age, experience, and
great wisdom, being the chief. Cyaxares reigned in conjunc-
tion with Cyrus till the year B. C. 536, when he died.
PHI, LO XYPRU |S, a king of Cypr
rus in the age of Solon, by











B.C. 639.] FROM Josiah to CYRUs. 221.
whose advice he changed the situation of a §: which, in gra-
titude to the Athenian legislator, he called Soli. .
RO MAN S.
ANCUS MARTIUS, the fourth king of Rome, succeeded
Tullus Hostilius, B. C. 639. He defeated the Latins, sub-
dued the Fidenates, conquered the Sabines, Volscii, and Veien-
times, enlarged Rome, by joining, to it Mount Janicula, and
made the harbour of Ostia. He died about B. C. 615.
PRISCUS TARQUINIUS, the fifth king of Rome, was
the son of an opulent merchant at Corinth, who, escaping from
tyranny at home, settled at Tarquinia, in Etruria, where he
married a female of rank, by whom he had two sons. One of
them died, and the other, named Lucomon, was urged by his
wife Tanaquil, a lady of rank and authority, to remove from
Etruria to Rome; where he changed his praenomen Lucomon
into Lucius, and his family name Damaratus into Tarquinius,
borrowed from his native city. Here he ingratiated himself by
his manners with Ancus Martius, the king, and also with the
people; and by the liberal application of his wealth to public
purposes, particularly to the support of the wars in which Rome
was engaged, as well as by his skill and valour in the field, he
gained a reputation which served to advance him to the rank of
patrician and senator. Ancus also appointed him to the con-
fidential office of guardian to his two sons. Upon the death of
Ancus, B.C. 616, the ambition of Tarquin prompted him to
take measures for securing the succession to himself. The
crown being elective, he contrived, by bribes and solicitations,
to obtain the suffrages of the people, who proclaimed him
king! and in order to strengthen his interest in the senate, he
introduced from plebeian families two hundred new members into
this body. In his wars with the Latins, he took several of their
towns, and obliged the Sabines and Etrurians, whose confe-
deracy he defeated, to seek an alliance with Rome on humi-
liating terms. Tarquin, in honour of his success, was granted
a triumph; and the spoils of war were devoted to the erection
of the Circus Maximus, for the exhibition of the Roman or
great games. The Etrurians having afterwards rebelled, ob-
tained peace upon condition of their recognizing Tarquin as ,
their sºvereign. During an interval of peace, after a nine years’,
war, Tarquin º, himself in improving the city, by en-
closing it with walls, and by constructing those sewers, which -
were in subsequent times the objects of admiration. On occa-
sion of a new war with the Sabines, Tarquin, whose army was
deficient in cavalry, augmented the strength of each division; :
and having defeated the Sabines, they submitted, and surren-




[B.C. 640.
dered all their fortresses to the Romans. At this time Tarquin
fulfilled his vow of erecting a temple to Jupiter, Juno, and Mi-
nerva, on the Tarpeian rock; and by this act he acquired the
honour of founding the principal seat of the Roman worship.
Having attained to his 80th year, the sons of Ancus took occa-
sion to make an attempt for defeating his plan of continuing
the crown in his own family, by the marriage of his daughter
to Servius Tullius, by conspiring against his life. They so far
succeeded as to procure the assassination of the king. His
queen, Tanaquil, however, by keeping the event secret, adopted
measures for securing the succession of her son-in-law. The
SOAIS º. whose plot had been detected, went into volun-
tary, banishment. Thus ended, in the year B. C. 577, the
prosperous and splendid reign of Tarquin the elder, one of the
most illustrious of the Roman kings, and equally distinguished
by his conduct in peace and in war. . w
TANAQUIL, or CARA CECILIA, wife of Tarquin, fifth
king of Rome. She was a native of Tarquinia; and so well.
illed in augury, that she persuaded her husband to go to
ome, where he was elected king. After he was murdered,
she raised her son Servius Tullius to the throne. She was a
woman of such liberality, that the Romans preserved her gir-
dle with greativeneration.
NGEVIUS, a famous augur in the reign of Tarquin, who,
too convince the king and the Romans of his preternatural
power, cut a flint with a razor, and turned the ridicule of the
populace to admiration. Tarquin rewarded his merit by erect-
ing him a statue in the comitium, which was extant in the age
Augustus. The razor and flint were buried near it under
an altar, and it was usual among the Romans to make wit-
messes in civil causes swear near to it. This miraculous event
of cutting a flint with a razor, though believed by some writers,
is treated as fabulous by Cicero, who himself had been an
PHILOSOPHY.
THALES, the founder of the Ionic school, and of the scien-
fic method of philosophising among the Greeks, was born of
enician parents, at Miletus, B.C. 640. He acquired wealth
l distinction among his countrymen, and was employed at an
rly age in the public affairs. He declined involving himself-
y marriage in the cares of a family, that he might devote his
time and attention to the study of philosophy; alleging,
- N-ºx... … - M. at an early."
sº i is too soon:” at a m ore adwan C.edperiOd;“itistoo late.”
º N. n 3, ..." ----- sºr . º e º º g age himsel º, I 'om' every . avoca- .
r * Il S • epu * lits, ; he




































B.C. 649.J., FROM JOSIAH. To CYRUs.
committed the care of his estate to his sister's son, whom he
adopted. In search of wisdom he travelled to Crete, and after-
wards to Egypt. From the priests at Memphis, II]. the latter,
country, he is said by several writers to have gained his know-
dge of philosophy and mathematics. But it is more pro-
bable iº was more indebted to the exercise of his own ta-
lents and assiduity, than to any communication from them; and
accordingly it has been affirmed, that he taught the priests of
Memphis how to measure the height of their pyramids. Upon
his return to Miletus, he was universally respected for his ex-
traordinary wisdom and learning; and his acquaintance was
eagerly courted by all who wished to improve in knowledge, or
to be ranked among philosophers. Among his disciples, which
were numerous, were Anaximander, Anaximenes, and Py-
thagoras. Thales was the author of the Ionian sect of philoso-
phers; he was reckoned, by the best historians, the father of
Greek philosophy, being the first that made any researches
into natural knowledge and mathematics. He thought water,
was the principle of which all bodies in the universe are com-
posed; that the world was the work of God, whom he regarded
as omniscient, and as beholding the secret thoughts in the heart
of man. He maintained that real happiness consisted in health
and knowledge; that the most ancient of beings is God, because
he is uncreated; that nothing is more beautiful than the world,
because it is the work of God; nothing more extensive than
space, quicker than spirit, stronger than necessity, wiser than
time. He used to observe, that we ought never to say to any
one that which may be turned to our prejudice; and that we
should live with our friends as with persons that may become
our enemies. In geometry he was a considerable inventor, as
well as an improver, particularly in triangles; and all the writers
agree, that he was the first, even in Egypt, who took the height
of the pyramids by the shadow. His knowledge and improve-
ments in astronomy were very considerable. He divided the
celestial sphere into five circles or zones; the arctic and antarctic
circles, the two tropical circles, and the equator. He observed
the apparent diameter of the sun, which he made equal to half.
a degree; and formed the constellation of the Little Bear. He
obseryed the nature and course of eclipses, and calculated them.
3
ż ż º; ...
exactly; one in particular, memorably recorded by Herodotus,
as it happened on a day of battle between the Medes and Ly:
dians, which Thales had foretold; and he divided the year into.
365 days. He died at the age of ninety years, leaving behind
him an excellent character as a mathematician, a philosopher,
and a moralist. Of his maxims we select the following: “Nei-
ther the crimes nor the thoughts of bad men are concealed from
the gods. Health of body, competent fortune, and a cultivated
mind, are the chief sources of hap What is the most in


















* * º > - w % -
224 UNIVERSAL biography. [B. c. 606.
difficult thing? To know one's self. What the easiest? To
give advice to others. How shall we best attain to virtue 2
By abstaining from all that we blame in others. Parents may
expect from their children that obedience which they paid to
their own parents. Take more pains to correct the blemishes
of the mind, than those of the face. Stop the mouth of slander
by prudence. Be careful not to do that yourself, which you
blame in another. Friends should be remembered when ab-
sent, as well as when present.” * . . " . . . .
BIAS, a celebrated philosopher, and one of the seven sages
of Greece, flourished about B. C. 606. He was accustomed to
say, “It is a sickness of mind to wish for impossible things.”
During the siege of Priene, his native city, being asked why
he was the . one who returned from the place without
carrying any thing with him, he replied, that he carried his
all with him, meaning, that his knowledge and virtue were the
only blessings that were peculiarly his own, since they could
not be taken from him. He expired while pleading for one of
his friends. Having ended his speech he reposed his head
in the bosom of his sister's son; his adversary having closed
his defence, the judges gave sentence on Bias's side. The
court being dismissed, he was found dead in his nephew's bo-
som; the city bestowed a magnificent monument upon him,
with this inscription:
Bias, of Prienaean fam'd descent,
Lies here, Ionia's great ornament.
They also dedicated a temple to him, called the Tutmaian.
Laertius bestows upon him this epigram.
Bias lies hidden here, whom Hermes led z
To the grave, when age had snow'd upon his head;
His head, which, pleading for his friend, inclin'd
Upon his nephew, to long sleep resign'd.
He wrote concerning Ionia, by what means it might be most
happy. * - -
*o-RUN, or LAO-ISE, a Chinese philosopher, who
founded the sect of Tao-see. He was born B. C. 603, and died
in an advanced age, leaving to his disciples a book called Tao-
see, being a collection of five thousand sentences. His mo-
rality resembles that of Epicurus. º ºf
Poet Ry.
TY T AEUS, a Greek poet, is supposed to have been a na-
tive of Miletus, and to have resided at Athens, as a poet, mu-




FROM Josiah To Cyrus. 225
sician, and schoolmaster. Somewhat deformed in body, he
possessed a manly and elevated soul. In a contest between the
Lacedaemonians and Messenians, the former, having experi-
enced some ill success, are said to have consulted the oracle of
Delphi, B.C. 623, and to have been directed to seek a general
at Athens. The Athenians, as some say in derision, sent
Tyrtaeus, who, by the recital of poems in praise of valour and
patriotism, animated the Spartans, so that they became victo-
rious, and reduced the Messenians to subjection. He is said
to have also given them useful advice as a military leader, in
consequence of which the Spartans conferred upon him the
right of citizenship, and he honoured him whilst he resided
among them. His war poems have been celebrated by the
ancients, and particularly by Horace. -
MIMNERMUS, a Greek elegiac poet, a native of Colo-
phon, was contemporary with j. He was the inventor of
the pentameter verse; his compositions were of the elegiac
kind, according to the ancient acceptation of the word, which
by no means confined it to mournful topics. His talents led
him to treat of very different subjects: he was a votary of love
and pleasure, and is so distinguished by a line in Propertius:
“Plus in amore valet Mimnermi versus Homero."
Horace likewise refers to him in a similar connection, though
in much stronger terms:
“If, as wise Mimnermus said,
Life, unblest with love and joy,
Ranks us with the senseless dead,
Let these gifts each hour employ.”
His manners are thought to have corresponded with his phi-
losophy. His elegies, of which only a few fragments are pre-
served, were so much admired in antiquity, that Horace pre-
ferred them to those of Callimachus. He composed a poem,
** we learn from Pausanias, upon the battle fought between
the people of Smyrna and the Lydians, under Gyges. He
likewise was author of a poem in elegiac verse, which he en-
titled “Nanno," and in which we may suppose he chiefly cele-
brated * young and beautiful girl of that name, who, accord-
ing to Athenaeus, was a player on the flute, with whom he was
enamoured in his old age. Horace bears testimony to his
abilities, in describing that seducing passion, alluding to some
much-admired lines of this C reek poet, which have been pre-
served by Stobaeus: w
“What is life and allispide,
If love and pleasure be denied ?
VOL. I.



Snatch, snatch me hence, ye fates, whene'er
The amorous bliss I cease to share. .
Oh, let us crop each fragrant flower,
While youth and vigour give us power;
For frozen age will soon destroy
The force to give or take a joy;
And then a prey to pain and care,
Detested by the young and fair,
The sun's blest beams will hateful grow,
And only shine on scenes of woel”
ARION, a famous lyric poet and musician, son of Cyclos,
of Methymna, in the islandſ of Lesbos. He went into Italy
with Periander, tyrant of Corinth, where he obtained immense
riches by his profession. Some time after, he wished to re-
visit his country, and the sailors of the ship in which he em-
barked resolved to murder him, to obtain the riches which he
was carrying to Lesbos. Arion, seeing them inflexible in their
resolution, begged that he might be permitted to play some
melodious tune; and as soon as he had finished it, he threw
himself into the sea. A number of dolphins had been at-
tracted round the ship by the sweetness of his music; and it
is said that one of them carried him safe on his back to Taena-
rus, whence he hastened to the court of Periander, who or-
dered all the sailors to be crucified at their return. :
EPIMENIDES, an ancient poet and philosopher, by some
styled a Phestian; by others said to have been born at Gnos-
sus, in Crete. Contrary to the custom of his country, he
always wore his hair long, which, according to some, was be-
cause he was ashamed of being thought a Cretan; and he
does not seem to have had a high opinion of his countrymen,
if that verse cited by St. Paul be, as it is generally believed to
be, his : “The Cretans are always liars, evil beasts, slow
bellies.” His reputation was so great over all Greece, that he
was a favourite of the gods. The Athenians being afflicted
with the plague, and commanded by the oracle to make a so-
emn lustration of the city, sent Nicias, the son of Niceratus,
with a ship to Crete, to desire Epimenides to come to them.
accepted their invitation, accompanied the messengers to
Athens, performed the lustration of the city, and the plague
ceased, B.C. 596. Here he contracted an acquaintance with
Solon, whom he privately instructed in the proper method for
the regulation of the Athenian commonwealth. He is said to
wistfully on the port of Munychia for a long time,
and then to have spoken as follows to those that were near
him: “How blind is man to future things! for did the Athe-
nians know what mischief will one day be derived to them
from this place, they would eat it with their teeth.” This
prediction was thought to be accomplished 270 years after,
















when Antipater constrained the Athenians to admit a Mace-
donian garrison into that place. Having finished his business
at Athens, the citizens offered him many valuable presents and
high honours, and appointed a ship to carry him back to Crete;
but he would accept of nothing, except a little branch of the
sacred olive preserved in the citadel; and desired the Athe-
nians to enter into an alliance with the Gnossians. Having ob-
tained this, he returned to Crete, where he died soon after,
aged 157 years; or as the Cretans, consistently with their cha-
racter, pretended, 299. He was a great poet, and wrote
5,000 verses on the genealogy of the gods, 6,500 on the build-
ing of the ship Argo, and Jason's expedition to Colchis, and
4,000 concerning Minos and Rhadamanthus. He wrote also
in prose, concerning the sacrifices and the commonwealth of
Crete. St. Jerome iº mentions his books of oracles and
responses. The Lacedaemonians procured his body, and pre-
served it among them, by the advice of an oracle; and Plu-
tarch tells us that he was reckoned the seventh wise man by
those who refused to admit Periander into the number. St.
Paul quotes this poet in Titus i. 12.
ST jº. a Greek lyric poet, was born at Himera,
in Sicily, and flourished about the year B.C. 612, being a per-
son of some consequence in his native city; and he is said to
have died in the year B. C. 556. His works are numerous,
and much esteemed by the ancients. They were composed in
the Doric dialect, but they have all perished, except a few
fragments, amounting to fifty or sixty lines, printed in the col-
lection of Fulvius Ursinus. The general character of his writ-
ing is represented as consisting in force and dignity, * …?
Horace speaks of “The dignified strains of Stesichorus.” .
Statius, in his Sylvae, characterises him as “The impetuous
Stesichorus.” - - %
The Greek epigrammatist speaks of him in the following
manner: “Stesichorus blazes or glows." And again: ; Thou,
O Stesichorus, hast drawn along with thee the
stream.”
Dionysius says that he possessed all the excellencies and
graces of Pindar and Simonides, and that he surpassed them
both in the grandeur of his subjects, in which he has well pre-
served the characteristics of manners º ersons; and Quin-
tilian represents him as having displayed the sublimity of his
genius by the selection of weighty topics, such as important
# * & manders, in which ſhe has
sustained with his lyre the d of epic poetry. A ccord-
ingly, Alexander the Great ran among those who were
CLEOBULUS, one of the seven wise men of Greece, son
of Evagoras of Lindos, famous for the beautiful shape of his
Q 2
wars, and the actions of great com



















UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. IB. c. 624.
body. He wrote some verses, and died in the 70th year of his
age, B.C. 564. . 3.
SAPPHO, a celebrated Greek poetess, was a native of Mi-
tylene, in the isle of Lesbos, and flourished about the year
B. C. 610. She married a rich inhabitant of Andros, by whom
she had a daughter; and it was not, probably, till after she
became a widow, that she rendered herself so distinguished by
her poetry and amours. Her verses were chiefly of the lyric
kind, and love was the general subject, which she treated with
so much warmth, and with such beauty of poetical expression,
as to have acquired the title of the tenth muse. Her composi-
tions were held in the highest esteem by contemporary poets,
the Roman as well as the Grecian, and no female name has
risen higher in the catalogue of poets. Her morals have been
as much depreciated, as her genius has been extolled. Besides
her desperate passion for Phaon, she too has been accused of
an unnatural attachment to some of her own sex. She is re-
presented by Ovid as very far from handsome; and as she was
probably no longer young when she became enamoured of the
beautiful Phaon, his neglect is not at all surprising. Unused
to neglect, and unable to bear her disappointment, she went to
the famous precipice of Leucate, since popularly called the
Lover's Leap, and throwing herself into the sea, terminated her
life and her love. To this catastrophe Ausonius alludes:
“And the masculine Sappho, about to perish with her Lesbian ar-
rows, threatens a leap from the snow-crowned Leucade.”
Statius, in his Sylvae, bears testimony to the fatal close of
Sappho's life: .
“And the rash Sappho did not dread Leucade.”
Among the moderns, a noble author has thus described the
spot where the still fond, but despairing woman put a period to
her sorrows and her existence: .
“But when he saw the evening star above
Leucadia's far-projecting rock of woe,
And hail'd the last resort of fruitless love,
He felt, or deem'd he felt, no common glow : .
And as the stately vessel glided slow
Beneath the shadow of that ancient mount,
He watch'd the billows' melancholy flow,
And sank albeit in thought, as he was wont; . . .3
More placid seem'd his eye, and smooth his pallid front.”
LoRD BYRoN.

B.C. 623.] From Josiah to CYRUs.
Longinus quotes the following celebrated Ode as an example
of sublimity: º
“Blest as th’ immortal gods is he,
The youth who fondly sits by thee,
And hears and sees thee all the while,
Softly speak and sweetly smile.
“'Twas this depriv'd my soul of rest,
And rais'd such tumults in my breast;
For, while I gaz'd in transport lost,
My breath was gone, my voice was lost;
“My bosom glow'd ; the subtle flame *
Ran quick through all my vital frame:
O'er my dim eyes a darkness hung.
My ears with hollow murmurs rung;
“In dewy damps my limbs were chill'd ;
My blood with gentle horrors thrill'd ;
My feeble pulse forgot to play;
I fainted, sunk, and died away.”
PHILLIPs's TRANSLATIon.
No less beautiful is the hymn to Venus, of which the follow-
ing is an extract:
“Oh Venus, beauty of the skies,
To whom a thousand temples rise,
Gaily false in gentle smiles, -
Full of love-perplexing wiles;
Oh, goddess! from my heart remove
The wasting cares and pains of love.
“If ever thou hast kindly heard
A song in soft distress preferr'd,
Propitious to my tuneful vow,
Oh! gentle goddess! hear one now ;
Descend, thou bright, immortal guest,
In all thy radiant charms confest.
“Thou once didst leave almighty Jove,
And all the golden roofs above,
The car thy wanton sparrows drew,
Hovering in air they lightly flew ;
As to my bower they wing'd their way,
I saw their quiv'ring pinions play.
“The birds dismist, while you remain,
Bore back their empty car again;
Then you, with looks divinely mild,
In every heavenly feature smil'd,



ERSAL BIOGRAPHY. [B. c. 623.
And 'ask'd what new complaints I made,
And why I call'd you to my aid " PHILLIPs. '
Sappho formed an academy of females who excelled in mu-
sic; and it was doubtless this academy which drew on her the
hatred of the women of Mitylene, who accused her of being
too fond of her own sex; but will not her love for Phaon, and
the fatal termination of her existence, sufficiently exculpate her.
Maximus Tyrius plainly asserts that Sappho was both dimi-
nutive in her stature and swarthy in her complexion. Ovid con-
firms this description in his Heroides, in the celebrated epistle
from Sappho to Phaon:
“To me what nature has in charms deny'd,
Is well by wit’s more lasting flames supply'd.
Tho' short my stature, yet my name extends
To heav'n itself, and earth's remotest ends.
Brown as I am, an Ethiopian dame -
Inspir'd young Perseus with a gen'rous flame.”
Besides the structure of verse called Sapphic, she invented
the Æolic measure, composed elegies, epigrams, and nine
books of lyric poetry. &
- ALCAEUS, a famous ancient lyric poet, born at Mitylene,
in the island of Lesbos, esteemed by Horace the inventor of
this kind of poetry. He flourished at the same time with Sappho,
who was likewise of Mitylene; and was a great enemy to tyrants,
but not a very brave soldier. He was present at an engage-
ment, wherein the Athenians gained a victory over the Les-
bians; and here, as he himself is said to have confessed in one
of his pieces, he threw down his arms, and saved himself by
flight. Horace, who of all the Latin poets, most resembled
Alcaeus, has made the like confession. The poetical abilities
of Alcaeus are undisputed; and though his poems were chiefly
in the lyric strain, yet his muse was capable of treating the
sublimest subjects with suitable dignity.
Horace mentions him in an animated panegyric:
“Alcaeus strikes the golden strings,
ir, and exile sings:
e the various lyre,
he sacred sounds admire;
But when Alcaeus lifts the strain,
In thicker crowds the shadowy throng ; :
Drink deeper down the martial song.” FRANcis,
CRINNA, of the Isle of Te
poem, in the Doric language
at 19 years of age.
published an excellent
rized in 300 verses. Her
w of Homer. She died























FROM cyR Us To ARTAXERXES 1.
[B.C. 600.]
REMARKABLE EACTs, Events, AND Discoveries.
* . º
B.C. º:
598 Jehoiachin, king of Judah, carried captive, by Nebuchadnezzar.
594 Solon made Archon at Athens. º
591 The Pythian games instituted in Greece, and tragedy first acted.
588 The first irruption of the Gauls into Italy.
566 The first Census at Rome, when the number of citizens was found to
be 84,000.
562 The first comedy at Athens acted upon a moveable scaffold.
559 Cyrus the first king of the Medes and Persians.
550 Thales travels into Egypt, acquires the knowledge of geometry, as-
tronomy, and philosophy; returns to Greece, calculates eclipses,
gives general notions of the universe, and maintains the unity of
the Deity. His scholar, Anaximander, invents maps, globes, and
the signs of the zodiac.
538 Babylon taken, and its monarchy ended by Cyrus
536 Cyrus issues an edict for the return of the Jews. * * > . . . . . . .: º, . . ;
534 The Temple founded by the Jews. - -
26 Learning greatly encouraged at Athens, and a public library first
º: founded. - - - :
527 Egypt conquered by Cambyses.
520 The second edict to rebuild Jerusalem.
515 The second Temple finished under Darius.
509 Tarquin, the last king of Rome, expelled, and a republican govern-
ment established, which lasted 461 years. - º
508 The first alliance between the Romans and Carthaginians,
507 The second Census at Rome, 130,000 citizens. ; :
504 Sardis burnt by the Athenians, which occasioned the Persian invasion
of Greece. - sº
*****
Is this period, prophane history becomes somewhat clear, and the
relations concerning the different mations may be depended upon with
some degree of certainty. Characters are produced that are highly
interesting, and important revolutions take place. Cyrus, the Mede,
overthrows the Babylonian, and establishes the Persian empire.
We shall now divide our periods into centuries. The reader will be
pleased to observe, that the characters are placed in the century in
which they were supposed to be born; on this account he must bear
in mind that in perusing the lives of those who came into the world
towards the close of a century, he will be extending his ideas to the
ºš







232 UNIVERSAL Biography, (b. c. 500.
events of a succeeding period. As some general rule must be ob-
served in placing the characters, on mature consideration, this has
been thought the best. To have placed them in the century in which
they died would have been more inconvenient; the time in which they
flourished, was thought of, but it appeared objectionable.
The chronological tables at the beginning of the periods will assist
the reader in forming correct ideas of time.
G O V E R N M E N T.
CYRUS, the famous founder of the Persian monarchy, and
the restorer of the Jews to their country, their temple, and
their former state, was the son of Cambyses, and Mandane, the
daughter of Astyages, B. C. 599. Cyrus, beautiful in his per-
son, and more amiable for the qualities of his mind, lived with
his father during the first twelve years of his life, and was edu-
cated after the Persian manner in hardship and toil, and all
such laborious exercises, as would tend to fit him for the fatigues
of war, in which he unquestionably excelled all his contempo-
raries. At this early period he surpassed all of his age, not
only in aptness to learn, but in the courage and address with
which he executed whatever he undertook. After this he was
sent to Media to the court of Astyages, his grandfather, with
whom he lived about five years. Here his conduct was so ex-
cellent and amiable, notwithstanding the pride, luxury, and
magnificence which prevailed in the court of Media, that he
was generally beloved, and laid the foundation of that attach-
ment to his person which enabled him afterwards to perform
the exploits which are recorded of him. He was gentle,
affable, beneficent and generous. Whenever the young lords
had any favour to ask of the king, Cyrus was their solicitor. If
the king had any subject of complaint against them, Cyrus was
their mediator; and he always managed their affairs so well,
that he never failed of obtaining what he desired. When he
was sixteen years of age, he accompanied Astyages in an attack
upon the Assyrians, who had made inroads upon the Persian
territories; his behaviour on this occasion was such, that the
victory obtained was imputed to his energy and superior prowess.
Soon after this he returned to his father, with whom he resided
till he had attained the age of forty, when he was called forth
to the assistance of his uncle Cyaxares, by whom he was ap-
pointed generalissimo of the Medes and Persians. This led to
the establishment of that vast empire, of which he was the
founder, and which he erected upon principles of so much
w , that it existed in spite of the weakness and the wicked-
ness of his successors, for a period of two hundred years. In



B. c. 599.]. FROM CYRUs to ARTAXERXEs I.
this sketch we shall not attempt to follow the hero in all his
contests. In every instance, where valour and wisdom were
required, he was found possessed of all those qualities that can
render a man and a prince truly great. After a signal victory
obtained by Cyrus over the Assyrians, aided by Croesus, a
young princess of exquisite beauty was found among the pri-
soners of war, and in the division of the spoil she was re-
served for Cyrus. Her name was Panthea, the wife of Abra-
dates, king of Susiana. Upon the report made to Cyrus of her
extraordinary beauty, he refused to see her; fearing, as he said,
that such an object might engage his affection more than he
desired, and divert him from the prosecution of the real design
which he had in view. . % :
When he had dethroned the Lydian king, he completed the
reduction of all Lesser Asia and Syria, and then turning his
arms against the king of Assyria, he invested Babylon, which
he took after a siege of two years, and thus put an end to that
great and powerful monarchy, B.C. 538. %
The destruction of Babylon forms a very .# event
both in prophane and sacred history; and, more particularly, in
its reference to the predictions of Scripture and the subsequent
state of the Jews. Isaiah, who began to deliver his predictions
in the year B. C. 757, and who was put to death B. C. 696;
and Jeremiah, who died about the year B. C. 577, expressly
foretold the destruction of this city, together with several cir-
cumstances that attended it, and that marked it as a very im-
portant era in the history of the world. Both these prophets
speak with such assurance of its destruction, and of the man-
ner in which it would be brought about, that they seem to de-
scribe a future event as if it had already occurred, and they had
been witnesses of the catastrophe. §§
Cyrus, who was the destined conqueror of Babylon, and who
transferred the empire from the Babylonians to the Medes and
Persians, was foretold by name above an hundred years before
he was born. The time of the reduction of Babylon was spe-
cifically marked out by the prophet Jeremiah. The facts agree-
ing with these prophecies, are related by no less historians than
Herodotus and Xenophon; and Isaiah lived above two hundred
and fifty years before Herodotus, and nearly three hundred and
fifty before Xenophon; and Jeremiah lived above one hundred
and fifty years before the one, and nearly two hundred and
fifty, befºre the other. As Cyrus took Babylon in the year
B. Q.538, Isaiah delivered his prophecies at least one hundred
and sixty years before the taking of Babylon, and Jeremiah sent
his prophecies concerning Babylon, to Babylon by the hands
of Seraiah, “in the fourth year of the reign of Zedekiah,” Jer.
ii. 59, which was fifty-six years before the taking of Babylon, for
the fourth year of Zedekiah coincides with the year 594 B.C.





ion of Babylon was complete and final, is no
minutely described than other cir-
Ypressly g
After Cyrus had sett
Persia to make a visit to his parents, who were still living; and
on his way thither through Media, he there married the daugh-
ter of Cyaxares, called in Scripture, Darius the Mede, having
with her as a dowry the kingdom of Media in reversion, and
then with his wife went to Babylon. He now, viz. in the year
586 B.C., issued an edict, which has given celebrity to his
name, permitting such of the Jews as were remaining from the
Babylonish captivity to return to Jerusalem and rebuild their
temple. This decree was certainly obtained by the intercession
of the prophet Daniel, who was already highly famed for his
wisdom and integrity, in a licentious and truly infamous court.
In Daniel, Cyrus seems to have placed the highest degree of
confidence, which the prophet turned to the advantage of his
oppressed countrymen. From concurring testimony, he no
doubt pointed out to the prince the prophecies of Isaiah, in
which himself was pointed out by the finger of heaven, as des-
timed for the most important purposes; as designated to be a
great conqueror and the restorer of the Jews to their native
land. The learned Prideaux offers many reasons that might
have concurred to induce the conqueror to comply with the
urgent solicitations of the prophet, his friend and principal
minister. Though Cyrus was born and brought up as an ido-
later, the interposition of providence must occasionally have
made an impression on his mind, which Daniel seems to have
converted to the best ends. # :
He speaks in his decree in the name of the Lord of Israel;
he was too wise to believe in the gods which his countrymen
and the world in general were accustomed to worship, and was
probably too much enlightened to refer the passing events of
life, and the revolutions of empires, to what the ignorant would
denominate chance. He had heard of the hand writing on the
wall, which none but Daniel could explain; and he only, ac-
cording to his own profession, by the interposition of his God.
He had been informed of the deliverance of the same excel-
lent man from the lion's jaws, and he might be almost, if not
altogether persuaded, that the God of Israel was the God that
had made him “king of the whole world.” . w
Cyrus not only permitted and encouraged the Jews to return
own country, but readily restored all the sacred vessels
* which Nebuchadnezzar had brought from Jeru-
º d deposited in the temple of Baal. Having established
his empire, which bounded on the east by the river Indus,
an ºl h by the Caspian and Euxine seas, on the west by
he AEgean sea, and on the south by Ethiopia and the sea of
led his affairs at Babylon, he went into































B. c.500. From Cyrus to ARTAxerxes i.
Arabia, upon a foundation not easily shaken; he fixed his
dence in the midst of all these countries, spending generally
seven months of the year at Babylon, in the winter season, on
account of the warmth of that climate; three months at Susa,
in the spring of the year, and two months at Ecbatana, during
the heat of the summer. Seven years being spent in a state of
tranquillity, as he was equally beloved by his own natural sub-
jects, and by those of the conquered nations, he returned into
Persia, which was the seventh time from his accession to the
whole monarchy. At this time he was about seventy years of
age, thirty of which had elapsed since his having been first
made general of the Persian forces and from the capture of
Babylon, and seven from his beginning to reign alone after the
death of Cyaxares. His life had been uniformly sober and
temperate, and he therefore enjoyed to the last a vigorous
state of health. When he perceived that the time of his death
was drawing near, he ordered his children and the chief officers
of the state to be assembled near him ; and after having thanked
the gods for all their favours to him during the course of his
life, and implored similar protection and favour on behalf of
his children, his country, and his friends, he declared his eldest
son, Cambyses, his successor; and left the other, whose name
was Tanaoxares, several very considerable governments. He
gave them both excellent instructions, and represented to them
that the mean strength and support of the throne were neither
the vast extent of countries, nor the number of forces, nor im
mense riches, but a due respect for the gods, a good under-
standing between brethren, and the art of acquiring and pre-
serving true and faithful friends. After having given his hand
to be kissed by all who were present, finding himself at the
point of death, he added these last words: “Adieu, dear
children, may your lives be happy; carry my last remembrance
to your mother. And for you, my faithful friends, as wel
absent as present, receive this last farewell, and may you live in
peace!" Having closed his address, he covered his face, and
died, according to Xenophon, at the age of seventy. He was
buried at Pasagarda, and his monument was to be seen in the
time of Alexander the Great.
Cyrus, says M. Rollin, may be justly considered as the
wisest conqueror, and the most accomplished prince, whose
name 9ecurs in prophane history. He possessed all the qualities
requisite to form a great man; wisdom, moderation, courage,
magnanimity, noble sentiments, a wonderful ability in managin
men's tempers, and gaining their affections; a thorough kno
ledge of all the branches of the military art, as far a
had carried it; a vast extent of genius and capacity for
and an equal steadiness and prudenceforex,
projects. As real merit was the


























236 UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY, [B. C. 599.
his greatness, he affected no self-importance and haughtiness
of demeanour, but strove to render himself affable and easy of
access; and he was amply compensated by the cordial affection
and respect of his people. He was beloved, and had many
friends because his sentiments were kind and liberal, and he
was friendly in his disposition and conduct. Cicero observes,
(Lib I. epist. ii. ad. iii. fratrem), that during the whole time of
Cyrus's government, he was never heard to speak one rough
or angry word; and this showed a very singular degree of self-
command. It was his invariable persuasion, that all his purposes
and labours should tend to the happiness of his people. Whilst
he was one day discoursing with his courtiers upon the duties of a
king, he observed that a prince ought to consider himself as a
shepherd; and that he ought to have the same vigilance, care,
and goodness. Many great and good characters have been
formed by adversity and affliction; but Cyrus was great and
good without this kind of discipline. He himself informs us,
that during the whole course of his life, the happiness of it was
never interrupted by any unfortunate accident, and that in all
his designs the success had answered his utmost expectations.
He adds, however, that in the midst of his uninterrupted pros-
}. he still reserved in his heart a secret fear, proceeding
from the changes and misfortunes that might happen; and this
prudent fear was not only a preservative against insolence, but
even against intemperate joys. As to the nature and motives
of his wars and victories, M. Rollin considers Cyrus as having
maintained a very different character from those conquerors
who were influenced by ambition and avarice, and who are
chargeable with violence and injustice. Although Cyrus was
not in every respect justifiable, yet he reverenced the laws, and
well knew that there are unjust wars, which being undertaken
without just foundation, render the person concerned in excit-
ing and producing them, accountable for the blood that he
sheds. Cyrus's conquests were the consequences of the victo-
ries he obtained over Croesus, king of Lydia, who was master of
the greatest part of Lesser Asia, and over the king of Babylon,
who was master of all Upper Asia, and many other countries;
both which princes were the aggressors. With good occasion,
therefore, is Cyrus represented as one of the greatest princes
recorded in history; and his reign justly proposed as the model
of a perfect government, which it would not be, unless justice
had been the basis and foundation of it.
ABRADATES, king of Susa in the Persian empire. His
wife, Panthea, being taken prisoner by Cyrus the Great in a
battle against the Assyrians, was designed for his embraces;
but Cyrus gave her the most honourable treatment, which
charmed Pantheaso much, that she prevailed upon her husband
to come over with his troºps to Cyrus. Abradates joined









B.C. 509.] FROM cyRUs to ARTAxERxes I. 237
Cyrus, and coming to an engagement, he fought with the utmost
intrepidity; but pressing the Egyptian squadrons very closely,
he was thrown out of his chariot, and perished in the field. Pan-
thea, being inconsolable, killed herself. Cyrus erected a stately
mausoleum to their memory on the spot where this sad catas-
trophe happened, B.C. 548.
THOMYEIS, queen of the Scythians. Her son, S.
. parga-
pises, being defeated and slain by Cyrus, she raised fresh troops,
and put 200,000 Persians to the sword.
HARPAGIUS, the preserver of Cyrus, according to Hero-
dotus, and afterwards one of his generals, who subdued Asia
Minor. . ..
ZERUBBABEL, son of Salathiel, a person to whom Cyrus
committed the care of the sacred vessels of the temple, with
which he returned to Jerusalem. (Ezra i. 3.) He laid the
foundations of the temple, (Ezra iii. 8, 9. Zech. iv. 9, &c.) and
restored the worship of the Lord, and the usual sacrifices.
When the Samaritans offered to assist in rebuilding the temple,
Zerubbabel and the principal men of Judah refused them this
honour, since Cyrus had granted his commission to the Jews
only. (Ezra iv. 2, 3.) .
ZECHARIAH, the son of Barachiah, and grandson of
Iddo, the eleventh of the minor prophets. He returned from
Babylon with Zerubbabel, and began to prophecy when very
young, in the second year of Darius Hystaspes, B. C. 520, two
months after Haggai. He too greatly encouraged the Jews in
building the second temple. . * . . . . . . .
CRCESUS, the last king of Lydia, remarkable for his riches,
his conquests, his temporary prosperity, and his sad reverse of
fortune. He subdued the Phrygians, Mysians, Paphlagonians,
Thracians, and Carians; amassed together immense riches, and
became one of the most powerful and magnificent princes in
the world. He drew the learned to his court, and took a plea-
sure in conversing with them. Thales of Miletus, Pittacus of
Mitylene, Bias of Priené, Cleobulus of Lindus, and most of the
other wise men, as they are emphatically styled, who lived in
tha well as AEsop, the fabulist, and the elegant Greek
poets of the times, were bountifully received at the court of
Croesus.
There is still on record a memorable conversation
between that prince and Solon, which seemed to predict the
subsequent events of his reign, and which had a late but impor-
tanti the character and fortune of the Lydian king.
Croesus having entertained his Athenian guest, according to the
ancient fashion, for several days, before he asked him any
questions, ºstentatiously showed him the magnificence of his
º: and particularly the riches of his treasury. After all
had been displayed to the best advantage, the king compli-
mented Solon upon his curiosity and love of knowledge; and








º eemed most happy?" By the particular occa-
sio
on, as well as the triumphant air with which the question was
roposed, the king made it evident, that he expected flattery
p º: º g º & º . ; -
rather than information. But Solon's character had not been
enervated by the debilitating air of a court; and he replied
with a manly freedom, “Tellus, the Athenian.” Croesus, who
had scarcely learned to distinguish, evenin imagination, between
wealth and happiness, enquired with a tone of surprize, why
his preference to Tellus? “Tellus,” rejoined Solon, “was not
conspicuous for his riches or his grandeur, being only a simple
citizen of Athens; but he was descended from parents who de-
served the first honours of the republic. He was equally for-
tunate in his children, who obtained universal esteem by their
probity, patriotism, and every useful quality of the mind and
body; and as to himself, he died fighting gallantly in the service
of his country, which his valour rendered victorious in a doubt-
ful combat; on which account the Athenians buried him on the
spot where he fell, and distinguished him by every honour
which public gratitude can confer on illustrious merit.” Croesus
had little encouragement, after this answer, to ask Solon, in the
second place, “ §. next to Tellus, he deemed most happy?”
Such, however, is the illusion of vanity, that he still ventured to
make this demand; and still, as we are informed, entertained
hopes of being favourably answered. But Solon replied with
the same freedom as before, “The brothers Cleobis and
Biton, two youths of Argos, whose strength and address were
crowned with repeated victory at the Olympic games; who de-
served the affection of their parents, the gratitude of their
country, the admiration of Greece; and who, having ended
their lives with peculiar felicity, were commemorated by the
most signal monuments of immortal fame.” “And is the happi-
ness of a king, then,” said Croesus, “so little regarded, that
you prefer to it the mean condition of an Athenian or Argive
citizen?” “The life of man,” replied Solon, “ consists of 70
years, which make 25,550 days; an immense number; yet in
the longest life, the events of any one day will not be found
exactly alike to those of another. The affairs of man are liable
to perpetual vicissitudes; and all human life, if not condemned
o calamity, is at least liable to accident. Whoever has unin-
ptedly enjoyed a prosperous tide of success, may justly
called fortunate; but he cannot before his death be entitled
he epithet of happy.” The events, which soon followed this
rsation, prove how little satisfaction is derived from the
session of a throne. Victorious in war, unrivalled in wealth,
**** - ower, | D. •oesus feltand aſ know edged his unhappi-
warme ctions centred in his son Atys, a most





































promising youth, who had often fought and conque w
side. The strength of his attachment was accompanied with
an excess of paternal care, and the anxiety of his waking hours
disturbed the tranquillity of his rest. He dreamed that his
beloved son was slain by a dart; and the solicitude with which
he watched his safety, preventing the youth from his usual
amusements, probably exposed him to the much dreaded mis-
fortune. Permitting him to engage in a hunting party, the
juvenile ardour of Atys, increased by the impatience of long
restraint, made him neglect the necessary precautions. He
was slain by a dart aimed at a wild boar of a monstrous
size, which had long spread terror over the country of the
Mysians. The weapon came from the hand of Adrastus, a
Phrygian prince and fugitive, whom Croesus had purified from
the involuntary guilt of a brother's blood, and long distinguished
by peculiar marks of bounty. To the grateful protection of
the Phrygian had Croesus recommended, at parting, the safety
of his beloved son. A mournful procession of Lydians brought
to Sardis the dead body of Atys. When they approached the
royal presence, Adrastus entreated Croesus to put him to death;
thinking life no longer to be endured after killing, first his own
brother, and then the son of his benefactor. But the Lydian
king, notwithstanding the excess of his affliction, acknowledged
the innocence of Adrastus, and the power of fate. “Stranger,
your action is blameless, being committed without design. I
know that my son was destined to a premature death.” Adras-
tus, though pardoned by Croesus, could not pardon himself, but
perished by his own hand on the tomb of Atys. Two years
Croesus remained disconsolate for the loss of his son, and might
have continued to indulge his unavailing affliction the remain-
der of his life, had not the growing greatness of Persia, which
threatened the safety of his dominions, roused him. He
marched against Cyrus with a great army, but was defeated;
and retreating to his capital, Sardis, was there besieged. The
city was taken by assault; and as a Persian soldier was going
to kill Croesus, that prince's only surviving son, who had hitherto
been dumb, terrified at his danger, cried, “Stop, soldier, and
touch not Croesus.” But though delivered by this extraordi-
nary accident from the blind rage of the soldier, he seemed to
be reserved for a harder fate. Tragged into the presence of
his conqueror, he was loaded with irons; and the stern Cyrus
ordered him, with his Lydian attendants, to be committed it
• the flames. . An immense pile of - wood, and ot her. comb 1sti. l *S.
were erected in the most spacious part of the city. T
rable victims, bound hand and foot, were placed on
the pile. Cyrus, surrounded by his general
dreadful spectacle, from a motive of:
to try whether Croesus, who had























UNIVERSAL biography. |B. C. 599;
he temples and enriched the ministers of the gods, would b
saved by their miraculous interposition. Meanwhile the un-
fortunate Lydian, oppressed by the intolerable weight of his
calamity, recollected his conversation with the Athenian sage, and
uttered with a deep groan, the name of “Solon.” Cyrus asked
by an interpreter, “Whose name he invoked 7” “His,” replied
Croesus, “whose words ought ever to speak to the hearts of
kings.” Being desired to explain himself, he related Solon's
important discourse, of which it was the great moral, that no
man could be happy until his death. The words of a dying
man make a strong impression on the heart. Those of Croesus
deeply affected the mind of Cyrus, who considered the speech
of Solon as addressed to himself. He repented of his intended
cruelty towards an unfortunate prince, who had formerly en-
joyed all the pomp of prosperity; and dreading the vengeance
of heaven, ordered the fire to be extinguished. But the work-
men who had been employed to prepare it, had performed their
task with so much care, that the order could not speedily be
obeyed. At that moment, Croesus calling on Apollo, a plenti-
ful shower fell and extinguished the pile. This event, which
saved the life, and sufficiently attested the piety of Croesus,
strongly recommended him to the credulity of his conqueror.
It seemed impossible to pay too much respect to a man who
was evidently the favourite of heaven. Cyrus gave orders that
he should be seated by his side, and thenceforth treated as a
king; a revolution of fortune equally sudden and unexpected.
But the mind of Croesus had undergone a still more important
revolution; for, tutored in the useful school of adversity, he
learned to think with patience and to act with prudence; to
govern his own passions by the dictates of reason, and to repay,
by wholesome advice, the generous behaviour of his Persian
master, whom he survived. .
ANAXANDRIDES, king of Sparta, commenced his reign
about B. C. 550. He had two wives, which was uncommon
among the Lacedaemonians; by one he had a son, named Cleo-
menes, who succeeded him, and by the other, three children,
one of whom was the famous Leonidas.
SANBALLAT, the governor of the Samaritans, a great
enemy to the Jews. He was a native of Horon, or Horonaim,
a city beyond Jordan, in the country of the Moabites. He
lived in the time of Nehemiah, who was his great opponent,
and from whose book we learn his history. There is one cir-
sumstance related of him by Josephus, which has occasioned
isr "...# the learned. When Alexander the Great
C
Sº
I






























nic.sº from cyRUs to ARTAx
; constituted his son-in-law, Manasseh, the high-
it is evident that this is a flagrant anachronism; for
before this, Sanballat was governor of Samaria; wher
the learned Dr. Prideaux, in his connexion of the his
ries of the Old and New Testament, supposes two Sanballa
and endeavours to reconcile it to truth and probability, by
showing it to be a mistake of Josephus, in making Samba c
to flourish in the time of Darius Codomanus, and to build
his temple upon Mount Gerizim, by licence from Alexander .
the Great; whereas this was performed by leave from Darius
Nothus, in the fifteenth year of his reign. This takes away
the difficulty arising from the great age of Sanballat, and brings
him to be contemporary with Nehemiah, as the Scripture his-
tory requires. *
#
R E L L G I O N.
HAGGAI, the tenth of the minor prophets, was born, in
all probability, at Babylon, B.C. 547, from whence he re-
turned with Zerubbabel. By command from God, Ezra v.
1, 2, &c. he exhorted the Jews, after their return from the
captivity, to finish the rebuilding of the temple, which they
had intermitted for fourteen years. To encourage them, he as-
sured them, that the glory of this house should exceed that
of the former; which was accordingly fulfilled, when Christ
honoured it with his presence; for with respect to the build-
ing, the latter was nothing in comparison of the former. The
Jews say, that he died in the last year of the reign of Darius,
at the same time with the prophets Zechariah and Malachi.
Epiphanius says, he was buried at Jerusalem with the priests.
The Greeks keep his festival on the 16th of December, and
the Latins on the 4th of July. - Å
NEHEMIAH, son of Hachabah, was born at Babylon during
the º. Neh. i. 1, 2, &c. He became cup-bearer to Artax-
erxes Longimanus. He had a great affection for the country
of his fathers, though he had never seen it; and one day, as
some Jews, newly come from Jerusalem, acquainted him with
the miserable state of that city and people, he was sensibly
affected; he fasted and prayed, that the Lord would favour
the design he had of asking the king's permission to rebuild
Jerusalem. The cou being come.
anf e cup to the king according to cus
rse of his attendance at court being come,
observing, Neh
d Artaxerxes gave hi










































his rebuilding the walls, towers, and gates of Jerusalem; the
invidious attempts of Samballat and Tobiah to discourage him,
and obstruct . work; his solemn dedication of the walls,
towers, &c. when completed, with the sacrifices and festivals
accompanying it; and his complete reformation of various
abuses which had taken place among the Jews, are particularly
recorded in the book which bears his name. In the second
book of Maccabees, i. 19–21, &c. it is recorded that Nehe-
miah sent to search for the holy fire, which before the capti-
vity of Babylon the priests had hid in a dry and deep pit; but
not finding any fire there, but instead thereof a thick and
muddy water, he sprinkled this upon the altar, whereupon the
wool which had been sprinkled with it took fire as soon as the
sun began to appear; which miracle coming to the knowledge
of the king of Persia, he caused the place to be encompassed
with walls where the fire had been hid, and granted great fa-
vours and privileges to the priests. It is also recorded in 2
Mac. ii. 13, 14, that Nehemiah erected a library, wherein he
placed whatever he could find of the prophets, of David, and
of such princes as had made presents to the temple. Lastly,
he returned to Babylon, 2 Mac. v. 14. and xiii. 6, according to
the promise he had made to king Artaxerxes, about the thirty-
second year of this prince. From thence he returned again to
Jerusalem, where he died in peace, B. C. 424, having go-
verned the people of Judah ahout thirty years.
MALACHI, the last of the prophets. He lived in the time
of Nehemiah, in the reign of Artaxerxes Longimanus, and is
said to have died young. He reproved the Jews for their
wickedness after their return from Babylon, and condemned
the priests for being careless in their ministry, at the same
time encouraging the few, who maintained their integrity. He
distinctly points at the Messiah, as well as his forerunner John
the Baptist, who should come in the spirit and power of Elijah.
Gov E R N MENT.
(continued.)
CAMBYSES, king of Persia, was the son of Cyrus the
Great, and succeeded his father in the year B. C. 529. As
nn as h. eated on the throne, he concerted an expedi-
t Amasis, king of Egypt, who as some say, had de-
ject to the grant of his d
ing to others, because he
the same
homag





















from cyrus to Artaxerxes I.
byses begun with the capture of Pelusium; and in order to
secure his success, had recourse to the following stratagem.
Being informed that the whole garrison consisted of Egyptians,
he placed in the front of his army a great number of cats, dogs,
sheep, and other animals, which were deemed sacred by that
nation, and then stormed the city. The soldiers of the garri-
son not daring either to fling a dart or shoot an arrow, for fear.
of injuring some of these animals, Cambyses became master of
the place without opposition. In a subsequent battle with the
army of Psammenitus, he proved victorious, and took the king
captive. Having pursued the fugitives to Memphis, he soon
took the place, and because the inhabitants had massacred the
herald and his retinue, whom he had sent to require their sur-
render, he caused as many of the prime nobility as they had
destroyed to be publicly executed; and he ordered Psamme
nitus to be put to death. Upon this Egypt submitted to the
conqueror; and the Libyans, Cyrenians, and Beraeans sent
ambassadors with presents to testify their subjection, and to
conciliate his favour. At Sais, which was the burying place of
the kings of Egypt, he caused the body of Amasis to be taken
out of its tomb, and having exposed it to various indignities,
he ordered it to be burnt, in direct opposition to the customs
of the Persians and Egyptians. In }. following year, which
was the sixth of his reign, he determined to make war against
the Ammonians and Ethiopians, and leaving his Greek aux-
iliaries to secure his conquests, he pursued the object of his
expedition. As soon as he arrived at Thebes in Upper Egypt,
he sent a detachment of 50,000 men against the W.;
with orders to ravage the country and to destroy the famous
temple of Jupiter Ammon; but in their passage through the
desert, they were overwhelmed by a deluge of sand, and totally
destroyed. Cambyses himself advanced with the main body of
his army towards Ethiopia, but as he had neglected to provide
necessary subsistence for his numerous followers, they were
soon reduced to the most dreadful indigence and distress, so
that after having devoured all their beasts of burden, and every
kind of vegetable which they could find, they were under a ne-
cessity of sacrificing every tenth man as food for their compa-
nions. The king, however, for some time persisted in his main
design; but at length apprehensive of personal danger, he re-
turned to Thebes with the shattered remnant of his arge host.
Here, irritated by his disappointment, he pillaged the rich and
magnificent temples of the city, and set them on fire; and
said, that their wealth was such, that the remains that
2300 talents of silver. H :: *.*, *% º żº 3%.º.º.º.º. " ...;...º.º.
e likewise carried 3:6. a fa
cubits i
*
#






































RSAL BIOGRAPHY. [B, C, 529.
and to have exhibited the motions of the several constellations.
From Thebes he returned to Memphis, where he indulged to
is full extent his naturally ferocious and savage disposition, by
destroying the Egyptian priests, and the worshippers of their
god Apis, and killing the sacred ox. . To this outrage against
humanity and the rites of their religion, the Egyptians attri-
buted his subsequent insanity; but his general conduct, both
before and after this event, afforded sufficient evidence of his
derangement and his cruelty. Jealous of his brother Smerdis,
ered him to be put to death; and he then married his
a sister, Meroe. Having previously consulted the Persian
ges, whether any law subsisted that forbade this incestuous
riage, they, disapproving of the act, but at the same time
fearing the king's violent temper, returned this artful reply:
“That they had no law indeed which permitted a brother to
marry his sister, but they had a law which allowed the king of
Persia to do what he pleased.” This beautiful and beloved
ing occasion to refer to the fate of her brother Smerdis,
excited the rage of this brutal prince, so that he killed her,
hough in a state of pregnancy, by a kick in her body. Ano-
savage act of which he was guilty, was that of shooting to
heart the son of one of his principal officers and favourites,
had in a delicate manner reproved him for his intem-
perance. Having taken out the heart, which the arrow had
pierced, he presented it to the father, and asked him in an in-
sulting manner, “Have I, not a steady hand?” to which the
abject parent replied, “Apollo himself could not have shot
better.” About the same time, he caused several of his prin-
cipal followers to be buried alive, and daily sacrificed some or
other of them to his wild fury. Croesus, who remonstrated
gainst these proceedings, was ordered to be put to death; and
se who delayed executing the royal mandate, under a con-
ction that the king would repent of it, were ordered to be
aim, because they disobeyed his commands, though at the
a time he expressed his joy that Croesus was alive. In con-
:e of these and similar P.": a conspiracy was
ring the absence of Cambyses from his own country,
g the throne, by Smerdis, one of the Magi, under a
th
at he was that Smerdis whom his brother had caused
ut to death. Cambyses received this news whilst he
yria, on his return from Egypt to Persia; and on this
11. g off the li - urper ; 1.
xpedition, his s
: as he was
sword º: out
of his reig ... ſ.






















































FROM CYRUS TO ARTAXERXES I.
SMERDIS, the second son of Cyrus the Great, and bro-
ther of Cambyses, by whose order he was privately murdered.
SMERDIS, the name assumed by one of the Magi, who
pretended to be the son of Cyrus, and personating the above
prince, reigned eight months in Persia, till he was detected
and deposed by seven of the nobility.
INTAPHERNES, one of the seven Persian lords, who
conspired against Smerdis the Magian. He was afterwards
put to death by Darius, for conspiring against him, along with
his whole family, except two persons, viz. his wife and any
other she should name; who thereupon preferred her brother
to her husband and children, saying she might have another
husband and more children, but her parents being dead, she
could never have another brother. --
GOBRIAS, one of the seven Persian lords, who conspired
against Smerdis the Magian, who had usurped the throne on
the death of Cambyses, B.C. 521. He was the father-in-law
of Darius I., and accompanied him in the expedition against
the Scythians.
PHAEDYMA, the daughter of Olanes, one of the seven
Persian conspirators, who, being married to the false Smerdis,
discovered his imposture to her father, by his want o º
which had been cut off by Cambyses. º
HYSTASPES, a noble Persian, of the royal race of the
Achaemenides, the father of Darius I. He was the first who
introduced the learning and sciences of the Indian Brahmins
into Persia. Ctesias says he was killed with a fall from a moun-
tain, whither he had gone to see a royal monument erected by
Darius.
DARIUS I, king of Persia, was the son of Hystaspes, a
commander under Cyrus the Great; and by Cambyses he was
made governor of the province of Persia. When Smerdis
mounted the throne, Darius associated himself with six other
persons, in order that they might destroy the tyrant. They
succeeded; he was killed by the hand of Darius. Afterwards
they agreed that the seven should repair to the city, and he
whose horse first neighed, should be proclaimed sole sovereign.
Darius, it is thought, used some special means to obtain the
crown, and he was accordingly raised to the empire of Persia,
B.C. 521. On his accession, he married the two daughters of
Cyrus, and other wives; and divided the whole empire into
twenty governments, and appointed a certain tribute to be paid
by each, that of Persia only excepted. Darius was guilty of
he per
ling of their t
sion he gave to the Jews to resume the buil
which had been interrupted by the malici
Samaritans.
some cruelties; but he is celebrated in history for t























UNIVERSAL biography. [B.C. 521.
In the early part of his reign the Babylonians revolted, nor
was it in the power of Darius with all his force to take their
city, to which he laid siege; at length Zopyrus, one of his
principal officers, in zeal for his sovereign, cut off his ears and
nose, and pretending that it was a punishment inflicted upon
him by the king, went over to the enemy, and obtained their
confidence, which he employed to betray the gates of the city
the Persian army. Darius exercised extreme cruelty on the
conquered, but bestowed on his officer Zopyrus the most mag-
ficent rewards. Darius next engaged in an expedition against
the Scythians; he marched with a vast army to the Thracian
Bosphorus, which he crossed by a bridge of boats, and after
reducing Thrace, advanced to the Danube, which he crossed,
and entered Scythia, but he was obliged to return without
gaining any material advantages. Darius is said to have con-
quered India; but his triumph did not extend, probably, far
into the country. The successes of this sovereign were va-
rious; in some instances his ambition was completely checked,
in others he was glad to withdraw his armies with great loss.
In an expedition against Greece, the enterprize was committed
to Mardonius, who marched through Thrace into Macedonia,
which submitted to his arms; but as he was proceeding south-
ward, his fleet was almost wholly ruined by a storm, so that he
was obliged to return ingloriously into Asia. Darius did not,
however, abandon his design; he sent a powerful army, with
orders to sack the cities of Athens and Eretria, and to send
him all the surviving inhabitants in fetters. The Persians took
the isle of Naxus, and city of Eretria; but they were defeated
at Marathon by the Athenians and Plataeans, commanded by
he celebrated Miltiades. Their fleet was also completely un-
successful in an attempt to surprise Athens. He now resolved
to go into Greece himself, and issued orders to all his subjects
in the several provinces of the empire to accompany him in his
expeditions; but after he had spent three years in making the
requisite preparations, a new war was occasioned by the revolt
of Egypt. He then determined to send part of his forces
against the Egyptians, while he marched with the remainder
into Greece. When every thing was ready, and Xerxes his
son declared heir-apparent to the crown, Darius fell sick and
died, in the thirty-sixth year of his reign. This happened in
sar B.C. 485. This sovereign was endowed with many
ualities: his wisdom, justice, and clemency are warmly
ended by the ancients; and when he is compared º,
ality of eastern despots, he may be entitled to the
it to Darius, the son of Hystaspes, while he be-
ylon, cut off his ears and nose, and fled to the ene-
, a Persian,



























B.C. 505.] rRoM Cyrus to ARTAxerxes I.
; them that he had received such a treatment from
his royal master, because he had advised him to raise the siege,
as the city was impregnable. This was credited by the Baby-
lonians, and Zopyrus was appointed commander of all their
forces. When he had totally gained their confidence, he be-
trayed the city into the hands of Darius, for which he was li-
berally rewarded. The regard of Darius for Zopyrus could
never be more strongly expressed than in what he used often
to say, that he had rather have Zopyrus not mutilated than
twenty Babylons. . . . . .
ARISTAGORAS, a son-in-law of Histaeus, tyrant of Mile-
tus, who revolted from Darius, incited the Athenians against
Persia, and burnt Sardis. This so exasperated the king,
that every evening before supper he ordered his servants to re-
mind him of punishing Aristagoras. He was killed in a battle
against the Persians, B.C. 499. º
XERXES, the son of Darius I., by Atossa, the daughter
of Cyrus, was born in this century, and on the death of his
father, succeeded to the crown of Persia, in the year B. C.
485. Having in the second year of his reign subdued the re-
volted Egyptians, and committed them to the government of
his brother Achaemenes, he determined to renew the invasion
of Greece, in which Darius had been disappointed; and for
the success of his expedition, he formed an alliance with the
Carthaginians, on condition of their making an attack on the
Greek colonies in Italy and Sicily, so that they might not have
it in their power to assist their mother country. His prepara-
tions were immense, and occupied several of the first years of
his reign. Having provided a large navy, he formed a project
of cutting a canal through Mount Athos, of sufficient breadth
to admit two galleys abreast; and to this undertaking, which
some have regarded as a fiction, he devoted three years. He
also constructed a bridge of boats across the Hellespont, in
order to convey his army from Asia to Europe, and as the first
bridge which had been laid was demolished by a storm, he not
only manifested his childish rage by ordering 300 lashes to be
inflicted on the sea, and a pair offetters to be thrown into it, but
showed his tyrannical and cruel disposition, by beheading those
to whom the conduct of the work had been committed. The
number of sea and land forces which he employed in this expe-
dition is said to have amounted to two millions and a half, tº
which, we may add as many more attendants. When he
ascended a high tower at Abydos, and took a view of the im-
mense number that covered the sea and surrounding plain, his
pride and triumph are said to have given way to tears, wh
reflection occurred, that the brevity of human life was such as
not to allow one of this countless host to survive the lapse of
100 years. Without detailing the events of this disastrous ex.
my, telling











#
UNIVERSAL
pedition, which are the proper subjects of history, we shall
merely mention that it terminated in the defeat of Xerxes's navy
at Salamis, and the subsequent overthrow and dispersion of
Mardonius's army of 300,000 men. Upon his taking possession
of Athens, he wreaked his vengeance on the buildings and the
temples, and despatched a special messenger to his uncle Arta-
banus, to inform him of this inglorious triumph. Having
erected a throne on a lofty mountain, in order to view the ex-
pected victory at Salamis, the event produced such consterna-
tion, that he suddenly left Mardonius and the army, and has-
tened to the Hellespont, where finding his bridge shattered by
storms, but still haunted with terror, he entrusted himself in a
fishing boat, and hastened to Sardis; but when Mardonius was
defeated, and all his hopes of conquering Greece were frus-
trated, he quitted Sardis, after having given orders for the de-
molition of all the temples in the Greek cities of Asia, and pro-
ceeded with all possible expedition to the Persian frontier.
The other traces of his disgraceful expedition were the records
of the cruelties and debaucheries exercised by himself and his
family. So much at length did Xerxes become the object of
contempt and hatred, that a conspiracy was formed among his
own guards, which terminated in his murder during sleep, in
the twenty-first year after his accession, B.C. 465. …
AMESTRIS, queen of Persia, was wife to Xerxes. She
cruelly treated the mother of Artiante, her husband's mistress,
and cut off her nose, ears, lips, breast, tongue, and eye-brows.
She also sacrificed fourteen noble Persian youths, to appease
the deities under the earth. . ~
ACHAEMENES, the son of Darius I, king of Persia, and
brother of Xerxes, had the government of Egypt bestowed
upon him, after Xerxes had forced the Egyptians to return to
their allegiance. He some time after commanded the Egyptian
fleet in the celebrated expedition which proved so hi to all
Greece. The Egyptians having again taken up arms after the
death of Xerxes, Achaemenes was sent into Egypt to suppress
the rebellion; but was vanquished by Inarus, chief of the re-
bels, assisted by the Athenians. w 2: 3
AMYNTAS I., was king of Macedonia after his father, Al-
as. His son Alexander murdered the ambassadors of Me-
zus, for their wanton and insolent behaviour to the ladies'
his father's court. Bubares, a Persian general, was sent
H an army to revenge the death of the ambassadors; but
ad of making war, he married the king's daughter, and
is p * Amyntas died, after a reign of forty-
DER I, king of Macedon, the tenth from Cara-
e of of the race, was cont Emporary with
hose bribes he refused, and whose inimical designs
























FROM CYRUS TO ARTAXERXES I.
he discovered to the other states of Greece. He was a friend
and admirer of the poet Pindar.
- MARDONIUS, a general of Xerxes, who, after th
of his master at Thermopylae and Salamis, was left in
with an army of 300,000 chosen men, to subdue the country,
and reduce it under the power of Persia. ... His operations were
rendered useless by the courage and vigilance of the Greeks,
and, in a battle at Plataea, Mardonius was defeated and left
among the slain, B.C. 479. He had been commander of the
armies of Darius in Europe, and it was chiefly by his advice
that Xerxes invaded Greece. He was son-in-law of Darius.
ARTABAZUS, the son of Pharnaces, commanded the Par-
thians and Chorasmians in the famous expedition of Xerxes.
After the battle of Salamis, he escorted the king, his master,
to the Hellespont with 60,000 chosen men; and after the battle
of Plataea, in which Mardonius engaged, at his advice, he made
a noble retreat, and returned to Asia with 40,000 men. . . .
PYTHEUS, a Lydian, famous for his riches, who is said to
have entertained Xerxes and all his numerous army, when going
to invade Greece. :
ABROCOMAS, son of Darius, was in the army of Xerxes
when he invaded Greece. He was killed at Thermopylae.
ARTEMISLA I., queen of Caria, and the daughter of Lig-
damis, marched in person in the expedition of Xerxes against
the Greeks, and performed wonders in the sea-fight near Sa-
lamis, B. C. 480. Being pursued by an Athenian vessel, she
attacked one of the Persian ships, commanded by Demasithy-
mus, king of Calyndus, her enemy, and sunk it; on which the
Athenians, thinking that her ship was on the side of the
Greeks, ceased their pursuit; but Xerxes was the principal
person imposed upon in this affair; for, believing she had sunk
an Athenian vessel, he declared, that “the men had behaved
like women, and the women like men.” Xerxes entrusted her
with the care of the young princes of Persia, his sons, when,
º to her advice, he abandoned Greece, in order to re-
turn to Asia. These great qualities did not secure her from
the weakness of love; she was passionately fond of a man of
Abydos, whose name was Dardanus, and was so enraged at his
neglect of her, that she put out his eyes while he was asleep.
This, however, did not extinguish her passion, which, perhaps,
being now mingled with pity and regret for what she had done,
increased instead of being diminished. Whereupon she con-
sulted the Delphian oracle how to get rid of it; and being ad-
vised to go to Leucas, which was the usage of desperate lovers,
she took the leap from thence, and was drowned and in
#
"Pisis frºTüs, an eminent Ath
*






















UNIVER
AL BIOGRAPHY. [B.C. 505.
ble descent, which he derived from Codrus, the last king of
Athens, and inherited a large property from his father, Hip-
pocrates. He possessed the natural advantages of a command-
ing º, a ready elocution, and an uncommon capacity,
which he improved with the utmost diligence. Entering into
public life, he promoted, by his eloquence, the endeavours of
Solon in rousing the Athenians to the recovery of Salamis, and
he accompanied that legislator in the successful expedition for
the purpose. Naturally ambitious, he ingratiated himself with
the lower classes of citizens by the most winning affability, and
boundless liberality. He relieved their necessities, set open his
gardens, and in all his discourses he was the advocate of poli-
tical equity and the democratic constitution. Solon and others
saw through the artifice of his conduct. Pisistratus one day
hastily appeared in the market-place, bleeding from some slight
wounds which he had inflicted on himself, and loudly implored
the protection of his fellow-citizens from pretended enemies,
who were, he said, pursuing his life, on account of his attach-
ment to the democracy. From this time he obtained a guard
to attend his person, for his security. This guard he soon em-
ployed to seize the citadel. He disarmed the multitude, and
was now the undoubted master of Athens, while Solon, who
had resisted his tyranny in vain, departed from his enslaved
country. This event occurred B. C. 560. Though Pisistra-
tus justly incurred the charge of tyranny by the mode which
he adopted to acquire his power, he by no means used that
power in an offensive way. On the contrary, it is thought that
very few lawful sovereigns ever conducted themselves with
greater moderation, or with more regard to the best interests
of his countrymen. He did not in the least attempt to abro-
gate the wise laws of Solon, but invested them with additional
authority; and he always expressed great veneration for their
islator, whom he intreated, but in vain, to return to Athens.
leg
His supremacy, however, was not as yet well secured, and at-
tempts were made by Megacles to overthrow his power. He
succeeded, and Pisistratus was obliged, in his turn, to become
an exile, while his property was put up to public sale. After-
wards Megacles permitted him to return, on condition that he
would marry his daughter, to which Pisistratus readily ac-
ceded, though he refused to live with her, which so much exas-
perated the father-in-law, that, to avoid his vengeance, he re-
red to Eretria. He there occupied himself in preparations
for the recovery of his authority § force, which he effected in
- e
venth year of his second exile. From this time he con-
sº to govern with the same lenity; but in order to weaken
the popular party, he obliged many of the idle inhabitants to
leave the city and engage in the cultivation of the surrounding
districts; and by exacting the tenth of every man's income and















B.C. 505.] FROM CYRUS TO ARTAXERXES I. 251
produce, he augmented the public revenues, which he expend-
d on magnificent buildings. He also studied to soften the
minds of the Athenians, by the encouragement of literature.
He founded a public library, and made a collection of the
poems of Homer, which were at that time scattered in detach-
ed parts throughout Greece, and digested them into the order
which they have since preserved. Sensible of the odium at-
taching to a tyranny, he was careful to mask his power under
the demeanour of a citizen, and in this way he exercised the
sovereignty during the remainder of his life, regarded rather
as the father than the oppressor of his country, which scarcely
ever enjoyed a longer period of quiet and prosperity. He
died in the year B. C. 527, leaving his sons, Hippias and Hip-
parchus, the heirs of his power. * : -
HIPPARCHUS and HIPPIAS PISISTRATIDAE, the
two sons of Pisistratus, who rendered themselves as illustrious
as their father; but the flames of liberty were too powerful to
be extinguished. The Pisistratidae governed with great mode-
ration; but the name of tyrant or sovereign was insupport-
able to the Athenians. Hipparchus patronized some of the
learned men of the age, and distinguished himself by his fond-
mess for literature. The seduction of a sister of Harmodius
raised him many enemies, and caused his assassination. Hip-
pias was at last expelled by the united efforts of the Athenians
and their allies. The rest of the Pisistratidae followed him in
his banishment; and after they had refused to accept the libe-
ral offers of the princes of Thessaly and the King of Mace-
donia, who wished them to settle in their respective territories,
they retired to Sigaeum, which their father had, in the summit
of his power, conquered, and bequeathed to his posterity.
After the banishment of the Pisistratidae the Athenians be-
came uncommonly jealous of their liberty, and often sacrificed
the best of their citizens to their jealousy of the influence
which popularity and liberality might gain among a fickle and
unsettled populace. The Pisistratidae were banished from
Athens about eighteen years after the death of Pisistratus.
Hippias was killed at the battle of Marathon, fighting against
the Athenians, B. C. 490. He had five children by Wi.
the daughter of Callias. 3. º
# ARISTOGITON, a famous Athenian, who, with Harmo-
dius, killed Hipparchus, tyrant of Athens, B.C. 513. The
Athenians erected a statue of him.
HARMODIUS, a friend of Aristogiton, who delivered his
countrymen from the tyranny of the Pisistratidae, B.C. 510.
The Athenians, to reward the patriotism of these illustrious
citizens, made a law that no man should ever bear the name of
Aristogiton and Harmodius. - § .
LEAENA, a courtezan of Ather s.t
k an active part in the









sº
n of Harmodius, and Aristo 1ppar-
ºf Pisistratus. She was, on suspicion, arrested and
z O
put to the torture by Hippias, brother to the tyrant, but re-
fused to betray her accomplices, Yet, alive to the severity
of the torments she endured, she was fearful that her resolution
would not hold out long; and in the despair of a generous
mind, fearing to commit a base action, she bit through her
tongue, and spat it in the face of her tormentor. As soon as the
Athenians recovered their liberty, they erected to her honour
the statue of a lion without a tongue. 3. & .
CLISTHENES, a famous Athenian magistrate, the author
of the mode of banishing ambitious citizens by Ostracism. The
intention was patriotic, though it was abused, like all other
human institutions, some of the worthiest citizens of Athens
being thus exiled. He died B. C. 510.
§§§ ºš, a celebrated Athenian general, said to be
the grandson of Miltiades, who founded an Athenian colony
on the Thracian Chersonesus. After the assassination of Stes-
agoras in the colony, Miltiades was sent from Athens to take
the command, and having got into his power the principal
men of the Chersonesians, he made himself master of the whole"
district, and married the daughter of the king of Thrace.
When Darius I., king of Persia, undertook an expedition
against the Scythians, and, throwing a bridge across the Da-
nube, marched into their country, he entrusted the guard of the
bridge to the Ionian Greeks, the commanders of whom he at-
tached to himself, by raising them to the supreme authority in
their several cities. Miltiades, who was one of them, excited
by that spirit of Grecian patriotism, to which every other duty
was made subservient, urged the other leaders to break down
the bridge, in order that the prince, so entirely inimical to
Grecian liberty, might never return in safety. His counsel was
approved by all the rest except Hystiaeus, the Milesian, who
had influence enough to prevent its taking effect. Miltiades,
judging it imprudent to await the monarch's return, embarked
}. and in his way took possession of the isle of Lemnos
for his countrymen. Darius, after his return from his Scythian
expedition, having resolved upon the conquests of Greece, sent
Mardonius, at the head of a powerful army, to invade it.
When he had arrived at the plains of Marathon, within ten
miles of the capital, Athens, the alarm of the citizens became
extreme, and in their despair they took the resolution to march
out to meet ‘. foe, with such troops as they could assemble,
recian
an army, consisting o
the celebrated battle
s unquestionably the grand




























instrument in obtaining this victory, was next entruste
strong armament, fitted out for the reduction of some of
islands which had taken part with the Persians. He sailed to
Paros, and laid siege to its capital; but either a false alarm of
the approach of the Persian fleet, or an unsuccessful attempt
to gain the place, in which he was wounded, caused him to re-
turn without effecting his purpose. The disappointment of
the Athenians was so great, that Miltiades was accused of trea-
son before the assembly of the people, who, forgetting his past
services, by which they had been delivered from a foreign
yoke, condemned him to death. However, upon the payment
of a heavy fine, he was exempted from capital punishment, but
was thrown into prison, where, to the everlasting disgrace of
his countrymen, he died of a broken heart, in the year after the
battle of Marathon. º º
THEMISTOCLES, an Athenian statesman and command-
er, the son of Neocles, a person of middle rank at Athens. At
a very early age he manifested, both in his amusements and in
his literary pursuits, those views and inclinations which mark-
ed the character and destiny of his maturer years. To those
who ridiculed him on account of his apparent contempt of or-
namental accomplishments, he replied, “It is true I never
learned to tune a harp, or play upon-a lute; but I know how
to raise a small state to a great one.” Ambition seems to have
been his ruling passion; and he lost no opportunity of acquir-
ing military and political distinctions. He sought popularity
with a view to his personal advancement; and less pure and
disinterested in his principles than Aristides, his solicitude for
the glory of his country was subservient to his own reputation
and eminence. After the defeat of the Persian invasion, by
the battle of Marathon, an event which interested his feelings
and roused into exercise his predominant love of glory, he fore-
saw that the attempt might be renewed by sea as well as by
land; and he therefore exerted his influence in rendering the
Athenian state a naval power. With this view, he induced his
countrymen to appropriate the revenue accruing from the silver
mines to the equipment of a number of galleys; and as he pos-
sessed the chief authority at Athens, in consequence of the
banishment of Aristides, he found no obstacle to the execution
ºf his design. In the course of three years after this event, the
hostile preparations of Xerxes for an expedition into Greece,
to enforce the demand of subjection, furnished him with a plea
for urging the Grecian states to compromise their mutual dis-
sensions, and to unite in defending º against the in:
vader. In the ch oice of a general, with
as of a democr .























UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY, [B.C. 505,
urrender his pretensions to an office for which he was
iotally unqualified, by a bribe, and thus secured the appoint-
ment for himself, without a competitor. When news arrived
that the Persian army, conveyed by a fleet, was approaching
the straits of Thermopylae, †. proposed that the
Athenians should fit out their galleys and sail to meet them;
but this counsel being rejected, he took the command of their
troops, and having joined the Lacedaemonians, marched to-
wards Tempé. In the meanwhile intelligence was received
that the passage of the straits had been forced, and that Boeo-
tia had submitted to the invaders; and upon this alarm the
army returned, without seeing the enemy. In these circum-
stances of apprehended danger, the Athenians, according to
their customary practice, had recourse for counsel to the Del-
phic oracle. The answer, probably suggested by Themistocles
himself, was, that they should rely solely on their fleet. It was
now proposed that the city should be wholly abandoned to the
Persians, without any attempt for its defence; that the women,
children, and aged, should be removed to some place of secu-
rity; and that all that were able to bear arms, should embark
on both the galleys, and watch the event. A decree was ob-
aimed, after much fruitless opposition, to this purpose; and
this was followed by another, which permitted all exiled citizens
to return. Aristides was one of this number, who nobly sacri-
ficing, in the moment of his country's danger, all private animo-
sities, concurred in all the spirited measures of his former rival.
Eurybiades, a Spartan, to whom the command of the con-
federate fleet was assigned, and who was very unequal to the
office, differed with Themistocles as to the measures proper
to be pursued; and behaved with an insolence, which, pro-
bably for the sake of the public service, the latter did not
think proper to resent. Eurybiades was pacified by the gen-
tleness and self-command of Themistocles, and convinced by
his reasoning. Finding it prudent, however, to change the
measures which he originally contemplated, he employed a
stratagem to induce the Persians to advance, and made an at-
tack. This was followed by the famous battle of Salamis,
which took place in the year B.C. 480, and which terminated
in the ..". of the Persian navy. The victory has been
chiefly ascribed to the skill and valour of Themistocles; and
having thus succeeded, he advised the confederates to sail im-
mediately to the Hellespont, in order to destroy the bridge of
boats by which the army of Xerxes had passed over, and thus
intercept his communication with Asia; but being overruled in
posal, he despatched a secret messenger to the Persian
th information that the Greeks intended to break his
orm





















B. c. 505.] FROM CYRUs to ARTAXERXEs 1. 255
tocles, as we may judge from this instance, was not always uni-
form and consistent; and, in another case, which remains to be
mentioned, on the authority of Plutarch, it was inexcusably
#
flagitious. When the combined Grecian fleet was wintering at
Pegasa in Magnesia, he informed the Athenians, that he had
a project which would be of infinite service to the republic, and
at their desire he would communicate it to Aristides. This
virtuous man told them that the scheme of Themistocles would
be highly advantageous, but that nothing could be more un-
just; upon which, very much to their honour, they determined
not to adopt it. The plan was to burn all the ships of the fleet,
except those of Athens, by which she would remain complete
mistress of the sea.
The victory of Salamis advanced the name and character of
Themistocles to the highest pitch of glory throughout Greece.
On his visit to Sparta, he was received with every token of
respect; and whilst the first prize of valour was decreed by the
people to their º Eurybiades, the olive wreath of
superior wisdom was placed on the head of the Athenian; and
they also presented him with a magnificent chariot, and ordered
three hundred of their youth to attend him back to the borders.
At the next Olympic games, the eyes of the whole assembly
were fixed upon Themistocles as the principal object at the
spectacle. Themistocles himself acknowledged, that this was
the noblest day of his life. When the constitution of Athens
was about to be re-established, after the rebuilding of the city,
Themistocles, in conformity to the political principles which he
had adopted, proposed that every citizen should have an equal
right to participate in the government, and that the members
should be chosen from the body of the people, without distinc-
tion; and in his proposals the people unanimously acquiesced.
He also proposed to fortify the city; but as the Lacedaemonians
objected to the proposal, he was deputed upon an embassy to
Sparta with a view of conciliating them. He continued, how-
ever, by various artifices, to prolong the negotiation, so that
the Athenians had constructed their walls before the Spartans
were duly apprized of the fact. Themistocles vindicated this
artifice by alleging, “that all things are lawful in serving our
country;" and the Spartans, admiring his patriotism, silentl
acquiesced. In the following year, his scheme for rendering
the i. the principal port of Athens, and connecting it
with the i. by long walls, was adopted and accomplished.
Independently of the deceits which Themistocles had prac-
tised with regard to the Lacedaemonians, another circumstance
had occurred, which increased their enmity against him. .
had successfully opposed their sending deputies to the Am
tyonic council, and thus degraded É. authority in Gr













rversal Biography.
ll their influence to destroy his reputation. His own conduct
also had excited jealousy and resentment; for he had caused
to be erected near his own house a temple to “Diana Aristo-
bule,” or “of the best counsel,” thus intimating, that his coun-
sels had been the best for the Grecian community. His ene-
mies prevailed, and procured his banishment from Athens by
the sentence of Ostracism. During his exile at Argos, his
enemies gained additional advantage over him. Apprized of
the treasonable designs of Pausanias, the Spartan, against the
liberty of Greece, he declined the disclosure of them; and
ifter the detection and death of Pausanias, letters of Themis-
tocles were found, which proved that they had conferred on
this business. The Lacedaemonians preferred an accusation
against him to the Athenians; and they called him to account
in the presence of the states of Greece. Dreading a trial he
fled to Corcyra, and thinking himself insecure there, he with-
rew to Epirus; and at length was reduced to the necessity of
king the protection of Admetus, king of the Molossi, whom
had formerly offended. The vengeance of the Spartans
pursued him, and Admetus was threatened with a war, if he
protected the criminal. The king dismissed him with money
across the continent to a port in the AEgean sea, whence he
reached Asia in safety. In the year B. C. 462, he arrived at
the Persian court; but here his name was so noxious, that a
reward of 200 talents had been offered for apprehending him.
Here he appeared in disguise, and pretending that he had im-
portant information, which he wished to communicate to the
king in person, he was admitted to the royal presence, and fa-
vourably received; the 200 talents, which were the price of his
head, were paid to himself, and a more ample recompence was
offered to him, if he would give useful information concerning
Greece. He was granted time for acquiring the Persian lan-
guage, and after a year he appeared at court like a native.
The king and royal family treated him with distinction; and it
is said that the revenues of three cities, viz. Magnesia, Lamp-
sacus, and Mejus were assigned him, under the name of bread,
vine, and meat, and, as some say, two more, for lodging and
ardrobes. In this state of luxury and magnificence he was
led by some members of his family, who had been conveyed
m by his friends, and to them he expressed a kind of sa-
isfaction with his condition, which proves that moral mean-
mess may accompany exalted talents.
: The close of his life is involved in obscurity. Plutarch re-
revolt of Egy































h.c. wº FROM CYRUs to ARTAXERxes I. 257
order to avoid the *:::: bearing arms against his co
after sacrificing to the gods, and taking soler eaW
friends, he drank poison and died in that city at the age of
sixty-five years. Thucydides, his contemporary, says that he
died of a distemper; and others again report, that he poisoned
himself, because it was not in his power to accomplish what he
had promised. The Magnesians honoured his memory with a
sumptuous tomb, but his remains, according to his own orders,
were privately conveyed to Attica, where they were interred.
It is further said, that the Athenians, repenting of their treat-
ment of him, raised a tomb for him in the Pyraeum, which was
an interesting object to all who visited that port. His singular
talents, and the services which he rendered to his country,
must be acknowledged; and those who think favourably of him,
ascribe his desertion of them to unjust persecution. But in
Themistocles we look in vain for the virtues of an Aristides;
and he can only be allowed the honour of a distinguished ge-
neral and statesman. - - -
ARISTIDES, a celebrated Athenian general, surnamed the
Just, flourished at the same time with Themistocles, who tri-
umphed over him by his boisterous eloquence, and procured
his banishment, B.C. 483, but Aristides being recalled a short
time after, would never join with the enemies of Themistocles
to get him banished; for nothing could make him deviate from
the strictest rules of moderation and justice. Aristides served
his country from the purest principles of duty, neither seeking
profit nor honour; and his character was so well known to his
countrymen, that once, when in the theatre these verses of Æs-
chylus, describing Amphiaraus, were recited, 3.3:... 3
To be, and not to seem, is this man's maxim;
His mind reposes on its conscious worth,
And wants no other praise,
wº
he whole audience turned their eyes on Aristides, as the true
exemplar of the poet's idea. Aristides brought the Greeks to
unite against the Persians; distinguished himself at the famous
battles of Marathon, Salamis, and Plataea; and established an
annual income of 460 talents for a fund to bear the expences
of war. This great man died so poor, though he had the
management of the revenues of Greece, that the state was
ºbliged to pay his funeral expences, to give fortunes to his
dau ſhters in marriage, and a maintenance to his son Lysi-
government the republic being distracte
m and integrit
chon of Athens, during wh


















































. * * * * * - sº-º- sº zºº.º.º.
㺠º § ſº º º
*...*.*.
§
. º §§ :
§
Wer
. of Athens. He was
ed Pericles by Agariste the niece of Clis-
d the Pisistratidae from Athens. º
~~ HIDES, king of Sparta, a celebrated general of
Greeks, who by his courage and conduct put an end to
e Persian war at the famous battle of Mycale. He after-
ards fell a sacrifice to the intrigues of the Ephori, after
ng twenty-two years, B. G. 469.
URYBIADES, a Spartan general of the Grecian fleet,
at the
in reas
battles of Artemisium and Salamis against Xerxes. He
has been charged with want of courage and with ambition. He
offered to strike Themistocles when he wished to speak about
the manner of attacking the Persians, upon which the Athe-
nian said, “strike me, but hear me.”
CLEOMENES I., king of Sparta, conquered the Argives
and freed Athens from the tyranny of the Pisistratidae. By
bribing the oracle he pronounced Demaratus, his colleague on
the throne, illegitimate, because he refused to punish the peo-
ple of Ægida, who had deserted the Greeks. He killed him-
self in a fit of madness. ź 3 * . . . . .
LEONIDAS I, king of Sparta, succeeded to the throne
in the year B.C. 491; when Xerxes, king of Persia, invaded
Greece, Leonidas was appointed by the Lacedaemonians to the
chief command of their forces to oppose him. He marched
at the head of 4000 men, to take possession of the straits of
Thermopylae. Aware of the great danger of the enterprize,
he considered himself as one devoted to the safety of the coun-
try. He posted his small army so skilfully, that the Persians,
on arriving at the straits, found that it would be difficult to
force them, and Xerxes endeavoured to bribe the commander
to his interest, by the offer of making him master of Greece.
The proposal was rejected with indignation, and the monarch
immediately sent a herald to order the Grecians to lay down
their arms. “Let him come and take them;" was the reply of
idas. Thrice the Persians were repulsed with great loss; .
d when a treacherous Greek had led a chosen body of 10,00
sians by a secret passage to the rear of Leonidas, he wa
d to afford a memorable example of what the
marched his whole army to the entrance of the straits, whº
Leonidas advanced to meet him. The efforts of valour,
º ed enemies. Hi
do when called upon to die for their country,















































he noblest actions of antiquity. The gratitude of his c
sed a splendid monument upon the spot to the fallen,
funeral oration was for a long time annually pronounced an
the celebration of martial games, over their tombs. ,
CLEOMBROTUS, a son-in-law of Leonidas, king of Sparta,
who for a while usurped the kingdom after the expulsion of his
father-in-law. When Leonidas was recalled, Cleombrotus was
banished. ... . . . . . . .'; * *
CHELONIS, a daughter of Leonidas, king of Sparta, who
married Cleombrotus. She accompanied her father, whom her
husband had expelled, and soon after went into hanishment
with her husband, who had, in his turn, been expelled by Le-
CLEOMBROTUS, king of Sparta, the son of Anaxandri-
des. He was deterred from building a wall across the isthmus
of Corinth, against the approach of the Persians, by an eclipse
. of t le sun. . N. .
ANCHITA, wife of Cleombrotus, king of Sparta, whose
love of her country, and hatred of treason, manifested them-
selves in opposition to the sentiments of nature. He
Pausanias, who had distinguished himself so nobly at the
of Plataea, afterwards, by his arrogant and foolish conduct,
gusted his countrymen, whom he also agreed to betray to t
king of Persia, on condition of receiving the daughter of that
monarch in marriage. His correspondence being discovered,
he fled to the temple of Minerva for refuge, from whence it
was not lawful to force him, though condemned to death by
. Sphori. His pursuers, therefore, contrived to block up the
º
S
oors with stones, the first of which, in the proud anguish of a
Spartan mother, was laid there by Anchita. In this manner
Pausanias perished with hunger, about 471 years before Christ.
of Cleombrotus and Anchita. He obtained a high rank in
º racy of his country, and when Mardonius, the Pe
lºommander-in-chief of the allied army raised to oppose
.* ºrºught on a general engagement at Plataea, in the
v. 4. 9, in which Mardonius was killed, and his y
with great slaughter. With the assistance of the
%
%
º




































































UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. [B. C. 505.
He proceeded to punish the traitors to the cause of
!ece, and marching to Thebes, obliged that city to deliver
the heads of the Persian party, whom he put to death.
effect of success upon his own mind was to nourish a
it of pride and arrogance, and inspire ambitious designs.
He assumed to himself all the honour of the victory of Plataea,
and upon a golden tripod, which he presented to the temple of
Delphi, he put an inscription that was honourable to himself
alone. In the command of the united fleet, which had been
given him for the purpose of freeing the Grecian cities from
Persian garrisons, he behaved with great partiality to his own
countrymen, and created many enemies; while the justice of
Aristides, and the affability of Cimon, gained all hearts, and
restored to the Athenians the naval supremacy of Greece.
Suspicions were entertained that he meant to assume the full
controul of Greece, and to get the power of that country in his
own hands, and on this account was recalled to Sparta, and
underwent a trial for his life; but as the evidence was incon-
clusive, he was fined and liberated. When he returned to the
army, he openly adopted the Persian habit and manners, and
went into all the excesses of that luxury which he had formerly
decried. It was supposed that his mind was deranged, owing
to the following tragical incidents. Having been captivated by
the charms of Cleonice, a young woman of good family at
yzantium, her parents, not daring to refuse his solicitations,
ged her to comply with his desires. To save her blushes,
it was agreed that the lights should be extinguished when she
entered his bed chamber. In the dark she unfortunately
stumbled over one of the lamps; the noise of which suddenly
awakening Pausanias, he fancied an assassin was coming to
der him, and, starting up, plunged a dagger into her breast.
Then he discovered the fatal error, he was almost distracted,
d from the moment imagined that the blood of Cleonice was
etually crying out for vengeance. He left Byzantium, and
paired to Heraclea, where he found persons who pretended
'oke and pacify the spirits of the deceased. That of Cleo-
as called up before him, and made to say to him, “When
come to Sparta, you will find a termination to your suffer-
" He went thither, still occupied with the thought of be-
; his country to the Persians. For this purpose he car-
in a correspondence with Artabazus, a satrap; and all
essengers he sent were put to death, that they might not
him on their return. It is said that he in vain attempted
Chemistocles, time an exile, to con-


























B. C.505.] From cyrus to ARTAxerxes I. - 261
the packet entr - -
him to death, immediately disclosed the matter to t
they resolved to apprehend him, but being apprized
intention, he fled into the temple of Minerva, from whenc
could not be taken. When they were hesitating as to what
could be done, the mother of Pausanias brought a brick, and
set it against the door of the temple ; her example was follow-
ed till he was completely immured. When he was dead
usted to his care, and finding a directi E ------
with
hunger, his body was brought out, and interred by his .
friends. … ºr
PLISTONAX, the son of Pausanias, one of the kings of
Sparta, was general of the Lacedæmonians in the Pelopon-
nesian war. He succeeded Plistarchus, and reigned fifty-eight
years, but was banished nineteen years, till he was recalled by
order of the Delphian oracle. &
GELON, king of Syracuse, was descended from an ancient
family settled in the city of Gela. He first distinguished him-
self in arms under Hippocrates, tyrant of Gela, in which em-
ploy he defeated the Syracusans in the battle of the banks of
the Helorus. At the death of this prince he seized the so-
vereignty of Gela, and quickly made himself master of Syra-
cuse by means of some exiles. In the year B. C. 480. when
Xerxes invaded Greece, the Carthaginians sent a very formid-
able army into Sicily under Hamilcar, with a view of recover-
ing all the places they had formerly possessed in that island;
but while they were engaged in the siege of Himera, they were
attacked by Gelon and entirely defeated, with the destruc-
tion of their land army, as well as their fleet which had been
drawn up on the beach. The Carthaginians sued for peace,
which Gelon granted them upon certain conditions, one of
which was, that they should henceforth abstain from human
sacrifices. Gelon had hitherto governed Syracuse under the
title of Praetor alone, but upon this signal success, the people
with one voice hailed him as king, and passed a decree, settling
the crown, after his death, º brother Hiero and Thrasy-
bulus. Upon his elevation to the throne, he conferred the
rights of citizenship upon ten thousand foreigners who had
served under him, and he employed the remainder of his life in
anxious and laudable cares to promote the prosperity of his
people. He died universally regretted about B. C. 478. He
was a man of mild disposition, and appears to have ruled,
in general, with much lenity. The people were gratified with
the confidence which he manifested in their affections by com-
ing to the assembly without arms or guards, and affecting
submit his conduct to their free decision. They c a
tue to him to be erected in the simple garb of
which had the singular fate.
































Thrasybulus, who fell under
TOne of Theron, king of grig
wo monarchs was the consequence, which con-
led with various success several years, till it was ended by
a treaty advantageous to Hiero, who married the sister of
"Theron, and then admitted his brother to favour. After a
reign of no great length, this prince fell into a lingering malady,
the pains of which he endeavoured to divert by the conversa-
tion of poets and philosophers, whom he had drawn to his
court by liberal encouragement. He died about the year B
467. Pindar addressed four of his odes to Hil
§ successful com
º
ompetitor in the Olympic and Pythian games.
imonides was induced in his old age, to comply with an invi-
ion of this prince; and it was his question, “What is God?”
which produced the philosopher's celebrated request of time
repeatedly doubled, for answering a query which seemed the
more difficult the more it was considered. AEschylus, an
other great men and poets, are mentioned as ornaments of his
literary and social circles. .
AMASIS, a man who, from a common soldier, became king
Egypt. He made war, against Arabia, and died before the
asion of his country by Cambyses, king of Persia. He made
!, that every one of his subjects should yearly give an ac-
nt to the public magistrates, of the manner in which he sup-
!d himself. He refused to continue in alliance with Poly
, the tyrant of Samos, on account of his uncommon pro-
1. When Cambyses came into Egypt, he ordered the
Hy of Amasis to be dug up, and to be insulted and burnt, an
action which was very offensive to the religious notions of the
tians. “. . . . . .32 .
PHANES, a native of Halicarnassus, who was comma
§ sent to assist AI
inder
asis, king of Egypt,





















































fortune would vanish. Some time,
ited Magnesia on the Maeander, whither he had be -
ontes the governor, who traitorously put him to
vited by Or .
eath, merely to terminate his prosperity.
PSAMMENITUS, succeeded hi Amasis or §
throne of Egypt. Cambyses made war against him, and as h
knew that the Egyptians paid the greatest veneration to
the Persian monarch placed some of these animals at the head
of his army, and the enemy, unable to defend themselves, and
unwilling to kill those objects of adoration, were easily con-
quered. Psammenitus was twice beaten, at Pelusium and in
Memphis, and became one of the prisoners of Cambyses, who
treated him with great humanity. Psammenitus however ex-
cited seditions against the Persian monarch, and attempted t
make the Egyptians rebel, for which he was put to death by
leat
drinking bull's blood. He had reigned about six months. He
flourished about B. C. 525. … --> --
PHILISTES, an ancient queen, whose coin is still extant,
but of whose life, reign, country, and government, nothing is
recorded, nor can now be ascertained. Her coin is also men-
tioned by Herodotus, which shows that she must have flourish-
ed before the time of that ancient historian, but g else is
reigned in Sicily, and as a confirmation of this conj §
tions some inscriptions on the Graedina of the th
cuse, but which do not appear to be older than the times of
Romans; some authors think she reigned in Malta or Cossara
but Mr. Pinkerton does not think this probable.
ANAXILAS, or ANAXILAUS, a Messenian, tyrant
Rhegium. He took Zancle, and was so mild and popular
during his reign, that when he died, B.C. 476, he left his in-
fant sons to the care of one of his servants, and the citizens
chose rather to obey a slave than revolt from their benevolent
sovereign's children. .
... DEMARATUS, king of Sparta, who accused Clemens b
fore the Ephori as the disturber of Greece, for which he
torted upon Demaratus the charge of illegitimacy, and having
ribed the priests of Delphos, the oracle, when consul
firmed, the charge. Demaratus then resigned the crown
entered into the Persian service, where he was entertained












































[B.C. 577.
h subi o instance was found of the commission
of that vice during the reign of that legislator. It is added,
that Zaleucus forbad any wine being given to the sick on pain.
of death, unless it was prescribed by the physicians; and that
he was so jealous of the laws, that he ordered, that whoever
was desirous of changing them should be obliged, when he
made the proposal, to have a cord about his neck, that he
might immediately be strangled, if those alterations were esteem-
ed no better than the laws already established. Diodorus Si-
ulus attributes the same thing to Charondas, legislator of the
i. yarites. Zaleucus also enacted some humorous sumptuary
aW8. . . . ź , # *
... We now proceed to take a view of the Roman characters of
this period. - - - - .
TULLIUS SERVIUS, the sixth king of Rome, was the
son of Ocrisia, a native of Corniculum, who was made a cap-
tive when the Romans took that place. Tarquin the elder,
presented Ocrisia to his queen Tanaquil, and having a son born
when she was in a state of servitude, he was named Servius. It
is not known who the father of this king was, and it was pro-
bably not till his elevation to the royal dignity that his father
was represented as having been a person of rank who was slain
in the defence of his country. Young Servius was brought up in
the palace, and became a great favourite of the king and queen.
He distinguished himself both in a civil and military capacity;
was raised to the patrician order, and an important command
in the army given him; and was at length united in marriage
quinia, the king's daughter. On the assassination of
uin, Servius took possession of the throne, which event is
dated in the year B. C. 577. As the sons of Ancus Marcius
who were the authors of the conspiracy against Tarquin, had
a strong party among the patricians, Servius pursued the policy
of attaching the people to his interest, by paying their debts,
and making several regulations in their favour; and having
id to his reputation by a defeat of the revolted Etruscans,
strengthened his title to the crown, by procuring a legal
:tion from the Curiae. He then applied himself to the im-
int of the public police, and several of the most useful
of the Roman state took their origin in his reign.
ed the city, and divided the whole territory into
r







































mitted to th - - IlāLI -3.3-3.
reserved to himself the cognizable crimes against th #
Aware that he was still looked upon by the nobles as an in-
truder on the throne, he endeavoured to add consequence to
his family by marrying his two daughters to the grandsons of
the king. He now created a closer connection between the
Romans and their allies, the Latins and Sabines, by the erec-
tion of a temple of Diana at Rome at their common expence,
in which they were to join in annual sacrifices, and in the ami-
cable decision of all disputes among them. Servius in many
respects was fortunate as a man and a monarch; but his
greatest calamity was in his youngest daughter, who was conti-
nually urging her husband Arunx to criminal attempts against
her father, but he nobly rejecting her infamous solicitations, she
attached herself to her other brother, her sister's husband Tar-
quin, a prince of a character and disposition very similar to her
own. They got rid of their partners by poison, and then, having
formed an incestuous union, they boldly and openly declared
Servius a usurper, and Tarquin laid claim to the throne before
the senate. The patricians generally came over to his in-
terest; but the great mass of the people were determined to
support their king, who, whatever might have been his descent,
had shown himself worthy the crown which his infamous rela-
tions wished to tear from his head. Tarquin, however, con-
tinued to intrigue with his party, and at length took the daring
step of assuming the royal robes and insignia, and seated him.
self on the throne at the temple in which the senate assembled.
He there pronounced a violent invective against the person and
government of Servius, who arrived while he was speaking, and
approached to pull down his son-in-law from the throne; but
Tarquin seized the venerable monarch by the waist, and threw
him down the steps of the temple. He rose with difficulty, and
was moving away by the help of some by-standers, when his
unnatural daughter Tullia arrived, who, having saluted her hus-
band as king, suggested to him the necessity of despatching her
own father. Tarquin sent persons to perpetrate the foul deed,
and Tullia sealed her cruelty and impiety by driving her chariot
over the dead body. Servius was murdered in his seve
fourth year, after a reign of forty-four years, during which
had done enough to merit the title and character of one of th
best kings of Rome.
TARQUIN IA, a of Tarquinius Priscus
3 v
º
married Servius Tullius
§ bus, she privately conveyed away hi
## is d buried it. This preyed upon her mind, and,
‘ollowing night she died. Some have attributed her de
have suspected Tullia, the wife of young Ta
murder. * * * * * *










































have been a grandso º T
tone of Rome in the C. º
ry and tyrannical, and it was supported
"cenaries, employed in the defence of
£if and hlS part had contributed to advance him to
throne, in contempt of the suffrages of the people. Many
principal senators, dreading the fate of |. who were
le victims o suspicion and avarice, retired into a vo-
try exile. The Plebeians at first, pleased with the humi-
ion of the senate, had some reason to complain of the yoke
posed upon themselves. The laws that had been made in
their favour were abrogated; spies and informers watched their
words and actions, and all public assemblies for business or
amusement were prohibited. Tarquin, con he odium
with the allies; and with this view, he erected a temple near
the ruins of Alba, consecrated to Jupiter Latialis, at which the
f the confederate cantons were annually to assemble;
, as chief members of the confederation, presiding
ld deliberations. This institution contributed
Arength of the Roman state, and the extension.
on through Italy. Having taken up arms against the
and Sabines, he returned, after a successful war, to
and twice triumphed; and he took occasion to finish
* and the sewers, which his grandfather had
gain commenced with some discontente
º
ae remote, f the rape of Lucretia by
agth occasioned the expulsion of
£ the pas;






















































































he married Tarquin the Proud, after she had murde
rst husband Arunx, and consented to see Tullius assassin
that Tarquin might be raised to the throne. It is said tha
rdered her chariot to be driven over the body of her ag
ther, which had been thrown all mangled and bloody in one of
the streets of Rome. She was afterwards banished #. Rome
with her husband. Servius Tullius had another daughter, whº
married Tarquin the Proud. She was murdered by her own
husband, that he might marry her ambitious sister of the same
Ilame.
OLENUS CALENUS, the most famous diviner of his time
amongst the Etrurians, would have imposed upon the ambassa-
dors of Rome, in the time of Tarquin Superbus, in a matter of
great consequence. When, in digging the ground on Mount
Tarpeius for laying the foundations .#. temple, a man's head
was found, the Romans sent ambassadors to consult this famous
diviner; who finding that the prodigy portended something
very fortunate and glorious, endeavoured by his subtle ques
tions to divert the omen in favour of his own nation. And if Tar-
quin's ambassadors had forgotten to mention Rome and Mount
Tarpeius in their answers to his captious questions, Rome would
have lost the dominion of Italy, and the whole prodigy woul,
have turned to the advantage of the Etrurians. #. mentions
this as an instance that one single word is sufficient to alter th
fate of things. .
AM Aft AEA, the name of the Cumacan Sibyl, who is
said to have offered to Tarquin II., or, the Proud, mine books,
containing the Roman destinies, and demanded 300 pieces of
gold for them. He derided her, whereupon she threw three of
price. Up
appear to have been fabrications of the Roman priests,
upon that superstitious people, and increase their
ance, by tº quoting and pretending to in-
ine Oracles.
§
. #.




























































ºpºs, 1. BIOG º APHY, sº [B. c. 524. x
ment between the
sooner declared that this proceeded from the tyranny and op-
pression of his father, than the people of Gabi entrusted him
father and the son, and Tarquin had no
with the command of their armies, fully convinced that Rome
could never have a more inveterate enemy. When he had thus
succeeded, he despatched a private messenger to his father, but
the monarch gave no answer to be returned to his son. Sextus
enquired more particularly about his father, and when he heard
from the messenger that when the message was delivered, Tar-
Tuin cut off with a stick the tallest poppies in his garden, he
followed the example, by putting to death the most noble and
powerful citizens of Gabii. The town soon fell into the hands
of the Romans. The violence which some time after Tarqui-
nius offered to Lucretia, was the cause of his father's exile, and
the total expulsion of his family from Rome. Sextus was at
last killed, bravely fighting in a battle during the war which
the Latins sustained against Rome in the attempt of re-esta-
blishing the Tarquins on the throne.
"º; º COLLATINUS, a nephew of
Tarquin the Proud, who married Lucretia, to whom Sextus
Tarquin offered violence. He, with Brutus, drove the Tar-
quins from Rome, and were made first consuls. As he was
one of the Tarquins, so much abominated by all the Roman
people, he laid down his office of consul, and retired to Alba
in voluntary banishment. . . . . . . . ; ; * &
LUCRETIA, the name of this chaste and virtuous female,
has been handed down to posterity from a very distant age;
ind, whilst delicacy of mind is considered as the sex's brightest
ornament, the refinement of Lucretia's feelings will be admired.
The Romans had so high a veneration for virtue and chastity,
that they erected altars and temples in honour of their names;
and the woman who was destitute of these attractive graces,
was considered as a being lost to the very sense of shame. This
celebrated female was the daughter of Lucretius, and the wife
of Collatinus, an officer of rank, who, at the siege of Ardes,
in the course of conversation, unfortunately boasted of the vir-
tue she possessed. Several other young men likewise expressed
an' entire confidence in the chastity and virtue of their wives;
a wager was the consequence of this conversation, and it was
agreed that Sextus, the son of Tarquin, should go to Rome,
for the purpose of seeing how the different females were em-
Fº'. Upon his arrival at the capital, he found all the other
ladies occupied in paying visits, or receiving different guests,
he went to the house of Collatinus, Lucretia was be-
absence of her lord, and directing her household
º s


























FROM, CYRUS TO ARTAXERXES I.
precious casket of the treasures it contained : NeXt
distantly related to Collatinus, and son of the mol
reigned upon the throne, Lucretia entertained him wi
elegance and hospitality due to a man of such elevate
If the person of this charming woman excited brutal p
in his bosom, her conversation delighted and captivat
mind; and a short time after he had retired to the apar
prepared for him, the terrified Lucretia beheld him ente
room. In vain this detestable man pleaded the violence of hi
passion for this breach of hospitality, and this deviation from
what was right, for the alarmed Lucretia preserved her purity
until the monster presented a dagger to her breast, and swore
by all the gods, that he was determined to gratify his inclina-
tions, and that he would then kill her and one of Collatinus's
slaves, and afterwards place him by the side of the injured Lu-
cretia, and inform her husband that he had murdered both, in
consequence of having discovered them in the act of committing
the crime. The dread of having her memory tarnished by so vile
an aspersion, at length induced the terrified Lucretia to con-
sent to his desires; but the next morning she despatched a mes-
senger to her father and her husband, requesting them imme-
diately to repair to Rome. They obeyed the summons with
pleasure and alacrity, at the same time they were anxious to
know the cause of this singular request; but when they beheld
the object of their solicitude, a thousand apprehensions took
possession of their breasts. Instead of being welcomed with
the smiles of pleasure, the countenance of Lucretia was bathed.
in tears, her hair was dishevelled, her garments of the deepest
sable, and her whole figure displayed the image of despair.
After describing, in the most eloquent terms, the outrage that
had been committed upon her person, she implored them to
avenge the insult she had received, and at the same time draw-
ing forth a dagger, which she had concealed for the purpose,
declared her resolution of not surviving her shame, and, before
they were able to prevent the horrid purpose, buried the wea-
pon in her heart. The horror and despair of these dear con-
nexions, may be better imagined than described. Brutus, one,
of her relations, drew the reaking instrument from her bosom,
and, with all the energy of true feeling, swore he would avenge,
her fate. .* I swear by this blood, once so pure,” s e,
“ and which nothing but the villainy of a Tarquin could have
polluted, that I will pursue Lucius Tarquinius the Proud, his
wicked wife and their children, with fire and sword, nor will
to reign in Rome; and I now call all the gods t
I will most sacredly fulfilm ”* If them
had taken possession of the m 3.
dreadful catastrophe which ha


































an,
wealthy patrici
hom terminated the race of kings at Rome. The father and
brother of Brutus were assassinated by order of this tyrant at
he beginning of his reign; and Brutus himself escaped by
ng idiotism, whence it is said the tus.”
lace, brought up with the king's sons, and regarded
as the object of their diversion. On occasion of a plague
broke out at Rome, Tarquin sent his sons to consult the
of Delphi as to the cause and cure ſtagion :
º × rinces prepared magnificent presents for
llo; but their companion is said to have offered to the god
er-stick, enclosi emblem
ºrrºt inces made
kiss his mother; and that they, interpreting this
terally, agreed to kiss their mother at the same time,
reign jointly. But Brutus, interpreting the response of
mmon mother of all m
11s story, it is cer
e allegorica
having snatched the poniard
ance on the aggressors, and
is to concur with him in retaliating on Tar-











































































"an important
retia, were ele
the tituti
constitu
the year of Rome 240. & .
This change, so hastily concerted and accomplished, alth
it had obtained the concurrence of the senate, and of the p
excited an alarm amongst those who were attached to th
constitution, and particularly among the young mobilit
were zealous partizans of the dethroned and expelled sove-
reign. In the mumber of the malcontents were the two sons of
Brutus, and three nephews of Collatinus. These were active
in the conspiracy formed against the new government; and
they concurred with others in binding themselves by a very
solemn oath, to murder the consuls, and to re-establish mo.
narchy. Whilst they were concerting measures for this purpose
the plot was disclosed by a slave to Poplicola Valerius, a patriotic
senator, and orders were issued for apprehending them. When
the sons of Brutus, venerated by the people as their deliverers,
appeared before the consular tribu
was seized with a general panic; an
nal, the attendant multitude
d as soon as they were con-
d of the crime alleged against them
33 £OTS, 111 a Kl
f confused murmur, expre xiety and wishes, by
itering the words, “Banish them banish them t” Collati-
nus wept ; and the stern patriot, Valerius, was silent. But the
father, sacrificing private feelings to the public good, and ap-
prized of the necessi 3% N.
§º.
£000,
sity of suppressing rebellion by §: 3%
example of punishment, with a steady countenance, and firm
tone of voice, gave orders to the lictors to execute the law on
his sons. The distress of the assembled multitude on this so-
lemn occasion, was such as no words can describe; mournful
looks and secret groans pleaded for pity; and when the consul
seemed to pay no regard to their anxiety and tears, they loudly
remonstrated, and exclaimed with one voice, “We give them
ack to their country, and to their family.” Neither the int
cessions of the people, nor the suppli imi
~ liant cries of the crimir
could alter the fixed purpose of Brutus, who witnessed
*xecution of the sentence; and having seen them stripped,
beaten with rods, and beheaded, retired from the tribunal, to
indulge, without doubt, those parental feelings which the neces.
ity of the times had induced him to disguise and restrain. Of
º l

















































































[B. c. 509.
flexible; and are his nephews,
and to suppress the evidence which the slave Vindicius had
adduced against them. The zeal of Valerius was roused; and
whilst the people were tumultuous, Brutus returned, and having
again ascended the tribunal, justified his own conduct, but re-
ferred the fate of the other criminals to the decision of the
people, who concurred in condemning them, and ordering them
for execution. Collatinus, however, accused by Brutus for his
weakness and want of patriotism, was obliged to renounce his
authority, and to retire to Lavinium, where he lived privately to
an advanced age. Upon this removal, Brutus, in order to ob-
viate every suspicion that it was his intention to govern singly,
convoked the people by centuries in the Campus Martius, for
the election of a new consul; and Valerius, afterwards known
by the name of “Poplicola,” whose meritorious conduct in the
disclosure of the conspiracy has been already mentioned, was
chosen to supply the vacancy. Some difference occurs in the
relation of these events by Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Livy,
and Plutarch; but they all agree in the principal fact, respect-
ing the conduct of Brutus towards his sons. During the con-
sulate of Brutus and Valerius, Tarquin and his partizans made
some vigorous efforts for regaining the throne of Rome; and,
joined by the Veientes, the avowed enemies of the Romans,
they advanced towards the city. But they were met by the
consuls at the head of the Roman forces; the command of the
horse being assumed by Brutus, and that of the infantry by
Valerius; the horse of the enemy, commanded by Arunx, one
of Tarquin's sons, came forward to the charge; and as the hos-
tile armies approached each other, Arunx discovered Brutus,
attended by his lictors; and inflamed with resentment, he ex-
ned, “There is the enemy of my family, the usurper of my
er's throne.” He then immediately advanced to a personal
º nter, and Brutus flew to meet him. Actuated bypassion,
more than by cool courage, these two champions, neglecting
ſhe means of personal defence, transfixed each other with their
spears, and at the same instant fell dead from their horses.
This happened in the year B.C. 509. The conflict, thus com-
nced, terminated in a victory on the part of the Romans;
, as soon as it was decided, Valerius buried his colleague,
utus, with great pomp, and gave Rome the first example of
ise funeral orations, which it was afterwards customary to
a commendation of their great men. The Roman
ºns distinguished themselves on this occasion; for, regard-
tus as the avenger of the honour of their sex, they
r him a whole year; and his statue was afterwards,
Capitol, w d in his hand. Th
































B. c. 509.] FROM CYRUS TO ARTAXERXES I. 273
of their city, who had restored liberty to their country, cement-
edit by the blood of his own sons, and died in defending it
against a usurper; and they considered him as having under-
gone more hardships and dangers in establishing the common-
wealth, than Romulus had done in first founding the kingdom.
Virgil has nobly sketched his history and praise in the follow-
ing lines: º
“He first shall hold the consul's sway and wield
The dreaded axes; he, a Roman sire,
For thee, fair Liberty his rebel sons
Shall doom to public death. Unhappy man,
Howe'er posterity the deed may judge;
His country's love, and boundless thirst of praise, .
Shall quell the father.” -AEN. vi. 820.
POPLICOLA PUBLIUS VALERIUS, an eminent Ro-
man, and one of the founders of the republican government,
distinguished by his simplicity, eloquence, and liberality. In a
contention about the consulate, at the expulsion of the Tar-
quinian family, he was elected to supply the place of Collati-
nus, who was removed from office, and lived on terms of the
utmost harmony with his colleague, the celebrated Junius Bru-
tus. . In the subsequent battle with the allies of Tarquin, in
which Brutus was slain, Valerius gained a victory, for which he
obtained a triumph, B.C. 507. Delaying the election of a new
consul, and having built a house on the Palatine hill, that over-
looked the forum, he excited the suspicion of the people; but
as soon as he understood the ground of their jealousy, he or-
dered the house to be levelled in the night, and gave orders
for supplying the vacancy in the consulate. The father of Lu-
cretia was chosen; but by his death, soon after his election,
Valerius was again the sole chief magistrate. In the exercise
of his office he enacted several laws, abridging the consular
authority, and meliorating the condition of the people; and
hence obtained the name of Poplicola, or the people's friend.
As a proof of his integrity and disinterestedness, he removed
the public treasury from his own house to the temple of Sa-
turn, thus committing it to the charge of two senators appoint-
ed by the people. Upon an election of consul, his popularity
ºccasioned his being chosen a second time. When, in the
following year, Porsenna, kin g of Etruria, in Tuscany, at-
tempted, the restoration of Tarquin, and by an army, which he
marched to Rome, reduced the city to great difficulties, Pop-
licola agreed to resign some of their conquests as the price of
peace; and his own daughter, Valeria, was one of the hostag
In the war with the Sabines, Poplicola was nominated, for th
fourth time, a consul; and by f military skill obtai
w º ll obta medaco m-
WOL, I,





274 UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. [B. C. 507.
I
ite victory over the enemy, and recovered the town of Fi-
piet # . § # .
denae. For this success he obtained a triumph, and soon after
died, having established his character as one of the greatest
men and virtuous citizens of Rome. Although he had occu-
pied many lucrative posts, he did not amass money sufficient
F. defray the expense of his funeral, which was paid by the
public; and in honour of his memory, as in the case of Brutus,
the matrons of Rome wore mourning for the year. His prin-
ciples were transmitted to his family, from one generation to
º so that the Valerii were assertors of the rights of the
COOle.
CAIUS MUTIUS, or MUCIUS, a person famous in
the early history of Rome, was a youth of an illustrious fa-
mily, at the time of the siege of the city by Porsenna, king of
the Etrurians, about the year B.C. 507. During the blockade
of the capital, when he found there was no hope of relief, he
determined to render himself illustrious by some great act; he
accordingly, with the permission of the senators, crossed the
Tiber, and entered the enemy's camp, with a concealed dagger
under his garment; at length he obtained admission into the
royal tent, at the moment when the king was paying his soldiers,
with his secretary by his side. Mutius mistaking the minister
for the monarch, laid him dead at a blow, and then, in the con-
fusion, attempted to make his escape. He was, however,
seized and brought before Porsenna, in whose presence he,
without any hesitation, avowed his name and purpose, and ex-
pressed a readiness to endure any suffering that the king might
choose to inflict on him, adding, that he was but one of a band
of Roman youths prepared to make a similar attempt. Por-
senna, enraged at the daring behaviour of the young man, call-
ed for fire, in order to extort from him whatever he might
know of further meditated treachery. “Behold,” said the
young patriot, “how little bodily pain is valued by those who
pursue true glory,” and instantly thrust his hand into the flame
of an altar, kindled for the purpose of sacrifice. The king, in
admiration of the resolution with which he endured the tor-
ture, leaped from his seat, and ordering the youth to be taken
rom the altar, bid him depart without further molestation.
Mutius took his leave, warning the king that three hundred
Roman young men had mutually sworn to attempt his assassi-
nation, should he continue the siege. Porsenna instantly sent
ambassadors to Rome to offer terms of peace. Mutius, for his
ct, w med Scaevola, left-handed, on account of the volun-
injury done to his right hand, which appellation descend-
is posterity. “Although,” says a biographer, “the
Scaevola cannot be justified by the rules of fair and
yet it has been extolled by poets and orators





















B. C. 507.] FROM CYRUS TO ARTAXERXES I. 275
infant state of the Roman republic. Balthasar Gerard, how-
ever, who killed William, prince of Orange, and Poltrot de la
Mere, who killed the duke of Guise, were both considered as
murderers.” .
VOLUMNIA, a respectable Roman matron, the mother of
Coriolanus, has been celebrated by different historians for her
persuasive powers. The speech with which she addressed her
son, who was then fighting the battle of the Volscians, is re-
lated by Plutarch in the following words: “You see, my son,
by our attire and miserable looks, what may spare me the trouble
of telling you, and convince you to what a state of wretched-
nese we are reduced. Think with yourself whether we are not
the most unhappy of women, when fortune has changed the
spectacle that should have been the most pleasing, into one of
the most affecting kind; when Volumnia beholds her son, and
Virgilia her husband, encamped in a hostile manner before the
walls of the city which gave him birth 2 What to others is the
greatest º under misfortunes and adversity, I mean
prayer to the gods, we dare not apply; for we cannot, at the
same time, beg your preservation and victory to our country'
Your wife and diº must either behold you or their country
perish. As for my part, I will not live to see this war decided
by fortune. If I cannot persuade you to prefer friendship and
union to enmity and its ruinous consequences, and so to become
a benefactor to both sides, rather than the destruction of one,
you must prepare to expect that you shall not advance against
your country without trampling upon the dead body of her
who gave you birth; for it does not become me to wait for that
day when my son shall either be led a captive by his fellow-
citizens, or triumph over Rome! If, indeed, I desired you to
save your country by ruining the Volscians, I confess the case
would be hard, and the choice difficult; for it would neither
be honourable to destroy your countrymen, nor just to betray
those who have placed their confidence in you. But what do
we desire of you more than deliverance from our calamities?
A deliverance which will be equally salutary to both parties,
but most honourable to the Volscians, since it will appear that
their superiority empowered them to grant us the greatest of
º Il blessings, peace and friendship; while they themselves re-
£eive the same from us. If these take place, you will be ac-
knowledged to be the principal cause of them; if they do not,
%. alºne must expect to bear the blame from both nations.
hough the chance of war is uncertain, yet it will be certain
endor] t
country; if you are beaten, it will be clear, that, by indi
your resentment, you have plunged your friends and be
tºrs into the greatest of misfortunes.” Coriolanus lister
this appeal to his feelings in pºst silence, yet his counſ
that if you conquer, you will be a destroying de










UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY, [B. c. 507.
nance betrayed the emotion of his mind. “Why are you silent,
my son 7" enquired Volumnia. “Is it an honour to yield every
thing to anger and resentment? and would it be a disgrace to
listen to your mother in so important a petition ? or does it be-
come a man to remember the injuries which have been done
him : Would it not more become a great and a good man to
remember the benefits which his parents have conferred ?
Surely you, of all men, ought to be grateful, who have suffered
so much from ingratitude! and yet, though you have so se-
verely punished your country, you have not made your mother
the least return for all her kindness; the most sacred ties,
both of nature and religion, without any other constraint, re-
quire that you should indulge me in this request; but if words
cannot prevail, this only resource is left me!” So saying, she
threw herself at his feet, together with Virgilia and his chil-
dren. “Oh, mother!” exclaimed Coriolanus, raising her from
her prostrate situation, and tenderly pressing her hand, “ you
have gained a victory fortunate for your country, but ruinous
to your son —I go, vanquished by you alone!” ºft: á
CORIOLANUS, the sirname of Caius Martius, from his
victory over Corioli, where, from a private soldier, he gained the
amplest honours. When master of the place, he accepted, as
the only reward, the sirname of Coriolanus, a horse, and pri-
soners, and his ancient host, to whom he immediately gave his
liberty. After a number of military exploits, and many services
to his country, he was refused the consulship by the people,
when his scars had for a while influenced them in his favour.
This raised his resentment; and when the Romans had re-
ceived a present of corn from Gelo, king of Sicily, Coriolanus
insisted that it should be sold for money, and not given gratis.
Upon this, the tribunes raised the people against him, for his
imprudent advice, and even wished him to be put to death.
This rigorous sentence was stopped by the influence of the
senators, and Coriolanus submitted to a trial. He was banish-
ed by a majority of three tribes, and he immediately retired
among the Volsci, to Tullus Aufidius, his greatest enemy, from
whom he met a most friendly reception. He advised him to
make war against Rome, and he marched at the head of the
Volsci, as general. The approach of Coriolanus greatly alarm-
ed the Romans, who sent him several embassies, to reconcile
him to his country, and to solicit his return. He was deaf to
all proposals, and bade them prepare for war. He pitched his
camp only at the distance of five miles from the city; and his
enmity against his country would have been fatal, had not his
mother, Volumnia, and his wife, Virgilia, been prevailed upon
e Roman matrons to go and appease his resentment. The
ng of Coriolanus with his family was tender and affect-
He remained long inexorable; but at last the tears and









FROM cyrus To ARTAXERXES I.
2
7
entreaties of a mother and a wife prevailed over the stern and
obstinate resolutions of an enemy, and Coriolanus marched the
Volsci from the neighbourhood of Rome. To show their sense
of Volumnia's merit and patriotism, the Romans dedicated a
temple to Female Fortune. The behaviour of Coriolanus, how-
ever, displeased the Volsci. He was summoned to appear be-
fore the people of Antium; but the clamours which his enemies
raised were so prevalent, that he was murdered on the place
appointed for his trial, B. C. 488. His body was honoured
with a magnificent funeral by the Volsci, and the Roman ma-
trons put on mourning for his loss. Some historians say that
he died in exile, in an advanced age. §
TULLUS AUFIDIUS, a prince of the Volsci, in Italy,
to whom Coriolanus fled for refuge.
HORATIUS, sirnamed COCLES, from his losing an eye
in combat, was nephew to the consul Horatius Pulvillus, and
descended from the surviving brother who killed the Curiatii.
Porsenna, laying siege to Rome, drove the Romans from
Janiculum, and pursued them to the wooden bridge over the
Tiber, which joined the city to Janiculum. Largius, Hermi-
nius, and Horatius Cocles sustained the shock of the enemy
on the bridge, and prevented their entering the city with the
Romans; but Largius and Herminius having passed, the bridge
was broken under him; he then threw himself armed into the
Tiber, swam across the river, and entered Rome in triumph.
FLORUS T. LAERTIUS, a consul, who appeased a se-
dition raised by the poorer citizens, and was the first dictator
ever chosen at Rome, B. C. 498. He made Spurius Cassius
his master of horse. * ,
ALPHENUS WARUS, a Roman cobbler, who afterwards
commenced lawyer, in which he was so successful, that he at
last rose to be consul. " % >
SPURIUS CASSIUS VISCELLINUS, a renowned Ro-
man general, whose enemies accusing him of aspiring to royalty,
he was thrown down from the Tarpeian rock, B.C. 485, after
having thrice enjoyed the consular dignity, being once general
of the horse, under the first dictator that was created at Rome,
and twice received the honour of a triumph. * . . . . . . . . . . . . . . º.º. 3 ºf
# APPIUS CLAUDIUS, a Sabine by birth, one of the prin-
cipal inhabitants of Regillum. His merit having drawn the
ey of his fellow-citizens upon him, he retired to Rome with
all his family. He was admitted into the senate, and was made
consul, with Publius Servilius Priscus, B. C. 496; but he was
mours and seditions. The Claudian family continued long one
of the most illustrious patrician families in Rome; and several



278. UNIVERSAL Biography. [B.C. 600.
in succession of the name of Appius supported the same stern
aristocratic character that distinguished their first founder.
PORSENNA, a king of Etruria, contemporary with Tar-
quin H., king of Rome, whom he endeavoured to restore, after
his banishment, and fought against the Roman republicans at
first with such success, that he laid siege to Rome; but the
courage of Cocles and Scaevola obliged him to retire. He made
peace with the Romans, and never after supported the claims
of Tarquin. The generosity of Porsenna's behaviour to the
captives was admired by the Romans, and to reward his hu-
manity, they raised a brazen statue to his honour.
CLELIA, one of the Roman virgins given as an hostage to
Porsenna, when he came to restore the Tarquins. Stealing
from his camp by night, she crossed the Tiber on horseback;
she was sent back to Porsenna, who despatched ambassadors to
demand her; yet he dismissed her and the rest for the great
esteem he had of her virtue. The senate erected an equestrian
statue to her.
MENENIUS AGRIPPA, a celebrated Roman, who ap-
peased the Roman populace in the infancy of the consular go-
vernment.
SICINIUS BELLUTUS, a plebeian Roman, who, about
the year of Rome 256, B.C. 493, headed the people in their
opposition to the exorbitant power of the senate and patricians,
and under whom they retired to the Mons Sacer, about three
miles from Rome, intending to form a new establishment for
themselves; till after repeated messages sent in vain by the
senate, Menenius Agrippa persuaded them to return, by the
well-known fable of the belly and the other members. On this
occasion the tribuneship being first instituted, Bellutus was ap-
pointed the first of the five tribunes. &
PHILOSOPHY.
ANACHARSIS, a famous Scythian philosopher, who tra-
velled to Athens in the time of Solon, by whom he was greatly
esteemed. He was the only stranger ever admitted by the
Athenians to the honour of citizenship. Croesus invited him to
Sardis, with the offer of riches, but he refused, saying, “that
he came to Greece for improvement, not for money.” Upon
his return from his travels through Greece, he attempted to
change the ancient customs of Scythia, and to establish those
of Greece, which proved fatal to him; for the king, though he
his brother, not being fond of innovations, shot him dead
was h
with an arrow. A great many statues were erected to him
after his death. He is said to have invented tinder, and the
anchor. Anacharsis flourished in the time of Croesus, about
B. C. 582.












FROM CYRUS TO ARTAXERXES I. 279
MYSON, a native of Sparta, one of the seven wise men of
Greece. When Anacharsis consulted the oracle of Apollo, to
know which was the wisest man in Greece, he received for
answer, he who now is ploughing his field. This was My
SO11. § . . . . . . . . . .
AESOP, the Phrygian, lived about the fiftieth Olympia
under the reign of Croesus, the last king of Lydia. As to ge-
nius and abilities, he was greatly indebted to mature; but in
other respects not so fortunate, being born a slave, and ex-
tremely deformed. St. Jerome, speaking of him, says he was
unfortunate in his birth, condition in life, and death; hinting
thereby at his deformity, servile state, and º end. His
great genius, however, enabled him to support his misfortunes,
and to alleviate the hardships of servitude. He composed
those entertaining and instructive fables, which have acquired
him much reputation. He is generally supposed to have been
the inventor of that kind of writing; but this is contested by
several, particularly Quintilian, who seems to think that Hesiod
was the first author of fables; and we are certain that Jotham,
the son of Gideon, was the author of a fable, or parable, long
before either of them. AEsop, however, certainly improved
this art; and hence it is that he has been accounted the author
of this sort of productions. The first master whom AEsop
served was one Carasius Demarchus, of Athens; and there, in
all probability, he acquired his purity in the Greek tongue.
After him, he had several masters; and at length came un-
der a philosopher, named Xanthus, who enfranchised him.
When he had recovered his liberty, he soon acquired a great
reputation amongst the Greeks; and the report of his wisdom
having reached Croesus, he sent and engaged him in his ser-
vice. He travelled through Greece; and passing by Athens,
soon after Pisistratus had usurped the sovereign power, and
finding that the Athenians bore the yoke very impatiently, he
told them the fable of the frogs who petitioned Jupiter for a
king. . The images made use of by AEsop are certainly happy
inventions to instruct mankind; they possess all that is neces-
sary to perfect a precept, having a mixture of the useful with
the agreeable. Alsop was put to death at Delphi. Plutarch
tells us that he came there with a great quantity of gold and
silver, being ordered by Croesus to offer a sacrifice to Apollo,
and tº give a considerable sum to each inhabitant; but a quar.
rel arising between him and the Delphians, he sent back the
money to Qrºsus; for he thought those for whom the prince
designed it, had rendered themselves unworthy of it. The
against him, and pretending they had convicted him, threw
him headlong from a rock. For this cruelty and injustice, we
are told they were visited with famine and pestilence;
§
















UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. [B.C. 590,
consulting the oracle, they received for answer, that the gods
designed this as a punishment for their treatment of Æsop.
They endeavoured to make an atonement, by raising a pyramid
to his honour. - .
RHODOPE, a celebrated Grecian courtezan, who was fel-
low-servant with Æsop at the court of the king of Samos. She
was carried to Egypt by Xanthus, and purchased by Charaxes
of Mitylene, the brother of Sappho, who married her. She
afterwards sold her favours at such a price, and she collected
so much money, that she built one of the Pyramids. AElian
says, that one day, as she was bathing, an eagle carried away
one of her sandals, and dropt it near king Psammetichus at
Memphis, on which he made inquiry after the owner, and mar-
ried her.
XANTHUS, a philosopher of Samos, called by others Tad-
mon, who purchased AEsop the fabulist for his wit, and after-
wards gave him his liberty. .
PYTHAGORAS, one of the greatest philosophers of anti-
quity, was born about the forty-seventh Olympiad, or 590
years before Christ. His father's principal residence was at
Samos; but being a travelling merchant, his son Pythagoras
was born at Sidon, in Syria; but soon returning home, our phi-
losopher was brought up at Samos, where he was educated in
a manner that was answerable to the great hopes that were
conceived of him. He was called “the youth with a fine head
of hair,” and from the great qualities that soon appeared in
him, he was regarded as a good genius sent into the world for
the benefit of mankind. .
Samos, however, afforded no philosophers capable of satis-
fying his thirst for knowledge; and therefore, he left his pa-
rents, and resolved to travel in quest of wisdom The fame
of Pherecydes drew him first to the island of Scyros, from
hence he went to Miletus, where he conversed with Thales.
He then travelled to Phoenicia, and stayed some time at Sidon,
the place of his birth; and from hence he passed into Egypt,
where Thales and Solon had been before him. &::: *., .
Having spent twenty-five years in Egypt, to acquire all the
learning and knowledge he could procure in that country, with
the same view he travelled to Chaldea, and visited Babylon. Re-
turning after some time, he went to Crete; and from hence to
Sparta, to be instructed in the laws of Minos and Lycurgus,
e then returned to Samos; which, finding under the tyranny
of Polycrates, he quitted again, and visited the several coun-
tries of Greece. Passing through Peloponnesus, he stopped
at Pholius, where Leo then reigned; and in his conversation
ith that prince, he spoke with so much eloquence and wis-
dom, that Leo was at once delighted and surprised. . .
From Peloponnesus he went into Italy, and passed some time









B.C. 500.] FROM CYRUs To ARTAXERXES I. 281
at Heraclea and Tarentum; but made his chief residence at
Croton; where, after reforming the manners of the citizens by
lecturing, and establishing the city by wise and prudent coun-
sels, he opened a school, to display the treasures of wisdom
and learning he possessed. It is not to be wondered that he
was soon attended by a crowd of disciples, who repaired to him
from different parts of Greece and Italy.
He gave his scholars the rules of the Egyptian priests, and
made them pass through the austerities which he himself had
endured. He at first enjoined them a five years' silence in the
school, during which they were only to hear; after which leave
was given them to start questions, and to propose doubts, un-
der the caution, however, to say “not a little in many words,
but much in a few.” Having gone through their probation,
they were obliged, before they were admitted, to bring all their
fortune into the common stock, which was managed by persons
chosen on purpose, and called economists, and the whole com-
munity had all things in common. .
The necessity of concealing their mysteries, induced the
Egyptians to make use of three sorts of styles, or ways of
expressing their thoughts; the simple, the hieroglyphical, and
the symbolical. In the simple, they spoke plainly and intelli-
gibly, as in common conversation; in the hieroglyphical, they
concealed their thoughts under certain images and characters;
and in the symbolical, they explained them by short expres-
sions, which, under a sense plain and simple, included another
wholly figurative. Pythagoras borrowed these three different
ways from the Egyptians in all the instructions he gave; but
chiefly imitated the symbolical style, which he thought very
proper to inculcate the greatest and most important truths; for
a symbol, by its double sense, the proper and the figurative,
teaches two things at once; and nothing pleases the mind more
than the double image it represents to our view. In this man-
ner Pythagoras delivered many excellent things concerning
God and the human soul, and a great variety of precepts, re-
lating to the conduct of life, political as well as civil; he made
also some considerable discoveries and advances in the arts and
sciences. Thus, among the works ascribed to him, there are
not only books of physic and morality, like that contained in
what are called his “Golden Verses,” but treatises on politics
and theology. All these works are lost; but the greatness of
his mind appears. from the wonderful things he performed. He
delivered, as antiquity relates, several cities of Italy and Sicily
from the yoke of slavery; he a peased seditions in others; and
he softened the manners, and brought to temper the most sa-
vage and unruly spirits of several people and tyrants. Phalaris,
the tyrant of Sicily, it is said, was the only one who could with-
stand the remonstrances of Pythagoras; and he it seems was s


VERSAL BIOGRAPHY, [B.C. 590.
anraged at his discourses, that he ordered him to be put to
death. But though the lectures of the philosopher could make
no impression on the tyrant, yet they were sufficient to reani-
mate the Sicilians, and to put them upon a bold action. In
short, Phalaris was killed the same day that he had fixed for
the death of the philosopher. §
Pythagoras had a great veneration for marriage, and there-
fore himself married at Crotona a daughter of one of the chief
men of that city, by whom he had two sons and a daughter.
One of these sons succeeded his father in the school, and be-
came the master of Empedocles. The daughter, named Damo,
was distinguished both by her learning and her virtues, and
wrote an excellent commentary upon Homer. It is related
that Pythagoras had given her some of his writings, with ex-
press commands not to impart them to any but those of his own
family; to which Damo was so scrupulously obedient, that
even when she was reduced to extreme poverty, she refused a
great sum of money for them.
From the country in which Pythagoras thus settled and gave
his instructions, his society of disciples was called the Italic sect
of philosophers, and their reputation continued for some ages
afterwards, when the Academy and the Lycaeum united to ob-
scure and swallow up the Italic sect. .
Pythagoras's disciples regarded the words of their master as
the oracles of a god ; his authority alone, though unsupported
by reason, passed with them for reason itself; they looked upon
him as the most perfect image of God among men. His house
was called the temple of Ceres; and his court-yard the temple
of the Muses; and when he went into towns, it was said he
went thither, “not to teach men, but to heal them.” Pytha-
goras was prosecuted by bad men in the last years of his life,
and some say he was killed in a tumult raised by them against
him; but according to others, he died a natural death at ninety
years of age, about 500 years before Christ.
Beside the high respect and veneration the world has always
had for Pythagoras, on account of the excellence of his wis-
dom, his morality, his theology, and politics, he was pronounced
as learned in all the sciences, and a considerable inventor of
many things in them; as arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, mu-
sic, &c. In arithmetic, the common multiplication table is, to
this day, still called Pythagoras's table. It is to him that the
world is indebted for the demonstration of the forty-seventh
proposition of the first book of Euclid's Elements, about the
square of the hypothenuse. It is said, that he was so elated
king the discovery, that he made an offering of a he-
b to the gods; but the sacrifice was undoubtedly of small
made with wax, as the philosopher was ever an enemy to
ling the blood of animals of any description. In astro-


















B.C. 500.] FROM CYRUS TO AR
nomy, his inventions were many and great. It is reported tha
he discovered or maintained the true system of the world, which
places the sun in the centre; and made all the planets revolve
about him; from him it is to this day called the Pythagorean
system, and is the same as that afterwards revived by Coper-
nicus. He first discovered that Lucifer and Hesperus were
but one and the same, being the planet Venus, though for-
merly thought to be two different stars. The invention of the
obliquity of the Zodiac is likewise ascribed to him. He first
gave to the world the name of Kosmos, from the order and
beauty of all things comprehended in it; asserting that it was
made according to musical proportion, for as he held that the
sun, by him and his followers termed the fiery globe of unity,
was seated in the midst of the universe, and the earth and pla-
nets moving around him, so he held that the seven planets had
an harmonious motion, and their distances from the sun corres-
ponded to the musical intervals or divisions of the monochord.
Pythagoras and his followers held the transmigration of
souls, making them successively occupy one body after ano-
ther; on which account they abstained from flesh, and lived
chiefly on vegetables. -
LYSIS, a Pythagorean philosopher, a native of Tarentum,
who according to Jamblicus, was instructed in his philosophy
by Pythagoras himself. Being well initiated, and excelling in
the doctrines of his master, he opened a school for the purpose
of instructing others, but would never admit persons of bad
character among his auditors. He even refused, on that ac-
count, entrance to Cylon, one of the wealthiest people of the
city. Cylon was exasperated at the neglect, as he thought it,
and resolved on revenge. He caused the house of Milo, in
which Lysis and forty other Pythagoreans were assembled, to
be set on fire; meaning by the violence of a hired mob to as-
sassinate those, by bludgeons or missile weapons, who should
escape burning. Excepting Lysis and Archippus, they were
every one burnt or stoned to death. The philosopher now re-
tired, first into Achaia, and afterwards to Thebes, where he
opened a school, and remained a useful instructor to the Gre-
cian youth till he died. Among other famous disciples, he
could, it has been said, mention Epaminondas; though others
seem to doubt the fact, and to be desirous of referring that ho-
nour to another person of the same name. Lysis is celebrated
for having been a most exact and punctual performer of his
promises, eyen on the most trivial occasions. He composed
Commentaries on the Philosophy of Pythagoras, which have
not come down to our times. Some writers have attributed to
him the “Golden Verses ;” while others have given them to
Philolaus, Or Empedocles. º %
DAMO, daughter of Pyt hagoras the philoso ph
























284 UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. [B.C. 590,
of the favourite disciples of her father, and was initiated by him
in the secrets of his philosophy. To her the ancient sage en-
trusted all his writings, when he felt himself approaching his
latter end, enjoining her never to make them public: this com-
mand she strictly obeyed, though tempted with large offers at
a time when she was struggling with the evils of poverty. She
led a single life, in obedience to her father's wishes, and ex-
horted other young women, whose education she took charge
of, to do the same.
EPICHARMUS, an ancient philosopher and poet, born in
Sicily, was a scholar of Pythagoras. He is said to have intro-
duced comedy at Syracuse in the reign of Hiero. Horace
commends Plautus for imitating him, in following the chase of
the intrigue so closely, as not to give the readers or spectators
time to trouble themselves with doubts concerning the disco-
very. He wrote likewise a treatise concerning philosophy and
medicine; but none of his works have been preserved. He died
aged seventy, according to Laertius, who has preserved four
verses inscribed on his statue.
MILO, the son of Diotimus, a celebrated athlete of Crotona
in Italy. He early accustomed himself to carry the greatest
burdens, and by degrees became a prodigy of strength. It is
said that he carried on his shoulders a young i. four
years old, for above forty yards; and afterwards killed it
with a single blow of his fist. He was seven times crowned at
the Pythian games, and six at the Olympian. He presented
himself a seventh time; but no one had the courage or bold-
ness to enter the lists against him. He was a disciple of
Pythagoras; and to his uncommon strength, it is said, the
learned preceptor and his pupils owed their lives. The pillar
which supported the roof of the school suddenly gave way, but
Milo supported the whole weight of the building, and gave the
philosopher and his auditors time to escape. In his old age,
K. attempted to split a growing tree, and partly effected it;
but his strength being gradually exhausted, the tree when half
cleft re-united, and his hands remained pinched in the body of
the tree. He was then alone; and, being unable to disentan-
gle himself, he was devoured by wild beasts, about B.C.,500.
ALCMAEON, a philosopher of Crotona, and the disciple of
Pythagoras; he was the first writer on natural philosophy; but
he held peculiar notions, one of which was, that the stars were
animated beings. ~. . . . .
HIPPASUS OF MELAPONTUS, or CROTONIA, is
nerated among the disciples of Pythagoras, late in his life.
He is said to have been the inventor of musical glasses.
ZAMOLXIS, a celebrated person among the Scythians,
was, as some have supposed, a s ave of Pythagoras, who, hav-
º ed him into Egypt, obtained his freedom, and taught






B.C. 590.] FROM cyRUs To ARTAXERXES I.
his master's doctriné among the Getae. It has been also said,
that in order to enforce the belief of the immortality of
he dug a subterraneous apartment, and concealed him
he thereby established his authority as a teacher. But Hero-
dotus, who relates this fabulous story as a common tradition,
gives it no credit, but expressly says, that so far from bei
jº
a Pythagorean, he flourished at an earlier period than Py-
thagoras. The general testimony of the ancients furnishes
reasons for concluding that Zamolxis was a Thracian, who had
at a very remote period, taught the Scythians the doctrine of
the immortality of the soul, and that after his death, they en-
rolled his name among the divinities, with whom they assured
themselves they should associate in the invisible world. Hero-
dotus relates, that at certain festivals they chose several per-
sons by lot, who were to be deputed as messengers to Za-
molxis; and that they put them to death, by throwing them
up into the air, and catching them, as they fell, upon the
points of their spears; and this story is thought to be the more
credible, because it is well known, that the practice of offering
human sacrifices prevailed among the Scythians and the Thra-
C18.11S. ; : .
FHERECYDEs, a native of Scyros, who flourished about
B.C. 560, and was a disciple of Pittacus. He is said to have
been the first philosopher who wrote on natural subjects and
the essence of the gods. He was also the first who held the
ridiculous opinion, “that animals are mere machines.” He
gave instructions to Pythagoras's master, who loved him as his
brother. He lived to the age of eighty-five, and was one of
the first prose writers among the Greeks. It is difficult to give
an accurate account of the doctrines of Pherecydes. It is most
probable that he taught those opinions concerning the gods and
the origin of the world, which the ancient Grecian theogonists
borrowed from Egypt. - ºr
CHILO, one of the seven sages of Greece, and of the Ephori
of Sparta, the place of his birth, flourished about B.C. 556.
He was accustomed to say, that there were three things very
difficult; “To keep a secret; to know best how to employ our
time; and to suffer injuries without murmuring.” According
to Pliny, it was he who caused the sentence, “Know thyself.”
to be written in letters of gold in the temple of Delphos. It is
said that he died with joy, embracing his son, who had been
crowned at the Olympic games. .
ANAXIMANDER, a very celebrated Greek philosopher,
was born at Miletus. He was one of the first who publicly
taught philosophy, and wrote upon philosophical subjects. He
was the kinsman, companion, and . of Thales. He
wrote also upon the sphere and geometry, and framed a con-
for three years; but re-appearing as one risen from the dead,





UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. [B. C. 556.
nected series of geometrical truths. He also wrote a summary
of his doctrine, and carried his researches into nature very far,
for the time in which he lived. It is said that he discovered the
obliquity of the zodiac, that he first published a geographical
table, that he invented the gnomon, and set up the first sun-dial
in an open place at Lacedaemon. He is said to have been the
first who delineated the surface of the earth, and marked the
divisions of the land and water upon an artificial globe. He
taught, that an infinity of things was the principal and univer-
sal element; that this infinite always preserved its unity, but
that its parts underwent changes; that all things came from it,
and that all were about to return to it. He held that the
worlds are infinite, that the stars are composed of air and fire,
which are carried about in their spheres, and that these spheres
are gods; that the sun has the highest place in the heavens, the
moon the next, and the planets and fixed stars the lowest; that
the earth is a globe, placed in the middle of the universe, and
remains in its place, and that the sun is twenty-eight times
larger than the earth. -
% ÄNº. an eminent Greek philosopher, born at
Miletus, the friend, scholar, and successor of Anaximander.
He diffused some light upon the obscurity of his master's sys-
tem. He made the first principle of things to consist in the
air, which he considered as infinite, and to which he ascribed
a perpetual motion. He asserted, that all things which pro-
ceeded from it were definite and circumscribed ; and that this
air, therefore, was God, since the divine power resided in it
and agitated it. Cold and moisture, heat and motion rendered
it visible, and dressed it in different forms, according to the
different degrees of its condensation. All the elements thus
proceeded from heat and cold. The earth was, in his opinion,
one continued flat surface. ź
XENOPHANES, the founder of the Elealic sect, was born
at Colophon, about the fifty-sixth Olympiad, B.C. 556; and
having left his country, took refuge in Sicily, where he gained
a subsistence by reciting in the court of Hiero, elegiac and
iambic verses, which he had written against the theogonies of
Hesiod and Homer. From Sicily he removed to Magna Graecia,
where he became a celebrated preceptor in the Pythagorean
school, without adhering strictly to the doctrines of Epime-
Illſles *
advanced age of one hundred years, that is, till
Olympiad, B.C. 456, during seventy years of whi
t rthagorean chair of philosophy. In Enfield's Philosop
of Bruchre, we N. ~
nophanes. In metaph ysics, he t aught, << that if ever there
the eighty-first
ch he .
les, Thales, and Pythagoras. His life was prolonged to the
have the following summary of the doctrine of
























B. C. 552.] FROM CYRUs To ARTAXERXES I.
without deriving its existence from any prior principle: that
nature is one and without limit; that what is one is similar Ill
all its parts, else it would be many ; that the one infinite, eter-
nal, and homogeneous universe, is inimitable and incapable of
change; that God is one incorporeal eternal being, and, like the
universe, spherical in form; that he is of the same nature. with
the universe, comprehending all things within himself; is intel-
ligent, and pervades all things, but bears no resemblance to
human nature either in body or mind." . - … . . .”.
In physics, he taught, “that there are innumerable worlds;
that there is in nature no real production, decay, or change;
that there are four elements, and that the earth is the basis of
all things; and that the stars arise from vapours, which are ex-
tinguished by day, and ignited by night; that the sun consists
of fiery particles collected by humid exhalations, and daily
renewed; that the course of the sun is rectilinear, and only
appears curvilinear from its great distance; that there are as
many suns as there are climates of the earth; that the moon is
an inhabited world; that the earth, as appears from marine
shells, which are found at the tops of mountains, and in caverns
far from the sea, was once a general mass of waters, and that it
will at length return into the same state, and pass through an
endless series of similar revolutions.”
CONFUCIUS, or KONG-FUESE, the most celebrated
ancient philosopher of China, descended from the imperial fa-
mily of the dynasty of .."; was born in the reign of the
emperor Ling Vau, about four centuries and a half before
Christ. He was accordingly a contemporary with Pythagoras,
and flourished at a period prior to that in which Socrates rose
to celebrity. At fifteen years of age, he engaged in the study
of the ancient learning of his country; and, before he had arrived
at the years of manhood, he had made astonishing proficiency
in the doctrines attributed to the legislators, Ydo and Chun,
which the Chinese consider as the source of all their science
and morality. The reputation which Confucius acquired, and
the uncommon wisdom which he discovered, were the means
of advancing him, while he was but a youth, to the office of
minister of state. The duties of this, and of other posts as-
signed to him, he performed with honour to himself, and signal
benefit to the kingdom. The rank which he held in public
life, enabled him to form an accurate judgment of the state of
morals among his countrymen. He devised a plan for a general
refºrmation, which he endeavoured to carry into execution, as
well by inculcating a strict and pure morality, as by using the
influence of his authority in recommending it. His efforts were
crowned with so much success, that the whole nation became
at first a pattern of order, decorum, and strict justice. This
reformation was not, however, permanent; the business of the
state was abandoned to * of licentious habits, and in a short






UNIVERSAL Biography. |B.C. 552.
time a universal effeminacy and dissoluteness of manners pre-
vailed. Confucius exerted all his powers to stem the torrent of
vice; and when he found that his endeavours were fruitless, he
resolved to quit his station and country, and seek an asylum in
some other country where his efforts in the cause of virtue might
be more availing. He at length devoted himself to the task
of private instruction in philosophy and morality. His great
celebrity soon procured him many scholars; and he is said to
have had several thousand disciples, to whom he taught morals,
the art of reasoning, and the principles of policy. From these
he selected seventy-two who were distinguished from the others
on account of their superior attainments. These were divided
into classes, destined for different purposes. The business of
the first class was the study of morals; of the second, that of
reasoning and eloquence; of the third, that of the rules of good
government; and the immediate province of the fourth was
something similar to our public preaching. The exertions of
Confucius in the cause of virtue, were too great for the frame
of body with which he was endued; his natural strength became
impaired, and his mental powers failed. During his last sick-
ness, he declared that his heart was overpowered with grief, on
beholding the disorders which prevailed in the empire, and
which he had in vain endeavoured to suppress “The kings,”
said he, “will not follow my maxims; I am no longer useful on
earth; it is, therefore, time that I quit it.” This exclamation
was followed by a lethargy, from which he never recovered.
He died in his seventy-third year B.C. about 479. By his
sage councils, his moral doctrine, and his exemplary conduct,
he obtained an immortal name as a reformer of his country.
After his death his name was held in the highest veneration,
and his doctrine is still regarded among the Chinese, as the
basis of all moral and political wisdom. His natural temper
was excellent, and his conduct irreproachable and exemplary.
He was particularly praised for his humility, sincerity, tempe-
rance, disinterestedness, and contempt of riches.
Confucius seemed designed by heaven to reform, both by his
doctrines and example, the corruptions which prevailed, as well
in the civil as in the religious establishments of China. He
condemned the idolatry which he found existing among his
countrymen, and endeavoured to introduce a purer form of re-
ligion. He did not attempt to dive into the impenetrable
secrets of nature, nor bewilder himself in abstruse researches on
the essence of a first cause, the origin of good and evil, and other
subjects which seemed beyond the limits of the human mind.
He maintained that the Deity was the most wise and perfect
ciple, and fountain of all things; that he is independent and
ighty, and watches over the government of the universe, so
no event can happen but by his command; that our most








B.C. 530.] FROM CYRUS TO ARTAXERXES I.
secret thoughts are open to his view; and he is holy without
partiality, and of such boundless goodness and justice, that he
cannot possibly permit virtue to go unrewarded, or vice un-
punished.
So high is the respect paid to the memory of this great man,
even in the present day, that his descendants ‘. by inherit-
ance the title and office of mandarins, and are allowed the pri-
vilege, in common with the princes of the blood, of exemption
from the payment of all taxes to the emperor. The works which
Confucius composed for the use of his disciples and the preser-
vation of his philosophy, are looked upon by the Chinese as of
the first authority, next to the classical books, styled by way of
eminence, “the Five Volumes;” and to these, indeed, he de-
clares himself indebted for the information and wisdom which
his own are calculated to convey.
HERACLITUS of Ephesus, was born at Ephesus, and
flourished about the sixty-ninth Olympiad. This philosopher
was the founder of a sect, derived from Pythagoras, the parent
of the Italic school. In early life he manifested a propensity to
the study of wisdom, and was initiated into the mysteries of the
Pythagorean doctrine by Xenophanes and Hippasus, and after-
wards incorporated them into his own system. He declined
the supreme magistracy of Ephesus, which was offered him;
and when he was afterwards observed to be playing with the
boys in the court of the temple of Diana, and asked why he
was not better employed, he replied, “it is surely better to pass
my time with children, than to govern the corrupt Ephesians.”
With his fellow-citizens he was displeased for having banished a
man so wise and able as Hermodorus; and being of a melancholy
and splenetic temper, he despised the ignorance and follies of
mankind, shunned public intercourse with the world, and de-
voted himself to retirement and contemplation. His place of
residence was a mountainous retreat, and his food the natural
produce of the earth. When Darius, having heard of his fame,
invited him to his court, he treated the invitation with con-
tempt. His diet and mode of life at length occasioned a
dropsy, for which he could obtain no relief from medical ad-
Yice; and he therefore attempted to cure himself, by shutting
himself up in a close stable with oxen. The event is doubtful,
and the manner of his death, which happened at the age of
sixty years, is not ascertained. Of Heraclitus it has been re-
ported that he was perpetually shedding tears on account of the
vices of mankind, and H.". of his countrymen. But the
fable is prºbably as little founded as that of the perpetual
laughing of Democritus. The poet describes them both -
sº will you not now the pair of Sages praise, º
... Who the same end pursued by different ways. . .
WOL. I. U

UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. [B.C. 530.
One pitied, one contemn'd the woeful times;
One laugh'd at follies, and one wept o'er crimes.
º Juvenal.
The writings of Heraclitus were comprised in a treatise, which,
according to Laertius, contained a continued discourse on ma-
ture, . was divided into three books; one concerning the
universe; the second concerning politics; and the third of
theology. This book he deposited in the temple of Diana;
and it is said that he affected to write obscurely, lest it should
be read by the vulgar, and become contemptible. Accordingly
the name of the obscure philosopher was appropriated to him
by the unanimous consent of the ancients. It is said by Tatian,
that the poet Euripides, who frequented the temple of Diana,
committed the doctrines and precepts of Heraclitus to memory,
and accurately repeated them. The fragments of this work
are preserved by Sextus Empiricus, and it appears to have
been written in prose, a circumstance which invalidates the
above relation of Tatian.
According to Heraclitus, reason, by means of the senses, is
the judge of truth. This common and divine principle is de-
rived by inspiration from that which surrounds us. In dream-
ing, the passages of the senses are obstructed, and the connec-
tion of the human mind with that which surrounds us is inter-
rupted ; on waking, this connection is restored, and the power
of reason returns. All common maxims being comprehended
by common and divine reason, are to be received as true, Fire
is the principle from which all things in nature are produced;
this principle consists of small indivisible parts or atoms, their
nature simple and duration eternal, and in continual motion.
From the combination of these, elementary fire and all the forms
of nature are produced; and into these, at certain periods, they
are all resolved. This self-moving fire is underived and eternal,
and having within itself necessary motion, its force produces
the system of nature. This principle is the soul of the world,
and is God, the maker of all things. Fire condensed is water;
water farther condensed is earth; and the heavenly bodies are
in the form of boats, presenting to us the hollow side; and they
become luminous when certain fiery exhalations from the earth
are collected within them. The sun is no larger than he ap-
pears to the sight, and becomes eclipsed when its convex sur-
Ace happens to be turned towards the earth. The moon is
same form and mature; and its monthly variations are oc-
oned by the gradual changes of its position towards the
urth, from concave to convex, and the reverse. All the stars
are nourished by exhalations from the earth, and these, as they
are more or less splendid and warm, cause the variations of
day and night, of the seasons, and of the weather. Of the na-






B. C. 530.]
ture of the soul, Heraclitus speaks with hesitation and doubt;
but he thinks it most probable, that it is an exhalation from the
fiery substance which pervades all things, and is the soul of the
world passing into human bodies through the senses. All na-
ture is full of souls or daemons. Human souls are liable to
perpetual changes; and being loaded with moist vapours, they
pass into the watery mass and perish; but when purified from
these, they return into the soul of the world. Although this
philosopher introduces into his system the term God, he seems
to use it for expressing, not a distinct being of a peculiar na-
ture, but merely that innate force in the primary fire, by means
of which its particles have been in eternal motion, and have at
length united to form the present regular system of nature. To
this force, considered as distinct from the matter to which it
belongs, he gave the appellation of God; and he called it ra-
tional and divine, because the effects which he ascribes to it as
a cause, were produced in a regular series, and according to
a certain and immutable law.
On the subject of morals, Heraclitus taught, that the end of
life is to enjoy happiness; that for this purpose it is necessary
to repose the body and confine its wants within as narrow
limits as possible; that it is of greater importance for men to
know themselves than to acquire extensive learning; that hu-
man life is, in fact, the death of the soul, as, whilst it continues
in the body, it is confined and depressed, and never gains its
true freedom and activity, till it returns to the divine nature
from which it proceeds; that the first virtue is temperance,
that the first lesson of wisdom is to follow nature; and that all
human laws are founded upon the divine law of necessity, which
governs all things. .
The Stoics were indebted to Heraclitus for many parts of
their physical and moral doctrine. Many subsequent philoso-
hers taught his system, or incorporated it with their own.
Plato learning it from Cratylus, adopted that part of it which
treated of the nature and motion of matter. The Heraclitean
sect, however, seems to have been of no long duration, as no
traces of its existence are discernible after the death of So-
erates; which was owing partly to the obscurity of the writings
of Heraclitus, and principally to the superior splendour of the
Platonic, system, by which it was superseded. Among the
philosophers of Athens, Heraclitus maintained a considerable
degree of reputation, as we may infer from the great pains
taken in Zeno, to transfer several tenets of the Heraclitean
system into his own. Among the admirers of Heraclitus, we
may reckon Hippocrates. .
DIOGENES, of Apollonio, in the island of Crete, held a
considerable rank among the philosophers who taught in Ionia.
before Socrates appeared at Athens. He was the scholar
x-xx U 2















Universal biography. [B.C. 505.
and successor of Anaximenes, and in some measure rectified his
master's opinions concerning air being the cause of all things.
It is said, that he was the first who observed that air was capa-
ble of condensation and rarefaction. He passed for an excel-
lent philosopher, and died about B.C. 450. . .
"º. an ancient Greek philosopher, born in
Elles about B. C. 505. He studied under Xenophanes, or
Anaximander. He taught that there were two elements, fire
and earth, and that the first generation of men was produced
from the sun. Along with these and other absurdities, he
taught some philosophical truths. He first discovered that the
earth is round, but he placed it, like Ptolemy, in the centre of
the solar system. He put his system into verse; and fragments
of it were collected by Henry Stephanus, and published under
the title of the Poesi Philosophica.
ZOROASTER, ZERDUSHT, or ZOROASTRES, a ce-
lebrated ancient philosopher, said to have been the reformer, or
i. of the religion of the Magi. It is wholly uncertain to
how many eminent men the name of Zoroaster belonged. Some
have maintained that there was but one Zoroaster, and that he
was a Persian; others have said that there were six eminent
founders of philosophy of this name. Ham the son of Noah,
Moses, Osiris, Mithras, and others, both gods and men, have
% different writers been asserted to have been the same with
oroaster. Many different opinions have been advanced con-
cerning the time in which he flourished. Aristotle and Pliny
fix his date at so remote a period as six thousand years before
the death of Plato. According to Laertius, he flourished six
hundred years before the Trojan war; according to Suidas,
five hundred. If, in the midst of such uncertainty, any thing
can be advanced with the appearance of probability, it seems
to be this; that there was a Zoroaster, a Perso-Median, who
flourished about the time of Darius Hystaspes, and that be-
sides him there was another Zoroaster, who lived in a much
more remote period among the Babylonians, and taught them
astronomy. The Greek and Arabian writers are agreed con-
cerning the existence of the Persian Zoroaster; and the an-
cients unanimously ascribed to a philosopher, whom they call
Zoroaster, the origin of the Chaldean astronomy, which is cer-
tainly of much earlier date than the time of Hystaspes; it seems
therefore necessary to suppose a Chaldean Zoroaster distinct
rom the Persian. Concerning this Zoroaster, however, no-
ing more is known than that he flourished towards the begin-
ning of the Babylonish empire, and was the father of the Chal-
dean astrology and magic. All the writings that have been as-
ribed to Zoroaster are spurious. The reader will perceive,
in placing this character, we have in view the chronology
he modern Zoroaster. º











B. C. 580.] FROM CYRUs To ARTAXERXES I.
EMPEDOCLES, a celebrated philosopher, born. at Agri-
gentum, in Sicily. He followed the Pythagorean philosophy,
and admitted the metempsychosis. He constantly appeared with
a crown of gold on his head; to maintain, by this outward pomp,
the reputation he had acquired of being a very extraordinary
man. Yet Aristotle says, that he was a great lover of liberty,
extremely averse to state and command, and that he even re-
fused a kingdom that was offered him. His principal work was
a Treatise in verse on the nature and principles of things.
Aristotle, Lucretius, and the ancients, make the most magni-
ficent eulogiums on his poetry and eloquence. He taught
rhetoric; and often alleviated the anxieties of his mind, as well
as the pains of his body, with music. It is reported, that his
curiosity to visit the flames of the crater of Ætna proved fatal
to him. Some maintained that he wished it to be believed that
he was a god ; and that his death might be unknown, he threw
himself into the crater and perished in the flames. His expec-
tations, however, were frustrated; and the volcano, by throwing
up one of his sandals, discovered to the world that Empe-
docles had perished by fire. Others report that he lived to
an extreme old age; and that he was drowned in the sea about
B. C. 440.
#
PO ETR Y.
THESPIS, an ancient poet, and the supposed inventor of
tragedy, was born in a small borough of Attica, named Icaria,
and he, as well as Susarion, a native of the same place, ap-
peared each at the head of a company of actors, one on a kind of
stage, and the other in a cart. Susarion attacked the vices and
absurdities of his time, and represented the first pieces towards
the year B. C. 580. He was followed in this species of drama
by Æschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides. Thespis having ob-
served, that at the festivals, before his time, hymns only were
sung; one of the singers, mounted on a table, formed a kind of
dialogue with the chorus, took the hint of introducing into his
trºgedies an actor, who by simple recitals, introduced at inter-
vals, should relieve the chorus, divide the action, and render it
!ºore...interesting. This innovation, together with some other
liberties in which he indulged himself, i. Solon, the legis-
latºr, of Athens, who condemned a species of composition, in
which the ancient traditions were disguised by fiction. “If we
applaud falsehood in our public exhibitions,” said he to Thes-
pis, “we shall soon find that it will insinuate itself into our most
sacred engagements.”
. The excessive approbation and delight with which both the
city and country received the pieces of Thespis and Susarion,


UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. [B.C. 532.
at once justified and rendered useless the foresight of Solon;
the poets, who, till that time had only exercised their genius in
hyrambics and licentious satire, struck with the elegant
which these species of composition began to assume, de-
d their talents to tragedy and comedy.
EOGNIS, a ğ. poet, was a native of Megara, in
&
Attica, and flourished about the year B. C. 546. He has been
denominated “Gnomologus,” or the writer of sentences; and
we have extant a work written by him, without order, consist-
ing of moral maxims or precepts, simply expressed and desti-
tute of poetical ornaments, versified probably for assisting the
memory. Athenaeus reckons him among the advocates for
licentious pleasures, and Suidas refers to a work of his entitled
“Exhortations” or “ Admonitions,” which contained various
impurities. In the verses that now remain, nothing of this kind
appears; so that if the charge be true, they must have under-
gone castigation. “The Sentences of Theognis” have been
often printed by themselves, and with the works of other minor
3reek poets. Among the best editions are those of Camera-
rius and Sylburgius. ..
PHOCYLIDES, a Greek poet and philosopher, was a ma-
tive of Miletus, and lived about B. C. 540. There is a poem
extant which goes by his name, but it is not accounted genuine.
HIPPONAX, a Greek poet, born at Ephesus, B. C. 540.
He cultivated the same satirical poetry as Archilochus, and was
not inferior to him in the beauty and vigour of his lines. His
satirical raillery obliged him to fly from Ephesus. As he was
naturally deformed, two brothers, Buphalus and Anthermus,
made a statue of him; which, by the ugliness of its features, ex-
posed the poet to universal ridicule. Hipponax, resolving to
revenge the injury, wrote such bitter invectives and satirical
lampoons against them, that they hanged themselves in des-
Dall'. .
ANACREON, a Greek poet, born at Teos, a city in Ionia,
flourished about B. C. 532. Polycrates, tyrant of Samos, in-
vited him to his court, and made him share with him in his
business and his pleasures. He had a delicate wit, as may be
judged from the inexpressible beauties and graces that shine
in his works; but he was fond of pleasure, was of an amorous
disposition, and addicted to drunkenness; yet, notwithstanding
his debaucheries, he lived to the age of eighty-five; when, we
are told, he was choked with a grape-stone, which stuck in his
throat as he was regaling on some new wine. There is but
a small part of Anacreon's works that remains; for, b
odes and epigrams, he composed elegies, hymns, it
His poems, which are extant, were























B, C, 532.] FROM CYRUs to ARTAXERXES I.
His chief excellence, says Madame Dacier, lay in imitating na-
ture, and in following reason, so that he presented to the mind
no images but what were noble and natural. The odes of
Anacreon, says Rapin, are perpetual graces; it is fan r to
him to write what is natural and to the life, he having an ear so
delicate, so easy, and graceful, that among all the ancients
there is nothing comparable to the method he took, nor to that
kind of writing he followed. He flows soft and easy, every
where diffusing the joy and indolence of his mind through his
verse, and turning his harp to the smooth and pleasing har-
mony of his soul. § § • *
The following specimens will give some idea of the peculiar
excellencies of Anacreon.
Underneath the myrtle shade,
On flowery beds supinely laid,
Odorous oils my head o'erflowing,
And around it roses growing;
What shall I do but drink away
The heat and troubles of the day?
In this more than kingly state,
Love himself shall on me wait.
Fill to me, Love! Nay, fill it up!
And mingled cast into the cup
Wit, and mirth, and noble fires,
Vigorous health and gay desires.
The wheel of life no less doth stay
On a smooth than rugged way;
Since it equally doth flee,
Let the motion pleasant be
Again,
The black earth drinks the falling rain,
Trees drink the moisten’d earth again;
Ocean drinks the mountain gales;
Ocean's self the sun inhales; º
And the sun's bright rays as soon
Are swallowed by the thirsty moon.
All nature drinks,—if I would sip,
Why dash the nectar from my lip ! .
The best,editions of Anacreon are those of Barnes, Mait-
taire, and Baxter, but the most splendid is that of Spaletti,
printed at Hºme in 4to, 1781. Bodonialso published it 1784
a superb edition on yellum, at Parma. There have be
good translations of Anacreon in ourla,
and the other by Moore.
I . guage, º
. V ONIDES, a celeb rated Greci.n . o §§ sº o r t i n th ºv













§
Chios, was the son of Theoprepes, and flourished about five
|red years before the Christian era. He excelled in va-
rious kinds of poetry, but especially in the elegiac, for which,
as we learn from Horace and Quintilian, he was almost prover-
bially famous in antiquity. There are known at present only
a few fragments and epigrams of perhaps the most pathetic
poet which antiquity can boast. One of these fragments is
founded upon the º, circumstance. Danaë, the daughter
of Acrisius, king of Argos, according to the ancient mytholo-
gical fables, became pregnant by Jupiter in a shower of gold,
and brought forth, as her son, the celebrated Perseus; the
father of Danaë seized upon the mother and child, and enclos-
ing them in a chest, committed it to the sea, there to drift at
the mercy of the winds and waves. Our poet puts into the
mouth of the suffering Danaë the following beautiful lamenta-
tion, alike inimitable for the simplicity and feeling with which
it abounds,
When the wind, resounding high,
Bluster'd from the northern sky,
When the waves, in stronger tide,
Dash'd against the vessel's side,
Her care-worn cheek with tears bedev'd,
Her sleeping infant Danaë view'd,
And trembling still with new alarms,
Around him cast a mother's arms.
“My child ! what woes does Danaë weep !
But thy young limbs are wrapt in sleep.
In that poor nook all sad and dark,
While lightnings play around our bark,
Thy quiet bosom only knows
The heavy sigh of deep repose.
The howling wind, the raging sea,
No terror can excite in thee;
The angry surges wake no care
That burst above thy long deep hair,
% But could'st thou feel what I jº,
Then would I bid thee sleep the more
Sleep on, sweet boy, still be the deep!
Oh, could I lull my woes to sleep!
Jove, let thy mighty hand o'erthrow
The baffl'd malice of my foe;
And may this child in future years,
Avenge his mother's wrongs and tears.”
s was endowed with a most extraordinary memory,
have attributed to him the invention of the art of
:alizing ideas, which has lately been brought
Greek alphabet is also ascribed to









B.C. 532.] From CYRUs to ARTAXERXES I.
him. He lived to an advanced age, and at eighty gained a
prize for poetry. According to Pliny, Simonides added the
eighth string to the lyre. He was frequently employed by the
victors at the games to write panegyrics and odes in their
praise, but Simonides would never gratify their vanity in this
particular, till he had first tied them down to a stipulated sum
for his trouble; and upon being upbraided for his meanness,
he said that he had two coffers, in one of which he had, for
many years, put his pecuniary rewards; the other was for
honour, verbal thanks, and promises; that the first was pretty
well filled, but the last remained always empty. And he made
no scruple to confess, in his old age, that of all the enjoyments
of life, the love of money was the only one of which time had
not deprived him. It is mentioned as a subject of dispraise,
that Simonides was one of the first who wrote verses for money,
and that he travelled through the cities of Asia, selling eulo-
gies on the victors in the public games. He paid a visit in ad-
vanced life, to Hiero, king of Syracuse, to whom he gave the
celebrated answer, respecting the nature of God, that has been
handed down from generation to generation to the present
time in the writings of Cicero. Hiero having asked his opinion
on the subject, he requested a day to consider of it; when this
was expired, he doubled the time, and thus he did repeatedly,
till the monarch desired to know his reason for this proceeding.
“It is,” said he, “because the longer I reflect on the question,
the more difficult it appears to be.” He was reported to be
extremely avaricious; he was, however, justly ranked among
the rº. and poets, and though sensible of the value of
money, he knew what was more valuable. Undergoing ship-
wreck on a voyage, while the other passengers encumbered
themselves with their most valuable effects, he left his behind
him, saying, “I carry with me all that is mine,” and when he
arrived safe at Clezomene, his fellow sufferers being either
drowned or pillaged, he met with a citizen, acquainted with
his poetry, who liberally supplied all his wants. ‘. was a witty
reply which this author made to Hiero's queen, who demanded
of him whether knowledge or wealth was most to be preferred.
“Wealth,” said he, “ for I see every day learned men at the
doors of the rich.” When he was accused of being so sordid,
as to sell part of the provisions with which his table was fur.
mished by Hiero, he said he had done it, in order “to display to
the world the magnificence of that prince, and his own frugality.”
In justification of his passion for wealth, he said, “I choose
rather to be useful to my enemies after I am dead, than bur-
tlemsome to my friends while I am living.” He is said to have
been sufficiently eloquent to reconcile two princes extremely







questionably one of the most conspicuous characters of his
PINDAR, the most famous lyric poet of ancient Greece,
was a native of Cynoscephalae, near T. in Boeotia. The
time of his birth is uncertain; but it is well known that he was
at the height of his reputation at the time of the expedition of
Xerxes, or B. C. 480. Although brought up under excellent
instructors, he was chiefly indebted to his own exertions and
genius for his peculiar excellencies. His chief patrons were
Theron, of Agrigentum, and Hiero, of Syracuse, whom he has
commemorated in his poems. He celebrated the city of Athens
in such lofty terms as greatly to excite the displeasure of his
countrymen, the Thebans, who, on that account, imposed a
fine upon him, which the Athenians not only doubly repaid,
but erected a statue to his honour. His reputation was so
great, that we find he was rewarded in the public assemblies
of Greece with the prize, in preference to every other compe-
titor; and as the conquerors of Olympia were the subjects of
he compositions, the poet was courted by statesmen and
princes. His hymns and paeans were repeated before the most
crowded assemblies, in the temples of Greece; and the priestess
of Delphi declared that it was the will of Apollo that her chief
poet should receive half of all the first fruits and offerings that
were annually heaped on his altars. This was not the only
public honour which he received; after his death he was ho-
moured with every mark of respect, even to adoration. His
statue was erected at Thebes, in the public place where the
games were exhibited, and six centuries after it was viewed
with the utmost sensations of pleasure and admiration by the
geographer Pausanias. The honours which were paid him
while alive, were also shared by his posterity; and as a mark of
their high attention and reverence, at the celebration of one of
the festivals of the Greeks, a portion of the victim which had
been offered in sacrifice was reserved for the descendants of
the poet. Even the most inveterate enemies of the Thebans
showed a regard for his memory; and the Spartans spared the
house which the prince of the lyrics had inhabited, when they
destroyed the houses and the walls of Thebes. The same sort
of respect was likewise paid him by Alexander the Great, when
lebes was reduced to ashes. He died in the public
it an advanced age, about the year B.C. 44 The gr
part of his works has perished. He had composed so
to the gods, poems in honour of Apollo, dithyrambics to Bac-
Is, and odes on several victories obtained at the jes
- Of all these the odes are the only composi-
dmired for sublimity of sentiment, grandeur of
and magnificence º fºk. boldness of meta-
'* - -
#

























B. c. 532.] FROM CYRUS TO ARTAXERXES I.
phor, harmony of numbers, and elegance of diction. In these
odes, which were repeated with the aid of musical instruments,
and accompanied by the various inflections of the voice, with
suitable attitudes, and proper motions of the body, the poet has
not merely celebrated the place where the victory was won, but
has introduced beautiful episodes, and by unfolding the great-
ness of his heroes, the dignity of their characters, and the glory
of the several republics where they flourished, he has rendered
the whole highly beautiful, and in the greatest degree inte-
resting. ‘.… . . .
In the second Olympic ode, Pindar thus introduces us into
the fortunate islands, the paradise of the ancients, and paints
with equal vividness and beauty the pleasures and felicity of the
blessed. West, in his translation, seems to have caught the
spirit of the Grecian bard.
stroPHE iv.
But in the happy fields of light,
When Phoebus, with an equal ray,
Illuminates the balmy night
And gilds the cloudless day.
In peaceful, unmolested joy,
The good their smiling hours employ.
Them, no uneasy wants constrain
To vex th' ungrateful soil,
To tempt the dangers of the billowy main,
And break their strength with unabated toil,
A frail disas'trous being to maintain. w
But in their joyous, calm abodes,
The recompense of justice they receive;
And in the fellowship of gods,
Without a tear, eternal ages live.
While, banished by the fates from joy and rest,
Intolerable woes the impious soul infest.
ANTISTROPHE IV.
But they who, in true virtue strong,
The third purgation can endure;
And keep their minds from fraudful wrong,
...And guilt's contagion pure; > -
They through the starry paths of Jove,
To Saturn's blissful seat remove ;
Where fragrant breezes, vermal airs,
Sweet children of the main,
Purge the blest island from corrodi, g cares, º
Whose fertile soil immortal fruitage bears;






UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. [B, C, 532.
Trees, from whose flow'ring branches flow,
Array'd in golden bloom, refulgent beams;
And flowers of golden hue, that blow
On the fresh borders of their parent streams.
These, by the blest, in solemn triumph worn,
Their unpolluted hands and clustring locks adorn.
Horace thus expressed his admiration of our bard:—
He who to Pindar's height attempts to rise,
Like Icarus, with waxen pinions, tries
His pathless way, and, from the venturous theme
Falling, shall leave to azure seas his name.
As when a river, swoln by sudden showers,
O'er its known banks from some steep mountain pours;
So, in profound, unmeasurable song,
The deep-mouth'd Pindar, foaming, pours along.
FRANCIs.
Dionysius of Halicarnassus speaks of Pindar as the chief
model among the lyric poets of what he denominates, “severe
and antique harmony;” and he also extols his loftiness, energy,
fertility, art, and strength of diction, mixed with sweetness.
Quintilian repeats their praises, but Longinus represents him
as sometimes, when glowing with the brightest flame, under-
going a sudden extinction; and a more modern critic seems to
join issue with the author of the “Sublime.” Speaking of his
odes, he says they have indeed those characteristics of fire,
rapidity, and variety, for which they were so much celebrated
by the critics of antiquity; but that fire is frequently obscured
in smoke; and that variety is produced by digressions so excur-
sive, that it is often scarcely possible to follow him, and trace
their relation to his proposed subject. -
The best editions of Pindar are H. Stephens, 1560; Oxford,
1997; and Heyne, 1798. English, by Gilbert West.
BACCHYLIDES, a famous Greek poet, was the nephew
of Simonides, and contemporary and rival of Pindar. Both
sung the victories of Hiero at the public games. Besides odes
to athletic victors, he was the author of love verses, prosodies,
dithyrambics, hymns, paeans, hyporchemes, parthenia, or songs
to be sung by a chorus of virgins at festivals.
The following lines, addressed to Peace, form the principal
fragment remaining of this author:- -
For thee, sweet Peace, abundance leads along
Her jovial train, and bards awake to song.
On many an altar, at thy glad return,
Pure victims bleed, and holy odours burn;
º

B.C. 525.] From cyrus to ARTAxerxes 1.
And frolic youth their happy age apply
To graceful movements, sports, and minstrelsy."
Dark spiders weave their webs within the shield,
Rust eats the spear, the terror of the field ;
And brazen trumpets now no more affright
The silent slumber, and repose of night.
Banquet and song and revel fill the ways,
And youths and maidens sing their roundelays. B ?
LAND.
ARCHIMELUS, a Greek poet, flourished in the reign of
Hiero I., king of Syracuse. This appears by the present which
he received from that monarch. He had made an epigram in
praise of a prodigious large ship, which Hiero had ordered to
be built. This epigram was worth to him about five thousand
quarters of corn, which this prince sent him to the Pyraeum.
SIMIONIDES, a second great poet, supposed to be grand-
son to Simonides, and who gained, in B. C. 478, the prize in
the games at Athens. He wrote some books on inventions,
genealogies, &c.
MYRTIS, a Greek woman, who distinguished herself in
poetical talents. She flourished about 500 years before the
Christian era, and instructed the celebrated Corinna in the rules
of versification. Pindar himself, as some report, was also one
of her pupils.
CORINNA, of Tanagra, in Boeotia, who, in no less than
five trials, conquered the great poet Pindar. Her glory seems
to have been established by the public memorial of her picture,
exhibited in her native city, and adorned with a symbol of her
victory. Pausanias, who saw it, supposes her to have been the
handsomest woman of her age. Time has only left us a few
scraps of Corinna's poetry. She did justice to the superiority
of Pindar's genius; but advised him not to suffer his poetical
ornaments to intrude so often, as they smothered the principal
subject, comparing it to pouring a vase of flowers all at once
upon the ground, when their beauty and excellence could only
be observed in proportion to their rarity and situation.
DIAGORAS, an Athlete of Rhodes. Pindar celebrated his
meritin a beautiful ode still extant, which was written in golden
letters in a temple of Minerva. He saw his three sons crowned
the same day at Olympia, and died through excess of joy.
., ARSCHYLUS, the tragic poet, was born at Athens, about
B.C. 585. He was the son of Euphorion, and brother to
Synºegirus, and Aminias, who distinguished themselves in the
battle of Marathon, and the sea fight of Salamis, at which en-
gagement AEschylus was likewise present. In this last action
Aminias commanded a squadron of ships, and behaved with so
much bravery, that he sunk the admirai of the Persian fle





* . JNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. [B.C. 525.
and signalized himself above all the Athenians. To this
brother our poet was obliged for saving his life, for Æschylus
being charged by the Athenians with blasphemy, in some of his
pieces, was condemned to be stoned to death, and they were
just going to put the sentence in execution, when Aminias.
throwing aside his cloak, showed his arm without a hand, which
he had lost at the battle of Salamis, in defence of his country.
This sight made an impression on the judges, and touched with
the affection he showed for his brother, they pardoned AEschy-
lus. Our poet, however, resented the indignity of this prose-
cution, and resolved to leave a place where his life had been in
danger. Some affirm, that he never composed but when he
had drank liberally. He wrote a great number of tragedies, of
which there are but seven remaining. In the time of Thespis,
there was no public theatre, the players driving about from
place to place in a cart. AEschylus furnished his actors with
masks, dressed them suitably to their characters, and intro-
duced the buskin, to make them appear like heroes. The an-
cients gave him also the praise of having been the first who re-
moved murders and shocking sights from the eyes of the spec-
tators. He is said likewise to have lessened the number of
the chorus. M. LeFevre remarks, that AEschylus never repre-
sented women in love in his tragedies; which, he says, was not
suited to his genius; but in representing a woman transported
with fury, he was incomparable. Longinus says, that Æschy-
lus has a noble boldness of expression; and that his imagina-
tion is lofty and heroic. His works were held in great esteem
by the Athenians, who made a public decree that his tragedies
should be played after his iº. He was killed in the sixty-
ninth year of his age, by an eagle letting fall a tortoise upon his
head as he was walking in the fields. He had the honour of a
pompous funeral from the Sicilians, who buried him near the
river Gela; and the tragedians of the country performed plays
and theatrical exercises at his tomb. The best edition of his
plays is that of London, 1663, folio, with a Latin translation,
and a learned commentary by Thomas Stanley. ... '3 × &
AMINIAS, the brother of AE
& ſº * * * * ***. . ×. schylus, the poet, and the sa-
viour of his life when condemned for blasphemy; for even the
ancient Pagans, sometimes persecuted liberal opinions, as well
as the modern bigots among Christians and Turks.
age. He was brother to the poet AEschylus. After the
f, Marathon, he pursued the flying Persians to their
seized one of their vessels with his right hand, which
his left hand, and when he had lost that also,
old with his teeth till he was despatched. . .














B. C. 525.4 FROM CYRUS TO ARTAXERXES
born at Phsius. He was the first among the Greeks'
posed satires, which were represented as. farc % .
thirty-two were acted, and eighteen of his tragedies, one of
which only obtained the poetical prize. Some of his verses are
extant, quoted by Athenaeus. %
ONOMACRITUS, an Athenian soothsayer, who flourished
under Pisistratus and his sons. He is generally believed to
have been the author of the Greek poem on the Expedition
of the Argonauts, which bears the name Orpheus; as well
as of the elegant poems still extant under the name Musaeus;
he was exiled by Hipparchus.
PRAXILLA, a Sicyonian Dithyrambic poetess, of whose
writing there is a work, entitled, Metrum Praxilleum. She is
said to have flourished about B. C. 492, and is reckoned by
Antipater Thessalus among the nine most famous lyrics. º
TIMOCREON, a comic poet of Rhodes, who obtained
poetical, as well as gymnastic prizes at Olympia. He lived
about five hundred years before Christ, distinguished for his
enmity and resentment against Simonides and Themistocles.
PHANOCLES, an ancient elegiac poet of Greece, who
wrote a poem upon an unnatural crime, wherein he supposes
that Orpheus was the first who practised it. Some fragments
of his poems are extant. & …
ARISTEAS, a poet of Proconnesus, who, as fables report,
appeared seven years after his death to his countrymen, and
five hundred and forty years after to the people of Metapontum,
in Italy, and commanded them to raise him a statue near the
temple of Apollo. He wrote an epic poem on the Arimaspi,
in three boºk. and some of his verses are quoted by Longinus.
CHERILUS, of Samos, a Greek poet. He sung the
victory gained by the Athenians over Xerxes, and was re-
warded with a piece of gold for every verse. His poem had
afterwards the honour of being rehearsed yearly with the
works of the celebrated Homer. . ... º.
LITE RATURE.
.KAPILA, a very eminent literary character among the
Hindoos, and founder of one of their philosophical schools;
having many tenets, in common with the theories introduced to
Europe by Pythagoras, especially that of the unlawfulness of
slaying animals to eat, underpretence of a sacrifice, as seemed
to have been very º extensively practised in India. This hº –
Yolent doctrine became so approved, that the grateful Hil
have deified Kapila, affirming that he was an incarnatio
god Vishnu, under the name of Vasudera, as Kapila is ca
their sacred romances, the Puranas. His theory is na











UNIVERSAL Biography. [B.C. 556.
Sankya, which seems a modification of that called Minanra,
which corresponds with the Platonic. These points are slightly
touched on in “Moor's Hindoo Pantheon;” and the same
writer, in a subsequent work, “Hindoo Infanticide,” says that,
“Kapila expounded to the Hindoos the same tenet, the immor-
tality of things modified, to give it the attraction of variety and
novelty. He, as Epicurus did after him, tricked out his theory
in so meretricious a style, as to have provoked, from more sober
reasoners, the opprobrium of atheism.”
GORGIAS, a celebrated sophist and orator, surnamed
Leontinus, because born at Leontium, in Sicily. He was sent
by his countrymen to solicit the assistance of the Athenians
against the Syracusans, and was successful in his embassy. He
lived to his one hundred and eighth year, and died B. C. 400.
Some fragments of his compositions are extant.
According to Quintilian, he was the first extemporaneous
speaker, but this is not credible. Men must have spoken ex-
tempore, before they studied speeches. A statue of gold was
erected to him at Delphi. w
H IS TO RY.
CADMUS, of Miletum, a celebrated Greek historian, was,
according to Pliny, the first of the Greeks who wrote history in
prose. He flourished about B.C. 550.
ACUSILAS, or ACUSILAUS, a Greek historian, the son
of Cabas, born at Argos, lived, according to Josephus, a little
before the expedition of Darius against Greece, and near the
time when Cadmus, the Milesian, wrote the first prose history.
Acusilas's work was entitled “Genealogies,” as they related to
the chief families of Greece. Many authors quote this work,
but the only fragments preserved are added to those of Phere-
cydes, by M. Sturz, printed at Gera, 1798, 8vo. x
MUSIC.
IBYCUS, one of the nine celebrated Greek lyrics. Some
say he was the son of a native of Reggio, but born at Messina.
He was likewise a great musician, and inventor of the instru-
ment called Sambuca. Ibycus flourished B. C. 556. He was
author of various works, of which Henry Stephens has collected
fragments. The unfortunate Ibycus being attacked by thieves,
and begging in vain that they would spare his life, when on the
point of receiving the blow which left him for dead, he cried
out to a flock of cranes that was hovering over him, to bear
witness against his murderers. Some ti
time after, these assas-











B. c. 538.] FROM cyrus to ARTAXERXES I. 305
sins being in a market, and having spied a flock of cranes,
said to each other, laughing, there go the witnesses against us
for the murder of Ibycus. This speech being º: to the
magistrates, the thieves were put to the torture, when they con-
fessed the fact, and were hanged. Hence came the proverb,
Ibyci Grues, against villains whose crimes were accidentally
discovered. :::
LASUS, was born at Hermione, a city of Achaia, in the
time of Darius Hystaspes, in the fifty-eighth Olympiad, B.C.
538. Diogenes Laertius says, “that he deserves to be ranked
among the seven sages.” He was generally allowed to be
the first among the Greeks who wrote about music, and was
not only a theorist and great practitioner, but a dithyrambic
poet; perhaps the inventor of that kind of poetry in honour of
Bacchus, which was sung in the Phrygian mode at the public
games, and partook of all that fire and hilarity which the god
to whom it was addressed inspired. .
MELANIPPES, a Greek poet and musician, who flourished
about the sixtieth Olympiad, and whose poetry and music
rendered him famous. He had a grandson of the same name,
who was likewise a great musician. > #
CLINEAS, a Pythagorean philosopher and musician, who
flourished about B.C. 524. As he was of a very choleric dis-
position, he is said to have assuaged his passion by his lyre.
M A T H E M AT I C S.
SCYLAX, an ancient mathematician and geographer, was a
native of Caryanda, in Caria. He is noticed by Herodotus in
the following passage. “A great part of Asia was discovered
by Darius, son of Hystaspes, who wishing to ascertain the place
where the river Indus falls into the sea, despatched various
persons in whom he could confide, and among them Scylax of
Qaryanda. Proceeding from the city of Caspatyrus, and the
Pactyian territory, they sailed down the river in an easterly di-
rection to the sea; and then continuing their voyage on the sea
tºwards the west, in the thirtieth month they arrived at the
place from which the Egyptian king despatched the Phoeni-
ºn tº circumnavigate Lybia. After their voyage, Darius
jºbdued the Indians, and opened the navigation of the sea.
The Peºplus, which still remains, bearing the name of Scylax,
is a brief survey of the countries along the shores of the Medi.
terranean,and Euxine seas, together with part of the western
coast of Africa. . It commences with the Straits of Gibraltar,
ºld proceeding along the coasts of Spain and Gaul, round the
Mediterranean, returns to the same point; and then briefly de-
º,º, coasts of Africa along the Atlantic, as far as the island


UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. 3. [B.C. 550.
of Cerne.” This, after all, is in general little more than an
enumeration of nations, towns, and distances, though intermixed
with some occasional notices of natural productions, and in a
few instances detailing the common fables of the age. It con-
cludes with an account of the passages across the sea from
Greece into Asia, and an enumeration of twenty important
islands, in the order of their magnitudes. A question has been
raised, whether the Periplus remaining, be the work of the an-
cient Scylax, or of some later writer; and critics of high rank in
literature have taken opposite sides. It is almost certain, that
the ancients possessed the extant Periplus, and that they attri-
buted it to the Scylax mentioned by Herodotus.
A RC HITECTURE AND SCULPTURE.
CTESIFONTE, CHERSIFONTE, or CTESIPHON,
the architect who designed the famous temple of Diana at
Ephesus, about 550 years before the Christian era. This
edifice, which was two hundred years in building, was com-
menced under his direction, and continued under that of Meta-
genes, his son; and is the same which was afterwards fired by
Erostratus, actuated, as it is said, in this barbarous enterprize,
by no other motive than that of immortalizing his name. He
invented a machine that was used to transport the columns of
the temple from the quarries from which they are hewn, to the
building of which they were to make part. This machine con-
sisted of a square frame of wood, of sufficient dimensions to
enclose a whole column, with a socket at each end, in which
certain strong iron pivots, proceeding from the column itself,
were received. By this contrivance, the column became a kind
of rolling-stone. a *.
BUPALUS, a celebrated sculptor, and native of the island
of Chios, was the son, grandson, and great grandson of sculp-
tors. He had a brother named Athenis, of the same profes-
sion, they flourished about the sixtieth Olympiad, and were
contemporary with Hipponax, a poet of an ugly and despicable
figure. Our sculptors diverted themselves in representing him
under a ridiculous form. But Hipponax wrote so sharp a
satire against them, that they hanged themselves. Pliny, how-
ever, does not allow this, but says, “ that after Hipponax had
taken his revenge, they made several fine statues, particularly
a Diana at Chios, which was placed very high, and appeared
with a frowning countenance to those that came in, and with a
easant one to those that went out. There were several sta-
es at Rome made by them, and they worked only in the white
of the isle of Paros. Pausanias mentions Bupalus as a








B.C. 506.] FROM CYRUS TO ARTAXERXES I. 307

good architect as well as a sculptor, but says nothing of
Athenis.
ATHENIS, a Chian sculptor, son of Micciades, and grand-
son to Malas. He and his brother Bupalus made a statue
of the poet Hipponax, which caused universal laughter, on ac-
count of the deformity of its countenance. The poet was so
incensed upon this, and inveighed with so much bitterness
against the statuaries, that they hanged themselves, according
to the opinion of some authors.
CALLIMACHUS, a celebrated architect, painter, and
sculptor, born at Corinth, who having seen by accident a vessel
about which the plant, called acanthus, had raised its leaves,
conceived the idea of forming the Corinthian capital. The
ancients assure us, that he worked in marble with wonderful
delicacy. He flourished about B. C. 540. *

ME DIC IN E.


DEMOCEDES, a celebrated physician of Crotona, son of
Calliphon, and intimate with Polycrates. He was carried as a
prisoner from Samos to Darius, king of Persia, where he ac-
1. great riches and much reputation by curing the king's
foot, and the breast of Atossa. He was sent to Greece as a
º by the king, and fled away to Crotona, where he married
the daughter of the wrestler, Milo.

HEROPHILUS, an ancient physician, born in Chalcedon,
about B. C. 506. He was an accurate anatomist, and is said
to have discovered the lacteal vessels.
AGNODICE, an Athenian virgin, who disguised her sex to
learn medicine. She was taught by Herophilus the art of
midwifery, and when employed, always discovered her sex to
her patients. This brought her into so much practice, that the
males of her profession, who were now out of employment, ac-
cused her before the Areopagus, of corruption. She con-
fessed her sex to the judge, and a law was immediately made
to empower all free-born women to learn midwifery.
... PHILINUS, a physician, born in the island of Cos, was a
disciple of Herophilus. He was a distinguished member of the
imperial sect, of which, indeed, he divides the honour with
Serapion and Alexandria, of being esteemed the founder. He
is said, by Athenaeus, to have been the author of a treatise on
herbs, and of some commentaries on the works of Hippocrates.


x 2
PERIOD XI.
FRoM ARTAXERxes I. To Philip II.
[B.C. 500.] .
REMARKABLE FACTs, Events, AND DiscoverIES.
B.C. § ~ ź *
498 Laertius created the first dictator at Rome.
497 The Saturnalia instituted. The number of Roman citizens 150,700.
493 Tribunes created at Rome.
490 The battle of Marathon, September 28th.
486 AEschylus, the Greek poet, first gains the prize of tragedy.
483 Questors created at Rome. §
481 Xerxes, king of Persia, begins his expedition against Greece.
480 The defence of Themopylae by Leonidas, and the sea-fight at Sa-
lamis.
476 The number of Roman citizens reduced to 103,000.
469 The third Messenian war. §
466 The number of Roman citizens increased to 124,214.
458 Ezra sent from Babylon to Jerusalem, with the captive Jews, and the
vessels of gold and silver, &c. being 490 years before the cruci-
fixion of our Saviour.
456 The secular games first celebrated at Rome.
454 The Romans sent to Athens for Solon's laws.
451. The Decemvirs created at Rome, and the law of the twelve tables com-
3: piled and ratified. .
449 The Decemvirs banished.
445 Military tribunes created at Rome.
443 Censors created at Rome.
432. The melonic cycle began July 15th. .
431 The Peloponnesian war began, which lasted twenty-seven years. 3.
430 The . of the Old Testament concludes; Malachi the last of the
prophets. .
405 The Athenians entirely defeated by Lysander, which occasions the
loss of the city, and ruin of the Athenian power. N.
401 The retreat of 10,000 Greeks under Xenophon. The thirty tyrants
expelled from Athens, and democratic government restored.
400 Socrates, the founder of moral philosophy among the Greeks, put to
death for his sublime doctrines, by the Athenians, who soon after
repent, and erect a statue of brass to his memory.
DURING this period, the volatile and giddy temper of the Greeks,
with their enthusiastic desire of romantic exploits, were preparing
fetters for themselves, which indeed seemed to be necessary to pre-
vent them from destroying one another. A zeal for liberty was what

B.C. 500.] From ARTAxerxes I. to PHILIP II.
they all avowed; but, on every occasion, it appeared that this love of
liberty was only a desire of dominion. No state in Greece could bear
to see another equal to itself; and hence their perpetual contests for
pre-eminence, which could not but weaken the whole body, and render
them an easy prey to their enemies, who, Were capable of taking ad-
vantage of those divisions. Being impatient of restraint, they never
could long submit to any regular government; and hence their deter-
minations were often nothing but the decisions of a mere mob, of which
they had afterwards almost constantly reason to repent. Hence also
their base treatment of those eminent men whom they ought most to
have honoured; as Miltiades, Aristides, Themistocles, Cimon, Alci-
biades, Socrates, Phocian, &c. In B. C. 404, the Athenian power was
totally broken by the taking of their city by the Spartans. Egypt had
been annexed by Cambyses to the Persian empire, and during the pre-
sent period, the Egyptians made several desperate attempts to recover
their liberty; they were however unsuccessful, and became in conse-
quence completely humbled. .
GO W E R N M E N T.
ARTAXERXES I., king of Persia, surnamed Longimanus,
from the uncommon length of his arms, was the youngest son
of Xerxes, and was raised to the throne B.C. 464, by Arta-
banus, the captain of the guards, who had privately murdered
his father; but persuaded the young prince, that his elder
brother Darius had done it; whereupon, assisted by the guards,
he killed Darius in his bedchamber. But the murder and
treason being afterwards discovered, Artabanus suffered the
punishment he merited. Some reckon this king the Ahasuerus
who married Esther; but, be that as it may, it is certain that he
greatly favoured the Jews, by not only authorizing them to re-
turn to Judea, and rebuild Jerusalem, but also to collect money
for the use of their temple; as well as by remitting their tribute,
. encouraging º and by making them many valu-
* In -->
le presents, &c. See his letter to Ezra, vii. 10–26,
...AHASUERUS, king of Persia, the husband of Esther
Whether this be the same person as the preceding, we cannot
decide. We are informed this Ahasuerus made a magnificent
feast, in the palace of Shushan for the principal persons in his
s
of six months. After the time was expired, the king in
all the people, both great and small, in the palace of Šh
and entertained them during seven days. Vashti, the
also treated the women in the king's pal: §: sev














UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY.
lay, Ahasuerus, who was more gay than usual, and warmed
ine, ordered his principal eunuchs to bring the queen,
ld produce her before the people, that they might have an
opportunity of observing her beauty. But as Vashti refused
to come, the king was so provoked, that he called a council to
consider the conduct of the queen. The council declared it
advisable that the king should divorce her and take another
Ahasuerus without delay caused the finest women in his
dominions to be selected, for his choice of a companion in the
room of Vashti. The number of virgins collected for the
king's approbation, amounted to four hundred, who were
brought by turns to the king. But when, in the course of the
rotation, Esther was presented, her personal charms, and en-
gaging demeanour, made such an impression upon Ahasuerus,
that he gave her the preference to all the others, and made
her his wife. Esther was a Jewess, the niece of Mordecai, one
of the principal of the captive Jews. Ahasuerus was so in-
toxicated with the felicity he enjoyed, that he made no in-
º relative to the country or extraction of his fair bride.
pon this unexpected elevation of Esther, her uncle, Mor-
decai, removed from Babylon to Susa, where he often waited at
the gate of the palace, in hopes of being able sometimes to ob-
tain a sight of his much loved niece, and that he might the
more readily hear of her welfare. . .
* About this time Ahasuerus passed an ordinance, importing,
that none of his household should presume to approach his
presence while he was seated on his throne, and engaged in the
administration of justice, on forfeiture of their lives. As the
king then usually sat with a golden sceptre in his hand, unless
that was extended to the persons ºil. and they were
permitted to kiss it, nothing could exempt them from the
penalty. . * : * : * g : ; ; , . . . . . . . . &: ; : : § 3 ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; #
"It happened, not long after, that two of the chamberlains, or
eunuchs, whose names were Bigthan and Teresh, entered into a
conspiracy against the person of their royal master. Barna-
barus, a servant to one of the conspirators, who was a Jew by
extraction, discovered this treachery to Mordecai, the queen's
uncle; and, through the medium of Esther, the king was ap-
d of his danger. Enquiry was accordingly made into the
and the traitors being convicted, suffered for their crime.
is service Mordecai received no other reward than that
having the transaction entered in the records of the state,
being allowed the privilege of admission to the palace, on



























B.C. 500.] FROM ARTAXERXES I. TO PHILIP II.
lation from all beneath him. So that whoever happened to be
in his way as he passed and repassed to and from the royal pre-
sence, paid him the most profound reverence. Mordecai alone
stood excepted. Ceremonies of this nature being contrary to
the practice of his nation, he refused to pay Haman that sub-
mission which others did. The favourite's offended pride took
fire at this neglect, and he determined to avenge himself, not
only of Mordecai, but to extend his vengeance to all the cap-
tive Jews; a people peculiarly disgustful to the Amalekites,
that nation having formerly been subdued, and nearly exter-
minated by the children of Israel. , , ; ; ; º
In order to effect this purpose, he endeavoured to prejudice
the king against them, by insinuating, as opportunity offered,
that they were unsociable and singular in their manners, given up
to superstitious customs and ceremonies, and, being distributed
throughout every part of his dominions, were dangerous to the
government. These representations had such an effect upon
the mind of Ahasuerus, that he issued a decree, commanding
the governors of the different provinces, upon a certain day, to
put all the Jews therein to the sword, without excepting age
Or Sex. .
As soon as Mordecai was informed of the tenor of this pro-
clamation, he rent his garments, as the manner of the Jews on
any calamity was, and, covering himself with sackcloth, strew-
ed ashes on his head. In this condition he sat himself down
without the gates of the palace; no person being permitted to
enter them in a garb so uncourtly.
Such an j. could not fail to reach the ears of Esther,
who, notwithstanding her elevation, still entertained the highest
respect and affection for her uncle. She accordingly sent to
know the reason of his sudden dejection. Mordecai soon made
known the cause of it, by sending her a copy of the edict for
extirpating the Jews, with a request that she would exert her-
self to the utmost in the behalf of her country folks.
These tidings were received by Esther with the most poig-
nant concern, but the king's prohibition preventing her from
making an application to him till he should think proper to ser
for her, she informed Mordecai of her inability to comply with
his request, however interested her heart was in the cause.
Tº this her uncle returned for answer, that as the very being
ºf all her relatives, and of the whole Jewish race, depended on
her immediate exertions, he begged she would not put her own
personal safety in competition with their welfare; but, instantly
present herself before the king, and implore his clement
trusting to the power she had acquired over him for obtain
his forgiveness.
This injunction had its due weight with Esther; and, in re
turn, she intreated her uncle to enjoin a public fast of three










UNIVERSAL biography. [b. c. 500.
days among the Jews resident in Susa and its vicinity, in order
to procure the blessing of God on her attempt in favour of her
devoted countrymen. As soon as she received advice that this
general fast had commenced, she clothed herself in mourning
weeds, abstained from meat, drink, and every sensual satisfac-
tion; and, prostrating herself towards Jerusalem, after the cus-
tom of her country, she spent the three days in fervent and
pious importunity to heaven.
The appointed time of humiliation being expired, she threw
aside the dress, which had been emblematical of her sorrow,
and, putting on her most sumptuous and becoming apparel, she
presented herself before the king, attended by two handmaids,
one of whom she gently leaned on, and the other bearing up
her train. . .
A blush, that added lustre to her charms, spread itself over
her lovely countenance, as, with downcast eyes, she approached
the royal presence, but she no sooner beheld the grandeur with
which the king was surrounded, mounted on a superb throne,
and arrayed in habiliments sparkling with gold and precious
stones, than she was seized with a universal trepidation; her
faculties were overpowed, and she fell senseless into the arms
of her attendants.
Ahasuerus, alarmed for a life so dear to him, instantly
stretched forth his sceptre, the token of forgiveness; and, with
the utmost condescension and tenderness, endeavoured to dissi-
pate her fears. His endeavours were not ineffectual. Esther,
by degrees recovered, and in a faint and languishing tone of
voice, apologized for her abrupt entrance into his royal pre-
sence contrary to his prohibition. This she did in so graceful
and tender a manner, that the king, finding all the sympathetic
tenderness which glowed in his bosom instantly aroused, as-
sured her not only of his forgiveness, but gave her his promise
that he would grant the request she was about to make, though
it amounted to one half of his dominions. .
Encouraged by these assurances, Esther informed his ma-
jesty, that the reason why she had thus intruded upon him was,
to entreat that he would partake of a little repast she had pro-
vided for him, and permit Haman to attend him. The king
readily accepted the invitation, and Esther departed with a dig-
nity adorned by a graceful humility, that fully established her
re over the heart of the Assyrian monarch. . . . . . . .
he banquet, Ahasuerus appeared to be highly pleased
e reception he met with ; and when the circulating
d exhilarated his spirits, he repeated his assurance of
his lovely entertainer her request, whatever it might
only request at present is,” replied Esther, “that if I
1 favour in your majesty's sight, and the banquet of .












FROM ARTAXERXES I. TO PHILIP II. 313
to-day has proved acceptable, you will deign to honour me with
your company again to-morrow, attended also by Haman, when
I will make known to my royal master the wish of my heart.”
As Haman returned to his house, elated with the distinguish-
ed honour of being the only partaker with the king, of Esther's
treat, he happened to pass Mordecai, who was sitting, accord-
ing to his custom, at the gate of the palace. Finding that the
Jew still continued to refuse him that homage which others
paid him, he felt his choler rise; and, casting a scornful glance
at him, longed to wreak his vengeance on him, without waiting
for the effect of the royal edict. :
When he got home, he related to Zeresh his wife, and some
of his particular friends, the transactions of the day. He dwelt
with pleasure on the honour he had enjoyed in accompanying
the king to the banquet, and exulted afresh on the unbounded
confidence his royal master reposed in him. “And yet,” cried
Haman, “What avails all this 2 What avail my riches, my nu-
merous offspring, and the favour of Ahasuerus, if a reptile can
rob me of my peace 2 To-morrow I am to enjoy the same
high honour; I, and I alone, am to attend my royal master to
the queen's banquet; and yet, what will it profit me, while a
captive Jew, whom I constantly encounter at the gate of the
palace, refuses me that homage my elevated station demands?”
“Grieve not thyself thus,” returned Zeresh, “is it not in thy
power to remove this ill-mannered Israelite whenever thou
pleasest ?" Having said this, she advised him to have a gallows
erected in the court of his house, whereon to hang Mordecai;
not doubting, but from the confidence Haman seemed to enjoy
with the king, that he would be able readily to obtain a man-
date for that purpose. “And, to make thy triumph the more
conspicuous,” exclaimed Zeresh, “ let the gallows be at least
fifty cubits high.”
An unseen hand was, however, at this time employed in
counteracting these purposes; for, that very night, the king
being restless, and not inclined to sleep, he commanded his
secretary to bring him the records of the state, both ancient and
modern, and to read them to him, in order that, by way of in-
struction as well as amusement, he might compare the occur-
rences of his reign with some of the former.
The secretary accordingly read several instances where wor-
thy actions had been liberally rewarded by some of his ances-
tors, and at length coming to the record which had been made
sºme years before relative to the conspiracy of Bigthan and
Tººh, with the discovery of their treason by Mordecai
‘Well!" cried Ahasuerus, “...and what reward has Mord
iº
lention is
received for this singular piece of service?” “No me .
made in the relation of any reward,” replied the secretary.
Upon which, the king bid him. stop there, and see if any of the













UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. . [B.C.500.
officers of the court were in waiting at the gate of the palace;
and on being told that Haman was there, he ordered him to be
The favourite had rested during the night no better than his
royal master. The disrespectful behaviour of Mordecai having
embittered every thought, and robbed him of rest, he had risen
hus early, in order to obtain permission from the king to re-
venge himself upon the haughty Jew.
*But, how uncertain are the events of the coming hour! How
often are our surest and best concerted plans circumvented
No sooner had Haman entered the apartment of Ahasuerus,
than he was thus addressed by him; “What mark of honour
would you advise me, Haman, to bestow upon the person I am
under the greatest of all obligations to, and which I would wish
to confer with a munificence becoming my situation, and a due
sense of the favour 7” .
Haman supposing that this recompence could only be in-
tended for himself, as no one stood so high in the king's favour,
replied without hesitation, “ Let the man whom the king
deigns to honour, be clothed in your majesty's royal robes; let
the crown you wear be placed on his head, and let him be
mounted on your horse of state. Thus mounted and adorned,
let one of the principal officers of your household lead the horse
by the bridle through the streets of the city, exclaiming as he
goes, “ Thus shall it be done to the man whom the king de-
lighteth to honour.’” . . . . . . & . . . ; ;
“Be thou then, Haman,” returned the king, “as the person
in whom I repose the greatest confidence, the dispenser of the
reward thou hast thyself adjudged. Go take the horse, the
apparel, and the crown, and having found one Mordecai, a
Jew, fulfil thy counsel, which I much approve of in every point;
for to that man am I indebted for my life, and I am sorry to say
the obligation to this hour remains unrepaid.” %. . . ; ; ; ;&# 3. . . º. 3
A thunderbolt could not have rendered Haman more torpid.
There was, however, no refusing to execute the decree which
he had unwittingly dictated. To his great mortification he
found himseif compelled to honour the very man whom of all
others he most hated. With perturbations not to be described,
he laid hold of the bridle; and having executed the unsavoury
task, returned, overwhelmed with fatigue and chagrin, to the
palace gates. To an observant eye, similar instances of such
nexpected exaltation of the humble, and humiliation of the
and disappoint-
1; for, upon his
day to his wife and friends, impell
not to be accounted for, the former
“This unexpected triumph of the
prognosticated l





























B, C, 500,
1 from ARTAxerxes I. To Philip II.
Jew over thee,” said Zeresh, “is too sure a presage th
fate will outweigh thine. The God of the Israelites is a power-
ful God. In many instances, according to their account, has
he protected them, and will, I fear, do so now." º
While Haman and his friends were discoursing in this man-
ner, a messenger arrived from the queen, to hasten him to the
banquet which she had prepared for the king and him. At
this feast, Ahasuerus, in the heat of wine, said again to Esther,
as he had done the day before, “What would you ask or desire
of me?” The queen replied, “If I have found favour in thy
sight, O king, let my life, and that of my people's be given me
at my petition, for we are all sold to be destroyed, and utterly
extirpated.” The king answered, “And who is he that dare
undertake what you mention ?” Esther said, “This Haman,
whom you see, is our mortal enemy.” Haman hearing this, was
quite confounded. At the same time the king rose up in great
anger, left the banqueting room, and went into the garden
adjacent. Haman threw himself at the feet of the queen, who
was lying on a bed or sofa, on which, after the manner of the
Persians, she had reclined to eat. At that instant, Ahasuerus
returned, and seeing Haman on the queen's bed, he said, “Will
he also force the queen before me in my own house !” Imme-
diately the attendants covered the face of Haman, whom they
considered as condemned to die. One of the king's pages ob-
served, that Haman erected for Mordecai a gallows fifty cubits
high. Ahasuerus said, “Hang Haman upon the gallows;” and
he was hanged accordingly. Esth. iii.-vii. * * * * *
After this the king gave Haman's employment to Mordecai,
and his forfeited estate to Esther. He revoked the edict which
had appointed the massacre of the Jews. Esth. viii. 1, 2, &c.
HAMAN, the son of Hammedatha, an Amalekite, of the
race of Agag. King Ahasuerus having received Haman into
favour, promoted him above all the court, who bent the knee to
him, or probably prostrated themselves wholly before him as a
deity, when he entered the palace. This, Mordecai the Jew
declined ; for which slight, Haman plotted the extirpation of
the whole Jewish nation, which was providentially prevented.
Haman was hanged upon a gibbet fifty cubits high, which he
had prepared for Mordecai. His house was given to queer
Esther, and his employments to Mordecai. His ten sons were
also executed. . .
MORDECAI, the son of Jair, a celebrated Jew of the tribe
of Benjamin, uncle and guardian of Esther, queen of Persia,
his saving King Ahasuerus's life, the enmity of Haman against
him, the downfal and destruction of that nister, and
teresti ng circumstances, which contributed to save he Jewish
nation from extirpation, are recorded in the book of Esther
See also Ahasuerus, Esther, and Haman. . . . . . . . . .



















316 UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. [B.C. 450.
ESTHER, a Jewish virgin, whose great beauty raised her
to the throne of Persia, whereby she saved her country from
the total extermination planned by the proud Haman, prime
minister and favourite of king Ahasuerus. The learned are
not quite agreed who this king Ahasuerus was, but Josephus po-
sitively asserts, that the Ahasuerus of the Scriptures is the Ar-
taxerxes Longimanus of prophane story; and the Septuagint,
throughout the whole book of Esther, translate Ahasuerus by
Artaxerxes. Most authors agree in this last opinion, and in-
deed the extraordinary kindness shown by Artaxerxes to the
Jews, can scarce be accounted for otherwise than by supposing,
that they had so powerful an advocate as Esther to solicit for
thern.
ESDRAS, or EZRA, a Jewish priest, and doctor of the
law. Artaxerxes Longimanus sent him with rich presents for
the use and ornament of the temple of Jerusalem, rebuilt under
Zerubbabel; he also ordered the neighbouring governors to
rovide him with what conduced to the pomp of the Jewish re-
É. and to exempt the priests from paying taxes. Ezra is
supposed to have been the collector of the Canon of Scripture;
and that, by divine inspiration, he added some things which
happened after the death of the authors. It is supposed he
wrote the Chronicles, besides those books which bear his
name; the two last of which are exploded as apocryphal, even
by the church of Rome, x
XERXES II, succeeded his father Artaxerxes Longimanus
on the throne of Persia, and was assassinated in the first year
of his reign by his brother Sogdianus. w
SOGDIANUS, a son of Artaxerxes Longimanus, who mur-
dered his elder brother, king Xerxes, to make himself master
of the Persian throne. He was but seven months in possession
of the crown. His brother Ochus, who reigned under the
name of Darius Nothus, conspired against him, and suffocated
him in a tower full of warm ashes. § * . . . x
DARIUS II., surnamed Ochus, and also Nothus, was one of
the natural sons of Artaxerxes Longimanus. He ascended the
Persian throne in the year 423 B.C. His history as a sove-
reign is but a description of successive revolts, terminating in
the defeat and death of those who excited them. He died in
the twentieth year of his reign, and was succeeded by his son
Arsaces, who assumed the name of Artaxerxes, and received the
appellation of Mnemon from the Greeks, on account of his ex-
traordinary memory. It is related of Mnemon, that while at-
3. upon his father in his last hours, he asked how he
st perform the duties of government, to which Darius
it he had himself constantly acted, to the best of his
bedience to the dictates of justice and religion.
º










B. C. 430.] FROM ARTAXERXES 1. TO PHILIP II. 317
PARYSATIS, an infamous Persian queen, wife of Darius
Nothus, and mother of Artaxerxes Mnemon and Cyrus, the
younger brother. Her partiality for Cyrus led her to commit
the greatest injustice and barbarities; and she poisoned Statira,
the wife of Artaxerxes. §
ARIARATHES I., king of Cappadocia, who joined Darius
Ochus in his expedition against Egypt, where he acquired
much glory. His nephew, the second of that name, defended
his kingdom against Perdiccas, the general of Alexander; but
he was defeated, and hanged on a cross, in the eighty-first year
of his age, B.C. 321. His son, Ariarathes III., escaped the
massacre which attended his father and his followers; and after
the death of Perdiccas, he recovered cº by conquer-
ing Amyntas, the Macedonian general. e was succeeded by
his son Ariamnes. 3. ––
ARTAXERXES II., king of Persia, was sirnamed Mme-
mon, on account of his extensive memory. He was the son
of Darius II., by Parysatis, and had three brothers, Cyrus,
Ostanes, and Oxathres. His name was Arsaces, which he
changed into Artaxerxes when he ascended the throne. His
brother Cyrus was of such an ambitious disposition, that he
resolved to make himself king, in opposition to Artaxerxes.
Parysatis always favoured Cyrus; and when he had attempted
the life of Artaxerxes, she obtained his pardon by her en-
treaties and influence. Cyrus, who had been appointed over
Lydia and the sea-coasts, assembled a large army, under va-
rious pretences, and at last marched against his brother, at the
head of 100,000 barbarians, and 13,000 Greeks. He was op-
posed by Artaxerxes, with 900,000 men, and a bloody battle
was fought at Cunaxa, in which Cyrus was killed, and his
forces routed. It has been reported, that Cyrus was killed by
Artaxerxes, who was so desirous of the honour, that he put to
death two men for saying they had killed him. The Greeks,
who had assisted Cyrus against his brother, though at the dis-
tance of above six hundred miles from their country, made
their way through the territories of the enemy, and nothing is
more famous in the Grecian history than the retreat of the ten
thousand. After he was delivered from the attacks of his
brother, Artaxerxes stirred up a war among the Greeks
against Sparta, and exerted all his influence to weaken the
power of the Greeks. He married two of his own daughters,
called Atossa and Amestris, and named his eldest son, Darius,
to be successor. Darius, however, conspired against his father,
and was put to death; and Ochus, one of the younger sons,
Salled alsº Artaxerxes, made his way to the throne, by causing
his elder brothers, Ariaspes and Arsames, to be assassin
is said Artaxerxes died of a broken heart, in consequen nis
sons' unnatural behaviour, in the ninety-fourth year of his age,





318 UNIVERSAL Biography. [B.C. 421.
after a reign of forty-six years, B.C. 358. It is said Artaxerxes
had a hundred and fifty children, three hundred and fifty con-
cubines, and only four legitimate sons. & * . . . . . . .
CYRUS jº WGER, son of Darius Nothus, and bro-
ther of Artaxerxes. He was sent by his father, at the age of six-
teen, to assist the Lacedaemonians against Athens. - Artaxerxes
succeeded to the throne at the death of Nothus; and Cyrus,
mad with ambition, attempted to assassinate him. See the
preceding article. & . .
ASPASIA, or MILTO, mistress of Cyrus the Younger,
born about B. C. 421, of free parents, at Phocis, in Ionia; was
brought up virtuously, though in poverty, and being very
beautiful, with the singularity of fine light hair, naturally curl-
ing, attracted the notice of one of the satraps of Cyrus, who
forced her father to deliver her, against her consent, to him,
for the seraglio of this prince. She was presented to Cyrus;
but her modesty, dignity, and grief, so affected him, that he
applied himself seriously to gain her affections; equality was
established between them; and their union, the fame of which
was spread all over Greece, and even in Persia, was esteemed a
marriage. In effect, the regularity of her manners and conduct,
and the respect he paid to her understanding, by consulting
her on the most important affairs, a confidence of which he had
never cause to repent, gave her all the consideration of a wife.
Cyrus afterwards made her quit the name of Milto, which she
had till then borne, and take that which Aspasia of Miletus, by
her wit and beauty, had rendered so celebrated. A rich chain
of gold being sent to him, of curious workmanship, he pre-
sented it to Aspasia, saying, “it was worthy the wife or daugh-
ter of a king;” but she refused it, advising him to send it to
Parysatis, whose favourite son he was, who was so well pleased
with her moderation, that she returned her many grand pre-
sents, and a large sum of gold, all of which Aspasia delivered
to Cyrus, after praising the generosity of his mother. “It may
be of service to you,” said she, “who are my riches and my
ornament.” She availed herself only of the change in her for-
tune to rescue her father from the state of poverty in which he
had formerly lived. Excited by his mother and his own am-
bition, Cyrus attempted to dethrone his elder brother, Ar-
taxerxes, but perished in the trial. In the year 401 B.C.,
Aspasia was taken by the army of the conqueror; and, on his
:ommanding her to be sought, they brought her before him
aded with chains. At this Artaxerxes was very angry; put
er conductors in prison, and ordered her to be clothed i
gnificent apparel. The tears of Aspasia flowed more abund-
sincerely; but at length was forced to accept the
ch the king had sent her, and was soon ranked the


















B.C. 421.] FRoM ARTAxeRxes I. to Philip II. 319
first among his women. His wife Statira was still living; and as
he could not still marry her, he bestowed on her nearly the same
honours as a queen. But it was long before his attentions and re-
spect could efface the remembrance of Cyrus from her heart.
CTESIAS, a native of Cnidus, who accompanied Cyrus,
the son of Darius, in his expedition against his brother Ar-
taxerxes, by whom he was taken prisoner. But curing Ar-
taxerxes of a wound he received in the battle, he became a
great favourite at the court of Persia, where he continued prac-
tising physic for seventeen years, and was employed in several
negociations. He wrote the History of Persia, in twenty-three
books, and a History of the Indies. But these works are now
lost, and all we have remaining of them is an abridgment, com-
piled by Photius. Several of the ancients considered Ctesias
a fabulous writer; yet others of the ancient historians, as well
as some modern Christian writers, have adopted in part his
chronology of the Assyrian kings. §
CLEARCHUS, a Lacedaemonian, who was sent to quiet
the Byzantines, but being recalled, refused to obey, and fled
to Cyrus the Younger, who gave him the command of 13,000
Greek soldiers. He obtained a victory over Artaxerxes, who
was so enraged at the defeat, that when Clearchus fell into
his hands, by the treachery of Tissaphernes, he put him imme-
diately to death.
DATAMES, a distinguished military commander, who first
served among the guards of Artaxerxes Mnemon, and was
afterwards employed in the war against the Cadusians. In this
business he gained so much credit, and so high a name, that
he was appointed governor of that part of Cilicia which borders
upon Cappadocia. Datames was afterwards appointed to re-
duce Thyus, who had revolted against the king. He performed
the duty, and took his opponent prisoner, who was a very tall
and stout man, and of a terrible aspect. He caused him to be
dressed in the robes of a satrap, and decorated with a gold
chain and bracelets; and at the same time putting himself into
the rustic attire of a huntsman, with a club in one hand, and a
cord in the other, to which Thyus, thus fastened, was led into
the royal presence, as if he were a wild beast. The king was
highly pleased with the incident, and appointed Datames to be
chief of the Egyptian war; but while preparations were mak-
ing, he was ordered to go in quest of Aspis, who had revolted
from his allegiance. The success and high merit of Datames
excited the envy of the -------, 1-3-
Datames,
y of the courtiers, who combined to ruin him.
*RPrized of their intention, resolved to be before-
. . . th, them, by quitting the king's service, and ma
himself independent. His own son was the first to ca
ºws to court of his father's rebellion. The king sent
Very numerous army, but it was unsuccessful; and












300
UNIVERSAL Biography. [B. c. 500.
most it could extort was the nominal submission of Datames,
who in every engagement, proved himself the superior. Ar-
taxerxes could not be reconciled to the rebellious general; and
as he found himself incapable of conquering him, he deter-
mined to adopt the means of treachery, by which he finally
accomplished his end. Datames was assassinated by the hands
of Mithridates, who, in concert with the king, pretended to be
an open enemy of his sovereign, while he was seeking the
means of performing what lay nearest his heart. .
TISSAPHERNES, a satrap of Persia, commander of the
forces of Artaxerxes at Cunaxa, against Cyrus. It was by his
valour and intrepidity that the king's forces gained the victory;
and for this he obtained the daughter of Artaxerxes in mar-
riage, and all the provinces of which Cyrus was governor.
This popularity did not long continue, and the king ordered
him to be put to death when he had been conquered by Age-
silaus, B.C. 395. Ž 3.
PHARNABAZUS, a satrap of Persia, son of a person of
the same name, B.C. 409. He assisted the Lacedaemonians
against the Athenians, and gained their esteem by his friendly
behaviour and support. His conduct, however, towards Alci-
biades, was of the most perfidious nature, and he did not
scruple to betray to his mortal enemies the man he had long
honoured with his friendship.
CLEARCHUS, a tyrant of Heraclea, in Pontus, who was
killed by Chion and Leonidas. .
The following are the principal Grecians in this period.
CIMON, a celebrated Athenian general, was the son of the
famous Miltiades, by the daughter of a Thracian king. He
was famous for his debaucheries in his youth, and the reforma-
tion of his morals when arrived to years of discretion. He be-
haved with great courage at the battle of Samalis, and ren-
dered himself popular by his munificence and valour. He de-
feated the Persian fleet, took two hundred ships, and totally
routed their land army the very same day, B.C. 465. Cimon
thus gained great wealth, both to the public and to himself.
In his public character he had behaved with unimpeached
honesty; and as a private citizen he dedicated his wealth to
the most excellent purposes. He demolished the inclosures
about his grounds and gardens, permitting every one to enter,
an ke what fruits they pleased; he kept an open table,
here both rich and poor were plentifully entertained. If he
zen in a tattered ...}. he made some of his
exchange with him; or if the quality of the person
ldness ble, he caused a sum of money
iness unsuitable, . §





















B.C. 500.] FROM ARTAXERXES 1. TO PHILIP II. 3:24
ent; he did not concur with every measure of the commonalty;
and therefore the popular party determined not to banish him,
but to put him to death. The crime laid to his charge was,
that by presents from the Macedonians, he was prevailed upon
to let slip a manifest opportunity of enlarging his conquests,
after taking from the Persians, the gold mines of Thrace.
Elpinice, Cimon's sister, used all her interest in his behalf, and
among others, spoke to Pericles, the celebrated orator. He
was, indeed, Cimon's rival, and had, no doubt, assisted in stir-
ring up the prosecution against him. Pericles spoke in such a
manner, that it plainly appeared he did not think him ſº ;
and, in consequence of this, Cimon was only banished by the
ostracism. He was afterwards recalled from his exile; and at
his return he made a reconciliation between Lacedaemon and
his countrymen; after which he totally ruined the Persian
fleet. He died as he was besieging the town of Citium, in
Cyprus. He may be called the last of the Greeks whose spirit
and boldness defeated the armies of the barbarians. He was
such an inveterate enemy to the Persian power, that he formed
a plan of totally destroying it; and in his wars he had so re-
duced the Persians, that they promised, in a treaty, not to pass
the Chelidonian islands with their fleet, or to approach within
a day's journey of the Grecian seas. % -
PERICLES, an Athenian of a noble family, son of Xan-
thippus and Agariste. He was naturally endowed with great
powers, which he improved by attending the lectures of Damon,
of Zeno, and of Anaxagoras. Under these celebrated masters
he became a commander, a statesman, and an orator, and
gained the affections of the people by his uncommon address
and well directed liberality. When he took a share in the ad-
ministration of public affairs, he rendered himself popular by
opposing Cimon, who was the favourite of the .#. and to
remove every obstacle which stood in the way of his ambition,
he lessened the dignity and the power of the court of the Are-
opagus, whom the people had been taught for ages to respect
and to venerate. He also attacked Cimon, and caused him to be
banished by the ostracism. Thucydides also, who had suc-
ceeded Cimon on his banishment, shared the same fate, and
Pericles remained for 15 years the sole minister, and, as it may
be said, the absolute sovereign of a republic, which always
showed itself so jealous of its liberties, and which distrusted so
much the honesty of her magistrates. In his ministerial ca-
pacity, Pericles did not enrich himself, but the prosperity of
Athens was the object of his administration. He made wa
against the Lacedæmonians, and restored the temple of Delphi
to the care of the Phocians, who had been illegally deprived of
that honourable trust. He obtained a victory over the Sicyo-
hians near Nemaea, and waged a successful war against the in-
VOL. I. Y . º








UNIVERSAL biography. IB. C. 500,
habitants of Samos at the request of his favourite mistress
Aspasia. The Peloponnesian war was fomented by his am-
bitious views; and when he had warmly represented the flou-
rishing state, the opulence, and actual power of his country,
the Athenians did not hesitate a moment to undertake a war
against the most powerful republics of Greece, a war which
continued for 27 years, and which was concluded by the de-
struction of their empire, and the demolition of their walls.
The arms of the Athenians were for some time crowned with
success, but an unfortunate expedition raised clamours against
Pericles, and the enraged populace attributed all their i.
to him, and to make atonement for their ill success, they con-
demned him to pay 50 talents. This loss of popular favour by
republican caprice, did not so much affect Pericles as the re-
cent death of all his children; and when the tide of unpopu-
larity was passed by, he condescended to come into the public
assembly, and to view with secret pride the contrition of his
fellow citizens, who universally begged his forgiveness for the
violence which they had offered to his ministerial character. He
was again restored to all his honours, and, if possible, invested
with more power and more authority than before; but the
dreadful pestilence which had diminished the number of his
family, proved fatal to him, and about B. C. 429, in his seven-
tieth year, he fell a sacrifice to that terrible malady which
robbed Athens of so many of her citizens. Pericles was for
forty years at the head of the administration, twenty-five years
with others, and fifteen alone, and the flourishing state of the
empire during his government gave occasion to the Athenians
publicly to lament his loss, and venerate his memory. As he
was expiring, and seemingly senseless, his friends that stood
around his bed expatiated with warmth on the most glorious
actions of his life, and the victories which he had won, when
he suddenly interrupted their tears and conversation, by saying,
that in mentioning the exploits that he had achieved, and
which were common to him with all generals, they had forgot
mention a circumstance which reflected far greater glory
upon him as a minister, a general, and above all, as a man.
It is, says he, that not a citizen in Athens has been obliged to
put on mourning on my account. The Athenians were so
pleased with his eloquence, that they compared it to thunder
and lightning, and as to another father of the gods, they gave
him the sirname of Olympian. The poets, his flatterers, said
that the goddess of persuasion, with all her charms and her
attraction, dwelt upon his tongue. When he marched at the
h the Athenian armies, Pericles observed that he had
mand of a free nation that were Greeks, and citizens
ins. He also declared, that not only the hand of a
ate, but also his eyes and his tongue should be pure










B.C.500.] FROM ARTAXERXES 1. TO PHILIP H. 323
and undefiled. Yet great and venerable as this character may
appear, we must not forget the follies of Pericles. His vicious
partiality for the celebrated courtezan Aspasia, subjected him
to the ridicule and the censure of his fellow citizens; but if he
triumphed over satire and malevolent remarks, the Athenians
had occasion to execrate the memory of a man who, by his
.."...". the purity and innocence of their morals,
and who made licentiousness respectable, and the indulgence of
every impure desire the qualification of the soldier as well as of
the senator. Pericles lost all his legitimate children by the
pestilence, and to call a natural son by his own name he was
obliged to repeal a law, which he had made against spurious
children, and which he had enforced with great severity.
This son, called Pericles, became one of the ten generals who
succeeded Alcibiades in the administration of affairs, and, like
his colleagues, he was condemned to death by the Athenians,
after the unfortunate battle of Arginusae. g
ASPASLA of Miletus, a courtezan, who settled at Athens
under the administration of Pericles, and one of the most noted
ladies of antiquity. She was of admirable beauty; yet her
wit and eloquence, still more than her beauty, gained her ex-
traordinary reputation among all ranks in the republic. In
eloquence she surpassed all her contemporaries; and her con-
versation was so entertaining and instructive, that notwith
standing the dishonourahle commerce she carried on, persons
of the first distinction, male and female, resorted to her house
as to an academy; she even numbered Socrates among her
hearers and admirers. She captivated Pericles in such a
manner, that he dismissed his own wife to espouse her; and
by her universal knowledge, irresistible elocution, and intriguing
genius, she in a great measure influenced the administration of
Athens. She was accused of having excited, from motives of
personal resentment, the war of Peloponnesus; yet, calamitous
as that long and obstinate conflict proved to Greece, and par-
ticularly to Athens, Aspasia occasioned still more incurable
evils to both. Her example and instructions formed a school
at Athens, by which her dangerous profession was reduced into
a system. The companions of Aspasia served as models for
painting and statuary, and themes for poetry and panegyric.
Nor were they merely the objects, but the authors of many
literary works, in which they established rules for the beha.
viour of their lovers, particularly at table; and explained the
art of gaining the heart and captivating the affections. The
dress, behaviour, and artifices of this class of women, became
ntinually more seductive and dangerous, and Athen 2.
thremained the chief school of vice and pleasur
rature and philosophy, sº nº ºf
ippus, a comic poet, prosecuted Aspasia for im
































324 UNIVERSAL Biography. [B. C. 470.
which seems, in the idea of the Greeks, to have consisted in
disputing the existence of their imaginary gods, and introduc-
ing new opinions about celestial appearances. But she was
acquitted, though much against the tenor of the law, by means
of Pericles, who, according to Eschines, shed many tears in
his application for mercy in her behalf. §
After the death of Pericles, at the age of 70, B. C. 429, we
hear nothing of her, but that Lysicles, a grazier, by his in-
tercourse with her, became the most considerable man in
Athens.
XANTIPPUS, a son of Pericles, who disgraced his father
by his disobedience, his ingratitude, and his extravagance.
He died of the plague in the Peloponnesian war. ->
NICLAS, an Athenian of considerable note, was the son of
Niceratus, and inherited very large property, of which a great
part consisted in the silver mines at Laurium. By the influ-
ence of his wealth he attained to consequence in the state, even
during the life of Pericles; and after the death of that great
man, he became one of the heads of the Athenian government.
In the Peloponnesian war he had the command against the
Lacedaemonians at Sphacteriae; and being upbraided by Cleon
for want of success, he proposed to that demagogue to take his
place. He consented, and though he was wholly ignorant of
military affairs, he made up in zeal and energy what he was
deficient in with regard to experience, and completely effected
the purpose which he had proposed. In B. C. 423, Nicias
commanded in an expedition for the reduction of the island
of Cythera, in which he was successful; but though he
gained much reputation by the transactions in which he
engaged, yet he was perpetually endeavouring to restore peace,
which, after the death of Cleon, and Brasida in battle, he per-
formed ; and a treaty, for a term of fifty years, between the
Athenians and Lacedaemonians, with a league offensive and
defensive, was signed B. C. 421. Alcibiades was now rising
into public esteem, and seemingly bent upon embroiling the
affairs of Greece, in order to give himself scope for action.
General tranquillity had not been restored by the peace of
Nicias; a renewal of the Peloponnesian war followed, and the
people of Athens determined to send a powerful force into
Sicily, in order to assist the Egestines in their war with the
Syracusans. Nicias, notwithstanding his opposition to this
rash measure, was appointed one of the generals, in conjunc-
tion with Alcibiades and Lamachus; and the expedition set
sail in the year B. C. 415. The Athenian troops landed in
Sicily, and possessed themselves of several towns; and Alci-
biades being recalled, Nicias and Lamachus took a strong post
in the neighbourhood of Syracuse. The siege of that cit
commenced in the next campaign, and Nicias, after some suc-


B.C. 470.] FROM ARTAXERXES I. TO PHILIP II. 325,
cessful actions, drew a line of circumvallation quite round it.
The prospect of success, which, for a moment, seemed to open
upon him, was clouded by the arrival of fresh supplies, and
large reinforcements from Corinth. Lamachus being slain,
two new generals, Eurymedon and Demosthenes, were ap-
pointed, and the former was sent from Athens with a supply of
money, and in assurance to Nicias of a speedy succour.
Nicias constantly recommended cautious measures, and when
Demosthenes, who arrived with a large reinforcement, pro-
posed an immediate assault upon the city, he argued strongly
against such a hazard. He was, however, out-voted in the
council of war, and the attempt was made, which was defeated,
to the great loss of the Athenians. Demosthenes was so much
disheartened by the result, that he advised on instantly raising
the siege, and returning to Athens. But Nicias declared, that
he would rather die before the place than abandon an enter-
prise which still might succeed, and expose himself to an ig-
nominious condemnation from his countrymen. The aspect of
affairs soon became still more gloomy; the Syracusans received
powerful succours, and, what was much more alarming, a pes-
tilential disease broke out in the Athenian camp, which daily
thinned their numbers. Nicias now thought seriously of re-
treating, and every thing was prepared for embarkation. As
the Syracusans had no suspicion of this design, it might have
been easily effected, when, just at the moment, an eclipse of
the moon took place. The superstition of Nicias was alarmed,
and he refused to go on board the vessel till he had consulted
the soothsayers. These, willing to appear wise, directed that
the departure should be delayed thrice nine days, and thus the
only opportunity to escape was lost. The enemy attacked the
Athenians by sea and land; destroyed a number of their ships,
and the residue was closely blocked up there, and nothing was
left them but to make the best retreat they were able to some
friendly Sicilian state. “By false intelligence,” says the his-
torian, “Nicias was prevented from commencing this march
when it might have been safe; and when want of provisions at
length compelled him to leave his camp, the passes were already
blocked up. There could not be a scene of deeper distress,
than at the moment when the army commenced its march,
abandoning, not only all its baggage, but the sick and wounded,
who clung round their comrades, and appealed to the gods and
men against the cruelty of leaving them to a merciless foe.
Nicias himself was the most melancholy figure in the group;
worn down by disease and anxiety, pale and squalid, he seemed
to centre in himself the afflictions of the whole. His mind,
however, was entire; he bore up against despondency, and he
exerted every effort to inspire courage in his men, and to make
them preserve that order which alone could ensure to them

UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. [B.C. 470.
safety. As they proceeded, they were continually harassed by
the cavalry and light troops of the enemy, and exposed to the
want of every necessary. Many were cut. and at length
Demosthenes, with the whole rear-guard, was forced to sur-
render. Nicias, with the van, arrived exhausted at the river
Asinarus, and while they were crossing it, and quenching their
extreme thirst, the Syracusan cavalry, riding among them,
made great slaughter, without meeting with the slightest re-
sistance. The greater part was killed. Nicias and a small
body surrendered, upon condition that the slaughter should
cease. The Syracusans, after a day of triumph, assembled to
determine the fate of their captives, and they resolved to put
the generals, at least, to death. Nicias and Demosthemes
being informed of the determination, prevented it by a volun-
tary termination to their lives. This terrible disaster hap-
pened in the year B. C. 413. , Nicias appears to have been a
man of virtue, and a sincere lover of his country. His man-
ners were mild, and his principles were humane and pacific.
LAIS, the famous courtezan, born at Hyrcania, a small city
in Sicily; and being carried into Greece by Nicias the Athe-
nian general, began her conquests by music. Almost all the
celebrated courtezans of antiquity were originally musicians.
According to Athenaeas, lib. xiii., music was thought a neces-
sary female accomplishment in the time of Darius, for Par-
menio wrote Alexander word, that he had taken at Damascus
three hundred and twenty-nine of the Persian Monarch's con-
cubines prisoners, who were all well skilled in music, and per-
formed on the flute and other instruments. Lais was sup-
posed to be the daughter of the courtezan Timandra and
Alcibiades. She began first to exercise her powers of enchant-
ent at Corinth in Greece. She is often called the Corin-
thian, from having passed great part of her life in that volup-
aous city. She set so high a price on her favours, that De-
mosthenes, of whom she required for one night ten thousand
drachmas, refusing to comply with her demands, said, “he
would not buy repentance at so high a price.” As a caprice,
she was more indulgent to the disgusting cynic Diogenes.
Aristippus, another philosopher, but much more amiable, almost
ruined himself in sacrifices to this terrestrial divinity, who
oved him less than Diogenes. When he was rallied on her
lness, he said, “I cannot flatter myself that either wine to
fish is in love with me, yet I enjoy, and feed on them both with
at pleasure.” This female sometimes ridicul §
the philosophers whom she had captivated. “I do no
erstand what is meant by the austerity of philosophers, for
I this fine name, they are as much in my power as the rest
ians.” After having corrupted all the youth of
Athens, she went into Thessaly to see a young





































B.C. 450.] FROM ARTAXERXES I. TO PHILIP II. 327
man with whom she was in love, when, it is said, that some
women, jealous of her beauty, assassinated her in the temple of
V€1111S. § * * * * s , , , , , tº º º . . ºf . . º
LAMACHUS, a son of Xenophanes, sent into Sicily with
Nicias. He was killed B. C. 414, before Syracuse, where he
displayed much courage and intrepidity. . . . . . . hºw tº
ALCIBIADES, son of Clinias, an Athenian, was one of
the most splendid and remarkable characters of the age in
which he lived—the golden age of Greece! Nobly born, rich,
handsome, vigorous, endowed with an excellent understanding:
and every quality that could inspire love and esteem, he wanted
only principle and steadiness to render him a truly great man.
He early displayed the ruling passion of his life, that of sur-
Jassing others, and accomplishing every thing on which he set
|. mind. One adventure in his childhood is very characte-
ristic of his temper. Being at play with other boys in the
street, it was his turn to throw something across the way . A
loaded waggon coming up at the instant, he called on the driver
to stop for him. The driver, regardless of his request, whip-
ped on his horses, and the other boys cleared the road; but
Alcibiades threw himself on the ground directly before the
waggon, and bade the man to drive on if he thought fit. This
resolution caused the waggoner, in a fright, immediately to
stop his horses. Such a child could not turn out a common
youth. He soon exhibited strong passions, irregularity of con-
duct, and a strange mixture of levity and seriousness. His
beauty rendered him a very general object of that love which
appears sometimes to have been a pure, sometimes an ambi-
guous, sometimes a scandalous attachment among the Greeks.
It was his fortune to excite the virtuous affection of Socrates;
and that philosopher took uncommon pains to correct all that
was wrong in him, and train him to honourable pursuits and
just Fºl. ; and though he was not entirely successful, his
pupil seems never totally to have lost the benefit of his instruc-
tions. - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Several anecdotes of his youth display the vivacity of his
temper and his understanding. Going one day into a gram-
mar school, he asked for a volume of Homer, and the mastel
answering him that he had none, Alcibiades gave him a box
on the ear and walked out; by which action he meant to im-
ply: that the person who was not conversant with Homer, was
unfit tº superintend the education of youth. He once called
at the house of Pericles, his relation and guardian, in order to
speak to him; and, being told that Pericles was busy in
studying the s to lay before the people, “ H.
y acc at all.” One day, frolic, and in cº
ice of a promise to his companions, he gave a box on t
accounts he wa
























UNiversal Biography. [B. C. 450
:ar to Hipponicus, a respectable man of rank and fortune.
This act of insolence was talked of through the city, and
various expectations prevailed of the event. Early next
morning, Alcibiades went to the house of Hipponicus, and,
being admitted into his presence, stripped himself, and offered
his naked body to be chastised as he pleased. This humilia-
tion disarmed the resentment, and engaged the esteem of Hip-
#. so that some time after he gave him his daughter
2 'A'. in marriage. 2 ź.
cibiades early engaged in the military service of his
country. He lived at the time when his country was a scene
of confusion. The Greeks, grown insolent from their conquest
in Persia, turned their arms against each other, under the
conduct of the most opulent states of Athens and Lacedaemon.
Alcibiades, in the midst of an expedition he had planned
against the enemy, was recalled home to answer some charge
of aP. nature; but fearing the malice of his enemies, in-
stead of going to Athens, he offered his services to Sparta,
where they were readily accepted. By his advice the Lace-
daemonians made a league with Persia, which gave a favourable
turn to their affairs. But his credit in the republic giving rise
to jealousies against him, he privately reconciled himself to his
country, and took again the command of an Athenian army.
Here victory attended all his motions. The loss of several
battles obliged the Spartans to sue for peace. He enjoyed his
triumphs, however, only a short time at Athens, one unsuc-
cessful event making it expedient for him to retire. In his
absence the Spartans again took the lead, and at the fatal
battle of Æges entirely subdued the Athenian power. Alci-
biades, though an exile, endeavoured to restore the power of
his country; of which the Spartans having intelligence, pro-
cured him to be assassinated. He was a man of admirable ac-
eomplishments, but indifferent principles; of great parts; and
of an amazing versatility of genius. .
DEMOSTHENES, an Athenian general, sent to succeed
Alcibiades in Sicily. He attacked Syracuse with Nicias, but
his efforts were ineffectual. After many calamities, he fell
into the enemy's hands, and his army was confined to hard
- THRASYBULUS, an eminent Athenian, was the son of
us, and the restorer of liberty to his country. When the
nment of the four hundred succeeded the overthrow of
‘mocracy in the year B. C. 411, he was commander of a
and in connection with Thrasyllus, he destroyed the
icy in the camp at Samos, and re-established democracy
then proposed the recall of Alcibiades, in exile at
nd restored him to his country. Thrasybulus and
aving pursued the Peloponnesian fleet, brought iſ
















B. C. 450.] FROM ARTAXERXES I. TO PHILIP II. 329
to an action in the Straits between Sestos and Abydos, in which
the Athenians captured twenty ships of the enemy, with the
loss of fifteen of their own. Another engagement soon after
occurred, and the result of the arrival of Alcibiades's squadron
was a complete victory on the part of the Athenians. When
Alcibiades was made general of the Athenian forces both }.
sea and land, he nominated Thrasybulus for one of his col-
leagues; but a misunderstanding afterwards taking place be-
tween them, Thrasybulus impeached Alcibiades before an as-
sembly of the Athenians, and procured his disgrace. On oc-
casion of the establishment of the thirty tyrants at Athens by
the influence of the Lacedaemonians, Thrasybulus was one of
several other citizens who took refuge in the Theban territory;
and zealous for the emancipation of his country from servitude,
he engaged a small body of fugitives to join him in an expe-
dition to Attica, and took possession of the important fortress
of Phyla, on the frontiers of Boeotia. Besieged by the Greeks,
Thrasybulus by his activity repulsed them, and even followed
them, in their disorder, to Athens. Having also surprised a
post which they occupied near Phyla, the thirty tyrants re-
moved from Athens to Eleusis, and Thrasybulus seized this
opportunity of attacking the Piraeus, and his enterprise suc-
ceeded. He then issued a proclamation, animating the Athe-
nians to resist their tyrants, and to restore a free government.
Having done this, he established himself in the Piraeus. The
constitution of Athens was then changed, by substituting in-
stead of the thirty tyrants, ten magistrates, one from each tribe.
The Lacedaemonians still retained their influence over these
magistrates, who sent to Sparta soliciting assistance against
º At length, however, this resolute commander
prevailed so as to open a negociation between the Athenians
and the Spartan government, which terminated in the with-
drawing of the Spartan garrison, and the re-establishment of a
popular constitution at Athens. This happy close of the con-
test was followed by the union of citizens of both parties, in a
solemn thanksgiving to Minerva, at her temple in the citadel,
when Thrasybulus exhorted them to future concord. The
remaining tyrants at Eleusis endeavoured to foment dissensions
in Athens; but the business terminated in an act of amnesty or
oblivion, which was passed by the influence of Thrasybulus in
the assembly of the people, and ratified by an oath. This re-
volution happened. in the year B. C. 401. In accomplishing
this event, Thrasybulus acted with the most disinterest *d pa-
triotism; for the thirty tyrants, when he seized the castle of
Phyla, had offered to make him one of their number, and to
pardon any twelve of the exiles whom he might name; to which
offer he replied, that exile was much more honourable than any




UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. [B. C. 450,
mained for some time in unmolested retirement, enjoying the
honour accompanying the olive wreath, which, according to the
simple manners of the age, was bestowed upon him for his
tervices. But in the year B. C. 390, after the death of Conon,
the foreign possessions and influence of the Athenians were in
danger of being lost; and therefore a fleet of forty ships was
placed under the command of Thrasybulus, with which he
sailed to the Hellespont. On this occasion he induced two
Thracian provinces to become allies to Athens, and compelled
the Byzantines and the inhabitants of some other cities to
abolish the aristocratical governments, and accept of the
Athenian model and alliance. He next proceeded against the
isle of Lesbos, in the Lacedaemonian interest, and reduced the
whole island to obedience. Thence he sailed for Rhodes,
having previously raised supplies from the maritime towns of
Asia, and the capital of Pamphylia. He also indulged his
men in private pillage; and thus so much provoked the inhabi-
tants, that they made an attack in the night on the tents, and
put a number of the Athenians to the sword, among whom was
Thrasybulus himself. Such was the inglorious termination of
a life that had been devoted to the benefit of his native
country, it ºn tº -
… CONON, a renowned Athenian general and admiral, who
flourished about B.C.,895. After his defeat by Lysander, he
fled to Evagoras King of Cyprus. After which he put himself
under the protection of Artaxerxes, king of Persia, with whose
army hedelivered Athens from its oppressors, and rebuilt its
walls. . In the 360th year of Rome, he beat the Lacedaemo-
nians in a sea fight near Cnidus, upon the coast of Asia, de-
rived them of the sovereign rule they had on sea, ever since
the taking of Athens, and gained some other considerable ad-
vantages over them; but falling into the hands of Teribazus
a Persian, who envied his glory, he was put to death. ºn tº
* TIMOTHEUS, an Athenian general, son of Conon. He
signalised himself by his valour and magnanimity, and showed
that he was not inferior to his great father in military prudence.
He seized Corcyra, and obtained several victories over the
Thebans, but his ill success in one of his expeditions disgusted
the Athenians, and Timotheus, like the rest of his noble pre-
decessors, was fined a large sum of money. He retired to
propriated any of t
# e plunder to his own use, b it aſt EI
º:
































B. C. f60.] FROM ARTAXERXES I. TO PHILIP II. 331
countrymen to cut off the right hand of such of the enemies as
were taken, that they might be rendered unfit for service.
His plan was adopted by all the ten admirals except one, but
their expectations were frustrated, and instead of being con-
querors, they were totally defeated at AEgospatamus by
ysander, and Philocles was put to death, with the rest of his
colleagues. . . . . . . . . . .
TIMON the Misanthrope, or the Manhater, a famous Athe-
nian, who died about B, C, 420. We have many sayings of
his spleen recorded, but no facts of his life. a tº
THERAMENES, a celebrated Athenian general, patriot,
and philosopher. He defeated the Megarens, and suppressed
a tumult in Athens; but the Athenians being at last com-
pletely subjugated by the Spartans, demolished their walls,
and subjected them to thirty tyrants, all under Spartan in-
fluence except Theramenes, who was the only one of the thirty
that stood up for the interest of his country. The rest abused
their power in the most cruel and arbitrary manner. ... But
Theramenes's patriotic opposition to these tyrants only ended
in his own death. It is said, that when he drank the bowl of
poison, he drank to the health of Critias, his accuser, but along
with that compliment he imprecated a curse on the tyrant,
which was soon after fulfilled. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
IPHICRATES, a celebrated Athenian general, was born in
a humble rank of life, being the son of a shoemaker; but by
improving the situation in which he was thrown, he, at an early
age, raised himself to a high military command. As head-
vanced in the army, he showed himself a strict disciplinarian,
and attentive to every circumstance of military improvement.
He made war against the Thracian, obtained some victories
over the Spartan, and assisted the Persian king against
Egypt. He changed the dress and arms of his soldiers, and
rendered them more alert, and expeditious in using, their
weapons. In the social war, a fleet was fitted out by the
Athenians for the recovery of Byzantium, under the joint com-
mands of Iphicrates, Timotheus, and Chares...The two former
‘liffered from the latter on the proposal to attack the enemy's
fleet during a violent storm, and were in consequence charged
him with treasonable intentions. They were recalled by
the people of Athens, and publicly prosecuted. Timotheus
as condemned, and went into exile. Iphicrates defended
imself with great spirit, and was acquitted. He was indebted
for this not only to #. eloquence, but to th *
ance round the tribunal of several mili
reproached for allowing and encouraging s
ing, he replied, “I have long borne arms for
country, and should be very unwise not to emp




















332 UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY., ºf [B. c. 450.
the army. He married a daughter of Cotys, King of Thrace,
and died B. C. 380. He left one son, named Menetheus.
When Iphicrates was once reproached of the meanness of his
origin, he observed, that he would be the first of his family,
but that his detractor would be the last of his own. :
CHABRIAS, an Athenian general and philosopher, who
chiefly signalised himself when he assisted the Boeotians against
Agesilaus. In this celebrated campaign, he ordered his sol-
diers to put one knee on the ground, and firmly to rest their
spears upon the other, and cover themselves with their shields,
by which means he daunted the enemy, and had a statue raised
to his honour in that same posture. He assisted also Nec-
tanebus, King of Egypt, and conquered the whole island of
‘...". but he at last fell a sacrifice to his excessive courage,
and despised to fly from his ship, when he had it in his power
to save his life like his companions, B. C. 376. .
PHORMIO, an Athenian general, who succeeded Callias,
B. C. 432, gave great proofs of his courage in the Pelopon-
nesian war, and in defeating the estates to pay his army; he
also refused the rank of commander-in-chief. .
CLEON, an Athenian, who, though originally a tanner,
became general of the armies of the state by his intrigues and
eloquence. He took Thoron in Thrace, and was killed at
Amphipolis, in a battle with Brasidas, B. C. 422.
CALLICRATIDAS, a Spartan general, and commander of
the fleet in Lesser Asia. He displayed great disinterested-
ness and valour; defeated Conon the Athenian general, and
afterwards blocked him up in Mitylene. The Athenians
fitted out a fleet for the relief of the place, and in the engage-
ment the Spartan commander's ship was sunk, and he perished
LYSANDER, an eminent Spartan commander in the last
years of the Peloponnesian war, was the son of Aristoclitus, a
descendant of the Heraclidae, but not of the royal line. About
the year B. C. 406, Lysander was made the naval commander
of the Lacedaemonians. His first measure was to draw off
Ephesus from the interest of Athens, which he accomplished,
and at the same time gained the friendship of Cyrus the
younger. He gave battle to the Athenian fleet, consisting of
one hundred and twenty ships, at AEgos-Potamos, in the Thra-
cian Chersonesus, and wholly destroyed it except three ships,
with which the enemy's general fled to Evagoras, king of
s. In this celebrated battle, which happened 405 years
re the Christian era, the Athenians lost three thousand
, and with them their empire and influence among the
ibouring states. Lysander knew how to take advantage
ictory, and in the following year Athens, worn out by a
wenty-seven years, gave itself up to the power of










B. C. 450.] FROM ARTAXERXES 1. TO PHILIP II 333
the enemy, and submitted, in every respect, to the power of
Lacedaemon. The government of Athens was totally changed,
and thirty tyrants were set over it by Lysander. This success,
and the honour of having put an end to the Peloponnesian war,
rendered the conqueror extremely proud, and ambitious of
higher distinctions than the constitution of his country would
allow. He aimed at universal power, by establishing aristo-
cracy in the Grecian cities of Asia, and he attempted to make
the crown of Sparta elective, in order that he might seize it for
himself, but was, in this respect, unsuccessful, and he was ac-
cused of gross corruption in endeavouring to accomplish his
purposes. The sudden declaration of war against the Thebans,
saved him from the accusations of his adversaries, and he was
sent with Pausanias against the enemy. The Spartan troops
were defeated, and their general, Lysander, killed in the year
B. C. 394. His booty was recovered by his colleague, Pau-
sanias, and honoured with a magnificent funeral. Lysander
was a brave man, but his ambition merited the severest censure.
He was arrogant and vain in his public, as well as in his private
conduct, and he received and heard with the greatest avidity
the hymns which his courtiers and flatterers sung to his honour.
But in the midst of all his pomp, his ambition and his intrigues,
he died extremely poor, and on account of his poverty his
daughters were rejected by two opulent citizens of Sparta, to
whom they had been betrothed during the life of their father.
GYLIPPUS, a Lacedaemonian commander, son of Clear-
chus, was sent about the year B. C. 414, through the influence
of Lysander, to the relief of Syracuse, when it was besieged by
the Athenians. He obtained a great victory over Nicias and
Demosthenes, and obliged them to surrender. He accompa-
nied Lysander in his expedition against Athens, and was pre-
sent at the capture of that city. After the fall of Athens, he
was entrusted with the money that had been taken in the plun-
der, which amounted to fifteen hundred talents. His avarice
caused him to violate his trust by a fraud; he unsewed the bot-
tom of the bags in which it was contained, and secreted about
three hundred talents. His theft was discovered, and to avoid
the punishment due to his guilt, he fled from his country, and
was obliged to live in exile the remainder of his days. By this
act of meanness, the glory of all his former actions was tar-
mished, and his name has been transmitted to posterity with the
infamy it deserves. . §
CRITIAS, one of the thirty tyrants set over Athens by the
Spartans. He was eloquent and well-bred, but of dangerous
Principles, and cruelly persecuted his enemies, and put them to
death. He was killed in a battle against those citizens w
his oppression had banished. He had been among the dis




UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. . [B. c. 445.
an elegies and other composi-
fragments remain . . . . . . . . . ºººº Yºº ".
& ~ ymmander of the Spartan fleet during the
Peloponnesian war. He was defeated by the Athenians, and
PHCEBIDAS, a Spartan general, sent to assist the Mace-
donians against the Thracians. He seized the citadel of
Thebes, for which act of perfidy, the Spartans, instead of re-
ing, disgraced and banished him, though they still retained
THRYADES, one of the three hundred Spartans who
at against three hundred Argives, when those two nations
% ed their respective right to Thyreata. Two Argives,
Alcinor and Cronius, and diº, survived the battle. The
Argives went home to carry the news of their victory; but
Othryades, who had been reckoned among the number of the
slain on account of his wounds, recovered himself, and carried
some of the spoils of which he had stripped the Argives into
the camp of his countrymen; and after he had raised a trophy,
had written with his own blood the word, vici, on his shield,
ed himself, unwilling to survive the death of his coun-
ai BRASIDAS, a celebrated general of the Lacedaemonians
who flourished B. C. 424. He defeated the Athenians by land
and sea, took many places, and rendered himself formidable to
all the neighbouring states. He conquered the Athenians on
their attempting to surprise Amphipolis, but died of the wounds
*AGIS I., king of Sparta. He was considered a great politi-
ºd used to say, “If we would rule many, we must fight
MCEA, the wife of Agis, king of Sparta, who was de-
ed by Alcibiades, by whom it is said she had a son, who
s rejected from the succession to the throne, although Agis
leclared him legitimate on his death-bed. iſ nºt
st LEOTYCHIDES, a son of Timoea, the wife of Agis, king
'Sparta. “The legitimacy of his birth was disputed by some,
x- lcibiades.
as generally believed that he was the son of Alcib
s prevented from ascending the throne of Sparta by Ly.
lder, though Agis had declared him at his death his lawful
ion and heir, and Agesilaus was appointed in his place. * in
AGESILAUS II, king of the Lacedaemonians, the son of
Archidamus ised to the thronet notwithstanding the
la
antages ov






































































B. c. 445.) FROM ARTAXERXES 1. To Philip II. 335
league, which the Athenians and the Thebansforme
the Lacedaemonians, had not obliged him to return hom
would have carried his victorious arms into the heart of the
Persian empire. He gave up, however, all these triumphs, to
come to the succour of his country, which he happily relieved
by his victory over the allies in Boeotia. . He obtained another
near Corinth; but to his great mortification, the Thebans after-
wards gained several over the Lacedaemonians. These misfor-
tunes at first raised some clamour against him. He had been
sick during the first advantages which the enemy gained; but
as soon as he was able to act in person, by his valour and pru-
dence he prevented the Thebans from reaping the advantages
of their victories; insomuch that it was generally believed, had
he been in health at the beginning, the Lacedaemonians would
have sustained no losses, and that all would have been lost had
it not been for his assistance. It cannot be denied, but that
he loved war more than the interest of his country required;
for if he could have lived in peace, he would have saved the
Lacedaemonians several losses, and they would not have been
engaged in many enterprises which in the end contributed
much to weaken their power. He died the third year of the
one hundred and fourth olympiad, being the eighty-fourth year
of his age, and forty-first of his reign, B. C. 361. Agesila
would never suffer any picture or sculpture to be made of him,
and prohibited it also by his will. This he is supposed to have
done from a consciousness of his own deformity; for he was
of a short stature, and lame of one foot, so that strangers used
to despise him at the first sight. His fame went before him
into Egypt, where they had formed the highest idea of him.
When he landed, the people ran in crowds to see him; but
when they saw an ill-dressed, slovenly, mean-looking little fel-
low lying upon the grass, they could not forbear laughing, and
applied to him the fable of the mountain in labour. He was,
however, the first to jest upon his own person; and such was
the gaiety of his temper, and the strength with which he bore
the roughest exercises, that these '...i. made amends for
his corporeal defects. He was remarkable for plainness and
frugality in his dress and way of living. Cornelius Nepos says,
that “although great presents were sent him by kings, gover-
nors, and states, he brought none of them to his own house,
that he changed nothing of the diet and apparel of the Lace.
daemonians. He was contented with the same house in wh
Eurysthenes, the founder of his family, had lived; and whoe
entered there, could see no sign of debauchery
º
ry or luxu
but many of moderation and abstinence; for it was furnished
such a manner, that it differed in nothing from that of ar
or private person.” Upon his arrival in Egypt, all
provisions were sent to him; but he chose only the
º


























336 UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY, - [B.C. 445.
common, leaving the perfumes, the confections, and that which
was esteemed most . to his servants. Agesilaus was
extremely fond of his children, and would often amuse himself
by joining in their diversions; one day, when he was sur-
prised riding upon a stick with them, he said to the person
who had seen him in this posture, “forbear talking of it till
you are a father.” -
CYNISCA, daughter of Agesilaus, King of Sparta, has
been celebrated by the Lacedaemonians for excelling in Olympic
games. Her brother, to show his contempt of those exercises,
with difficulty persuaded her to enter his lists; for conceiving
these amusements degraded the dignity of manhood, he thought
they would no longer be held in estimation if a female could
obtain the prize. w
ARCHIDAMUS, King of Sparta, succeeded his father
Agesilaus, B. C. 361. He was a warlike prince, but going to
assist the Tarentines against the Messapians, he was slain, after
reigning fifteen years.
* * º; II., King of Sparta, son of Archidamus, and grand-
son of the famous Agesilaus, reigned only nine years, being de-
feated by Antipater, one of Alexander's generals, in the second
ear of his universal empire. -
AGESIPOLIS I., king of Lacedaemon, son of Pausanias,
obtained a great victory over the Mantinaeans. He reigned
fourteen years, and was succeeded by his brother Cleom-
brotus. - >
CLEOMBROTUS II., the son of Pausanias, king of
Sparta, after his brother Agesipolis I. He made war against
the Boeotians, and lest he .. be suspected of treacherous
communications with Epaminondas, he gave that general
battle at Leuctra, in a very disadvantageous place. He was
killed in the engagement, and his army destroyed. -
AGESIPOLIS II., son of Cleombrotus, king of Sparta,
was succeeded by Cleomenes II.
CLEOMENES II., of Sparta, succeeded his brother Age-
sipolis II. He reigned thirty-four years in the greatest tran-
quillity, and was father to Acrotatus and Cleonimus. He was
succeeded by Areus I., son of Acrotatus.
PERDICCAS, king of Macedonia, son of Alexander. He
reigned during the Peloponnesian war, and assisted the La-
cedaemonians against Athens. He behaved with great courage
on the throne, and died B. C. 413, after a long reign of glory
and independence, during which he had subdued some of his
barbarian neighbours. - ... " *: ... :
ARCHELAUS, king of Macedonia, was the natural son of
idiccas II., and succeeded him after murdering Alcetas,
s brother. He greatly strengthened his kingdom,
as a liberal encourager of literature and the arts. He







B.C. 430.1 - FROM ARTAXERXES 1. To Philip II. 33
7
entertained Euripides at his court, and employed the pencil of
Zeuxis to ornament his palace.
AMYNTAS II., was son of Menelaus, and king of Mace-
donia, after his murder of Pausanias. He was expelled by
the Illyrians, and restored by the Thessalians and Spartans.
He made war against the Illyrians and Olynthians, and lived
to a great age. His wife, Eurydice, conspired against his life;
but her snares were seasonably discovered by one of hi
daughters by a former wife. He had Alexander, Perdiccas,
and Philip, Alexander the Great's father, by his first wife;
and by the other he had Archelaus, Aridaeus, and Menelaus.
He reigned twenty-four years; and soon after his death,
. son Philip murdered all his brothers, and ascended the
throne.
EURYDICE, the wife of Amyntas, king of Macedon, and
the mother of Alexander, Perdiccas, and Philip, the father of
Alexander the Great, and one daughter, named Euryone. From .
a criminal love she had for her daughter's husband, she con-
spired against her husband; but Amyntas discovered the plot,
and forgave her. On the death of Amyntas, Alexander as-
cended the throne, but he perished through the ambition of
his mother, as well as his successor Perdiccas. Philip, how-
ever, preserved his crown from all her attempts, on which she
fled to Iphicrates, the Athenian general, but what became of
her is not known. * - - - - -
ALEXANDER II., son of Amyntas II, king of Mace-
donia, was treacherously murdered, B. C. 370, by his younger
brother Ptolemy, who held the kingdom for four years, and
made way for Perdiccas and Philip. y ... 3
on his throne by Iphicrates the Athenian against the intru-
sions of Pausanias. He was killed in a war against the Illy-
T1a11S. - º
PERDICCAS, a king of Macedonia, who was supported
MITHRIDATES I., was the third king of Pontus. He
was tributary to the king of Persia, and his attempts to make
himself independent proved fruitless. He was conquered in
a battle, and obtained peace with difficulty. Xenophon calls
him merely a governor of Cappadocia. He died B. C. 363.
PELOPIDAS, an illustrious Theban leader, was the son
of ºr. of a distinguished family in Thebes. Though
brºught up in affluence, he adopted a frugal and simple mode
ºf living; and emulated in private and public virtue his noble
friend, Epaminondas, though he had less mental cultivation
than that hero. He married, and had several children, but
Was more intent upon serving the state than improving hi
fortune. He made a campaig
* to the aid of th
º in the Pelopol
who
gº
* * * * º:
º


















, BIOGRAPHY, [B.C. 450.
war, and in a battle fought at Mantinea, he received several
wounds, and would have been killed, had he not been !".
tected by Epaminondas. After this period, the citadel of
Thebes being betrayed to the Spartans, Pelopidas, with many
of his friends, saved their lives by flight. They took refuge
in Athens, whence they kept up a correspondence with those
of their friends who remained at Thebes. Pelopidas, animated
with the love of liberty and his country, was continually urging
his fellow exiles to attempt the recovery of their native city
out of the hands of foreign and domestic tyrants, and at length
a plan was formed to collect the exiles, and to endeavour to
effect a revolution. Pelopidas undertook to be the leader of
this bold enterprize; and, accordingly, with only eleven asso-
ciates, he left Athens on a certain day in the middle of winter,
and proceeded to Thebes. The party was in the habits of
peasants, with dogs and hunting poles, as if they were from
the country on a hunting expedition. Thus disguised, they
entered Thebes in the midst of a heavy fall of snow, which
kept the mass of the people within doors; here they were im-
mediately joined by about thirty or forty others, who were
apprized of their approach. The two Theban rulers were at
an entertainment, given º by Philidas; and although
they received an intimation of the entrance of some exiles, paid
little or no regard to the fact. A letter disclosing the ..
conspiracy was received by Archias, one of the rulers, from
an Athenian friend; but although he was told that it contained
matter of great importance, he threw it aside, exclaiming,
“Business to-morrow!” which afterwards became a proverbial
saying. While these persons, half intoxicated, were easily
despatched by some of the conspirators, who entered the room
in female habits, Pelopidas and his party had the more difficult
task of breaking into the houses of two others of the sup-
porters of tyranny and overpowering them. When this was
effected, they sallied out into the streets, proclaiming liberty
to the Thebans, and arming all who joined them out of the
shops of the armourers. On the next morning, they were
joined by the body of exiles from Athens, and Epaminondas,
who had abstained from the bloody scenes of the night, having
collected all the most respectable citizens, put an end to the
confusion, and avowed the common cause. Pelopidas, who
º ly hailed as the deliverer of Thebes, was placed
ffairs, and at his instigation measures were
ver the citadel from the Lacedaemonian garrison.
is ºn nded, and compelled to surrender for
The date of this revolution, which was
the Theban glory, is fixed at the first
olympiad, or the year B.C. 380.
ith Sparta, Pelopidas exercised all
5
º




























B, C, 430.] FROM ARTAXERXES I. TO PHILIP II.
the talents of a brave and able º He defeated the
enemy at Tamagra, in which he slew their general with his
own hand. Pelopidas is considered as the first who inspired
the Thebans with the ambitious desire of rising to distinction
among the states of Greece, and extending their power by
conquest. His military fame was of an earlier date than
that of Epaminondas, though the latter came in time to be
superior. It is, however, to the honour of both, that they
lived in perfect amity, and concurred in every measure for the
advancement of their country. Before the battle of Leuctra,
he supported with his voice the advice of Epaminondas for an
immediate engagement, and at the head of the sacred band
he greatly contributed to the success of the day. He was
joint commander with that chief in the expedition into the
Peloponnesus, in which the city of Messene was restored,
and partook with him the danger of a charge made against
them on their return, for having illegally prolonged their
command.
The Thessalians having requested the aid of the Thebans
against the tyrant Alexander, of Pherae, Pelopidas was sent
with an army into that country, and brought the king to terms.
He afterwards marched into Macedonia, as arbitrator of a dis-
pute in the royal family of that country; and the opinion enter-
tained of his equity was such, that he was entrusted with a
number of noble hostages, for the purpose of securing tran-
quillity, among whom was Philip, father of Alexander the
Great. He went a second time into Macedonia, where new
tumults had arisen; and obliged Ptolemy, the usurper of the
throne, to give his own son, with fifty others, as hostages for
performing the conditions enjoined him. Returning through
Thessaly with a small escort, he met with Alexander, the
Pheraean, at the head of his army, and with his colleague,
Ismenias, went to him unarmed, trusting to the sacredness of
their character as ambassadors. The tyrant, however, seized
their persons, and took them with him, as prisoners, to Pherae.
The spirit of Pelopidas supported him under this misfortune,
and he even sent messages of defiance to Alexander, telling
him that he acted very absurdly in putting to death so many of
his own innocent subjects, and at the same time sparing him,
who, he might be sure, would severely punish him for his per-
fidy, º he ever get out of his hands. Alexander, in re-
turn, asket %
order," the hero replied, “ that, by my death, thou mayest be-
Some the sooner hateful both to gods and men, and thus
brought tº destruction.” Soon after this, Epaminondas was
placed at the head of an army, with orders to invade Thessaly,
ºnd proceed against the tyrant. It was the object nearest his
“Why is Pelopidas in such haste to die?” “In
















UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY, [B.C. 430.
him; therefore he forbore pushing the Pheraean to extre-
mities; and by alternately acting upon his hopes and fears,
brought him to consent to a truce, with the condition of releas-
ing #. and Ismenias; after this was performed, he
marched with them back to Thebes. The Thebans having
discovered that the Athenians and Lacedemonians were nego-
ciating a treaty against them with the king of Persia, sent Pe-
lopidas to counteract it. He was received with great honour
at the Persian court, and completely succeeded in confirming
the former friendship between it and the Thebans, and in ob-
taining a declaration in favour of the liberty and independence
of Greece.
Alexander continuing to oppress his neighbours, deputies
were again sent to Thebes, requesting that forces might be
sent to their aid, with Pelopidas to command them. An army
was levied for the purpose; but as it was about to march, an
eclipse of the sun struck a superstitious terror into the minds
of the Thebans; and Pelopidas, not choosing to proceed with
a disheartened army, took with him only three hundred volun-
teer cavalry, and entered Thessaly, disregarding the warnings
of the soothsayers. When he arrived at Pharsalus, he assem-
bled all the Thessalians who were the opposers of the tyrant,
and marched in quest of Alexander. The latter, knowing that
he had a few Thebans with him, did not hesitate to meet him
with a very superior force. The battle commenced; and
while the event was still dubious, Pelopidas saw Alexander at
some distance, rushed forwards, and loudly challenged him to
single combat. The tyrant, however, thought it more prudent
to shelter himself among the thickest of his troops, than to risk
the trial. The noble-minded Theban, hurried away by an
inconsiderate thirst of revenge, followed him almost alone, and
beat down a number of his opposers; at length, covered with
darts, and pierced through with spears, he fell dead, a victim
to unrestrained ardour. The Thebans lamented him as their
father, saviour, and instructor; and the Thessalians and allies
joined in their expressions of sorrow. They, however, re-
venged his death, by a total and bloody defeat of the enemy.
His body was met in procession by the magistrates of the
towns, the priests and young people bearing trophies and gar-
lands; and the Thessalians made an urgent request to be
allowed to give it a funeral in their own country, which was
granted, and performed with great solemnity and splendour.
This event took place B. C. 364. . . . .
PHILIDAS, a friend of Pelopidas, one of those who joined
in the conspiracy to expel the §º. from Thebes, and in
whose house they met. . . .
ALE XAN DER, a cruel tyrant of Pherae, in Thessaly, . who
lar against the Macedonians, and took Pelopidas priso-






B, C, 130.
} FROM ARTAXERXES I. TO PHILIP II. 341.
*
ner. He was murdered, B.C. 357, by his wife, called Thebe,
whose room he carefully searched every night, fearful of some
dagger that might be concealed to take away his life. -
EPAMINONDAS, a famous Theban general, who was the
son of Polymnis, distinguished by his family and rank, and a
native of Thebes in Boeotia. Although his descent was ho-
nourable, his patrimony was small, and was wholly exhausted
in procuring the means of every kind of instruction. Not satis-
fied with acquiring under the best masters all the solid and
ornamental accomplishments which distinguished the polished
Grecian, he also habituated himself in early life to play on the
harp and flute, to sing and dance, and by the exercises of the
Palaestra, to improve the vigour of his corporeal powers, and
thus to qualify himself for encountering the toils of a military
character. Having extended to the most important and useful
purposes, the slender pittance which he derived from his fa-
mily, he exemplified in an humble and indigent condition, the
principles of philosophy which he had imbibed. Superior to
any temptations which affluence or ambition could offer, he
maintained, during the whole course of his life, an uncorrupt
mind, an invariable regard to truth, and an irreproachable rec-
titude. If we contemplate him in his public character, we
cannot do less than admire the sublime philosophy, which en-
lightened and directed all his actions; that genius which was so
rich in information, and so fruitful in resources, and those plans
which were concerted with super-eminent prudence, and exe-
cuted with equal celerity. In private life he was no less dis-
tinguished above all his contemporaries, by equanimity and self
command, by the purity of his morals, by the dignity of his
demeanour, and the suavity of his manners, by the mildness,
benignity, and modesty, and by the forbearance and patience
with which he endured the injustice of the people and the un-
merited severity of some of his friends. Formed for friendship
and society by the amiableness of his disposition, and the unas-
suming and condescending freedom with which he engaged in
occasional intercourse with his companions, he engaged the
esteem and confidence of those with whom he associated. Al-
though he had enriched his mind with every kind of know-
ledge, he chose rather to hear than to speak. His reflections
were always just and profound. On occasions of controversy,
when it was necessary to defend himself, his answers were
prompt, energetic, and precise; and his conversation was pecu-
liarly interesting when it turned on philosophical or political
topics. These traits of his character might be exemplified, by .
a. variety of instances; they are furnished by the historian of his
life. His house was less the asylum than the sanctuary of
poverty;. When Epaminondas was setting out on an expedi-
tion to Peloponnesus, he was obliged to borrow fifty drachmas,



342 UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. [B.C. 430.
about 1.l. 17s. 6d., to purchase the necessary equipage; and
yet it was about the same time that he indignantly rejected
fifty pieces of gold, which the Thessalian prince had ventured
to offer him. When a young man announced to him the
orders of Artaxerxes, king of Persia, for delivering to him a
considerable sum, and informed him that he himself had been
forced to accept five talents. Epaminondas receiving the mes-
senger, said to him, “ Hear me, Diomeden, if the views of
Artaxerxes be consistent with the interests of my country, I
do not need his presents; if not, all the gold in his empire
would not induce me to betray my duty. You have judged of
my heart by your own; I forgive you this mistake ; but depart
instantly from the city, lest you should corrupt the inhabitants.”
To the young man who had received the present he said, “As
for you, Mycithus, if you do not this moment return the money
rou have received, I shall deliver you up to the magistracy.”
When he was at the head of the army, and was informed that
his shield-bearer had sold a captive his liberty; “Give me
back my buckler,” said Epaminondas; “ since your hands are
soiled with money, you are no longer worthy to follow me in
dangers.” But we must hasten to give a short abstract of his
military exploits. Pelopidas, an affluent fellow-citizen, attach-
ed himself to Epaminondas by the most intimate friendship,
and when he could not prevail with this illustrious youth to
partake of his fortune, he resolved to share in the property of
his friendship, and to form himself upon the model of his con-
duct. Accordingly he concurred in the noble design of raising
the Theban republic to eminence among the states of Greece;
they began with jointly succouring the Lacedaemonians, while
they were in alliance with the Thebans. In this service a battle
occurred, in which Pelopidas and Epaminondas were both sur-
rounded; but when the former fell, the latter protected him and
continued to fight over him against a host of foes, till they were
both rescued by their friends. At a subsequent period the
citadel of Thebes was taken by the Lacedaemonians, and Pelo-
pidas with others attached to liberty and independence were
expelled, but Epaminondas was suffered to remain, as one
whose poverty and philosophy would prevent him from taking
any part in political concerns. When the exiles, about four
years afterwards regained the city, they were joined by Epa-
minondas, and the Thebans regained their liberty. These two
fellow-citizens, and Epaminondas in particular took pains by
his counsel and example, in promoting among them the fru-
gality and contempt of pleasure which i. at the foundation of
manly exertions. By such conduct he gained the confidence
Thebans, and being raised to a high
is deputed as a delegate to Sparta
the purpose of nes

















B, C, 430.] FROM ARTAXERXES I. To PHILIP 11.
gociating a peace. On this occasion, when the other deputies
were overawed by Agesilaus, who guided the operations of the
Lacedaemonians, Epaminondas asserted the dignity of his cha-
racter as the representative of an independent state, and in-
sisted that the Thebans should retain the same authority in
Boeotia with that of the Spartans in Laconia. The Spartan
king was incensed, and war was immediately declared against
the Thebans. The Lacedaemonians gave orders to their king
Cleombrotus, to march into Boeotia at the head of an army con-
sisting of ten thousand foot soldiers, and one thousand horse:
The army of the Thebans was made up of only six thousand
infantry and a small body of cavalry; Epaminondas command-
ed it, and under him was Pelopidas. The two armies met at
Leuctra, a small town of Boeotia, and on the 8th of July, B. C.
371, a battle was fought, which by the wisdom and valour of
Epaminondas terminated in the defeat of the Lacedaemonians,
and the death of Cleombrotus. It afforded singular satisfaction
to the victorious general that his father and mother had lived
to witness the glory he now acquired. Two years after, B. C.
369, Epaminondas and Pelopidas were nominated Boeotarchs,
or chiefs of the Boeotian league. The concurrence of circum-
stances, mutual esteem, friendship, and a uniformity of senti-
ments and views, formed an indissoluble union between these
two great men. With Pelopidas, the companion of his labours
and his glory, Epaminondas entered Peloponnesus, spreading
terror and desolation through the states in alliance with Lace-
daemon, hastening the defection of others, and breaking the
yoke under which the Messenians had groaned for centuries.
Seventy thousand men of different nations marched under his
orders with an equal confidence, and he led them on to Lace-
daemon. Agesilaus, apprised of his approach, was anxious and
alarmed; but such was his resistance, and the delay occasioned
by it, that Epaminondas thought it most prudent to retreat.
After W. the Spartan territories, he rebuilt the ancient
city of Messene, and recalled its dispersed inhabitants from the
surrounding country, in which they had long lived as aliens,
It was the established rule of the Boeotian league, that the chiefs
should hold their office only for a year, and then resign to their
successors. Epaminondas and Pelopidas, however, retained
their * four months longer than the term prescribed
by the law. For this they were accused, and judicially prose-
cuted. Pelopidas pusillanimously sunk under the charge; but
Epaminondas appeared before his judges with the same tran-
quility as at the head of his army, and thus addressed them;
“The law condemns me, I merit death, I only demand that this
inscription be engraven on my tomb. ‘The Thebans have put
Epaminondas to death, because at Leuctra he forced them to
attack and vanquish those Lacedaemonians, whom they did not




VERSAL BIOGRAPHY. [B.C. 430.
before dare to look in the face; because his victory saved his
country, and restored liberty to Greece; because under his
command the Thebans besieged Lacedaemon, which deemed
herself too fortunate to escape from ruin; and because he re-
built Messene, and surrounded it with strong walls.’” The
people present applauded this speech, and they did not dare to
condemn Epaminondas. In the next year Epaminondas march-
ed again into Peloponnesus to aid the Arcadians against the
Spartans; and having taken some towns and laid waste the
country, he marched to Corinth which was successfully defend-
ed against him. Upon his return, so uncertain is popular fa-
vour, he was deprived of his command, and reduced to the
condition of a private citizen. After some time, an army being
sent to rescue Pelopidas, who had been seized and imprisoned
by the tyrant Alexander, the Pheraean, Epaminondas served
in it as a private soldier, and in that humble rank preserved the
army from being utterly destroyed. His fellow-citizens rein-
stated him in his command, and sent him with fresh forces to
recover his friend, whose life was supposed to be in imminent
danger. Alexander was so intimidated that he acquiesced in a
cessation of arms, on condition of releasing Pelopidas and amo-
ther deputy. Thebes had now arrived at such a degree of im-
portance among the Grecian states, as to be preferred to Sparta
and Athens by the Persians, who, therefore, wished to enter
into a treaty with the Thebans. Pelopidas concluded the
treaty, though the Theban allies demurred against it. Epa-
minondas was therefore deputed with an army to force the
Achaeans to continue the alliance; and in this business he suc-
ceeded, and a general peace soon followed. Epaminondas
wished to render his country as powerful by sea as it was by
land, and with this view he was deputed to negociate with the
Rhodians, Chians, and other maritime people. The Thebans
were still pursuing their ambitious designs, and Epaminondas
marched a powerful army into Peloponnesus; but, as a confe-
deracy was formed against the Thebans, the troops of which
assembled at Mantinea, Epaminondas apprehending that
Sparta would be left defenceless, made a sudden march in
order to surprise it. But Agesilaus was ready to receive him.
Informed by a deserter of Epaminondas's march, he returned
home with extraordinary celerity, and placed his soldiers in the
most important stations. The Theban general ordered several
attacks. He had penetrated to the forum, and made himself
master of one part of the city, when Agesilaus, then near
eighty years of age, listening only to the dictates of despair,
rushed into the midst of danger, and seconded by the brave
Archilamus his son, repulsed the enemy and compelled them
ire, Epaminondas was not molested in his retreat, but
was become necessary, that the failure of his enter.










B.C. 430.] FROM ARTAxERxes I. To PHILIP II.
prise might be forgotten. He therefore marched suddenly to
Mantinea, expecting to find it unguarded, but here he was disap-
pointed. He determined, however, to risk a battle for the pur-
pose of retrieving his honour. The army of the Lacedaemo-
nians and their allies consisted of more than twenty thousand
foot, and nearly two thousand horse; the army of the Theban
league of thirty thousand infantry, and about three thousand
cavalry; never did Epaminondas display greater abilities than
on the present occasion, so that the enemy, dismayed at his ap-
pearance, betook to flight. But while he was pursuing them
with great ardour, they suddenly rallied, and poured upon him a
shower of darts. At length one of the enemy pierced his breast
with a javelin, the point of which was left in his body. When
he was carried off the ground to his tent, and had recovered
his speech, his first question was, what was become of his shield?
when it was brought him, he kissed it as the instrument of his
labours and his glory. He then inquired concerning the event
of the battle; and being informed that the Thebans were vic-
torious, he said, “It is well, I have lived long enough;” or, as
others report his declaration, “I die unconquered. Advise the
Thebans to conclude a peace.” The javelin being then ex-
tracted, he expired B. C. 363. Epaminondas was never mar-
ried; and he seems to have regarded celibacy as most favour-
able to his philosophical pursuits in private life, and to his
active services in a public station. On the plain where he fell,
two monuments were raised to him, viz. a trophy and a tomb.
Epaminondas is represented by Cicero as one of the greatest
men that any age or nation ever produced, and why, it is said,
should we not grant this honourable distinction to the general
who perfected the art of war, who eclipsed the glory of the
most renowned commanders, and who was never vanquished
but by fortune; to the statesman, who gave to Thebes a supe-
riority she had never possessed, and which she lost immediately
j." his death; to the negociator who, in the general assem-
blies and congresses of Greece, always maintained a superiority
over the other Grecian deputies, and found means to retain in
the alliance of Thebes, his country, even the states who were
jealous of the growth of this new power; to the man who
equalled in eloquence the greater part of the Athenian orators,
was no less devoted to his country than Leonidas, and perhaps
more just even than Aristides?
DIONYSIUS I., or the Elder, king, or tyrant, of Syracuse,
was the son of Hermocrates. He signalised himself in the
was which the Syracusans carried against the Carthaginians;
and taking advantage of the power lodged in his hands, he
made himself absolute at Syracuse. To strengthen himself in
his usurpation, and acquire popularity, he encreased the pay of
the soldiers, and recalled those that had been banished. He






vowed etermal enmity against Carthage, and experienced
various success in his wars against that republic. He was
ambitious of being born a poet, and his brother Theodorus was
commissioned to go to Olympia, and repeat there some verses
in his name, with other competitors, for the poetical prizes.
His expectations were frustrated, and his poetry was received
with groans and hisses. He was not, however, so unsuccessful
at Athens, where a poetical prize was publicly adjudged to one
of his compositions. This victory gave him more pleasure
than all the victories he had ever obtained in the field of battle.
His tyranny and cruelty at home rendered him odious in the
eyes of his subjects, and he became so suspicious that he never
admitted his wife or children to his private apartments without
a previous examination of their garments. He never trusted
his head to a barber, but always burnt his beard. He made
a subterraneous cave in a rock, said to be still extant, in the
form of a human ear, which measured eighty feet in height and
two hundred and fifty feet in length. It was called the ear of
Dionysius. The sounds of this subterraneous cavern were all
necessarily directed to one common tympanum, which had a
communication with an º room where Dionysius spent
the greater part of his time to hear whatever was said by
those whom his suspicion and cruelty had confined in the apart-
ments above. The artists that had been employed in making
this cave were all put to death by order of that tyrant, for fear
of their revealing to what purposes a work of such uncommon
construction was to be appropriated. His impiety and sacri-
lege were as conspicuous as his suspicious credulity. He took
a golden mantle from the statue of Jupiter, observing that the
son of Saturn had too warm a covering for the summer, and
too cold for the winter, and he placed on it one of wool instead.
He also robbed AEsculapius of * .
-------> is golden beard, and plundered
the temple of Proserpine. He died of an indigestion in the
sixty-third year of his age, B. C. 368, after a reign of thirty-
eight years. Authors, however, are divided about the manner
of his death, and some are of opinion that he died a violent
death. Some suppose that this tyrant invented the catapulta,
an engine which proved of great service for the discharging
of showers of darts and stones in the time of a siege.
DAMOCLES, one of the flatterers of Dionysius the Elder
of Sicily. He admired the tyrant's wealth, and pronounced
him the happiest man on earth. Dionysius prevailed upon him
io undertake for a while the charge of royalty, and be con-
º
vinced of the happiness which a sovereign enjoyed. Damocles
ascended the throne, and while he gazed upon the wealth and
splendour that surrounded him, he perceived a sword hanging
r his head by a single horse hair. This so terrified #:
hat all his imaginary felici ished at once, and he begged





































B. c. 401.j FROM ARTAXE
RXES 1. To PHILIP II.
n from a situation which exposed his life
Dionysius to remove him
to such fears and dangers.
DIONYSIUS II., sirnamed the Younger, was the son of
Dionysius the First, by Doris. He succeeded his father as
tyrant of Sicily, and by the advice of Dion, his brother-in-law,
he invited the philosopher Plato to his court, under whom he
studied for a while. The philosopher advised him to lay aside
the supreme power, and in his admonitions he was warmly
seconded by Dion. Dionysius refused to consent, and soon
after Plato was seized and publicly sold as a slave. Dion like-
wise, on account of his great popularity, was severely abused
and insulted in his family, and his wife given in marriage to
another. Such a violent behaviour was highly resented;
Dion, who was banished, collected some forces in Greece, and
in three days rendered himself master of Syracuse, and expelled
the tyrant, B. C. 357. Dionysius retired to Locri, where he
behaved with the greatest oppression, and was ejected by the
citizens. He recovered Syracuse ten years after his expulsion,
but his triumph was short, and the Corinthians, under the
conduct of Timoleon, obliged him to abandon the city. H
fled to Corinth, where, to support him, he kept a school, as
Cicero observes, that he might still continue to be tyrant; and
as he could not command over men, that he might still exercise
his power over boys. It is said that he died from an excess of
joy when he heard that a tragedy of his own composition had
been rewarded with a poetical prize. Dionysius was as cruel
as his father; but he did not, like him, possess the art of re-
taining his power. This was seen and remarked by the old
man, who, when he saw his son attempting to debauch the
wives of some of his subjects, asked him with the greatest in-
dignation, whether he had ever heard of his having acted so
brutal a part in his younger days? “No,” answered the son,
“ because you were not the son of a king.” “Well, my son,”
replied the old man, “never shalt thou be the father of a king.”
DION, the son of Hipparinus, a Syracusan, famous for his
power and abilities. He was related to Dionysius, and often
joined with the philosopher Plato, who, at his request, had
come to reside at the tyrant's court, in advising him to lay aside
the supreme power. #. great popularity rendered him odious
in the eyes of the tyrants, who banished him to Greece.
There he collected a numerous force, and resolved to free his
cºuntry from tyranny. This he easily effected on account of
his uncommon popularity. He entered the port of Syracuse
only with two ships; and in three days reduced under his power
an empire which had already subsisted for fifty years, and
which was guarded by five hundredships of war, and above one
hundred thousand troops. The tyrant fled to Corinth, and
Pion kept the power in his own hands, fearful of the aspirin
*



















UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. [B.C.404.
ambition of some of the friends of Dionysius; but he was
shamefully betrayed, and murdered by one of his familiar
friends called Callicrates, or Calippus, B. C. 354. §
ICETAS, a man who .." the supreme power at Sy-
racuse after the death of Dion. He attempted to assassinate
Timoleon, for which he was conquered, &c. B. C. 340.
TIMOLEON, a celebrated Corinthian general, who re-
stored the Syracusans to their liberty, and drove the Cartha-
ginians out of Sicily. The tyrant Dionysius II. submitted to
the conquering arms of Timoleon, who sent him to Corinth,
where at last he was reduced to the necessity of teaching a
school for his support. After the expulsion of the tyrant,
Timoleon withdrew to Catanea, leaving only four hundred Co-
rinthians, under the command of an experienced officer, named
Leon, to guard the citadel. These were immediately besieged
by Icetas and the Carthaginians, but Timoleon relieved them
in spite of all opposition; and having dispersed emissaries
through the army of Mago, the Carthaginian general, exhort-
ing the mercenary Greeks to forsake him, he was so much in-
timidated, that in spite of all the remonstrances Icetas could
make, he set sail for Africa, leaving his colleague to carry on
the war in the best manner he could. The day after the de-
parture of Mago, Timoleon assaulted the city so briskly, that
the troops of Icetas were driven from the walls, and the Co-
rinthians became master of the place. Timoleon invited the
inhabitants to assist in demolishing the citadel and other
castles, which he called nests of tyrants; after which he caused
edifices to be erected in the same place where the citadel had
stood, for the administration of justice. He found the city in
a most miserable situation, and almost a desert. He supplied
the city with inhabitants from Corinth and other cities of
Greece, and distributed the lands among them gratis; but sold
the houses, and, with the money arising from the sale, esta-
blished a fund for the support of the poor. Having thus
restored Syracuse, he in like manner delivered all the Greek
cities of Sicily from the tyrants who had taken possession of
them, all of whom he put to death. . After this he resigned
his authority, and led a retired life, honoured in the highest
degree by the Syracusans, and by all the cities in Sicily.
After his death he was honoured as a god. &
MAGO, a Carthaginian general, sent against Dionysius
tyrant of Sicily. He obtained a victory, and granted peace
to the conquered. In a battle, which soon followed the treaty
f peace, Mago was killed. His son, of the same name, suc-
ceeded to the command of the Carthaginian army, but he
disgraced himself by flying at the approach of Timoleon, who
had come to assist the Syracusans. He was accused in the
Carthaginian senate, and he prevented by suicide the execution













B. c. 404.] FROM ARTAXERXES 1. To PHILIP II. 349
of the sentence justly pronounced against him. His body was
hung on a gibbet, and exposed to public ignominy.
M fºß, a tyrant of Catanea, who surrendered to
Timoleon. His attempts to speak in a public assembly at
Syracuse were received with groans and hisses, upon which he
dashed his head against a wall, and endeavoured to destroy
himself. The blows were not fatal, and Mamercus was soon
after put to death as a robber, B.C. 340.
HERMOCRATES, a general of Syracuse, against Nicias
the Athenian. His lenity towards the Athenian prisoners was
looked upon as treacherous. He was banished from Sicily
without even a trial, and he was murdered as he attempted to
return back to his country, B. C. 408. .
PHARACYDES, a commander of the Spartan fleet,
who assisted Dionysius, tyrant of Syracuse, against the Car-
thaginians. …
CHARONDAS, a celebrated legislator of the Thurians,
and native of Catanea in Sicily, flourished B. C. 446. He
forbad any person's appearing armed in the public assemblies
of the nation; but one day going thither in haste, without
thinking of his sword, he was no sooner made to observe his
mistake than he ran it through his body.
EVAGORAS I., king of Cyprus, recovered Salamis from
the Persians, but afterwards he was defeated and deprived
of the greater part of his territories. He was assassinated
B. C. 374. 2:
NECTANEBUS I., a king of Egypt, who defended his
country against the Persians, and was succeeded by Tachos,
B. C. 363. : < . . . . . . ; ź
TACHOS, or TACHUS, a king of Egypt, in the reign of
Artaxerxes Ochus, against whom he sustained a long war.
He was assisted by the Greeks, but his confidence in Age-
silaus, king of Lacedaemon, proved fatal to him. Chabrias,
the Athenian, had been entrusted with the fleet of the Egyp-
tian monarch, and Agesilaus was left with the commandſ of
the mercenary army. The Lacedaemonian disregarded his
engagements, and by joining with Nectanebus, who had re-
volted from Tachus, he ruined the affairs of the monarch, and
obliged him to save his life by flight. Some observe that
Agesilaus acted with that duplicity to avenge himself upon
Tachus, who had insolently ridiculed his short and deformed
stature. The expectations of Tachus had been raised by the
fame of Agesilaus; but when he saw the lame monarch, he
repeated on the occasion the fable of the mountain which
brought fºrth a mouse, upon which Agesilaus replied with
asperity, that though he called him a mouse, yet he soon should
find him to be a lion.




º
ome at this period.
perionº of Rom
º
º
ICCIUS DENTATUS, a hero of ancient Rome, of the
plebeian order, but of uncommon merit, who flourished about
en disputes ran high between the patricians
and plebeians, about the Agrarian law, Dentatus, loaded with
glory, and advanced in years, but still exhibiting an admirable
person, set off with all the dignity of a military veteran, ad-
d the people, and expatiated upon his achievements and
his hardships. He had served his country in the wars forty
years; he had been an officer thirty; first a centurion, and then
a tribune; he had fought in one hundred and twenty battles,
and by the force of his single arm had saved the lives of a mul-
titude of his fellow-citizens. He had gained fourteen civic,
five mural, and eight golden crowns; besides eighty-three
chains, sixty bracelets, eighteen gilt spears, and twenty-three
horse trappings, whereof nine were for killing the enemy in
single combat; and he had received forty-five wounds, all be-
fore, mone behind. These were his honours; yet notwith-
standing all this, he had never received any share of those
lands which were won from the enemy; but continued to drag
on a life of poverty and contempt, while others possessed
those very territories which his valour had won, without any
merit to deserve them, or having contributed to the conquest.
Dentatus's speech, and the hardship of his case, had a strong
effect. The people unanimously demanded that the law might
be passed, and that such high merit should not pass unreward-
ed. Some of the senators attempted to speak, but were over-
powered by the cries of the people. At last a number of re-
olute young patricians rushing furiously among the crowd,
broke the balloting urns, and dispersed the multitude. For
this riot they were fined by the tribunes, but gained their ob-
ject for the time, by getting the Agrarian law postponed. Such
was the justice of the Roman patricians, at one of the most
as periods of that celebrated republic; for it was the age
ºf Cincinnatus himself. .
APPIUS CLAUDIUS, son of Appius Claudius, was chosen
consul B. C. 471, soon after which a war broke out between
Rome and the AEqui and Volsci. Claudius marched against
iter, but his troops threw down their arms and fled; on
he la < 3. *- : 3.






































B, C, 500.] FROM ARTAXERXES I. To Philip II.
x entury of the
republic. He was of the patrician family of the Quinctii; and
though so poor as to cultivate a small farm with his own hands,
he passed through the principal dignities of the state, which he
was thrice the means of saving. On the first of these occa-
sions, the dispute between the senate and the people of Rome
had run to such a height about the Agrarian law, that they
were on the point of coming to an open rupture, when Cincin-
natus, being elected dictator, and taken from his plough, by
his wise counsels and prudent management healed their diffe-
rences, and prevented that worst of calamities, a civil war.
Some time after this, when the consul Minucius, with the
whole Roman army, were surrounded, and in danger of being
cut off by the combined armies of the AEqui and Volsci, he
was called forth a second time to be dictator; he conquered the
enemies of Rome, and, refusing all rewards, retired again to
his farm, after he had been dictator only fifteen days. “He
returned to his oxen,” says Florus, “a triumphal husbandman,
having finished a war within fifteen days, as if he had been in
haste to resume his interrupted labours.” This, though the
most brilliant, was not the last service rendered by Cincinnatus
to his country. Twenty years afterwards, on the discovery of
the plot formed by Sp. Maelius, for the subversion of the con-
stitution, no resource against the danger was thought equal to
that of creating Cincinnatus a third time dictator. He was
them upwards of fourscore, and would gladly have excused
himself from undertaking so arduous an office. Being at last
persuaded to .."; he appointed Servilius Ahala his master
of the horse, and placed guards in the several quarters of the
city, to the surprise of those who were not apprised of the con-
spiracy. Then, seating himself on the tribunal in the forum,
he summoned Maelius to appear before him. Conscious of his
guilt, or, at least, of his danger, Maelius attempted to make his
escape, when he was pursued, and killed on the spot by Ser-
vilius. Cincinnatus applauded the action; and dºing an as-
sembly of the people, acquainted them with the existence and
proofs of the conspiracy, and quieted their minds by distribut-
ing, among them, at a low price, the vast magazines of corn
which Maelius had formed in his house.
# SERVILIUS AHALA, a celebrated Roman, whom the
dictator Cincinnatus appointed his master of horse, and who
slew Maelius, for refusing to obey the dictator's summons. For
this he was banished; but was soon recalled, and was after-
wards raised to the dictatorship. ź
APPIUS CLAUDIUS, the decemvir, said by some to have
been the son of Appius Claudius, the consul. He was the
first person elected to the office of decemvir, in which, for a
considerable time, he behaved with reputation. Falling in love
Roman, flourished in the latter part of the third c








UNIVERSAL Biography. [B. c. 470.
ginia, daughter of Virginius, an officer in the army
employed against the AEqui, he endeavoured, by every base
means in his power, to prevail over her virtue; but being com-
stantly ... he had recourse to an extraordinary expedient,
which proved his ruin. See Virginia. .
VIRGINIA, this lovely and ill-fated young woman, has
afforded a subject for the artist's pencil, and the dramatist's
pen; and it is impossible even to peruse a sketch of her event-
ful history with feelings unaffected, or a heart unmoved.
Young, beautiful, artless, and unsuspecting, her charms ex-
cited an illicit passion in the breast of the most depraved of
mankind, who, finding it impossible to corrupt her innocence,
had recourse to violence, stratagem, and falsehood. Appius
Claudius, the Roman decemvir, was the wretch who resolved
to get this too-captivating female into his power; and to ac-
complish this purpose, invented a train of iniquitous falsehoods,
no less improbable than untrue. When depravity and wealth
happen to be united, there is little difficulty in finding agents
ready to accomplish any scheme. Claudius imparted his
wishes to one of his abandoned favourites, who . COn-
sented to aid his design. It was agreed between them, that
this pander to the most depraved of appetites, should declare
that the young Virginia was the daughter of one of his slaves,
and that she had merely been placed under the care of her
father, Virginius, until her master thought proper to make his
claim. Though evidence was brought to prove this story was a
mere fabrication, and though some of Virginius's neighbours
recollected a variety of circumstances respecting her birth, yet
this agent of iniquity contradicted them, by bringing other evi-
dence to prove the unfortunate girl was the child of his slave.
Appius Claudius, who, from his high station, filled the office of
judge upon this trial, decreed the ...i Virginia to be the
property of his friend. But how dreadful must have been the
feelings of a father, who, in this decision, foresaw the ruin of
the lovely being to whom he had given birth. Horror and
despair agitated his tortured bosom; but disguising the an-
guish of i. sensations, he implored permission to take leave
of his child, when, drawing her aside from the wretches by
whom she was surrounded, he plunged a knife into her bosom,
while she was hanging round his neck; and, with the spirit of
Roman father, preferring rather to see her dead than dis-
graced. The soldiers and people, incensed against the mon-
ster who had, by the depravity of his conduct, urged this san-
guinary catastrophe, instantly dragged him from the seat of
justice, and an end was soon after put to the decemviral power.
The ill-fated Virginia lost her life about B.C. 450.
BRENNUS, a celebrated captain among the Gauls, who,
out B.C. 381, entered Italy with a powerful army; there de-
º








B.C. 466.] FROM ARTAXERXES I. TO PHILIP II. 353
feated the Romans, and sacked Rome. The capital alone was
defended; and Camillus coming to its relief, drove the Gauls,
not only out of Rome, but out of all Italy. º
VALERIUS CORVINUS, a tribune of the soldiers under
Camillus. When the Roman army were challenged by one of
the Senones, remarkable for his strength and stature, Valerius
undertook to engage him, and obtained an easy victory, by
means of a crow that assisted him, and attacked the face of the
Gaul, whence his sirname of Corvinus. Valerius triumphed
over the Etrurians, and the neighbouring states that made
war against Rome, and was six times honoured with the con-
sulship. He died in the hundredth year of his age, admired
and regretted for many private and public virtues. .
MARCUS FURIUS CAMILLUS, an illustrious hero of
the Roman republic. He triumphed four times, was five times
dictator, and was justly honoured with the title of the second
founder of Rome. He was, indeed, a true patriot. Lucius
Apuleius, one of the tribunes, prosecuted him, to make him
give an account of the spoils taken at Veii. Camillus antici-
pated judgment, and banished himself voluntarily. During his
banishment, the Gauls sacked Rome; but instead of rejoicing
at the punishment of his ungrateful countrymen, he exerted all
his wisdom and bravery to drive away the enemy; and yet
kept, with the utmost strictness, the law of Rome, in refusing
to accept the commands, which several private persons offered
him. The Romans, who were besieged in the capital, created
him dictator, in which office he acted with so much bravery
and conduct, that he entirely drove the Gauls out of the
territories of the commonwealth. He died B. C. 385, aged
eighty-one. x . N. . . . .”
PHILOTIS, a servant-maid at Rome, who saved her coun-
trymen from destruction. After the siege of Rome by the
Gauls, the Fidenates assembled an army, and marched against
the capital, demanding all the wives and daughters in the city,
as the only conditions of peace. The demand astonished the
senators; and when they refused to comply, Philotis advised
them to send all their female slaves, disguised in matron's
clothes; and she offered to march herself at their head. The
advice was followed; and when the Fidenates had feasted late
º, the evening, and were quite intoxicated, and fallen asleep,
Philotis lighted a torch, as a signal for her countrymen to at
tack the enemy. The whole was successful; the Fidenates
were conquered; and the senate, to reward the fidelity of the
female slaves, permitted them to appear in the dress of the
, PHILAENI, two brothers, citizens of Carthage, who sacri-
feed their lives for the good of their country. When the Car-
º ruled over the greater part of Africa, the Cyrenians


tºni VERSAL biography. [B. C. 496.
were also a great and wealthy people. The country between
them was sandy, and of a uniform appearance. There was
neither river nor mountain to distinguish their limits, which en-
gaged the two nations in terrible and tedious wars. At last
they agreed, “that, upon a day appointed, deputies should set
out from their respective homes, and the place where they met
he another should be accounted the common boundary of both
nations.” Accordingly, the Philaeni, sent from Carthage, made
despatch to perform their journey. The Cyrenians pro-
seded more slowly. These last, perceiving themselves be-
mind, charged the Carthaginians with setting out before the
ime, and made a mighty bustle upon it. The Carthaginians then
desired any other terms; on which the Cyrenians made this
proposal to the Carthaginians; “either to be buried alive in
the boundary which they claimed as the boundary to their na-
tion, or that they would advance forward to what place they
inclined, on the same condition.” The Philaeni accepting of this
offer, made a sacrifice of their lives to their country, and were
buried alive. These altars, called Arae Philaenorum, served
as a boundary to the empire of the Carthaginians, which
extended from this monument to Hercules's Pillars, which is
about 2,000 miles, or, according to the accurate observations of
the moderns, 1,420 geographicăl miles.
PHILOSOPHY.
ANAXAGORAS, a celebrated philosopher among the an-
cients. He was born in Ionia about the seventieth Olympiad,
became the disciple of Anaximenes, and was afterwards lec-
turer himself at Athens. In this city he was cruelly persecut-
ed, and at length banished. He went to Lampsacus, where he
was greatly honoured during his life, and still more respected
after his death. Statues have been erected to his memory.
Anaxagoras was a mathematician, and wrote, during his im-
prisonment at Athens, upon the quadrature of the circle. As a
philosopher, he introduced some important innovations, as they
were then called, but which redounded much to his honour; he
maintained, in opposition to the common systems of a plurality
of gods, that an infinite mind is the author of all motion and
life. Plato asserts, that Anaxagoras taught that “mind was
the cause of the world, and of all order,” and that “.. while all
º
#
lse are compounded, this alone is pure and unmixed
he ascribes to this principle two powers, viz. to know and to
Testimonies to this purpose in favour of Anaxagoras
us; Plutarch speaking of the Ionian philosophers
ed before this great man, says, that they made for-
3.
time, or blind necessity, the first principle in nature; but


























B, C, 468.] FROM ARTAXERXES 1. TO PHILIP II. 355
Anaxagoras affirmed, that a pure mind governs the universe.
By Diogenes Laertius he is represented as the first person
“who superadded mind to matter.” He died B. C. 428, and
throughout his life he supported the character of a true philo-
sopher. Superior to the motives of avarice and ambition, he
resigned in early life a patrimony that would have secured him
distinction and independence, in order that he might give him-
self wholly up to the pursuits of science, and in the midst of the
vicissitudes of fortune, preserved an equal mind. Being asked
just before his death, if he wished to be carried for interment
to his native city, he replied, “it is unnecessary, the way to
the regions below is every where alike open;” and in answer to a
message sent him at the same time by the senate of Lampsacus,
requesting to be informed in what manner they might honour
his memory after his decease, he said, “By ordaining the day
of my death to be annually kept as a holiday in all the schools
of Lampsacus.” This request was complied with, and a fes-
tival called Anaxagoria was instituted on the occasion. .
SOCRATES, the greatest, the wisest, and the best, of the
ancient philosophers, was born at Alopece, a village near
Athens, B.C. 468. His parents were of low rank; his father
Sophromiscus being a statuary, and his mother Phaenarate a
midwife. Sophroniscus brought up his son, contrary to his in-
clination, in his own manual employment; in which Socrates,
though his mind was continually aspiring after higher objects,
was not unsuccessful, for he formed statues of the Graces, which
were allowed a place in the citadel of Athens. Upon the death
of his father he was left in such straightened circumstances as
laid him under the necessity of exercising that art to procure
the means of subsistence, though he devoted, at the same time,
all the leisure which he could command to the study of philo-
sophy. His distress, however, was soon relieved by Crito, a
wealthy Athenian ; who, remarking his strong propensity to
study, and admiring his distinguished abilities, generously took
him under his patronage, and entrusted him with the instruc-
tion of his children. The opportunities which Socrates thus
enjoyed of attending the public lectures of the most eminent
philosophers, so far increased his thirst after wisdom, that he
determined to relinquish his occupation, and every prospect of
emolument which that might afford, to devote himself entirely
to his favourite pursuits. Under Anaxagoras and Archelaus he
prosecuted the studies of nature in the usual manner of the phi-
lºsophers of the age, and became well acquainted with their
doctrines. Prodicus the sophist was his preceptor in eloquence,
Evenus in poetry, Theodorus in geometry, and Damo in music.
Aspasia, a woman no less celebrated for her intellectual than
her personal accomplishments, whose house was frequented by
the most celebrated characters, had also some share in the edu.
3. A a 2 ,






35 5.
UNIVERSAL Biography. [B. C. 468.
cation of Socrates. Under such preceptors he became master
of every kind of learning which the age could afford; and being
blessed with very uncommon talents, he appeared under the
respectable characters of a good citizen and a true philosopher.
Being called upon by his countrymen to take arms in the long
and severe struggle between Athens and Sparta, he signalized
himself at the seige of Potidoea, both by his valour and by the
hardiness with which he endured fatigue. During the severity
of a Thracian winter, whilst others were clad in furs, he wore
only his usual clothing, and walked barefoot upon the ice. In
an engagement in which he saw Alcibiades falling down wound-
ed, he advanced to defend him, and saved both him and his
arms; and though the praise of valour was on this occasion
unquestionably due to Socrates, he generously gave his vote
that it might be bestowed upon Alcibiades, to encourage his
rising merit. He served in other campaigns with distinguished
bravery, on one occasion saved the life of Xenophon by bearing
him, when covered with wounds, out of the reach of the enemy.
It was not till Socrates was upwards of sixty years of age that
he undertook to serve his country in any civil office, when he
was chosen to represent his own district in the senate of five
hundred. In this office, though he first exposed himself to
some ridicule from the want of experience in the forms of busi-
ness, he soon convinced his colleagues that he was superior to
them all in wisdom and integrity. While they, intimidated by
the clamours of the populace, passed an unjust sentence of con-
demnation upon the commanders, who, after the engagement at
the Arginusian Islands, had been prevented by a storm from
paying funeral honours to the dead, Socrates stood forth singly
in their defence, and to the last refused to give his suffrage
against them, declaring that no force should compel him to act
contrary to justice and the laws. Under the subsequent ty-
ranny he never ceased to condemn the oppressive and cruel
proceedings of the thirty tyrants; and when his boldness pro-
voked their resentment, so that his life was in hazard, fearing
neither treachery nor violence, he still continued to support
with undaunted firmness the rights of his fellow citizens.
Having given these proofs of public virtue, both in the military
and civil capacity, he wished to do still more for his country.
Observing with regret how much the opinions of the Athenian
youth were misled, and their principles and taste corrupted by
philosophers, who spent all their time in refined speculations
upon nature, and the origin of things, and by sophists who
taught in their schools the arts of false eloquence and deceitful
reasoning; Socrates formed the wise and generous design of
instituting a new and more useful method of instruction. He
justly conceived the true end of philosophy to be, not to make
an ostentatious display of superior learning and ability in subtle







B, C, 468.] FROM ARTAXERXES I. TO PHILIP II. 357
disputations or ingenious conjectures, but to free mankind from
the dominion of permicious prejudices; to correct their vices;
to inspire them with the love of virtue; and thus conduct them
in the path of wisdom to true felicity. He therefore assumed
the character of a moral philosopher; and, looking upon the
whole city of Athens as his school, and all who were disposed
to lend him their attention as his pupils, he seized every occa-
sion of communicating moral wisdom to his fellow-citizens. He
passed the greater part of his time in public; and the method
of instruction of which he made use of was, to propose a series
of questions to the person with whom he conversed to lead him
to some unforeseen conclusion. He first gained the consent of
his respondent to some obvious truths, and then obliged him to
admit others from their relation or resemblance to those to
which he had already assented. Without making use of any
direct argument or persuasion, he chose to lead the person he
meant to instruct, to deduce the truths of which he wished to
convince him, as a necessary consequence from his own conces-
sions. He commonly conducted these conferences with such
address, as to conceal his design till the respondent had ad-
vanced too far to recede. On some occasions he made use of
ironical language, that vain men might be caught in their own
replies, and be obliged to confess their ignorance. He never
assumed the air of a morose and rigid preceptor, but commu-
nicated useful instruction with all the ease and pleasantry of
º conversation. Though eminently furnished with every
kind of learning, he preferred moral to speculative wisdom.
Convinced that philosophy is valuable, not as it furnishes ques-
tions for the schools, but as it provides men with a law of life,
he censured his predecessors for spending all their time in
abstruse researches into nature, and taking no pains to ren-
der themselves useful to mankind. His favourite maxim was,
“Whatever is above us doth not concern us.” He estimated
the value of knowledge by its utility, and recommended the
study of geometry, astronomy, and other sciences, only so far
as they admit of a practical application to the purposes of hu-
man life. His great object was to lead men into an acquaint-
ance with themselves; to convince them of their follies and
vices; to inspire them with the love of virtue; and to fur-
mish them with useful and moral instructions. Through his
whole life this good man discovered a mind superior to the at-
tractions of wealth and power. Contrary to the general practice
of the preceptors of his time, he instructed his pupils without
receiving from them any gratuity. He frequently refused rich
presents, which were offered him by Alcibiades and others,
thºugh importunately urged to accept them by his wife. The
chief men of Athens were his stewards; they sent him in pro-
visions as they apprehended he wanted them; he took what

358 UNIVERSAL BlogHAPHY. - [B. C. 468.
*,
his present wants required, and returned the rest. Observing
the numerous articles of luxury which were exposed to sale in
Athens, he exclaimed, “How many things are there which I
do not want!" With Socrates, moderation supplied the place
of wealth. In his cloathing and food he consulted only the
demands of nature. He commonly appeared in a meat but
plain cloak, with his feet uncovered. Though his table was
only supplied with simple fare, he did not scruple to invite men
of superior rank to partake of his meals; and when his wife,
upon some such occasion, expressed her dissatisfaction on be-
ing no better provided, he desired her to give herself no con-
cern; for if his guests were wise men, they would be contented
with whatever they found at his table; if otherwise, they were
unworthy of notice. Though Socrates was exceedingly unfor-
tunate in his domestic connection, he converted this infelicity
into an occasion of exercising his virtues. Xantippe, concern-
ing whose ill-humour ancient writers relate many amusing tales,
was certainly a woman of high and unmanageable spirit. But
Socrates, while he endeavoured to curb the violence of her
temper, improved his own. . When Alcibiades expressed his
surprise that his friend could bear to live in the same house
with so perverse and quarrelsome a companion, Socrates re-
plied, that being daily inured to ill-humour at home, he was
better prepared to encounter perverseness and injury abroad.
In the midst of domestic vexations and public disorders, So-
crates retained such unruffled serenity, that he was never seen
either to leave his own house, or to return home with a dis-
turbed countenance. In acquiring this entire dominion over his
passions and appetites he had the greater merit, as it was not
effected without a violent struggle against his natural propensi-
ties. Zopyrus, an eminent physiognomist, declared, that he
discovered in the features of the philosopher evident traces of
many vicious inclinations. The friends of Socrates who were
present ridiculed his ignorance. But Socrates acknowledged
his penetration, and confessed that he was in his natural dispo-
sition prone to vice, but he had subdued his inclinations by rea-
son and philosophy. Through the whole of his life, Socrates
gave himself up to the guidance of unbiassed reason, which is
supposed by some, to be all that he meant by the genius or
daemon from whom he professed to receive instruction. But
this opinion is inconsistent with the accounts given by his fol-
lowers of that daemon, and the language in which he spoke of it
himself. Plato sometimes calls it guardian, and Apuleius his
god; and as Xenophon attests that the gods occasionally com-
municate to men the knowledge of future events, it is probable
Socrates admitted, with the generality of his countrymen,
he existence of those intermediate beings called daemons, of
one of which he might fancy himself the peculiar care. Con-
º, *:















B.C. 468.] From ARTAxerxes I. to Philip II.
vinced of the weakness of the human understanding, and per-
ceiving that the pride of philosophy had led his predecessors
into futile speculations on the nature and origin of things, he
judged it most consistent with true wisdom to speak with
caution and reverence concerning the Divine Nature. The
wisdom and the virtues of this great man, while they procured
him many followers, created him also many enemies. The so-
phists whose knavery and ignorance he took every opportunity
of exposing to public contempt, became inveterate in their
enmity against so bold a reformer, and devised an expedient,
by which they hoped to check the current of his popularity.
They engaged Aristophanes, the buffoon of the age, to write a
comedy, in which Socrates should be the principal character.
Aristophanes, pleased with so promising an occasion of display-
ing his low and malignant wit, undertook the task, and pro-
duced the comedy of “ The Clouds,” still extant in his works.
In this piece, Socrates is introduced hanging in a basket in the
air, and thence pouring forth absurdity and profaneness.
But the philosopher, showing, in a crowded theatre, that he was
wholly unmoved by this ribaldry, the satire failed of its effect;
and when Aristophanes attempted the year following to renew
the piece with alterations and additions, the representation was
so much discouraged, that he was obliged to discontinue it.
From this time Socrates continued for many years to pursue
without interruption his laudable design of instructing and re-
forming his fellow citizens. At length, however, when the in-
flexible integrity with which he had discharged the duty of a
senator, and the firmness with which he had opposed every
kind of political corruption and oppression, had greatly in-
creased the number of his enemies, clandestine arts were em-
ployed to raise a general prejudice against him. The people
were industriously reminded that Critias, who had been one of
the most cruel of the thirty tyrants, and Alcibiades who had
insulted religion by defacing the public statues of Mercury,
and performing a mock representation of the Eleusinian mys-
teries, had in their youth been disciples of Socrates; and the
minds of the populace being thus prepared, a direct accusation
was preferred against him before the supreme court of judica-
ture. His accusers were Anytus aleather dresser, who had long
entertained a personal enmity against Socrates for reprehend-
ing his avarice, in depriving his sons of the benefits of learning
that they might pursue the gains of trade; Melitus a young
rhetorician, who was capable of undertaking anything for the
sake of gain; and Lycon, who was glad of any opportunity.
displaying his talents. The accusation, which was deli º
to the senate under the name of Melitus was this; “Melitus,
son of Melitus, of the tribe of Pythos, accuseth Socrate
of Sophronicus, of the tribe of Alopece. Socrates violates the
laws in not acknowledging the gods which the state acknow-


















UNIVE
RSAL BIOGRAPHY. [B. c. 468.
ledges, and by º divinities. He also violates the
law by corupting the youth. Be his punishment death.” This
charge was delivered upon oath to the senate; and Crito, a
'riend of Socrates, became surety for his appearance on the day
of his trial. Anytus soon afterwards sent a private message to
Socrates, assuring him, that if he would desist from censuring
his conduct, he would withdraw his accusation. But Socrates
refused to comply with so degrading a condition, and with his
usual spirit replied, “While I live I will never disguise the
truth, nor speak otherwise than my duty requires.” The in-
terval between the accusation and the trial he spent in philoso-
phical conversations with his friends, choosing to discourse
upon any other subject rather than his own situation. When
the day of trial arrived, his accusers appeared in the senate,
and attempted to support their charge in three distinct speeches,
which strongly marked their respective characters. Plato, who
was a young man and a zealous follower of Socrates, then rose
up to address the judges in defence of his master; but while he
was attempting to apologise for his youth, he was abruptly
commanded by the court to sit down. Socrates, however,
needed no advocate. Ascending the chair with all the severity
of conscious innocence, and with all the dignity of superior
merit, he delivered, in a firm and manly tone, an unpremeditated
defence of himself, which silenced his opponents, and ought to
have convinced the judges. After tracing the progress of the
conspiracy which had been raised against him to its true
source, the jealousy and resentment of men whose ignorance he
had exposed, and whose vices he had ridiculed and reproved,
he distinctly replied to the several charges brought against him
by Melitus. To prove that he had not been guilty of impiety
towards the gods of his country, he appealed to his frequent
practice of attending the public religious festivals. The crime
of introducing new divinities, with which he was charged,
chiefly, as it seems, on the admonition which he professed to
have received from an invisible power, he disclaimed, by plead-
ing that it was no new thing for men to consult the gods and
receive instructions from them. . To refute the charge of his
having been a corrupter of youth, he urged the example which
he had uniformly exhibited of justice, moderation, and tem-
perance; the moral spirit and tendency of his discourses; and
the effect which had actually been produced by his doctrine
upon the manners of the young. Then, disdaining to solicit
the mercy of his judges, he called upon them for that justice
which their office and their oath obliged them to administer;
and professing his faith and confidence in God, resigned him-
o their pleasure. The judges, whose prejudices would
ſfer them to pay due attention to this apology, or to ex-
with partiality the merits of the cause, immediately de-








B.C.468.] FROM ARTAXERXES I. TO PHILIP II.
clared him guilty of the crimes of which he stood accused.
Socrates in this stage of the trial had a right to enter his plea
against the punishment which the accusers demanded, and in-
stead of the sentence of death, to propose some pecuniary
amercement. But he at first peremptorily refused to make any
proposal of this kind, imagining that it might be construed into
an acknowledgment of guilt; and asserted, that his conduct
merited from the state, reward rather than punishment. At
length, however, he was prevailed upon by his friends to offer
upon their credit a fine of thirty minae. The judges, notwith-
standing, still remained inexorable; they proceeded, without
farther delay, to pronounce sentence upon him; and he was
condemned to be put to death by the poison of hemlock. The
sentence being passed, he was sent to prison; which, says
Seneca, he entered with the same resolution and firmness with
which he had opposed the thirty tyrants, and took away all
ignominy from the place. He lay in fetters thirty days, and
was constantly visited by Crito, Plato, and other friends, with
whom he passed the time in dispute, after his usual manner.
Anxious to save so valuable a life, they urged him to attempt
his escape, or at least to permit them to convey him away; and
Crito went so far as to assure him that, by his interest with
the jailor, it might be easily accomplished, and to offer him a
retreat in Thessaly; but Socrates rejected the proposal as a
criminal violation of the laws, and asked them, whether there
was any place out of Attica which death could not reach? At
length the day arrived, when the officers to whose care he was
committed delivered to Socrates early in the morning the final
order of his execution, and immediately, according to the law,
set him at liberty from his bonds. His friends, who came thus
early to the prison, that they might have an opportunity of con-
versing with their master through the day, found his wife sit-
ting by him with a child in her arms. Socrates, that the tran-
quillity of his last moments might not be disturbed by her un-
availing lamentations, requested that she might be conducted
home. With the most frantic expressions of grief she left the
prison. An interesting conversation then passed between So-
crates and his friends, which chiefly turned upon the immor-
tality of the soul. In the course of this conversation, he ex-
pressed his disapprobation of the practice of suicide, and as-
sured his friends that his chief support in his present situation
was an expectation, though not unmixed with doubts, of a happy
existence after death. “It would be inexcusable in me,” said
he, “to despise death, if I were not persuaded that it will con-
duct me into the presence of the gods, who are the most righ-
teous governors, and with the society of just and good men;
but I derive confidence from the hope that something of man
remains after death, and that the condition of good men will then


UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPAY. -- [B. c. 468.
ch better than that of the bad.” Crito afterwards asking
, in what manner he wished to be buried ? Socrates re-
with a smile, “As you please, provided I do not escape
four hands.” Then, turning to the rest of his friends,
“Is it not strange, after all that I have said to convince
that I am going to the society of the happy, that Crito still
thinks that this body which will soon be a lifeless corpse, is
Socrates? Let him dispose of my body as he pleases, but let
him not at its interment mourn over it, as if it were Socrates.”
Towards the close of the day he retired into an adjoining apart-
ment to bathe; his children in the meantime expressing to one
another their grief at the prospect of losing so excellent a
father, and being left to pass the rest of their days in the soli-
tary state of orphans. After a short interval, during which he
gave some necessary instructions to his domestics, and took his
last leave of his children, the attendant of the prison in-
formed him that the time of drinking the poison was come.
The executioner, though accustomed to such scenes, shed tears
as he presented the fatal cup. Socrates received it without
change of countenance, or the least appearance of perturbation,
then offering up a prayer to the gods, that they would grant
him a prosperous passage into the invissible world, with
perfect compossure swallowed the poisonous draught. His
friends around him burst into tears. Socrates alone remained
unmoved. He blamed their pusillanimity, and entreated them
to exercise a manly constancy worthy of the friends of virtue.
He continued walking till the chilling operation of the hemlock
obliged him to lie down upon his bed. After remaining for a
short time silent, he requested Crito, probably to refute a ca-
lumny which might prove injurious to his friends after his
decease, not to neglect the offering of a cock which he had
vowed to Æsculapius; then, covering himself with his cloak,
he expired. Such was the fate of the virtuous Socrates! A
story, says Cicero, which I never read without tears. The
friends and disciples of this illustrious teacher of wisdom were
deeply affiicted by his death, and attended his funeral with every
expression of grief. Apprehensive, however, for their own safety,
they soon afterwards privately withdrew from the city, and
took up their residence in distant places. Several of them visited
the philosopher Euclid of Megara, by whom they were kindly
ëived. No sooner was the unjust condemnation of Socrates
known through Greece, than a general indignation was kindled
the minds of good men, who universally regretted that so
3d an advocate for virtue should have fallen a sacri-
lousy and envy. The Athenians themselves, so re-
r their caprice, who never knew the value of their
their death, soon became sensible of the
ell as criminality of putting to death the man who
the chief ornament of their city and of the age, and
had bee
H





































B. c. 468.] FROM ARTAXERXES 1. TO PHILIP II.
turned their indignation against his accusers. Melitus was con-
demned to death; and Anytus, to escape a similar fate, went
into a voluntary exile. To give a farther proof of the sincerity
of their regret, the Athenians for a while interrupted public
business; decreed a general mourning; recalled the exiled
friends of Socrates, and erected a statue to his memory in one
of the most frequented parts of the city. His death happened
in the first year of the ninety-sixth olympiad, and in the
seventieth year of his age. Socrates left behind him nothing
in writing; at least nothing that has reached us, though he
wrote a great deal; but his illustrious pupils Xenophon and
Plato have in some measure supplied this defect. The me-
moirs of Socrates, written by Xenophon, afford, however a
much more accurate idea of the opinions of Socrates and of his
manner of teaching than the dialogues of Plato, who every
where mixes his own diction with the ideas and language of his
master. It is related, that when Socrates heard Plato recite
Lysis, he said, “How much does this young man make me say
which I never conceived ſ” His distinguished character was
that of a moral philosopher, and his doctrine concerning God
and religion was rather practical than speculative. But fie did
not neglect to build the structures of religious faith upon the
firm foundation of an appeal to natural appearances. He
taught that the Supreme Being, though invisible, is clearly seen
in his works; which at once demonstrate his existence and his
wise and benevolent providence. He admitted besides, the one
Supreme Deity, the existence of beings who possess a middle
station between God and man, to whose immediate agency he
ascribed the ordinary phenomena of nature, and whom he sup-
posed to be particularly concerned in the management of hu-
man affairs. Hence he declared it to be the duty of every one,
in the performance of religious rites, to follow the customs of
his country. At the same time he taught that the merit of all
religious offerings depends upon the character of the worship-
per, and that the gods take pleasure in the sacrifices of none
but the truly pious. Concerning the human soul, the opinion
of Socrates, according to Xenophon, was, that it is allied to the
Divine Being, not by a participation of essence, but by a simi-
larity of nature; that man excels all other animals in the
faculty of reason; and that the existence of good men will be
continued after death in a state in which they will receive the
reward of virtue. . Although it appears that on this latter
topic he was not wholly free from uncertainty, the consolation
which he professed to derive from this source in the immediate
prospect of death, leaves little room to doubt that he entertain.
ed a real expectation of immortality; and there is reason
believe that he was the only philosopher of ancient Gre
whose principles admitted of such an expectation. His moral








UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. … [B.C. 468.
system was in a high degree pure, and founded on the surest
XANTIPPE, the wife of Socrates. The name of this lady
has been handed down to posterity in no very favourable point
of view; to the virtues of forbearance she appears to have been
a perfect stranger; and the appellation of a Xantippe is even
at the present period bestowed upon a shrew. Even when
very young the violence of her temper displayed itself, not-
withstanding which, the philosopher, Socrates, resolved to
make her his wife; and being asked by Xenophon his reason
for marrying such a termagant, “To exercise my patience,"
was the philosopher's reply; “for if I can support her ill
humour, I can very easily bear that of every other person in
the world.” But while Xantippe's foible is often repeated,
her virtues are forgot. No wife ever showed more affectionate
grief than she did at her husband's death.
SIMON, a currier at Athens, whom Socrates often visited,
on account of his uncommon genius and talents. He collected
all the information he could procure from Socrates, and pub-
lished it, with his own remarks, in thirty-three dialogues. He
was the first of the disciples of Socrates who gave an account
of his master's opinions on virtue, justice, honour, music,
poetry, &c. His dialogues were extant in the age of Dio-
genes, the biographer.
PHAEDON, a disciple of Socrates, who had been seized
by pirates in his youth; and the philosopher, who seemed to
discover something uncommon and promising in his counte-
tenance, bought his liberty for a sum of money, and ever after
esteemed him. Phaedon, after Socrates's death, returned to
Elis, his native country, where he founded a sect of philo-
sophers who composed what was called the Eliac school.
The name of Phaedon is affixed to one of Plato's dialogues.
AESCHINES, the son of Charinus, a sausage maker, a dis-
ciple and admirer of Socrates, who said of him, that the
sausage maker's son was the only person who knew how to
pay a due regard to him. It is said that poverty obliged him
to go to Sicily to Dionysius the tyrant; and that he met with
great contempt from Plato, but was extremely well received by
Aristippus, to whom he showed some of his dialogues, and
obtained from him a handsome reward. He would not venture
to profess philosophy at Athens, Plato and Aristippus being in
such high esteem; but he set up a school to maintain himself,
and wrote orations for the forum. Phrynicus, in Photius,
ranks him among the best orators, and mentions his orations as
the standard of the pure Attic style. Hermogenes has also
spoken very highly of him. He likewise wrote several dia-
logues, of which there are only three extant. 1. Concerning
§§ whether it can be taught. 2. Eryxias, or Erasistratus;







B.C. 465.] FROM ARTAXERXES 1. TO PHILIP II. 365
concerning "riches, whether they are good. 3. Axiochus;
concerning death, whether it is to be feared. Le Clerc has
iven a Latin translation of them, with notes.
DEMOCRITUS, one of the #. philosophers of an-
tiquity, was born in Abdera, in Thrace, about the eightieth
olympiad, or B. C. 465. His father, says Valerius Maximus,
was able to maintain the army of Xerxes; and Diogenes Laer-
tius adds, that the king, in return, presented him with some
Magi and Chaldeans. From those he received the first part
of his education; and whilst yet a boy, learned theology and
astronomy. He next applied to Leucippus, and learned from
him the system of atoms and a vacuum. His father dying, he
and his two brothers divided the estate. Democritus made
choice of that part which consisted of money, as being, though
the least share, the most convenient for travelling; and it is
said, that his portion amounted to about one hundred talents,
which is near 20,000l. sterling. His extraordinary love of
knowledge induced him to travel into all countries famed for
learned men. He went to the priests of Egypt, from whom he
learned geometry; he consulted the Chaldeans and the Per-
sian philosophers; and it is said that he penetrated even into
India and Ethiopia, to confer with the Gymnosophists. In
those travels he wasted his substance, so that, on his return,
he was obliged to be maintained by his brother; notwithstand-
ing which, he gave such proofs of superior understanding that
he procured the highest honours of his country, which he go-
verned with unlimited sway as well as consummate wisdom.
The magistrates of Abdera made him a present of five hundred
talents, and erected statues to him even in his lifetime; but
being naturally more inclined to contemplation than delighted
with public honours and employments, he withdrew into soli-
tude and retirement. He incessantly laughed at human life,
as a continued farce, which made the inhabitants of Abdera
think he was mad; one of which sent for Hippocrates to cure
him; but that celebrated physician having discoursed with the
philosopher, expressed the highest veneration for him, and told
the Abderians, that those who esteemed themselves the most
healthy were the most distempered. Democritus died, accord-
ing to Diogenes Laertius, aged one hundred, B. C. 361.
It is said that he put out his eyes, that he might meditate
the more profoundly upon philosophical subjects; but this
is very improbable. He was the author of many books
*. are lost; and from these Epicurus borrowed his phi-
losophy. Ž .
ZENO, called the Eleatic, in order to distinguish him from
Zeno the stoic, was a native of Elea, in Magna Grecia, and
said to have been the adopted son of Parmenides, whose dis-
ciple he was, flourished in the fifth century before Christ, and

UNEFERSAL BIOGRAPHY. [B.C. 448.
ative city rather than at Athens, for the
ining his independence. He is represented as a
f civil liberty, and as having lost his life in his
zealous frie
lous -
opposition to a tyrant. It is said, that having been detected
in a conspiracy against the petty tyrant of the place of his na-
tivity, he endured the most cruel torments, because he would
not betray his accomplices; and that at length his countrymen,
roused by his fortitude, fell upon the usurper, and stoned him
to death. To him the invention of the dialectic art has been
erroneously ascribed. >
According to Aristotle, Zeno taught that nothing can be
produced either from that which is similar or dissimilar; that
there is only one being, and that is God; that this Being is
eternal, homogeneous, and spherical, neither finite nor in-
finite, neither quiescent nor moveable ; that there are many
worlds; that there is in nature no vacuum; that all bodies are
composed of four elements, heat and moisture, cold and dry-
ness; and that the body of man is from the earth, and his
soul an equal mixture of these four elements. He argued
with great subtlety against the possibility of motion. If
Seneca's account of this philosopher deserves credit, he reached
the highest point of scepticism, and denied the real existence
of external objects. º --
Upon the whole, his sentiments seem to have been so
fluctuating and unstable, and his method of arguing so ver-
satile, that it is not certain whether he allowed or denied a
proper Divine Nature. Mosheim, not improperly, applied to
the doctrine of Zeno, the words of Terence:
“ Things thus uncertain, if by reason's rules
º You'd certain make; it were as wise a task
To try with reason to run mad.”
Bayle depreciates the practical philosophy of Zeno, on ac-
count of his vindication of the warmth with which he resented
reproach, by saying, “If I were indifferent to censure, I should
also be indifferent to praise.” His works, though unknown
to the moderns, were held in high estimation among the
ancients. - - -
XENOPHON, the son of Gryllus, was distinguished as a
. commander, and historian. His engaging appear-
ance whilst he was a youth, induced Socrates to admit him
into the number of his disciples. Under his tuition he made
rapid progress in that kind of wisdom for which he was so
and private life. Having accompanied Socrates in the Pelo-
ponnesian war, and manifested his valour in defence of his coun-
try, he afterwards entered into the army of Cyrus, and advised




















B.C. 448.] FROM ARTAxERxes I. To philip I
his fellow soldiers to attempt a retreat into their own country
rather than to surrender themselves to the victor. His advice
was regarded, and he was chosen as their commander. In
the exercise of this duty, he acquired by his prudence and
firmness a high degree of honour; and the memorable adven-
ture is related by himself in his “Retreat of the Ten Thou-
sand.” Having joined Agesilaus, king of Sparta, after his
return into Greece, and fought with him against the Thebans
in the celebrated battle of Choenorea, he displeased the Athe-
nians by this alliance; and he was publicly accused, and con-
demned to exile. Thus ignominiously treated, the Spartans
took him under their protection, and provided for him a com-
fortable retreat at Scillus, in Elis. In this asylum he enjoyed
the pleasures of domestic life with his wife and two children for
several years, and availed himself of the leisure that was thus
afforded him by writing those historical works which have
rendered his name immortal. On occasion of a war between
he Spartans and Eleans, he was obliged to abandon this
greeable retreat, and to join his son, who was settled at
.epreus. From hence he afterwards removed with his whole
amily to Corinth, where, in the second year of the one hun-
lred and fifth of the olympiad, B. C. 358, his life terminated,
at the age of about ninety. As a philosopher, he was an orna-
ment to the Socratic school by his integrity, piety, and mo-
deration; and in his whole military conduct, he was distin-
guished by an admirable union of wisdom and valour. As a
writer, he has presented to succeeding ages a model of purity,
simplicity, and harmony of language, expressing sentiments
truly Socratic. By his wife Phitesia he had two sons, Gryllus
and Diodorus; the former of whom ended his life with military
glory in the battle of Mantinea. The news of his son's death
was communicated to him whilst he was offering sacrifice; and
upon receiving it, he took the crown from his head, uttering with a
sigh these memorable words, “I knew that my son was mortal.”
But when he heard that his son had fought bravely, and died
with honour, he again put on the crown, and finished the sacri-
fice. His principal works are, the “Cyropaedia, or the Life
of the Elder Cyrus;” “The Expedition of the Younger
Cyrus;” “The Grecian History;” “The Memorabilia of
Socrates, with the Apology for that Philosopher;” “Oecono-
mics,” which Cicero translated; and “The Republic of the
Athenians.” The best editions of this writer are, that of Ste-
phens, folio, 1581; of Wells, at Oxford, 5 vols. 8vo, 1703;
and Weiske, at Leipsic, in 5 vols. 8vo, 1802.
|GRYLLUS, the son of Xenophon, who lew the celebrated
Theban general Epaminondas, and was killed himself at the
battle of Mantinea, B. C. 363. —- -
MELISSUS, a philosopher of Samos, of the Eleatic sect;








368 ºn UNIVERSAL biography. [B.C. 448.
who lived about the eighty-fourth olympiad, or the year B.
C. 440. He was a disciple of Parmenides, to whose doc-
trines he closely adhered. As a public man, he was conver-
sant with affairs of the state, and acquired great influence
among his countrymen, who had a high veneration for his
talents and virtues. Being appointed by them to the com-
mand of a fleet, he obtained a great naval victory over the
Athenians. As a philosopher, he maintained that the prin-
cipal of all things is one and immutable, or that whatever exists
is one being; that this one being includes all things and is
infinite, without beginning or end; that there is neither va-
cuum nor motion in the universe, or any such thing as pro-
duction or decay, that the changes which it seems to suffer
are only illusions of our senses, and mere appearances, and
that we ought not to lay down any thing positively concerning
the gods, since our knowledge of them is so uncertain. -
ARISTARCHUS, a Grecian philosopher, was a native of
Samos, and is said to have been the first who asserted the
rotation of the earth upon its axis, and its motion round the
sun. He is also said to have invented sun-dials. There is a
work of his existing on the bulk and distance of the sun and
moon, which was published by Dr. Willis in Greek and Latin
in 1688. - -
TIMAEUS, a famous Pythagorean philosopher, was born
at Locris in Italy, and lived before Plato. There is still extant
a small treatise of his on the Nature and the Soul of the World,
written in the Doric dialect.
ARCHELAUS, a celebrated Greek philosopher, the dis-
ciple of Anaxagoras, lived about B. C. 440. He read lec-
tures at Athens, and did not depart much from the opinions
of his master. He taught that there was a double principle
of all things, namely, the expansion and condensation of the
air, which he regarded as infinite. That, according to him,
was in a continual motion. Cold was ever at rest. The earth,
which was placed in the midst of the universe, had no motion.
It originally resembled a wet marsh, but was afterwards dried
up ; and its figure, he said, resembled that of an egg. Animals
were produced from the heat of the earth, and even men were
formed in the same manner. All animals have a soul, which
was born with them; but the capacities of which vary accord-
ing to the structure of the organs of the body in which it
resides. Socrates was one of the most illustrious of his disci-
ples and friends.
TYMICHA, was a Lacedaemonian lady, the consort of
Myllias, a native of Crotona. Jamblichus, in his life of Pytha-
goras, places her as head of his list, or roll, of the most cele-
rated female philosophers of the Pythagorean sect. When
Tymicha was taken into custody with her husband, and




rRow ARTAxERxes I, to PHILIP II.
fore Dionysius the tyrant, he made them both very ad-
ſtageous offers; but they rejected them with seorn and de-
testation. . . - - -
Whereupon the tyrant took the husband aside first, and
promised to release him with honour, on condition only that
he would discover the reason why the Pythagoreans chose
rather to die than to trample upon beans; without the least
hesitation, he made the following reply, viz. that as that sect
choose rather to die than to tread upon beans, so he would
chuse to tread upon beans rather than to gratify his curious
enquiry. . - -
The tyrant not succeeding with the husband, took the wife
apart, not doubting from her situation at that time, and the
additional terror of the torture with which he intended to
menace, she would soon be prevailed on to discover the im-
portant secret. Upon the trial, however, he found himself
completely baffled; for she instantly bit off her tongue, and
spat it in the tyrant's face, that no torture, how inhuman
soever, might force her to divulge the mysteries of the Pytha-
gorean science. - :
OCELLUS LUCANUS, or the Lucanian, an ancient
Pythagorean philosopher, who lived before Plato. His work
on the universe, is the only piece of his which is come down
entire to us; and was written originally in the Doric dialect,
but was translated by another hand into the Attic. William
Christian, and after him, Lewis Nogarola, translated this
work into Latin; and there are several editions of it, both in
Greek and Latin. A fragment is also extant of his work on
laws, which is praised by Plato.
LEUCIPPUS, a celebrated Greek philosopher and mathe-
matician; first author of the famous system of atoms and
vacuums, and of the hypothesis of storms; since attributed to
the moderns. He flourished about B. C. 428.
ARCHYTAS, of Tarentum, a celebrated philosopher,
cosmographer, and mathematician. He lived about É. C.
400, and was the master of Plato, Eudoxus, and Philolaus.
He gave a method of finding two mean proportionals between
two given lines, and thence the duplication of the cube, by
means of the conic sections. His skill in mechanics was such,
that he was said to be the inventor of the crane and the screw;
and he made a wooden pigeon that would fly about when it
was once set off; but it could not rise again of itself after it
rested. He wrote several works, though none of them are
now extant. said he invented the ten categories. He
acquired great reputation both in his legislative and milit
ving commanded an army seven times without ever
as at las * shº










































370 UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. [B.C. 450,
by modesty and self-command. He maintained that virtue was
to be pursued for its own sake in every condition of life; that
all excess is inconsistent with virtue; that the mind is more
#. by prosperity than by adversity; that there is no pes-
tilence so pernicious to human happiness as pleasure; and
.. the love of it is a disease destructive to the human
IIHF101. : % .
PLATO, an illustrious philosopher of antiquity, was by
descent an Athenian, though the place of his birth was the
island of Ægina. His descent by his father was from Codrus,
the last king of Athens, and by his mother, from Solon, the
celebrated legislator. The time of his birth is placed at the
beginning of the eighty-eighth Olympiad; but Dr. Enfield thinks
it may be more accurately fixed in the third year of the eighty-
seventh Olympiad, or B. C. 430. He gave early indications of
an extensive and original genius, and had an education suitable
to his high rank, being instructed in the rudiments of letters
by the grammarian Dionysius, and trained in athletic exercises
by Aristo of Argos. He applied with great diligence to the
arts of painting and poetry; and wrote an epic poem, which,
upon comparing it with those of Homer, he burnt. He next
wrote a dramatic piece, which was to have been acted, but
happening to attend upon a discourse of Socrates, he was so
captivated by his eloquence, that he reclaimed his tragedy, re-
nounced the Muses, burnt all his poems, and applied himself
wholly to the study of wisdom. It is said, that Plato's first
masters in philosophy were Eratylus and Hermogenes, who
taught the system of Heraclites and Parmenides; but when he
was twenty years old, he attached himself wholly to Socrates,
with whom he remained eight years as a scholar. During this
period, he frequently displeased his companions, and some-
times even his master, by grafting upon the Socratic system
opinions which were taken from some other stock. Plato,
however, retained the warmest attachment to his master.
When that great and good man was summoned before the
senate, his illustrious scholar undertook to plead his cause,
and began a speech in his defence; but the partial judges
would not permit him to proceed. After the condemnation he
presented his master with money sufficient to redeem his life;
which, however, Socrates refused to accept. During his im-
prisonment, Plato attended him, and was present at a conver-
sation which he held with his friends concerning the immorta-
lity of the soul; the substance of which he afterwards com
mitted to writing in the beautiful dialogue entitled Phaedo.
The hilosopher at Athens were so alarmed at the death of
Socrates, that most of them fled from the city. Plato, whose
grief upon this occasion is said by Plutarch toº §3.
N. h to have
*xces sive, retired to . Megara, where he was kindly entertained















b. c. 430.] from ARTAxerxes 1 to Philip II. 371,


by Euclid, who had been one of the first scholars of Socrates,
till the storm was over. Afterwards he travelled in pursuit of
knowledge; and from Megara he went to Italy, where he con-
ferred with Eurytus, Philolaus, and Archytas, the most cele-
brated of the followers of Pythagoras, whose doctrine was then
become famous in Greece; and from these the Pythagoreans
have affirmed that he had all his natural philosophy. He next
went to Cyrene, where he learned geometry of Theodorus the
mathematician. Thence he passed into Egypt, to acquire
their theology, to study more micely the proportions of geome-
try, and to instruct himself in astronomical observations; and
having taken a full survey of all the country, he settled for
some time in the province of Sais, learning of the wise men
there what they held concerning the universe, whether it had
a beginning, whether it moved wholly or in part, &c.; and
Pausanias affirms, that he learned from these the immortality
and transmigration of souls. He next travelled into Persia to
consult the Magi about the religion of that country. He then
returned to Italy, to the Pythagorean school at Tarentum,
where he endeavoured to improve his own system, by incor-
porating with it the doctrine of Pythagoras, as it was then,
taught by Archytas, Timaeus, and others. And afterwards,
when he visited Sicily, he retained such an attachment to the
Italic school, that, through the bounty of Dionysius, he pur-
chased at a vast price several books which contained the doc-
trine of Pythagoras, from Philolaus one of his followers. Re-
turning home richly stored with knowledge of various kinds,
Plato settled at Athens, and formed a new school for the in-
struction of youth in philosophy in the academy. This new
school soon became famous, and its master was ranked among
the most eminent philosophers. People of the first distinction
in every department frequented the academy. Even females
dressed in men's clothes often attended his lectures. Among
the illustrious names which appeared in the catalogue of his
followers, are, Dion, the Syracusan prince, and the orators,
Hyperides, Lycurgus, Demosthenes, and Isocrates. The dis-
tinguished reputation of Plato brought upon him the envy of
his former companions in the school of Socrates, and they
loaded him with detraction and obloquy. From this spirit,
Xenophon and he, though they relate the discourses of their
common master, avoid mentioning one another. Diogenes, the
cynic, ridiculed Plato's doctrine of ideas. In the midst of
these private censures, however, the public fame of Plato
daily increased; and several states, among which were the
Arcadians and Thebans, sent ambassadors with earnest re-
quests that he would come over, not only to instruct the young
men in philosophy, but also to prescribe them laws of govern-
ment. The Cyrenians, sº Cretans, and Eleans, sent
§ 3. “... . . . . .: ... 3 . B b 2 . . . . . . . :





UNIVERSAL biography
im; he did n
º §% ot go to any of them, but gave laws and
He was a man of great as, and exceedingly
e; of which we need no greater proof, than his civil
her of conversing with the phi 3%
VI
r
a.
ğ. losophers of his own times,
w ride and envy were at their height. Diogenes, piqued
at the politeness and fine taste of Plato, took every opportunity
of snarling at him. He dined one day at Plato's table with
other company, and, trampling upon the tapestry with his
dirty feet, said, “I trample upon the pride of Plato;” to which
Plato wisely reparteed, “With greater pride.” The fame of
d
Plato drew disciples to him from all parts, among whom were
Speusippus, an º his sister's son, whom he appointed
his successor in the academy, and the great Aristotle. The
admiration of this illustrious man was not confined to a few
philosophers. He was in high esteem with several princes,
particularly Archelaus, king of Macedon, and Dionysius, tyrant
of Sicily. At three different periods he visited the court of
his latter prince, and made several bold but unsuccessful
attempts to subdue his haughty spirit. The professed ob-
ject, says Dr. Enfield, (in his Hist. of Phil.) of Plato's first
visit to Sicily, which happened in the fortieth year of his age,
during the reign of the Elder Dionysius, the son of Hermo-
crates was to take a survey of the island, and particularly of
Mount AEtna. Whilst he resided at Syracuse, he was em-
ployed in the instruction of Dion, the King's brother-in-law,
who possessed excellent abilities, though hitherto restrained by
annical government, and relaxed by the luxuries of a li-
ious court. Disgusted by the debaucheries of the Syra-
ns, Plato endeavoured to rescue his pupil from the general
ºn ity. Nor did Dion disappoint his hopes. No sooner
had he received a taste of that philosophy which leads to
virtue, than he was fired with an ardent love of wisdom.
Hoping that philosophy might produce the same effect upon
Dionysius, he procured an interview between Plato and the
tyrant. During the conference, whilst Plato discoursed on the
appiness of virtue, and the miseries attending injustice and
ession, Dionysius took offence, dismissed him with dis-
pleasure, and even formed a design against his life. It was not
hout difficulty that Plato escaped. A vessel which had
ught over Pollis, a *f; from Sparta, was fortunately a
rning to Greece. Dion engaged to land Plato safely
ive country; but Dionysius discovered the design,
is promise that he would either put him to death,


























































B, C, 430.] rRoMARTAxeRxes I, to prinlup II.
Repayment being afterwards offered to Anicerris by Plato's
relations, he refused the money, saying, with that generous
spirit which true philosophy inspires, that he saw no reason
why the relations of Plato should engross to themselves the
honour of serving him. After a short time, Dionysius repented
of his unjust resentment, and wrote to Plato, requesting him
to repair his credit by returning to Syracuse; to which Plato
gave this high spirited answer, that philosophy would not
allow him leisure to think of Dionysius. He was, however,
prevailed upon by Dion to return to Syracuse, and take upon
him the education of Dionysius the younger, the heir apparent.
He was received, by Dionysius I., with every possible respect;
but after seeing his friend banished, and being himself kept
as a kind of prisoner at large in the palace, he was by the
tyrant sent back into his own country, with a promise that
both he and Dion should be recalled at the end of the war in
which the Sicilians were them engaged. This promise was
not fulfilled. The tyrant wished for the return of Plato; but
could not resolve to recall Dion. At last, however, having pro-
bably promised that the philosopher should meet his friend at
the court of Syracuse, he prevailed upon Plato to visit that
capital a third time. When he arrived, the king met him in a
magnificent chariot, and conducted him to his palace. The
Sicilians too rejoiced in his return; for they hoped that the
wisdom of Plato would at length triumph over the tyrannical
spirit of the prince. Dionysius seemed wholly divested of his
former resentments, listened with apparent pleasure to the
philosopher's doctrine, and among other expressions of regard,
presented him with eighty talents of gold. In the midst of a
numerous train of philosophers, Plato now possessed the
chief influence and authority in the court of Syracuse. While
Aristippus was enjoying himself in splendid luxury, while
Diogenes was freely indulging his acrimonious humour, and
whilst AEschines was gratifying his thirst after riches, Plato
supported the credit of philosophy with an air of dignity
which his friends regarded as an indication of superior wisdom,
but, which his enemies imputed to pride. After all, Plato
ould not prevail upon Dionysius to alter his system of policy,
or to recall Dion from exile. At length Plato requested per-
mission to return to Greece, which was at last granted him,
and he was sent home loaded with rich presents. On his way
to. Athens, passing through Elis during the celebration of the
and engaged universal attention. From this narrative, it a
pears, that if Plato visited the courts of princes, it was chief
from º hope of seeing his ideal plan of a perfect
€3.11zed, w ºf ºria º ... .º.º.º. . .

















































374 UnivERSAL BrogRAphy. [b. c.450
enjoyed the advantage of an athletic constitution, and lived all
his days º he arrived at the seventy-ninth or eighty-
first year of his age, and died in the first year of the one hun-
dred and eighth Olympiad. He passed his whole life in a
state of celibacy, and therefore left no natural heirs, but trans-
ferred his effects, by will, to his friend Adiamantus. The
grove and garden, which had been the scene of his philoso-
phical labours, at last afforded him a sepulchre. Statues and
altars were erected to his memory; the day of his birth long
continued to be celebrated as a festival by his followers; and
his portrait is to this day preserved in gems; but the most
lasting monuments of his genius are his writings, which have
been transmitted without material injury to the present times.
The character of this philosopher has always been high. He
had a comprehensive understanding, a vast fund of wit and
good taste, great sweetness of temper, all cultivated and refined
by education and travel; so that he was honoured by his coun-
trymen, esteemed by strangers, and adored by his scholars.
The ancients thought more highly of Plato than of all their
philosophers; they always called him the Divine Plato; and
they resolved that his descent should be more than human,
for Apuleius mentions a common report, “ that his mother
Perictione, who was a very beautiful woman, was impregnated
by Apollo in the shape of a spectre.” Plutarch, Suidas, and
others, affirm this to have been the common report at Athens.
When he was an infant, his father Aristo went to Hymettus,
with his wife and child, to sacrifice to the Muses; and while
they were busied in the divine rites, a swarm of bees came
and distilled their honey upon his lips. This, says Tully, was
considered as a presage of his future eloquence. The Greeks
loved fables; these show, however, what high respect was
paid to the memory of Plato. Tully adored him; tells how he
was justly called, by Panaetius the divine, the most wise, the
most sacred, the Homer of philosophers, entitled him to At-
ticus, Deus ille, noster; thought, that if Jupiter had spoken
Greek, he would have spoken in Plato's language, and made
him so implicitly his guide in wisdom and philosophy, as to de-
clare, that he had ..i. err with Plato than be right with any
one else. But, panegyric aside, Plato was certainly a very
wonderful man, of an imagination amazingly fertile, and of a
most copious eloquence. Yet the heat of fancy prevailing in
his compositiºn over his judgment, he was too apt to soar be-
yond the limits of earthly things, to range in the imaginary
as of general and abstracted ideas; and therefore i.
is always a greatness and sublimity in his manner, he did
Shilosophize so much according to truth and nature as
Cicero gives him the preference. The writ-
all in the form of dialogue; where he seems














B. C. 430.] FROM ARTAXERXES I, TO PHILIP II. 375
to deliver nothing from himself, but every thing as the senti-
ments and opinions of others, of Socrates chiefly, of Timaeus,
&c. He does not mention himself any where, except once in
his Phaedo, and another time in his apology for Socrates. His
style, as Aristotle observed, is between prose and verse, on
which account some have not scrupled to rank him with the
poets. A better reason may be assigned for this; his matter is
oftentimes the offspring of imagination, instead of truths de-
duced from nature.
ANICERRIS, an excellent charioteer of Cyrene, who ex-
hibited his skill in driving a chariot before Plato and the
academy. When the philosopher was wantonly sold by
Dionysius, Anicerris ransomed his friend, and he showed
further his respect for learning, by establishing a sect at
Cyrene, called after his name, which supposed that all good
consisted in pleasure.
THRASYMACHUS, a Carthaginian, who was the pupil
of Isocrates and Plato, and became a public teacher at
Athens; but, failing of the success he had expected, he hanged
himself.
AXIOTHEA, a female philosopher of Greece, who lived
in the time of Plato, and attended his lectures, dressed in the
habit of a man.
CRITO, an Athenian philosopher, who flourished B. C.
400. He was one of the most zealous disciples of Socrates,
and supplied him with whatever he wanted. He had several
scholars who proved great men, and he composed some dia-
logues which are lost. …
CEBES, of Thebes, a Socratic philosopher, author of the
admired Tables, or Dialogues on the birth, life, and death,
of mankind. He flourished about B. C. 405. The above
piece is mentioned by Lucian, D. Laertius, Tertullian, and
Suidas; but of Cebes himself we have no account, save that
he is once mentioned by Plato, and once by Xenophon. The
former says of him that he was a sagacious investigator of
truth, and never assented without the most convincing reasons;
the latter ranks him among the few intimates of Socrates, who
excelled the rest in innocence of life.
EUCLID, of Megara, a celebrated philosopher and lo-
ician; he was a disciple of Socrates, and flourished about
B. C. 400. . The Athenians having prohibited the Megarians
from entering their city, on pain of death, this philosopher
disguised himself in woman's clothes to attend the lectures
of Socrates. After the death of Socrates, Plato and other
philosophers went to Euclid at Megara, to shelter themselves'
from the tyrants who governed Athens. This philosopher
admitted but one chief good, which he at different times called
God, or the Spirit, or Providence.

376 UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. [B.C. 430.
PHILOLAUS, of Crotona, a celebrated philosopher of
antiquity, of the school of Pythagoras, to whom that philoso-
pher's golden verses have been ascribed. He was a disciple
of Archytas, and flourished in the time of Plato. It was from
him that Plato purchased the written records of the Pytha-
gorean system. Interfering in affairs of state, he fell a sacrifice
to political jealousy. Philolaus treated the doctrine of nature
with great subtlety, but with great obscurity; referring every
thing that exists to mathematical principles. He taught, that
reason, improved by mathematical learning, is alone capable
of judging concerning the nature of things; that the whole
world consists of infinite and finite; that number consists by
itself, and is the chain which by its power sustains the eternal
frame of things; that the Monad is not the sole principle of all
things, but that the Binary is necessary to furnish materials,
from which all subsequent numbers may be produced; and the
world is one whole, which has a fiery centre, about which is
seen celestial spheres revolve, heaven, the sun, the planets, and
the moon; and the sun has a vitreous surface, whence the fire
diffused through the world is reflected, rendering the mirror
from whence it is reflected visible; that all things are preserved
in harmony by the laws of necessity; and that the world
is liable to destruction both by fire and water. From this
summary of the doctrine of Philolaus, it appears probable,
that following Timaeus, whose writings he possessed, he so
far departed from the Pythagorean system, as to conceive two
independent principles in nature, God and matter, and that it
was from the same source that Plato derived his doctrine upon
this subject.
DAMON, a Pythagorean philosopher, who flourished
B. C. 400, and who is celebrated for the friendship that
subsisted between him and Pythias, a philosopher of the
same sect. One of these friends was condemned to death by
Dionysius, king of Syracuse. He wished for a respite for
a few days, and liberty to depart from prison to settle
his affairs, on condition that the other should take his place,
and suffer in his stead, provided the condemned prisoner
did not return. The morning of the fatal day was come, and
the youth had not surrendered. The attachment and con-
fidence of his surety were now reproached by those about
him; but he felt no anxiety on his own account; he was sure
his friend would not and could not violate his promise, and he
was justified in his belief by the actual surrender of his friend
at the appointed hour. Dionysius, struck with the magnani-
mity of the one, and the fidelity of the other, freely forgave
the offender, and entreated that he might be admitted to the
participation of such sincere and distinguished friendship.
EVEPHENUS, a Pythagorean philosopher, whom Diony-




B. C. 419.] FROM ARTAXERXES I. TO PHILIP II. 377
sius condemned to death, because he had alienated the people
of Metapontum from his power. The philosopher begged
leave of the tyrant to let him go and see his sister married,
and to settle his affairs, and to return in six months. Diony-
sius consented by receiving Eucritus, who pledged himself to
die if Evephenus did not return in time. Evephenus returned
at the appointed moment, to the astonishment of Dionysius,
and delivered his friend Eucritus from the death which threat-
ened him. The tyrant was so pleased with these two friends,
that he pardoned Evephenus, and begged to share their friend-
ship and confidence. This story is very similar to the one in
the preceding article, Damon and Pythias, but as they have
always been recorded as distinct occurrences, it has been
thought proper to observe the same rule in this work.
SPEUSIPPUS, an Athenian philosopher, son of Euryme-
don, by a sister of Plato, succeeded his uncle in his school,
over which he presided during eight years, commencing from
the death of that illustrious philosopher, in the year B. C.
338. He placed the statues of the Graces in the school built
by Plato in the Academy, and closely adhered to the doctrines
of his master. His manners, however, were not conformable
to his philosophy; he was vindictive, and a lover of pleasure.
He was likewise avaricious, and, contrary to the practice of
Plato, exacted a gratuity from his disciples. He was admitted
to the friendship of Dion while he resided at Athens; and it
was by his instigation that Dion, invited by the malcontents
of Syracuse, undertook his expedition against Dionysius.
Becoming paralytic in his limbs, he was conveyed to and from
the academy in a carriage of some kind. Upon one of these
occasions he met Diogenes and saluted him ; but the cynic,
instead of returning the civility, upbraided him for enduring
to live under such an infirmity. To which Speusippus replied,
“That he did not live in his limbs, but in his mind.” At
length, overcome by his maladies, and wearied of life, he put
an end to his existence, having first constituted Xenocrates his
successor in the academy. He was author of several philoso-
phical treatises, which have perished; though it is said that
they were held in such estimation, by Aristotle, that he gave
three talents for them. -
ANTISTHENES, a Greek philosopher, and founder of the
Cynics. He was born at Athens, and passed the early part of
his life as a soldier. Having afterwards been an attendant on
the lectures of Socrates, he was principally charmed with those
exhortations of that great philosopher which persuaded to fru-
gality, to temperance, and to moderation; these Antisthenes
was resolved to practise by carrying every precept to its ut-
most extent. Permitting therefore his beard to grow, he went




378 : - UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. [B.C. 419.
about the streets in a thread-bare coat, scarcely to be distin-
guished from a common beggar. He prided himself upon the
most rigid virtue; and thought himself obliged to attack the
vicious, wherever he found them. This gave him some repu-
tation in the city; but it may be supposed, that in a place so
very luxurious as Athens, he had more enemies than disciples.
His philosophy consisted rather in action than speculation; it
was, therefore, his constant maxim, that to be virtuous was to
be happy; and that all virtue consisted in action; that the wise
man should live for himself, contented in all situations, and
happy alone in the consciousness of his own virtue. He ac-
knowledged nothing to be good but what was honourable; and
asserted, that virtue might be acquired by practice. Laertius
tells us there were ten volumes of his works; and he has given
us many of his apothegms.
EPICHARMUS, a native of the island of Cos, who flou-
rished in the fifth century, B. C. His father removed him
at an early age to Megara, and afterwards to Syracuse, where
he became a disciple in the Pythagorean school. Being pre-
vented, by the tyranny of Hiero, from assuming the public
profession of philosophy, he chiefly applied himself to the study
of dramatic poetry, and offended the Pythagoreans by intro-
ducing the doctrines and precepts of Pythagoras upon the
stage. His comedies were numerous, of which Suidas assigns
to him fifty-two ; but only some few fragments remain. He
taught a school at Syracuse, and is said to have invented two
Greek letters. He also wrote commentaries upon physical and
medical subjects. We have no accurate account of his philo-
sophical tenets; but some of his apothegms deserve to be re-
corded; such are the following: “To die is an evil; but to be
dead is no evil.” “Every man's natural disposition is his good
or evil daemon.” “He who is naturally, inclined to good is
noble, though his mother was an Ethiopian.” “Be sober in
thought, be slow in belief; these are the sinews of wisdom.”
“The gods set up their favours at a price, and industry is the
purchaser.” “Live so as to be prepared either for a long life
or a short one.” According to Lucian, the life of Epicharmus
was prolonged to the age of ninety-seven years.
PROTAGORAS, a celebrated Greek philosopher, was
born at Abdera, in Thrace, in the year B. C. 419. He ap-
pears to have been of humble origin, and when young was
obliged to gain his livelihood by working as a porter. In this
capacity he was frequently employed in carrying loads of wood
from the adjacent country to Abdera. Democritus met him with
one of his usual burdens, and being struck with the neatness
with which it was packed, asked him if he had done it himself,
to which he replied in the affirmative; the philosopher, pleased
with his ingenuity, desired the youth to follow him, saying he



b. c.419) FROM ARTAXERXES 1. To, PHILIP II. 379
would present him with greater and better objects for the ex-
ercise of his talents. The young man readily complied, and
Democritus took him home, maintained him at his own expence,
and instructed him in the principles of philosophy. Aft
Protagoras went to Athens, where he opened a school,
acquired great reputation for eloquence, wisdom, and that
subtlety in reasoning which was so much admired by the so-
phists. His public i. attracted great numbers, who paid
him liberally, and he became exceedingly rich. While he was
growing in reputation and wealth, he incurred the displeasure
of the Athenian state, by advancing doctrines favourable to
impiety. On this he was accused by different persons, and
among others by one of his scholars, viz. Eualthus, who as-
serted, that in one of his books he had said, “ concerning the
gods I am wholly unable to determine whether they have any
existence or not; for the weakness of the human understanding
and the shortness of human life, with other causes, prevent us
from attaining this knowledge.” Similar opinions were also to
be met with in some of his other writings, and, on this account,
they were ordered to be collected, and burnt in the market
place, while the author himself was banished from Attica. He
took refuge in Epirus, where he lived many years. Intending
to remove to Sicily, he lost his life by shipwreck on his voy-
age thither, when he was about seventy, or, as others say,
ninety years of age. He was author of various pieces upon
logic, metaphysics, ethics and politics, but none of them are
extant. He had, unquestionably, a leaning to scepticism, and
is said to have taught that contradictory arguments may be ad-
vanced upon every subject; that all natural objects are perpe-
tually varying; that the senses convey different reports to dif-
ferent persons, and even to the same person at different times;
that nevertheless, we have no other criterion of truth than our
own perception, and cannot know that any thing is otherwise
than it appears to our own senses, which are the essence of the
soul. Adopting the doctrine of Democritus, that the atoms of
which bodies are composed are in perpetual motion, Protago-
ras conceived that external objects are liable to continual fluc-
tuation, that nothing can certainly be known of them, and hence
he concluded that nothing can be proved to exist, but that
which is at any instant perceived by the senses; and that since
these are perpetually varying, things themselves accordingly
Yary, so that, upon the same evidence, that of the senses, con-
tradictory opinions may be advanced. . .
DIOGENES the Cynic, a famous ancient philosopher, the
son of a banker of Sinope. Being banished with his . for
cºining false money, he retired to Athens, where he studied
Philosophy under Antisthenes. He added new degrees of aus-
terity to the sect of the cynics; and never did any philosopherº













aying, “that the
besides his staff, wallet, and wooden bowl, which last he threw
away on seeing a boy drink out of the hollow of his hand. He
used to call himself a vagabond, who had neither house nor
i. try; was obliged to beg, was ill clothed, and lived from
th
to mouth; and yet, says AElian, he took as much pridei
things, as Alexander could in the conquest of the world.
He was not, indeed, a jot more humble than those who are
clothed in rich apparel, and fare sumptuously every day. He
looked down on all the world with scorn; he magisterially cen-
sured all mankind, and thought himself unquestionably supe-
rior to all other philosophers. Alexander one day paid him a
visit, and made him an offer of riches, or any thing else; but
all that the philosopher requested of him was, to stand from
between the and him; as if he had said, “Do not deprive
melo of nature, and I leave to you those of for-
tune.” The conqueror was so affected with the vigour and
elevation of his soul, as to declare, that “if he were not Alexan-
der, he would choose to be Diogenes.” Diogenes had great
presence of mind, as appears his smart sayings and quick
repartees; and Plato seems to have hit off his true character
when he called him a Socrates run mad. He spent a great part
of his time at Corinth. As he was going over to the island of
AEgina, he was taken by pirates, who carried him into Crete,
and there exposed him to sale. He answered the crier, who
asked him what he could do, that “he knew how to command
. men;" º perceiving Xeniad Corinthian, going by, he
entleman, for he wants a ma ter.
gularity of Diogenes, bought him,
im tutor to his chil
ź
#
to
niades that he ought
Diogenes spent the remainder of his life in Xeniades's
but Dio Chrysostom asserts that he passed the wi
§ he wi
and the summer at Corinth. He died at Corin
a was about nin old; o
º
§
. ... The IOI.























































































iot. “Go
ºś . a to contend
. If I conquer, I will follow you. If I am con-
quered, I shall go to the shades below.” He despatched him-
self that very night, º that “he did not so properly die as
get rid of his fever.” He had for his disciples, Onesicrites,
Phocion, Stilpo of Megara, and several other great men. His
works are lost. .
XENIADES, a Corinthian, who went to buy Diogenes, the
Cynic, when sold as a slave. Upon asking him what he could
do? he replied, Command freemen; on which he gave him his
freedom, and made him tutor to his children. -w-
MENIPPUS, a cymic philosopher, of Phoenicia. He was
originally a slave, but purchased his liberty, and became one of
the greatest usurers at Thebes. He wrote thirteen books of
satires, which have been lost, and at last killed himself. .
PO ETR Y.
SOPHOCLES, a celebrated tragic poet, was born at
Athens about the year B. C. 497. He received an education in
every way suitable to his rank in life; and it appears that he
was but a youth when the monuments of the victory over
Xerxes were fixed up at Salamis, and then he went at the head
of a chorus of noble birth, whose song of triumph he led by the
strains of his lyre. He first applied himself to lyric poetry;
but the fame acquired by Æschylus, the author, or at least
the great reformer, of Grecian tragedy, induced him to try
his powers in that species of composition; and in his twenty-
eighth year he ventured to contend with that veteran for the
theatrical prize. He obtained the victory, which was followed
by the retreat of his rival, who left him the undisputed master
of the tragic stage. The improvements introduced by So-
phocles were so great, that he has generally and justly been
regarded as the father of the regular tragedy. “H
the turgid and unnatural diction of AEschylus to the
standard of heroic dignity: and invented that artful constr
tion of fable and developement of incidents, which contribute
so much to the interest of a dramatic performance.” In
points he was superior to his younger competitor, Euripides; .
and, upon the whole, he appears to have stood at the head of
his class, in the judgment both of Greek and Roman
Cicero terms him a divine poet; and he is highly co, ***
by Dionysius of Halicarnassus, for preserving the dignity of his
haracter, and dwelling rather more on noble and generous
praises show that his works were r l as the mo
egarded as the most


























UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY, [B.C. 480.
example of tragedy, in the highest sense of the word. Sopho-
cles was a statesman, as well as a tragedian, and was entrusted
with several important civil and military employments. He re-
tained his faculties to the last; and continued to write tragedies
to an advanced age; and when his unnatural sons, on account
of some neglect in his domestic affairs, applied to the magis-
trates, to put him under their guardianship, as having outlived
his understanding, he appeared in court, an advocate in his
own cause, and reciting his CEdipus at Colonus, which he had
just finished, appealed to the judges and auditors if that were
the work of the dotard described by his own children. The
sentence was pronounced unanimously in his favour, and he was
carried home with every mark of triumph. The benignity of
his character acquired him a number of friends, his attachment
to whom, and his moderate wishes, caused him to decline the
invitations of the kings, who were desirous of drawing him to
their court. He paid every token of respect to the memory of
his rival Euripides; thus demonstrating that he was incapable
of the meanness of jealousy. He lived to the great age of
ninety, and is said, even at that age, to have died with joy, on
obtaining the prize for his last tragedy. Above a hundred
pieces have been attributed to him by some ancient writers, of
which, however, only seven have reached our times, the best
editions of which are that of Johnson, 1747, 3 vols. 8vo., and of
Both, 1806, 2 vols. 8vo. They have been translated into
English by Francklin and Potter.
EUPOLIS, an Athenian comic poet, who flourished about
B.C. 464. He took the freedom of the ancient comedy in the
lashing of the vices of the people. He lost his life in a sea-fight
between the Athenians and Lacedaemonians; and his fate was
so much lamented, that after his death it was enacted that no
poet should serve in the wars.
CRATINUS, an ancient comic poet, mentioned by Quinti-
lian, Horace, and Persius, along with Eupolis and Aristo-
phanes, as the three great masters of the ancient comedy.
Suidas tells us that he wrote twenty-one plays, and that he was
splendid and bright in his characters. . :
ION, a tragic poet of Chios, who flourished about the eighty-
second Olympiad, B. C. 452. His tragedies were represented
at Athens, where they met with universal applause. He is
greatly commended by Aristophanes and Athenaeus, &c. Ion
died B.C. 419, seventy-eight years after Pythagoras. Besides
tragedies and dithyrambics, he composed odes, paeans, hymns,
and scholia, or convivial songs. . . . . . . .
HARIXENA, a very learned Grecian lady, who, besides
wrotein prose, is said to have composed many things
articularly a poem entitled Cromata. She is










B.C. 468.] FROM ARTAXERXES I. TO PHILIP II. 383
#
EURIPIDES, a celebrated Greek poet, who excelled in
tragedy; born about B.C. 468, in the isle of Salamis, on the
day that Xerxes was defeated. He learnt rhetoric under Pro-
dicus; morality under Socrates; and natural philosophy un-
der Anaxagoras; but at eighteen years of age abandoned phi-
losophy for dramatic poetry. He used to shut himself up in a
cave to compose his tragedies, which were extremely applauded
by the Greeks. The Athenian army, commanded º Nicias,
being defeated in Sicily, the soldiers purchased their lives and
liberties by reciting the verses of Euripides. Socrates himself
put such a value upon them, that they were the only tragedies
he went to see acted; and yet his performances seldom gained
the prize. Euripides frequently intersperses through them
moral sentences, and severe reflections on the fair sex; whence
he was called the woman-hater. He was, nevertheless, mar-
ried; but the scandalous lives of his two wives drew upon
him the raillery of Aristophanes and other comic poets, which
occasioned his retiring to the court of Archelaus, king of Ma-
cedon, where he was well received. That prince was fond of
learned men, and drew them to him by his liberality. Solius
says he made Euripides his minister of state, and gave him
other extraordinary proofs of his esteem. But a few years
after, an unhappy accident put an end to his life. He was
walking in a wood, in deep meditation, when meeting with Ar-
chelaus's hounds, he was by them torn in pieces. It is not cer-
tain whether his death happened by chance, or through envy
of some courtiers. Archelaus buried him with great magnifi-
cence; and the Athenians were so much afflicted at his death,
that the whole city went into mourning. Of ninety-two tra-
gedies which he composed, only nineteen remain. The earliest
edition is that of Florence, in 4to, about the year 1499. The
next is that of Aldus, at Venice, 1503, 8vo. ; subsequent ones
are too many to be enumerated; but the best is that of Mus-
grave, Oxford, 4 vols. 4to. 1778. Euripides has been translated
into English by Wodhull and Potter. …:
XENOCLES, a tragic writer, who obtained four times a
poetical prize in a contention in which Euripides was competi-
tor. The names of his tragedies which obtained the victory
were, CEdipus, Lycaon, Bacchae, Athamas Satyricus; against
the Alexander, Palamedes, Trojani, and Sisyphus Satiricus, of
Euripides. His grandson bore also the name of Xenocles, and
excelled in §§ compositions.
ARISTOPHANES, a celebrated comic poet at Athens.
He was contemporary with Plato, Socrates, and Euripides;
and most of his plays were written during the Peloponnesian
War; His imagination was warm and lively, and his genius par-
ficularly turned to raillery. He had also great spirit and reso-
lution; and was a declared enemy to slavery, and all who

ntry. The Athenians, in his time,
men, who had no other views than to make
s of the commonwealth. Aristophanes ex-
N. with great wit and severity upon the stage.
so was the first whom he attacked, in his comedy of the
quites; and as none of the comedians would venture to per-
sonate a man of his great authority, Aristophanes played the
character himself, and with so much success, that the Athenians
bbliged Cleo to pay a fine of five talents, which were given to
the poet. He described the affairs of the Athenians in so exact
a manner, that his comedies are a faithful history of that peo-
ple. When Dionysius, king of Syracuse, desired to learn the
state and language of Athens, Plato sent him the comedies of
Aristophanes, telling him, these were the best representations
* them. He wrote about fifty comedies, but only eleven are
t, which are complete; viz. Plutus; the Clouds; the
Frogs; Equites; the Acarnenses; the Wasps; Peace; the
Birds; the Ecclesiazusae, or Female Orators; the Thesmo-
phosiazusae, or Priestesses of Ceres; and Lysistrata. The
Clouds, which he wrote in ridicule of Socrates, is the most
celebrated of all his comedies. Madame Dacier tells us that
she was so much charmed with this performance, that after she
had translated it, and read it over two hundred times, it did
not become in the least tedious to her, which she could not say
of any other piece; and that the pleasure which she received
from it was so exquisite, that she forgot all the indignation
which Arstiophanes deserved for employing his wit to ruin a
man who was wisdom itself, and the greatest ornament of
Athens. In the play of the Clouds, Aristophanes thus intro-
duces Socrates, solemnly addressing and invoking them, and
º
afterwards follows the chorus of Clouds themselves.
INvocation of socRATEs.
Oh, sovereign lord, immeasurable air, .
Circling the pendant globe Oh, holy light!
And ye dread maids, that heaven's loud thunders bear;
Arise, ye clouds, and burst upon my sight! §
me, sister goddesses, come, awful powers,
That on Olympus' snow-clad brow recline,
Or in old father Ocean's secret bowers,
With sea-born nymphs, the mystic dance combi
Come, sister
or fill you; golden urns from distant Nile,
on Maeotis' placid breast repose,



























B.C. 460.] FROM ARTAXERXES I, TO PHILIP 11.
CHORUS.
Appear, immortal clouds, appear!
Light shadows haste away!
From father Ocean's echoing tide,
And groves that shade the mountain side,
O'er watch-towers high, that far and wide,
The out-stretch'd globe survey;
The fruits and fields that drink the dew,
And fountains gushing to the view,
And the wide waste of waters blue,
That break upon the ear,
Throw your dark mantles by,
Your sacred forms unfold,
And now, while heaven's unwearied eye
In mid-day lustre flames on high,
Thy subject world behold!
ANTISTROPHE.
See, virgin rulers of the storm,
"Tis Pallas' holy ground,
Fair region of the brave and wise; ,
Behold the mystic domes arise,
Where many a secret sacrifice
And nameless rites abound;
And glittering altars crowd the plains,
And statues and high-towering fanes,
And priests with chaplet-bearing trains,
Their solemn vows perform.
Each hour the wonted feast requires,
And with returning spring,
For Bacchus breathe the living lyres,
And dance, and sweet contending choirs,
Salute the festive king. . ANoN.
Aristophanes having some aversion to the poet Euripides,
satirized him in some of his plays, º in his Frogs
and his Thesmophosiazusae. He wrote his Peace in the tenth
year of the Peloponnesian war, when a treaty for fifty years was
concluded between the Athenians and the Lacedaemonians,
though it continued but seven years. The Acarnenses was
written after the death of Pericles, and the loss of the battle in
Sicily, in order to dissuade the people from intrusting the
Safety of the commonwealth to such imprudent generals as
Lamachus. Soon after, he represented his Aves, or Birds, by
which he admonished the Athenians to fortify Decelaea, which
he calls by a fictitious name, Nephe ygia. The Vespae,










[B. C. 460
or Wasps, was written after another loss in Sicily, which the
Athenians suffered from the misconduct of Chares. He wrote
the Sysistrata when all Greece was involved in a war; in which
comedy the women are introduced, debating upon the affairs of
the commonwealth; when they come to a resolution not to go
to bed with their husbands till a peace should be concluded.
His Plutus, and other comedies of that kind, were written after
the magistrates had given orders that no person should be ex-
posed by name upon the stage. He invented a peculiar kind
of verse, which was called by his name, and is mentioned by
Cicero in his Brutus; and Suidas says, he was also inventor of
the tetrameter and octameter verse. Aristophanes was greatly
admired among the ancients, especially for the true Attic ele-
gance of his time. The time of his death is not known; but
he was living after the expulsion of the tyrants by Thrasybulus,
whom he mentions in his Plutus and other comedies.
The following is a specimen of the powers of Aristophanes
for humour and raillery. Demosthenes and Nicias are intro-
duced upon the stage as complaining of the fickleness and in-
gratitude of their master, Demus, in whose person the vices
of the Athenian people are covertly attacked, and inveighing
against the unprincipled conduct of the demagogue Cleon.
With reverence to your worships, 'tis our fate
To have a testy, cross-grain'd, bilious, sour,
Old fellow for our master; one much giv'n
To a beau diet, somewhat hard of hearing;
Demus his name, sirs, of the parish Pnyx here.
Some three weeks back or so, this lord of ours
Brought home a lusty slave from Paphlagonia,
Fresh from the tam-yard, tight and yare; and with
As nimble fingers, and as foul a mouth
As ever yet paid tribute to the gallows.
This tanner Paphlagonian, for the fellow
Wanted not penetration, bow'd and scrap'd,
And fawn'd, and wagg'd his ears and tail, dog fashion;
And thus soon slipp'd into the old man's graces. .
Occasional douceurs of leather parings,
With speeches to this tune, made all his own. .
‘Good sir, the court is up—you've judg’d our cause—
"Tis time to take the bath;-allow me, sir; –
This cake is excellent—pray sup this broth—
This soup will not offend you, tho' crop full—
You love an obolus; pray take these three– .
Honour me, sir, with your commands for supper.”— . .
Sad times, meanwhile, for us! With prying looks, e.
Round comes my man of hides; and if he finds us
king a little something for our master,
icontinently lays hi
nd modestly, in his own
s upon it,
name presents it!















B.C. 460.] FROM ARTAXERXES 1. TO PHILIP II. . 387
Then, none but he, forsooth, must wait at table;
We dare not come in sight, but there he stands
All supper time, and, with a leather fly-flap,
Whisks off advocates; anon the knave
Falls to his oracles; and when he sees
The old man plunged in mysteries to the ears,
And scar'd from his few senses, marks his time,
And enters on his tricks. False accusations
Now come in troops; and at their heels the whip.
Meanwhile the rascal shuffles in among us,
And begs of one, browbeats another, cheats
A third, and frightens all. “My honest friend,
These cords cut deep; you find it—I say nothing—
Judge you between your purses and your backs.
I could, perhaps.’—We take the gentle hint,
And give him all; if not, the old man's foot
Plays such a tune upon our hinder parts,
That flogging is a jest tot, a mere flea-bite.
There have been several translations and editions of his
works. Nicodemus Frischin, a German, famous for his classi-
cal knowledge, in the sixteenth century, translated Plutus, the
Clouds, the Frogs, the Equites, and the Arcanenses, into Latin
verse. Quintus Septimus Florens rendered into Latin verse
the Wasps, the Peace, and Sysistrata; but his translation is
full of obsolete words and phrases. Madame Dacier published
at Paris, in 1692, a French version of Plutus, and the Clouds,
with critical notes, and an examination of them according to
the rules of the theatre. Mr. Lewis Theobald likewise trans-
lated these two comedies into English, and published them
with remarks.
The first edition of Aristophanes is that of Aldus, Venice,
folio, 1798. The best since are—1. Kuster's, Amst. 1710,
fol. 2. Bergler's, 1760, 2 vols. 4to. 3. Brunck's, Strasburgh,
1783, 3 vols. 8vo. 4. That of Invernixi, Leipsic, 2 vols. 8vo.
1794. An English translation of The Clouds has been pub-
lished by Mr. Cumberland.
, ALCAEUS, an Athenian tragic poet, and one of the
first composers of tragedies. He renounced his native coun-
try, Mitylene, and passed for an Athenian. He left ten pieces,
one of which was Pasiphae, that which he produced when he
disputed with Aristophanes, in the fourth year of the ninety-
seventh Olympiad. .
PLATO, a Greek comic poet, who was contemporary with
Aristophanes and Euripides. He is said to have left twenty-
eight comedies, of which the titles of many are to be found in
Athenaeus, Pollux, and other writers. Of his works, only a
fºgment. remain, some of which are of the epigrammatic
a





C C 2
[B. C. 460.
RATES, a Greek comic poet, who was contem-
orary ato and Aristophanes. After the example of
the ancient comedians, who never introduced upon the theatre
imaginary, but living characters, he acted his contemporaries.
But he did not abuse the liberty which at that time prevailed
upon the stage. He laid it down as a rule to himself never to
hurt the reputation of any person. Twenty-one comedies are
attributed to him, of which there now only remain some frag-
ments, collected by Hertelius and Grotius. From these, how-
ever, it is easy to discern, that Pherecrates wrote the purest
Greek, and possessed that ingenious and delicate raillery which
is called Attic urbanity. He was author of a work on music,
and a kind of verse, called Pherecratic.
ARISTARCHUS, a tragic poet of Tegea, in Arcadia,
about B. C. 454. He composed seventy tragedies, of which
two only were rewarded with the prize. One of them, called
Achilles, was translated into Latin verse by Ennius.
ANTIMACHUS, a Greek poet of Ionia, in the age of
Socrates. He wrote a treatise on the age and genealogy of
Homer, and proved him to be a native of Colophon. He was
reckoned the next to Homer in excellence; and the emperor
Adrian was so charmed with his poetry, that he preferred
him to Homer. He wrote a poem upon the Theban war.
MELITUS, a Greek orator and poet, the accuser of So-
crates. The Athenians, after the death of Socrates, discover-
ing the iniquity of the sentence they had passed against that
philosopher, put Melitus to death, B.C. 400. . %
sº "º. a tragic poet, who gained the prize at the
Olympic games, B.C. 419. His works are lost.
AGATHO, a tragic and comic poet, disciple of Prodicus
and Socrates, applauded in Plato's Dialogues for his virtue and
beauty. His first tragedy obtained the prize, and he was
crowned in the presence of upwards of thirty thousand men,
the fourth year of the ninetieth Olympiad. None of his works
...” except a few quotations in Aristotle, Athenaeus, and
Others. . º .
, PHILOXENUS, a dithyrambic poet of Cythera. He en-
d the favour of Dionysius, tyrant of Sicily, for some time,
e offended him by seducing one of his female singers.
his confinement he wrote an allegorical poem, called
ps, in which he delineated the character of the tyrant
ider the name of Polyphemus, and represented his mistress
der that of Galataea, and himself under that of Ulysses.
* tyrant, who was fond of poetry and applause, liberated
xenus; but the poet refused to purchase his 1 v
gs unworthy of himself, and applauding
ionysius, and therefore he was se
liberty, he some time afte
































b. c.450.1 FROM ARTAxERxes 1 to Philip II. 389.
opinion at a feast about some verses which Dionysius had just
repeated, and which the courtiers had received with he great-
est applause. Philoxenus gave no answer; but he o d the
guards that surrounded the tyrant's table to take him º
the quarries. Dionysius was pleased with his humour and v
his firmness, and forgave him. Philoxenus died at Ephesus
about B. C. 380. . ºf
NAUCRATES, a Greek poet, who was employed by Arte-
misia to write a panegyric upon Mausolis. s . . . . . . . §
L IT E R A TU R E.
PRODICUS, a celebrated sophist and rhetorician of Cos
who flourished at this period. He was sent ambassador by the
Coans to Athens, where he taught publicly, and had among his
pupils, Socrates, Euripides, Theramenes, and Isocrates. He
travelled through most towns of Greece, and made his auditors
§ to hear his lectures; so that some of the ancients speak of
is orations as drawing fifty drachmas a piece. His writings
were numerous; and among them was the well-known beauti-
ful episode of Hercules's Choice, when addressed by Pleasure
ł Virtue, upon the hero becoming the votary of the
§. Prodicus experienced the fate of his excellent pupil,
Socrates, being at last put to death by the Athenians, from
jealousy of his merits, on pretence that he corrupted the morals
of their youth.
LYSIAS, an eminent Greek orator, born at Syracuse, about
the year B.C. 459. He accompanied his father to Athens
while he was very young, and was educated with great care in
that city. In process of time he became himself a teacher of
rhetoric, and composed orations for others, but does not ap-
pear to have been a pleader. He distinguished himself by the
eloquence and purity of his orations, of which it is said by
Plutarch, he wrote no less than four hundred and twenty-five,
though the number may, with more probability, be reduced to
two hundred and thirty; and of these only thirty-four remain,
which are to be found in the collections of the Greek orators.
He died in the eighty-first year of his age, and in the year
B. C. 378. Lysias attained great reputation in his time, which
his works afterwards supported; and he is mentioned by Cicero
and Quintilian. Lysias lived at a somewhat earlier period than
Isocrates; and exhibits a model of that manner which the an-
cients call the “ tenuis vel subtilis.” He had none of the pomp
of Isocrates. He is every where pure and Attic in the hig
degree; simple and unaffected; but wants force, and is s
*
ſid in his compositions. In the ju






























UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. [B.C. 436.
and Isocrates, he ascribes to Lysias, as the distinguishing cha-
racter of his manner, a certain grace or elegance, arising from
simplicity. In the art of narration, as distinct, probable, and
persuasive, he holds Lysias to be superior to all orators; at
the same time, he admits, that his composition is more adapted
to private litigation than to great subjects. He convinces, but
he does not elevate nor animate. The magnificence and splen-
dour of Isocrates are more suited to great occasions. He is
more agreeable than Lysias; and, in dignity of sentiment, far
excels #.
The first edition of Lysias is that of Aldus, 1513, folio; but
the best is that of Taylor, 4to., 1739.
ISOCRATES, a celebrated Greek rhetorician, was born at
Athens about the year B. C. 436. He received a good educa-
tion; but his father being ruined by the Peloponnesian war,
left him no other inheritance. He had studied under Gorgias,
Prodicus, and other great masters of eloquence; but the weak-
ness of his voice, and his want of a proper degree of confi-
dence, prevented him from exercising the talent of speaking in
public. He employed himself, therefore, in composing dis-
courses in his closet, and in teaching the art of rhetoric. He
was the instructor of Timotheus, son of Conon, whom he after-
wards accompanied to several parts of Greece, as his secretary.
He had numerous scholars at Athens, and was amply remune-
rated for some of his writings, particularly for a discourse
which he addressed to Niocles, king of Cyprus, for which he
received a sum º to between four and five thousand pounds
of our money. Though courted by the great, he had an ar-
dent mind in defence of what was just and right. When The-
ramenes, proscribed by the thirty tyrants, took refuge at the al-
tar, he pleaded in his defence, at the hazard of sharing his fate;
and after the death of Socrates, when all his disciples took
ght, he dared to appear in mourning in the public streets of
Athens. He passed a long life in peace and honour, and had
reached his ninety-eighth year at the fatal battle of Cheronaea,
when, unable to bear the calamity which had befallen his coun-
try, he abstained from all sustenance for four days, and ex-
spired. It was mentioned, to his praise, that he never, by writ-
ing or accusation, injured a single individual. A statue of
ºnze was raised to his memory by Timotheus, and another
is adopted son, Aphareus. The style of Isocrates is pure,
set, and flowing; he was extremely attentive to the harmony
s periods, and he is reckoned by Cicero as the first who
roduced into Greek prose that melody of which it is suscep-
He spent much time in polishing his compositions.
Athens is said to have cost him ten years'
























FROM ARTAXERXES I, TO PHILIP II.
rical, and the agonistical. His adopted son, Aphareus, wrote
thirty-seven tragedies.
The best edition of his Orations is that of Battie, at Cam-
bridge, 2 vols. 8vo., 1748. N.
ANTIPHON, the Rhamnusian, an Athenian orator. He
flourished about the year B. C. 430, and is said to have been
the first who laid down rules of oratory. It is also said he was
concerned in establishing the tyranny of the four hundred at
Athens, and on that account he was put to death, B.C. 411.
ALCIDAMUS, a Greek rhetorician, who was the disciple
of Gorgias, B. C. 422. There are two orations extant under
his name ; the first printed by Aldus, in his edition of the
Greek orators, 1518, and the second in the same printer's edi-
tion of Isocrates, 1518. Cicero notes a discourse of his in
praise of death. .
ANDOCIDES, an Athenian orator, son of Leogoras. He
lived in the age of Socrates, the philosopher, and was intimate
with the most illustrious men of his age. He was often ba-
nished; but his dexterity always restored him to favour.
ANYTUS, an Athenian rhetorician, who, with Melitus and
Lycon, accused Socrates of impiety, and was the cause of his
condemnation. These false accusers were afterwards put to
death by the Athenians. .
ANTIOCHUS, a Greek writer, was the son of Xenophanes,
and flourished about 420 years before the Christian era. He
composed nine books on the history of Sicily; also a very curi-
ous description of Italy; some fragments of both which works
may be found in ancient authors. .
MAGO, a Carthaginian, more known by the excellence of
his writings than by his military exploits. He wrote twenty-
eight volumes upon husbandry; these were preserved by Sci-
pio at the taking of Carthage, and presented to the Roman se-
nate. They were translated into Greek by Cassius Dionysius,
of Utica, and into Latin by order of the Roman senate, though
Cato had already written so copiously upon the subject, and
the Romans, as it has been observed, consulted the writings of
Mago with greater earnestness than the books of the Sybilline
ISAEUS, an orator of Chalcis, in Euboea, who flourished
about the end of the Peloponnesian war, the fourth century be-
fore the Christian era. When he came to Athens, he put him-
self under the instructions of the orator Lysias, from whom he
obtained the same purity, accuracy, conciseness, and perspi-
istinguished his master, with more force
. lence, and
es. It
ne
cuity of style, which dist
and vigour. He was ce
e honour of being the instructor of De
id that he was




















he opposite virtues. He lived to the time of king Phi-
. He was author of sixty-four orations, of which ten only
tre now remaining, which have been translated by Sir William
Jones, and were given to the world in 1779.
H1's To R Y.
HELLENICUS, a celebrated Greek historian, born at
ene. He wrote an history of the ancient kings of the
earth, with an account of the founders of the most famous
towns in every kingdom, and died B. C. 411, in the eighty-
fifth year of his age.
HERODOTUS, the eldest of all the Greek historians,
whose works are extant, and who is called by Cicero, “The
Father of History,” was born at Halicarnassus, in Caria, in the
first year of the seventy-fourth Olympiad, answering to the
year B.C. 484. . . .
damis, grandson of Artemisia, queen of Caria, Herodotus re-
tired to Samos; from whence he travelled over Egypt, Greece,
Italy, &c. and acquired the knowledge of the history and origin
many nations. He then began to digest the materials he
had collected, and composed that history which has preserved
his name ever since. He wrote it in the isle of Samos. Lu-
orms us, that when Herodotus left Caria to go into
gan to consid er with himself, ... º.º.
Halicarnassus being at that time under the tyranny of Lyg-
What he should do to be for ever known,
And make the ages all to come his own.
His history, he presumed, would easily procure him fame,
and raise his name among the Grecians, in whose favour it
was written. He afterwards re-visited his native place, and
fly instrumental in overthrowing the tyrannical govern-
º self alone ought to have immortalized
ar from gaining the esteem and admiration of
ispleased and irritated them, and Herodotus
f 1 Greece to avoid public resentment.
d his thirty-ninth year, a generous de
im publicly to recite his history to the
le Olympic games. It was recei
, and gave him a lasting celebr
. So highly was the his
, that the names of th
the



















































i.e. is] from ARTAxerxes I. to Philip II.
poets, and Demosthenes among the orators. His history com-
prehends a period of two hundred and forty years, from Cyrus
the Great to Xerxes, or, if we date its commencement about
B. C. 713 years, and its termination at the year B.C. 373, it
includes a period of about two hundred and thirty-four years,
and it contains, besides the transaction between Persia and
Greece, a sketch of the affairs of other nations, as the Lydians,
Ionians, Lycians, Egyptians, and Macedonians. Herodotus
had written a history of Assyria and Arabia, which is lost.
The life of Homer, generally attributed to him, is supposed by
some able critics not to have been written by his pen. Hero-
dotus, as an historian, is generally thought to be fond of the
marvellous. Many fabulous things are inserted in his history,
though not without sufficient intimations of his own disbelief,
or suspicion of them. And it is an argument greatly in favour
of this ancient writer, that his chronology requires less correc-
tion, according to Newton's canons, than that of any subse-
quent Greek historians. The greatest inconvenience attending
the perusal of his history, results from his method, which is
the most irregular and discursive that can be conceived; some
entire histories being introduced, as it were, by way of a pa-
renthesis in the bodies of others. Notwithstanding all his
faults, he is a most pleasing writer. His history fº been
translated into the most modern languages; the English ver-
sions are those by Littlebury and Beloe. “The style of He-
rodotus,” says one of his biographers, “ has always been ad-
mired for its force, ease, and sweetness.” Cicero compared its
course to that of the waters of a still river. With respect to
the matter of this historian, it has been the subject of discus-
sion almost ever since the first appearance of his work; some
have placed great confidence in his authority, and others re.
garded him altogether as fabulous. It is certain that he re-
lates many things respecting remote times and countries which
have all the air of fable; but there is reason to believe, acco
ing to his own assertions, that he gives the narrations as
heard them. With respect to those great transactions v
took place in Greece after his own birth, he is generally ti
to be deserving of credit, and the publication of his wor
general assembly of the nation, is considered as a vouche
his veracity. Nevertheless, he has been suspected
tiality in particular instances, and com
Breeks in ge.
ble author



































!ench. in 9 vols. 8vo.; and we have two in
tlebury, in 2 vols.; and the other by Beloe,
itt
THUCYDIDES, a celebrated Greek historian, born at
Athens B.C. 471. He was the son of Olorus, and grandson
of Miltiades, who was descended from Miltiades, the famous
Athenian general, who married the king of Thrace's daughter.
He was educated in philosophy and eloquence. His master
in the former was Anaxagoras, in the latter Antiphon; one,
by his description in the eighth book of his history, for power
peech almost a miracle, and feared by the people on that
account. Suidas and Photius mention, that when Herodotus
related his history in public, a custom then common, and many"
ages after, Thucydides felt such a pang of emulation, that he
shed tears; Herodotus himself noticed it, and congratulated his
father on having a son who showed so early an affection to
the Muses. Herodotus was then twenty-nine years of age,
Chucydides about sixteen. . When the Peloponnesian war
broke out, Thucydides thinking it would prove a subject
worthy of his labour; immediately began to keep a journal.
This explains the reason why he has attended more to chrono-
logical order than to unity of design. During the war he was
sent by his countrymen to relieve Amphipolis; but the quick
march of Brasidas, the Lacedaemonian general, defeated his
operations; and Thucydides being thus unsuccessful, was ba-
nished from Athens, in the eighth year of this celebrated war;
but during his banishment the general began to write an im-
partial history of the important events which had happened
during his administration, and which still continued to agitate
the states of Greece. This famous history is continued only
to the twenty-first year of the war, and the remaining part of
the time till the demolition of the walls of Athens, was de-
scribed by Theopompus and Xenophon. Thucydides wrote
in the Attic dialect, which has most vigour, purity, elegance,
and energy. Thucydides died at Athens, where he had been
recalled from his exile about B. C. 411. The best editions
are that of Hudson, Oxford, in 1696, folio; and of Duker, at
Amsterdam, 1732, 2 vols. folio. There are two English tran-
slations of Thucydides, one by Hobbes, and the other by
--- LISTUS, an eminent historian of antiquity, was, ac-
ng to some writers, a native of Naucratis, according to
yracuse. He was born about the year B. C. 43
t to Athens for his education, where he s
es and the poet Evenus. Fixing his a
omoted the schemes of Dionysius the










































B, C, 500.] FROM ARTAXERXES I. T0 PHILIP II.
connived at the criminal intercourse which Philistus maintained
with his mother; but upon the discovery of a secret marriage,
which he had contracted with the daughter of Dionysius's
brother, the tyrant banished him. Philistus retired to Adria,
where he employed his leisure in composing a history of Sicily,
and of the reign of Dionysius. He remained in banishment
till after the accession of Dionysius the Younger, when he was
recalled upon the persuasion of those courtiers who were jea-
lous of the influence acquired by the virtuous Dion, and his
friend the philosopher Plato, who had been invited to the
court of Syracuse. Philistus, by his arts, soon procured the
banishment of Dion, and brought himself into high esteem by
his tyrannical maxims. When Dion returned with an armed
force to rescue his country from tyranny, Philistus was made
admiral of the fleet to oppose him. An engagement ensued, in
which the royal fleet was defeated, and Philistus taken prisoner
and put to death in the year B.C. 357. He was a man of
learning and abilities, but his memory has been stigmatized for
the bad use he made of his talents. He was author of several
works, but is chiefly famous for his “antiquities of Sicily," and
his “history of Dionysius the Elder;” and of that part of the
reign of Dionysius the Younger, in two books. In his style he
was the imitator of Thucydides; his histories were long preserv-
ed in libraries, but no parts of them have reached modern times.
M U S I C.
ANTIGENIDES, a celebrated player on the flute, was a
native of Thebes in Boeotia, and the son of Satyrus, an eminent
performer upon the same instrument. He received instruc-
tions from his father, and likewise from Philoscenus, a famous
poet and musician, by which means he rose to such, celebrity,
that some of the first men of his time were his disciples. Peri-
cles put his nephew Alcibiades under the instruction of Anti-
enides; but that extraordinary character, seeing in a mirror
is face distorted by blowing the flute, broke the instrument in
pieces; an incident which rendered it unfashionable in Athens.
Antigenides introduced several improvements on the flute,
multiplying its apertures, and thereby rendering its sounds more
various and flexible. He himself played on it in all modes; the
imple AEolian, the varied Ionian, the plaintive Lydian, th
grave Phrygian, and the martial Dorian; and had like wise a
strain peculiar to himself, which gave him the reputation of
le inventor of a new species of music. He was a
being t . great
asserter of the º of the musical profession, and appeared
at public spectacles with the Milesian sandal, and the yellow
mantle he called Crocoton. He also composed lyric poems.















or being told that the Athenians had sent
quipped in new armour, replied, “Do
troubles himself when he sees new flutes
%
n the hands of Zellisº" Zellis was noted as a bad performer.
Athenaeus says that Antigenides was sent for to play at t .
King Of
nuptials of Iphicrates with the daughter of Cotys, king
Thrace.
DAMON, an ancient Grecian musician. Music, in general,
was in such favour, and the study of it was thought so essential
a part of education at Athens, in the time of Pericles and So-
crates, that Plato, and Plutarch have thought it necessary to
inform us of whom those two great personages received instruc-
ons in that art. Damon, the Athenian, was the music maste
º h. Damon had chiefly cultivated that part of music,
a concerns time and cadence, for which he is highly com-
Plato, who seems to have regarded rhythm as the
ial part of music, and that upon which the morals of
le depended more than upon melody, or, as the ancients
harmony. Pericles, the most accomplished character
uity, was not only a consummate judge, but a great en-
ger of all the arts. And in his life, written by Plutarch,
We old that the Muses bore a principal share in all the
public spectacles with which he entertained the people. He
not only regulated and augmented the poetical and musical con-
tests at the Penathenaean festivals, but built the odeum or
music-room, in which poets and musicians daily exercised them-
selves in their art, and rehearsed new compositions, before they
were exhibited in the theatre. -
LAMPON, a performer on the cithara, who taught So-
crates music in his old i. and who sung at a festival which
Xenophon gave to the philosophers. Socrates tells us, that he
º to compose verses after he was imprisoned, on ac-
ms, in which he was advised to attach
that it was i - a
in praise of Apollo, and set them to m
after put to death. . - ºr
PHRYNIS, a musician of Mitylene. He was the first w
ined a prize at the Panathenaea at Athens. He added two
* …º.º. always been used with seven by
;438. He was origin

























































B.C. 450.] FROM AF ſ ". XE R. K. as 1. To PH ILIP II.
MAt HEMAtics AND Astronomy.
HARPALUS, a Greek astronomer, who flouris
B. C. 480, corrected the cycle of eight years invented
stratus, and proposed a new one of nine years, in which he ima
gined the sun and moon returned to the same point. But Har-
palus's cycle was afterwards altered by Meton, who added ten
years to it. .
METO or METON, a celebrated mathematician of Athens,
who flourished B. C. 432, was the son of Pausanias. He ob-
served, in the first years of the eighty-seventh Olympiad, the
solstice at Athens, and published his cycle of nineteen years, by
which he endeavoured to adjust the course of the sun and
moon, and to make the solar and lunar year begin at the same
time. This is called the metonic period or cycle. It is called
the golden number, from its great use in the calendar. This
cycle of the moon holds only true for 310.1% years; for, though
the new moons do return to the same day, after nineteen years,
yet it is not to the same time of the day, but near an hour and
a half sooner; an error which in 310, a years amounts to an
entire day. It is known that Meton was living about the year
B.C. 412; for when the Athenian fleet was sent to Sicily, he
escaped from being embarked on that disastrous expedition by
counterfeiting an appearance of idiotism. § º g . . . . *;
DINOSTRATES, a mathematician, who lived in the time
of Plato, and attended his academy. He invented the qua-
drature or curve which is called by his name. .
PA I NT IN G.
POLYGNOTUS, a celebrated painter of Th
B. C. 422. His father's name was Aglaophon.
one of the public porticos of Athens with his pain º::::::: ...: ...:
which he had represented the most striking events of the Tro-
jan war. He particularly excelled in giving grace, liveliness,
and expression in his pieces. The Athenians were so pleased
him, that they offered to reward his labours with wh r
with h
Amphictyonic council, which was composed of the representa-
tives of the principal cities of Greece, ordered that Polygnotus
should be maintained at the public expence wherever he went.
ARISTOPHON, a painter in the age of Socrates. H
drew the picture of Alcibiades softly reclining on the bosol
the courtezan Nemaea, and all the people of Athens ran in
crowds to be †. of the masterly piece. He also made
a painting of Mars leaning on the arm of Venus.


























PARRHASIUS, a famous ancient painter of Ephesus, or,
as some say, of Athens; he flourished about the time of So-
crates, according to Xenophon. It is said, that he was excelled
by Timanthes, but excelled Zeuxis. His subjects were very
licentious.
AGATHARCUS, a native of Samos, who was employed by
AEschylus to paint scenes for his stage. §
ZEUXIS, a celebrated painter of antiquity, who flourished
about B. C. 400. He was born at Heraclea; but as there
have been many cities of that name, it cannot be certainly
determined which of them had the honour of his birth.
Some conjecture, that it was Heraclea near Crotona in Italy.
He carried painting to a much higher degree of perfection than
Apollodorus had left it; discovered the art of properly dispos-
ing of lights and shades, and particularly excelled in colouring.
He amassed immense riches; and then resolving to sell no
more of his pictures, he gave them away, saying, “That he
could not set a price on them equal to their value.” Pliny ob-
serves, that this admirable painter, disputing for the prize for
the painting with Parrhasius, painted some grapes so naturally,
that the birds flew down to peck them. Parrhasius, on the
other hand painted a curtain so very artfully, that Zeuxis mis-
taking it for a real one that hid his rival's work, ordered the
curtain to be drawn aside, to show what Parrhasius had done;
but having found his mistake, he ingenuously confessed him-
self vanquished, since he had only imposed upon birds, while
Parrhasius had deceived even a master of the art. Another
time he painted a boy loaded with grapes, when the birds also
flew to this picture, at which he was vexed ; and confessed,
that his work was not sufficiently finished, since, had he paint-
ed the boy as perfectly as the grapes, the birds would have
been afraid of him. Archelaus, king of Macedon, made use of
Zeuxis's pencil for the embellishment of his palace. One of
this painter's finest pieces was a Hercules strangling two ser-
pents in his cradle in the presence of his affrighted mother;
É. he himself chiefly esteemed his Athleta or Champion,
nder which he placed a Greek verse, that afterwards became
very famous, and in which he says, “ that it was easier to
iticise than to imitate the picture.” He made a present of
Alcmena to the Agrigentines. Zeuxis did not value him-
on speedily finishing his pictures; but knowing that Aga-
is gloried in his being able to paint with ease and in a
time, he said, “ That for his part he, on the contrary,
gloried in his slowness; and if he was long in painting, it was
because he painted for eternity.” Zeuxis died of laughter, or
looking at the representation of an old woman he had painted ,





















RTAXERXES I. To PHILIP II.
Architect URE AND sculpture.
CALLICRATES, an ancient sculptor, who engraved some
of Homer's verses on a grain of millet, made an ivory chariot
that might be concealed under the wing of a fly, and an ant of
ivory in which all the members were distinct. Aelian justly
blames him for exerting his genius and talents in things so use-
less, and at the same time so difficult. He flourished about
B. C. 472.
PHIDIAS, the most famous sculptor of antiquity, was an
Athenian, and flourished in the eighty third Olympiad. This
wonderful artist was not only consummate in the use of his
tools, but accomplished in the sciences of history, poetry, fable,
geometry, optics, &c. He first taught the Greeks to imitate
nature perfectly, and all his works were received with admira-
tion. They were also incredibly numerous; for it was almost
peculiar to Phidias, that he united the greatest facility with the
greatest perfection. His Nemesis, one of the first pieces, was
carved out of a block of marble, found in the Persian camp,
after the battle of Marathon. He made an excellent statue of
Minerva for the Plataeans; but the statue of this goddess in her
magnificent temple at Athens, of which there are still some
relics, was an astonishing production. Pericles ordered Phidias
to make a statue of the goddess; and Phidias formed a most
admirable figure of ivory and gold, thirty-nine feet high. But
what rendered his name immortal proved at that time his ruin.
He had carved upon the shield of the goddess his own portrait
and that of Pericles, and this was made a crime. Upon this he
withdrew to Elis, and made for the Elians the Olympic Ju-
piter; a prodigy of art which was ranked among the seven
wonders of the world. It was of ivory and gold, sixty feet
high, and every way proportioned. Phidias concluded his
labours with this masterpiece, and the Elians, to do honour to
his memory, appropriated to his descendants the office of keep-
ing clean this magnificent image. % N. . … : ::3%
POLYCLETUS, a famous sculptor of antiquity, was a
native of Sicyon, and flourished about the year B. C. 430. He
was supposed to have carried the art to the highest degree of
perfection, at least as far as the excellence of single figures
could go. One of his figures representing a life guard of the
king of Persia, was performed in such exact proportions, that
it was called the rule, and artists came to study it as a model.
He made the statue of a boy, which was estimated at a hun-
dred talents, or perhaps nearly twenty thousand pounds, ac-
cording to our mode of reckoning. The emperor Titus had




§
#
naked boys playing at a game, by his hand, which was con-
ed as a perfect performance. }. was peculiar to him, that
le formed almost all his figures supported on one thigh, which
made them appear deficient in variety. . .
SCOPAS, a celebrated Grecian architect and sculptor, a
nati ºphesus, or, as some say, of the isle of Paros. He
flourished about B.C. 430. He built the famous mausoleum
for queen Artemi
for queen Artemisia, which was esteemed one of the seven won-
ders of the world. But his chief work was a statue of Venus,
which he carried to Rome, where it was esteemed superior
even to that of Praxiteles. * . ; ; ' '... ; ;
º ICTINUS, a celebrated Greek architect, who lived about
B. C. 430, built several magnificent temples, and among others
that of Minerva, at Athens.
ANDRONICUS, of Cyorbrus, built at Athens an octagon
tower, with figures carved on each side, representing eight
principal winds. A brass triton at the summit, with a rod in
its hand, which turning with the wind, pointed to the quarter
whence it blew. From this model is derived the custom of
placing the weathercocks on steeples.
MEDIC IN E:
METRODORUS, a Greek physician, born at Chios, was
the disciple of Democritus, the philosopher, and the master of
Hippocrates, the physician, and Anaxarchus, the philosopher.
He maintained that the universe is infinite and eternal; but his
works are lost. He lived about B. C. 444.
HERODICUS, a physician, sirnamed Gymnastic, wh
ACRON, a celebrated physician of Agrigentum, in Sicily,
flourished, according to }. B. C. 439. In his time,
Athens was visited by the plague, which he is said to have ex-
pelled by burning perfumes to purify the air; a maxim he per-
haps learned in Egypt. He wrote some physical tracts in the
Doric dialect, which time has long since destroyed.
HIPPOCRATES, the greatest physician of antiquity, was
1 flourished during the Peloponnesian war.
island of Cos, in the eightieth Olympiad, B.C. 450,
r. He was the
first on record who laid down precepts concerning physic; and,
according to his biographer, Socrates, was descended from
Hercules and Æsculapius. He was first a pupil of his father,
ides, then of Herodicus, then of Gorgias, of Leontium,
itor, and, according to some, of Democritus, ra.
ing instructed in physic and the liberal art
i, he left Cos, and practised physical reeve ,
here he was so much admired for his skill, that he was pub-












































B.C. 490.] FROM ARTAXERXES I, TO PHILIP II. 401
licly sent for with Euryphon, a man superior to him in years, to
Perdiccas, king of Macedonia, who was then thought to be
consumptive; but Hippocrates, as soon as he arrived, pro-
nounced the disease to be entirely mental; for, upon the death
of Alexander, Perdiccas fell in love with Philas, his father's
mistress, which Hippocrates discerning by the great change
her presence always wrought upon him, a cure was soon effect-
ed. Being entreated by the people of Abdera to come and
cure Democritus of a supposed madness, he went; but, upon
his arrival, instead of finding Democritus mad, he pronounced
all his fellow-citizens so, and Democritus the only wise man
among them. He heard many lectures, and learned much phi-
losophy from him; which made Celsus and others imagine that
Hippocrates was the disciple of Democritus, though it is pro-
bable they never saw each other till this interview. Hippocrates
had also public invitations to other countries. Thus when a
plague invaded the Illyrians and Paeonians, the kings of those
countries begged him to come to their relief. He did not go ;
but learning from the messengers the course of the winds there,
he concluded that the distemper would come to Athens; and,
foretelling what would happen, applied himself to take care of
the city and the students. He was, indeed, such a lover of
Greece, that when his fame had reached as far as Persia, and
Artaxerxes entreated him, with a promise of great rewards, to
come to him, he refused to go. He also delivered his own
country from a war with the Athenians, that was just ready to
break out, by prevailing with the Thessalians to come to his
assistance, for which he received very great honours from the
Coans. The Athenians also honoured him greatly; they ad-
mitted him next to Hercules in the Eleusinian ceremonies;
gave him the freedom of the city; and voted a public mainte-
nance for him and his family in the prytenaeum at Athens,
where none were maintained but such as had done signal ser-
vice to the state. He died among the Larissaeans, some say in
his ninetieth year, some in his eighty-fifth, others in his hun-
dred and fourth, and some in his hundred and ninth. The
best edition of his works is that of Foesius, in Greek and
Latin. Hippocrates wrote in the Ionian dialect. His apho-
risms, prognostics, and all that he has written on the symptoms
of diseases, justlyJºss for master-pieces. . . . . . . .
D d

PERIOD XII.
FROM PHILIP II. To ProLEMY EUERGETEs.
[B. C. 400.]
ReMARKABLE FACTs, EvºNTs, AND discoveries.
B.C. -
394 The Corinthian war begun.
390 Rome burnt by the Gauls.
387 The peace of Antalcidas between the Greeks and Persians. The
number of Roman citizens amounted to 152,583.
384 Dionysius begins the first Punic war.
379 The Boeotian war commences. .
375 A general combination of the Greek states against the Lacedae-
monians. : .
371. The Lacedaemonians defeated by Epaminondas at Leuctra.
367 Praetors established in Rome. The Licinian law passed.
363 Epaminondas killed at the battle of Mantinea. .
358. The social war begun. .
357 Dionysius expelled from Syracuse. .
356 The sacred war begun in Greece. Alexander the Great born.
343 Dionysius II. expelled from Syracuse. Commencement of the Syra-
338 Philip of Macedon gains the battle of Chaeronea, and thus attains to
the sovereignty of Greece.
335 Thebes taken and razed by Alexander the Great.
334 The Persians defeated at Granicus, May 22.
333. The Persians defeated at Issus. &
332 Alexander takes Tyre, and marches to Jerusalem.
331 Alexandria built. Darius entirely defeated at Arbela. .
330 Alexander takes Babylon, and the principal cities of the Persian em-
, pire. The Calippic period commences. . .
328 Alexander passes Mount Caucasus, and marches into India,
327. He defeats king Porus, and founds several cities.
326 The famous sedition of Corcyra. ..
824. Alexander dies at Babylon.
323. His dominions divided by his officers,
316 His mother and family murdered. . . . . .
308 The cities of Greece recovered their liberties for a short time.
307 Antioch, Seleucia, Laodicea, and other cities, founded by Seleucus.
301 Antigonus defeated and killed at Ipsus.
IN B. C. 371 the Spartans received a severe check from the The-
bans at the battle of Leuctra; and eight years after was still further
reduced by the battle of Mantinea. Epaminondas, the great enemy
of the Spartans, was killed; but this only proved a more speedy




B. c. 882.1 FROM PHILIP 11. To PtoleMY EUERGETEs.
means of s º all the states to a foreigh, and, at that time, a
despicable power. The Macedonians, a barbarous nation, lying to
the north of Greece, were, two years after the death of Epaminondas,
reduced to the lowest condition by the Illyrians, another nation of
barbarians in the neighbourhood. The king of Macedon being killed
in an engagement, Philip II., ascended the throne, who formed the
ambitious project of bringing under his dominion the whole of
Greece. Philip began the conquest of Persia; and Alexander, his
son, prosecuted the designs of his father, to whom the Persian em-
pire submitted, B.C. 330. Rome, under the consulate, went through
various fortunes at this period, which, with the affairs of other na-
tions, the reader will be fully apprised of in the perusal of the lives of
the different characters in the succeeding pages of this section.
G O W E R N M E N T.
PHILIP II., king of Macedon, was the fourth son of Amyn-
tas II. He was sent to Thebes as an hostage by his father,
where he learned the art of war under Epaminondas, and stu-
died the manners and the pursuits of the Greeks. He disco-
vered, from his earliest years, that quickness of genius and great-
ness of courage which afterwards procured him so great a name.
On the death of his brother, Perdiccas III., he ascended the
throne, as guardian of his nephew, Amyntas III., whom he got
deposed, B.C. 360. The neighbouring nations, ridiculing the
youth and inexperience of the new king of Macedonia, appear-
ed in arms; but Philip soon convinced them of their error.
Unable to meet them as yet in the field of battle, he suspended
their fury by presents, and soon turned his arms against Am-
phipolis, a colony tributary to the Athenians. Amphipolis was
conquered, and added to the kingdom of Macedonia; and
Philip meditated no less than the destruction of a republic,
which had rendered itself so formidable to the rest of Greece,
º: d even claimed submission from the princes of Mace-
esigns, however, were a little immature, and be-
could make Athens an object of conquest, the Th.
cians and the Illyrians demanded his attention. He made hi
self master of a Thracian color hich h ºl.
ount of the gold mine
Neoptolemus, king of the Molossi sº
was the celebrated Alexander. Soon after Alexander's birth,
Philip wrote the following letter to Aristotle: “ Know the
sºn is born to us. We thank the gods, not so much for th
gift, as for bestowing it at a time when Aristotle 1
























































D d 2
UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. [B.C. 382.
assure ourselves that you will form him a prince worthy of his
father, and worthy of Macedon.” Every thing seemed now to
conspire to his aggrandizement; and historians have observed,
that Philip, in one day, received the intelligence of three
things, which could gratify the most unbounded ambition, and
flatter the hopes of the most aspiring monarch;-the birth of a
son, an honourable crown at the Olympic games, and a victory
over the barbarians at Illyrium. Paeonia was now one of his
provinces; on the east his dominions extended to the sea of
Thasos; and on the west, to the lake of Lychnidus. The
Thessalonians were, in effect, subject to his jurisdiction; and
Amphipolis secured him many commercial advantages. He
had a numerous and well-disciplined army, with plentiful re-
sources for supporting such an armament, and carrying through
his other ambitious schemes; but his deep and impenetrable
policy rendered him more formidable than all these put toge-
ther. His first scheme was the reduction of Olynthus, the
most populous and fertile country on the borders of Macedon;
after which, his ambition prompted him to acquire the sove-
reignty of all Greece. He had deprived the Athenians gradu-
ally of several settlements in Thrace and Macedon; but he took
care always to give such appearance of justice to his actions,
that his antagonists could hardly find a plausible pretext for
engaging in war against him. He perceived that the affairs of
the Greeks were drawing to a crisis, and he determined to wait
the issue of their dissensions. The Phocians ploughed up the
lands consecrated to Apollo; and the Amphictyons fulminated
a decree against them, commanding the sacred lands to be laid
waste, and imposing a heavy fine upon the community. Their
resistance to this decree involved all Greece in a new war.
Philip, at the beginning of this Phocian or sacred war, as it
was called, was engaged in Thrace, where a civil war had
taken place among the sons of Cotys. Philip interfered, and
his encroachments at length became so enormous, that Kerso-
bletes, the most powerful of the contending princes, ceded the
Thracian Chersonesus to the Athenians, who sent Chares with
a powerful armament to take possession of it. He took Sestos
by storm, and treated the inhabitants cruelly; while Philip re-
duced Methone, in Pieria, but during the siege lost his right
eye. All this time the Phocian war raged with fury, and in-
volved in it all the states of Greece. Lycophron, one of the
Thessalian tyrants, whom Philip had deprived of his authority,
had again resumed it; and his countrymen having taken part
he Phocians, Lycophron called in Onomarchus, the Pho-
ian general, to protect him against Philip; who, however, de-
eated Phyallus, the brother of Onomarchus, whom the latter
d sent into the country with a detachment of seven thousand
a. After this, he besieged and took the city of Pegasae,
W .







B. c.382. From PHILIP II, to ProLEMY EUERGETEs.
driving the enemy towards the frontiers of Phocis ; Onomar-
chus i. advanced with the whole army, and Philip being in-
ferior in numbers, was at first repulsed, and his troops harassed
in their retreat by rocks rolled down from precipices. But re-
turning soon with twenty thousand foot and five hundred horse,
whom he encouraged by reminding them that they were fight-
ing against sacrilegious wretches, the Phocians were utterly
defeated; upwards of six thousand perished in the battle and
pursuit, and three thousand were taken prisoners, The body
of Onomarchus being found among the slain, was hung upon
a gibbet, as a mark of infamy, on account of his having pol-
luted the temple, and those of the rest were thrown into the sea.
After this victory he set about the settlement of Thessaly;
and having detached Kersobletes from the interest of the
Athenians, he established him in the sovereignty of Thrace,
with a view to destroy him when a proper opportunity offered.
Were he once possessed of the dominions of that prince, the
way to Byzantium was open to him; and to pave the way for
this conquest, he attacked the fort of Heroeum, a small and
unimportant place, but valuable by its neighbourhood to By-
zantium. The Athenians at last began to perceive the designs
of Philip, and determined to counteract them; but too readily
giving credit to a report of his death, they discontinued their
preparations, and directed their whole attention to the sacred
war, which, instead of being ended by the death of Onomar-
chus, now raged with double fury. Phyallus undertook the
cause of the Phocians; and his affairs becoming every day
more desperate, he converted into ready money the most pre-
cious materials belonging to the temple at Delphi, and with
this treasure doubled the pay of his soldiers. By this new
piece of sacrilege he purchased the assistance of a thousand
Lacedaemonians, two thousand Achaeans, and five thousand
Athenian foot, with four hundred cavalry, which enabled him
to take the field with great prospect of success. Philip now
thought it time to throw off the mask entirely, for which the
proceedings of the Athenians, particularly their league with
Olymthus, furnished him with a plausible pretext; and the re-
venging such horrid sacrilege as had been committed at Del-
phi, seemed to give him a title to march at the head of an
army into Greece. The superstition of the Greeks, however,
had not yet blinded them to such a degree but they could per-
ceive that Philip's piety was a mere pretence; and that his
real design was to conquer the whole country. The Athe-
nians no sooner heard of the march of the Macedonian army,
than they despatched a strong guard to secure the pass of
Thermopylae; so that Philip was obliged to return, greatly
chagrined and disappointed. Their next step was to call an
assembly, to deliberate upon the measures proper to be taken

406 UNIVERS.
AL BIOGRAPHY. [B. C. 382
to restrain Philip's ambition; and this assembly is memorable
by the first appearance of Demosthenes as an orator against
Philip. Athens for some time was in a very alarming situa-
tion. They were deeply involved in the sacred war; their
northern possessions were plundered by Philip; while his mer-
cenary partizans drew off the public attention to such a degree,
that, instead of taking measures to counteract that ambitious
prince, they amused i. about the designs of the Per-
sian monarch, who was preparing for war against the Cyprians,
Egyptians, and Phoenicians. Isocrates the orator, and Pho-
cion the statesman, joined the multitude, from a sense of the
unsteady conduct of the Athenians, who, they were sure, could
not contend with so active a prince as Philip, and therefore
exhorted them to cultivate his friendship. Their arguments
were violently opposed by Demosthenes, who, in his address
to the people, exhorted them to awake from their indolence,
and assume the direction of their own affairs; to abandon all
romantic schemes of ambition; and instead of carrying their
arms into remote countries, to prepare for repelling the attacks
which might be made on their own dominions. He insisted
also upon a better regulation of their finances, a more equal
distribution of the public burdens, and upon retrenching many
superfluous expenses. ... He told them that they were not yet
prepared to meet Philip in the field; they must begin with
protecting Olynthus and the Chersonesus, for which it would
be necessary to raise two thousand light armed troops, with a
due proportion of cavalry, which ought to be transported to
the islands of Lemnos, Thaos, and Sciathos, in the neighbour-
hood of Macedon. But all this rhetoric could not prevail upon
the indolent Athenians to provide for their own safety. They
:. indeed, at this time, to have been º sunk in
effeminacy and dissipation, which disposition Philip took care
to encourage. There was an assembly in the city called the
sixTY, who met expressly for the purposes of extinguishing all
care about public affairs, and to intoxicate themselves with
every kind of pleasure. To this assembly Philip sent money
to support their extravagances; and so effectually did they
answer his purposes, that all the eloquence of Demosthenes
could not counteract the speeches of orators much his infe-
riors, when backed by Macedonian gold. The destruction of
Olynthus soon followed. This city, which held the balance of
power betwixt Athens and Macedon, was taken and plundered,
and the inhabitants sold for slaves. Philip's chief hopes now
depended on putting an end to the Phocian war. }.'.
purpose he affected a neutrality, that he might thereby become
the arbiter of Greece. His hopes were well-founded; for the
Thebans, who were at the head of the league against the Pho-
ms, solicited him on the other side, and the states, confede-











B. c. 382. FROM PHILIP II. To PtoleMy EUERGETEs.
rated with the Phocians, did the like on the other. He an-
swered neither; yet held both in dependence. In his heart he
favoured the Thebans, or rather, placed his hopes of favour-
ing his own cause in that state; for he well knew, that Athe-
nians, Spartans, and other states allied with Phocis, would
never allow him to pass Thermopylae, and lead an army into
their territories. So much respect, however, did he show to
the ambassadors from these states, particularly Ctesiphon and
Phrynon, from Athens, that they believed and reported him to
be in their interest. The Athenians, therefore, sent ten pleni-
potentiaries to treat for peace, among whom were Demosthenes
and AEschines; but though they were treated with the utmost
civility by Philip, they returned, after being put off for three
months, without coming to any conclusion. In the mean time,
he took from the Athenians such places in Thrace as might
best cover his frontiers, giving their plenipotentiaries, in their
stead, abundance of fair promises, and the strongest assurances
that his good-will should be as beneficial to them as ever their
colonies had been. At last a peace was concluded ; but the
ratification was deferred till Philip had possessed himself of
Pheraea, and saw himself at the %. of a numerous army.
He then dismissed the plenipotentiaries, with assurances that
he would be ready at all times to give the Athenians proofs of
his friendship. On their return to Athens, Demosthenes gave
it as his opinion, that the promises of Philip ought not to be
relied on. Æschines, however, was of an opposite opinion; and
the rest of the plenipotentiaries concurred with Æschines; and
the people, desirous of quiet, and addicted to pleasure, de-
creed that the peace should be kept. Phocion, the worthiest
in the republic, did not oppose Philip, as he considered that
Athenians of those times were nothing like their ancestors;
and therefore he was desirous, since they could not be the
head of Greece themselves, that they would at least be upon
good terms with that power which would be so. Philip, while
the Athenians were in this good humour, passed Thermopylae,
and entered Phocis with an air of triumph; which so terrified
the Phocians, that they gave up all thoughts of defence, and
submitted to his mercy. Thus the Phocian war, which had so
long employed all Greece, was ended without a stroke; and
the judgment on the Phocians remitted to the Amphictyons,
who decreed the walls of three Phocian cities to be demolished,
the people to pay a yearly tribute of sixty talents, and never to
use either houses or arms till they had repaid to the temple of
Apollo the money they had sacrilegiously carried from thence;
their arms to be broken to pieces and burnt, and their double
voice in the council to be taken from them and given to the
Macedonians. Other orders were also made for settling the
affairs, both of religion and state, throughout Greece; all of









UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY.
which were executed with exactness and moderation by Philip,
who paid the most profound respect to the council; and when
he had performed its commands, returned peaceably with his
army to Macedon, which gained him great reputation. At
Athens alone, the justice and piety of Philip was not under-
stood. The people began to see, though rather too late, that
they had been deceived by those who had negociated the late
peace. They saw, that, through the acceptance of it, the Pho-
cians were destroyed; that Philip was now master of Ther-
mopylae, and might enter Greece when he pleased; that, in
abandoning their allies, they had abandoned their own inte-
rest; and that, in all probability, they might soon feel the
weight of his powers whom they had so unwisely trusted; they
therefore began to take new and hostile measures; to repair
their walls, and fort, &c. But the influence of Demosthenes
prevented them from entering into such an unequal contest,
as he persuaded them to think of ruining Philip by degrees, as
by degrees they had raised him. Notwithstanding this reso-
lution, Diopithes, who had the command of the Athenian
colonies in Thrace, observed that Philip kept this army in ex-
ercise by taking several places in Thrace, which terribly in-
commoded the Athenians, and perceiving well what end he
had in view, did not stay for instructions from home; but hav-
ing raised, with much expedition, a considerable body of
troops, taking advantage of the king's absence with his army,
entered the adjacent territories of Philip, and wasted them
with fire and sword. The king, who, on account of the
operations of the campaign in the Chersonesus, was not at
leisure to repel Diopithes by force, nor, indeed, could divide
his army without imminent hazard, chose, like an able gene-
ral, rather to abandon his provinces to insults, which might
be afterwards revenged, than, by following the dictates of
an ill-timed passion, to hazard the loss of his veteran army,
whereon lay all his hopes. He contented himself, therefore,
with tº to the Athenians of Diopithes's conduct,
who, in a time of peace, had entered his dominions, and com-
mitted such devastations as could scarce have been justified in
a time of war. Philip's partizans supported this application
with all their eloquence; and insisted that they should recal
Diopithes, and bring him to a trial for this infringement of the
peace. But Demosthenes defended him; showed that he de-
served the praise, and not the censure of Athenians, for pro-
tecting their frontiers; and moved, that, instead of disowning
what Diopithes had done, or directing him to dismiss his army,
they should send him over recruits, and show the king of Ma-
don they knew how to protect their territories, and to main-
he dignity of their state, as well as their ancestors. A
decree was accordingly made, conformable to this motion.
While affairs stood thus, the Illyrians, recovering courage, and







B. c.382.] FROM PHILIP II. To ProLEMY EUERGETEs.
seeing Philip at such a distance, harassed the frontiers of Ma-
cedon, and threatened a formidable invasion; but Philip, by
quick marches, arrived at the borders of Illyrium, and struck
the barbarians with such a panic, that they were glad to com-
pound for their depredations at any price. Most of the Greek
cities in Thrace now sought Philip's friendship, and entered
into a league with him. About this time, Philip's negociations in
Peloponnesus began to come to light; the Argives and Messe-
nians, weary of the tyranny of the Spartans, applied to Thebes
for assistance; and the Thebans, from their aversion to Sparta,
sought to open a passage for Philip into Peloponnesus, that
in conjunction with them, he might humble the Lacedaemo-
nians. Philip readily accepted the offer, and resolved to pro-
cure a decree from the Amphictyons, directing the Lacedae-
monians to leave Argos and Messene free; which if they
complied not with, he, as the lieutenant of the Amphictyons,
might, with great appearance of justice, march with a body of
troops to enforce their order. When the Spartans had
intelligence of this, they immediately applied to the Athe-
nians, earnestly entreating assistance, as in the common
cause of Greece. The Argives and Messenians, on the other
hand, laboured assiduously to gain the Athenians to their
side; alleging, that, if they were friends to liberty, they
ought to assist those whose only aim was to be free. De-
mosthenes, at this juncture, out-wrestled Philip, if we may bor-
row that king's expression; for, by a vehement harangue, he not
only determined his own citizens to become the avowed enemies
of the king, but also made the Argives and Messenians not over-
fond of him for an ally; which, when Philip perceived, he laid
aside all thoughts of this enterprise for this time. He next
turned his arms against Euboea, and demolished Porthinos.
Soon after this he took Oreus; but the Athenians interfering,
Philip thought it prudent to abandon the project, and prose-
cute his conquests in Thrace, for which he made extraordinary
preparations. His son Alexander was left regent, and he him-
self with thirty thousand men laid siege to Perinthus, one of
the strongest cities in the country. But he was soon obliged to
raise it with great loss, as the inhabitants were not only assisted
by the Athenians, but also by the king of Persia, who was
now become jealous of the power of the Macedonian monarch.
They were likewise assisted by the Byzantines, who considered
it their interest to preserve Perinthus for their own security.
That the reputation of Macedonian arms might not sink by this
disgrace, Philip made war on the Scythians and Triballi, both
of whom were defeated; and then formed a design of invading
Attica, though he had no fleet to transport his troops, and
knew very well that the Thessalians were not to be depended
upon, if he attempted to march through Pisae, and that the The-



410 UNIVERSAL Biography. IB.c. ss.
bans would even then be ready to oppose his march. To ob-
viate these difficulties, he had recourse to his usual intrigues.
He excited the Locrians to insult the Amphictyons; and when
the latter called upon all Greece to avenge their wrongs, and
to raise an army for that intent, the number of troops sent to
the rendezvous for that purpose was so inconsiderable, that
#Eschines and his other creatures easily prevailed upon the
deputies from the different states to elect Philip their general,
with full power to act as he thought fit against such as had op-
posed the authority of the Amphictyons. Thus of a sudden
Philip acquired all that he sought; and having an army ready
in the expectation of this event, he immediately marched to
execute the commands of the Amphictyons in appearance, but
in reality to accomplish his own designs. For having passed
into Greece with his army, instead of attacking the Locrians,
he seized upon Elatea, a great city of Phocis, upon the Cephi-
sus. The Athenians in the mean time were in the utmost con-
fusion on the news of Philip's march. However, by the advice
of Demosthenes, they invited the Thebans to join them against
the common enemy of Greece. Philip endeavoured as much as
possible to prevent this confederacy from taking place, but all
his efforts proved ineffectual. The Athenians raised an army
which marched immediately to Eleusis, where they were joined
by the Thebans. The confederates made the best appearance
that had ever been seen in Greece, and the troops were exceed-
ingly good; but unfortunately the generals were men of no mi-
litary skill. An engagement ensued at Chraeonea; wherein
Alexander commanded one wing of the Macedonian army, and
his father Philip the other. The confederate army, in the be-
ginning of the battle, had the better, but Philip, drawing his
men up very close, retired to a neighbouring eminence, whence,
when the Athenians were eager in their pursuit, he rushed down
with impetuosity, and broke and routed them with prodigious
slaughter. This victory decided the fate of Greece; and from
this time we may reckon Philip supreme lord of all the Grecian
states. The first use he made of his power was to convoke a
general assembly, wherein he was recognized generalissimo, and
with full power appointed their leader against the Persians.
Having settled a general peace among them, and appointed the
quota that each state should furnish for the war, he dismissed
them; and, returning to Macedon, began to prepare for this
new expedition. His pretence for making war on the Persians
at this time was the assistance they had formerly given to
nthus. In the mean time, however, the dissensions which
reigned in his family made him quite miserable. He quarrelled
with his wife Olympias to such a degree, that he divorced her
and married another woman, named Cleopatra. This produced
a quarrel between him and his son Alexander, which also came



















B. c. 352.] FROM PHILIP II. To PTOLEMY EUERGETEs. 411
to such a height, that Alexander retired into Epirus with his
mother. Some time afterwards, however, he was recalled,
and a seeming reconciliation took place ; but in the meantime
a conspiracy was formed against the king's life, the circum-
stances and causes of which are very much unknown. Certain
it is, however, that it took effect during the exhibition of public
shows in honour of his daughter's marriage with the king of
Epirus. , Philip having given a public audience to the ambas-
sadors of Greece, was proceeding in state to the theatre, when
he was stabbed at the door by one Pausanias, who, endeavour-
ing to escape, was overtaken, but instead of being secured, to
discover his accomplices, was killed on the spot. “Thus,”
says Diodorus, after relating the circumstances of Philip's mur-
der, “thus fell the greatest potentate of his time. With very
small resources in his onset, he acquired the most powerful
monarchy that ever existed among the Greeks. His great suc-
cess arose less from the force of his arms and the greatness of
his victories, than from his extraordinary talent for reasoning
and conversation, and from his obliging and affable disposition
towards every class of men. He esteemed mere physical cou-
rage and strength of hand in the field as one of the lowest
qualities in a superior officer. He set an almost exclusive value
on military science, as distinguished from personal prowess, and
not less on the talent of conversing, persuading, and conciliat-
ing those over whom a general might be appointed to preside.
Upon these last he founded the only favourite opinion which he
entertained of himself; for he was wont to remark, the merit
of success in battle he could only share with those under him;
whereas, the victories he gained by argument, affability, and
kindness, were all his own.” Undoubtedly Philip was one of
the greatest monarchs that ever sat on a throne. Had he lived
longer, he would, in all probability, have subdued the Persians.
“Yet, even on this supposition,” as Dr. Gillies observes, “there
is not any man of sense or probity, who would purchase his ima-
gined grandeur and prosperity at the price of his artifices and
his crimes; and to a philosopher, who considered either the
means by which he obtained his triumphs, or the probable
consequences of his dominion over Greece and Asia, the busy
ambition of this mighty conqueror would appear but a deceitful
scene of splendid misery.” .
Philip was the first who caused gold to be coined in his own
name. He employed his wealth in procuring spies and parti-
sans in all the great cities of Greece, and thus making con-
|. without the aid of arms. At the siege of Methone in
Thrace, he received a wound in his right eye by an arrow.
§
Which was inscribed with the words, “fºr Philip's right eye.”
As the archer, who shot it, had offered his services to Philip,
11



412 UNIVERSAL Biography. [B.C. 382.


boasting that he could hit the swiftest bird on the wing.
Philip ridiculed his art by saying, that “he would be of use if
they were to make war with starfing ;” which made Aster join
the enemy and take this method of revenge. By assuming the
mask of a moderator and peace-maker, Philip gained confidence;
in attempting to protect the Peloponnesians against the encroach-
ing power of Sparta, he rendered his cause popular; and by
ridiculing the insults offered to his person as he passed through
Corinth, he displayed his moderation and philosophic virtues.
In his attempts to make himself master of Euboea he was un-
successful; and Phocion, who despised his gold as well as his
meanness, obliged him to evacuate an island whose inhabitants
were as insensible to the charms of money, as they were un-
moved at the horrors of war, and the bold efforts of a vigilant
enemy. From Euboea he turned his arms against the Scythians;
but the advantages he obtained over that indigent nation were
inconsiderable, and he again made Greece an object of plunder
and rapine. His behaviour after the battle of Chaeronea reflects
great disgrace upon him as a man and a monarch. In the
hour of festivity, and during the entertainment he had given to
celebrate his victories, Philip sallied from his camp, and with
the inhumanity of a brute, insulted the bodies of the slain, and
exulted over the calamities of the prisoners. His insolence,
however, was checked, when Demades, one of the Athenian
captives, exclaimed, “Why do you, O king, act the part of a
Thersites, when you can represent with so much dignity the
elevated character of an Agamemnon 2" The reproof was felt ;
Demades received his liberty; and Philip learned to gain po-
pularity even among his fallen enemies, by relieving their wants
and easing their distresses. The character of Philip is that
of a sagacious, artful, prudent, and intriguing monarch; he
was brave in the field, eloquent and dissimulating at home,
and he possessed the art of changing his conduct according to
the caprices of mankind, without even altering his purpose, or
losing sight of his ambitious aims. He possessed much perse-
verance, and in the execution of his plans he was always vigo-
rous. He had that eloquence which is inspired by strong pas-
sions. The private character of Philip raises indignation. The
admirer of his virtues is disgusted to find him disgracing himself
among the most abandoned prostitutes, and by the most un-
matural crimes and lascivious indulgences, which can make even
the most profligate blush. He was murdered in the forty-seventh
year of his age, and the twenty-fourth of his reign, about 335
years before the Christian era. His reign is interesting, and
his administration a matter of instruction. He is the first mo-
march whose life and actions are described with accuracy and
historical faithfulness. Philip was the father of Alexander the



B. c. 382.] FROM PHILIP II. To PTOLEMY EUERGETEs. 413


Great and of Cleopatra, by Olympias; he had also by Audaca
an Illyrian, Cyna, who married Amyntas the son of Perdiccas,
Philip's elder brother; by Nicasipolis a Thessalian, Nicaea,
who married Cassander; by Philaena, a Sarissaean dancer,
Aridaeus, or Philip III., who reigned some time after Alex-
ander's death; by Cleopatra, the neice of Attalus, Caranus and
Europa, who were both murdered by Olympias; and Ptolemy,
the first king of Egypt, by Arsinoe, who in the first month of her
pregnancy was married to Lagus. Of the many memorable
sayings reported by Plutarch of this prince, the following are
the most remarkable. Being present at the sale of some cap-
tives, in an indecent posture, one of them informed him of it;
“Set this man at liberty,” said Philip, “I did not know that he
was my friend.” A poor woman had often importuned him to
do her justice, but was told that he had no time to attend to
her petition; whereupon she said with some warmth, “ cease
then to be a king.” Philip felt the force of this reproof, and
immediately gave her satisfaction. Another woman came to
ask justice from him as he was going out from a great entertain-
ment, and was condemned. “I appeal,” exclaimed she. “And
to whom do you appeal?" said the king. “To Philip, fasting.”
This answer opened the eyes of that monarch, who retract-
ed his sentence. If he possessed any virtue, it was that of suf-
fering injuries with patience. Having learned that some Athe-
nian ambassadors charged him, in full assembly, with atrocious
calumnies; “I am under great obligations,” said he, “to those
gentleman, for I shall henceforward be so circumspect in my
words and actions, that I shall convict them of falsehood.”
One saying of Philip, however, does him less honour than those
above mentioned, viz. “ Let us amuse children with play-
things, and men with oaths.” This abominable maxim gave
rise to the observation, “ that he was in full length, what
Lewis XI., afterwards was in miniature.” It is well known that
Philip had a person about him who called out at times, “Philip,
remember that thou art mortal;” but whether we should place
this to the account of his pride or of his humility, it is difficult
to determine. . .
OLYMPIAS, a celebrated woman, was daughter of the
king of Epirus, who married Philip, king of Macedonia, by
whom she had Alexander the Great. Her haughtiness, and
more probably her suspected infidelity, obliged #. to repu-
diate her, and marry Cleopatra, the niece of king Attalus.
Qlympias was sensible of this injury, and Alexander showed
his disapprobation of his father's measures, by retiring from
the court to his mother. The murder of Philip, which some
have attributed to the intrigues of Olympias, was productive of
the greatest extravagancies. The queen paid the greatest ho-
nour to her husband's murderer. She gathered his mangled


414 UNIVERSAL biography. [B. C. 382,
limbs, placed a crown of gold on his head, and laid his ashes
near those of Philip. The administration of Alexander who
succeeded his father, was in some instances offensive to Olym-
bias; but when the ambition of her son was concerned, she did
not scruple to declare publicly, that Alexander was not the son
of Philip, but that he was the offspring of Jupiter, who, in
the form of an enormous serpent, had supernaturally intro-
duced himself into her bed. When Alexander was dead, Olym-
pias siezed the government of Macedonia; and, to establish her
usurpation, she cruelly put to death, Aridaeus, with his wife
Eurydice, and also Nicanor, the brother of Cassander, with a
hundred leading men of Macedon, who were inimical to her in-
terest. Such barbarities did not long remain unpunished; Cas-
sander besieged her in Pydna, where she had retired with the
remains of her family, and she was obliged to surrender after an
obstimate siege. The conqueror ordered her to be tried and to
be put to death. A body of two hundred soldiers were ordered
to put the bloody commands into execution; but the splendour
and majesty of the queen disarmed their courage, and she was at
last massacred by those who had been injured in themselves
and in their families by her tyranny. This happened about
three hundred and sixteen years before the Christian era. x
ALEXANDER I. king of Epirus, the son of Neoptolemus,
and brother of Olympias, the mother of Alexander the Great.
He was killed in Italy assisting the Tarentines.
EROSTRATUS, an Ephesian, who burnt the famous
ana the same night that Alexander the Great was
temple of Diº
DEMOCHARES, an Athenian, was sent with some of his
countrymen on an embassy to Philip, king of Macedonia.
The monarch gave them audience, and when he asked them
what he could do to please the people of Athens? Demochares
replied, “Hang yourself.” This impudence raised the indig-
nation of all the hearers, but Philip mildly dismissed them, and
bade them ask their countrymen, which deserved most the ap-
pellation of wise and moderate, they who gave such ill lan-
guage, or he who received it without any signs of resent-
PHOCION, an Athenian, one of the most virtuous charac-
untiquity, was of humble descent, but received a liberal
§
tion, and imbibed under Plato and other philosophers those
ted principles of conduct which governed his whole life.
\s he wished to serve his country equally in council and th
ield, he cultivated the talents adapted to both.
ved under Chabrias, a distinguished commander, but of an
%
aimed his esteem,































B # C, 38: . l
FROM PHILIP II, TO PTOLEMY EUERGETES.
single vessel among the islands to demand their contribu º
he conducted himself with so much prudence, that he brought
back with him all the ships and money at which they were assess.
ed. In the war with Philip of Macedon he obtained a complete
victory, and on this occasion he gave a signal proof both of his
wisdom and humanity. Before the battle he freely suffered
those to depart who had no inclination to fight, lest their
cowardice in action should disconcert the rest; and after the
victory he released his prisoners, knowing the danger they
would incur if brought to Athens, from the violence of the po-
pulace. Phocion, though an able general, was the habitual
friend of peace. He was too well apprized of the unstable
character of the Athenian democracy, and the talents and re-
sources of Philip, not to be convinced that a protracted war
must be fatal to his country; hence he was the constant op-
poser of those orators, who never ceased to urge the people to
hostilities, and to discountenance every proposal for accommo-
dation. The pure patriotism and integrity of Phocion were
founded on their only solid basis, contentment with a little.
Amidst the highest honours, his mode of living was as simple
and frugal as that of any common citizen. He possessed a
little farm, and was not ashamed to perform domestie offices
with his own hands. He had a wife who was a worthy partner
of his virtues, and placed her glory in his reputation. An
Honian lady once making a display before her of all her jewels
and other finery, “My ornament,” said the matron, “is my
good man Phocion, who is now called for the twentieth time to
the command of the Athenian armies.” When the people of
Megara were privately meditating an union with the Athenians,
Phocion zealously promoted the measure; and, assembling a
body of volunteers, marched thither, and was joyfully received;
and having rebuilt its walls, left it in a state of security, as a
valuable accession to the strength of Athens. When Philip
entered Phocis with the intention of invading Attica, Phocion
not confiding in the alliance with the Boeotians, meditated by
Demosthenes, was desirous of an accommodation, but he was
over-ruled, and the fatal battle of Chaeronea proved the just-
ness of his apprehensions. The death of Philip was celebrat-
ed with great rejoicings at Athens by Demosthenes and his
party, but Phocion discouraged such indecorous triumph, and
bid them remember that the victors at Chaeronea were diminish-
ed only by one man. In the same spirit of avoiding new ha-
zards, he disapproved of the contemptuous speeches relative to
young Alexander, and the attempts to form a confederacy
against the Macedonian power. '. length, after a long time
spent f his country, he was, for an error in
spent for the advantage of … .
judgment, accused of treason. The populace showed t
greatest exasperation against him, and would scarcely suffer
















416 UNIVERSAL Biography. I B.C. 382.
him to speak. At length, obtaining an interval from clamour,
he cried, “Athenians, I confess the crime charged against me,
and submit to the sentence of the law, but what have these in-
nocent men, pointing to some involved in the same punishment,
done to deserve death?” The cry of the people was, “They
are your friends, and that is enough.” The decree was then
passed adjudging them all to die, and some even proposed a
clause for putting Phocion to the torture. The aged patriot,
unmoved amidst the lamentations of his friends and fellow suf-
ferers, was led away, even his enemies admiring the serenity of
his demeanour. The popular indignation against him denied
his body a funeral in his own country, and it was carried by a
slave and burnt in the territory of Megara. A matron with her
maid attended on the obsequies, and raising an humble monu-
ment on the spot, collected his ashes, and deposited them under
her own hearth, praying the household gods to protect them
till they should be restored to the sepulchre of his ancestors,
when the Athenians should have recovered their senses. This
event took place, and his countrymen, repenting the wrong they
had done him, brought home his ashes at the public expence,
erected a brass statue to his memory, and punished with death
his accusers. This event occurred in the year B. C. 318.
PHOCUS, son of Phocion, was dissolute in his manners, and
unworthy of the virtues of his great father. He was sent
to Lacedaemon to imbibe there the principles of sobriety, of
temperance, and frugality. He cruelly revenged the death of
his father, whom the Athenians had put to death. ; . . .
ATHEAS, a king of Scythia, who implored the assistance of
Philip of Macedonia, against the Istrians, and laughed at him
when he had furnished him with an army. 3.
ASTER, a dexterous archer of Amphipolis, who offered his
services to Philip, king of Macedonia. Upon being slighted,
he retired into the city, and aimed an arrow at Philip, who
pressed it with siege. The arrow, on which was written,
“for Philip's right eye,” struck the king's eye, and put it out;
and Philip, to return the pleasantry, threw back the same ar-
row, with these words, “If Philip takes the town, Aster shall
be hanged.” The conqueror kept his word. º
ON &ARtič. a Phocian, son of Euthycrates, and
brother of Philomelus, whom he succeeded as general of his
countrymen, in the sacred war. After several exploits of valour
and perseverance, he was defeated and slain in Thessaly by Philip
of Macedon, who ordered his body to be ignominiously hung up,
for the sacrilege offered to the temple of Delphi, B.C. 353.
ANTIPATER, a native of Macedon, disciple of Aristotle,
and a faithful minister to Philip and Alexander. He was a
man of great abilities, and a lover of the sciences, but the fol-
lowing anecdotes tell more for him than any pen could say at




B. c. 356.1 FROM Philip II. To ProLEMY EUERGETEs.
this date. Philip, coming rather late one day to the levee,
said, “I have slept soundly this morning, but then I knew Anti-
pater was waking;” some person having remarked to Alex-
ander that all his officers of state wore purple except this prime
minister, “Yes,” replied he, “but Antipater is all purple within.”
Alexander left the government of Macedon to Antipater, while
he was abroad, who by his prudent conduct kept | Greece in
subjection. On the death of his master, in the division of ter-
ritories, the European provinces were assigned to Antipater.
Soon after, the confederate states of Greece attacked him, but
he subdued them, and completely overturned their democratic
forms of government, on which he was called the father of
Greece. He died B. C. 318, aged eighty. Having chosen
Polysperchon as his successor, his last advice to him was,
“never to allow a woman to meddle in state affairs.” º
CLITUS, brother of Alexander the Great's nurse, followed
that prince in his conquests, and saved his life by cutting off the
hand of Rosaces, which held an axe lifted up to kill him, at the
passage of the Granicus. Alexander, who had a great regard
for him, some time after invited him to supper; when Clitus, at
the end of the repast, being heated with wine, diminished the
exploits of that prince, in order to magnify those of Philip his
father. This so enraged Alexander, that he killed him with
his own hand, but he was afterwards so affected at it, that he
attempted his own life. . . . . º. º. º.
ALEXANDER III., king of Macedon, sirnamed the Great,
was the son of Philip, king of Macedon, by his wife Olympias,
daughter of Neoptolemus, king of Epirus. He was bor
Pella, in the first year of the one hundred and sixth Olympiad,
and the three hundred and fifty-sixth before the Christian era.
It was his good fortune to be contemporary with some of the
greatest men Greece ever produced. His first preceptor was
Lysimachus, an Arcanian; and as soon as he was of an age ca-
pable of receiving philosophical instruction, the great Aristotle
became his tutor, and appears in a high degree to have engaged
the esteem of his pupil. An early fondness for the poems of Ho-
mer, was probably, however, what gave the decisive turn of his
mind to military glory. Homer's character of Achilles became
his model; and during his whole life he displayed a passion-
ate .#. for the works of that illustrious bard. Many stories
are told of the early token he exhibited of a strong and elevat-
ed mind, destined to great actions. Of these, one of the most
characteristic, is the account of his conversation, when no more
than seven years of age, with Artabazus and other refugees
from the court of Artaxerxes. Among his questions to them.
concerning Persia were, “what was its military strength; the
ºrms and courage of its soldiers; the swiftness of its horses;
the character and manners of the king; and the number of
WOL. I. Ee #& * .3




418 UNIVERsal biography. [B. C. 356.
days' march from Macedonia to Susa” It is said too, that on
being flattered on account of his swiftness in running, and told
that he ought to enter his name among the competitors at the
Olympic games, he replied, “I would, were I to have kings for
antagonists.” He was much addicted to manly and martial
exercises, and particularly to the art of horsemanship; respect-
ing which, a story is related of the skill and courage he showed
in breaking the famous horse Bucephalus, whom none of his
grooms could venture to mount. On this occasion his father
was so much delighted, that tenderly embracing him, he bid
him look out for a larger country to govern, for that Macedo-
nia was not capable of containing him. His youth was not
only distinguished by these marks of an enterprizing spirit, but
by * rarer qualities of temperance, chastity, and self-com-
Iºla II (1.
Philip, on undertaking the seige of Byzantium, had entrust-
ed his son, then only sixteen, with the uncontrolled government
of Macedonia; which gave him the opportunity of indulging his
warlike disposition by marching against the revolted Medari,
a subject people of Thrace. His father afterwards employed
him in reducing various towns of the Chersonese. Soon after,
when the Greek mercenaries in Philip's army, on their march
through the country of the Triballi, mutinied against him, and,
in an affray, had beaten him from his horse and wounded him,
- Alexander, rushing forward, protected him with his shield,
and drove back the assailants, so as to save his father's life.
The famous battle of Chaeronea, between Philip on one side,
and the Athenians and Thebans on the other, ensued in the
eighteenth year of Alexander's life; in which combat the young
prince, by his fierce attack on the Theban legion, contributed
greatly to the victory. It was in his twentieth year that Alex-
ander, without opposition, succeeded to the throne of Mace-
dom. His youth, at first, excited an inclination in several of
he states of Greece, to throw off the yoke of the Macedonian
º
§
usurpation; and Attalus, commander of the armies of the fron-
tiers of Asia, endeavoured to engage the soldiers in his own
*...
nterest, as competitor for the crown. But Alexander, by a
iden march into Thessaly, overawed the Greeks, so that they
ared him his father's successor in the generalship of the
ile nation; and, by means of a confidential emissary, he
sed Attalus º: put to death. X.
eing now confirmed in the regal authority, he began his
military career with an expedition into Thrace; in which he
penetrated across Mount Haemus, into the country of the Tri-
ballians, the modern Bulgarian, whom he defeated, and dro
he Ister, or Danube. He followed them, and el
e, a barbarous nation, who inhabited the

























b. c.350. From philip II, to proleMy EUergetes. 419
ceived embassies from various circumjacent people, among
whom were the Celtes, a brave and high-spirited race, who
manifested little dread of his arms. With these, and other
neighbouring tribes, he made a peace; and set out on his re-
turn, after having rather displayed his valour and military skill
in this enterprize, than gained any solid advantages. In his
march he was drawn aside by a revolt of the Illyrians, under
Clytus, who was supported by Glaucias, king of the Taulanti-
ans. These he defeated with great slaughter, and drove to the
mountains.
Meantime a report of his death excited great commotions in
Greece, chiefly from the instigation of Demosthenes, the in-
veterate foe of the Macedonian domination. The city of
Thebes openly revolted, and having put to death two chief
commanders of the Macedonian garrison, prepared to besiege
the citadel. The intelligence of these events caused Alexander
to hasten his march into Greece; and such was his expedition,
that he passed the straits of Thermopylae, and entered Boeotia,
before the Thebans were undeceived as to his death. He
appeared willing to give them time to recollect themselves;
but their resolution, and love of freedom, prompted them to
stand a siege, in which the city was taken by storm, with a
dreadful slaughter of the inhabitants. So much was Alexander
incensed, that he sold all the remaining people for slaves, di-
vided their lands among his soldiers, and razed all the private
buildings, sparing only the house in which the poet Pindar had
dwelt. Having reduced Greece to a state of tranquillity, he
repaired to Corinth, where, at a general assembly of the states,
his office of supreme commander was recognized and defined.
An answer that he made to one who asked the cause of his
wonderful success, in quieting the dangerous tumults in Greece,
is worth recording. “It was,” said he, “by delaying nothing.”
Philip, before his death, had cast his eyes upon Persia, but
was cut off in the midst of his enterprise; but Alexander de-
termined to prosecute the designs of his father, with regard to
that empire. .
It was in the twenty-second year of his age, B.C. 334, that
Alexander crossed §. Hellespont into Asia. The army he
took with him on this mighty enterprize, amounted to no more
than about thirty thousand foot, and five thousand horse. The
lieutenants of Darius Codomanus, king of Persia, opposed him
at the river Granicus, where Alexander obtained a complete
victory, after which he pursued his march through Asia. At
Ipsus he was met by Darius in person, at the head of a pro-
digious army, where he obtained a complete victory, and took
There are several anecdotes connected with these memor-
able battles, which, though differently told by the differen
. E e 2










49
0. : Universal Biography. [B. c. 356.
authors who have related them, appear to have a solid founda-
tion in fact. Darius having fled from the pursuit of Alexander,
quitted his chariot, and mounted a horse; Alexander secured
the chariot, in which were found the shield, bow, and cloak of
Darius, which he brought to the Persian camp. Some one in-
considerately conveyed this intelligence to the wife, mother, and
daughters of Darius, who were now prisoners in the camp, and
who, concluding that their lord must have been slain, instantly
raised a loud and very piteous lamentation. On learning the
cause of their distress, Alexander humanely sent Leonatus, one of
his principal officers, to inform them that Darius was not dead,
but that, on the contrary, as he had outstripped his pursuers,
there was every reason to believe that he had reached a place
of safety; adding an assurance, on the part of the Macedonian
commander, that the princesses would be treated by him with
the utmost delicacy, and in a manner becoming their royal
rank; and that even towards the king himself, he entertained
no personal enmity, farther than was implied in their contest for
the dominion of Asia.
It is likewise reported, that Alexander, on the following day,
taking with him his favourite general Hephaestion, repaired to
the tent of the captive ladies, to pay them a visit of condolence.
On entering the apartment together, without any one to an-
nounce him, the mother of Darius, mistaking the attendant for
the prince, threw herself, after the Persian manner, at the feet
O
f Hephaestion, who, as it should seem, appeared in her eyes the
more dignified and gainly person. The general, drawing him-
self i. pointed to Alexander, who immediately relieved the
embarrassment of the aged queen, by telling her that she had
committed no mistake, for that man, to whom she paid her re-
spects, was worthy to be esteemed his equal. “Hephaestion,”
said he, “ is another Alexander.” “This passage,” adds
Arrian, “I neither relate as truth, nor condemn as fiction; if
it be true, the pity and indulgence shown by Alexander to the
women, and the honour bestowed on his friend, deserve com-
mendation ; whilst, if we suppose them feigned, and only re-
lated as probabilities, it is still honourable to him to have had
such speeches and actions recorded of him by the writers of
his own times, not only as being generally believed, but as con-
sonant with the character which he bore among his contempo-
raries.” " . . . - . . . .
* Arrian further informs us, that soon after the battle of Ipsus,
a confidential eunuch in the service of the captive queen, found
means to repair to her unfortunate husband, now returned to
his capital. On his first appearance, Darius hastily asked
whether his wife and children were alive; and when the mes-
assured him they were not only well, but treated with
the respect due to royal personages, the fears of the unfor-





B. c. 356.] FROM PHILIP II. To PTOLEMY EUERGETES. 421

tunate monarch took another direction. The queen is said to
have been the most beautiful woman in Persia; Darius's next
question, therefore, was, whether his honour was still entire, or
whether she had yielded to her own weakness, or the violence
of others? The eunuch protesting, with solemn oaths, that
she was as pure as when she parted from her husband, and
adding, that Alexander was the best and most honourable of
men, Darius raised his hands towards heaven, and exclaimed,
“O great God, who disposest of the affairs of kings amongst
men, preserve to me the empire of the Persians and Medes, as
thou gavest it; but if it be thy will that I am no longer to be
king of Asia, let Alexander, in preference to all others, succeed
to my power.” So powerfully, observes the historian, does ge-
nerous conduct gain the affections even of an enemy. ź
The victory of Ipsus opened a passage for the confederates
into the heart of Asia; but before proceeding eastward, Alex-
ander thought it expedient to subject to his dominion the Per-
sian province of Syria and Phoenicia. With this view, he
despatched Parmenio with a body of troops, to reduce Da-
mascus, the principal city of the former district, in which, too,
Darius had placed his treasury, and whither many of the fu-
gitives from the late battle had fled for refuge. In this under-
taking the success of the Macedonian general was rewarded,
not only with the capture of the military chest, destined to
maintain the enemy's army, and to secure the fidelity of their
Grecian allies, but also with the seizure of several prisoners of
importance, who had been commissioned to attend Darius by
a party opposed to Alexander at Sparta, Athens, and Thebes.
While Parmenio advanced upon Damascus, Alexander led
the rest of his army towards the coast of Phoenicia. The main
object of the conqueror in following this route, was to reduce
the city of Tyre, a place of great importance as a maritime
station, and whence, as he was well aware, the Persian navies
derived their best recruits and most abundant supplies. Be-
fore, however, he engaged in the famous siege, by which he
found it necessary to subdue this mistress of the seas, a depu-
tation overtook him at Marathus, charged with offers of friend-
ship and alliance, and with a request, as from a king to a king,
that his wife and daughters might be released. The answer of
Alexander, it is well known, was extremely haughty and threat-
ening. He accused the Persian monarch of intriguing with
the Greeks, and even of having countenanced the conspi-
racy, for assassinating his father, Philip. He recounted all
the injuries which the Macedonians had sustained, or had
cause to fear, at the hands of the Persian faction in the re-
publican states, and concluded by announcing to Darius his
Pretensions to the sovereignty of all Asia, and his readiness to
treat him as a vassal prince. As lord paramount of the East,


UNIversal BioeRAphy. [B. c. 356.
young hero invited the vanquished king of the Medes and
ersians to come personally to him and prefer his request.
“If you have any apprehension for your safety, send a confi-
dential person to receive my jºi faith. When with me,
ask for your wife and children, and whatever else you may de-
sire, and you shall have all; ask freely; nothing shall be re-
fused. But, whenever hereafter you would communicate with
ne, I must be addressed as king of Asia, lord of all you pos-
sess, and of all you can desire; otherwise I shall consider my-
self undutifully treated. If you propose yet to dispute with
me the sovereignty of Asia, be it so, and prepare for my ap-
proach : I shall seek you wherever you may happen to fix
your quarters.” .
Proceeding northward to Tyre, Alexander was met by the
son of the governor, accompanied by some of the principal
townsmen, offering him allegiance, but refusing, upon any ac-
count, to allow him to enter within the walls. Aware of their
disposition, and sensible, at the same time, that it would not be
rudent to advance into Egypt, leaving so powerful an enemy
behind him, he submitted to his officers a proposal either to
demand from the Tyrians an unequivocal avowal of their alli-
ance, or, in the event of their refusal, to compel them, by force
of arms, to open their gates.
We cannot enter into the details of the memorable siege
which followed. The insular situation of the town, at the dis-
tance of half a mile from the shore, gave the Tyrians many
opportunities of defence, and numerous advantages in repellin
the invader, which, directed by an unusual degree of skill and
courage, had nearly baffled all the efforts of Alexander.
mote, stretching from the main land to the island, facilitated
he operations of the conqueror; but it was not till he had
rtained a fleet, and trained his men to fight on shipboard,
at he found himself a match for the expert sailors of Tyre,
who destroyed his works as fast as he erected them, and burnt
his towers and machines before they could be brought to act
against their ramparts. At length, after a siege of seven
months, the Macedonians took the city by storm, putting eight
thousand of the inhabitants to the sword, and reducing to
º
slavery not less than thirty thousand, who had survived the
ors of the bombardment, and the carnage of the last as-
lt. It was while Alexander lay before Tyre that a second
leputation reached him from Darius, bringing the offer of ten
thousand talents, about two millions sterling, for the ransom of
his family, and proposing a treaty of peace and alliance. To
further this last object, the Persian offered the additional
lucement of his daughter in marris
*ge, and of all the coun-
ween the Euphrates and Mediterranean sea, in name
ty. The proposal was, as usual, submitted to his coun-
































B. c. 356.] from Philip II, to PtoleMY EUERGETEs.
testimony of historians, that the Macedonian prince pro-
nounced, in reply to one of his generals, the pithy expression
which has been so often repeated, and so inconsiderately ad-
mired. “If I were Alexander,” said Parmenio, “I would ac-
cept the terms.”—“And I," rejoined Alexander, “were I
Parmenio.” - .
Gaza was now the only town in Syria which intervened be-
tween the Macedonian and his views upon Egypt. It occu-
pied a strong position in the midst of deep sand, which ren-
dered approach to it extremely difficult; but as Alexander was
resolved to leave behind him no fortress of any consequence in
the hands of the enemy, he instantly adopted measures for its
reduction. The garrison, according to the statement of Arrian,
consisted of Arabians, hired for the purpose by Batis the go-
vernor, who likewise had laid up an immense stock of provi-
sions, to enable him to hold out during the siege which the
obstinacy of the Macedonians, in their investment of Tyre, had
prepared him to expect. But no precautions were found suffi-
cient against the resolute bravery of Alexander. The place
was taken by storm after a gallant defence on the part of the
citizens, who, when they saw the enemy within their walls, col-
lected together in a body, and fought till every man lost his
life on the spot on which he stood. The women and children
were, as usual, sold as slaves, to reward the toils of the con-
querors; and the town itself was bestowed upon the partizans
of Macedonia, who forthwith founded a colony amidst the ruins
of its buildings. . gº
The fall of Gaza was rendered memorable by a wound which
Alexander received whilst conducting an assault against the
ramparts, and which has been recorded by historians with all
the accompaniments of credulity and superstition usual on such
occasions. Plutarch, whose love of º marvellous had no
bounds, relates a variety of particulars concerning it, full of
augury and omens; but the only thing which admits of no
doubt, is the fact that the captain-general of Greece was se
verely wounded in leading up his men to the enemy's walls, at
a period of the siege so extremely critical, that personal exam-
ple and encouragement had been absolutely necessary.
Syria, including Judaea, Samaria, and Phoenicia, being
added to the conquests of Alexander, he lost no time in dir
º: march towards the richer and more important provinces
In Egypt the conquero §::::::::::...º.
of joy and satisfaction; the Persians h her
detested by despising the religion of the country. Ale
allowed the Egyptians to retain their own la wº
order to reconcile them to his holding the
cil; and it was on this occasion, according to the concurrent



















- UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. [B. c. 356.
A romantic piece of vanity led him across the scorching sands,
to the temple of Jupiter Ammon, where fifty thousand men of the
army commanded by Cambyses, had been buried. It is said he
was desirous to be thought the son of Jupiter; but his mother,
Olympias, wrote to him in raillery, not to create a fit of jealousy
between her and Juno. He founded the city of Alexandria,
in Egypt, which was an undertaking more worthy of a great
man, and undoubtedly much more to his honour, than the sacri-
legious flattery offered to him by the priest of Jupiter.
... Darius had time to assemble seven or eight hundred thou-
sand men; and Alexander, always attended with success, pass-
ed the rivers Euphrates and Tigris without opposition, where
he presented himself in the face of the enemy, placing his
whole dependence upon the known valour of his troops. The
advice which Parmenio gave him, to attack the enemy in the
night, must have lost him this advantage; but he replied with
judgment, as well as greatness of mind, that it did not suit him
to steal a victory. The famous battle of Arbela brought him
to the very summit of prosperity. The left wing, where Par-
menio commanded, was in danger, and the cavalry of Darius
had begun to plunder the camp, when Alexander, who was suc-
cessful on the other wing, sent orders to Parmenio not to be
uneasy about his baggage, but to think only of conquering;
which order had a wonderful effect, for he soon gained a
very complete victory. Arrian reckons three hundred thou-
sand of the enemy killed in the field, and less than twelve hun-
dred Macedonians. Though Darius had an infinite number of
men, yet he had but few soldiers in his army, which was the
cause of his misfortune. He showed no want of courage dur-
ing the action, but was hurried along by his flying troops.
Babylon, Susa, Persepolis, and Ecbatana had already fallen
the hands of the conqueror, and the immense riches which
were found in these places very soon corrupted his army. The
burning the palace of Xerxes, at Persepolis, should be looked
upon as a prelude to those excesses in which he was about to
plunge himself. It is said the courtezan Thais urged him to
d
mit horrid barbarity while he was engaged in a scene of
any o
uchery. From this time forward we can scarcely trace
f those virtuous sentiments of which he had given so
roofs; debauchery, cruelty, and ingratitude tarnished
glory; and he who formerly would have no cooks but
y and exercise, now passed day and night in riots and
ame fond of the luxury and ornaments of the
ich he had formerly despised, and scorned
§
of the brave Macedonians, who had been
by which he had gained so many viº
people should adore him; and lai
ings and rebellion. A conspiracy
































B. c. 356.] FROM PHILIP II. To PTOLEMY EUERGETEs.
against him in his camp, of which Philotas, the son of Parme-
mio, was informed; but believing it to be false, he neglected to
mention it; however, he was put to death as a traitor; but yet
his real offence was wounding the pride of the king, by im-
prudent haughtiness. The illustrious Parmenio, who had
been so highly esteemed by Philip, and without whom Alex-
ander had done nothing of importance, was assassinated by
order of the king, probably from an apprehension that he
would revenge the death of his son; such, however, was the
esteem which the soldiers had for Alexander, that he disarmed
the seditions by a single word.
He carried his conquests next into Bactriana and Sogdiana,
where Bessus had assumed the title of king; but was punished
for his wickedness. The Scythians, notwithstanding their being
imputed invincible, were likewise defeated. -
The horrid murder of Clitus presents an affecting scene to
our consideration. That old officer, beloved by Alexander,
whom he had saved in battle, retained the haughty freedom of
the old manners, which having indulged too far at a festival,
proved the occasion of his death. Alexander, heated with
wine, and boasting of his exploits so as to lessen those of his
father, Philip, Clitus so far forgot himself as to offend the king
by some expressions of contempt and indignation, and the
haughty monarch killed him with a stroke of his javelin. Re-
morse and despair were the immediate consequences; but the
courtiers found means to dispel them. A formal decree was
passed, that the murder of Clitus was an act of justice, and
from that time liberty was almost annihilated in every heart.
However, the Macedonians did not debase themselves like
the other servile Greeks, so as to prostitute divine honours by
offering them to their king. One of the courtiers proposed
that it should be done; upon which, Callisthenes, a severe, in-
flexible philosopher, in a discourse, full of evident truths, re-
fated what had been urged by the courtier in its favour; but
Alexander saw nothing in this but a spirit of rebellion, and
Callisthenes very soon felt the effects of his resentment. He
Was suspected of being concerned in a plot formed by Hermo-
laus, with whom he had an intimacy, and without any proof
having been adduced against him, was thrown into a dungeon,
Where he was put to death for an imaginary offence, leaving to
the king eternal shame, for having been guilty of a premedi-
tated act of injustice. - º . . . . . . . -
If Alexander had been blessed with as much prudent policy
* his father, he would have been more solicitous to have se.
$ºred than to have extended his conquests, and would not
have attempted any but what could have been preserved by
human aid; but the more he was favoured by fortune, the
*ore he gave himself up to the intoxication of his pride and


UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY, [B.C. §56.
&
º,
under the command of Nearchus, he himself went on bo
vanity. The confines of the Persian monarchy seemed to him
to be too limited, and imagining that he ought to follow the
steps of Bacchus and Hercules, he undertook to bring India
i. his dominion. Taxiles, one of the kings of the country,
came to meet him, and, according to Plutarch, addressed him
in the following language: “O Alexander, if you do not in-
tend to deprive us of our food and our water, which are the
only things for which reasonable people ought to take up arms,
wherefore should we fight : As to what the world calls riches,
if I have more than you, I am ready to give you a part; if I
have less, I am willing to owe you a favour.” Alexander ac-
cepted his gifts, and loaded him with presents, offering him, at
the same time, his friendship and protection. But Porus, ano-
ther Indian king, more bold .." haughty, prepared to repel
the invasion of the conqueror, who having crossed the Indus,
arrived on the banks of the Hydaspes, where Porus, with a nu-
merous army, was expecting him on the opposité shore. He
deceived the enemy by a stratagem, and having happily passed
over that large river, defeated the Indians, notwithstanding
their elephants and the courage of their king, whom he ordered
to be spared, because he had behaved like a hero. When Po-
rus was brought into his presence, he asked him how he de-
sired to be treated? “Like a king,” answered Porus. “From
self-love I agree to that,” replied Alexander. He kept his
word, and thereby gained a faithful ally. He built in these
parts two cities, and still proceeding, crossed the Acesines and
Hydraotes, and gained fresh victories over the Indians. The
last place he took was the city of Sangoela, after which, he pre-
pared to pass the Hyphasis; but here the discontents of his
army, at being led from country to country, without any pro-
posed object, or termination of their toils, arose to such a
eight, that, after attempting in vain to work upon them by
addresses to their love of glory and plunder, and loyalty to
their prince, he was compelled to yield to their desires, and put
an end to his progress. He caused twelve altars to be erected,
of extraordinary size, to mark the limits of his conquests, and
offered sacrifices upon them, and exhibited games, according
to the Grecian manner. Then, making a present of all the con-
quered country to Porus, to be annexed to his own dominions,
al d dividing his army into two parts, he set out on his return.
rriving at the Hydaspes, he made vast preparations for the
& embarkation of part of his army on this river, with the inten-
tion of descending to the Indus. When the fleet was .*.
with h s light troops , sending
ź ** . : § 1 š Š > º, : gress, a. . . § . ºx. . . --- 2. . . r º . %:. t ng, m º ~ z.






















B. C. 35. 5.]
FROM PHILIP II. T0 PTOLEMY Et
427
pose him. In storming their principal city, he met with an
adventure which strongly characterises his desperate and ro-
mantic valour. Having himself scaled the walls, he leaped
down into the city, accompanied by only three of his body
guards. The enemies immediately rushed upon this small
band, and in the conflict, Alexander, fighting with undaunted
courage, was wounded, and fell, through loss of blood; while
one of his guards was killed, and the two others, covering him
with their shields, were dreadfully wounded. From this immi-
nent peril he was at length rescued by his soldiers, who burst
into the place, and put all the inhabitants to the sword. This
danger seemed to endear him to his soldiers, who expressed
the most unbounded joy at seeing him again when recovered
from his wound.
Having settled the affairs of the country, and marked a
site for a city, at the conflux of the Hydraotes and Acesines,
he proceeded down the river with an augmented fleet, reduc-
ing some Indian tribes on the banks. One of their princes,
named Musicanus, who had submitted, and revolted again, was
crucified, together with a number of Brachmans, who were
supposed to have instigated the revolt; yet we are told that
Alexander, on becoming acquainted with the character and
tenets of the Brachmans, paid them much respect, and held
conversation with some of the most learned among them. The
fleet, with the king on board, fell down to Pattala, a river-
island, made by the branching of the Indus. Here he caused
docks and a fortress to be so constructed, and then proceeded
down the western branch of the ocean, not without incurring
great danger near the mouth of the river. Having entered the
Indian ocean, and performed some religious rites in honour of
Neptune, he contented himself with a survey of two small
islands, and then returned to Pattala. He next explored the
other branch of the Indus, as far as the sea-coast, and there
left his fleet in a place of safety, with directions to his admiral,
Nearchus, as soon as the season would permit, to sail to the
Persian gulf, and thence up the Tigris, where he was to meet
him and his army in Mesopotamia. He himself determined to
march to Babylon by land, and accordingly proceeded with his
van-guard across the river Arabis to the principal fortress of
the Orike, which he seized, and committed to Hephaestion, in
order to convert it into a new city. Hence he led his army
through Gedrosia, a most barren sandy region on the souther,
side of Persia, where they underwent prodigious hardships
from hunger, thirst, and fatigue. In these Alexander shared
like the meanest soldier, exhibiting a vigour of mind which all
his abuse of power and prosperity had not been able to sub-
due. At length he arrived at the plentiful country of Cara-
mania, where he recruited his troops and redressed many grie-
&P &







UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. [B, C, 356.
vances which the neighbouring people had suffered from the
oppression of his governors, some of whom he put to death.
Hence he proceeded in a kind of triumphal march, and turning
into Persia, visited the tomb of Cyrus, at Pasargadae. He or-
dered the wealthy governor of Persia, Orsines, to be crucified,
on a charge of high crimes; but the justice of this execution
is differently represented by historians. Marching to Susa, he
there gave loose to his taste for pleasure and magnificence,
not without the political design of promoting a strict union be-
tween his Grecian and Asiatic subjects. He himself married
at once Statira, or Barsnie, the daughter of Darius, and Pary-
satis, daughter of Ochus; and he gave other Persian ladies of
high rank to his principal officers, bestowing on them large
dowries. He likewise displayed a noble munificence in reward-
ing his army for their services; and he distributed promotions
among all who had served him faithfully, without distinction of
country. Desirous of exploring the maritime parts of his em-
pire, he descended to the Persian gulf, and thence sailed up
the Tigris, to the camp of Hephæstion, whom he had sent be-
fore to wait his arrival. On the banks of this river his army of
Macedonians, in consequence of an edict which he issued, dis-
charging the superannuated and invalids, broke out into a vio-
lent mutiny. In quelling this sedition he displayed extraordi-
nary courage and presence of mind; and by an affectation of
transferring his confidence to the Persians, he brought the
Macedonians to the most submissive humiliation; after which
he received them to favour, and sealed the reconciliation by a
solemn festival. %
Hence he took his course through Media to the capital,
Ecbatana, where his arrival was celebrated by all kinds offes-
tivities. But the public joy was interrupted by the death of
the king's most intimate friend and favourite, Hephæstion,
who was cut off by a short illness. The grief of Alexander on
this occasion passed all the bounds of sobriety; and he ex-
pended vast sums on the funeral. An expedition, which he
undertook against the Cossaeans, a rude people in the vicinity,
in which he slew many thousands of them, is represented by
some as a sacrifice to the manes of Hephaestion. ; ::::: ... 3
He now proceeded towards Babylon, giving audience by the
way to various deputations from the states of Greece, and from
barbarian princes. He entered that renowned city, and im-
mediately began to form vast projects for its improvement, and
the extension of his dominions. He went in person down the
Euphrates to examine the practicability of draining the fens
by which the country was rendered insalubrious. He gave
orders for making a vast basin at Babylon; and he set on foot
vast inquiries concerning Arabia, with the view of a future in-
vasion of that peninsula. He assisted at a grand review of his




B. c. 359.] FROM PHILIP II. to PtoleMY EUERGETEs. 429

forces, and determined upon the incorporation of the Persian
troops, disciplined after the Greek model, into his Macedonian
army. But in the midst of these mighty designs, he was seized
with a fever, either caused, or at least aggravated, by excessive
drinking, which becoming continued, on the sixth day put a
period to his life. He died in the hundred and fourteenth
Olympiad, B. C. 324, after he had lived thirty-two years, eight
months, and reigned twelve years and eight months. He ap-
pointed no successor; but when interrogated by his friends to
whom he bequeathed his empire 2 he is said to have replied,
“To the most worthy.” By his various queens he left only
an infant and dubious progeny, who could not hope to succeed
to such a vast inheritance, which evidently was an object im-
mediately to be shared and fought for.
The character of Alexander has afforded matter of discus-
sion to the critics, and of declamation to the philosophers of
every age, from his own to the present; and it is still doubtful
whether he ought to be regarded as a madman or a politician,
a civilizer or a destroyer of mankind. Yet it would seem not
very difficult to estimate him, from the certain records of his
actions. The firm foundation of the Macedonian power was
laid by his father, Philip, who, having subjugated Greece,
could not have found it a very arduous task to shake the Per-
sian throne. Alexander's expedition seems to have been origi-
nally directed by no other principle than that of accomplishing
extraordinary and difficult things. This led him into unac-
countable deviations from any regular track, and at length im-
pelled him to such a distance from the source of his strength,
that he could have entertained no reasonable expectation of
retaining under his authority the extent of country through
which he ran in the career of conquest. To speak of the jus-
tice of a conqueror's designs would be idle; but more huma-
nity to the vanquished might well have been expected; and
even the earlier years of his course were tainted by many acts
of detestable cruelty. Yet he was not devoid of generous
emotions; and the splendid qualities of valour, munificence,
and magnanimity, were carried by him to that excess which
borders on fault. That he was intoxicated by success, and
that his high fortune rendered him vain and intemperate, and
made him almost forget the condition of mortality, is not to be
wondered at. Large and sublime views of the true policy of a
mighty monarch seem often to have opened on his mind; yet
he had too much of the ardour of enterprize and the love of
military glory to pursue steadily the plans of rational and pa-
cific improvement. On the whole, the best parts of his cha-
racter were fitted rather to inspire admiration than esteem;
while the worst, rendered him a pest of mankind, and resem-

UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY, [B.C. 356.
bled him to one of those baneful meteors which dazzle as they
fly, but ruin where they fall.
Alexander was a lover and favourer of arts and literature,
and carried with him in his train, poets, orators, and philoso-
phers, though the choice did not always honour his judgment.
He rendered a great service to science by his munificent pre-
sents to Aristotle, in order to enable him to pursue his inquiries
in natural history. He employed men of talents of every de-
scription ; and while he profited by their labours, rewarded
them liberally,–an easy road to reputation' which, however,
; many monarchs have had enlargement of mind enough to
STATIRA, a daughter of Darius, who married Alexander.
The conqueror had formerly refused her; but when she had
fallen into his hands at Ipsus, the nuptials were celebrated with
uncommon splendour. No less than nine thousand persons
attended, to each of whom Alexander gave a golden cup, to be
offered to the gods. Statira had no children by Alexander.
. * cruelly put to death by Roxana, after the conqueror's
death. .
ROXANA, a Persian princess, daughter of Darius, who,
conqueror, who married her. After his death she behaved
* great cruelty, for which she was put to death by Cas-
San (161.
THAIS, a famous courtezan of Athens, who accompanied
Alexander in his Asiatic conquests, and gained such an ascend-
dant over him, that she made him burn the royal palace of
Persepolis. After Alexander's death, she married Ptolemy,
king of Egypt. Memander celebrated her charms, on which
account she is called Menandrea.
TH ALESTRIS, a queen of the Amazons, who, accompa-
nied by three hundred women, came thirty-five days’ journey
to meet Alexander in his Asiatic conquests, to raise children
by a man whose fame was so great, and courage so un
common. º º
Alexander, called also Omphis. He submitted to the con-
queror, who rewarded him with great liberality. ... . . .
PERDICCAS, one of the captains of Alexander the Great,
was a Macedonian of noble birth, and rose to high favour with
his master, in whose conquests he bore a considerable part.
Alexander, in his last illness, entrusted his ring to Perdiecas.
who, at the meeting of the great offic death of th
mi QSed to convey, -
ht be sup - - . . .
























B. c. 356.] from PHILIP II, to PtoleMY EUERGETEs. 431
to the succession, Perdiccas gained a considerable ascendancy
over him, and procured the death of Meleager, the commander
of the Macedonian phalanx, of whom he was jealous. At the
division of honours and provinces among the great officers, he
was nominated general of the household troops, and exercised
the protectorate of the Macedonian princes, Aid. and the
new-born son of Alexander by Roxana, though Craterus had
the title of the protector. In conjunction with Roxana, he re-
moved all who could be competitors to the crown, and con-
ducted the government with great cruelty. Ambitious of ex-
tending his power, he repudiated his wife Nicaea, the daughter
of Antipater, and married Cleopatra, the daughter of # **
and sister of Alexander, at the proposal of Olympias, her mo-
ther. A league being formed against him, between Ptolemy,
Antipater, and Craterus, he resolved to march into Egypt,
against the first, while Eumenes, who adhered to him as guar-
dian of the royal family, should make head against the others.
Perdiccas, on entering Egypt, found some symptoms of dis-
affection in his troops, which he was first disposed to treat with
severity; but finding that this method would not succeed, he
changed his conduct, and behaved to them with great conde-
scension, insomuch that they were induced to cross the Nile,
and attack Ptolemy in his entrenchments. After a bloody ac-
tion, they were repulsed, and great numbers of them were
drowned in re-passing the river. At length their discontents
were so high, that they mutinied ; and a party of horse sur-
rounding the tent of Perdiccas, they murdered him, in the
year B. C. 321, two years after the death of Alexander. -
HERMOLAUS, a young Macedonian, among the attend-
ants of Alexander. As he was one day hunting with the king,
he killed a wild boar which was coming towards him. Alex-
ander, who followed close behind him, was so disappointed,
because the beast had been killed before he could dart at it,
that he ordered Hermolaus to be severely, whipped. This
treatment irritated Hermolaus, and he conspired to take away
the king's life, with others who were displeased with the cruel
treatment he had received. The plot was discovered by one
of the conspirators; and Alexander seized them, and asked
what had impelled them to conspire to take away his life.
Hermolaus answered for the rest; and observed, that it was
unworthy of Alexander to treat his most faithful and attached
friends like slaves, and to shed their blood without the least
mercy, Alexander ordered him to be put to death.
EUMENES, a Greek officer in the army of Alexander,
son of a charioteer. He was the most worthy of all the offi-
s of Alexander. He conquered Paphlagonia and Cappa-
doeia, of which he obtained the government, till the power
alousy of Antigonus obliged him to retire. He joined



432 UNIversal biography. [B. c.350.
rces to those of Perdiccas; defeated Craterus and Neop-
tolemus, and killed the latter. When Craterus was afterwards
killed, his remains received an honourable funeral from Eu-
memes, who, after weeping over the ashes of a man who once
was his dearest friend, sent his remains to his relations in Ma-
cedonia. Eumenes fought against Antipater, and conquered
him; but after the death of Perdiccas, his ally, he was con-
quered by Antigonus, chiefly through the treachery of his
officers. He then disbanded the greatest part of his army, to
secure a retreat, and fled, with only seven hundred attendants,
to Nora, a fortified place on the confines of Cappadocia, where
he was soon besieged by the conqueror. He supported the
siege for a year, with courage and resolution; but some disad-
vantageous skirmishes so reduced him, that his soldiers, grown
desperate, and bribed by the enemy, betrayed him. Anti-
gonus hesitated whether he should not restore to his liberty a
man with whom he had lived in the greatest intimacy while
both were under Alexander; and these emotions of humanity
were increased by the petitions of his son Demetrius. But
the calls of ambition prevailed; and when Antigonus recol-
lected what an active enemy he had in his power, he ordered
Eumenes to be put to death in the prison, B.C. 315. Eu-
menes raised himself to power by merit alone. His skill in
public exercises recommended him to the notice of Philip ;
and under Alexander his fidelity and military accomplishments
promoted him to the rank of a general. Even his enemies re-
vered him; and Antigonus, by whose orders he perished, ho-
noured his remains with a splendid funeral, and conveyed his
ashes to his wife and family, in Cappadocia. Eumenes had
such influence over the successors of Alexander, that none,
during his life-time, dared to assume the title of king.
ANTIGINES, one of Alexander's commanders, to whom
the second prize among the eight was adjudged. He after-
wards commanded the Algyraspides, and betrayed Eumenes
to Antigonus, who burnt him alive in an iron cage, for fear of
experiencing from him a similar fate.
HARPALUS, a man entrusted with the treasures of Baby-
lon by Alexander. His hopes that Alexander would perish in
his expedition, rendered him dissipated, negligent, and vicious.
When he heard that the conqueror was returning with great
resentment, he fled to Athens, where, with his money, he cor-
rupted the orators, among whom was Demosthenes. He escap-
ed with impunity to Crete, where he was at last assassinated by
Thimbro, B.C. 325. . . . . .
RUS, one of Alexander's generals. He rendered
picuous by his literary fame, as well as by his valour
wrote the history of Alexander's life. . --...- ... Y.T.:----->
ory.o



















B. c.356.] FROM Philip II. To proLEMY EUERGETEs. 433
Alexander always trusted him with unusual confidence. After
Alexander's death, he subdued Greece, with Antipater, and
passed with his colleague into Asia, where he was killed, in a
battle against Eumenes, B.C. 321. He had received, for his
share of Alexander's kingdoms, Greece and Epirus. .
PHILLA, one of the most illustrious ladies of this period,
was daughter of Antipater, governor of Macedon, during the
absence of Alexander. She was a very witty woman, and
adapted to manage great affairs. She so dexterously behaved
herself, according to the several humours of those whom she
was to bring or keep to their duty, that she hindered an army,
full of factious and turbulent spirits, from making an insurrec-
tion; she married poor maids at her own charges, and opposed
the oppressors of innocency with so much vigour, that she pre-
served many persons who were upon the point of being over-
whelmed by their calumniators. Her capacity was not the fruit
of experience; for, being but a young woman, she was consult-
ed about affairs of the greatest moment by her father, Antipa-
ter, one of the wisest politicians of that time. We might
know the particulars of this princess's capacity if we had all
the books of Diodorus Siculus; but we have lost that part of
his history which contained them. Philla married first Crate-
rus, who, of all the captains of Alexander, was most beloved by
the Macedonians. After the death of Craterus she married
Pemetrius, and was the chief of her second husband's wives;
but she had no great share in his love. He was a voluptuous
prince, who kept several mistresses at the same time, some of
whom were common prostitutes. He grew weary of Philla,
under pretence that he was younger than she yet he was ex-
tremely fond of the courtezan Lamia, though she was upon the
decline. Philla died after a tragical manner; for when she
heard that Demetrius had lost his dominions, she had not the
courage to see him as a miserable fugitive;—she poisoned her-
self. She had by Demetrius a son, and the famous Stratonice,
who was Seleucus's wife, and whom Seleucus yielded to his son
Antiochus. . & ~ .
NEARCHUS, a celebrated admiral under Alexander the
Great, who navigated the Indian ocean. He wrote a journal
of the voyage, which is extant, and was lately translated into
English, with learned notes and dissertations, by Dr. Vincent.
e was much esteemed and honoured by Alexander; and
i. his death was appointed governor of Pamphylia and
Lycia. § x … . . . . . . sº sº
ARISTANDER, a famous soothsayer under Alexa ld
der the
Great, over whom he gained a wonderful influence by the suc-
cess of his art. He had º same office under Phili º;
and explained, better than his brethren, the m that this
*...*.*...ºft. Šºš......... jº º jº - dream that
prince had after he married Olympias. tº





HEPHAESTION, a Macedonian, famous for his intimacy
with Alexander. He accompanied the conqueror in his Asiatic
conquests, and was so faithful and attached to him, that Alex-
ander often observed, that Craterus was the friend of the king,
but Hephaestion the friend of Alexander. He died at Ecba-
tana, 325 years before the Christian era, according to some,
from excess of eating or drinking. Alexander was so incon-
solable at the death of this faithful subject, that he shed tears
at the intelligence; and ordered the sacred fire to be extin-
guished, which was never done but at the death of a Persian
monarch. The physician who attended Hephaestion in his ill-
ness was accused of negligence, and, by the king's order, inhu-
manly put to death, and the games interrupted. The body of
Hephaestion was entrusted to the care of Perdiccas, and ho-
noured with the most magnificent funeral at Babylon. He
was so like the king in features and stature, that he was often
saluted by the name of Alexander.
PARMENIO, a celebrated and popular general in the army
of Alexander the Great, who long enjoyed that prince's confi-
dence, and was more attached to his person as a man than as a
monarch. Yet in a moment of suspicion, excited by false in-
formation, Alexander ordered this faithful friend to be put to
death along with his son. Plutarch remarks, that Parmenio
gained many victories without Alexander, but Alexander not
one without Parmenio.
PHILOTAS, a son of Parmenio, distinguished in the battles
of Alexander, and at last accused of conspiring against his life.
He was tortured, and stoned to death, or, according to some,
stabbed by the soldiers. There were two other officers of this
name, º army of Alexander; one of whom was made mas-
ter of some part of Cilicia after Alexander's death.
NEOPTOLEMUS, a relation of Alexander. He was the
first who climbed the walls of Gaza when that city was taken
by Alexander. After the king's death, he received Armenia
as his province, and made war against Eumenes. He was sup-
ported by Craterus; but an engagement with Eumenes proved
fatal to his cause; Craterus was killed, and himself mortally
wounded, by Eumenes, B. C. 321. -
, LEONATUS, one of Alexander's generals. His father's
name was Ennus, He distinguished himself in Alexander's
conquest of Asia, and once saved the king's life in a dangerous
battle. After the death of Alexander, at the general division
of the provinces, he received for his portion that part of
*hrygia which borders on the Hellespont. He was empowered
:as to assist Eumenes in making himself master of the
ppadocia, which had been allotted to him. Like
generals of Alexander, he was ambitious of power
He aspired to the sovereignty of Mace






















B. c.356.1 FROM PHILIP II. To PTOLEMY EUERGETEs.
and secretly communicated to Eumenes the different plans he
meant to pursue to execute his designs. He passed from Asia
into Europe, to assist Antipater against the Athenians, and was
killed in a battle which he fought soon after his arrival. His-
torians have mentioned, as an instance of the luxury of Leo-
natus, that he employed a number of camels to procure some
earth from Egypt, to wrestle upon, as, in his opinion, it seemed
better calculated for that purpose. .
POLYSPERCHON, one of the officers of Alexander the
Great. Antipater, at his death, appointed him governor of
Macedonia, in preference to his own son Cassander; yet, not-
withstanding his age and experience, he showed great ignorance
in government. He became cruel, not only to the republican
Greeks, and such as opposed his ambitious views, but even to the
helpless children and friends of Alexander, to whom he owed
his rise and reputation. He was killed in battle, B.C. 309.
ARCESILAUS, one of Alexander's generals, who obtained
Mesopotamia, at the general division of the provinces, after
the king's death. ×
PHILOXENUS, an officer of Alexander, who received
Cilicia at the general division of the provinces. .
ARIDAEUS, an illegitimate son of Philip, who, after t
death of Alexander, was made king of Macedonia, till Roxana,
who was pregnant by Alexander, brought into the world a le-
gitimate male successor. Aridaeus had not the free enjoyment
of his senses, and therefore Perdiccas, one of Alexander's
generals, declared himself his protector, and even married his
sister, to strengthen their connection. He was seven years in
possession of the sovereign power, and was put to death, with
his wife Eurydice, by Olympias. -: &
EURYDICE, wife of Aridaeus, the natural son of Philip.
On the death of Alexander the Great, Aridaeus ascended the
throne, and was governed by his wife. Olympias, the mother
# Alexander, conquered the usurpers, and put them to death,
PORUS, an Indian monarch, who opposed Alexander the
Great, but was defeated by him. When brought before the
Macedonian, he asked him how he wished to be treated.
“. Like a king,” replied Porus; which so pleased Alexander,
that he not only restored all his dominions, but gave him several
additional territories, in consequence of which Porus continued
his most faithful ally ever after. Porus is said to have been a
man of uncommon stature, great strength, and proportional
courage and dignity. . . . .
SANDROCOTTUS, an Indian of mean birth, co
rary with Alexander the Great, who, from the prodigy
ºntºr d future greatness to himself. For imperti
¥º


























436 UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. . [b. c.356.
to Alexander, he had been ordered out of his presence; but, on
the death of that conqueror, he actually made himself master of
a part of the country in the hands of Seleucus.
CLEOPHES, an Indian queen, was deprived of her king-
dom by Alexander the Great, but restored again, as a reward
for submitting to his desires; thus she recovered, by her lewd-
ness, a crown, which she could not preserve by her courage.
The son she had by that conqueror, was named Alexander, and
was king of India. -
ABISARES, king of that part of India beyond the river
Hydaspes. When Alexander the Great was carrying on his
expedition into India, Abisares sent ambassadors to him with
presents, and to offer, in his name, his person and dominions to
Alexander. The conqueror commanded Abisares to come to
him immediately. Abisares sent another deputation, to declare
he was ill in bed; the Grecian, satisfied with the excuse, not
only left him in the quiet possession of his dominions, but en-
larged them. The expedition happened about the second year
of the 33d Olympiad, 327 years before Christ.
TIMOCLEA, a Theban lady, sister to Theagenes, who was
killed at Cheronaea. One of Alexander's soldiers offered her
violence, after which she led him to a well, and while he be-
lieved that immense treasures were concealed there, Timoclea
threw him into it. Alexander commended her virtue, and for-
bad his soldiers to hurt the Theban females.
ANTIGONUS, king of Asia, one of the captains of Alex-
ander the Great, was the son of Philip, a Macedonian noble-
man. Upon the death of Alexander, when a division of the
provinces took place, Pamphylia, Lycia, and Phrygia Major
fell to his lot; and after the death of Perdiccas, that of Ly-
caonia was added. He was entrusted with the command of
the Macedonian household troops; and when Eumenes was
declared a public enemy, he was ordered to prosecute the war
against him with the utmost vigour. Eumenes was defeated at
the beginning of this war, and forced to retire, with 600 brave
followers, to an inaccessible castle on a rock; and his friends
having assembled a new army for his relief, were also routed
by Antigonus, whose ambitious projects began now to be mani-
fest. After Antipater's death, Polysperchon succeeding as
tutor to the young king of Macedon, Antigonus aspired at the
lordship of all Asia. The power of Eumenes made Antigonus
greatly desire his interest, but that faithful commander, escap-
ing from the fortress in which he was blockaded, raised an
army, and was appointed the royal general in Asia. In con-
junction with the governors of Upper Asia, he was successful
in several engagements against Antigonus, but was at last be-
trayed and put to death, and the governors who had joined
m submitted to Antigonus. After this, seizing the treasures,


B. c. 356.] From PHILIP mi. To ProLEMY EUERGETEs.
at Babylon, Seleucus fled to Ptolemy, with whom, and Lysi-
machus and Cassander, he entered into a confederacy, for the
purpose of curbing the power of Antigonus. But the latter,
with his son Demetrius, prevailed in subduing Syria and Phe-
nicia; in forcing the Nabathaean Arabs, near Judea, to his
terms; and in expelling Seleucus from Babylon; upon which
the confederates were obliged to allow him the possession of all
Asia, except the Greek cities, which were to continue free:
This treaty was soon violated, and Ptolemy made a successful
descent on Lower Asia, and on some islands of the Archi-
pelago, but was defeated by Demetrius, who took Cyprus, with
many prisoners. On this victory Antigonus assumed the title
of king, and bestowed the same on his son; and from this time,
B.C. 306, his reign in Asia, Ptolemy's in Egypt, and Alexander's
other captains in their governments properly commence. He
had not long borne this title, when Cassander, Seleucus, and Lysi-
machus, again combining against him, defeated the forces under
him and his son, at Ipsus, and in this battle he fell, in the 84th
year of his age, B.C. 301. Antigonus was ardent in his pas-
sions, and often used improper means for their gratification;
but he was a sagacious, active, brave, and fortunate warrior;
and, in private concerns, strictly just. :
CHARIDEMUS, an Athenian, who was banished from
Athens by order of Alexander the Great; whereupon he fled
to Darius, and being an excellent soldier he did considerable
service to the Persians against the Greeks.
ABDOLONYMUS, descended from king Cinyras, and of
the royal family of Sidon, lived in obscurity, and subsisted by
cultivating a garden, when Strato had possession of the crown
of Sidon. Alexander the Great having deposed Strato, wished
to restore the race of Cinyras, and having found Abdolonymus,
he was convinced of his high descent, by the apparent dignity
of his person. Interrogating him how he bore his poverty,
Abdolonymus replied, “I wish I may bear my new condition
as well. These hands have supplied my necessities. I have
had nothing, and I have wanted nothing.” Alexander was so
much pleased with this reply, that, besides bestowing upon him
what belonged to Strato, he augmented his dominions, and
gave him a fºre present out of the Persian spoils.
LEOSTHENES, an Athenian general, who, after Alex-
ander's death, drove Antipater to Thessaly, where he besieged
him in the town of Lamia. The success which for a while
attended his arms was soon changed, by a fatal blow which he
received from a stone thrown by the besieged, B.C. 323. The
death of Leosthenes was followed by a total defeat of the
Athenian forces. The funeral oration over his body was pro-
nounced at Athens by Hyperides, in the absence of Demos-

UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. [B.C. 356.
DEMETRIUS I., surnamed Poliorcetes, was the son of
Antigonus, king of Asia. At the age of twenty-two, he was
sent by his father against Ptolemy, who invaded Syria. He
was defeated near Gaza; but he soon repaired his loss by a
victory over one of the generals of the enemy. He after-
wards sailed with a fleet of 250 ships to Athens, and restored
the Athenians to liberty, by freeing them from the power of
Cassander and Ptolemy, and expelling the garrison, which was
stationed there under Demetrius Phalereus. After this suc-
cessful expedition, he besieged and took Munychia, and de-
feated Cassander at Thermopylae. His reception at Athens,
after these victories, was attended with the most servile flattery;
and the Athenians were not ashamed to raise altars to him as
to a god, and consult his oracles. This uncommon success
raised the jealousy of the successors of Alexander; and Se-
eucus, Cassander, and Lysimachus united to destroy Antigonus
and his son. Their hostile armies met at Ipsus, B. C. 301.
Antigonus was killed in the battle; and Demetrius, after a se-
vere loss, retired to Ephesus. The Athenians, who had lately
adored him as a god, refused to admit him into their city. But
he soon after ravaged the territory of Lysimachus, and recon-
ciled himself to Seleucus, to whom he gave his daughter Stra-
tonice in marriage. Athens now laboured under tyranny, and
Demetrius relieved it a second time, and pardoned the in
habitants. The loss of his possessions in Asia recalled him
from Greece, and he established himself on the throne of
Macedonia, by killing Alexander in self defence. Here he
was continually at war with the neighbouring states, and the
superior power of his adversaries obliged him to leave Mace-
donia, after he had sat on the throne for seven years. He
passed into Asia, and attacked some of the provinces of Lysi-
machus, with various success; but famine and pestilence having
destroyed the greatest part of his army, he applied to Seleucus
for assistance. He met with a kind reception; but hostilities
thenes, who had been lately banished for taking a bribe from
re again soon begun; and though he gained some advantages
er his son-in-law, he was at last forsaken by his troops, and
e isoner.
n pr Though he was kept in confinement by Se-
sus, ye . ed himself like a prince, and passed his
* in hunting, and in every laborious exercise. His son
fonus offered Seleucus all his possessions, and even his
rson, to procure his father's liberty; but all proved unavail-
ng, and Demetrius died in his age, after a con-
























B. c. 356.] FROM PHILIP II. To PTOLEMY EUERGETEs.
of the Macedonian throne, till Perseus was conquered by the
Romans. Demetrius was equally fond of dissipation among
the dissolute, and of military glory in the field. }. ingenious
inventions, his warlike engines, and stupendous machines in his
war with the Rhodians, entitle him to the character of a great
warrior. But he is blamed for voluptuous indulgencies; and,
indeed, no Grecian prince had more wives and concubines.
His affection and reverence to his father, however, has been
justly admired. Antigonus desired the ambassadors of a foreign
prince to remark, the cordiality and friendship which subsisted
between him and his son.
SELEUCUS I., sirnamed Nicator, or The Conqueror,
king of Syria, was son of a Macedonian named Antiochus, a
captain under king Philip. Seleucus entered, when young, into
the service of Alexander the Great, by whom he was raised to
an important command; and, after the death of that conqueror,
he was placed by Perdiccas at the head of the cavalry. On
the division of the provinces made by Antipater, the govern-
ment of that of Babylon was entrusted to Seleucus, in which
situation he opposed the advance of Eumenes against Anti-
gonus. When, however, that leader, after the death of Eu-
menes, marched to Babylon, he showed such a hostile dispo-
sition towards Seleucus, that the latter thought it necessary to
take refuge with Ptolemy, king of Egypt. Upon the defeat of
Demetrius, the son of Antigonus, by Ptolemy, Seleucus re-
covered his government of Babylon, and added to it Media and
Susiana, which he wrested from Nicanor, the governor, for
Antigonus. Demetrius afterwards expelled Seleucus from
Babylon, but he soon returned, and durably established his
authority. He then proceeded with a powerful army into the
East, conquered and slew Nicanor; and, marching through
Persia, Bactria, and Hyrcania, subdued those countries, and
the other provinces which had formed part of Alexander's em-
pire on this side the Indus. From these important victories he
assumed the name of Nicator; and the other successful captains
of Alexander taking the title of kings, in the year 306 B.C.,
he followed their example. The historical era of the Seleuci-
dae, however, commenced six years earlier than this, viz. in the
year 312 B.C., when he recovered Babylon. He now marched
to regain the districts of India Proper, conquered by Alexander,
which were occupied by an Indian named Sandrocottus; but
he was opposed by so large a force, that he thought it ex-
pedient to leave him in possession, on condition of being sup-
plied by him with 500 dº. One reason of his making
this treaty was the necessity of joining with Cassander, Lysima.
chus, and Ptolemy, in order to reduce the overgrown power of
Antigonus, which menaced the independence of them all.
This purpose was effected by the great battle of Ipsus, in




UNIVER
SAL BIOGRAPHY. [B.C. 356,
which Antigonus lost his life. His dominions were shared by
the four confederate monarchs, previously to which Seleucus
had seized the province of Upper Syria, and founded the
famous city of Antioch. He also built other cities in the same
province, to which he gave family names, as Seleucia, from him-
self; Apamea, from his wife; and Laodice, from his mother;
and as ł. was a great founder of cities in all his territories, he
filled Asia with places bearing the names of his family. After
this he built Seleucia, on the Tigris, which became one of the
most famous cities in the East, and was the cause of the de-
sertion and ruin of Babylon. In many of his new cities he
settled colonies of the Jews, whom he endowed with ample
privileges, and to him was owing the establishment in the
Asiatic provinces, to the west of the Euphrates. When he was
advanced in years, he is said to have resigned to his son Antio-
chus, his wife Stratonice, and with her he resigned to the prince
all the provinces of Upper Asia. , Seleucus and Lysimachus
were now the only survivors of Alexander's captains; and a
domestic tragedy hº taken place in the family of the latter,
some of its members took refuge in the court of Seleucus,
whom they urged to make war upon Lysimachus. He accord-
ingly invaded, with a very powerful army, the territories of
Lysimachus, in Asia Minor. That prince crossed the Helles-
pont to protect them, and a most bloody battle was fought be-
tween the rivals in Phrygia, in which Lysimachus was slain, in
the year B.C. 281. Seleucus took possession of his dominions,
but did not long enjoy the fruits of victory, for as he was
marching into Macedonia, seven months after, he was treacher-
ously murdered by Ptolemy Ceraunus, one of the fugitives from
the court of Lysimachus. Seleucus died in the 43d year from
the death of Alexander, and in the 73d year of his age. He
was a prince of splendid qualities, mild and equitable in his
government, and a patron of letters and learned men. .
ANTIOCHUS I., surnamed Soter, was son of Seleucus,
and king of Syria and Asia. He made a treaty of alliance
with Ptolemy Philadelphus, king of Egypt. He fell into a
lingering disease, which none of his father's physicians could
cure for some time, till it was discovered that his pulse was
more irregular than usual when Stratonice, his step-mother,
entered his room, and that love for her was the cause of his
illness. This was told to the father, who willingly gave Stra-
tonice to his son, that his immoderate love might not cause his
death. He died 291 B.C., after a reign of 19 years.
STRATONICE, the beautiful daughter of Demetrius
Poliorcetes, and the wife, first of Seleucus Nicator, king of
Syria, and afterwards of his son, Antiochus Soter, with his ful
consent. The circumstances of the case were extraordinary,
thing could justify such an incestuous connection,









B. c.356.] from PHILIP II. To proLEMY EUERGETEs. 441
they were indeed such. Antiochus fell sick, and was at the
joint of death, to the great grief of his father, but the cause of
}. illness was unknown, till Erasistratus, the physician, observ-
ing his pulse to beat high every time his step-mother came into
his room, immediately guessed the cause. Upon his putting
the question to him, Antiochus confessed, what he had hitherto
concealed, his affection for his step-mother. Seleucus, willing
to save his son and heir, yielded up his wife, and they were
regularly married. And thus Stratonice became the progeni-
trix of that impious race of princes, who afterwards so cruelly
persecuted the Jews. But allowing for Seleucus's total igno-
rance of the divine law, his paternal affection and generosity
in so readily yielding up his wife, to save his son, appear almost
an act of virtue. At least it affords a striking contrast to the
conduct of a Christian prince in modern times, if a Christian
we may call him, who murdered his subjects by millions for
their religion. Philip II. of Spain, who, after his son, Prince
Charles, had seen and was betrothed to the Princess Elizabeth
of France, whose affection for him was mutual, had the mon-
strous barbarity to separate the lovers, to marry the princess
himself, and then to murder his son, the prince, because he re-
pined at his lot. 3. .
LYSIMACHUS, king of Thrace, one of the captains of
Alexander the Great, rose from a very mean condition to the
favour of that prince. At the partition of the empire of Alex-
ander, in the year 323 B.C., Thrace, the Chersonese, and the
countries adjacent to the Euxine, were allotted to Lysimachus.
When Antigonus had rendered himself formidable to all the
other sharers, Lysimachus joined in the league against him,
with Seleucus, Ptolemy, and Cassander. By a subsequent
treaty, Thrace was confirmed to him; and, in imitation of other
captains, he took the title of king. He founded the city of
Lysimachia, in 309 B.C., and made it his capital; in conjunc-
tion with Seleucus he gained the great battle of Ipsus. He
afterwards seized upon Macedonia, having first expelled Pyrr-
hus from the throne; but his cruelty rendered him truly odious,
and the murder of his son Agathocles so offended his subjects,
that the most opulent and powerful revolted from him, and
abandoned the kingdom. He banished them into Asia, and
declared war against Seleucus, who had given them a kind re-
ception. He was killed in a bloody battle, in the year B. C.
881, and in the eightieth of his age. His body was found in
the heaps of the slain, by the fidelity of his dog, which had
Carefully watched near it. With great courage and abilities,
he was characterized by a cruel and ferocious disposition, which
rendered him unworthy of his high fortune. Justin mentions
a curious fact concerning him, viz. that having offended Alex-
ander, he was, as a punishment, thrown into the den of a


UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY, [B.C. 356.
#
furious lion; and when the ravenous animal darted upon him,
he wrapped his hand in his mantle, and boldly thrust it into
the lion's mouth, and, by twisting his tongue, killed an adver-
sary ready to devour him. This act of courage, in self-defence,
recommended him to the monarch, who pardoned and took him
into his favour. •
PHILETAERUS, an eunuch, who was made governor of
Pergamus, by Lysimachus, whom he afterwards quarrelled
ith, and made himself king of that country, B.C. 283. He
eigned two years, and was succeeded by his nephew Eu-
menes I. x §
AGATHOCLES, the unfortunate son of Lysimachus, king
of Thrace and Macedon, who, after defeating and putting to
flight Demetrius Poliorcetes, was murdered by his father's
orders, at the instigation of his step-mother Arsinoe, who was
also his wife's sister, B. C. 282.
CASS ANDER reigned king of Macedon eighteen years,
was the son of Antipater. He made several conquests in
Greece, abolished democracy at Athens, and gave the go-
vernment of that state to the orator Demetrius Phalereus.
Olympias, the mother of Alexander, having caused Aridaeus
and his wife Eurydice, with others of Cassander's party, to be
put to death, he besieged Pydne, whither the queen had re-
tired, took it by stratagem, and caused her to be put to death.
He married Thessalonice, the sister of Alexander, and killed
Roxana and Alexander, the wife and son of that conqueror.
At length he entered into an alliance with Seleucus and Ly-
simachus, against Antigonus and Demetrius, over whom he
obtained a great victory, near Ipsus, in Phrygia, B.C. 301, and
died three years after.
THESSALONICE, the daughter of Philip II, king of
Macedon, and sister of Alexander the Great. She was married
to Cassander, and bore him three sons, Philip IV., Antipater,
and Alexander V., but she was murdered by her son Antipater.
ANTIPATER, grandson of Antipater of Macedon, and
son of Cassander, by Thessalonice, the sister of Alexander the
Great; a monster, who murdered his mother with his own
hand, because she favoured his brother Alexander's claim to
the crown, although she begged for her life, and showed him
*r breasts that had suckled him, but without avail. .
ALEXANDER IV, king of Macedon, sirnamed Ægus,
posthumous son of
Alexander the Great, by Roxana, was
1g with his mother, by Cassander, in the four-
his age, and nominal reign, B.C. 310.
ER. W., king of Macedon, son of Cassander,
the sister of Alexander the Great, after call-
§: emetrius Poliorcetes, to re. is mother'ſ
death, who was murdered by his brother Antipater, h








































B. c. 899. FROM PHILIP II. To PTOLEMY EUERGETEs.
fully attempted to cut off Demetrius, who, being informed of
it, slew him, after a short reign of four years.
MAUSOLUS, a king of Caria. See Artemisia; the next
article. . N. .
ARTEMISIA II., queen of Caria, has immortalized her
memory by the possession of great qualities, and the excess of
conjugal regard; for, upon the death of her husband Mau-
solus, she displayed the most affecting symptoms of grief. She
ordered a superb monument to be erected to his memory.
This famous monument, which passed for one of the seven
wonders of the world, was called Mausoleum, and from it all
other magnificent sepulchres and tombs have received the same
name. It was built by four different architects. Scopas
erected the side which faced the east; Timotheus had the
south ; Leochares had the west; and Bruxis the north. Pithis
was also employed in raising a pyramid over this stately monu-
ment; and the top was adorned by a chariot drawn by four
horses. The expences of this edifice were immense; and this
gave an occasion to the philosopher Anaxagoras to exclaim,
when he saw it, “How much money changed into stones t”
Artemisia frequently visited the place where her husband's
ashes were deposited; mixed water with the earth which
covered him, and then drank it down, for the purpose, as she
said, of becoming the living tomb of her departed lord . She
offered the richest prizes to those who should excel in compos-
ing a panegyric upon his virtues. Though the heart of this
queen was a prey to the most violent sorrow, yet she did not
suffer a useless inactivity to interfere with the exalted duties of
her state, but took the command of her army in a war against
the Rhodians, and is said to have performed many wonderful
exploits. She took possession of the city of Rhodes, and treated
the inhabitants with great rigour. She caused two statues to
be erected, one of the city of Rhodes, habited like a slave; and
the other of herself, branding the city with a hot iron. .”
ADA, a sister of queen Artemisia, who married Hidricus.
After her husband's death she succeeded to the throne of
Caria; but being expelled by her younger brother, she retired
to Alindae. . .
ARTAXERXES III., sirnamed Ochus, succeeded his
father Artaxerxes II. on the throne of Persia, and established
himself on his throne, by murdering above eighty of his nearest
relations. He punished with death one of his officers who
conspired against him; and recovered Egypt, which had re-
volted; destroyed Sidon; and ravaged alſ. Syria. He made
War against the Cadusii, and greatly rewarded a private ": n,
But his 'be-
talled Codomanus, for his uncommon valour. But hi
n Egypt, his cruelty towards the inhabitants, offe
d Bagoas at last obliged his physician to poison.















444 : UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. [B. C. 380 .
him, B. C. 337, and afterwards gave his flesh to be devoured
by cats, and made handles for swords with his bones. Codo-
manus, on account of his virtues, was soon after made king by
the people; and, that he might seem to possess as much dig-
nity as the house of Artaxerxes, he reigned under the name of
Darius III. 3%
BAGOAS, a eunuch, as the word implies, was an Egyp-
tian, and governed a long time under Artaxerxes Ochus, king
of Persia, whom he poisoned to avenge the death of Apis,
which was worshipped by his countrymen, and slain by that
É.i. He afterwards poisoned the son of Ochus, and was
himself put to death by Darius Codomanus, B. C. 356.
SISIGAMBIS, or SISY GAMBIS, the mother of Darius,
the last king of Persia. She was taken prisoner by Alexander
the Great, at the battle of Ipsus, with the rest of the royal
family. The conqueror treated her with uncommon tender-
ness and attention; he saluted her as his own mother, and
what he had sternly denied to the petitions of his favourites
and ministers, he often granted to the intercession of Sisygambis.
The regard of the queen for Alexander was uncommon; and,
indeed, she no sooner heard that he was dead, than she killed
herself, unwilling to survive the loss of so generous an enemy;
though she had seen, with less concern, the fall of her son's
kingdom, the ruin of his subjects, and himself murdered by his
servants. She had also lost, in one day, her husband, and
eighty of her brothers, whom Ochus had assassinated to make
himself master of the kingdom of Persia. ... -->
DARIUS III., named Codomanus, was placed on the
throne by Bagoas, the eunuch, who had murdered Arses, the
}. son of Artaxerxes Ochus. Codomanus did not,
however, fully answer the expectations of Bagoas, and he re-
solved to destroy him also by poison; but the plot was dis-
covered, and the perfidious eunuch was obliged to drink the
fatal cup himself. The whole of this prince's reign is that of
a struggle against the Macedonian invasion. Darius did not
take the command of his army in person, till Alexander ad-
vanced into Cilicia. He then proceeded to meet him in all the
pomp of royalty; but with a force ill adapted to contend with
such an enemy. He resolved, nevertheless, to hazard a battle,
contrary to the advice and opinion of his Greek allies. The
battle at Ipsus was fought, and Darius took the command, but
fled with such precipitation, that he left behind him his shield
and mantle. His court was plundered, and his mother, wife,
and children, fell into the power of the conqueror. In vain,
after this, did Darius supplicate for an accommodation; Alex:
ander went on in the career of victory, and in a second pitched
battle, at Guagamela, Darius again fought, and again disgraç
: 2d. He now lost Babylon, Susa, Persepolis, an








B.e. 380.1 FROM PHILIP II. To PTOLEMY EUERGETEs. 445

treasures, and fought for personal safety at Ecbatana; but his
misfortunes had iºd the minds of his subjects, and he
was seized by Bessus, governor of Bactriana, who assumed the
royal authority in his stead. Alexander closely pursued the
usurper and his captive beyond the Caspian Straits. Here
Darius determined to remain; but his resolution cost him his
life; he was wounded by his own subjects, and left weltering
in his blood. Of Polystratus, a Macedonian, he besought a
little water, which, being brought to him, he desired that his
acknowledgments and thanks might be conveyed to Alexander
for his kindness and attention to his family, with an earnest ex-
hortation that he would avenge his death on the traitors.
Darius immediately breathed his last in the arms of Polystra-
tus. This was in the year B. C. 330, being the fiftieth of the
monarch's age, and the sixth of his reign. When his enemy,
Alexander, beheld his rival dead, he is said to have wept over
him, to have covered the body with his cloak, and sent it to be
embalmed, and interred with the remains of the Persian
monarchs. &
BETIS, governor of Gaza, under Darius, famous for his
valour and loyalty; he defended a place of consequence against
Alexander, who was there shot through the shoulder. Betis,
thinking him slain, returned triumphantly to the city; but, in a
second assault, he was wounded and brought to Alexander, who
tormented him for his arrogance.
MEMNON, a native of Rhodes, was a general in the ser-
vice of the last Persian king, Darius, whom he served, with
great fidelity, against Alexander the Great. When that
conqueror had landed in Asia, and was advancing up the
country, Memnon advised him not to hazard a battle, but lay
waste the country before the invader. His counsel was re-
jected, and the battle of the Granicus, in the year B.C. 334,
followed, in which Memnon, at the head of the Greek merce-
naries, displayed the greatest valour. After the defeat, he ob-
tained the most honourable conditions, and was almost immedi-
ately after created the high admiral of Darius, and governor of
tower Asia. He had now the important command of the
city of Halicarnassus, when it was besieged by Alexander, and
employed every effort in his power to save it. The siege was
Continued a long time, and great numbers of the Macedonians
lost their lives before the place. Memnon was generous as well
*s courageous; for when the fugitive commanders, through
hatred of Alexander, opposed the demand from the Mace-
donians, of permission to bury their dead, he would not listen
to their remonstrances, alleging that it was unworthy of a Greek
to refuse the rites of burial even to an enemy. And hearing
9me of his soldiers abusing Alexander in gross and vulgar
terms, he struck him with his javelin, saying, “I hired you to

*& an m.” When he found the place
no longer tenable, he threw a strong garrison into the citadel,
and with his troops and the inhabitants, with their effects, em-
barked for the island of Cos. He then advised Darius to make
a powerful diversion into Macedonia, as the only means of sav-
ing himself from destruction. Darius gave him full power to
levy troops, and he exerted himself with so much vigour, that
he reduced several of the Cyclades, and the islands of Chios
and Lesbos, excepting Mitylene, the capital of the latter.
While carrying on the siege against that city he died, and thus
freed Alexander from the only foe of whom he stood in awe.
Memnon had married Barsine, a Persian lady of high rank,
who, with her children, remained at the court of Darius some
time, till at length she fell under the power of the conqueror,
who took her to his bed, and had a son by her.
BESSUS, a governor of Bactriana, who, after the battle of
Arbela, seized Darius, his sovereign, and had him put to death.
After this murder he assumed the title of king, and was some
time after brought before Alexander, who gave him to Oxatres,
the brother of Darius. The prince ordered his hands and
ears to be cut off, and his body to be exposed on a cross, and
shot at by the soldiers.
DIONYSIUS, a tyrant of Heraclea, in Pontus, in the age
of Alexander the Great. After the death of the conqueror,
and of Perdiccas, he married Amestris, the niece of king
arius, and assumed the title of king. He was of such an un-
common corpulence that he never exposed his person in public,
and when he gave audience to foreign ambassadors, he always
laced himself in a chair, which was conveniently made to hide
his face and person from the eyes of the spectators. When
he was asleep it was difficult to awake him, without boring
his flesh with pins. He died in the fifty-fifth year of his age.
As his reign was remarkable for mildness and popularity, his
death was severely lamented by his subjects. He left two sons
and a daughter, and appointed his widow queen-regent.
ANTIGONUS GONATUS, son of Demetrius Poliorcetes,
nd grandson of Antigonus, king of Asia. He was eminently
listinguished by his filial affection, humanity, and mild dispo-
sition. At his father's death, which he greatly lamented, he
succeeded him in all his European dominions, as well as in the
kingdom of Macedon, and other cities in Greece. The Gauls
having invaded his country, he defeated and expelled them;
but not long after, Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, routed him. Yet
when Pyrrhus was slain at Argos, and his head brought to Anti-
gonus by his son, he was much displeased; and, covering it
* :
robe, ordered the body to be searc hed for, and h

























B. c.344) FROM PHILIP II. To PTOLEMY EUERGETEs. 447
singular. The taking of the city of Corinth, by intrigue, was
the meanest action of his reign; but by this he maintained the
freedom of the small states of Greece, and enlarged his own
dominions. By cultivating the arts of peace, he not only se-
cured the affections of his subjects to himself, but to his de-
scendants. His designs were opposed by the Archaeans,
headed by Aratus, who recovered Corinth ; but he pursued his
plan, and left his kingdom in peace, about the eightieth year of
#. life, and thirty-fourth of his reign, B.C. 243, and was suc-
ceeded by his son Demetrius II.
PYRRHUS, a king of Epirus, descended from Achilles,
by the side of his mother, and from Hercules by that of his
father, and son of CEacides and Phthia. He was saved, when
an infant, by the fidelity of his servants, from the pursuits of
the enemies of his father, who had been banished from his
kingdom; and he was carried to the court of Glautias, king of
Illyricum, who educated him with great tenderness. Cas-
sander, king of Macedonia, wished to despatch him, as he had
so much to dread from him; but Glautias not only refused to
deliver him up into the hands of his enemy, but he even went
with an army, and placed him on the throne of Epirus, though
only twelve years of age. About five years after, the absence
of Pyrrhus, to attend the nuptials of one of the daughters of
Glautias, raised new commotions. The monarch was expelled
from his throne by Neoptolemus, who had usurped it after the
death of CEacides; and being still without resources, he ap-
plied to his brother-in-law Demetrius for assistance. He ac-
companied Demetrius at the battle of Ipsus, and fought there
with all the prudence and intrepidity of an experienced general.
He afterwards passed into Egypt, where, by his marriage with
Antigone, the daughter of Berenice, he soon obtained a suf-
ficient force to attempt the recovery of his throne. He was
successful in the undertaking; but, to remove all causes of
quarrel, he took the usurper to share with him the royalty,
and some time after he put him to death, under pretence that
he had attempted to poison him. In the subsequent years of
his reign, Pyrrhus engaged in the quarrels which disturbed the
peace of the Macedonian monarchy; he marched against De-
metrius, and gave the Macedonian soldiers fresh proofs of his
Yalour and activity. By dissimulation he ingratiated himself
in the minds of his enemy's subjects, and when Demetrius
laboured under a momentary illness, Pyrrhus made an attempt
upon the crown of Macedonia, which, if not then successful,
sºon after rendered him the master of the kingdom. This he
shared with Lysimachus for seven months, till the jealousy of
the Macedonians, and the ambition of his colleague, obliged
ºm to retire. Pyrrhus was meditating new conquests, wher








448 UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY, [B.C. 344,
encroaching power of Rome. He gladly accepted the invi-
tation, but his passage across the Adriatic proved nearly fatal,
and he reached the shores of Italy, after the loss of the greatest
part of his troops in a storm. At his entrance into Tarentum,
B.C. 280, he began to reform the manners of the inhabitants,
and, by introducing the strictest discipline among their troops,
to accustom them to bear fatigue, and to despise dangers. In
the first battle which he fought with the Romans, he obtained
the victory; but for this he was more particularly indebted to
his elephants, whose bulk and uncommon appearance astonished
the Romans, and terrified their cavalry. The number of the
slain was equal on both sides, and the conqueror said that such
another victory would totally ruin him. He also sent Cineas,
his chief minister, to Rome, and, though victorious, he sued for
peace. These offers of peace were refused; and when Pyrrhus
'. Cineas about the manners and the character of the
Romans, the sagacious minister replied, that their senate was a
venerable assembly of kings, and that to fight against them was
to attack another Hydra. A second battle was soon after
fought near Asculum, but the slaughter was so great, and the
valour so conspicuous on both sides, that the Romans and their
enemies reciprocally claimed the victory as their own. Pyrrhus
still continued the war in favour of the Tarentines, when he was
invited into Sicily by the inhabitants, who laboured under the
#. of Carthage, and the cruelty of their own petty tyrants.
This fondness of novelty soon determined him to quit Italy; he
left a garrison at Tarentum, and crossed over to Sicily, where
he obtained two victories over the Carthaginians, and took
many of their towns. He was for a while successful, and
formed the project of invading Africa; but soon his popularity
vanished, his troops became insolent, and he behaved with
haughtiness, and showed himself oppressive, so that his return
to Italy was deemed a fortunate event for all Sicily. He had
no sooner arrived at Tarentum, than he renewed hostilities with
the Romans, with great acrimony; but when his army of 80,000
men had been defeated by 20,000 of the enemy, under Curius,
he left Italy with precipitation, B.C. 274, ashamed of the enter-
prise, and mortified by the victories which had been obtained
over one of the descendants of Achilles. In Epirus he began
to repair his military character, by attacking Antigonus, who
was then on the Macedonian throne. He gained some ad-
vantages over his enemy, and was at last restored to the thront
f Macedonia. He afterwards marched against Sparta, at the
request of Cleonymus ; but when all his vigorous operations
were insufficient to take the capital of Laconia, he retired to
s, where the treachery of Aristeus invited him. The
es desired him to retire, and not to interfere in the affairs
leir republic, which were confounded by the ambition of
. 6








B. c.344.] FROM PHILIP II. To ProLEMY EUERGETEs. 449
two of their nobles. He complied with their wishes; but, in
the night, he marched his forces into the town, and might have
made himself master of the place, had not he retarded his pro-
gress by entering it with his elephants. The combat that en-
sued was obstimate and bloody; and the monarch, to fight with
more boldness, and to encounter dangers with more facility,
exchanged his dress. He was attacked by one of the enemy;
but as he was going to run him through, in his own defence,
the mother of the Argive, who saw her son's danger from the
top of the house, threw down a tile, and brought Pyrrhus to
the ground. His head was cut off and sent to Aiº, who
gave his remains a magnificent funeral, and presented his ashes
to his son Helenus, 272 years before the Christian era. Pyr-
rhus has been deservedly commended for his talents as a general;
and not only his friends, but also his enemies, have been warm
in extolling him; and Hannibal declared, that, for experience
and sagacity, the king of Epirus was the first of commanders.
He had chosen Alexander the Great for a model, and in every
thing he wished not only to imitate, but to surpass him. In the
art of war none were superior to him; he made it not only his
study as a general, but he even wrote many books on encamp-
ments, and the different ways of training up an army; and what-
ever he did, was by principle and rule. His uncommon under-
standing, and his penetration, are also admired; but the general
is severely censured, who has no sooner conquered a country
than he looks for other victories, without regarding or securing
what he has already obtained, by measures and regulations
honourable to himself, and advantageous to his subjects. The
Romans passed great encomiums upon him; and Pyrrhus was
no less struck with their magnanimity and valour; so much,
indeed, that he exclaimed, that if he had soldiers like the
Romans, or if the Romans had him for a general, he would
leave no corner of the earth unseen, and no nation unconquered.
Pyrrhus married many wives, and all for political reasons; be-
sides Antigone, he had Lanassa, the daughter of Agathocles,
as also a daughter of Antoleon, king of Paeonia. His children,
as his biographer observes, derived a warlike spirit from their
father; and when he was asked by one to which of them he
should leave the kingdom of Epirus, he replied, “to him who
has the sharpest sword.” .
. §§§. or CINEAS, a minister of Pyrrhus, king
Epirus, more distinguished by his talents than by his birth. He
ad been instructed in oratory by Demosthenes, and in military
tactics by the most celebrated officers in Alexander's army.
o remarkable was he for the arts of persuasion, that his sove-
eign used to compliment him with having gained more towns
by his eloquence, than he could ever have conquered by force
of arms. He was indeed an enemy to war, as the curse of
VOL. I. G. g . -










[B.C. 344.
mankind, when undertaken for the gratification of ambitious
projects. He was of the Epicurean sect; and was perpetually
urging upon the mind of his king the maxim, “That no ad-
dition to his territory, no augmentation of power, could add
one ingredient to the happiness already within his reach.”
Pyrrhus, however, was a warrior and a king, and not a phi-
losopher; he determined on conquest, and forced upon his
minister a chief command. After a decisive victory over the
Romans, in the year B.C. 280, Cyneas proposed to negotiate ;
the king consented, and sent him to Rome for the purpose.
In this he was unsuccessful; and, on his return, he told Pyrrhus
that the Roman senate seemed to him an assembly of kings.
Cyneas made a second attempt, but with no better success than
before. He was afterwards despatched to Sicily, and prepared
the way for his master's reception in that island. From this
period no more is heard of Cyneas; he is recorded by Pliny
and others as a most extraordinary instance of the powers of
memory; he is said to have been able, the day after his arrival
in Rome, to salute all the senators and knights by their names.
As an author, he is mentioned by Cicero as having, in conjunc-
tion with the king, his master, composed a treatise on the mili-
tary art. .
PTOLEMY, a son of Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, by Antigone,
who was left governor of Epirus, while his father was absent in
Italy, fighting against the Romans. He governed with great
prudence, but was killed, fighting bravely in Pyrrhus's expe-
dition against Sparta and Argos.
pº (ANDER II., of Epirus, the son of the famous
success in his wars with the neighbouring monarchs.
MILO, a general of the forces of Pyrrhus. He was made
governor of Tarentum; and, that he might be reminded of his
łuty to his sovereign, Pyrrhus sent him, as a present, a chain,
which was covered with the skin of Nicias the physician, who
had perfidiously made an offer to the Romans to poison his royal
master for a sum of money. º * , º º
rrhus, married his own sister Olympias, and had various
CLEONYMUS, contemporary with Pyrrhus, king of Epirus,
eft Lacedaemon on public and private discontents. He was
the son of Cleomenes II., king of Sparta; but, because of his
violent and imperious humour, the Lacedaemonians had no aſ-
ection for, nor confidence in him; and left all the royal au-
rity to Areus, his brother's son. Thus much for the public
s; here follow the domestic ones. Being already
ars, he had married Che ass of the
iter of hides.
Leotye
























B. c. 389.] FROM Philip II. To ProLEMY EUERGETEs. 451
mus; for every one knew the conduct of his wife, and that
she despised him. So that, being full of grief and anger, he
left Lacedaemon, and went to solicit Pyrrhus to make war with
the Lacedaemonians. Pyrrhus came near the city with a mu-
merous army, and might have taken it at the first onset, if he
had followed the advice of Cleonymus, which was to attack it.
immediately, without giving the few inhabitants, that Areus,
had left there, time to recover their surprise. Areus was at
that time in the isle of Crete, to assist the Gortynians. Pyr-
rhus, fearing the city would be plundered if he entered it in the
night, deferred the attack till the next day. He was so vigor-
ously repulsed in all the assaults that he gave, either before
or after Areus's return, that he found himself obliged to give
over his enterprise. We must not forget the courage that the
women of Lacedaemon showed on that occasion. It was re-
solved to send them away in the night to Crete, but they op-
posed it; and Archidamia came, with sword in hand, into the
senate, complaining, in the name of all the rest, that they were
thought capable of surviving the destruction of their country.
They laboured all the night on the intrenchment that was
made against the enemy. Chelidonis was the only woman that
remained shut up. She put a rope about her neck, that, in case
of necessity, she might prevent herself falling alive into the
hands of her husband. Her gallant Acrotatus did wonders;
and, as he returned from the place where he had repulsed the
enemy's assaults, and was proud of his victory, he seemed
taller and more beautiful than ever to the women of Lacedae-
mon, so that they cried out that Chelidonis was very happy to
be beloved by such a man. The old men followed him with a
thousand acclamations, exhorting him to continue to cherish
Chelidonis. ..
HIERO II., king of Syracuse, was son of Hierocles, a de-
scendant of Gelon. His mother was a female slave; and the
father was so ashamed of his offspring, that he is said to have
ordered him to be exposed in the woods, where he was nou-
rished with wild honey. His escape from the pangs of death
was regarded as little short of a miracle; and he was, on that
account, brought home, and very carefully educated. He soon
became distinguished among his companions, as well by his
dexterity in all manly exercises, as by his readiness in receiving
instruction. As a warrior, he served, in his youth, under Pyr-
rhus, king of Epirus, and at the age of twenty-five he was re-
garded as one of the ablest commanders of his army. On the
departure of Pyrrhus from Sicily, Syracuse became a prey to
the factious. Hiero, at the head of his men, entered the city
with his colleague, and assumed the reins of government. To
hen his interest among the people, he married the
flater of Septines, a person of great authority, and com-














G g 2
452. UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY, . [B.C. 389,
mitted the domestic management to his father-in-law, while he
was absent in the field. There were at this time large bodies
of mercenaries in pay, whose insolent and mutinous spirit was
the source of constant disturbances. Hiero freed himself from
these by a stratagem, which was more successful than honour-
able. Leading the whole army against the Mamertini, a fero-
cious body of adventurers, who had seized upon Messana, he
formed two separate divisions of the mercenaries and Syra-
cusans, and ordered the former to attack the enemy, pretend-
ing that he meant to support them with the latter. They en-
tered on the contest with the utmost degree of valour, and
were, in the end, almost entirely cut to pieces. When Hiero
saw that he had nothing now to fear from his allies, he supplied
their places with the Syracusan military, who, without diffi-
culty, gave the Mamertini a signal defeat, and made himself
master of the surrounding country. On account of this suc-
cess he was unanimously raised to the throne of Syracuse,
about the year B. C. 266. In a short time he offered terms
of peace and alliance with the Romans, which were readily
accepted; and he ever after continued the steadiest of all
the foreign friends of the republic, and as a reward of
his constancy he enjoyed a long and prosperous reign of
almost uninterrupted tranquillity. His mild and equitable
rule extinguished party animosities among his people, while
his attention to the interests of agriculture enabled him to pa-
tronize all the arts by which a nation is made flourishing. He
undertook, and, with the aid of Archimedes, accomplished,
some public works of great magnificence. He encouraged
commerce, and fitted out numerous fleets of trading vessels to
convey the superfluous harvests of Sicily to other countries;
and it is said that the commercial spirit of Hiero was fully
allied to the liberality of princely opulence. He relieved the
Rhodians, after a most disastrous earthquake, with a hundred
talents in money, and many other valuable donations. After
the fatal battle of Thrasymenes, in the second punic war, he
sent a fleet, laden with provisions, to the port of Ostia, and di-
rected his ambassadors, after condolences expressed in the
most pathetic terms, to offer to the republic these and what-
ever other supplies it might stand in need of; and also, for the
sake of the augury, to accept of a statue of Victory, of pure
gold, weighing three hººf pounds. The senate was highly
gratified with this mark of attachment at such a period, and
decreed that the Victory should be placed in the temple of
Jupiter Capitolinus. Hiero, notwithstanding his zeal º: the
cause of the republic, was mortified by the conduct of his son
ielon, who openly declared for the Carthaginians, and by
influence would probably have obliged his aged father to
łuiescence in his measures, had he not been carried








B. C. 362.] FROM PHILIP II, TO PTO LEMY EUERGETES. 453
off by a sudden illness. Hiero died about the year B.C. 210,
in the ninetieth year of his age, and the fifty-second of his
reign. He was universally regretted; and all the inhabitants
of Sicily showed, by their lamentations, that they had lost a
common father and an affectionate friend. He was a liberal
patron of literature, and wrote a book on agriculture.
GISCO, son of Hamilcon, the Carthaginian general, was
banished from his country by the influence of his enemies. He
was afterwards recalled, and empowered by the Carthaginians
to punish, in what manner he pleased, those who had occa-
sioned his banishment. He was satisfied to see them prostrate
on the ground, and to place his foot on their neck, showing
that independence and forgiveness are two of the most brilliant
virtues of a great mind. He was made general soon after, in
Sicily, against the Corinthians, about 309 years before the
Christian era, and by his success and intrepidity he obliged the
enemies of his country to sue for peace.
HANNO, a general of the Carthaginians, who sailed round
Africa, and flourished about 300 years before the Christian era.
He entered the ocean through the straits of Gibraltar, and dis-
covered several countries. He would have continued his navi-
gation had he not run short of provisions. He wrote an account
of his voyage, which Sigismund Gelenius published in Greek at
Basil, in A.D. 523.
AMILCAR, a Carthaginian general of great eloquence and
cunning, surnamed Rhodanus. When the Athenians were
afraid of Alexander, Amilcar went to his camp, gained his con-
fidence, and secretly transmitted an account of all his schemes
to Athens.
AMILCAR, a Carthaginian, whom the Syracusans called to
their assistance against the tyrant Agathocles, who besieged
their city. Amilcar soon after favoured the interest of Aga-
thocles, for which he was accused at Carthage. He died in
Syracuse, B.C. 309.
SABINUS, a native of Sparta, the leader and founder of
the Sabines, to whom he gave his name. He was deified after
his death, and was invoked by Æneas.
AGATHOCLES, the famous tyrant of Sicily, was son of a
potter at Reggio. He was a thief, a common soldier, a centu-
tion, a general, and a pirate, all in a regular succession. He
defeated the Carthaginians several times in Sicily, and was once
defeated himself. He first made himself tyrant of Syracuse,
and then of all Sicily; after which, he vanquished the Cartha-
ginians again, both in Sicily and Africa. But at length having
ill success, and being in arrears with his soldiers, they muti-
nied, and forced him to fly his camp, and then murdered his
children, whom he left behind. Recovering himself again, he
relieved Corfu, besieged by Cassander; burnt the Macedonian

454 UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. I B.C. 362.
fleet; returned to Sicily; murdered the wives and children of
those who had murdered his ; afterwards meeting with the
soldiers themselves he put them all to the sword; and, ravaging
the sea-coast of Italy, took the city of Hipponium. He was at
length poisoned by his grandson, Archagathus, in the seventy-
second year of his age, B.C. 290, having reigned twenty-eight
years. He was certainly a man of great talents and activity.
He had greatness of mind enough not to be ashamed of his low
origin; and at public entertainments, when his guests were
served out of gold and silver, he was accustomed to eat from
earthenware, as most suitable to a potter.
PISIS, a native of Thespia, who obtained great influence
among the Thebans, and acted with great zeal and courage in
defence of their liberties. He was at last taken prisoner by De-
metrius, who made him governor of Thespia.
AGESISTRATA, the wife of Eudamidas II., and mother
of Agis IV., king of Sparta, who was murdered in prison, along
with her son Agis and her mother, by the ephori, about
B.C. 300.
AGIS IV., king of Sparta, the son of Eudamidas II., and
the fifth in a direct line from Agesilaus II. He was a patriotic
prince, and attempted the reformation of his kingdom, by re-
storing the laws of Lycurgus; but he fell under the weight of
an enterprize that could not but be disagreeable to all who had
great possessions, and had been long accustomed to a volup-
tuous life. Agis being in the flower of his age, and having a
very refined desire of glory, set an example to his subjects, by
practising the ancient discipline first in his own person; his
clothes and his table being according to the manners of
former times; which is the more to be admired, as Agesis-
trata, his mother, and Archidamia, his grandmother, had
brought him up voluptuously. . When he sounded his people's
minds, he found the younger classes opposed his plan less than
those who had enjoyed a relaxation for several years. The
greatest difficulty was expected to arise from the women, who
had much influence; for their power is never greater than
when luxury is in fashion. Agis's mother did not at all relish
the proposed reformation, by which she was to lose part of her
riches; so she opposed the design at once, and treated it as a
chimera. . But her brother, Agesilaus, whom Agis had en-
gaged in his interest, managed her in such a manner, that she
promised to second the enterprize. She endeavoured to gain
the women; but instead of suffering themselves to be per-
suaded, they applied to Leonidas III., the other king of Lace-
daemon, to frustrate the designs of his colleague. Leonidas
durst not oppose it openly, for fear of irritating the people, to
whom the reform was agreeable, because they found their ac-
&
B. c. 362. FROM Philip II. To ProLEMY EUERGETEs. 455
*
count in it; but he countermined it by sowing suspicions, as if
Agis had aspired to tyranny, by depressing the rich and rais-
ing the poor. Agis proposed his new laws to the senate, upon
the discharge of debts, and a new division of the lands. Le-
onidas being supported by the rich, opposed the measure so
strongly, that there was a majority of one against it. But Ly-
sander, one of the ephori, who had been a principal promoter
of the reform, called him to account, whereupon Leonidas took
refuge in a temple, whither his daughter, Chilonis, the wife
of Cleombrotus, followed him. He was summoned; but not
appearing, was degraded of his dignity, which was conferred
on his son-in-law, Cleombrotus, and Leonidas was banished to
Tegaea. The new ephori had Lysander and Mandroclidas
tried for innovation; who persuaded the two kings to unite and
turn out the ephori, which was done, but not without great
confusion. Agesilaus, one of the ephori that succeeded those
who were just dismissed, would have caused Leonidas to be
killed on the way to Tegaea, if Agis had not sent him a strong
guard ; a favour which was repaid with the most shocking in-
gratitude. The reformation might then have been established,
if Agesilaus had not found means to elude the good intentions
of the two kings. Whilst this was transacting, the Achaeans
asked assistance, which was given them, and Agis had the com-
mand of the troops. He acquired a good deal of reputation
in this campaign; but, upon his return, found his affairs so em-
broiled by the ill conduct of Agesilaus, that it was impossible
for him to maintain himself. Leonidas was recalled to Lace-
daemon; Agis retired into one temple and Cleombrotus into
another. The wife of the latter behaved herself in such a man-
ner that she became the admiration of every one. Leonidas
was not contented with banishing his son-in-law, but he applied
himself entirely to the ruin of Agis. One of the ephori, who
had no mind to return what Agesistrata had lent him, was the
diabolical instrument of the ruin of this family. Agis never
went out of his sanctuary but to bathe. One day, as he was
returning from thence to the temple, he was seized by that
ephorus, and carried to prison; brought to his trial; con-
demned to death; and delivered to the executioner. His
mother and grandmother used all possible importunity, that,
as he was king of Lacedaemon, he might at least be permitted
to plead his own cause before the people. But the ephori.
were apprehensive lest his words might make too great an im-
pression, and therefore they ordered him to be strangled that
very hour. The ephorus who was the ungrateful debtor to
Agesistrata, permitted that princess to go into the prison, as
well as Agis's grandmother; but he gave orders to strangle.
them both. Agesistrata died in a manner that was extremely
to her honour. The wife of Agis, who was a princess of great









UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. [B. c.367.
fortune and prudence, one of the finest ladies in Greece, and
passionately fond of her husband, was forced away from her
apartment by king Leonidas, and obliged to marry his son,
Cleomenes, who was so very young as to be hardly fit for mar-
riage; and was afterwards the last fº of Sparta. Thus failed
the last patriotic attempt to restore the primitive virtue of the
Spartans; an evidence, among many others, how difficult it is
to bring about a reform amongst people who are once enervated
by luxury. Not long after this, Sparta became a Roman pro-
vince; and the son and grand-children of Leonidas perished
miserably in Egypt.
NICOCLES, a king of Paphos, who reigned under the pro-
tection of Ptolemy, king of Egypt. He revolted from his
friend to the king of Persia, upon which Ptolemy ordered one
of his servants to put him to death, to strike terror into the
other dependent princes. The servant, unwilling to murder
the monarch, advised him to kill himself. Nicocles obeyed,
and all his family followed his example, 310 years before the
Christian era.
EVAGORAS II., grandson of Evagoras I., king of Cyprus,
and son of Nicocles. He was dethroned by his uncle, Prota-
goras, on which he fled to Artaxerxes Ochus, who made him
governor of a province, but at last put him to death.
MITHRIDATES, the second of that name, king of Pontus,
was grandson to Mithridates the first. He made himself mas-
ter of Pontus, which had been conquered by Alexander, and
had been ceded to Antigonus at the general division of the
Macedonian empire among the conqueror's generals. He
reigned about twenty-six years, and died at the advanced age of
ghty-four years, B.C. 302. He was succeeded by his son,
Mithridates III., who enlarged his paternal possessions by
the conquest of Cappadocia and Paphlagonia, and died after
a reign of twenty-six years.
NECTANEBUS II., of Egypt, grandson of Nectanebus I.,
made an alliance with Agesilaus I., king of Sparta, and with his
assistance quieted a rebellion of his subjects. Some time after
this he was joined by the Sidonians, Phoenicians, and inhabi-
tants of Cyprus, who had revolted from the king of Persia.
This powerful confederacy was soon attacked by Darius, king
of Persia. Nectanebus, to defend his frontiers, levied twenty
thousand mercenary soldiers in Greece, as many in Lybia, and
sixty thousand in Egypt. This numerous body was not equal
to the Persian forces; and Nectanebus, defeated in a battle,
gave up all hopes of assistance, and fled into Ethiopia, B.C.
0, where he found a safe asylum. Egypt became from that
um ğ". king of Persia.
"O, .
MY, immed iMGüs, and soter, king of











B. c.369.] FROM PHILIP II. To PtoleMY EUERGETEs.
bly a natural son of king Philip, who gave his mother, Arsinoe,
when pregnant by him, in marriage to Lagus, a Macedonian of
mean descent. He passed for the real son of Lagus. He was
brought up to arms, and became one of the most celebrated
officers of Alexander the Great, whom he accompanied in all
his expeditions. He particularly distinguished himself in the
war against the nations on the Indian border, and had a great
share in the successes of his sovereign. On the division of the
Macedonian empire, at the death of Alexander, the govern-
ment of Egypt, with part of Arabia and Lybia, were assigned
to Ptolemy. His administration of that province was so wise
and equitable, that many resorted to it from Europe and Asia;
and by the honours which he paid to the remains of Alexan-
der, when conveyed to Egypt for interment, he attached to
himself many of the veteran soldiers of that conqueror. When
Perdiccas began to manifest his ambitious designs, Ptolemy
joined in a league with Antipater and Craterus to keep him
within bounds; and when Antipater made a new division of the
provinces, Ptolemy was confirmed in the government which he
possessed, and which, indeed, could not be taken from him.
He afterwards possessed himself of Syria and Phoenicia. He
met with very little opposition in this attempt, except from the
Jews, whose resistance obliged him to lay siege to their capital,
Jerusalem. This city he took by storm on the sabbath-day,
the religion of the inhabitants not permitting them, on that day,
to make use of the means of self-defence. He sent a number
of Jews as captives into Egypt, of whom he selected those
fitted to his purpose to serve in his garrisons, and placed the
rest in the conquered countries of Lybia and Cyrene. He
afterwards, together with Lysimachus and Cassander, formed
a confederacy to support Seleucus against the power of Anti-
gonus, who took Syria from Ptolemy, and laid siege to the
hoenician sea-ports, which he reduced. Being obliged, how-
ever, to carry his arms elsewhere, Ptolemy marched into Syria,
and defeated Demetrius, the son of Antigonus, and recovered
all that he had lost. A defeat given by Demetrius to a general
of Ptolemy's, produced another change of fortune, and Ptolemy
retreated to Egypt with a great quantity of spoil and a nume-
rous body of people, who were desirous of living under his
protection. Peace was restored, and soon after broken.
Ptolemy now made inroads into Cilicia, and conquered the
greater part of the island of Cyprus. He then obtained vari-
ous successes in Lesser Asia and the Archipelago, and at-
tempted to gain the hand of Cleopatra, the sister of Alexan-
der; but upon the bare suspicion of the princess's intentions
in his favour, she was put to death by order of Antigonus.
His career was stopt by the activity of Demetrius, who defeat-
ed him in a sea-fight, and reduced the isle of Cyprus. On



is occasion the conqueror assumed the title of king, and con-
ferred the same on his son, and his example was followed by
Ptolemy and the other Macedonian chiefs. This happened in
the year B. C. 306.) Antigonus and Demetrius now resolved
to attempt the entire conquest of Ptolemy's dominions, and ac-
cordingly invaded Egypt with a powerful armament, by sea
and land; but Ptolemy was too prudent and skilful to allow
them to carry their plans into effect. They turned their arms
against Rhodes; but, by the assistance of Ptolemy, that city
was saved, and the inhabitants, for his services, honoured him
with the appellation of saviour. Ptolemy, in his turn, became
the aggressor; and Antigonus was killed in battle, while De-
metrius underwent a total defeat. Ptolemy now recovered the
isle of Cyprus, and captured, in Salamis, the mother and family
of Demetrius, whom he dismissed with magnificent presents.
He regained likewise part of Syria and Phoenicia. At length,
having arrived at an advanced age, he devolved the cares of
government upon his son Ptolemy Philadelphus, associating
him in the throne, and declaring him his successor, to the pre-
judice of an elder son by another wife. He survived two years
longer, and died in the year B. C. 283, in the eighty-fourth
year of his age, having reigned more than forty years. Pto-
lemy Soter, says the historian, was one of the greatest of Alex-
ander's successors, and the best prince of the line which he
founded. His reign, on the whole, was highly prosperous, and
at his death his kingdom was very extensive; besides Egypt
and its dependencies he held Phoenicia, Coelo-Syria, Lybia,
Pamphylia, Cilicia, Syria, Caria, and some of the Cyclades.
The seat of his kingdom was the new city of Alexandria,
which he rendered populous by inviting inhabitants from vari-
ous countries, and bestowing on them great privileges. He
built the famous pharos, or light-house, at the entrance of its
port, and founded an academy, or society of men of letters, for
hose use he began that collection of books which afterwards
ume celebrated through the world as the Alexandrian
ry. He was himself a man of unquestionable learning, and
composed a history of the conquests of Alexander, which was
regarded by Arrian as the best authority for the events of that
lid period. While on the throne, he retained the sim-
y of manners and familiarity which had distinguished him
sol ier. His government was mild, prudent, and equitable,
hat his dominions were the refuge of numbers, who fled
§% ers and oppressions prevailing in other parts of
mpire. He had been four times married;
ºre Eurydice, the daughter of Antipater,
Ceraunus; Berenice, by whose charms.
her son his heir. º

































R. C. 320. FROM PHILIP II. TO PTO LEMY EUERGETES. 459
PTOLEMY CERAUNUS, the elder brother of Ptolemy
Philadelphus, who fled to Seleucus, king of Macedonia, by
whom he was received with hospitality; in return for which, he
assassinated him, and usurped his crown. He then invited
Arsinoe, who was his widow, and his own sister, to share the
government with him; but as soon as he had her in his power,
he murdered her and her children. He was at length defeated,
killed, and torn limb from limb by the Gauls, B.C. 279.
PTO LEMY PHILADELPHUS, king of Egypt, son of
Ptolemy Lagus and Berenice, began to reign during the life-
time of his father; and, B.C. 281, succeeded him as sole
monarch. Soon after his succession he banished the philoso-
pher Demetrius Phalareus, a miserable act of revenge, whom
he suspected of having advised his father to nominate, as his
successor, his eldest son Ptolemy Ceraunus. The name of
Philadelphus appears to have been assumed by this king, in
compliment to his brother Ceraunus, after the latter had sent
him an embassy, expressing his desire to live on friendly terms
with him, notwithstanding his disappointment in the succession.
Philadelphus had received a powerful and opulent kingdom,
which placed him among the greater sovereigns of the times.
He had married, as his first wife, Arsinoe, the daughter of
Lysimachus, whom he repudiated, and then married his own
sister, who was the widow of their half-brother Ceraunus; such
was the custom of the royal families of the Macedonian race.
He now formed an alliance with the Romans, the Athenians,
and Lacedaemonians, and sent a fleet to the relief of Athens,
when besieged by Antigonus Gonatus. The general tranquil-
lity of his reign was interrupted by the revolt of his maternal
brother Magas, whom Ptolemy Soter had made governor of
Lybia and Cyrene. Magas, with a numerous army, advanced
towards Alexandria, with a view to dethrone Ptolemy, but was
called to his own government by a revolt of the Marmarides.
Afterwards, in conjunction with his father-in-law Antiochus
Soter, king of Syria, he renewed his design; but Ptolemy was
before-hand with him, and defeated all his plans. It was chiefly
through the policy of Philadelphus that Alexandria became so
celebrated for its commerce. He founded a city on the Red
Sea, near the frontier of Ethiopia, which he named, after his
mother, Berenice; but finding its harbour inconvenient, he re-
moved the trading station to Myos-Hounos, on the same sea.
To this part were brought the commodities of the East, whence
they were transferred on camels to Coptos, on the Nile, and
thence to Alexandria; and, in order to facilitate the passage
across the desart, he carried a canal into it from the Nile for a
supply of water, and built houses of accommodation at proper
intervals. He, likewise, for the protection of trade, kept two
strong fleets, one in the Red Sea, the other in the Mediter-
460 UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY, [B.C. 399.
ranean, in the last of which were some vessels of extraordinary
magnitude. By these prudent measures he rendered his king-
dom flourishing, his people happy, and he filled the country
with a number of populous towns and cities. Upon the death
of Magas, his widow excited a war between her brother An-
tiochus Theos and Ptolemy, which produced a formidable in-
vasion of Egypt by the Syrian king. This war did not prevent
Ptolemy from pursuing those plans of liberal munificence which
have rendered his name illustrious. He employed learned men
to collect books from all quarters for his great library; and it
is said to have been in consequence of his literary curiosity
that the Septuagint was made; though the manifest fables with
which the narrative of this transaction is mingled, have thrown
doubts upon the whole. His generosity as a man, and as a
patron of letters and the arts, drew to his court many eminent
persons in various branches, among whom were seven Greek
poets, from their number popularly called the Pleiades. He
was also the greatest collector, in his age, of the productions of
the fine arts, which he purchased by means of his agents
throughout Greece. After the death of his sister-wife, his
affliction was unabating; and he perpetuated her memory by
giving her name to several cities, and raising sumptuous monu-
ments to her honour; nor did he long survive her loss. Ptolemy
died in the year B.C. 246, leaving two sons and a daughter by
his first wife. He was not of an amiable temper or character,
though splendid in all his acts as a public man. He was indo-
lent, luxurious, and effeminate: though he adopted the sur-
name of Philadelphus, he put to death two of his brothers, on
suspicion of conspiracies, whence some writers have supposed
the application of the name to be irony. His reign forms a
kind of era in letters and the arts.
We now introduce the Roman personages of this period.
CAIUS LICINIUS, a Roman tribune, of a plebeian family,
rose to that rank by his own aspiring temper; he was the first
plebeian who was raised to the dignity of master of horse to
the dictator. He was surnamed Stolo, or Useless Sprout, on
account of the law which he caused to be enacted during his
tribuneship. By this law, no person was permitted to hold
more than 500 acres of land, it being alleged that when more
was held by one proprietor, he would not have leisure to pull
up the useless shoots (stolones) which grew from the roots of
trees. He afterwards carried a law, which permitted the ple-
beians to share the consular dignity with the patricians, and was
himself one of the first plebeian consuls, in the year B.C. 364.
CURTIUS, a Roman, whose patriotism has been celebrated
by Livy; and though the fact which is recorded in connection


B. c. 370.) FROM PHILIP II. To PTOLEMY EUERGETRs. 461
with his name, and by which it is rendered illustrious, has been
the subject of much discussion and doubt, yet there was un-
questionably some foundation for the story, which is thus re-
corded by the historian: “In the year 392 of the city,
B.C. 357, the ground in the midst of the forum, either from an
earthquake or some similar cause, opened, and left a vast chasm,
which could not be filled by any human art. The oracle was
consulted, who declared that the Roman state would endure
for ever, provided they threw that into the gulf in which the
Romans were most powerful. Curtius heard the answer, and
asked, if his countrymen possessed any thing so valuable as
their arms and courage? The courage of the hero was well
known; his question caused the most profound silence; Curtius
turned his eyes towards the capitol, stretching his hands first
towards heaven, and next towards the bottom of the gulf,
solemnly devoted himself. He then, fully armed, mounted his
horse, decorated in all its caparisons, and plunged into the
chasm; the applauding people of both sexes throwing after
him flowers and fruit.” This was afterwards called the Curtian
lake, in memory of the deed.
MANLIUS P. DECIUS, distinguished for valour and patriot-
ism, was a military tribune of plebeian rank in the army of C. Cos-
sus, about the year B. C. 343, when it was brought into imminent
danger of ruin by the Samnites. Decius saw a method of ex-
tricating his countrymen; he proposed his plan to the general,
which was agreed upon, and which, being instantly adopted,
was crowned with complete success. He was crowned by the
general and soldiers as their deliverer; and was presented, for
his wisdom and prowess, with a golden crown, an hundred,
oxen, and a white bull, from the consul; with an obsidional
crown of grass from the army, and a civic crown of oak from
his own detachment. To himself he reserved only the crowns,
and distributed the other presents among his brave comrades.
Two years afterwards he was created consul, with Manlius Tor-
quatus. In a dangerous war with the Latins, it was agreed be-
tween the consuls, that he whose army should give way in battle,
should devote himself to death for the benefit of his country;
the event took place in the succeeding combat, and Decius im-
mediately plunged into the thickest part of the hostile forces,
where he fell a sacrifice to his patriotism; his body was found
the next day buried under the enemy's weapons, and was
honourably interred. . . - * * * * * * * *
. His son Decius imitated his example, and devoted himself
in like manner in his fourth consularship, when fighting against
the Gauls and Samnites, B.C. 296. His grandson also did the
same in the war against Pyrrhus and the Tarentines, B.C. 280.
This act of devotion was of essential service to the state.
The soldiers were animated by the example, and induced to

UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. [b. c. 310.
follow dity, a commander, who, arrayed in an un-
ldressing himself to the gods with solemn in-
kest part of the enemy to meet
usual dress, and addr .
vocation, rushed into the thic
his fate. º ºil it . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sº DUILIUS, a Roman consul, the first
CAIUS NEPC
who obtained a victory over the naval power of Carthage,
B.C. 357. He took fifty ships, and was honoured with a naval
triumph, the first that ever appeared at Rome. The senate
rewarded his valour, by permitting him to have music playing,
and torches lighted, at the public expence, every day while he
was at supper. There were some medals struck in commemo-
ration of this victory; and there still exists a column at Rome,
which was erected on the occasion. .
CAIUS MOENIUS, a celebrated Roman consul, who
conquered the ancient Latins, B.C. 338. He was the first
who hung up the prows, &c. of the galleys he had taken in the
naval engagement of Actium, upon the place where the tribunes
harangued the people, from whence it was called the rostra.
MANLIUS TORQUATUS, a famous Roman, who dis-
played great courage in his youth as military tribune. In a
war against the Gauls, he accepted a challenge given by one of
the enemy, and, having slain him, took his collar from his neck,
on which account he assumed the name of Torquatus. He
was the first Roman who advanced to the dictatorship without
being previously a consul. But he tarnished his glory by put-
ting his son to death for defeating the enemy, without having
received orders to attack them. This gave great disgust to
the Romans; and, on account of his severity in his govern-
ment, all edicts of extreme rigour were called manliana edicta.
FABIUS MAXIMUS RULLIANUS, was the first of
the Fabii who obtained the sirmame of Maximus, for lessening
the power of the populace at elections. He was master of the
horse, and his victory over the Samnites, in that capacity,
nearly cost him his life, because he engaged the enemy with-
out the command of the dictator. He was five times consul,
twice dictator, and once censor. He triumphed over seven
different nations, and rendered himself illustrious by his pa-
PAPIRIUS CURSOR, an eminent Roman commander,
was master of the horse to Papirius Crassus, when dictator in
the year B. C. 339. He was consul, for the first time, in the
year B. C. 333, and was nominated dictator in the war with the
Samnites, B.C. 324. Having appointed Fabius Maximus Rulli-
anus to be his master of the horse, he marched against the
strictly enjoining Fabius not to engage during his ab-
A favourable opportunity, however, occurr
ºf the horse disobeyed the injunction, an
an



































B. c. 330.] FROM PHILIP ii. To PTOLEMY EUERGETES. 463
condemned to death by the dictator, but the sentence was not
executed. Papirius, during the remainder of the campaign,
applied himself to the recovering of the affections of his soldiers,
which had been alienated by his severity, and then he attacked
the enemy, who were reduced to sue for peace. He was chosen
consul a second time, B. C. 320; and again a third time in
the following year, when he reduced Samnium, which had re-
volted, and put all the Samnite garrison to the sword. For his
exploits in the preceding campaign, triumphal honours were de-
creed him. In the consulate of Fabius Rullianus, and Marcius
Rutillus, B. C. 310., the latter having sustained great loss in an
engagement with the Samnites, it was determined again to raise
Papirius to the dictatorship, as the commander most to be re-
lied on in the public danger. A decree was accordingly passed,
enjoining Fabius to nominate Papirius to that high office. He
was again successful, and received a third triumph. This was,
probably, his last public service; as his name occurs no more
in history. He surpassed all his contemporaries in military
talents. In person he was tall and majestic, of great bodily
strength and vigour, and so swift of foot that he obtained his
sirname from that circumstance. He kept his troops, as well
as himself, in constant exercise, and maintained strict discipline.
APPIUS CLAUDIAS, sirnamed CAECUS, or the Blind,
was a descendant of the decemvir of the same name, and be-
came celebrated for his knowledge of the civil law. He served
the office of censor, B.C. 313, in which he rendered great ser-
vice to Rome, by bringing a supply of water by an aqueduct
seven miles long; and by making a noble road from the city of
Capua, called the Appian way. He was made consul B.C. 307,
and the year following praetor. In his old age he lost his sight.
Cicero mentions him with respect. > º
CAIUS FABRICIUS, a celebrated Roman, who in his
first consulship obtained several victories over the Samnites and
Lucanians, and was honoured with a triumph. The riches
acquired in those battles were immense, the soldiers were libe-
rally rewarded, and the treasury was enriched with four hun-
dred talents. Two years after, Fabricius went as ambassador
to Pyrrhus, and refused with contempt presents and offers,
which might have corrupted the fidelity of a less virtuous citi-
zen. Pyrrhus admired the magnanimity of Fabricius, but his
astonishment was excited to the highest pitch, when Fabricius
discovered to him the villany of his own physician, who had
offered to the Roman general, for a sum of money, to poison
his royal master. To this greatness of soul was added the most
Sºnsummate knowledge of military affairs, and the greatest sim-
plicity of manners. Fabricius never used rich plate at his
able. A small salt cellar, the feet of which were of horn, was
the only silver vessel which appeared in his house. This con-






Universal Biography. [B.C. 330.
tempt of luxury Fabricius wished to inspire among the people;
and during his censorship, he banished from the senate Corne-
lius Russinus, who had been twice consul and dictator, because
he kept in his house more than ten pounds' weight of silver
plate. Such were the manners of the conqueror of Pyrrhus,
who observed that he wished rather to command those who had
money than possess it himself. He lived and died in virtuous
}. ; his body was buried at the public charge; and the
oman people gave a dowry to his two daughters, when they
arrived to years of maturity. He died about B. C. 250.
PAPIRIUS CURSOR, the younger, was created consul
B.C. 293, in conjunction with Spurius Caroclius. In his con-
tests with the Samnites he was very successful, and gave a
proof of superiority to that superstition which was so prevalent
among the early Romans. Being informed, as he was about to
advance to battle, that the keeper of the sacred chickens had
falsely given a favourable report of the augury derived from
their eating, and that in fact the presage was inauspicious; he
replied, that he should understand the report as it was given,
and that if the keeper had deceived him, the vengeance of the
gods would fall on him alone. He therefore placed the man in
the front of the battle, where he was killed by an unknown
hand before the armies came to a close engagement. The bat-
tle terminated in favour of the Romans. The Samnites were
not totally defeated, but lost their camp. For this and some
subsequent success, he obtained a triumph at the end of the
campaign. Papirius, in his second consulate with the same
colleague, was equally successful against the same people, which
§: an end to a war that had lasted for seventy-two years.
he consuls next subdued the Lucanians and Brutians, and
proceeding to Tarentum, invested that city, which had been
the first to invite Pyrrhus into Italy. Papirius, by the offer of
favourable terms, gained possession of the citadel, and the town
soon surrendered, and became tributary. From this period
nothing more occurs relating to this valiant commander.
º MANLIUS CURIUS, an ancient Roman,
who raised himself from almost the lowest rank, to the highest
and most important offices of the state. He attained the rank
of consul, B. C. 290, and shortly put an end to the long war
that had been carried on between his countrymen and the Sam-
mites; his courage and prudence fitted him for the difficult
times in which he flourished. In some instances, the enemies
of his country who were unable to conquer, or to cope with
him, attempted, what has often proved a safer and a shorter
enterprise, namely, to bribe him. Cooking his humble meal
with his own hands, he heard their offer, and manfully replied,
“ the man that could dine as he did had no occasion for gold;
that he accounted it more honourable to command the posses-




B. c.330.j from PHILIP II. To ProLEMY EUERGETEs. 465
sors of wealth, than to be rich himself; and that they might
assure their countrymen, they would find it as difficult to cor-
rupt as to conquer him.” Inflexible as the integrity of this
patriot was, still he had his enemies; jealous of his superior
talents, and envious of his well-earned fame, they accused him
of converting to his own purposes, part of the spoil taken from
the enemy. He was examined on the subject, and confessed
the fact; he had retained for his own use a wooden oil vessel,
for the purpose of making libations to the gods. On many oc-
casions after this, he conferred on his country the most signal
benefits; on the defeat of Pyrrhus he had a magnificent tri-
umph, exhibiting not only a vast quantity of rich spoils, but
several captured elephants, animals that had never before been
seen in Rome. The senate, on this occasion, offered him fifty
acres of land, which the virtuous and self-denying consul re-
fused, saying, that a portion of seven acres, the common lot of
every citizen, was sufficient. z
PAPIRIUS, surnamed PRAETEXTATUS, from an action
of his whilst he wore the praetexta, a certain gown for young
men. His father, of the same name, carried him to the senate
house, where affairs of the greatest importance were then in
debate before the senators. The mother of young Papirius
wished to know what had passed in the senate ; but Papi-
rius, unwilling to betray the secrets of that august assembly,
amused his mother by telling her, that it had been considered
whether it would be more advantageous to the republic to give
two wives to one husband, than two husbands to one wife. The
mother of Papirius was alarmed, and she communicated the
secret to the other Roman matrons, and on the morrow they
assembled in the senate, petitioning that one woman might have
two husbands rather than one husband two wives. The sema-
tors were astonished at this petition, but young Papirius un-
ravelled the whole mystery, and from that time it was made a
law among the senators, that no young man should for the fu-
ture be introduced into the senate house, except Papirius.
This law was carefully observed till the age of Augustus, who
permitted children of all ages to hear the debates of the
Senators. : . :
BRENNUS, a general of the Gauls, who passed at the head
of a prodigious army into the east, penetrated into Macedonia,
slew Sosthemes, general of that country, ravaged Thessaly and
Greece, advanced towards the temple of Delphos, with an in-
tention to plunder it; but was repulsed and his army routed,
on which he put an end to himself, B. C. 278.
M. ATTILIUS REGULUS, a Roman consul during the
first Punic war. He reduced Brundusium, and in his second
lship, took sixty-four, and sunk thirty galleys of the Car-
fleet, on the coasts of Sicily. Afterwards he landed





UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. [B.C.399.
in Africa; and so rapid was his success, that in a short time
he made himself master of about 200 important places on the
coast. The Carthaginians sued for peace, but he refused to
grant it, and soon after was defeated by Xantippus, thirty
thousand of his men being killed, and fifteen thousand taken
prisoners. Regulus himself was also taken and carried in tri-
umph to Carthage. He was then sent to Rome, to propose an
accommodation; and if his commission was unsuccessful, he
was bound by the most solemn oaths to return to Carthage.
When he came to Rome, Regulus dissuaded his countrymen
from accepting the terms which the enemy proposed; and when
his opinion had influenced the senate, Regulus returned to
Carthage agreeable to his oaths. The Carthaginians hearing
that the offers of peace had been rejected at Rome by the in-
fluence of Regulus, they prepared to punish him with the
greatest severity. His eyelids were cut off, and he was exposed
for some days to the excessive heat of the meridian sun, and
afterwards confined in a barrel, whose sides were stuck with
iron spikes, till he died in the greatest agonies. His sufferings
being heard of at Rome, the senate permitted his widow to in-
flict whatever punishment she pleased on some of the most
illustrious captives of Carthage, who were in their hands. She
confined them in presses filled with sharp iron points; and was
so exquisite in her cruelty, that the senate interfered and stop-
ped her barbarity. Regulus died about B. C. 251.
XANTIPPUS, a Lacedaemonian general, who assisted the
Carthaginians in the first Punic war. He defeated the Ro-
mans, B. C. 256, and took the celebrated Regulus prisoner.
Such signal services deserved to be rewarded, but the Cartha-
ginians looked with envious jealousy upon Xantippus, and he
retired to Corinth after he had saved them from destruction.
Some authors suppose, that the Carthaginians ordered him to
be assassinated, and his body to be thrown into the sea as he was
returning home, while others say, that they had prepared a
leaky ship to convey him to Corinth, Swhich he artfully avoided.
PHILOSOPHY.
ARISTIPPUS, a native of Cyrene in Lybia, the founder
of the Cyrenaic sect of Philosophy, the son of Aretades, flou-
rished about B.C. 380. The great reputation of Socrates in-
duced him to remove to Athens, that he might hear his dis-
courses. He was chiefly delighted with those that related to
pleasure; which he asserted to be the ultimate end in which all
º
*>
º














B. c.399.] FROM Philip II. To ProLEMY EUERGETEs.
and three country seats, yet he was the only one of the disci-
ples of Socrates who took money for teaching; which being
observed by the philosopher, he asked Aristippus, how he
came to have so much who in reply asked him, How he
came to have so little 7 Upon his leaving Socrates, he went to
AEgina, as Athenaeus informs us, where he lived with more
freedom and luxury than before. Socrates sent frequent ex-
hortations to him, in order to reclaim him, but all in vain; and
with that same view, he published that discourse which we find
in Xenophon. Here Aristippus became acquainted with Lais,
the famous courtezan of Corinth, for whose sake he took a
voyage to that city. He continued at Ægina till the death of
Socrates, as appears from Plato's Phaedon, and the epistle
which he wrote on that occasion. He returned at last to Cy-
rene, where he professed philosophy, and instituted a sect
which was called the Cyrenaic, from the place, and the He-
donic or the voluptuous, from its doctrines. During the height
of the grandeur of Dionysius, the Sicilian tyrant, a great many
philosophers resorted to him, and among the rest Aristippus,
who was tempted by the magnificence of that court. Diony-
sius asking him the reason of his coming, he replied, “That
when he wanted wisdom, he went to Socrates; but now he
wanted money, he was come to him.” He soon insinuated him-
self into the favour of Dionysius; for, being a man of an easy
temper, he conformed himself to every place, time, and person,
and was a complete master of the most refined complaisance,
After he had lived a long time with Dionysius, his daughter
Arete sent to him, desiring his presence at Cyrene, to take
care of her affairs, as she was in danger of being oppressed by
the magistrates. But he fell sick in his return home, and died
at Lipara, an AEolian island.
Diogenes Laertius mentions several anecdotes of Aristippus,
during his residence at the court of Sicily. Dionysius, at a
feast, commanded that all should put on women's purple habits,
and dance in them. Plato refused, alleging it would disgrace
his manhood; but Aristippus readily submitted and replied,
“At feasts, where mirth is free, a sober mind can never be
corrupted.” At another time, interceding with Dionysius in
behalf of a friend, but not prevailing, he cast himself at his
feet; being reproved by one for that excess of humility, he re-
plied, “that it was not he who was the cause of that submis-
sion, but Dionysius, whose ears were in his feet.” Dionysius
showed him three beautiful courtezans, and ordered him to
take his choice; upon which he took them all three away with
him, alleging that Paris was punished for preferring one to
the other two; but when he had brought them to his door he
dismissed them, to show that he could either enjoy or reject
with the same indifference. º desired money of Diony-
H I. &







468 #3: : * UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. [B. C. 399.
sius, the latter observed to him, that he had assured him a wise
man wanted nothing. “Give me, says he, what I ask, and we
will talk of that afterwards.” When Dionysius had given it
him, “ now, says he, you see I do not want.” By this com-
plaisance he gained so much upon Dionysius, that he had a
greater regard for him than for all the rest of the philosophers,
though he sometimes spoke with such freedom to that king,
that he incurred his displeasure. When Dionysius asked,
why philosophers haunted the gates of the rich men, but not
rich men those of philosophers? he replied, “ because the
latter know what they want, and the others do not.” Another
time, Dionysius repeating out of Sophocles, these verses,

He that with tyrants seeks for bare support,
Enslaves himself, though free he came to court;
he immediately answered, “he is no slave, if he be forced to
come.” Aristippus had a contest with Antisthemes, the Cynic
philosopher; notwithstanding which, he employed his interest
at court for some of the friends of Antisthenes, to preserve
them from death, as we find by a letter of his to that philoso-
pher. Diogenes followed the example of his master Antis-
themes in ridiculing Aristippus; and called him the court spaniel.
Suidas observes, that Aristippus surpassed all the philosophers
in the acuteness of his apophthegms. Being once railed at, he
left the room; and the person who abused him, following him,
and asking him why he went away, he answered, “because it
is in your power to rail, but it is not in my power to hear you.”
When one recommended his son to him, he demanded five
hundred drachms; and upon the father's replying, that he
could buy a slave for that sum, “do so,” said he, “and then you
will be master of a couple.” Being reproached, because, hav-
ing a suit of law depending, he feed a lawyer to plead for him,
“just so, said he, when I have a great supper to make, I al-
ways engage a cook.” Being asked the difference between a
wise man and a fool, he replied, “ send both of them together
naked to those who are acquainted with neither of them, and
then you will know.” Being reproved by Plato for his costly
feasts; “I warrant you,” said he, “that you would not have be-
stowed three farthings upon such a dinner,” which the other
confessing, “why then, said he, I find that I love my belly,
and you love your money.” His servant carrying after him a
great weight of money, and being ready to sink upon the road
under his burden, he bid him throw away all that was too much
for him to carry. (Horace mentions this fact, lib. ii. sect. 3.)
Being reproached for going from Socrates to Dionysius, he re-
plied, “that he went to Socrates for instruction, and to Diony-
sius for diversion.” Having received money of Dionysius at the




B. c.396.J FROM PHILIP II. To PTOLEMY EUERGETEs. 469
same time that Plato accepted a book only, and being reproach-
ed for it; “the reason is plain,” said he, “I want money, and
Plato wants books.” Having lost a considerable farm, he said
to one who seemed to compassionate his loss. “You have but
one field, I have three left, why should not I rather grieve for
you?” When a person told him, “that the land for his sake
was lost,” he replied, “that it was better so, than that he
should be lost for the sake of the land.” Like Socrates, he
rejected the sciences as they were then taught, and pretended
that logic alone was sufficient to teach truth, and to fix its
bounds. He asserted, that pleasure and pain were the crite-
rions by which we were to be determined; that these alone made
up all our passions; that the first produced all the soft emotions,
and the latter all the violent ones. The assemblage of all
pleasure, he asserted, made true happiness, and the best way to
attain this was to enjoy the present moment.
He wrote a great many books, particularly the History of
Libya, dedicated to Dionysius; several dialogues; and the
four books of the Luxury of the Ancients. There are four
of his epistles extant in the Socratic collection, published by
Leo Aleatius. Besides Arete, his daughter, whom he edu-
cated in philosophy, Aristippus had also a son, whom he dis-
inherited for his stupidity. Arete had a son, who was named
Aristippus, from his grandfather, whom she instructed in phi-
losophy. Among his auditors, besides his daughter Arete, we
have an account of Æthiops of Ptolemais, and Antipater of
Cyrene. Arete communicated the philosophy which she re-
ceived from her father to her son Aristippus, who transmitted it
to Theodorus, the atheist, who instituted the sect called Theo-
dorean. Antipater communicated the philosophy of Aristippus
to Epitemedes his disciple; Epitemedes to Paraebates; Parae-
bates to Hegesias and Anniceris; and these two last, improving
it by some additions of their own, obtained the honour of each
of them giving a name to the Hegesiac and Annicerian sects.
ARETE, the daughter of Aristippus of Cyrene, taught her
father's system of philosophy after his death with great reputa-
tion.
XENOCRATES, a famous Grecian philosopher, was born
at Chalcedon, in the first year of the ninety-sixth Olympiad,
B. C. 396, and attached himself at first to Æschines, but after-
wards became a follower of Plato, and succeeded Speusippus
in the chair of the old academy, B. C. 339. His temper was
gloomy, his aspect severe, and his manners were little tinc-
tured with urbanity. Plato took pains to correct these obliqui-
ties of his disposition and character; and as he highly re-
spected his master, he probably improved by his instruction, so
that he was reckoned one of his most esteemed disciples.
Xenocrates was held in such estimation among the Athenians



UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. [B.C. 396.
or his virtues, and espe º sially his in regrity, as well as his wis-
lom, that in a public trial his simple asseveration was accepted
nstead of an oath, which was usually required; and that even
Philip of Macedon found it impossible to corrupt him. Dread-
ng his influence, and the temptation of a bribe, he declined
all private intercourse with the Macedonian sovereign, and was
honoured by him with this testimony; that of all persons who
had come to him on embassies from foreign states, Xenocrates
was the only one whose friendship he was not able to purchase.
On occasion of being employed as an ambassador to the court
of Antipater, for the redemption of the Athenian captives, he
waived the honour of accepting the invitation of this prince to
sit down with him at supper in the words of Ulysses to Circe,
§
sited from Homer's Odyss. lib. x. ver 383, thus translated,
What man, whose bosom burns with gen'rous worth,
His friends enthrall'd and banish'd from his sight,
Would taste a selfish, solitary joy!
The patriotic spirit expressed in this appropriate passage
ratified Antipater so much, that he immediately released the
prisoners. As another example of his moderation, it is alleged
that when Alexander, wishing to mortify Aristotle, on account
of some accidental pique, sent Xenocrates a magnificent present
of fifty talents, he accepted only thirty minae, returning the
residue to the donor with this message; “that the whole sum
was more than he should have been able to spend during his
whole life.” In this instance he also manifested a superiority to
that kind of jealousy and revenge which might have actuated
meaner minds, when it is considered that Aristotle had insti-
Auted a school in the Lycaeum, in opposition to the academy
over which Xenocrates presided. In the use of food he was
singularly abstemious; his chastity was invincible to the seduc-
ing arts of Phryne, a celebrated Athenian courtezan; and his
humanity was testified by the shelter which he afforded to a
sparrow that was pursued by a hawk, and fled into his bosom,
where he allowed it to remain till its enemy was out of sight,
alleging that he would never betray a suppliant. In the em-
ployment of his time, he allotted a certain portion of each day
siness, one of which he devoted to silent medita-
affi vinced by his refusing to admit
was destitute of the handles of phi-
2 Xenocrates was eminent, both for
ſtance with science ; and
prolonged to the























B. c. 384.) FROM PHILIP 11. To PTOLEMY EUPRGETEs. 471
third year of the 116th Olympiad, B.C. 314, or the eighty-
second year of his age, when he accidentally fell in the dark into
a reservoir of water. His philosophic tenets were Platonic ;
but, in his lectures, he adopted the language of the Pytha-
goreans. In his system, unity and diversity were principles in
nature, or gods; the former being the father, and the latter
the mother of the universe. The heavens he represented as
divine, and the stars as celestial gods; and, besides these di-
vinities, he taught that there are terrestrial demons, of a middle
order between the gods and men, partaking of the nature both
of mind and body, and, like human beings, capable of passions,
and liable to diversity of character. He probably conceived
with Plato, that the superior divinities were ideas, or intelligent
forms, proceeding immediately from the Supreme Deity, and
the inferior gods, or demons, to be derived from the soul of the
world, and, like that principle, compounded of a simple and a
divisible substance, or of that which also remains the same, and
that which is liable to change. A tract of his, on death, was
printed by Aldus, in 1497.
POLEMON, a youth of Athens, son of Philostratus. He
was much given to debauchery and extravagance, and spent the
greater part of his life in riot and drunkenness. He once,
when intoxicated, entered the school of Xenocrates, while the
philosopher was giving his pupils a lecture upon the effects of
intemperance, and he was so struck with the eloquence of the
academician, and the force of his arguments, that from that
moment he renounced the dissipated life he had led, and ap-
plied himself totally to the study of philosophy. He was then
in the thirtieth year of his age, and, from that time, he never
drunk any other liquor but water; and, after the death of
Xenocrates, he succeeded in the school where his reformation
had been effected. He died about 270 years before Christ, in
an extreme old age, highly respected for his great integrity by
the Athenians. Little is said respecting his tenets by the an-
†. excepting that he strictly adhered to the doctrine of
Plato.
ARISTOTLE, the chief of the peripatetic philosophers,
born at Stagyra, a small city of Macedon, about 384 years be-
fore the birth of Christ. He was the son of Nicomachus, phy-
sician to Amyntas, the grandfather of Alexander the Great.
He lost his parents in his infancy; and Proxenes, a friend of
his father, who had the care of his education, taking but little
notice of him, he quitted his studies, and gave himself up to
the follies of youth. After he had spent most of his patrimony,
he entered into the army; but not succeeding in this profession,
he went to Delphos, to consult the oracle what course he should
follow, when he was advised to go to Athens, and study philoso-
phy. He accordingly went thither, when about eighteen years

472 UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY, [B. c. 384.
of age, and studied under Plato till he was thirty-seven. By this
time he had spent his whole fortune; and we are told that he
got his living by selling powders, and some receipts in phar-
macy. He followed his studies with most extraordinary dili-
#. so that he soon surpassed all in Plato's school. He eat
ittle, and slept less; and, that he might not oversleep.himself,
Diogenes Laertius tells us, that he lay always with one hand
out of the bed, having a ball of brass in it, which, by its falling
into a bason of the same metal, awakened him. He had several
conferences with a learned Jew at Athens, who instructed him
in the sciences and religion of the Egyptians, and thereby saved
him the trouble of travelling into Egypt. When he had studied
about fifteen years under Plato, he began to form different
tenets from those of his master, who became highly piqued at
his behaviour. Upon the death of Plato he quitted Athens,
and retired to Abarrya, where he married Pythias, the sister of
Hermias, prince of Mysia, whom he is said to have loved so
º that he offered sacrifice to her. Some time after,
ermias having been taken prisoner by Meranon, the general of
the Persian king, Aristotle went to Mitylene, the capital of Les-
bos, where he remained till Philip, king of Macedon, having
heard of his great reputation, sent for him, to be tutor to his
son Alexander, then about fourteen years of age. Aristotle
accepted the offer; and, in eight years, taught his royal pupil
rhetoric, natural philosophy, ethics, politics, and a certain sort
of philosophy, which, says Plutarch, he taught no one else. Phi-
lip erected statues in honour of Aristotle; and, for his sake, re-
built Stagyra, which had been almost ruined by the wars. The
last fourteen years of his life he spent mostly at Athens, sur-
rounded with every assistance which men and books could
afford him, for prosecuting his philosophical enquiries. The
glory of Alexander's name, which then filled the world, insured
tranquillity and respect to the man whom he distinguished as
his friend; but, after his premature death, the invidious
jealousy of priests and sophists inflamed the superstitious fury
of the Athenian populace; and the same odious passions which
proved fatal to the offensive virtue of Socrates, fiercely assailed
the fame and merit of Aristotle. To avoid their persecution
he withdrew to Chalcis, a measure sufficiently justified by a re-
gard to personal safety; but lest his conduct should appear un-
manly, when contrasted with the firmness of Socrates, he
apologised for his flight, by saying that he was unwilling to
afford the Athenians a second opportunity “to sin against phi-
losophy.” He seems to have survived his retreat from Athens
º a few months; vexation and regret probably ended his
days. ... .º.º. º.º. ... & . . . .
Besides his treatises on philosophy, he wrote also on poetry,
rhetoric, law, &c., to the number of four hundred treatises,


B. c. 3s. FROM Philip II. To proLEMy EUERGETEs. 473
according to Diogenes Laertius. An account of such as are
extant, and of those said to be lost, may be seen in Fabricius's
Bibliotheca Graeca. He left his writings with Theophrastus,
his beloved disciple and successor in the Lycaeum; and forbade
that they should ever be published. Theophrastus, at his
death, trusted them to Neleus, his friend and disciple; whose
heirs buried them in the ground at Scepsis, a town of Troas, to
secure them from the king of Pergamos, who made great
search every where for books to adorn his library. Here they
lay concealed one hundred and sixty years, until, being almost
spoiled, they were sold to one Apellicon, a rich citizen of
Athens. Sylla found them at this man's house, and ordered
them to be carried to Rome. They were some time after pur-
chased by Tyrannion, a grammarian; and Andronicus of
Rhodes having bought them of his heirs, was the first restorer
of the works of this great philosopher; for he repaired what
had been decayed, and got them copied. •
Many followed the doctrine of Aristotle, in the reigns of the
twelve Caesars, and their numbers increased much under Adrian
and Antoninus. Alexander Aphrosophy was the first professor
of the peripatetic philosophy at Rome, being appointed by the
emperors, Marcus Aurelius, and Lucius Verus; and, in suc-
ceeding ages, the doctrines of Aristotle prevailed among almost
all men of letters, and many commentaries were written upon
his works. The first doctors of the church disapproved of the
doctrine of Aristotle, as allowing too much to reason and sense;
but Anatolius, bishop of Laodicea, Didymus of Alexandria,
St. Jerome, St. Augustin, and several others, at last wrote and
spoke in favour of it. In the sixth century, Boethius made it
known in the east, and translated some of his pieces into Latin.
But from the time of Boethius to the eighth century, Joannes
Damascenus was the only man who made an abridgement of his
philosophy, or wrote any thing concerning him. The Grecians,
who took great pains to restore learning in the eleventh and fol-
lowing centuries, deeply studied the works of this philosopher,
and many learned men wrote commentaries on his writings,
amongst these were Alfaragius, Algazel, Avicenna, and Aver-
roes. They taught his doctrine in Africa, and at Cordova in
Spain. The Spaniards introduced it into France, with the
commentaries of the Averroes and Avicenna; and it was taught
in the university of Paris, until Amauri, having supported some
particular tenets on the principles of this philosopher, was con-
demned of heresy, by a council held there in 1210, when all the
works of Aristotle that could be found were burnt, and the reading
ºf them forbidden, under pain of excommunication. This pro-
hibition was confirmed, as to physics and metaphysics, in 1215,
by the pope's legate; though, at the same time, he gave leave
for his logic to be read, instead of St. Augustin's, used at that

474. UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. [B.C. 371,
time in the university. In 1265, Simon, cardinal of St. Cecil,
and legate from the holy see, prohibited the reading of the
physics and . of Aristotle. All these prohibitions,
however, were taken off in 1366; for the cardinals of St. Mark
and St. Martin, who were deputed by pope Urban V. to reform
the university of Paris, permitted the reading of those books
which had been prohibited; and pope Stephen approved of
all his works, and procured a new translation of them. The
first edition of Aristotle's works was in Latin, by Averroes,
Venice, 1472, 4 vols. folio; but the editio princeps in Greek is
that of Aldus, 6 vols. folio, 1495. The best subsequent editions
are those of Casaubon, 1590, 2 vols. folio; Lugd. and Duval,
4 vols. fol. Par. 1629. The late Mr. Pye has translated the
Poetics into English, 8vo. 1788; and Mr. Twining published
another in 1789, 4to. The treatise on government has been
translated by Mr. Ellis, 4to. 1778, and Dr. Gillies has translated
“Aristotle's Ethics and Politics.”
THEOPHRASTUS, a distinguished Greek philosopher, the
favourite pupil of Aristotle, and nominated by him as his suc-
cessor, in the school of the Lycaeum, was born at Eresium, a
maritime town of Lesbos, in the second year of the 102nd
Olympiad, B.C. 371. His first rudiments of education were
received under Alcippus, in his own country; and being sent
by his father to Athens, he became first a disciple of Plato, and
afterwards of Aristotle. Such were his natural talents, that,
under such tuition, he made great progress both in philosophy
and eloquence; so that his original name, Tyrtanues, was
changed, either by his master or his followers, into Theophras-
tus. After he undertook the Peripatetic school, in the year
B.C. 323, his reputation was so distinguished, that the number
of his scholars was two thousand. His erudition and engag-
ing manners recommended him to the notice of Cassander and
Ptolemy; by the former he was invited to Macedon, and by
the latter to Egypt; and among the Athenians he was so great
a favourite, that when he was accused by one of his enemies of
teaching impious doctrines, the accuser could not without diffi-
culty escape the punishment he endeavoured to bring on Theo-
phrastus. Theophrastus is no less highly celebrated for his
generosity and public spirit, than for his industry, learning, and
eloquence. He is said to have twice saved his country from
the oppression of tyrants; and he contributed liberally tow
defraying the expence of public meetings, held by philosº
for learned and ingenious conversation. In the public schools
É.
he appeared, after the manner of Aristotle, in an elegant dress,















B. c.362.] from PHILIP II. To PTOLEMY EUERGETEs. 475
to the school in a carriage. In contemplating the shortness of
life, he expressed great regret, complaining that long life was
granted to stags and crows, to whom it was of little value, but .
was denied to man, who, if it were of longer duration, might
attain the summit of science; whereas now, as soon as hear-
rives within sight of it, he is taken away. His last advice to his
disciples was, that since it is the lot of man to die as soon as he
begins to live, they should take greater pains to enjoy life as it
passes, than to acquire posthumous fame. A large body of
Athenians attended his funeral.
Several of his works are extant, and have been printed to-
ether by Heinsius in folio. The principal are, the History of
lants; the Treatise on Stones; and the Moral Characters of
Men. Of the whole extant works of Theophrastus, the best
edition is that of Dan. Heinsius, Greek and Latin, fol. Ludg. B.
1613. Of his “History of Plants,” the most complete is that
of Bodaeus, Greek and Latin, fol. Amst. 1644. The editions
of his “Characters” are very numerous. Among the most
esteemed are those of Is. Casaubon; of Needham, with the
notes of Duport, Cantab. 1712; and of J. Fr. Fischer, Co-
bourg, 1763.
DICEARCHUS, a disciple of Aristotle, was born at Mes-
sina, in Sicily. He was a philosopher, historian, and mathe-
matician, and composed a great many books on various subjects,
and in all sciences, which were much esteemed. Cicero and
Atticus valued them highly. He wrote a book, to prove that men
suspected more mischief from one another than from all evils
beside. Another work he composed, concerning the republic
of Lacedaemon, was highly honoured, and read every year be-
fore the youth in the assembly of the ephori. Geography was
one of his principal studies; and we have a treatise, or rather
a fragment of a treatise, of his still extant upon that subject.
It was first published by Henry Stephens in 1589, with a Latin
version and notes; and afterwards by Hudson, at Oxford, in
1703, among the “Veteris Geographiae Scriptores, Graecos
Minores,” &c. Pliny tells us that “ Dicearchus, a man of ex-
traordinary learning, had received a commission from some
princess to take the height of the mountains, and found Pelion,
the highest of them, to be 1250 paces perpendicular, from
whence he concluded it to bear no proportion which could affect
the rotundity of the globe.”
ZENO, the founder of the sect of the Stoics, was born about
B. C.362, at Citimer, in Cyprus. This place having originally
been peopled by a colony of Phoenicians, Zeno is sometimes
galled a Phoenician. His father was by profession a merchant,
but discovering in his son a strong propensity to learning, he
early devoted him to philosophy. In this mercantile capacit













476 UNIVERSAL biography. [B. C.362.
he had frequent occasion to visit Athens, where he purchased
for his son several of the writings of the most eminent Socratic
philosophers. These he read with great avidity, and when he
was about thirty years of age, he was determined to take a
voyage to a city which was so celebrated, both as a mart of
trade and of science. If it be true, as some writers relate, that
he brought with him a valuable cargo of Phoenician purple,
which was lost by shipwreck upon the coast of Piraeus, this
circumstance will account for the facility with which he at first
attached himself to a sect whose leading principle was the
contempt of riches. Upon his first arrival in Athens, going
accidentally into the shop of a bookseller, he took up a volume
of the Commentaries of Xenophon; and after reading a few
passages, was so much delighted with the work, and formed so
high an idea of the author, that he asked the bookseller where
he might meet with such men. Crates, the cynic philosopher,
happening at that instant to be passing by, the bookseller
pointed to him, and said, “ Follow that man.” Zeno attended
upon the instructions of Crates, and was so well pleased
with his doctrine, that he became one of his disciples. But
though he admired the general principles of the cynic school,
he could not easily reconcile himself to their peculiar manners.
Besides, his inquisitive turn of mind would not allow him to
adopt that indifference to every scientific inquiry, which was
one of the characteristic distinctions of the sect. He therefore
attended upon other masters, who professed to instruct their
disciples in the nature and causes of things. When Crates,
displeased at his following other philosophers, attempted to
drag him by force out of the school of Stilpo, Zeno said to him,
“You may seize my body, but Stilpo has laid hold of my
mind.” After continuing to attend upon the lectures of Stilpo
several years, he passed over to other schools, particularly to
those of Xenocrates and Diodorus Crotius. By the latter he
was instructed in dialectics. He was so much delighted with
this branch of study, that he presented to his master a large
pecuniary gratuity, in return for his free communication of
some of his ingenious subtleties. At last, after attending almost
every other master, he offered himself a disciple of Polemon.
This philosopher appears to have been aware that Zemo's in-
tention in thus removing from one school to another, was to col-
lect materials from different quarters for a new system of his
own; for, when he came into Polemon's school he said to him,
“I am no stranger, Zeno, to your Phoenician arts; I perceive
that your design is to creep slily into my garden, and steal
away my fruit." Polemon was not mistaken in his opinion.
Having made himself master of the tenets of others, Zeno de-
termined to become the founder of a new sect. The place
which he made choice of for his school was a public portico,





B. c.362.] FROM PHILIP II. To PTOLEMY EUERGETEs. 477
adorned with the pictures of Polygnotus, and other eminent
painters. It was the most famous portico in Athens, and called,
by way of eminence, “the Porch.” It was from this circum-
stance that the followers of Zeno were called Stoics. In his
person he was tall and slender; his aspect was severe, and his
brow contracted. His constitution was feeble, but he pre-
served his health by abstemiousness. The supplies of his table
consisted of figs, bread, and honey; notwithstanding which, he
was frequently honoured with the company of great men. In
public company, to avoid every appearance of an assuming
temper, he commonly took the lowest place. Indeed, so great
was his modesty, that he seldom chose to mingle with a crowd,
or wished for the company of more than two or three friends at
once. He paid more attention to neatness and decorum in ex-
ternal appearance than the cynic philosophers. In his dress,
indeed, he was plain, and in all his expenses frugal; but this is
not to be imputed to avarice, but a contempt of external mag-
nificence. He showed as much respect to the poor as to the
rich; and conversed freely with those of the meanest occupations.
He had only one servant, or, according to Seneca, none. Zeno
lived to the extreme age of ninety-eight; and at last, in conse-
quence of an accident, voluntarily put an end to his life. As
he was walking out of his school he fell down, and, in the fall,
broke one of his fingers, upon which he was so affected with a
consciousness of infirmity, that, striking the earth, he said,
“Why am I thus importuned 2 I obey thy summons;” and
immediately went home and strangled himself. He died in
the first year of the hundred and twenty-ninth Olympiad. The
Athenians, at the request of Antigonus, erected a monument
to his memory in the Ceraunicum. . w
ARISTON, a philosopher of Chios, pupil to Zeno the Stoic,
and founder of a sect, which continued but a little time. He
supported the notion that the nature of the divinity is unin-
telligible. It is said that he died by the heat of the sun, which
fell too powerfully upon his bald head. In his old age he was
much given to sensuality. . . .
STRATO, a philosopher of Lampsacus, who succeeded
Theophrastus in the Peripatetic school and presided in it
eighteen years, with a high degree of reputation for learning
and eloquence; and, from his attachment to natural philoso-
º: he obtained the appellation of “ Physicus.” Pto-
emy Philadelphus chose him for his preceptor, and recom:
pensed his services with a present of eighty talents. None of
his works have reached our time. His constitution was feeble,
and it is said that he lost the powers of perception before his
death. In his opinion concerning matter, Strato departed
essentially from the system both of Plato and Aristotle; and
he is said to have nearly approached that system of atheism

UNIVERSAL Biography. [B.C. 362.
which excludes the Deity from the formation of the world.
From Cicero we learn, that he conceived all divine power to be
seated in nature, which possesses the causes of production,
increase, and diminution, but is wholly destitute of sensation
and figure; and the same author informs us, that he had
nothing in common with the atomic principles of Democritus,
but ascribes every thing to natural motions and librations.
Brucker gives the following abstract of his opinions; that there
is inherent in nature a principle, motion, or force, without
intelligence, which is the only cause of the production and
dissolution of bodies; that the world has neither been formed
by the agency of a Deity, distinguished from matter, nor by an
intelligent animating principle, but has arisen from a force in-
nate in matter, originally excited by accident, and since continu-
ing to act, according to the peculiar qualities of natural bodies.
It does not appear that he expressly either denied or asserted
the existence of a divine nature; but, in excluding all idea of
Deity from the formation of the world, it cannot be doubted that
he indirectly excluded from his system the doctrine of the ex-
istence of a Supreme Being. Strato also taught, that the seat
of the soul is in the middle of the brain, and that it only acts
by means of the senses.
THEODORUS, a Cyrenaic philosopher, was a disciple of
Anniceris, and for speaking freely concerning the gods, he was
stigmatised with the appellation of atheist, and banished from
Cyrene. At Athens, where he sought refuge, he was protected
by Demetrius Phalereus, and gained access to the court of
Ptolemy Lagus. Afterwards, upon his return to Athens, he is
said to have suffered death by hemlock; but it has been dis-
puted whether atheism, or contempt of the Grecian superstitions,
was the cause of his death. He is joined by Sextus Empiricus,
with Eumerus and others, who maintained that those who were
esteemed gods, were men who had possessed great power on
earth; and Clemens Alexandrinus expresses his surprise, that
Eumerus, Nicanor, Diagoras, Theodorus, and others, who had
lived virtuously, should be pronounced atheists, from their op-
position to Gentile polytheism. -
DEMETRIUS PHALEREUS, a celebrated orator and
thirty-six statues in honour of him. By
|alicious persons in his absence, he was, how-
to die; and his images were pulled down;
id, they could not pull
- were set up. He
y Ptolemy Lagus
ng the succ




















B. c. 362.] FROM PHILIP II. To PTOLEMY EUERGETEs. 479
of his children to the throne, viz., whether he ought to prefer
those he had by Eurydice, to Ptolemy Philadelphus, whom he
had by Berenice 2 and Demetrius advised him to leave his crown
to the former. This displeased Philadelphus so much, that he
banished Demetrius, who was afterwards killed by the bite of
an asp. Demetrius composed more works in prose and verse
than any other peripatetic of his time, and his writings consisted
of poetry, history, politics, rhetoric, harangues, and embassies.
None of them are extant except his rhetoric, which is usually
printed among the Rhetores Selecti. -
STILPO, a Grecian philosopher, who was a native of Me-
gara, flourished in the third and fourth centuries B. C., and is
said to have died after the year B.C. 294. He is considered as
belonging to the Megaric sect, and to have been a disciple of
one of the successors of Euclid of Megara. In his youth he is
represented as having been licentious; but having corrected his
natural propensities by the moral precepts of philosophy, he ac-
quired reputation among philosophers, and became distinguish-
ed for his sobriety and moderation; and also for his eloquence
and skill in dialectics. When Ptolemy Soter captured Megara,
he presented Stilpo with a large sum of money, and invited him
to his court; but the philosopher returned the greater part of
the present, and chose to retire, during Ptolemy's stay at Me-
gara, to the island of AEgina. When Demetrius, son of Anti-
gonus, took Megara, the soldiers were ordered to spare the
house of Stilpo, and to return any thing that might have been
precipitately taken from him. The philosopher being required
to give an account of those effects which he had lost, replied,
“ that he had lost nothing; for no one could take from him his
learning and eloquence.” To the conqueror he recommended
himself by the pathetic manner in which he inculcated upon
himself the exercise of humanity. So great, indeed, was his
fame, that when he visited Athens the people ran out of their
shops to see him; and even the most eminent philosophers of
Athens took pleasure in attending upon his discourses. Never-
theless, he excited prejudices by not having respect to the Athe-
nian superstitions, in which an instance or two occurred during
is abode at Athens. Having asked a person if Minerva, the
daughter of Jove, was a deity, and being assured that she was,
he rejoined, “but this, before referring to the statue, is not
the Minerva of Jove, but of Phidias, and therefore no deity.”
For this speech he was carried to the court of Areopagus, and
ordered immediately to leave the city. When Crates put the
question to him, whether the gods took pleasure in prayers and
*dorations? experience having taught him caution, he smartly
*plied, “Do not question me on this subject in the public
street, but when we are alone.” But there is no proof of Stilpo's
"fidelity, with respect to the existence of a Supreme Divinity








Universal, Biography. [B. c. 802.
Some of his peculiar doctrines were, the species, or universals,
have no real existence, and that one thing cannot be predicated,
or asserted, of another; and that, in using the word “man,” as
a universal term, we speak of nothing; for the term signifies
neither this man nor that man, nor applies to any one man more
than another. In order to prove that one thing cannot be pre-
dicated of another, he said, that “goodness” and “man,” for
instance, are different things, which cannot be confounded by
asserting the one to be the other: he farther argued, that good-
ness is a universal, and universals have no real existence;
consequently, since nothing can be predicated of any thing,
goodness cannot be predicated of man. Some have supposed
that Stilpo was not serious in this kind of reasoning, and that it
was his intention merely to expose the sophistry of the schools.
If he was serious, it could not be wholly without reason that
Glycera, a celebrated courtezan, when she was reproved by
Stilpo as a corrupter of youth, retorted the charge upon him by
saying, that he spent his time in filling their heads with sophis-
tical quibbles and useless subtleties. On moral topics, Stilpo is
said to have taught, that the highest felicity consists in a mind
free from the dominion of passion, a doctrine similar to that of
the Stoics. He lived to a great age, and is said to have hasten-
ed his final departure by a draught of wine.
MENEDEMUS, a Greek philosopher, who flourished to-
wards the close of the fourth century before Christ, was a na-
tive of Eretria, in the island of Euboea. He was of the Eliac
school, which he afterwards transferred to his native city, and
gave it the name of Eretrian. Menedemus, though nobly de-
scended, was obliged, through poverty, to submit to a mecha-
nical employment, either as tent-maker or mason. He formed
an early intimacy with Asclepiades, who was a fellow-labourer
with him in his humble occupation. Having minds more
adapted to study than manual labour, they resolved to devote
themselves to the pursuit of philosophy. For this purpose,
they left their native country, and went to Athens, where Plato
presided in the academy. In his own school at Eretria he neg-
lected those forms which were commonly observed in places
o f this kind, and allowed his hearers and disciples to attend
im in whatever posture they pleased, standing, walking, or
At first Menedemus was received by the Eretrians
reat contempt; and, on account of the vehemence with
he disputed, obtained the appellations of “cur," an
man.” se into high esteem, an
o which was annexed
ents. He discharged


















B. C. 362] FROM PHILIP II. TO PTOLEMY EUERGETES.
men essential services, by obtaining a diminution of their tri-
bute, and preserving them from other burdens. Antigonus en-
tertained a personal respect for him, and professed himself one
of his disciples. His intimacy with this prince created a sus-
picion among his countrymen, that he had a secret intention to
betray their city into his hands. To save himself, he fled to
Antigonus, and soon after died, in the eighty-fourth year of his
age. It is thought he precipitated his end by abstaining from
food for several days, being oppressed with grief, as well on
account of the ingratitude of his countrymen, as on his dis-
appointment in not being able to prevail on Antigonus to re-
store the lost liberties of his country. Menedemus possessed
great talents as a philosopher and disputant. He declared his
opinions with freedom, inveighed against the vices of others,
and, by the purity of his own manners, commanded universal
respect. He observed the strictest moderation in his man-
ner of living. His entertainments, which were frequented by
many philosophers and men of distinction, were simple and
frugal, consisting chiefly of vegetables.
ASCLEPIADES, a Greek philosopher, lived about B. C.
350. He and his friend Menedemus studied under Plato, at
Athens, and their poverty was so great, that they were obliged
to work at the mill in the night to enable them to attend the
academy in the day. This being mentioned to the magis-
trates, they presented the young disciples with two hundred
drachmas. ź
PALAEPHATUS, an ancient Greek philosopher, who flou-
rished between the times of Aristotle and Augustus, but whose
precise age is uncertain. He wrote five books to explain the
fables of mythology by historical facts; only one of them is
extant. < ~
MENEDEMUS, a cynic philosopher, was a native of
Lampsacus, who lived during the reign of Antigonus, king of
Macedon. At this period, the peculiarities of the cynic sect
had been carried to an absurd and ridiculous extreme. In
Menedemus the spirit of the sect was degenerated to downright
madness; at first, its members being no more than severe pub-
lic monitors, commanded attention and respect ; but their
freedom in censuring had degenerated into scurrility, and the
conduct of Menedemus surpassed, in folly and extrava-
gance, every thing that had gone before him. He appeared
in public dressed in a black cloak, with an Arcadian cap upon
his head, on which were drawn the figures of the twelve signs
of the zodiac, with tragic buskins on his legs, with a long
beard, and with an oaken staff in his hand, exclaiming, that he
was a spirit returned from the infernal regions, to admonish
and reform the world. º &
{}. a native of Byzantium, who flourished 340 years
OL. I. . I I :

482 UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. |B, C, 340.
before the Christian era. His philosophical and political talents
endeared him to his countrymen, and he was always sent upon
every important occasion as ambassador to Athens, or to the
court of Philip, king of Macedonia. This monarch, well ac-
quainted with the abilities of Leo, was sensible that his views
and claims to Byzantium would never succeed while it was pro-
tected by the vigilance of such a patriotic citizen. To remove
him he had recourse to artifice and perfidy. A letter was
forged, in which Leo made several promises of betraying his
country to the king of Macedonia for money. This was no
sooner known than the people ran enraged to the house of Leo,
and the philosopher, to avoid their fury, and without attempt-
ing his justification, strangled himself. He had written some
treatises upon physic and history, which are lost.
NEOCLES, an Athenian philosopher, the father, or, ac-
cording to Cicero, brother of Epicurus.
EPICURUS, the greatest philosopher of his age, was born
at Gargettium, in Athens, about B. C. 340, in the hundred and
ninth Olympiad. He settled in Athens in a fine garden which
he purchased, where he lived with his friends in great tran-
quillity, and educated a great number of disciples. They
lived in common with their master. The respect which his fol-
lowers paid to his memory is admirable; his school was never
divided, but his doctrine was followed as an oracle. His birth-
day was still kept up in Pliny's time; the month he was born
in was observed as a continual festival, and they placed his pic-
ture every where. He wrote many books, and valued himself
upon making no quotations. He raised the oratorical system
to great reputation, though he was not the inventor of it, but
had only made some changes in that of Democritus. As to his
doctrine concerning the supreme good, or happiness, it was very
liable to be misrepresented, and some ill effects proceeded
from thence, which discredited his sect. He was charged with
perverting the worship of the gods. and inciting men to de-
bauchery; but he did not forget himself on this occasion; he
published his opinions to the world. He wrote some books of
devotion; recommended the veneration of the gods; sobriety
and chastity; and it is certain that he lived in an exemplary
manner, and conformably to the rules of philosophical wisdom
and frugality. Timocrates, a deserter of his sect, spoke very
scandalously of him. Gassendus has given us all he could col-
lect from the ancients concerning the person and doctrine of
this philosopher. He died of a suppression of urine, aged
seventy-two. The doctrine, or system of philosophy maintain-
ed by Epicurus and his followers consisted of three parts;
canonical, physical, and ethereal. The first was about the
canons, or rules of judging. The censure which Tully passed
upon him for his derinº, will hold true only with re-







B.C. 340.]
FROM PHILIP
II. TO
º olºry EUERGETES.
gard to the logic of the Stoics, which he could not approve of,
as being too full of nicety and quirk. Epicurus was not ac-
quainted with the analytical method of division an ta-
tion, nor was he so curious in modes and f
formation as e
Stoics. Soundness and simplicity of sense, assisted with some
natural reflections, was all his art. His search after trut -
ceeded only by the senses; to the evidence of which he gave
so great a certainty, that he considered them as an iii.
rule of truth, and termed them the first natural light of man-
kind. In the second part of his philosophy, he laid down
atoms, space, and gravity, as the first principles of all things;
he did not deny the existence of God; but thought it beneath
his majesty to concern himself with human affairs; he held him
a blessed immortal being, having no affairs of his own to take
care of, and above meddling with those of others. As to his
ethics, he made the supreme good of man to consist in plea-
sure, and consequently supreme evil in pain. Nature itself,
says he, teaches us this truth; and prompts us, from our birth,
to procure whatever gives us pleasure, and to avoid what gives
us pain. To this end he proposed a remedy against the sharp-
ness of pain. This was to divert the mind from it, by turning
our whole attention upon the pleasure we have formerly enjoy-
ed. He held that the wise man must be happy, as lº ...
Innot de-
prive him of his happiness. There is nothing that has a fairer
show of honesty than the moral doctrine of Epicurus. Gas-
sendas pretends that the pleasure in which this philosopher
has fixed the sovereign good, was nothing else but the highest
tranquillity of mind, in conjunction with the most perfect
health of body; but Tully, Horace, and Plutarch, as well as
almost all the fathers of the church, give us a very different re-
presentation; indeed the nature of his pleasure, in which the
chief happiness is supposed to be ... is a grand problem in
he morals of Epicurus. Hence there were two kinds of Epi.
cureans, the rigid and the remiss; the first were those who
understood Epicurus's notions of pleasure in the best sense
and placed all their happiness in the pure pleasures of the mind,
esulting from the practice of virtue: the loose or remiss Epi.
ureans, taking the words of that philosopher in a gross sense
placed all their happiness in sensu º pleasure. . . . .
DIAGORAS, an Athenian philosopher. His father's
*cause he saw a manº
&
is wise; the pain, not depriving him of his wisdom, can
mºst unconquerable atheist; º
false claim to one of h








































LEONTIUM, an Athenian courtezan, at one time noted
for the licentiousness of her life, and afterwards distinguished
by her application to the study of the Epicurean, philosophy.
It has been asserted, that she did not desist from her intrigues
after she was an attendant of Epicurus; but prostituted herself
to the disciples of his school, and even to the philosopher himself.
She became the wife of Metrodorus, one of the principal disci-
ples of Epicurus, and had a son by him, whom Epicurus com-
mended to the notice and regard of his executors. Leontium
applied with great diligence to the study of philosophy, and
wrote, in defence of the Epicurean doctrines, against Theo-
phrastus, one of the principal of the peripatetic sect. The
book is acknowledged by Cicero to have been written in a polite
and elegant style. Athenaeus says, that she had a daughter,
named Danaë, who was a prostitute, like her mother, and who
uttered insolent murmurs against Providence, when on the point
of being put to death for contributing to the escape of her gal-
lant from that fate. The fondness of Athenaeus however, for
collecting scandalous stories to the discredit of philosophers,
renders it proper to receive what he had advanced with great
caution, on his unsupported testimony, as he was a moted re-
corder of scandalous tales. § 3 ; ;... ?
ANAXARCHUS, a philosopher of Abdera, a follower of
Democritus, and highly esteemed by Alexander the Great.
His end was equally tragical and heroic. Having fallen into
the hands of the enemy, Nicocreon, tyrant of Cyprus, ordered
him to be pounded alive in a mortar; whereupon he replied,
“Beat as thou wilt on the bag of Anaxarchus, himself thou
canst not hurt.” On this, the tyrant said he would cut out his
tongue; whereupon the philosopher bit it off, and spit it at
MANDANES, an Italian prince and philosopher, who, for
the renown of his wisdom, was invited by the ambassadors of
Alexander the Great to the banquet of the son of Jupiter. A
reward was promised him if he obeyed, but he was ºn:
with punishment in case of a refusal. Equally unmoved by
both, the philosopher dismissed them with observing, that,
lough Alexander ruled over a great part of the universe, he
not the son of Jupiter, and #. he gave himself no trouble
:ontent himself. “I despise his threats,” says he: “if I live,
ufficient for my subsistence, and to me death has no
a better life.” . . . .




















B. c.340.] FROM Philip II. To proLEMy EUERGETEs. 485
sheep's skins to his mantle, and by the singularity of his man-
ners. He clothed himself as warm as possible in the summer;
but in the winter his garments were uncommonly thin, and inca-
pable of resisting the inclemency of the season. Hipparchia, the
sister of a philosopher, became enamoured of him; and as he
could not cool her passion by representing himself as poor and
deformed, he married her. He had by her two daughters,
whom he gave in marriage to two of his disciples, after he had
permitted them their company for thirty days, by way of trial.
It is said that he threw all his money in the sea, that he might
the more freely apply himself to the study of philosophy.
Others assert that he placed it in another person's hands, with.
orders to give it to his children if they should happen to be
fools. “ For,” added Crates, “if they should be philosophers,
they will have no need of it;” in which case it was to be given
to the people. Some of his works are still extant.
HIPPARCHIA, a celebrated lady at Maronea, in Thrace,
in the time of Alexander the Great. Her attachment to learn-
ing and philosophy was so great, that, having attended the lec-
tures of Crates, the cynic, she fell in love with him, and resolved
to marry him, though he was both old and ugly; and though
she was courted by many handsome young men, distinguished
by their rank and riches, Crates himself was prevailed upon
by her friends to try to dissuade her from her singular choice,
which he did by displaying his poverty, his cloak, his bag, and
his crooked back; but all in vain. At last he told her she could
not be his wife unless she resolved to live as he did. This she
cheerfully agreed to, assumed the habit of the order, and ac-
companied him every where to public entertainments, &c.,
which was not customary with the Grecian ladies. She wrote
several tragedies, philosophical hypotheses, and reasonings and
questions proposed to Theodorus, the atheist: but none of her
works are extant. -
ARCESILAUS, a philosopher of Pitane, in AEolia, disciple
of Polemon. He visited Sardis and Athens, and was the foun -
er of the middle academy, as Socrates founded the ancient, and
Carneades the new one. He pretended to know nothing, and
accused others of the same ignorance. He acquired many
pupils in the character of teacher; but some of them left him
for Epicurus, though no Epicurean came to him, which gave
him occasion to say, that it is easy to make an eunuch of a man,
but impossible to make a man of an eunuch. He was remark-
able for the severity of his criticisms, but knew how to accom-
modate himself to the age, and pursue the allurements of plea-
sure. He had a great number of disciples. His doctrines were
different in several respects from those of the ancient school;
ital errors in the ancient school, such as the incredible a















[B. C. 340,
:arding the testimony of the senses;
the py ºrhonists, who began to br ach their
no discovered the '...}. parts of the academic philosophy.
hese might have given cause to reform the ancient school, and
found a new one. The middle school, therefore, laid it down
a principle, that we could know nothing, nor even assure
of the certainty of this position; from whence they in-
at we should affirm nothing, but always suspend our
hey advanced, that a philosopher was able to dis-
upon contrary sides of the same question; for there are always
reasons seemingly of equal force, both in the affirmative and ne-
gative of every argument. According to this doctrine, neither
our senses, nor even our reason, are to have any credit; and,
ons. Arcesilaus was an admirer of Homer, and ge-
divided his time among the pleasures of philosophy, love,
and the table. He died in his seventy-fifth year, B.C.
il
3 ºt
241, or 300 according to some. .
HERACLIDES, a Greek philosopher of Pontus, the dis-
ple of Speusippus, and afterwards of Aristotle. His vanity
rmitted him to desire one of his friends to put a serpent into
djust as he was dead, in order to raise a belief that he was
ended to the heavens among the gods; but the cheat was
icovered. All his works are lost.
by whose desire he accompanied Alexander the Great in
ºxpedition; but proving too severe a censurer of that hero's
luct, he was put by him to the torture, on suspicion of a trea-
onable conspiracy, and died under it B.C. 328. 3 : . . . . "
LLCIPHRON, a Grecian philosopher, who lived
º whose epistles present a curious picture of Grecian
à
in the
was a sophist of the
inder the Great.
There




















































































B. c. 340.] FROM PHILIP II. To PTOLEMY EUERGETEs. 487
and garlands, to the astonishment of the king and the army.
When the pile was fired, Alexander asked him if he had any
thing to say; “No,” said he, “I shall meet you again in a very
short-time.” Alexander died three months after in Babylon.
PYRRHO, a Greek philosopher, born at Elea, in the Pelopon-
nesus, about the year B.C. 340. He was a disciple of Anaxar-
chus, whom he accompanied as far as India, where he conversed
with the Brahmins and Gymnosophists. He had made paint-
ing his profession before he studied philosophy. He establish-
ed a sect, whose fundamental principle was, that there is no-
thing true or false, right or wrong, honest or dishonest, just or
unjust; or that there is no standard of any thing beyond law
or custom, and uncertainty and doubt belong to every thing.
From this continual seeking after truth and never finding it,
the sect obtained the name of Sceptics, or PYRRHoNIANs, from
the founder, who is said to have acted upon his own principles,
and to have carried his scepticism to such a ridiculous extreme,
that his friends were obliged to accompany him wherever he
went, that he might not be run over by carriages or fall down
precipices. But this is treated by a modern writer as a mere
calumny, invented by the dogmatists. Pyrrho died about the
ninetieth year of his age, when his memory was honoured with
a statue at Athens, and a monument in his own country.
That the sceptical philosophy is absurd, can admit of no dis-
pute in the presentage; and that many of the followers of Pyrrho
carried the system to a ridiculous height, is no less true. But
we cannot believe that he himself was so extravagantly sceptical
as has sometimes been asserted, when we reflect on the parti-
culars of his life, which are still preserved, and the respectful
manner in which we find him mentioned by his contemporaries
and writers of the first name who flourished soon after him.
The truth, as far as at this distance of time it can be discovered,
seems to be, that he learned from Democritus to deny the real
existence of all qualities in bodies, except those which are es-
sential to primary atoms; and that he referred every thing else
to the perceptions of the mind produced by external objects; in
other words, to appearance and opinion. All knowledge,ofcourse,
appeared to him to depend on the fallacious report of the senses,
and consequently to be uncertain; and in this notion he was con-
firmed by the general spirit of the Eleatic school in which he was
educated. He was further confirmed in his scepticism by the
subtilties of the Dialectic schools, in which he had been in-
structed by the son of Stilpo'; choosing to overturn the cavils
of sophistry by recurring to the doctine of universal uncer-
tainty, and thus cutting the knot which he could not unloose.
For being naturally and habitually inclined to consider immove-
able tranquillity as the great end of all philosophy. he was
easily led to despise the dissensions of the dogmatists, and to


488 #. . . UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. LB.C. 340.

infer from their endless disputes the uncertainty of the ques-
tions on which they debated; controversy, as it has often hap-
pened to others, becoming also with respect to him the parent
of scepticism. Pyrrho's doctrines, however new and extraor-
dinary, were not totally disregarded. He was attended by se-
veral scholars, and succeeded by several followers, who pre-
served the memory of his notions. The most eminent of his
followers was Timon, in whom the public succession of pro-
fessors in the Pyrrhonic school terminated. In the time of
Cicero it was almost extinct, having suffered much from the
{. of the dogmatists, and from a natural aversion in the
human mind to acknowledge total ignorance, or to be left in
absolute darkness. The disciples of Timon, however, still con-
tinued to profess scepticism, and their notions were embraced,
privately at least, by many others. The school itself was after-
wards revived by Ptolemaeus, a Cyrenian, and was continued
by Ænesidemus, a contemporary of Cicero, who wrote a trea-
tise on the principles of the Pyrrhonic philosophy, the heads of
which are preserved by Photius. From this time it was con-
tinued through a series of preceptors of little note to Sextus
Empiricus, who also gave a summary of the sceptical doctrine.
A system of philosophy thus founded on doubt, and clouded
with uncertainty, could neither teach tenets of any importance,
nor prescribe a certain rule of conduct; and accordingly, we find
that the followers of scepticism were guided entirely by chance.
As they could form no certain judgment respecting good and
evil, they accidentally learned the folly of eagerly pursuing any
apparent good, or of avoiding any apparent evil; and their
minds of course settled into a state of undisturbed tranquillity,
the grand postulatum of their system. In the schools of the
sceptics we find tea distinct topics of argument urged in sup-
port of the doctrine of uncertainty; with this precaution, how-
ever, that nothing could be positively asserted, either concern-
ing their number or their force. Their arguments chiefly re-
spect objects of sense; they place all knowledge in appearance;
and, as the same things appear very different to different peo-
ple, it is impossible to say which appearance more truly ex-
presses their real nature. They likewise say, that our judg-
ment is liable to uncertainty from the circumstance of frequent
or rare occurrence, and that mankind are continually led into
different conceptions concerning the same thing, by custom, law,
fabulous tales, and established opinions. On all these ac-
counts they think every human judgment is liable to uncer-
tainty; and concerning any thing they could only assert, that
it seems to be, not that it is what it seems. This doubtful rea-
soning, if reasoning it may be called, the sceptics extended to
all the sciences, in which they discovered nothing true, or which
could be absolutely asserted. In all nature, in physics, morals,




B.C. 320.] FROM PHILIP II. To PTOLEMY EUERGETEs. 489
and theology, they found contradictory opinions, and inexpli-
cable or incomprehensive phenomena. In physics, the appear-
ances they thought might be deceitful; and respecting the na-
ture of God and the duties of morality, men were, in their
opinion, equally ignorant and uncertain. To overturn the so-
phistical arguments of these sceptical reasoners, would be no
difficult matter, if their reason were worthy of confutation. In-
deed, their great principle is sufficiently, though shortly, re-
futed by Plato in these words: “When you say all things are
incomprehensible.” says he, “ do you comprehend or conceive
that they are thus incomprehensible, or do you not? If you do,
then something is comprehensible; if you do not, there is no
reason we should believe you, since you do not comprehend
your own assertion.”
TIMON, the Phliasian, a disciple of Pyrrho, flourished in
the time of Ptolemy Philadelphus, and lived to the age of
ninety years. At an early age he visited Megara, for the ad-
vantage of Stilpo's instructions in dialectics, and afterwards re-
moved to Elea, where he became a hearer of Pyrrho. He
first professed philosophy at Chalcedon, and afterwards at
Athens, where he remained till his death. He took so little
pains to invite disciples to his school, that it has been said of
him, that as the Scythians shot flying, Timon gained pupils by
running from them. This indifference to his profession was
probably owing to his love of ease and indulgence; for he was
fond of rural retirement, and so much addicted to wine, that
he held a successful contest with several champions for drink-
ing. This disposition probably led him to embrace the indo-
lent doctrine of scepticism. He seems to have treated the opi-
nions and disputes of the philosophers with contempt, for he
wrote with sarcastic humour against the whole body. His
poem, entitled “Silli,” often quoted by the ancients, was a keen
satire, abounding with bitter invectives against men and doc-
trines. The remaining fragments of this poem have been in-
dustriously collected by Henry Stephens, in his “Poesis Phi-
losophica.” The public succession of professors in the Pyrrhic
school terminated with Timon. .
Apºstus, a peripatetic philosopher, disciple to Aris-
totle. .
ZENOPHILUS, a Pythagorean philosopher, who lived till
he was one hundred and seventy, and enjoyed all his faculties
to the last. *::
CRATES, a famous academic philosopher, the disciple and
friend of Polemon. He had other celebrated philosophers for
his disciples, and flourished about B.C. 300. At his death he
left behind him several highly esteemed philosophical pieces;
some comedies delivered to the people on public occasions, or



490 ŁNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. [B.C. 370.
during embassies in which he had been employed by his coun-
trymen. %
ARISTILLUS, a philosopher of the Alexandrian school,
who, about B. C. 300, attempted, with Timocharis, to deter-
mine the place of the different stars in the heavens, and to
trace the course of the planets.
HICETAS of Syracuse, an ancient philosopher and astrono-
mer, who taught that the sun and stars were motionless, and
that the earth moved round them. This is mentioned by Cicero,
and probably gave the first hint of the true system to Copernicus.
PO ET R Y.
ANAXANDRIDES, a comic poet of Rhodes, who flou-
rished in the reign of Philip, king of Macedonia, and wrote
sixty-five plays.
PHILETAS, a Greek poet and grammarian of the island
of Cos, who flourished under Philip and Alexander the Great,
and was preceptor of Ptolemy Philadelphus. He was the au-
thor of some elegies, epigrams, and other works, which are not
extant. He is celebrated by Ovid and Propertius as one of the
best poets of his age. He was so small and slender, according .
to the improbable accounts of Ælian, that he always carried
pieces of lead in his pockets, to prevent his being blown away
by the wind.
ALEXIS, a comic poet, who flourished B. C. 336, of Thu-
rium, who wrote two hundred and forty-five comedies, of which
some few fragments remain.
AESCHIRON, a Mitylenean poet, intimate with Aristotle.
He accompanied Alexander in his Asiatic expedition.
ANTIPHANES, a comic poet of Rhodes, or rather of
Smyrna, who wrote above ninety comedies, and died in the
seventy-fourth year of his age, by the fall of an apple upon his
head. -
TIMOTHEUS, one of the most celebrated poets and mu-
sicians of antiquity, was born at Miletus, an Ionian city of
Caria. He not only excelled in lyric and dithyrambic poetry,
but in his performance upon the cithara. Pausanias says he
perfected that instrument, by the addition of four new strings
to the seven it had before ; but Suidas says that it had nine
before, and that Timotheus only added two. A senatus con-
sultum is preserved at full length in Boethius, whereby the
kings and the ephori of Sparta passed censure on Timo-
theus for adding these strings; and obliged them to cut them
all, leaving only seven tones, and banished him from the city.
Suidas attr
ributed to him nineteen nomes, or canticles, , in
hexameters; thirty-six proems, or preludes; eighteen dithy-


Laertes; to wh must be added, Niob d a poem on the
birth of Bacchus. Stephen of Byzantium m ...” him author
of eighteen books of nomes, or airs, for the cithara, to eight
thousand verses, and of a thousand preludes for the momes of
the flutes. Timotheus died in Macedonia, according to Suidas,
aged ninety-seven, though the marbles say at ninety.
THEOCRITUS, a Greek poet, esteemed as the model of
pastoral poetry, was a native of Syracuse, and the son of Prax-
agoras and Philina. The time in which he flourished is ascer-
tained by two of his poems, one addressed to Hiero, king o
Syracuse, who began his reign about the year B.C. 269; and
the other to Ptolemy Philadelphus, whose reign comprehended
the interval between B. C. 281 and 247. Although Hiero is
reported to have been a patron of literature, persons of rank,
as we may infer from Theocritus's poem, did not follow his ex-
ample, at least in granting encouragement to poets; and there-
fore. Theocritus left Sicily, and visited the court of Ptolemy
Philadelphus at Alexandria, on whom he pronounces a splen-
did eulogy. The compositions of this poet are denominated
“Idylls;” they are written in the Doric, or rustic dialect, and
few of them are pastorals, though most of them relate to rural
life and manners. The purely pastoral are distinguished
the truth and the simplicity of the lºane
imes even to coarseness, and the pleasing descripti o
ral objects, drawn from the life. To those who have a taste for
genuine simplicity, and the beauties of nature, says one of the
biographers, the poetry of Theocritus is highly agreeable.
Mantius gives us the following character of this poet: ºº
The sweet Theocritus, with softest strains,
Makes piping Pan delight Sicilian swains;
Thro' his smooth reed no rustic numbers move, ºº
But all is tenderness, and all is love. ºf ºl
As if the Muses sat in ev'ry vale,
º Inspir'd the song, and told the melting tale.
The first edition of Theocritus was that of Milan, in 14
ind the best, that of Warton, 2 vols. 4to., 1770. Polwhe
anslated this autho % º
rinto English verse, with notes. &
§§ A, a comic poet, who flou ished
egulus. Some fragments of his p
st celebr
the new comedy, which §




















































[b. c. 312.
the grossness and licence of the old, and banished living cha-
cters from the stage. He is represented as possessing every
part of a perfect dramatic writer; viz., elegance of language,
cy of sentiment, and the true humorous deline-
force and delica. -
ation of character. He was so much the poet of nature, that
the grammarian Aristophanes once exclaimed, “O Menander
and Nature, which of you copied from the workmanship of the
other 1"
tency displayed in the characters of his dr ---. --
dicts that the fame of Menander would be immortal. His fame.
extended as far as the Greek language; and we are informed,
by the elder Pliny, that the kings of Egypt and Macedonia
gave him pressing invitations to their courts, and even offered
fleets for his safe conveyance. He preferred, however, a life
of freedom in his native city; yet he could not be accounted a
moral philosopher. By Plutarch he is called “the chief-priest
of love;” and Suidas gives him the character of one “mad af-
ter women.” Phaedrus paints him as paying his compliments
to Demetrius Phalereus, at Athens, perfumed all over, with a
flowing garment, and advancing with an affected and languid
step. He composed one hundred and eight comedies, eight of
which obtained the theatrical prize. It is extraordinary, that
of an author so much esteemed as Menander was, nothing has
come down to our time except some fragments, chiefly of the
sentimental kind, and generally of a gloomy and querulous te-
mor, which, perhaps, were characteristic only of the persons
into whose mouth they were put; and what remains does not
mark so strongly his own peculiar genius as the taste of those
selectors who have chosen his words to illnstrate their own
ideas. Happy had it been for us and the world had the gay
and the witty finished the portrait of the bard, by transmitting
to after ages examples that would have enabled us to measure
him by the standards of humour, sprightliness, and fancy. The
superiority of the Grecian dramatist was felt and acknowledged
by Roman imitators; and Cicero frequently reprobates the pre-
vailing partiality of his countrymen for such foreign authors.
Menander was drowned in the harbour of Piraeus, in the year
B. eriod of his life when he had done enough to
* * *. # - * # & º
uintilian praises him for the stre
n th and consis-
:
lity, and while the powers of his mind were un-
more. He is said to have thrown himself into the sea, in a fit
fjealousy, occasioned by his unfortunate competition with
the superior interest, rather than talents, of his successful
ival; and the same writer relates, that, meeting him shortly
h ad been decided, º he ask ad him. I. di jt.
mpair . and his genius sufficiently ardent to do still
ºf jealou d … ------------------------>
Philemon. He was vanquished, as Aulus Gellius asserts, by
s mºs
g the prize against him. %
































B. c. 342.] FROM PHILIP II. To PTOLEMY EUERGETEs.
We are indebted to Mr. Cumberland for the following trans-
lation from the fragments of Menander. The original is pre-
served in the commentary of Eustathius.
Suppose some god should say, Die when thou wilt,
Mortal, expect another life on earth; .
And for that life make choice of all creation
What thou wilt be; dog, sheep, goat, manor horse;
For live again thou must; it is thy fate;
Choose only in what form; there thou art free-
So help me, Crato, I would fairly answer—
Let me be all things; any thing but man;
He only, of all creatures, feels afflictions;
The generous horse is valued for his worth,
And dog, by merit, is preferred to dog;
The warrior cock is pampered for his courage,
And awes the baser brood.—But what is man 7
Truth, virtue, valour, how do they avail him
Of this world's good, the first and greatest share
Is flattery's prize; the informer takes the next,
And bare-faced knavery garbles what is left.
I'd rather be an ass than what I am,
And see these villains lord it o'er their betters.
PHILEMON, a Greek comic poet, son of Damon, flourish-
ed in the reign of the king Antigonus Gonatus. He was a rival
of Menander, against whom he frequently gained the prize.
The titles of some of his plays are preserved; and the “Mer-
cator” of Plautus is professedly taken from one of Philemon's
plays. It is said that he died at the age of ninety-seven or
ninety-nine, and that the cause of his death was a fit of laugh-
ter, occasioned by seeing his ass eat figs, Philemon the
ounger was also a comic writer, and, according to Suidas,
composed fifty-four comedies, of which fragments remain, and
have been published with those of Menander. Some of them
have been translated by Cumberland. ºº::
& 3------ * ... . .x
LYCOPHRON, a famous Greek poet and grammarian, was
born at Chalcis, in Euboea, and flourished about B. C. 300.
He was one of those poets who lived in the reign of Ptolemy
Philadelphus, and who, from their number, obtained the name
of Pleiades. According to Ovid, he was slain by an arrow.
He was author of several tragedies, of which the titles of twenty
have been preserved ; but the only work which has come dowr
to us, is a very singular poem, entitled, “Alexandra,” or, Cas:
Sandra, the subject of which is a series of predictions, feigned
by him to have been uttered by Cassandra, the daughter of
during the Trojan war. This poem contains four hun
venty-four verses, the obscurity of whi
epithet of “Tenebrosus" to its author.
º













Ptolemy, for "
he abominable crime which
a poem in comme
high,
SOTADE reek poet of Thrace. He wrote verses
the sea in a cage of le
name indicates, but because he wrot
bo, was born at Soli, in Cilicia. He flourished in the reign of
ment; and having received his education under Dionysius
of Macedon, who being a great * of learned men, sent
couraged him in his studies. The Phaenomena of Aratus,
nature and motion of the stars, and shows the particular influ-
se; it
via S, a G
against Philadelphus
e
cause he was addicted to
of it. . . . . . . . .
ARATUS, a celebrated Greek poet, who, according to Stra-
Ptolemy Philadelphus, king of Egypt. He discovered, in his
youth, a remarkable poignancy of wit, and capacity for improve-
Heracleotes, a stoic philosopher, he espoused the principles of
that sect. Aratus was physician to Antigonus Gonatus, king
for him to court; admitted him to his intimacy; and en-
which is still extant, gives him a title to the character of an
astronomer as well as a poet. In this piece he describes the
ence of the celestial bodies. He wrote this poem in Greek
verse; it was translated into Latin by Cicero, who tells us, in
his first book De Oratore, that the verses of Aratus are very
ble. There is also a translation of this poem by Germanicus
Caesar, and another into elegant verse, by Festus Avienus. A
quarto edition of the Phaenomena was published by Grotius,
at Leyden, in 1600, in
n, and the translations of Germanicus and Avie-
‘hich the editor has illustrated with curious notes.
--- tainly much esteemed by the ancients, since we find
ºveral other works also ascribed to Aratus. Virgil, in his
Georgics, has imitated or translated many passages from this
poets have said, “For we are also hi
is are the beginning of the fift
In 1
































































B. C. 320.) rRoM Philip II. To ProLEMy EUERGETEs. 495
on Scriptural subjects. Fragments of one, on the departure of
the Israelites from Egypt, are preserved by Clemens Alexan-
drinus, and Eusebius. He flourished about B. C. 300. .
CALLIMACHUS, a celebrated Greek poet, the son of
Battus, and native of Cyrene, in Lybia, flourished under Ptolemy
Philadelphus and Ptolemy Euergetes, kings of Egypt, about B.C.
280. He passed, according to Quintilian, for #. prince of the
Greek elegiac poets. His style is elegant, delicate, and nervous.
He wrote a great number of small poems, of which we have
only some hymns and epigrams remaining. Catullus has closely
imitated him, and translated into Latin verse his small poem on
the locks of Berenice. Callimachus was also a good gramma-
rian and a learned critic. -
A late author, under the fictitious name of Candidus Hesy-
chius, observes, that Callimachus, finding that the wind did
not favour him, never durst venture into the open sea, but
always kept near the shore, so that he might the more easily
get into harbour; that is, he wanted a poetical genius, which
elevates a poet ; and therefore never cared to undertake a work
of too great a length. This very objection his envious rivals
made against him in his life-time; they urged that his muse
made very short flights, and would attempt nothing of length
or consequence. He gave a very ingenious and sharp reply to
this charge, at the end of the hymn to Apollo, which seems to
be composed and introduced with all that art, which Ovid
makes the great excellency of Callimachus.
Sly envy in his ear Apollo told,
He's poor that writes less than a sea can hold ;
Apollo spurn'd the monster off, and said,
See vast Euphrates, how his billows spread;
But see the loads of mud that press his side,
And foul the water while they raise the tide.
But not with liquor drawn at every stream
Great Ceres' maids regale their heav'nly dame ;
But some untainted crystal brook supplies
Its spotless drops, to purge the sacrifice.
The scholiast on this place observes, that, to stop the mouths
of these detractors, the poet composed his Hecate, a work of a
larger size, now lost, but frequently cited by the Greek and Ro-
man authors. Ovid gives the following account of the poetical
character of Callimachus:—
Battiades toto semper cantabitus orbe ;
Quamvis ingenio non valet, arte valet.
The strains of Battus' son shall ne'er depart;
If not in genius, he excels in art.
Ingenium must here be supposed to mean the inventive fa-

Universal Biography. [b. c. ss.
culty, or genius properly so called. He is supposed to have
been michimitated by Catullus and Propertius; and the Coma
Berenices of the former is a translation from Callimachus.
The best editions of Callimachus are those of Grevius, 2
vols. 8vo.; Bentley, London, 1741, 8vo.; and Ernest, Leyden,
2 vols. His works have been translated into English, first by
Dodd, and next by Tytler. …
L IT E R A T U R E.
EUBULIDES, a philosopher and dramatic writer of Meli-
tus, was a disciple of Euclid, and preceptor to Demosthenes
and Alexinus. He wrote comedies, and a book against Aris-
totle. There was another of the same name, but of the cynic
sect. . " : . .
DEMOSTHENES, the famous Athenian orator, was born
at Athens, B. C. 381. He lost his father at seven years of age,
and was placed under the conduct of guardians, who robbed
him of his substance, and neglected his education. Demos-
thenes soon repaired this loss by his extraordinary abilities.
He became the disciple of Isaeus and Plato, and studied the
orations of Isocrates. At the age of seventeen he gave a proof
of his eloquence and abilities against his guardians, from
whom he recovered the greatest part of his estate. His rising
talents were, however, impeded by various natural defects, but
which he overcame by dint of resolution and unwearied atten-
tion. He declaimed by the sea-shore, that he might be used
to the noise of a tumultuous assembly; and with pebbles in his
mouth, that he might correct a defect in his speech. He prac-
tised at home with a naked sword hanging over his shoulder,
that he might check an ungraceful motion to which he was
subject. He confined himself in a subterraneous cave, to de-
vote himself more closely to study; and to check all inclination
to appear in public, he shaved one half of his head. In this
solitary retirement, by the help of a glimmering lamp, he com-
posed the greatest part of his orations, which have since been
the admiration of all ages, though his contemporaries and rivals
inveighed against them, and observed that they smelt of oil.
His abilities as an orator raised him to consequence at Athens,
and he was soon placed at the head of government. In this
public capacity he roused his countrymen from their indolence,
and animated them against the encroachments of Philip of Ma-
cedonia. In the battle of Chaeronea, however, his eloquence
could not supply the want of courage, and he saved i. by
flight. After the death of Philip he declared himself warmly
against his son Alexander, when the Macedonians demanded
of the Athenians their orators, Demosthenes reminded his
countrymen of the fable of the sheep which delivered up their


B. c. 881] FROM PHILIP II, to PtoleMY. EURRGETEs.
dogs to the wolves. By the prevalence of party, however, he
was forced to retire to Troezen, in AEgina, where, it is said, he
lived with more effeminacy than heroism. When Antipater
made war against Greece, after the death of Alexander, De-
mosthenes was publicly recalled from his exile, and a galley
was sent to fetch him from AEgina. His return was attended
with much splendour, and all the citizens crowded at the Pi-
raeus to see him land. But his triumph and popularity were
short. Antipater and Craterus were near Athens, and de-
manded all the orators to be delivered up into their hands.
Demosthenes fled to the temple of Neptune, in Calauria; when
he saw no hopes of safety he took a dose of poison, which he
always carried in a quill, and expired on the day that the Thes-
º were celebrated, B. C. 322. The Athenians raised
a brazen statue to his memory, with a suitable inscription.
Demosthenes has been deservedly called, the prince of orators.
Indeed no orator had ever a finer field than Demosthenes in
his Olynthiacs and Philippics, which are his capital orations;
and undoubtedly to the greatness of the subject, and to that in-
tegrity, and public spirit which breathe in them, they owe a
large portion of their merit. The subject is, to excite the indig-
nation of his countrymen against Philip of Macedon, the public
enemy of the liberties of Greece; and to guard them against
the treacherous measures by which that crafty tyrant endea-
voured to lull them into neglect of their danger. To attain this
end, he uses every proper means to animate a people, distin-
guished for justice, humanity, and valour; but, in many in-
stances, become corrupt and degenerate. He boldly accuses
them of venality, indolence, and indifference to the public good;
while, at the same time, he reminds them of their former glory,
and of their present resources. His contemporary orators, who
were bribed by Philip, and who persuaded the people to peace,
he openly reproached as traitors to their country. He not only
Prompts to vigorous measures, but teaches how they are to be
“arried into execution. His orations are strongly animated, and
full of the impetuosity and ardour of public spirit. His com-
Position is not distinguished by ornament and splendour; it is
an energy of thought, ºil; his own, which forms his cha-
racter, and ... above his species. He seems not to at-
“nd to words, but to things. We forget the orator, and think
*f the subject. He has no parade and ostentation; no studied
"troductions; but is like a man full of his subject, who, a
Preparing his audience, by a sentence or two, for the reception
ºf plain truths, enters directly on business. The style of De-
as is strong and
l, harsh and ab






















Univers Al Biography.
t. His action and pronunciation are said to have
been uncommonly vehement and ardent; which, from the man-
ner of his writing, we should readily believe. His character
appears to have been of the austere rather than of the gentle
kind. He is always grave, serious, passionate; never degrad-
ing himself, or attempting any thing like pleasantry. If his
admirable eloquence be in any respect faulty, it is, that it some-
times borders on the hard and dry. He may be thought to
want smoothness and grace, which is attributed to his imitating
too closely the manner of Thucydides, who was his great model
for style, and whose history he is said to have transcribed eight
times with his own hands. But these defects are more than
atoned for by that masterly force of masculine eloquence,
which, as it overpowered all who heard it, cannot, even in the
present day, be read without emotion. Cicero calls him a per-
fect model, and such as he himself wished to be. These two
treat princes of eloquence have been often compared together;
É. the judgment hesitates to which to give the preference.
The archbishop of Cambray, however, seems to have stated
their merits with great justice and perspicuity in his Reflections
on Rhetoric and Poetry. “I do not hesitate,” says he, “to
declare, that I think Demosthenes superior to Cicero. “I am
persuaded that no one can admire Cicero more than I do. He
adorns whatever he attempts; he does honour to language; he
disposes of words in a manner peculiar to himself; his style
has great variety of character. Whenever he pleases, he is even
concise and vehement; for instance, against Catiline, against
Verres, against Antony. But ornament is too visible in his
writings. His artis wonderful; but it is perceived. When the
orator is providing for the safety of the republic he forgets not
bimself, nor permits others to forget him. Demosthenes seems
to escape from himself, and to see nothing but his country. He
seeks not elegance of expression; unsought for he possesses it.
He is superior to admiration; he makes use of language as a
dest man does of dress, only to cover him. He thunders, he
htens; he is a torrent which carries every thing before it.
e cannot criticise, because we are not ourselves. His subject
chains our attention, and makes us forget his language; we
him from our sight; Philip alone occupies our minds. I
elighted with both those orators; but I confess th
ffected by the infinite art and magnificent eloque
n by the rapid simplicity of Demosthenes.”








































b.c. ss., from PHILIP ii. To ProLEM
ied about the year B.C. 320. He studied
under Plato, and oratory under Isocrates, and, attacl *
self to a political life, arose to eminence in the state. The
intendance of the public revenue was entrusted t
perintent .
which office he conducted himself with the strictest integrity.
He was appointed one of the magistrates; and in exercising the
duties of this situation, he banished all persons of a dissolute
character, and made a number of very useful regulations. As
he thought the highest kinds of poetry possessed superior ad-
vantages, he patronized dramatic exhibition S, and caused sta-
tues to be erected in honour of the poetical tragedians. He was
the friend of Demosthenes, and a zealous advocate for li De ty.
When Xenocrates was dragged to prison because he had not
paid the tribute exacted from strangers 3. he liberated him, and
confined the tax-gatherer in his stead. Lycurgus was one of
the thirty orators whom the Athenians refused to deliver up to
Alexander. Some of his orations are preserved, and have been
printed in collections of the Greek orators. One oration of
his, against Isocrates, is extant. 3:. . ; º
AESCHINES, an Athenian orator, who flourished about B.
C. 342, and distinguished himself by his rivalship with Demos-
thenes. His father's name was Ahemetus, and he boasted of
his descent from a noble family ; thoug nes ºre-
proached him as being the son of a courtezan. The first open
signs of enmity between the rival orators appeared at the court
of Philip, where they were sent as ambassadors; but the cha-
. of AEschines was tarnished by the acceptance of a bribe
. e Macedonian prince, whose tyranny had hitherto been
the general subject of his declamation. When the Athenians
wished to reward the patriotic labours of Demosthenes with a
golden crown, AEschines impeached Ctesiphon, who proposed
it; and to their subsequent dispute arewe indebted for the
celebrated orations. De Coroná. AEschines was defeated
ival's superior eloquence, and banished to Rhodes; but as he
the orat ed to the Rhodians, what he had delivered
against I ld after receiving much applause, he
ceived w pprobation: “B



























































UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. [B.C. 370.
phens, with the Greek orators, in 1575; and since, by Reiske.
There are also ascribed to AEschines twelve epistles, which
Taylor has added to his edition of Demosthenes. They have
been printed separately at Leipsic, in 8vo., 1772, and by
Wolfius, with a Latin version, which is much esteemed.
French translation of the orations was given by Auger, at Paris,
in 1789. An oration which bears the name of Deliaca Lea,
is said not to be his production, but that of another Æschines,
also an orator of that age. Diogenes mentions seven more of
that name. . . . .
PYTHEAS, an Athenian rhetorician, in the age of Demos-
thenes, who distinguished himself by his intrigues and opposi-
tion to the measures of Demosthenes, of whom he observed,
that his orations smelt of the lamp. Pytheas joined Antipater
after the death of Alexander the Great. H. orations were
devoid of elegance, harsh, unconnected, and diffuse, and from
this circumstance he has not been ranked among the orators of
Athens. : . N. .
DEMADES, a famous Athenian, who, from being a mari-
ner, became a great orator, and appeased Philip by his elo-
quence, after the famous victory over the Athenians at Chaero-
nea, B.C. 338. É . . . . .
AENEAS. TACITUS AENEAS, a Greek author in the art
of war, who lived about B. C. 336. His work was prefixed, by
Casaubon, to his edition of Polybius, Paris, 1609, and reprint-
ed, in 12mo., at Leyden, in 1633. . . . .
THEOPOMPUS, a celebrated Greek orator and historian,
was born in the isle of Chios, and flourished in the reign of
Alexander the Great. He was one of the most famous of all
the disciples of Isocrates, and won the prize from all the pane-
gyrists whom Artemisia invited to praise Mausolis. He wrote
several works, which are lost. . .
ANAXIPPUS, a comic writer, in the age of Demetrius. He
used to say, that philosophers were wise only in their speeches,
but fools in their actions. 3.
HYPERIDES, an eminent Grecian orator, the son of Glau-
cippus, was born at Athens, and studied under Plato and Iso-
crates. He cultivated the art of eloquence, became one of the
most distinguished orators of his time, and acquired that sway
in state affairs which popular oratorical talents never failed to
h ient democracies. He was the steady and zeal-
ºr 'hilip of Macedon, and his zeal caused him
mander of a galley, in which capacity he gained
. In the time of A






























b. c. 310. From Philip II. To proLEMY EUERGETEs. 501
sessed of the chief influence in Athens, and when that prince
demanded galleys and officers from the Athenians, he opposed
the grant of either. His life was fully devoted to his country.
He moved distinguished honours to Demosthenes, his great
competitor in eloquence; but when this prince of orators was
suspected of having taken a bribe from Harpalus, he was ap-
pointed to conduct the prosecution against him. Hyperides
was himself accused of having acted contrary to the law, by
rocuring a decree for granting citizenship to foreigners, and
iberty to the slaves, whose families he caused to be transported
to the Piraeus; but he justified himself on the ground of state
necessity. Hyperides continued his opposition to the Macedo-
nian power after the death of Alexander; and when Antipater
sent deputies to Athens, who made a high eulogy upon their
master, as the worthiest of men; “I know,” replied Hyperides,
“that he is a very worthy man ; but we will !. no master,
however worthy he may be.” The approach of Antipater
obliged Hyperides and the other leading characters to quit
Athens. Departing thence, he was seeking for a safer place of
refuge, when he was apprehended by Archias, in the temple
where he had taken sanctuary, and carried to Antipater, at
Cleonae. He was put to the torture, with the hope of obtaining
from him some state secrets. To prevent this, he is said to have
bit off part of his tongue ; but another account relates that his
tongue was cut out by order of the tyrant, as a punishment due
to his silence. His body was left unburied till some of his re-
lations secretly committed it to the funeral pile, and brought his
ashes to Athens. Quintilian characterises the oratory of Hy-
perides as singularly sweet and acute, better adapted to #.
than to great causes. In the time of Photius fifty-two of his
orations were extant. -
CALLISTRATUS, an excellent Athenian orator, who was
banished for having obtained too great an authority in the go-
vernment. Demosthemes was so struck with the force of his
eloquence, and the glory that it procured him, that he abandon-
ed philosophy, and resolved from thenceforward to apply him-
self to oratory. - - -
DINARCHUS, a Greek orator, son of Sostratus, and disci-
º to Theophrastus, at Athens. He acquired much money by
is compositions, and suffered himself to be bribed by the ene-
mies of the Athenians, B. C. 307. Of sixty-four of his orations,
only three remain, which are in Stephens's Collection, 1575. ,
ANAXIMENES, the son of 3. of Lampsacus, an
orator, the disciple of Diogenes, the cynic. He was pi
o Alexander of Macedon, and followed him to the wars
lder being incensed against the people of Lampsa
hilosopher to intercede for them. A
* : *... º. ede for them. Alexand
ing the cause of his coming, swore that he would do the very












UNIversal biography. Ib. c. 382.
ing to break his oath,
xandel
laves. Alexander, unwilling
his stratagem, pardoned the pe
e to elude t
to pillage Jerusalem and the temple, went to meet him
yontifical habit, and the sight so struck the victor, that
d his sentiments, and offered sacrifices to the God of
ople
-priest of the Jews, who, when Alexander
ION I., sirnamed the Just, high-priest of the Jews, suc-
his father, Onias I., in the reign of Ptolemy Philadel-
He is celebrated for his justice, and for having repaired
temple of Jerusalem, which had fallen to decay, and sur-
nding the city with a wall. z
EAZAR, high-priest of the Jews, succeeded his brother,
mon the Just, about B. C. 292. He is said to have given a
of the Hebrew Scriptures to Ptolemy Philadelphus, who
sed the same to be translated into Greek by seventy inter-
iers, which version is now known by the name of the Septu-
if the Hebrew Scriptures, at the court of Philadelphus, accord-
g to Josephus. A letter, attributed to him, on the subject of
d was printed at Oxford, in 1692.
US SOCHAEUS, the founder of the Jewish
ducees, about B. C. 300. He opposed the Phari-
merit of good works, and some of his followers
here is no future state of rewards or punishments,
irrection for the dead, or future life.
H Isro RY.
a Greek historian and orator, was a native of
3, in AEolia, and flourished about the year B. C.
a disciple of Socrates, at whose instigation he
he commenced after the fabulous periods,
ºf the Heraclidae into Peloponnesus, and
entieth year of Philip of Macedon.
ints, and frequent by Strabo and
the historian is charged with errors,
IS
plagiarisms. Besides the h
d, Ephorus wrote several other











































































B. c.364.] FROM PHILIP II. To ProLEMY EUERGETES., 503.
Great, in Greek, which has been translated
German. . . . º. º.
HECATAEUS of ABDERA, a Grecian historian, who at-
tached himself to Ptolemy Lagus. He wrote commentaries on
Hesiod and Homer, and a History of Egypt; but his most cele-
brated work was the History of the Jews, in which he spoke so
favourably of that nation, that Plato and Scaliger have doubted
whether it were his ; Josephus, however, quotes it as the real
production of Hecataeus; and Diodorus Siculus and Arrian
also mention it. &
ISIDORE of CHARAX, a Greek author in the time of
Ptolemy Lagus. He composed several historical works, and
a description of Parthia, which has been published by Hesche-
lius, and also at Oxford among the collection of the lesser
geographers, 1703. º:
BEROSUS, priest of the temple of Belus, at Babylon, in
the time of Ptolemy Philadelphus, wrote the history of Chal-
daea, which is often cited by the ancients, and of which Josephus
ſº some curious fragments. The Athenians, according to
Pliny, caused his statue, with a golden tongue, to be placed in
their Gymnasium. : ; . .. 3 . . .
MANETHOS, an ancient Egyptian historian, was high-
priest of Heliopolis, in the reign of Ptolemy Philadelphus,
about the year B. C. 304. He wrote, in the Greek language,
a history of Egypt, the substance of which he asserts to have
been extracted from certain pillars, on which inscriptions had
been made in the sacred ... of Thoth, the first Mercury,
which, after the flood, were translated into the Greek tongue,
but were written in the sacred character, and were laid up in
books in the sacred recesses of Egypt by the second Mercury;
but this account, which certainly related to the earlier portions
of the history, is so incredible, by its reference to the Greek
language, at a period when it could not be known in Egypt that
a writers of the Universal History suspect some mista .
corruption in the passage of Eusebius containing it. The
work of Manethos was divided into three tomes, the first of
h comprehended the history of the gods and demi-gods,
who, in his estimation, were mortal men, very eminent for vir-
, the second, that of the eight dynasties of kings, and the
1 of twelve. The history, º hich is, in . a. good m tºº, .
fabulous, is lost; but his dynasties have been pres
into Latin and








































ul BiographY. [B.C. 372.
mals and other natural bodies,
wonderful stories, concerning an
compiled from various authors. . .
MEGASTHENES, an ancient Greek historian, who lived
under Seleucus Nicanor, about B. C. 292. He wrote a his-
tory of Judea, quoted by many authors, but now lost.
IDOMENEUS, a Greek historian of Lampsacus, in the
age of Epicurus. He wrote a history of Samothrace.
MIU S I C.
LAMIA, the most celebrated female flute player of anti-
quity. Her beauty, wit, and abilities in her profession, made
her regarded as a prodigy. The honours which she received,
which are recorded by several authors, particularly by Plu-
tarch and Athenaeus, are sufficient testimonies of her great
power over the passions of her hearers. Her claim to admira-
tion from her personal allurements, does not entirely depend,
at present, upon the fidelity of historians, since an exquisite
engraving of her head, upon amethyst, with the veil and band-
age of her profession, is preserved in the late king of France's
collection, which, in some measure, authenticates the account
of her beauty. … w z .
As she was a great traveller, her reputation soon became
very extensive. Her first journey from Athens, the place of
her birth, was into Egypt, whither she was drawn by the fame
of the flute-player of that country. Her person and perform-
ance were not long unnoticed at the court of Alexandria; how-
ever, in the conflict between Ptolemy Soter and Demetrius, for
the island of Cyprus, about B. C. 332, Ptolemy being defeated
in a sea engagement, his wives, domestics, and military stores
fell into the hands of Demetrius. * . . ; ºf
Plutarch, in his life of this prince, tells us that “the cele-
brated Lamia was among the female captives taken in this vic-
tory. She had been universally admired, at first, on account of
her talents, for she was a wonderful performer on the flute; but
afterwards her fortune became more splendid, by the charms
her person, which procured her many admirers of great
rank.” The prince, whose captive she became, and who,
a successful warrior, was said to have conquered as
earts as cities, conceived so ardent a passion for Lamia,
from a sovereign and a conqueror, he was instantly trans-
*d into a slave, though her beauty was now in the decline,
etrius, the handsomest prince of his time, was much





















B. c. 340.] FROM PHILIP II. To PTOLEMY EUERGETEs. 505
cised in their favour, they dedicated a temple to her, under the
name of “Venus Damia.” -
HERODORUS, the trumpeter of Megara, who, according
to Athenaeus, had the power of animating the troops of Deme-
trius so much, by sounding two trumpets at a time, during the
siege of Argos, as to enable them to move a machine towards
the ramparts, which they had in vain attempted to do for seve-
ral days before, on account of its enormous weight. Now the
whole miraculous part of this exploit may safely be construed
into a signal given by the musician to the soldiers for working
in concert at the battering ram, or other military engines; for
want of which signal in former attempts their efforts . never
been united, and consequently were ineffectual.
The same writer informs us, that Herodorus was victor in the
whole circle of sacred games, having been crowned at the
Olympian, Pythian, Nemaean, and Isthmean, by turns.
These performers on the trumpet appear to have been he-
ralds and public criers, who not only gave the signals at the
games for the combatants to engage, and announced their
success, but proclaimed peace and war, and sounded signals of
sacrifice and silence, at religious ceremonies.
As Herodorus is allowed to have been contemporary with
Demetrius Poliorcetes, he may be placed as flourishing about
the hundred and twentieth olympiad, B.C. 300. According to
the authors already cited, he was as remarkable for his gigantic
figure and enormous appetite, as for the strength of his f.
which were so powerful in blowing the trumpet, that he could
not be heard with safety unless at a great distance.
TELEPHANES, a celebrated performer on the flute in the
time of Philip of Macedon. According to Pausanias, he was a
native of Samos, and had a tomb erected to him by Cleopatra,
sister of Philip, in the road between Megara and Corinth,
which was subsisting in his time. The epitaph upon this mu-
sician, which is preserved in the Anthologia, equals his talents
to those of the greatest names in antiquity.
º
Orpheus, whom gods and men admire, º
Surpass'd all mortals on the lyre; , ,
Nestor with eloquence could charm,
And pride and insolence disarm :
Great Homer, with his heav'nly strain,
º ; Could soften rocks, and quiet pain:
Here lies Telephanes, whose flute,
* Had equal pow'r o'er man and brute.
- º º **
ly united in friendship with I
... Telephanes was close p
thenes, who has made honourable mention of him in
angue against Midias, fr ym he received a blow i
telebration of the feast of Bacc
º






















lendour e, than for his skill
ENIAS, one of the most celebrated performers on
antiquity, was a native of Thebes, and no less renown-
lendour, extravagance, and capric
Having been taken prisoner by Atheas, king of the
º
hians, i. on the flute before this rude monarch;
it though his attendants were charmed so much that they ap-
auded him with rapture, the king laughed at their folly, and
aid that he preferred the neighing of his horse to the flute of
his fine musician. : ; .
Ælian tells us that he was sent ambassador into Persia.
Lucian, that he gave three talents, or five hundred and eighty-
one pounds, five shillings, for a flute, at Corinth. Antisthenes,
not being very partial to music, said he was sure that Ismenias
was a worthless fellow, by his playing so well on the flute.
Plutarch relates the following story of Ismenias: Being sent
for to accompany a sacrifice, and having played some time
without the appearance of any good omen in the victim, his
employer became impatient, and, snatching the flute out of his
hand, began playing in a very ridiculous manner himself, for
which he was reprimanded by the company; but the happy
omen soon appearing, “There!” said he, “to play acceptably
to the gods, is their own giftſ”. Ismenias answered, with a
mile, “While I played, the gods were so delighted, that they
Heferred the omen, in order to hear me the longer; but they
were glad to get rid of your noise upon any terms.” The
same author, in his life of Demetrius, informs us, that Isme-
mias used to instruct his pupils by examples of excellent and
execrable performance; letting them hear, immediately after
each other, a good and a bad player on the flute; saying of the
first, “This is the way you should play;” and of the second,
“This is the way you should not play.” He is recorded by
al purchaser of jewels, which he displayed
Pliny as a prodig
ºth or stentatio
[ENUS
A. 3, the most ancient musical writer, of whose
works many tracts are come down to us, was born at Tarentum.
He was the son of a musician, whom some call Mnesias, others
Spintharus. He had his first education at Mantinae, under his
father and Lamprus of Erythrae; he next studied under Xe-
nophilus, the Pythagorean; and lastly under Aristotle, in com-
pany with Theophrastus, Suidas adds, that Aristoxenus, en-
raged at Aristotle having bequeathed his school to Theophras-
tus, traduced him ever, after. Aristocles, the peripatetic, in
Eusebius, exculpated Aristoxenus; and assures us that he
always spoke with great respect Aristoxenus
l; le er the Great and his •cessors. Hi































































B, 3. 3.09, º
next translated these three books into Latin, from the MS. o
Joseph Scaliger. With these he printed, at Leyden, in 161
4to., Nichomachus and Alypius, two other Greek write
music. Meibomius collected these musical writers together;
to which he added Euclid, Bacchus senior, and Aristides
Quintilianus; and published the whole, with a Latin version
and notes, from the elegant press of Elzevir, Amsterdam, 1652,
and dedicated them to Christiana, queen of Sweden. Aris-
toxenus, is said by Suidas to have written four hundred and
fifty-two different works, among which, those on music were
the most esteemed; yet his writings on other subjects are fre-
quently quoted by ancient authors, notwithstanding Cicero and
others say he was a bad philosopher, and had nothing in his
head but music. The titles of several of the lost works of
Aristoxenus, quoted by Athenaeus and others, have been col-
lected by Meursius, in his notes upon this author, by Tonsius.
and Menage, all which, Fabricius had digested into alphabeti-
cal order. --
GAUDENTIUS the Philosopher, one of the seven Greek
writers on music, collected and published by Meibomius,
1652, with a Latin translation and commentary. He is sup-
posed to have lived B. C. 300. -
MATHEMAtics, ASTRONoMY, AND GEOGRAPHY.
EUDOXUS, a celebrated astronomer of Cnidus, in Caria,
who flourished about B. C. 370. He studied geometry under
Archytas, and travelled into Egypt to learn the other sciences.
There he and Plato studied together for thirteen years, after
composed Elements of Geometry, from which Pro-
us, Euclid himself borrowed liberally. Cicero calls,
doxus, the greatest astronomer that ever lived; and Petro-
ius says, he spent the latter part of his life on the top of a
high mountain, that he might contemplate the stars with more
convenience; Strabo says, the remains of his observatory were
to be seen at Cnidas in his time. He died in his fifty-third
aS. In his
POLUS, a mathematician, who afterwards fo lowed the
tenets of Epicurus, and disregarded geometry, as !
a false and
YCUS, a Greek mathematician and astron
Æolia, who flourished about B. C. 329.
matics to Arcesilaus, who was also a
, the successor of A. istotle. "The p º
sophe known; but two works of
H
). He was
her is little
i O





























UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. ºº [b. c.370.
his
mat
%
remain, which prove him to have been an eminent mathe-
triar ' the second,
cian; the first, a treatise “On the Spheres;”
a treatise “On the rising and setting of the Planets.”
PYTHEAS, an ancient mathematician, astronomer, and
geographer, was a native of the Greek colony of Marseilles, in
Gaul, and flourished in the time of Aristotle and Alexander
the Great. He contributed to the improvement of science by
accounts which he wrote of his travels and voyages, and other
works. To him is attributed a work, entitled, The Circuit of
the Earth; and in the abridgment of Artemidorus the Ephe-
sian, he is placed in the number of those who have written a
“ Periplus of the World;” and he is supposed to have written
a treatise “De Oceano.” None of these pieces have reached
modern times, though some of them were extant in the fourth
century. From fragments collected out of Strabo, it appears
that Pytheas introduced into them, as the testimony of others,
a number of marvellous and incredible circumstances, which
drew on him the censure of that author and Polybius. The
last named author maintained it to be utterly impossible for a
private person, who was ever in want, to have travelled so far
as he pretended to have done by sea and land. He, however,
probably visited all the countries of Europe that are situated
upon the ocean, discovered the island of Thule, or Iceland, and
penetrated a considerable distance into the Baltic. This fact
has been proved by Gassendi, who shows that Pytheas was well
ſº with the northern countries, and accurately marked
the distinction of climates, by the difference which he observed
in the length of the days and nights in different latitudes. He
also attempts to prove that Eratosthenes and Hipparchus im-
proved their geographical works by availing themselves of the
labours of Pytheas, without due acknowledgments of their obli-
gations. There is no doubt that Pytheas was a skilful observer
of the heavens; for he taught that there is no star in the pre-
cise situation of the pole, and he rendered himself famous
among astronomers, by being the first calculator of the meri-
dian altitude of the sun at the summer solstice, at Marseilles.
This fact he ascertained by erecting a gnomon of a given
height, and finding the proportion between that height and the
. h of the meridian shadow. The result was found to cor-
respond exactly with that of an observation made by Gassendi,
at the same place, in the year 1636. To obviate such objec-
s as those advanced by Polybius against the reality of Py-
voyages, it has been said that he probably was fur-
t 1. he means of prosecu ing : them at the pu º ex-
ake such discoveries in the so
ht lead to th
g



































B. c. 320.1 FROM Philip II, to PtoleMY EUERGETEs.
probable that Pytheas was despatched on the public account.
into the northern regions for the same purposes. . .
ARCHELAUS, a geographer, was the author of a treatise
on all the countries conquered by Alexander, in whose time he
lived. Stobaeus quotes also another book, on rivers, written by
one Archelaus. N. .
HERO. There were two celebrated mathematicians of
antiquity of this name, who are usually distinguished by the
epithets, Hero the Elder, and Hero the Younger. The first
was a native of Alexandria, and the disciple of Ctesias, who
flourished in the reign of Ptolemy Philadelphus, and Euer-
getes I. He was distinguished by his great skill in mechanics,
and particularly in the construction of machinery; as a mora-
list, he was inclined to the tenets of iºpicurus. The younger
Hero is supposed to have flourished under the reign of the
emperor Heraclitus. w
CLEOSTRATUS, a celebrated astronomer, born in Tene-
dos, who, according to Pliny, was the first who discovered the
signs of the zodiac; others say, that he only discovered the
signs Aries and Sagittarius. He also corrected the errors of
the Grecian years. He lived about B. C. 306. & . . . .” -->
TIMOCHARIS, an astronomer of Alexandria. He ob-
served, B.C. 294, on the 9th of March, four hours before mid-
night, a conjunction of the moon with the Spica Yº.
star being then, according to him, eight degrees West from
the equinoxial point.
EUCLID, the celebrated mathematician, according to the
account of Pappus and Proclus, was born at Alexandria, in
Egypt, where he flourished, and taught mathematics with
ſº applause, under the reign of Ptolemy Lagus, about
B.C. 280. And here, from his time, till the conquest of Alex-
andria by the Saracens, all the eminent mathematicians were
either born or studied; and it is to Euclid and his scholars we
are indebted for Eratosthenes, Archimedes, Apollonius, Pto-
lemy, Theon, &c. &c. He reduced into regularity and order
all the fundamental principles of pure mathematics, which had
been delivered down by Thales, Pythagoras, Eudoxus, and
other mathematicians before him, and added many others of
his own discovering; on which account, it is said he was the
first who reduced arithmetic and geometry into the form of a
science. He likewise applied himself to the study of mixed
mathematics, particularly to astronomy and optics.
His works, as we learn from Pappus, and Proclus, are,
: Elements, Data, Introduction to Harmony, Phenomena,
Pptics, Catoprics, Treatises on the Division of Superficies,
Borisms, Loci and Superficies, Fallacies, and four











§ % § N. º here º have * ar § iº --- …& . -- -i. s §§
º; and a fine edition
§
ted in 1703, by David Grego
at Oxford. x
hº blished, consist of fifteen
the two last, it is suspected, are not Euclid's,
ut a comment of Hypsicles of Alexandria, who lived two hun-
dred years after Euclid. They are divided into three parts;
viz. The Contemplation of Superficies, Numbers, and Solids;
the first four books treat of planes only ; the fifth, of the pro-
portions of magnitudes in general; the sixth, of the proportion
f plane figures; the seventh, eighth, and ninth, give us the
undamental properties of numbers; the tenth contains the
theory of commensurable and incommensurable lines and
spaces; the eleventh, twelfth, thirteenth, fourteenth, and fif-
teenth, treat of the doctrine of solids. .
There is no doubt, that before Euclid's time, Elements of Geo-
metry were compiled by Hippocrates of Chius, Eudoxus, Leon,
and many others, mentioned by Proclus, in the beginning of
his second book; for he affirms, that Euclid new ordered many
things in the Elements of Eudoxus, completed many things in
those of Theatetus, and, besides, strengthened such proposi-
tions as before were too slightly, or but superficially establish-
ed, with the most firm and convincing demonstrations.
- History is silent as to the time of Euclid's death, or his age.
He is represented as a person of a courteous and agreeable be-
haviour, and in greatesteem and familiarity with king Ptolemy,
who once asking him whether there was any shorter way of
coming at geometry than by his Elements, Euclid, as Proclus
testifies, made answer, that there was no royal way, or path,
to geometry. . ... "
§ RISTARCHUS, a celebrated Greek astronomer and
philosopher, and a native of the city of Samos; but at what pe-
riod he flourished is not certain. It must have been before
the time of Archimedes, as some parts of his writings and opi-
nions are cite ãº
his works
ry, Savilian
ł by that author. He held the d .." f. Py-
thagoras as to the system of the world. He maintained that
the sun and stars were fixed in the heavens, and that the earth
For these º, hi Sºopin ons. whi




















































B. c. 390. FROM PHILIP it. To ProLEMYEUERGETEs.
lated into Latin, and commented upon, by Commandine, who,
published it, with Pappus's explanations, in 1572.
PA INTING.
CIDEAS, an ancient Greek painter, contemporary with
Tuphranor, about the hundred and fourth olympiad. Amongst
other works, he painted a picture of the Argonauts, which was
afterwards bought by Hortensius for the sum offorty-four thou-
sand sesterces, about fourteen thousand four hundred florins,
and placed it in a small temple, built on purpose to receive it,
in his villa at Tivoli. It was afterwards removed by M.
Agrippa to the portico of Neptune, which he had fabricated in
EUPHRANOR, an eminent painter and sculptor, who flou.
rished about B. C. 362. He wrote several volumes on symme.
try and the art of colouring, and was the first who signalized
himself by representing the majesty of heroes. . . . . .
CTESIDEMO, an ancient painter, who is celebrated for
his picture representing Hercules taking GEchalia, a city of
Boeotia; and for another of Laedaemia ascending the funeral
p PAUSIAS, a famous ancient painter, the inventor of EN-
cAustic PAINTING, was a native of Sicyon. He was a disciple
of Pamphylus, and flourished about B. C. 352. He drew a
beautiful picture of his mistress, Glycere, for which Lucullus
gave two talents. The Sicyonians being obliged to sell his pic-
tures, to clear an enormous debt, they were all purchased by
M. Scaurus, the Roman. 3. * * *
". PAMPHYLUS, a celebrated painter of M acedonia, in the
age of Philip II. He was founder of the school for painting at
y in
Sicyon; and he made a law, which was observed, not on
Sicyon, but all over Greece, that none but the children of
ble and dignified persons should be permitted to learn pain
ing. Apelles was one of his pupils.
TIMANTHUS, a famous painter of Sicyon, wh o lived in
the reign of Philip II. of Macedon. His painting of the Sacri
fice of Iphigenia was much and justly admired, wherein her
presented all the spectators in extreme grief, but c
face of Agamemnon, as esteeming the father's grief impossibl
to be expressed by the pencil. This painting carried off the
a celebrated pair
N iter of Athens, wh
about








































beyond any master of his time.
His most cele-
brated piece was that of Tartarus, or Hell, as described by
Homer, for which king Ptolemy I. offered him sixty talents, or
eleven thousand two hundred and fifty pounds, which he refused,
and generously presented it to his own country. He was much
esteemed likewise by his contemporaries, for his excellent
talent in sculpture. . • •
APELLES, an ancient Greek painter, born in the isle of
Cos, and lived in the time of Alexander the Great. He is
called the prince of painters, and was so highly esteemed by
Ilexander, that he would not permit any other person to paint
portrait; and gave him Campaspa, one of his mistresses,
with whom Apelles fell in love, while taking her likeness, for
a wife. The following reply of the painter to Alexander, or,
according to some authors, to a Persian nobleman, who often
visited his study, contains a sentiment so apposite as to de-
3rve transcribing. The great man, endeavouring to display
his taste on the subject of Apelles's art, and talking Yº. ab-
surdly on the subject, the indignant painter replied, “While
you were silent, the boys in my study were lost in admiration
of your magnificence; but the moment you began to talk of
what you did not understand, they laughed.” N.
CTESILOCO, the scholar of Apelles, was known by his
picture representing the birth of the Egyptian Bacchus, where
Jupiter seemed to moan effeminately in the midst of the god-
desses, assisting at the labour. Pliny speaks of this paint-
ing as highly indecent. … : a . . . .
P Höß. a celebrated ancient painter, born at
Caunas, a city of Caria, subject to the Rhodians, who flourish-
ed about B. 3. 300. He was at first employed in the lowest
use of the brush, as in painting ships, &c.; but soon acquired
the highest fame for historical pieces. His most celebrated
piece was Jalysus, the founder of Jalysus, a city of Rhodes,
which saved Rhodes from destruction; for Demetrius Polior-
cetes, who intended to burn the town, raised the siege rather
than risk the loss of so valuable a painting. Apelles did great
justice to his merits; for he gave him fifty i. ten
thousand pounds) for one picture, which the Rhodians pur-
chased . from him at a still higher price. He lived very
TIDES, a painter, contemporary with Apelles, flourish-
ed at Thebes about B. C.288. }. was the first, according to
Pliny, who expressed character and passion, the human mind
f ieveral emotions; but he was not remarkable for s
3?
2II.
spiring. Th
and her fear

































B. c.391.] FROM PHILIP 11. To ProLEMY EUERGETEs. 513
milk, should suck her blood. Alexander the Great took this
picture with him to Pella.
ANTIPHIBUS, a famous painter, and the rival of Apelles.
He is celebrated for many fine pictures, but most of all, for one
representing a youth blowing a spark of fire; from which it
would appear that the ancients were not ignorant of the magical
effects of the chiaro oscuro.
AETION, a celebrated painter, who has left us an excellent
picture of Roxana and Alexander, which he exhibited at the
Olympic games. It represents a magnificent chamber, where
Roxana is sitting on a bed of a most splendid appearance, which
is rendered still more brilliant by her beauty. She looks
downward, in a kind of confusion, being struck with the ap-
pearance of Alexander standing before her. A number of
little cupids flutter about, some holding up the curtain, others
undressing the lady; some pulling Alexander by the cloak,
and presenting him to his mistress, others playing with his
arms; while his friend Hephaestion, and the god Hymen are
represented attending with the matrimonial torch. This picture
gained Aetion so much reputation, that the president of the
games gave him his daughter in marriage. .
A R C H ITECTURE.
DINOCRATES, a celebrated architect of Macedonia, who
rebuilt the temple of Ephesus, when burnt by Erostratus, with
much more magnificence than before. Vitruvius informs us
that Dinocrates proposed to Alexander the Great to convert
mount Athos into the figure of a man, whose left hand should
contain a walled city, and all the rivers of the mount flow
into his right, and from thence into the sea He also con-
ceived a scheme for building the temple of Arsinoe, at Alexan-
dria, of loadstone, that should, by its attraction, uphold her
iron image in the centre, suspended in the air! Projects which
at least showed a vast extent of imagination.
PHILO, a celebrated architect and writer of Byzantium,
who flourished about B. C. 300. He wrote a treatise on ma-
chines used in war. .
sculptu RE AND st ATUARY.
PRAXITELES, a celebrated sculptor of antiquity, was
ºrn in Graecia Magna, and flourished about the year B. C.364.
He excelled particularly in the working of marble, and w
ut ome of the most famous statues noticed by a
among these were two of Venus, one clothed, and the







514 Universal Biography. [B.C. 394.
other naked. The first was purchased by the Coans, who pre-
ferred it, as the most decent. The Cnidians took the other,
which was so exquisitely beautiful, that many persons took a
voyage to the island for the sole purpose of seeing it. Praxi-
teles was deeply enamoured of the famous courtezan Phryne,
of whom he made several statues, one of which was erected at
Delphi. Many of his performances were in the Ceraunicus at
Athens; among the rest, the statues of Harmodius and Aris-
togiton, which Xerxes carried away, and Alexander afterwards
restored. Many were extant at a later period in Rome. His
most noted works were in marble; but he cast many statues in
metal, which, as well as those of marble, were greatly admired.
He had a son, who inherited his skill and fame.
PHRYNE, a Grecian courtezan, who flourished at Athens
about B. C. 328. Society alone can discover the charms of the
understanding; and women of virtue, amongst the ancient
Grecians, were excluded from society. The courtezans, on
the contrary, lived publicly at Athens, and by hearing frequent
conversations on philosophy, politics, and poetry, acquired
taste, precision, and eloquence. Their houses became the
schools of eloquence, from whence the poets drew their feeling
for ridicule and grace, and the philosophers, simplicity of
diction. Beautiful and highly accomplished, Phryne ranks
among the most distinguished in that class of women. She
served as a model for Praxiteles, and a subject for Apelles.
Both sculptor and painter represented her as Venus. Her
statue, in gold, was placed between those of two kings, at
Delphi. Wit and beauty were, as amongst their deities, more
frequently sacrificed to than virtue. She offered to rebuild the
walls of Thebes at her own expense, provided they would per-
mit her to place the following inscription on them : “Alexander
destroyed Thebes, Phryne rebuilt it.”
LYSIPPUS, a celebrated sculptor and statuary, was born
at Sicyon, and flourished in the time of Alexander the Great.
He was originally a worker of brass, and then applied himself
to painting, till his talents and inclination led him to fix on the
profession of a sculptor. He worked with such extraordinary
diligence and facility, that he is said to have left one thousand
five hundred performances, all of such excellence, that any one
of them singly might have conferred celebrity on him as an
artist. He attained to so high a reputation, that Alexander
forbad any sculptor but Lysippus to make his statues. Lysip-
pus improved the art of statuary by a better imitation of the
ir, and by an attentive study of symmetry, in which he con-
red how the figure appeared in the eye, not what were its
oportions. The most admirable of his works were the











B. C. 394.] From PHILIP To PTOLEMY EUERGETEs. 515
placed by Marcus Agrippa before his public baths: and being
removed by Tiberius, into his own chamber, the Roman people
were so clamorous for its restoration, that the emperor thought
it prudent to comply with their wishes. A chariot of the sun,
at Rhodes, was one of his great works, which was, however,
surpassed by a colossus at Tarentum, forty cubits high. His
statue of Socrates, and those of the twenty-five horsemen who
were drowned in the Granicus, were so highly valued, that, in
the age of Augustus, they were sold for their weight in gold.
CHARES, the Lydian, a celebrated statuary, was the dis-
ciple of Lysippus, and made the famous colossus of the sun,
in the city of Rhodes. He flourished B. C. 288.
ME DIC IN E.
MENECRATES, a physician of Syracuse, who flourished
about B. C. 360, famous for his skill in the profession, but
much more for his vanity. He affected the character and
attributes of Jupiter; made his patients follow him in those of
the other gods; and travelled through different countries, es-
corted by these counterfeit deities. He once wrote to the
king of Macedon, “Menecrates Jupiter to Philip, greeting.
Thou reignest in Macedonia, and I in medicine, thou givest
death to those who are in good health ; I restore life to the
sick; thy guard is composed of Macedonians; the gods them-
selves constitute mine.” Philip answered, that he wished him
restored to reason. Hearing afterwards that he was in Mace-
don, Philip sent for him, and invited him to an entertainment.
Menecrates and his companions were placed on rich and lofty
couches, before which was an altar, covered with the first
fruits of the harvest; and while an excellent repast was served
up to the other guests, perfumes and libations only were of.
fered to those new gods, who, greatly affronted, hastily left the
palace, and never returned.
ERASISTRATUS, a celebrated physician, grandson to the
philosopher Aristotle. He discovered, by the motion of the
pulse, the love which Antiochus conceived for his step-mother,
Stratonice, and was rewarded with one hundred talents for the
cure by Seleucus. He was a great enemy to bleeding and vio-
lent cathartics, wherein he is now followed by many modern
";
HILIP, a native of Arcania, physician to Alexander the
Great. When that monarch had been suddenly taken ill, after
bathing in the Cydnus, Philip undertook to remove the com- .
plaint, when the rest of the physicians believed that medical
assistance would be ineffectual. But as he was preparing this
medicine, Alexander received a letter from Parmenio, in which

516 UNIVERs AL BIOGRAPHY. [B. c. 370.
he was advised to beware of his physician, Philip, as he had
conspired against his life. The monarch was alarmed; and
when Philip presented him the medicine, he gave him Parme-
nio's letter to peruse, and "; to drink the potion. The
serenity and composure of Philip's countenance, as he read
the letter, removed every suspieion from Alexander's breast,
when he pursued the directions of his physician, and in a few
days recovered. -- &
ALEXIPPUS, one of the physicians to Alexander the
Great, and in high esteem, as Plutarch informs us, with that
prince.

PERIOD XIII.
FROM PTOLEMY EUERGETEs To PtoleMY
PHILOMETOR.
[B. C. 300.]
- REMARKABLE FACTs, EVENTS, AND DISCOVERIES.
*º
Kºś
B.C.
294 The number of effective men in Rome amounts to 270,000.
293 The first sun-dial erected at Rome by Papirius Cursor.
285 Dionysius of Alexandria began his astronomical era on Monday,
June 26, being the first who found the exact solar year to consist
of 365 days, 5 hours, and 49 minutes. The watch-tower of Pharos
built. Ptolemy Philadelphus, king of Egypt, employs seventy-
two interpreters to translate the Old Testament into the Greek
-> languages.
284 The foundation of the Achaean republic laid.
283 The college and library founded at Alexandria.
282 The Tarentine war begins.
280 Pyrrhus invades Italy.
279 A census at Rome. The number of citizens 278,222.
265 The number of Roman citizens augmented to 292,224.
264. The first Punic war begins, and continues twenty-three years. The
chronology of the Arundelian marbles composed. .
260 Provincial quaestors established at Rome. The Romans first engage
* : in naval affairs, and defeat the Carthaginians at sea.
252. A census at Rome, 267,897 citizens.
247. Another. The citizens, 251,212.
246 The records of China destroyed.
241 Conclusion of the first Punic war.
240 Comedies first acted at Rome.
237 Hamilcar, the Carthaginian, causes his son Hannibal, at nine years
old, to swear eternal enmity to the Romans. w -
236 The Tartars expelled from China. -
236 Rome at peace with other nations. The temple of Janus shut.
231 Corsica and Sardinia subdued by the Romans. The first divorce at
- Rome. % - w
219 The art of surgery introduced at Rome. - # *
218 Commencement of the second Punic war. Hannibal passes the Alps
and invades Italy.
216 The Romans defeated at Cannae, May 21st.
214 Syracuse besieged by Marcellus.
209. A census at Rome; 227,107 citizens. . . . . .
208 Asdrubal invades Italy, but is defeated and killed.
292 Hannibal defeated by Scipio at Zama.
201 Conclusion of the second Punic war.
**


518 UNIVERSAL Biography. [B.C. 290.
This period presents us with a state of the world entirely different
from the foregoing. We now behold all the eastern part of the world,
from the .#. of Italy to the Indus, and beyond it, newly united
into one vast empire, and at the same time ready to fall for want of a
proper head; the western world filled with fierce and savage nations,
whom the rival republics of Carthage and Rome were preparing to
enslave. The first remarkable events took place in the Macedonian
empire. Alexander had left behind him a victorious, and almost in-
vincible army, commanded by most expert officers, all equally ambi-
tious of supreme authority. Peace could not long exist in such a
situation. }. a number of years, nothing was to be heard of but
the most horrid murders, until at last, the mother, wives, children,
brothers, and even sisters of Alexander, were cut off; not one of the
family of that great conqueror being left alive within thirty years after
his death.
Where things were a little settled, four new empires, each of them
of no small extent, had arisen out of the empire of Alexander. Cas-
sander, the son of Antipater, had Macedonia and all Greece; Anti-
gonus, Asia Minor; Seleucus had Babylon and all the eastern pro-
vinces; and Ptolemy, Egypt and the western ones. One of these
empires, however, soon fell; Antigonus being defeated and killed
by Seleucus and Lysimachus, at the battle of Ipsus, B.C. 301. The
greater part of his dominions then fell to Seleucus; but several pro-
vinces took the opportunity of these confusions, to shake off the
Macedonian yoke altogether; and thus were formed the kingdoms of
Pontus, Bithynia, Pergamus, Armenia, and Cappadocia.
The two most powerful and permanent empires, however, were
those of Syria, founded by Seleucus, and Egypt by Ptolemy Soter,
The kings of Macedon, though they did not preserve the same autho-
rity over the Grecian states 㺠Alexander, Antipater, and Cassander
had done, yet effectually prevented them from those outrages upon
one another, for which they had formerly been so remarkable, Indeed,
it is difficult to determine, whether their condition was better or worse
than before they were conquered by Philip; since, though they were
now prevented from destroying one another, they were most grievously
oppressed by the Macedonian tyrants. : > --> .
While the eastern parts of the world were deluged with blood, and
the successors of Alexander were pulling to pieces the empire which
he had established, the Romans and Carthaginians proceeded in their
attempts to enslave the nations of the west. The Romans, ever en-
gaged in war, conquered one city after another, till, about the year
tºº.
3.C. 253, they had made themselves masters of almost the whole of
Italy. During this time, they had met with only one check in
their conquests; and that was the invasion by Pyrrhus, king of
'Epirus. That ambitious and fickle monarch had projected the
quest of Italy, which he fancied would be an easy matter. Accord-
ingly, in B.C. 271, he entered that country, and maintained a
with the Romans for six years, till at last, being utterly defeated
Cneius Dentatus, he was obliged to return. T %. 3.;
sooner made themselves masters tº º ºxº N.
pretence to carry their arms out of it; and this soon occu

















B. c.200.] PTOLEMY EUERGETES To PTOLEMY PHILOMETOR. 519
invited into Sicily to assist the Mamertines against Hiero II., as king
of Syracuse, and the Carthaginians, they immediately commenced a
war with the latter, which continued with the utmost fury for twenty-
three years. The war ended to the disadvantage of the &º.
The consequence of this war was the entire loss of Sicily to the Car-
thaginians; and, soon after, the Romans seized on Sardinia.
The transactions of the second Punic war are perhaps the most re-
markable recorded in history. The states of Greece, weary of the
tyranny of the Macedonians, entered into a resolution to recover their
liberties. For this purpose, was formed the Achaean league, but as
they could not agree among themselves, they called in the aid of the
Romans, who finally subdued the kingdom of Macedon. The Romans
afterwards conquered the Carthaginians, and destroyed their city, as
well as the city of Corinth. The Jews were much oppressed by An-
tiochus Epiphanes.
G O V E R N M E N T.
PTOLEMY EUERGETES, son of Philadelphus Pto-
lemy, succeeded to the throne of Egypt in the year B. C. 246.
Soon after his accession, his sister, Berenice, widow of Antio-
ochus Theos, king of Syria, being, with her infant son, reduced
to the most imminent danger by Laodice, the first wife of that
king, Ptolemy marched with an army to her succour; but, be-
fore his arrival, they were taken and put to death. In revenge,
he not only seized and put to death Laodice, but made himself
master of Syria, Cilicia, and all the country to the Euphrates.
He then passed that river, and reduced Mesopotamia, Babylonia,
and, it is said, the whole tract of country as far as Bactria and
the confines of India. Being called by a revolt in Egypt, he
brought back an immense booty in gold and silver, and also a
vast number of Egyptian idols, which had been carried away
by Cambyses. These he replaced in their temples, and hence
he acquired, among his superstitious subjects, the sirname of
Euergetes, or the Benefactor. When Ptolemy set out on this
expedition, his queen, Berenice, made a vow to consecrate her
beautiful hair to the gods, in case he returned to her in safety,
She fulfilled her vow; but through the negligence of the
priests, it was soon lost. To avert the king's wrath, Conon,
the celebrated mathematician, feigned that the locks had been
transported into the heavens, and formed a group of stars near
the tail of the lion. To this new constellation, as he called it,
he gave the name of Berenice's Hair, by which it is still,
known. After this, Ptolemy made an expedition southwards,
which, in the end, gave him possession of all the coasts of the
ited Sea on the Arabian and Ethiopic sides, down to the
straits of in the year B. C. 221. This
Babelmandel. He died i











UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. [B.C. 280.
king, says the historian, inherited the love of learning which
distinguished his progenitors, and employed much care and ex-
lugmenting the Alexandrian library. He entertained
men of literary eminence at his court; and, having been a pu-
pil of the celebrated Aristarchus, was himselfeminent in letters,
particularly in historical composition. 3%
BERENICE, daughter of Philadelphus and Arsinoe, who
married her own brother, Euergetes, whom she loved with
much tenderness. When he went on a dangerous expedition,
she vowed all the hair of her head to the goddess Venus, if
he returned. Some time after his victorious return, the locks,
which were in the temple of Venus, disappeared ; and Conon,
an astronomer, to make his court to the queen, publicly report-
ed that Jupiter had carried them away, and had made them a
constellation. She was put to death by her own son, B.C. 221.
ARSACES, a man of obscure origin, who, upon seeing Se-
leucus defeated by the Gauls, invaded Parthia, and conquered
the governor of the province called Andragoras, and laid the
foundations of an empire, B. C. 250. He added the kingdom
of the Hyrcani to his newly-acquired possessions, and spent his
time in establishing his power and regulating the laws. After
death he was made a god of his nation, and all his successors
were called, in honour of his name, Arsacidae. x
ARSACES, son and successor of the former, carried war
against Antiochus, the son of Seleucus, who entered the field
with a hundred thousand foot and twenty thousand horse. He
afterwards made peace with Antiochus, and died B. C. 217.
PTOLEMY PHILOPATER, king of Egypt, succeeded
his father Euergetes, assuming the name, Lover of his father,
for reasons that cannot now be ascertained. He was a vicious,
dissolute, and cruel prince; one of his first acts, after his ac-
cession, was to put his brother Magas to death, because he was
supposed to be too much loved by the army. Ptolemy was soon
involved in a war with Antiochus the Great, king of Syria, who
attempted, but unsuccessfully, to recover the provinces of Coelo-
Syria and Palestine, which had been detached from the Syrian
crown by Euergetes. A peace soon followed, in which the
contested provinces devolved to Ptolemy; and on this important
occasion he visited all their principal cities, and among the rest
Jerusalem, where he offered sacrifices, and made rich presents
to the temple. Being resisted by the priests in his attempt to
enter the holy of holies, he returned to Alexandria so much
xasperated against the Jewish nation, that he determined to
ve them of their privileges. A rebellion which broke out
he cause of the destruction of a number of Jews,
§
§
a






















B. c.270.J PTOLEMY EUERGETES To ProLEMY PHILOMETOR. 521
queen brought a son, after having been childless a i. Ilupın-
ber of years. In joy for this event, he gave himself up to all
sorts of debaucheries; his queen remonstrated, and to pr
event
her interference, he caused her to be assassinated. He is also
represented as having put his own mother to death; and, ac-
cording to history, he was unquestionably a most detestable so-
vereign. But he was not, however, without some good quali-
ties; the love of learning, which was hereditary in this house,
was eminently displayed in his character, and he gave some
meritorious instances of munificence. He died in the year
B.C. 204, after a reign of about seventeen years.
PTOLEMY EPIPHANES, king of Egypt, was only in
his sixth year when he succeeded to the throne. During his
minority, Antiochus the Great having formed an alliance with
Philip, king of Macedon, for the partition of the Egyptian do-
minions, invaded and took Coelo-Syria and Palestine. Ptolemy's
guardians thereupon sent an embassy to Rome, imploring the
protection of the republic; and M. Lepidus was deputed by the
senate to go to Egypt, and assume the direction of affairs.
When the young king assumed the reins of government, he fell
under the government of courtiers, who ministered to his vicious
inclinations, and subverted the influence of Aristomenes, who
had been in the habit of giving him faithful advice. This he
continued, which Ptolemy so much resented, that he caused
him to be put to death. His administration became so odious
and tyrannical, that a conspiracy was formed among his sub-
jects, which had nearly effected his deposition. By means of
another able minister, Polycrates, he was extricated from the
danger, but he manifested his treacherous disposition by cruelly
executing the conspirators, after they had submitted upon the
promise of a pardon. He cultivated a strict friendship with the
Romans, to whom he offered succours in their war with An-
tiochus, although they had Cleopatra, the daughter of that
king. He also maintained a strict connexion with the Achaian
republic, and one of his last acts was to send an embassy, in-
viting it to a league, offensive and defensive. As he was pre-
paring to make war against Seleucus, king of Syria, he was
poisoned by his nobles and principal officers, who suspected that
he meant to defray the expenses of the war with their fortunes.
This occurred in the year B.C. 180, in the twenty-fourth year
of his reign. . . . . . . . .
SCOPAS, an AEtolian, who raised some forces to assist
Ptolemy Epiphanes, king of Egypt, against his enemies An-
tiochus and his allies. He afterwards conspired against the
Egyptian monarch, and was put to death, B.C. 196.
the Milesians, because he put to death their tyrant Timarchus,
was son and successor of Antiochus Soter. He put an end to








522 UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. [B. C. 266.
the war which had been begun with Ptolemy; and, to strengthen
the peace, he married Berenice, the daughter of the Egyptian
king. This so offended his former wife Laodice, by whom he
had two sons, that she poisoned him, and suborned Artemon,
whose features were similar to his, to represent him as king.
Artemon, subservient to her will, pretended to be indisposed,
and, as king, called all the ministers, and recommended to
them Seleucus, sirnamed Callinicus, son of Laodice, as his
successor. After this, it was made public that the king had
died a natural death, and Laodice placed her son on the throne,
and despatched Berenice and her son, B.C. 246. -
BERENICE was daughter of Ptolemy Philadelphus, and
wife of Antiochus, king of Syria. This, on the side of An-
tiochus, was a marriage of convenience, for he repudiated his
wife Laodice, that, by uniting himself to Berenice, he might
ensure the friendship and protection of the Egyptian king.
After the death of Ptolemy, Antiochus again took Laodice, and
Berenice retired to Antioch, where she ended her days; for
Laodice, mortified at her husband having married this unfor-
tunate princess, indulged towards her the most inveterate hate;
and after poisoning Antiochus, for the purpose of placing her
son in his elevated station, ordered Berenice to be strangled,
ARIARATHES IV. succeeded his father Ariamnes on the
throne of Cappadocia, and married Stratonice, daughter of
Antiochus Theos. He died after a reign of twenty-eight years,
B.C. 220, and was succeeded by his son. * e.
SELEUCUS II., surnamed CALLINICUS, succeeded his
father, Antiochus Theos, on the throne of Syria, B.C. 246.
His mother Laodice having cruelly put to death Berenice the
second wife of Antiochus, and her son Ptolemy Euergetes, the
brother of Berenice, marched into Syria, slew Laodice, and took
possession of great part of the Syrian empire. After his return
to Egypt, Seleucus recovered part of his lost dominions; but
being defeated by Ptolemy, he applied for aid to his brother.
This union brought about a truce with Ptolemy, but the two
brothers then quarrelled, and Seleucus was defeated by An-
tiochus in a great battle at Ancyma. The war between them
was carried on with great inveteracy, while the empire was in-
vaded on one side by Eumenes and Attalus, kings of Perga-
mus; and, on the other, by Arsaces, founder of the Parthian
monarchy, who was making a progress in Hyrcania. Seleucus
was at length delivered from the hostility of his brother, who
was detained captive in Egypt, whither he had fled, and he
then turned his arms ag A hat
















B. c.250.j PToleMY EUERGETES To PtoleMY PHILoMEtor. 523
SELEUCUS III., sirnamed CERAUN US, eldest son of
Seleucus II., succeeded him on the throne of Syria. He was
a weak and incapable prince; and after a reign of three years.
he was poisoned by two of his chief officers, while engaged in
an expedition against Attalus. - sº
ACHAEUS, the son of Andromachus, whose sister was the
wife of Seleucus Ceraunus, was offered the crown of Syria as
successor to Seleucus, but declined in favour of Antiochus, the
brother of the deceased king, who was afterwards sirnamed
the Great. All the provinces of Asia Minor was committed to
the charge of Achaeus. In this station he wrested from Attalus,
king of Pergamus, all the countries in Asia which that prince
had seized, and annexed them to the crown of Syria. When
designs were formed against him, he seized the crown which he
had before refused, and was crowned at Laodicea, in Phrygia,
assuming ever afterwards the regal title in all letters to the ci-
ties of Asia, and obliging them to give it him in all their ad-
dresses, Antiochus i. succeeded in several enterprises,
directed his attention towards carrying on the war in Asia Mi-
nor against Achaeus, who being shut up in the castle of Sardis,
was delivered to Antiochus, after he had taken the city. This
prince was moved with compassion towards a person to whom
he had once owed his crown; but motives of state prevailing
i. his natural tenderness, he ordered him to be put to
leath. .
ANTIOCHUS III., sirnamed the GREAT, brother to Se-
leucus Ceraunus, was king of Syria and Asia, and reigned
thirty-six years. He was defeated by Ptolemy Philopater at
Raphia; after which he made war against Persia, and took
Sardes. After the death of Philopater, he endeavoured to
crush his infant son Epiphanes; but the guardians solicited the
aid of the Romans, and Antiochus was compelled to resign his
pretensions. He conquered the greater part of Greece, of
which some cities implored the aid of Rome; and Hannibal,
who had taken refuge at his court, encouraged him to make
War against Italy. He was glad to find himself supported by
the abilities of such a general; but his measures were dilatory,
and not agreeable to the advice of Hannibal, and he was con-
quered, and obliged to retire beyond Mount Taurus, and pay
a yearly fine of two hundred talents to the Romans. His re-
Venues being unable to pay the fine, he attempted to plunder
# ple of Belus in Susiana, which so incensed the inha-
at they killed him with his followers, B.C. 187. In
"is character of king, Antiochus was humane and liberal, the
Patron of learning, and the friend of merit; and he published
º
ºn edict, ordering his subjects never to obey unless his com-
hands were consistent with the laws of the country. H
"ree sons, Seleucus Philopater, Antiochus piphanes, §









* UNIversal biography. [b. c.210.
Demetrius. The first succeeded him, and the two others were
kept as hostages by the Romans. He had a daughter named
SELEUCUS, sirnamed PHILOPATER, succeeded his
father Antiochus the Great, on the throne of Syria, in the year
B. C. 187. He was favourable to the Jews during the greatest
part of his reign, but near the close of it he employed Heliodo-
rus to carry off the treasures of the temple at Jerusalem, as is
mentioned in the second book of Maccabees. He was after-
wards poisoned by Heliodorus, who usurped his throne. This
event occurred in the year B. C. 176. There were several other
kings of the name of Seleucus, but they did nothing worthy of
notice.
ARIARATHES V., king of Cappadocia, a prince who mar-
ried Antiochia, the daughter of king Antiochus, whom he as-
sisted against the Romans. Antiochus, being defeated, Ariara-
thes saved his kingdom from invasion by paying the Romans a
large sum of money remitted at the instance of the king of Per-
Tarhus. •
g ARIARATHES VI., son of the preceding, called PHILO.
PATER, from his piety, succeeded his father B. C. 166. An
alliance with the Romans shielded him against the false claims
that were laid to his crown by one of the favourites of Deme-
trius king of Syria. He was maintained on his throne by At-
talus, and assisted his friends of Rome against Aristonicus, the
usurper of Pergamus; but he was killed in the war, B. C. 130,
leaving six children, five of whom were murdered by his surviv-
ing wife Laodice. .
MITHRIDATES IV., king of Pontus, succeeded his father
Ariobazamus, who was the son of Mithridates III.
ARTAXIAS I, king of Armenia, of which country he was
joint governor with Hadriades, under Antiochus the Great, but
setting up for themselves, they established the two kingdoms of
Greater and Lesser Armenia, the first of which was obtained by
Artaxias. He was made prisoner by Antiochus Epiphanes, but
afterwards obtained his liberty and his throne.
MITHRIDATES V., king of Pontus, succeeded his father
Mithridates IV., and strengthened himself on his throne by an
alliance with Antiochus the Great, whose daughter Laodice he
married. He was succeeded by his son Pharmaces. &
NTIOCHUS IV., sirnamed EPIPHANES, or ILLUS-
PRIOUS, was king of Syria, after the death of his brother Se:
leucus, and reigned eleven years. He destroyed Jerusalem, an
so cruel to the Jews, that they called him Epimanes, or Fu-
I not Epiphanes. He attempted to plunder Persepolis.
effect. He was of a voracious appetite, and fond ol
liversions; he used for his pleasure to empty bags of
gerness to gath
§§
in the streets, to see the people's eag


















B. c. 210.] PTOLEMY EUERGETES To PTOLEMY PhilometoR. 525
he bathed in the public baths with the populace, and was fond
of perfuming himself to excess. He invited all the Greeks he
could at Antioch, and waited upon them as a servant, and danced
with such indecency among the stage players, that even the
most dissipated and shameless blushed at the sight.
PHILIP, foster brother of Antiochus Epiphanes, (1 Macc. vi.
14 and 55, 2 Macc. ix. 29,) was a Phrygian by birth, and very
much in Antiochus's favour. This prince made him governor
of Jerusalem, (2 Macc. viii. 8, v, 22,) where he treated the Jews
very cruelly, to force them to change their religion. Seeing that
Apollonius and Seron were defeated by Judas Maccabaeus, he
sent for new succours to Ptolemy, governor of Coelo-Syria, who
sent him Gorgius and Nicanor with a powerful army. Some
time after, Antiochus, going beyond the Euphrates to extort
money from the people, Philip went along with him ; and An-
tiochus finding himself near his end, (1 Macc. vi. 14,) made him
regent of the kingdom, put his diadem into his hands, his royal
cloak, and his ring, that he might render them to his son the
young Antiochus Eupator. But Lysias having taken posses-
sion of the government in the name of the young Eupator, who
was but a child, Philip not being able to cope with him, durst
not return into Syria; but he went into Egypt, carrying the body
of Epiphanes along with him, to implore assistance from Ptolemy
Philometor against Lysias, the usurper of the government of
Syria. The year following, while Lysias was busy in the war
carrying on against the Jews, Philip invaded Syria, and took
possession of Antioch ; but Lysias returning into the country,
with great diligence retook Antioch, and put Philip to death,
who was taken in the city. . :
MATTATHIAS, a Jewish priest, founder of the family of
Maccabees, was descended from one of the twenty-four ap-
pointed by David to officiate in the temple, and was of the
branch of the Asmoneans. The persecution of his countrymen,
and profanation of their religion by Antiochus Epiphanes, were
So grievous to him, that he retired from Jerusalem to his native
place, to avoid the sight. One of the king's officers, named
Apelles, coming thither to enforce his master's commands, as-
sembled the people, with Mattathias and his five sons, and en-
deavoured to persuade them to compliance; but the zealous and
Patriotic priest loudly declared, that although the whole nation
abandoned the religion of their fathers, he and his house would
Continue faithful to their God. His zeal carried him much
farther than a mere assertion of his pious constancy; he put in
Practice an injunction of the Mosaic law, by actually killing on
the spot a Jew who presented himself to sacrifice at the altar
of an idol. At the same instant, he fell upon, and slew the
ºng's officer and his attendants, overthrew the idol, and ran
UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. [b. c. 210.
through the city, calling upon all who were attached to their
law to follow them. They quickly found themselves at the head
of a considerable body of men; and having consulted together
as to the lawfulness of fighting on the Sabbath-day, it was
agreed not only to be lawful, but obligatory, to resist an attack
from their enemies, and the enemies of their religion, on the sab-
bath. They instantly became aggressors, and marched from
city to city; overthrew the altars of idolatry, and restored the
worship of the true God. Mattathias caused all the prisoners
taken from the apostates to be put to death without mercy or
compunction. Thus successfully did he commence that revolt
which was productive of so many great events under his sons
Simeon, Judas, and Jonathan ; and perceiving his own end ap-
proaching, he gave a most solemn exhortation to his sons to live
in unity, and pursue with zeal and courage the course they had
entered upon. He died B.C. 166, leaving behind him the cha-
racter of a valiant and faithful asserter of the religion and liberty
of his country.
JUDAS MACCA BAEUS, a valiant leader of the Jews, was
the third son of Mattathias, of the Asmonean family, whom he
succeeded as general of his nation in the year B. C. 166. At
this period the Jews were in a state of revolt against Antiochus
Epiphanes, and Judas with a small body of men harrassed the
Syrians, Samaritans, and apostate Jews, and filled the country
with the terror of his name. After some important successes,
and being left master of the field, Judas marched to Jerusalem,
where he purified the city and temple, the latter of which was
again dedicated, and a commemoratory festival on this occasion
was instituted, which was ordered to be perpetual. The death
of Antiochus gave the Jews some respite, but hostilities were
soon renewed, and Judas displayed his usual vigour and military
prowess. Lysias, the commander of the Syrians, was now his
chief antagonist, him he defeated and obliged to seek terms of
peace. After this the Syrian general invaded Judea a second
time, and obliged Judas to take refuge in Jerusalem. He be-
sieged the city, which would probably, notwithstanding the va.
lour of its defender, have been obliged to surrender for want of
provisions, had not the hostile army been hastily recalled by a
rebellion in their own country. After Demetrius Soter had ob-
tained the crown of Syria, the war with the Jews was renewed.
Bacchides marched with the flower of his army, surprised Judas
at the head of a small body of men, of whom, all but eight hun-
dred, deserted at the approach of the enemy. With these he
made a desperate resistance, till he fell upon a heap of slaugh-
tered enemies. This was in the year B.C. 161. The news of his
death caused the utmost grief and consternation at Jerusalem,
where a general mourning was made for him, and he was celer

b c.20s.) PtoleMY EUERGETEs to ProLEMY PHILOMETor. 527
brated in songs as one of the greatest heroes of the nation. His
body was recovered, and interred in the sepulchre of his father
at Modin.
ZACCHEUS, a person who was left by Judas Maccabaeus,
along with Simon and Joseph, to besiege the sons of Beon in
two towers, (2 Macc. x. 19, 1 Macc. v. 5, iv. 5,) in the year of the
world 3840. But Simon's people being bribed with money, per-
mitted some to escape. Judas put these traitors to death. It
is not plain that Joseph, Simon, or Zaccheus had any share in
this treachery.
JONATHAN, sirnamed Apphus, was son of Mattathias,
and brother to Judas Maccabaeus. After the death of Judas,
he was appointed general of the troops of Israel. Bacchides,
general of Demetrius Soter, his enemy, was soon informed of
it. Jonathan went immediately into the country bordering on
the lake Asphaltites; at last he passed the river Jordan, and
observing that Bacchides was advancing towards him with a
powerful army, in order to give him battle on the sabbath-day,
and being posted in such a manner that he had the enemy be-
fore him, Jordan at his back, and woods and marshes at his
right and left, he exhorted his people to implore the assistance
of heaven, and represented to them the necessity they were
under of either conquering or dying, since there was no way for
escape. He therefore immediately gave battle, and being
within reach of Bacchides, he stretched out his arm, meaning
to run him through; but Bacchides dexterously avoided the
blow by retiring backwards. At length Jonathan and his peo-
ple having laid a thousand of their enemies dead upon the spot,
and being apprehensive that they should be overwhelmed with
numbers, threw themselves into the river Jordan, and swan
over it, in the presence of their enemies, who, not daring to pur-
sue them, retreated to Jerusalem. After various other battles,
Jonathan made proposals of peace, which Bacchides accepted,
returned to Syria, and came no more into Judea. Jonathan
dwelt at Machmas, not at Jerusalem, because the troops of
Demetrius Nicator were in possession of the citadel. Some
years afterwards, Alexander Balas and Demetrius Soter, who
contended for the kingdom of Syria, wrote to Jonatham, desir-
ing his friendship, each endeavouring to engage him in their
party. Jonathan declared for Alexander Balas, against De-
metrius. The first time of his putting on the high-priest's
ornaments was on the feast of Tabernacles, in the year B. C,
152. After his receiving Alexander Balas's letter, who gave
him this dignity, the people importuned him to accept it, and
Two years after, Alexander Balas cele
with the king of Egypt's daughter at Ptolemais,
invited thither, and appeared with royal magnificence,
2












528 UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. [B. c. 208.
of his enemies attempting to accuse him to the king, he would
not hear them, but clothed him in purple, and seated him near
to him. Jonathan returned to Jerusalem, and there abode
some time in peace. But at the end of two years Demetrius
Nicator, son of Demetrius Soter, king of Syria, coming into
Syria, sent Apollonius, general of his troops, to Jamnia, in
Palestine, to defy Jonathan, telling him that he trusted only to
his rocks and mountains, where he kept close, without daring
to descend into the plain. Jonathan, stung with these re-
proaches, assembled ten thousand chosen men, besieged Joppa,
and took it with ease. From thence he marched against A-
pollonius, defeated him, killed eight thousand of his men, and
returned loaded with booty to Jerusalem. Alexander Balas
was killed some years after ; whereupon Demetrius Nicator
was advanced to the throne of Syria. Jonathan taking advan-
tage of the troubles in Syria, besieged the citadel of Jerusalem.
Some time after, Jonathan having desired Demetrius to recall
his troops from the citadel of Jerusalem, that prince answered
him, that he would not only do what he requested, but more,
provided he would send him succours, to reduce the inhabi-
tants of Antioch. Jonathan sent him three thousand chosen
men, who rescued him from his danger; for his people had be-
sieged him in his palace. The city of Antioch was obliged to
solicit his clemency, and desire peace. .
Demetrius was not so grateful as he might have been, but
shortly after he quarrelled with Jonathan. His ingratitude
was the cause of Jonathan's declaring for young Antiochus,
whom Tryphon had set on the throne of Syria. Jonathan
fought several battles with Demetrius's generals. About the
same time he renewed his alliance with the Romans and Lace-
daemonians. Jonathan marched against the Zebedean Arabi-
ans, or Nabathaeans, defeated them, and returned to Jerusalem
with great booty. He undertook to rebuild the walls of Jeru-
salem, and to raise the wall between the fortress, which was in
the hands of the Syrians, and the city. Tryphon having con-
ceived the design of despatching young Antiochus, and step-
ping into his throne, thought it necessary to secure the person
of Jonathan. He persuaded him to come to Ptolemais, and
laving not above a thousand men with him, the inhabitants,
he had entered into their city, shut the gates, killed the
who attended Jonathan, seized him, and put him in
yphon killed Jonathan and his sons some time
Bascama, perhaps Berek, not far from Bethshan. Si-
!ed the bones of Jonathan, his brother, and buried
»din, in a magnificent mausoleum. There was a
Irning over all Israel for Jonathan many
JACIMUS, or

















B. c. 208.] proleMY EUERGETEs to PtoleMY philometor. 529
JOACHIM, was high priest of the Jews, and succeeded to
that office B.C. 162. He was of the race of the priests, but
not of a family of the first rank, nor whose ancestors had en-
joyed the high priesthood. Besides, he had been polluted with
idolatry during the persecution of Antiochus Epiphanes, (2 Macc.
xiv. 3,) and obtained this dignity by very irregular methods.
After the death of Menelaus, he was confirmed in his office by
king Antiochus Eupator. Alcimas did not perform the func-
tions of it, till after the death of Judas Maccabaeus. Seeing,
therefore, that he could not exercise his dignity of high priest,
he no sooner heard that Demetrius, the son of Antiochus Epi-
hanes, had privately left Rome, and was arrived in Syria, than
F. waited on the new monarch at the head of the apostate
Jews, who were then at Antioch. He besought Demetrius to
defend them from the violence of Judas Maccabaeus, whom he
accused as an oppressor of such as supported the king's party,
and who had expelled them their country. He also intreated
him to send some person into Judea to examine into the mis-
chiefs and disorders committed by Judas Maccabaeus, and to
chastise his insolence. 1 Macc. vii. … : :- .
Demetrius immediately sent Bacchides with an army into
Judea, and confirming Alcimas in his office of high priest,
charged them jointly with the conduct of the war. They en-
deavoured to surprize Judas and his brethren, who, suspecting
the snare laid for them, happily escaped. However, Alcimas
swearing that no injury should be offered to any, about sixty
Assideans, with many scribes and doctors of the law, put them-
selves in his power, and were all murdered. After this perfi-
dious action not one would trust him. g
Bacchides having established Alcimas by force in Judea,
marched into Syria, and left to Alcimas the whole government
of the province, with troops sufficient for his support. Alcimas
for some time defended himself with success, but Judas ob-
tained a superiority; he found himself unable to resist him,
and returned to the king with a present of a gold crown, a
palm tree, and golden branches which he had probably taken
out of the temple. 2 Macc. xiv. 3, 4, Seizing a favourable
opportunity, he represented to the king, that so long as Judas
lived, his authority would never be settled in Judea. The same
was suggested by others, who had much influence with the
king. Demetrius, therefore, was at length persuaded to send
a new army into Judea, under the command of Nicanor. This
. was killed, and his army routed, in a battle which he
ought with Judas Maccabaeus. Demetrius, being informed of
this, again sent Bacchides and Alcimas, with a powerful rein-
forcement, consisting of the choice of all his troops. Judas
Maccabaeus having ventured to attack this army with a body of
only eight hundred men, was killed in the engagement. 1 Macc.
VOL. I. M m :-



530 - UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY, [B.C. 208.
ix. 1. 22. By the death of Judas, Alcimas and his party was
delivered from a formidable enemy, and obtained superiority
in the country. Alcimas began to exercise the offices of the
priesthood, which he had purchased with money; but attempt-
ing to pull down the wall of the immer court, which had been
built by the prophets, and which probably separated the altar
of burnt offering from the priest's court, God punished him by
a stroke of the palsy, of which he died B. C. 160. 1 Macc.
vii. 9. ix. 54. N.
ANTIOCHUS V., sirmamed EUPATOR, succeeded his
father Epiphanes on the throne of Syria, B. C. 164. He made
a peace with the Jews, and in the second year of his reign, was
assassinated by his uncle Demetrius, who said that the crown
}. lawfully his own, and that it had been seized from his
ather. :
DEMETRIUS I., king of Syria, surnamed SOTER or
SAVIOUR, was son of Seleucus Philopater. Being a hostage
at Rome, when his father died, his uncle Antiochus Epiphanes,
usurped the kingdom, and was succeeded by his son Antiochus
Eupator. Demetrius at last procured his liberty on pretence
of going to hunt, and fled to Syria, where the troops received
him as their lawful sovereign. He put to death Eupator and
Lysias, but endeavouring to establish himself on his throne by
cruelty and oppression, Alexander Balas, the pretended son of
Antiochus Epiphanes, claimed the crown, and defeated Deme-
trius in a battle, B. C. 150.
ALEXANDER BALAS, so called from Bala his mother,
was the natural son of Antiochus Epiphanes, and upon medals
is surnamed Theopator Euergetes. Some historians will not
allow him to be even the natural son of Antiochus Epiphanes.
Florus calls him an unknown person, and of uncertain extrac-
tion. Justin says, that the enemies of Demetrius, king of
Syria, suborned a young man from among the meanest of the
people, to declare himself son and heir of Antiochus; and
that he, warring with success against the king of Syria, ob-
tained his kingdom. Appian plainly affirms, that Alexander
Balas pretended to be of the family of the Seleucidae, without
any title to that pretension; and Athenaeus says, that he was
the supposed son of Antiochus Epiphanes. However, the
Roman senate, the Jews, the Egyptians, and the Syrians, ac-
knowledged him as son and heir of that prince. Heraclides of
Byzantium was the person who undertook to seat Alexander
Balas on the throne of Syria, and to displace Demetrius his
particular enemy. He carried Alexander to Rome, and by
presents and intrigue prevailed on the senate not only to ac-
edge Alexander as the son of Antiochus, but also to
sue a decreep . ºf .
from Demetrius,
ermitting him to recover the kingdom o
and proming him the assistance of the Ro-










B.C. 208.] PTOLEMY EUERGETES TO PTOLEMY PHILOMETOR. 56
l .
man people. By virtue of this decree, Alexander Balas raised
forces; and sailing to Ptolemais in Palestine, he possessed him-
self of that city, and assumed the title of king of Syria, B. C.
153. He then wrote to Jonathan Maccabaeus, and sent him a
purple robe, and a crown of gold. (1 Macc. x. 18, &c.) Jona-
than therefore embraced the party of Alexander, notwithstand-
ing the offers and solicitations of Demetrius. The two con-
tending kings committed the determination of their cause to a
decisive battle, in which Demetrius, after performing prodigies
of valour, was defeated and slain.
Alexander Balas having thus obtained full possession of the
kingdom of Syria, sent to demand the daughter of the king of
Egypt in marriage. Ptolemy ºl. with the demand, and
the marriage was performed at Ptolemais, where the two kings
met. But Alexander did not long enjoy prosperity. He had
not filled the throne above two years, when Demetrius Nicator,
eldest son of the former Demetrius Soter, resolving to revenge
the death of his father, procured from Crete an army of mer-
cenaries, and passed into Cilicia. Alexander was then in
Phoenicia, and as soon as he received the news, he returned
with all speed to Antioch, that he might order affairs before
the arrival of Demetrius.
In the mean time, Demetrius having given the command of
his troops to Apollonius, that general was defeated by Jonathan
Maccabaeus, whom Alexander, for his services, advanced to
new honours, and made an addition to his territories. (1 Macc.
x. 69, &c.) Whilst these things were transacting, Ptolemy
Philometor, father-in-law of Alexander Balas, devised how he
might unite the kingdom of Syria with that of Egypt, and took
private measures to destroy both Demetrius Nicator and Alex-
ander Balas. Under the pretence of assisting his son-in-law,
he entered Syria, and after possessing himself of many cities,
which received him as a friend, he said that Balas had pre-
pared for him several ambuscades in Ptolemais. (1 Macc. xi,
1, 2, &c.) He advanced to Antioch, without encountering any
resistance, and, seating himself on the throne of Syria, put
upon his head the two diadems of Egypt and Syria.
Balas, who had retreated into Cilicia, collected a numerous
army, with which he marched against Ptolemy and Demetrius
Nicator, who were now confederated against him. He gave
them battle, but his army was routed, and himself obliged to
flee into Arabia, and Jabdiel, a prince of the Arabians, cut
off his head, and sent it to Ptolemy. (1 Macc. xi. 17.) This is
the account given by the author of the first book of Maccabees.
Qther historians relate, that Alexander's generals, considering
















532 UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY, [B. C. 208.
Balas left a son very young, who was called Antiochus Theus,
and whom Tryphon raised to the throne. x - .
| AMMONIUS was general of Alexander Balas's troops, and
accused by Ptolemy Philometor of a design to poison him. In
his attempt to escape from Antioch, in the disguise of a female
dress, he was apprehended and put to death B. C. 145.
NICOMEDES I., king of Bithynia, had no sooner taken
possession of his father's throne, B.C. 270, than he caused two
of his brothers to be put to death. The youngest, Zibaeas,
having saved himself by a timely flight, seized on the coast of
Bithynia, then known by the names of Thracia Thyniccia,
and Thracia Asiatica, and there maintained a long war with
his brother. Nicomedes being informed that Antiochus Soter,
king of Syria, was preparing to attack him at the same time,
called in the Gauls to his assistance; and on this occasion the
people first passed into Asia. Nicomedes, having with their
assistance repulsed Antiochus, overcome his brother, and ac-
quired the possession of all his father's dominions, bestowed
upon them that part of Asia Minor, which from them was called
Gallo Graecia, and Galatia. He enlarged and adorned the
city of Astacus, which he called Nicomedia. He had two
wives, and by one of them was persuaded to leave his kingdom
to her son, in preference to his elder brothers.
PRUSIAS I, king of Bithynia, flourished about B. C. 221.
PRUSIAS II., sirnamed VENATOR, king of Bithynia,
who made an alliance with the Romans when they waged war
with Antiochus, king of Syria. He gave a kind reception
to Hannibal, and by his advice he made war against Eumenes,
king of Pergamus, and defeated him. Eumenes, who was an
ally of Rome as well as Prusias, complained before the Romans
of the hostilities of the king of Bithynia. Quintus Flaminius
was sent from Rome to settle the disputes of the two monarchs,
and he was no sooner arrived in Bithynia, than Prusias, to gain
his favour, prepared to deliver to him, at his request, the cele-
brated Carthaginian, to whom he was indebted for all the
advantages he had obtained over Eumenes; but Hannibal pre-
vented it by a voluntary death. Prusias was obliged by the
Roman ambassador to make a restitution of the provinces he
had conquered, and by his meanness he continued to enjoy the
favours of the Romans. When, some time after, he visited the
capital of Italy, he appeared in the habit of a manumitted
calling himself the freed man of the Romans; and when
* introduced into the senate-house, he saluted the senators
by the name of visible deities, of saviours and deliverers. Such
º ehaviour rendered him contemptible not only in the
Romans, but of his subjects, and when he retu
throne. The banished monarch fled to Nicomedia,








B. c.208.] PTOLEMY EUERGETEs to ProLEMY PHILoMETor. 533
where he was assassinated near the altar of Jupiter, about
B. C. 149. Some say that his son became his murderer. Pru-º
sias, according to Polybius, was the meanest of monarchs,
without honesty, without morals, virtue, or principle; he was
cruel and cowardly, intemperate and voluptuous, and an enemy
to all learning. He was naturally deformed, and he often ap-
peared in public in the habit of a woman to render his defor-
mities less visible.
NICOMEDES II., king of Bithynia, grandson of Nico-
medes I., began his reign, like him, by sacrificing his brothers
to his jealousy, after having waded to the throne in the blood
of Prusias his father. He assumed the name of Epiphanes,
or the Illustrious, though he performed nothing worthy of this
title, or even of notice, during the whole time of his long
TCHQII. 3. . . . . . . .”
Nicomedes III., son and successor of Nicomedes II.,
was dethroned by his brother Socrates, and afterwards by the
ambitious Mithridates. The Romans re-established him on his
throne, and encouraged him to make reprisals upon the king of
Pontus. He followed their advice, and was, at last, expelled
another time from his dominions, till Sylla came into Asia, who
restored him to his former power and affluence. .
EUMENES I., king of Pergamus, succeeded his uncle
Philetaerus about B. C. 263. He made war against Antiochus,
the son of Seleucus, and enlarged his possessions by seizing
upon many of the cities of the king of Syria. He lived in alliance
with the Romans, and made war against Prusias, king of Bi-
thynia. He was a great patron of learning, but was given much
to wine, and died of an excess in drinking, after a reign of
twenty-two years. He was succeeded by Attalus. - .
ATTALUS I, king of Pergamus, began his reign B. C.
241. He was a warlike prince, and an encourager of learned
men. He made conquests in Ionia, and vigorously repelled
Philip V. of Macedon. He died in the seventy-second year of
his age, and the forty-third of his reign. -
EUMENES II., king of Pergamus, succeeded his father
Attalus on the throne of Asia and Pergamus. His kingdom
was small and poor, but he rendered it powerful and opulent,
and his alliance with the Romans contributed to the increase
of his dominions after the victories obtained over Antiochus
the Great. He carried his arms against Prusias and Antigo-
nus, and died B. C. 160, after reigning forty years, leaving the
kingdom to his son Attalus II. #. has been admired for his
enevolence and magnanimity; and his love of learning greatly
enriched the famous library of Pergamus, which had been
founded by his predecessors in imitation of the Alexandrian
collection of the Ptolemies. His brothers were so attached to


534 UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY, [B. c.20s.
him, that they enlisted among his body guards to show their
fraternal fidelity. 3. . &
ATTALUS II, king of Pergamus, son of Attalus I., suc-
ceeded his brother Eumenes, B. C. 159. His country was in-
vaded in his time by Prusias, king of Bithynia, but was relieved
by the Romans. Attalus passed the remainder of his days in
peace, and died, aged eighty-two, after reigning twenty-one
years. .
2 CHING, or XI-HOAM-JU, emperor of China, about B.C.
40. He rendered his name illustrious by a number of victo-
ries; and disgraced it by causing all books to be burnt. He
built the great wall, after having expelled the Tartars. . .
DEMETRIUS II., king of Macedonia, succeeded his father
Antigonus Gonatus, B.C. 243. After reigning twelve years he
died, and was succeeded by his brother Antigonus Doson, his
son Philip being in his infancy.
ANTIGONUS II., surnamed DOSON, king of Macedonia,
the son of Antigonus I., succeeded his brother Demetrius II.
B.C. 231, and was soon after chosen commander-in-chief of
the Achaean forces by sea and land. The league being greatly
strengthened by the accession of the Epirotes, Baeotians,
Phocians, Arcadians, and Thessalians, Cleomenes III., king
of Sparta, raised a great army to oppose Antigonus, but being
deserted by his allies, the Argives, he was obliged to re-
treat to defend his own kingdom, after destroying Megalo-
polis. Antigonus, after taking a number of cities, completely
defeated Cleomenes, at Sellasia, who fled to Egypt, after the
battle, leaving Lacedaemon open to the victorious army, B.C.
224. Antigonus, however, used his victory with great mode-
ration, giving the Spartans a free republican government, and
restoring their ancient laws, which their late sovereign had
reatly altered. After this the barbarians having attacked
Macedonia, Antigonus returned, and put them to flight, but
did not long enjoy his good fortune, for he died the next year,
and was succeeded by his nephew, Philip V., B.C. 220.
PHILIP V., king of Macedon, was the son of Demetrius. .
His infancy, at the death of his father, was protected by Anti-
nus, one of his friends, who ascended the throne, and reigned
welve years, with the title of Independent Monarch. When
aus died, Philip recovered his father's throne, though
only fifteen years of age, and he early distinguished himself
by his boldness, and his ambitious views. #. came to the
throne in the yeaſ he beginning of his reign
sº e . g OuS by th :onguests of Aratus,a ge tº-
as eminent for his l of justice as his skill in
virtuous a character could hardly fail to be dis.
lged himself in every species of
year, º
§




























B. c.20s.) ProLEMY EUERGETFs to proLEMy philometor. 535
dissipation and vice; and his cruelty to him soon displayed his
character in its true light; for, to the gratification of every vice,
he had the meanness to sacrifice this faithful and virtuous
Athenian. Not satisfied with Macedonia, Philip aspired to
become the friend of Hannibal, to share with him the spoils
which the distresses of the Romans seemed to promise. But
his expectations were frustrated; the Romans discovered his
intrigues, and though weakened by the valour of the Cartha-
ginians, they were soon enabled to meet him in the field of
battle. The consul Laevinus entered Macedonia, obtained a
victory over him near Apollonia, reduced his fleet to ashes,
and compelled him to sue for peace. This was not permanent;
and when the Romans discovered that he had assisted their
formidable enemy Hannibal, with men and money, they ap-
pointed Quintius Flaminius to punish his perfidy. The Roman
consul, in a general engagement, fought near Cynocephale,
totally defeated the monarch, who saved his life by flight, and
was obliged to demand peace by his ambassadors, which was
granted with difficulty. In the midst of these public calamities
the peace of his family was disturbed, and Perseus, the eldest
of his sons, by a concubine, raised the suspicions of his brother
Demetrius, whose condescension and humanity had gained po-
pularity among the Macedonians, and who, from his residence
at Rome, as an hostage, had gained the good graces of the se-
nate. Philip listened to the false accusations of Perseus, that
Demetrius wished to rob him of his crown. But no sooner was
Demetrius sacrificed to his credulity, than Philip became con-
vinced of his rashness, and, to punish the perfidy of Perseus, he
attempted to make Antigonus, another son, his successor. But
he was prevented by death, in the forty-second year of his
reign, B.C. 178.
DICEARCHUS, commander of the fleet which Philip,
the last king of Macedon but one, fitted out to attack, con-
trary to all right and justice, the islands Cyclades. He began
this unjust enterprize by a most abominable action; for, as if
he would, at the same time, have terrified both gods and men,
he was no sooner in a condition to sail, than he erected two
altars, one to impiety, and the other to injustice, upon which
he celebrated the very same divine service, and paid the same
homage to those two crimes, as he would have done to the
gods. Polybius, if we had him entire, would have informed
us of the success of this war, and the sequel of Dicearchus's
actions; the fragments we have remaining of that author only
inform us that this impious wretch, engaging in a conspiracy,
expired under the torture.
ARATUS, a famous general of the Achaeans, who, at twenty
years of age, commenced the great attempt to deliver Greece




536 UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. [B.C. 208,
different states. He began by expelling Nicocles, the tyrant
of his native country, Sicyon, which he thereby joined to the
Achaean league, B.C. 253. Two years afterwards he took
the fort Acrocorinthus, and delivered Corinth from the Mace-
donian yoke. Being afterwards repeatedly elected praetor, or
#. of the league, he delivered Argos, and several other
Grecian states from their tyrants. But in the midst of this suc-
cessful career, while the league was flourishing throughout all
Peloponnesus, it was deserted by the Lacedaemonians, whose
king, Cleomenes III., joined the AEtolians, and defeated Ara-
tus, B.C. 235. By the advice of Aratus, the Achaeans called
in the assistance of Antigonus II., king of Macedonia, who
joined the league, and defeated Cleomenes, but Aratus was
afterwards poisoned by his ungrateful successor, Philip VI.,
whom he had newly restored, in the second year of the 141st
Olympiad, and sixty-second of his age. He was interred at
Sicyon, and received the greatest honours from his countrymen.
Polybius gives us so great a character of Aratus's Commenta-
ries, or History, that the loss of so valuable a work is highly
to be regretted.
ARISTIPPUS, a tyrant of Argos, whose life was one con-
tinued series of apprehension. He was killed by a Cretan, in
a battle against Aratus, B.C. 242. * * : * *
PHILOPOEMEN, a celebrated general of the Achaean
league, born in Megalopolis, in Peloponnesus. He was no
sooner able to bear arms, than he entered among the troops
which Megalopolis sent against Laconia. When Cleomenes
III., king of Sparta, attacked Megalopolis, Philopoemen dis-
§." much courage, and he signalized himself no less in the
attle of Sellasia, where Antigonus defeated Cleomenes. An-
tigonus made very advantageous offers to gain him over to his
interest; but he rejected them. He went to Crete, then en-
gaged in war, and served several years as a volunteer, till he
acquired a complete knowledge of the military art. On his
return home, he was appointed general of the horse; in which
command he behaved so well, that the Achaean horse became
famous all over Greece. He was soon after appointed general
of all the Achaean forces, when he applied himself to re-estab-
lish military discipline among the troops of the republic, which
he found in a very low condition. He made great improve-
ments in the Achaean discipline; and had for eight months ex-
ercised his troops daily, when news was brought him, that Ma-
chanidas was advancing, at the head of a numerous army, to
invade Achaea. He accordingly took the field, met the enemy
in the territories of Mantinea, where a battle was fought, in
which he completely routed the Lacedaemonians, and killed
hat most of all raised the fame.




B. c.208.] proLEMY EUERGETEs To PTOLEMY PHILOMETor. 537.
poemen was his joining the powerful state of Lacedaemon to the
Achaean commonwealth; by which means the Achaeans came
to eclipse all the other states of Greece. This memorable
event happened in the year B.C. 191. The Lacedaemonians,
overjoyed to see themselves delivered from the oppressions
they had long groaned under, ordered the palace and furniture
of their tyrant, Nabis, to be sold; and the sum accruing from
thence, to the amount of one hundred and twenty talents, to be
presented to Philopoemen, as a token of their gratitude. On
this occasion, so great was the opinion which the Spartans had
of his disinterestedness, that no one could be found who would
take upon him to offer the present, until Timolaus was com-
pelled by a decree. The money, however, he rejected, declar-
ing he would always be their friend without expense. About
two years after this, the city of Messene withdrew itself from
the Achaean league. Philopoemen attacked them, but was
wounded, fell from his horse, was taken prisoner, and poisoned
by Dinocrates, the Messenian general, in his seventieth year,
B.C. 183. Philopoemen drank the cup with pleasure when he
heard from the jailor that his countrymen were victors. The
Achaeans, to revenge his murder, marched up to Messene,
where Dinocrates, to avoid their vengeance, killed himself.
The rest, concerned in his murder, were sacrificed on his
tomb, and annual sacrifices were held to his memory by the
Megalopolitans. To the valour and prudence of Philopoemen,
Achaea owed her glory, which upon his death declined; whence
Philopoemen was called the last of the Greeks, as Brutus was
afterwards styled the last of the Romans.
PERSES, or PERSEUS, the last king of Macedon, was
the son of Philip V. by a concubine. . He had a younger bro-
ther, Demetrius, who was the offspring of a legitimate mar-,
riage, and who on these and other accounts, was regarded by
Perses with jealousy and dislike. Demetrius having been by
his father given as a hostage to the Romans, had received most
of his education at Rome, and had acquired a predilection for
that people. Perses made use of this to deprive him of his fa-
ther's affection, in which he too well succeeded; Demetrius
was put under an arrest, under the pretence of a conspiracy,
and was, by the order of Philip, poisoned. The king disco-
vered the fraud that had been practised on him; and, in a pa-
roxysm of grief, determined to exclude Perses from the throne,
and to appoint Antigonus in his stead; but death put an end,
to his projects. Perses succeeded to the crown in the year:
B.C. fis, and his first act was to cause his competitor, Anti-
gonus, to be put to death. He, however, attempted to extin-
guish the odium of this exemption, by a mild and prudent go-
vernment. He ingratiated himself with his own subjects, by
administering justice with impartiality; and he gained the good


UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. [B. C.208.
will of the Grecian states by relinquishing certain claims, made
by his house, upon their cities. To the Romans he sent an
embassy of friendship, which they returned by the mission of
ambassadors, who took upon themselves to controul him as a
dependent, rather than treat him as a sovereign prince. Mis-
mderstandings, therefore, soon arose between them; and, in
the prospect of a war, Perses cultivated the friendship of the
Greek states, and the neighbouring princes. He also made
ample provision of money and military stores, and kept on foot
a numerous and well-disciplined army. With these laudable
measures of policy, he did not scruple to join base and trea-
cherous attempts against his enemies. Eumenes, king of Per-
gamus, his great enemy, and who had made complaints against
him before the Roman senate, having paid a visit to the temple
at Delphi, was attacked by assassins on his return, and left for
dead. This villainous deed was traced to Perses, who was soon
afterwards accused of a plot for poisoning the principal persons
in Rome, who opposed the Macedonian interest. To the Ro-
man ambassadors, who charged him with these crimes, he gave
such an answer, that they left his kingdom, and every thing
tended to immediate hostilities. Perses still negociated for
peace, but was haughtily answered, that he might treat with
the consul, who would shortly arrive in his kingdom with an
army. When war was declared, he put himself at the head of
a finer army than had been seen in Macedon, since the expedi-
tion of Alexander the Great, and marched into Thessaly. He
insulted in his camp the Roman consul, who was much inferior
in force, and gained considerable advantage in battle. Feel-
ing, however, that he was not equal to cope with so formidable
an enemy, he renewed his offers of peace upon very humiliating
terms, which were not accepted. Perses was obliged to retreat,
ind at Pydna, he was under the necessity of putting his fate to
the hazard of a general engagement, in which he was totally
efeated. This took place in the year B. C. 168; and it is
affirmed by Polybius and Livy, that, during the battle, Perses
was employed in sacrificing to Hercules in the city of Pydna.
This has, it must be admitted, been contradicted by Posidonius,
Greek writer, who, being present, affirms, that Perses, not-
withstanding he had been disabled by a kick from a horse, in-
isted upon being conveyed into the field, where he encouraged
his men during the combat, till a wound from a dart compelled
im to withdraw. He fled, slenderly accompanied, to Pella,
being remonstrated with by his two chamberlains, he
3.3%,...; with his own hands. Thence he ret
here, having mounted the tribunal to address
owed so fast as to prevent his utterance.
sailed to the isle of Samothrace, and took
º






























B. c.20s. PtoleMY EUERGETEs to proLEMy philoſſIETor. 539
as an inviolable sanctuary. Doubting his safety there, he hired
a mariner of Crete, to carry him, with his family and treasures,
to that island; but the man, having got the money on board,
set sail, and left Perses to regain admission into the temple.
At length he surrendered himself to Octavius, the Roman ad-
miral, who conveyed him to the camp of Æmilius. The consul
reproached him severely for his errors, but afterwards treated
him with respect and kindness. He was, however, brought to
Rome, thrown into prison, and reserved to decorate the triumph
of the victor. To this disgraceful scene he came, clad in deep
mourning, and followed by his two sons, his infant daughter,
their attendants, and the principal Macedonian nobles. After
this exhibition, he was thrown into a loathsome dungeon, and
reduced to such wretchedness as to be obliged to beg a share
of the small pittance allowed to his fellow prisoners. He died
about two years after he had been led in triumph, but the
manner of his death is not known; and in him ended the king-
dom of Macedon, which had subsisted six hundred years from
the time of Caranus, the first king. His son, Alexander, was at
first placed with a mechanic, a worker in wood, and is said to
have become a very ingenious workman; after which he was
promoted to be a clerk to the Roman senate. In these inferior
occupations, he probably enjoyed a greater share of happiness
than he would have had in the superior rank of sovereign.
ANDRISCUS, a man of mean extraction, who pretending
to be the son of Perseus, the last king of Macedonia, took the
name of Philip, for which he was called Pseudo-Philippus, the
false Philip. After a complete victory over Juventus, the Ro-
man praetor, he assumed the kingly power; but exercised it
with much cruelty. At last, the Romans obliged him to fly
into Thrace, where he was betrayed, and delivered into the
hands of Metellus, whose triumph he served to grace, walking
in chains before him. > . -
AMPHARES, one of the Lacedaemonian ephori, was the
chief instrument in the tragical death of king Agis. After the
re-establishment of his colleague, Leonidas, this prince took
sanctuary in a temple. Amphares was one of those who fami-
liarly visited him there, and accompanied him when he went
from thence to the bath, and back again to the temple. As he
was returni is manner from the bath, *. º
ng one day in this § .
seized on him, and obliged him to appear before the ephori,
and give an account of his conduct; he carried him by force to
a prison; the ephori, and their assistants, immediately,
m, and that he should never re-






















0. UNIVERSAL Biography. . . [B. C.208,
place of execution. The officers thought it so strange and
unheard-of a thing to lay violent hands on the person of a king,
that they expressed an abhorrence of their orders; and Demo-
chares, a friend of Amphares, was obliged in person to perform
the office. Agesistrata, the mother of Agis, and her mother,
Archidamia, came immediately to the prison doors, and re-
quested that this prince might be permitted to plead his cause
before the people, which occasioned the execution to be has-
tened. As soon as Agis was strangled, Amphares came out,
and assured Agesistrata that no injury should be offered to her
son, and that, if she pleased, she might go in and see him; the
same permission was offered to the grandmother; and both
went into the prison. Amphares caused Archidamia immedi-
ately to be hanged; and then ordered Agesistrata to be brought
to the place where the execution was performed. The first
thing which presented itself to the view of this lady, was the
dead corpse of her son, extended on the ground, and next, that
of her mother, yet hanging. She assisted the executioners in
taking her down, and laid her near the body of Agis; then,
kissing her son, she cried out, that he had undone himself, and
drawn them into these misfortunes, by his too great lenity.
Amphares, hearing these words, told her, that since she ap-
proved the conduct of Agis, she should be treated like him.
Agesistrata, without showing any surprize, held out her neck
to the executioner to be hanged, saying only, that she wished
all things might turn to the good and welfare of her country.
The people were incensed at such an extraordinary piece of
cruelty, and murmured at it; but it was attended with no far-
ther consequences. Then was verified the truth of a maxim,
which may be applied on several occasions, People clamour,
and then are quiet. The strongest inducement to Amphares
to perpetrate this crime, was the desire of not returning what
Agesistrata had lent him. . .
CLEOMENES III., of Sparta, succeeded his father Leo-
nidas. He was of an enterprising spirit, and resolved to restore
the ancient discipline of Lycurgus in its full force. He killed
the ephori, poisoned his royal colleague Eurydamidas, and made
his own brother Elucidas king, contrary to the express laws of
the state, which ordained one of each family to sit on the throne.
He made war against, and attempted to destroy the Achaean
league. Aratus, the general of the Achaeans, who supposed
himself inferior to his enemy, called Antigonus to his assist-
ance; and Cleomenes, when he had fought the unfortunate
battle of Sellasia, retired into Egypt to the court of Ptolemy
Euergetes, where his wife and family had gone before him.
Ptolemy received him with great cordiality but his successor,
received him & & 3 * * : . . . . .3- - - - - ---. --> -
suspicious, soon expressed his jealousy of this noble
and imprisoned him, Cleomenes killed hi










B. c. 20s. PtoleMY EUERGETEs to PtoleMY PHILoMEToR. 541
his body was flayed and exposed on a cross, in the 140th
Olympiad. -.' ... " -
NABIS, a famous tyrant of Lacedaemon, who attained to the
supreme power in that country very soon, after the death of
Machanidas, and while the lawful king Agesipolis was living in
exile. He is represented as one of the worst and most cruel of
men, the enemy of all noble and virtuous persons, and intent
only on filling his treasury, and aggrandizing himself by the most
unjustifiable means. He, however, is said to have performed
with regularity the functions of a chief magistrate, and he pro-
bably made his government acceptable, on the whole, to the
body of the nation, since he was able to employ a large public
force, and to extend his dominion into the neighbouring states.
During the war between Philip king of Macedon and the Ro-
mans, that monarch not being able to retain Argos, which he had
taken, delivered it to the keeping of Nabis, who began to prac-
tise every extortion to enrich himself with its spoils. He com-
pelled the magistrates to pass two decrees, one for cancelling
old debts, the other for an equal division of land, by which he
hoped to ingratiate himself with the lower classes. He obliged,
by force, the principal male inhabitants to surrender all their
jewels and other valuables, while he disputed with his wife on
a similar errand with respect to the females. After this he made
an alliance with the Romans; but when the final defeat of the
Macedonians had left Nabis in possession of Argos, which was
considered as discreditable to the Romans, the senate decreed
that their general Quintus Flaminius should carry on war upon
him. As, º the Roman general could make no impres-
sion upon that city, he led his forces to Sparta itself. Nabis
prepared for a vigorous resistance; and to secure himself from
internal treachery, he infamously massacred eighty young men
of the principal families of his state. The Roman army laid
Waste dº country around, and reduced several places on the
sea coast, especially Gythium, the station of Lacedaemonian
maritime force. Nabis sued for peace, but the terms proposed
by the Roman general were so severe, that he preferred to risque
the consequences rather than submit to them. He was, how-
ever, a coward as well as tyrant, and was obliged to supplicate
for peace on any terms. Scarcely had the Romans withdrawn
themselves, when Nabis began to plan the recovery of his power,
but in the event he was slain, which happened in the year B. C.
193, after he had, during fourteen years, acted a considerable
part in the affairs of Greece.
HIERONYMUS, a tyrant of Sicily, who succeeded his
father or grandfather Hiero, when only fifteen years old. He
rendered himself odious by his cruelty, oppression, and de-
bauchery. He abjured the alliance of Rome, which Hiero had
observed with so much honour and advantage. He was assas-







UNIVERSAL BIOGRAP
w.x. [B.C. 246
and all his family were overwhelmed in his fall, and to-
sinated,
tally extirpated, B. C. 214.
HAMILCAR BARCA, father to the celebrated Hannibal,
a Carthaginian general, was in Sicily during the first Punic war,
and after a peace had been made with the Romans, he quelled
one rebellion of slaves, who had taken many African towns, and
had laid siege to Carthage itself. This internal war was con-
cluded by the almost total destruction of the enemy; and the
towns which had espoused their cause, or which had submitted
to their power, were obliged to surrender to the arms of Ha-
milcar. He now meditated something more important for his
country, and extended the dominion of the republic beyond its
former limits in Africa, and brought the whole country to a tran-
quil condition. After this he passed into Spain with his son
Hannibal, whom he caused to swear at the altar eternal and
irreconcileable enmity against the Romans, a passion by which
he himself had ever been animated. In Spain he carried on a
war for nine years with great success, subduing many nations,
and enriching his army and country with abundance of plunder.
!" this expedition he laid the foundation of the city of Bar-
Celona,
SPENDIUS, a Campadian deserter, who rebelled against
the Romans, raised tumults, and joined the Carthaginians, and
carried on war for some time against Hamilcar in that desperate
warfare, called, from its horrors, the inexpiable war. He was
at last crucified by Hamilcar, with nine of the other ringleaders.
HANNIBAL, son of Hamilcar, a famous Carthaginian ge-
neral, was educated in his father's camp, and inured from early
life to all the labours of the field. When he was only nine years
old, he attended his father in Spain, and, though so young, fer-
vently took a solemn oath never to be at peace with the Ro-
mans. After the death of Hamilcar he was appointed to the
command of the cavalry in Spain; and upon the death of As-
drubal, he was entrusted with the sole command of all the ar-
mies of Carthage, though at that time not twenty-five years of
age. During the next three years his success was so great that
he subdued all the nations in Spain which opposed the Cartha-
winian ook Saguntum after a siege of eight months.
alliance with the Romans, and its fall was the
ic war, which Hannibal prepared to sup-
h all the courage and prudence of the consummate ge-
heral. He levied three large armies, one of which he sent to
of the third towards Italy. He came to the Alps, which had
s moment been regarde had never
w


































B. c. 246. PtoleMY EUERGETEs. To ProLEMY PHILoMETor.
his elephants and heavy baggage were easily transported across
these immense mountains; but it was with the amazing loss of
thirty thousand men. Conquerors are not apt to calculate, or
even regard the costs of an expedition; it is sufficient for them
that they succeed; and the destruction of their men gives them
little or no concern. As Hannibal advanced into the country,
he was met by Scipio; an engagement ensued, the Romans were
defeated, and the consul wounded. The Carthaginians next
crossed the Po, when the Roman army, being reinforced by the
arrival of a large body of men under the consul Sempronius, a
general engagement was brought on, which terminated in the
complete victory of the Carthaginians. This success, and the
deep policy of Hannibal, drew over to his party many of the
Cisalpine nations, from whom he obtained vast assistance in nu-
merous bodies of well disciplined men. He is said, however, to
have placed so little confidence in their attachment, that he
rarely appeared twice in the same dress, in order that he might
avoid any attempt that might be made on his life. He now
crossed the Apennines, invaded Etruria, and having defeated
the consul Flaminius, he met the two consuls Ferentius and
Emilius at Cannae; when that engagement ensued, which has
been so long celebrated in the page of history. In this contest
the slaughter was so great that no less than forty thousand Ro-
mans were killed; and, as an evidence of the greatness of the
victory, Hannibal sent to Carthage three bushels of gold rings
that had been taken from nearly six thousand Roman knights
slain in battle. It seemed now that nothing remained for him
to prevent him from putting an end to the republic. He was
urged with the most pressing entreaties to march immediately to
the gates of Rome; and he has been reproached with not know-
ing how to make use of the victory which he had so gloriously
achieved. This censure, perhaps, did not apply to Hannibal,
inasmuch as it is scarcely possible to conceive, that after so hard,
a fought battle his own army was in a condition to march to
another attack, and against troops that had not been in action,
but were waiting as a reserve against any emergency. The im-
mediate consequence of this victory was the defection of most
of the Roman allies in that part of Italy, and the surrender of
the opulent city of Capua, to which the Carthaginian army ad-
vanced; and here the conquerors soon forgot their warlike ha-
bits in the pleasures and riot of a luxurious city. From this
circumstance it has, with much propriety, been said that Capua
was a Cannae to Hannibal. After the battle the Romans 'be-
*ame more cautious; and when the dictator, Fabius Maximus,
had defied the artifice as well as the valour of Hannibal, they
began to anticipate better times. Marcellus, who succeeded
Fabius in the field, first taught his countrymen that Hannibal
was not invincible. At the suggestion of Scipio it was deter-
º









UNVERSAL BIOGRAPHY, - [B.C. 246.
mined that war should be carried into Africa, in order to with-
draw Hannibal from Rome. When Carthage saw the enemy
on her coasts, she recalled her general from Italy, who is said
to have obeyed the summons with most poignant regret. With
tears in his eyes he left a country which, for sixteen years, he
had kept in continual alarm, and which he began to consider al-
most as his own property. He and Scipio met near Carthage.
A general engagement ensued; the field of contest and of car-
nage was near Zama. Victory declared in favour of the Ro-
mans, and it was reported that twenty thousand Carthaginians
were killed on the spot, and an equal number made prisoners.
Hannibal, unused to defeat, fled to Adrumentum; and now the
Romans in their turn granted peace only on very hard terms.
His credit was not destroyed among his countrymen by the ca-
lamitous issue of this battle. He was employed in some other
military expeditions, till the Roman senate, refusing to restore
their hostages while Hannibal was suffered to be at the head of
an army, he was necessarily deprived of his command. The
office of praetor was now conferred upon him; and in executing
it he displayed talents that rendered him as great a statesman
as he had been illustrious as a general. He regulated the fi-
nances, rectified abuses in the administration of justice, and ex-
posed various frauds and corruptions in the public officers. He
was too honest for the purlieus of a court, and was obliged to
withdraw from his country. At Tyre he was received with all
the distinction due to his character. From thence he passed
by Antioch to Ephesus, where Antiochus then was, with whom
he had many conferences concerning his meditated war with the
Romans. He advised that Italy should be made the seat of
war; and he offered, if placed at the head of a sufficient body of
troops, to make a descent on that country, and keep the enemy
engaged till Antiochus should arrive with the main force. The
Carthaginians became jealous of the talents and exertions of
him, whom, on account of his integrity, they had driven from
their country. They apprized their inveterate enemies, the
Romans, of what was going on, in order that they might coun-
teract his influence. Through the artifices of the Romans,
Antiochus began to be suspicious of the fidelity of the veteran
commander; and though there was no reason for the jealousy,
the monarch was base enough to meditate a design of deliver-
ing him up into the hands of his enemies. Hannibal was ap-
ised of * fact in time to prevent the treachery; and he fled
Prusias, king of Bithynia. Him he endeavoured to excite
gainst the Romans, thus, in every instance, proving that he
was not regardless of the oath he had taken in his childish
years. Roman vengeance followed him to Bithynia, and an
embassy was sent to demand of Prusias instantly to give up
Hannibal. When he found there were no means of escape, and
& “









B. c.240.] PTOLEMY EUERGETES To PTOLEMY PHILOMETOR. 545
that Prusias had actually surrounded his house with a troop of
soldiers, he swallowed a poison which he had always ready
against such an emergency, and died in the year B. C. 183, at
the age of sixty-three. º ºg
PHILINUS, a native of Agrigentum, who fought along with
Hannibal against the Romans. He wrote the history of the
punic wars. *~~. 3&
ASDRUBAL BARCA, the brother of Hannibal, commanded
in Spain, where he was several times defeated by the Romans;
he afterwards entered Italy with a numerous army to assist his
brother, but at the river Metanus he was attacked by the Ro-
mans, and after a bloody battle his army was routed, himself
slain, and fifty-six thousand of his men shared his fate; five thou-
sand four hundred men were taken prisoners, and about eight
thousand Romans were killed. The head of Asdrubal was cut off,
and some days after thrown into the camp of Hannibal, who, in
the moment that he was in the greatest expectations from a pro-
mised supply, exclaimed at the sight, “ In losing Asdrubal, I
lose all my happiness, and Carthage all her hopes.” 3: ... : :
ASDRUBAL, a Carthaginian commander, was brother-in-
law of Hannibal, and succeeded Hamilcar in Spain, where he
built a city called New Carthage, now Carthagena, and reduced
the whole country into subjection to the Carthaginians. He
was assassinated by a Gaul, in revenge for having put his master
to death. 3. . . . . . . .
ASDRUBAL, son of Giscon, appointed general of the Car-
thaginian forces in Spain, in the time of the great Hannibal.
He made head against the Romans in Africa, with the assist-
ance of Syphax, but he was soon after defeated by Scipio. He
died B. C. 206. \
ASDRUBAL, a general whose camp Scipio destroyed, and
whose army of twenty-thousand men he routed. When all was
lost, Asdrubal fled to the enemy, and begged his life. Scipio
showed him to the Carthaginians, upon which his wife, with a
thousand imprecations, threw herself and her two children into
the flames of the temple of Æsculapius, which she, and others,
had set on fire. He was not of the same family as Hannibal.
SOPHONISBA, the daughter of Asdrubal, the celebrated
Carthaginian general, a lady of uncommon beauty, and other
accomplishments. She was married to Syphax, a Numidian
prince, who was at first very successful against his rival, Masi-
missa, but was afterwards totally defeated, and his kingdom re-
duced, by the combined forces of Masinissa and the Romans.
On this occasion, Sophonisba fell into the hands of Masinissa,
and, by her beauty, soon captivated her conqueror. Her hus-
band, Syphax, dying soon after at Rome, Masinissa married
her. But this act displeased the Romans, because she was a
rthaginian princess; and the king, though the firm ally at
º
%






{JNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY, [B. C. 240,
Rome, had not, forsooth, asked the consent of these proud re-
publicans. Scipio Africanus, senior, in other respects a great
and virtuous character, shamefully .. his name on this
occasion, by ordering the timid Numidian monarch to dismiss
Sophonisba. The mean-spirited monster, instead of resenting
such an imperious insult, as he ought to have done, by break-
ing with the Romans, and joining the Carthaginians, in which
case, probably, Carthage might have vied with Rome for ages,
went to his wife, and advised her to die like the daughter of
Asdrubal. She accordingly drank the cup of poison sent her
by her husband, with uncommon resolution and serenity, about
B.C. 203; and, upon this melancholy scene, our countryman,
Thomson, composed his admired tragedy of Sophonisba.
SYPHAX, a king of the Masaesyllii, in Libya, who married
Sophonisba, the daughter of Asdrubal, and forsook the alliance
of the Romans to join himself to the interest of his father-in-
law, and of Carthage. He was conquered in a battle by Masi-
missa, the ally of Rome, and given to Scipio, the Roman gene-
ral. The conqueror carried him to Rome, where he adorned
his triumph. Syphax died in prison 201 years before Christ;
and his possessions were given to Masinissa. According to
some, the descendants of Syphax reigned for some time over a
part of Numidia, and continued to oppose the Romans.
MASINISSA, the king of a small country in Africa, who took
part with the Carthaginians against Rome; but his nephew be-
ing taken prisoner by Scipio, he sent him back to his uncle with
presents; which so affected Masinissa, that he became the
ally of the Romans, who were indebted to him for many victo-
ries. At his death he made Scipio AEmilianus guardian of his
kingdom. He died B.C. 149. .
MICIPSA, king of Numidia, in Africa, was son to Masinissa,
who preferred him to his other two sons. He left two sons,
Adherbal and Hiempsal. *
ABRENTIUS, was made governor of Tarentum by Hanni-
bal. He betrayed his trust to the enemy, to gain the favours
of a beautiful woman, whose brother was in the Roman army.
ºl N w follow the Romans of this period.
L. CALPURNIUS PISO, sirnamed FRUGI, a Roman of
a distinguished patrician family, called the Calpurnian, accord-
ing to Cicero; though in another passage he represents him as
g n on the following occasion. When consul, in the year
3, he went into Sicily, in order to suppress a mutiny
s; and after the fected, bestow-
ons from the tribu 1…ſº
ess; he
o the succ





















B. c.240.] PtoleMY EUERGETEs to ProLEMY PHILoMEToR. 547
prize of a golden crown of three pounds weight, saying at the
same time, that he meant to leave him the gold as a legacy, so
that he should receive the honour from his generals, and the
reward from his father. For this instance of frugality of the
public money, the appellation of Frugi was bestowed upon him.
In proof of the exactness of the principles of justice by which
he was governed, we have the following anecdote. He had
always opposed the law of the gratuitous distribution of corn;
but when it had been carried by C. Gracchus, he came to de-
mand his portion. Gracchus perceiving him standing in the
crowd, asked him how he could be so inconsistent as to receive
corn by virtue of the law which he opposed. To this he re-
plied, “It was against my will that you should have the distri-
bution of my property; but, if it must be so, I will claim my
share of it.” Piso was afterwards censor with Metellus Balea-
rius. He pleaded causes, and was a promoter, or opposer, of
several laws. He left behind him various orations, and was the
author of “Historical Annals,” which, though written in the
meagre simplicity of the times, were reckoned of good autho-
rity.
*UINTUs MAXIMUS FABIUS, a celebrated Roman,
who, from a dull and inactive childhood, was raised to the high
est offices of the state. In his first consulship he obtained a
victory over Liguria; and the fatal battle of Thrasymenes oc-
casioned his election to the dictatorship. In this important
office he began to oppose Hannibal, not by fighting him in the
open field, like his predecessors, but by continually harassing
his army by counter-marches and ambuscades, from which he
received the surname of Cunctator, or the Delayer. Hannibal
sent him word, that “if he was as great a captain as he would
be thought, he ought to come into the plain and give him bat-
tle.” But Fabius coolly replied, “that if he was as great a
captain as he would be thought, he would do well to force him
to fight.” Such operations for the commander of the Roman
armies, gave offence to some; and Fabius was even accused of
cowardice. He, however, continued firm in his resolution; and
patiently bore to see his master of horse raised to share the
dictatorial dignity with himself, by his enemies at home. When
he had laid down his office of dictator, his successors, for a
time, followed his plan; but the rashness of Varro, and his
Contempt for the operations of Fabius, occasioned the fatal
battle of Cannae. Tarentum was obliged to surrender to him
after the battle of Cannae; and on that occasion the Carthagi-
nians observed, that Fabius was the Hannibal of Rome. Whe
he had made an agreement with Hannibal for the ransom of
the captives, which was totally disapproved b the Rome
*ate, he sold all his estates to pay the money, rathe
his word to the enemy. T
The bold p roposal of young Sc.
N n 2 : ~


















548 w UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. . [B. c.240.
to carry the war from Italy to Africa, was rejected by Fabius
as chimerical and dangerous. He did not, however, live to see
the success of the Roman arms under Scipio, and the conquest
of Carthage by measures which he º with contempt, and
heard with indignation. He died in the hundredth year of his
age, after he had been five times consul, and twice honoured
with a triumph. The Romans were so sensible of his great
merit and services, that the expences of his funeral were de-
frayed from the public treasury. Ž
QUINTUS MAXIMUS FABIUS, son of Quintus Maximus
Fabius, showed himself worthy of his father's virtues. Dur-
ing his consularship he received a visit from his father, on
horseback, in the camp. The son ordered his father to dis-
mount, and the old man cheerfully obeyed, embracing his son,
and saying, “I wished to know whether you knew what it is
to be consul.” . He died before his father, who, with the mo-
deration of a philosopher, delivered a funeral oration over his
son's body.
GABRIO MARCUS ACILIUS, a consul of Rome, who
distinguished himself by his military skill and bravery on seve-
ral occasions, and particularly in the victory which he gained
over Antiochus the Great, king of Syria, at the straits of Ther-
mopylae. 2.
ACILIUS, son of Gabrio Acilius, he erected a temple to
Piety, which his father had vowed to this goddess when fight-
ing against Antiochus. He raised a golden statue to his father,
the first that appeared in Italy. The temple of Piety was built
on the spot where once a woman had fed with her milk her
aged father, whom the senate had imprisoned, and excluded
from all aliments.
POPILIUS LAENUS, a Roman ambassador to Antiochus,
king of Syria. He was commissioned to order the monarch to
abstain from hostilities against Ptolemy, king of Egypt, who
was the ally of Rome. Popilius put many questions to the
monarch, who wished to evade any direct answers; but Popi-
lius, with a stick in his hand, made a circle in the sand on which
Antiochus stood, and bade him, in the name of the Roman
senate and people, not to go beyond it before he had given
decisive answers. This had the desired effect; Antiochus
withdrew his garrisons from Egypt, and no longer thought of
making war upon Ptolemy. - gº ºgº
PAULUS AEMILIUS, a Roman, son of the AEmilius
who fell at Cannae, was celebrated for his victories, and received
the sirname of Macedonicus, from his conquest of Macedonia.
the early part of his life he distinguished himself by his un-
plication, and by his fondness for military discipline.
earance in the field was attended with great suc-
the barbarians that had revolted in Spain were re-









B. c.240.] ProLEMY EUERGETEs to ProLEMY philometoR. 549
duced with the greatest facility under the power of the Romans.
In his first consulship his arms were directed against the Ligu-
rians, whom he totally subjected. His application for a second
consulship proved abortive, but when Perseus the king of
Macedonia, had declared war against Rome, the abilities of
Paulus were remembered, and he was honoured with the con-
sulship about the sixtieth year of his age. After this appoint-
ment, he behaved with uncommon vigour, and soon a general
engagement was fought near Lydna. The Romans obtained
the victory, and Perseus saw himself deserted by all his subjects.
In two days the conqueror made himself master of all Mace-
donia, and soon after the fugitive monarch was brought into his
|...". Paulus did not exult over his fallen enemy, but when
he had gently rebuked him for his temerity in attacking the
Romans, he addressed himself in a pathetic speech to the offi-
cers of his army who surrounded him, and feelingly enlarged
on the instability of fortune, and the vicissitude of all human
affairs. When he had finally settled the government of Mace-
donia with ten commissioners from Rome, and after he had
sacked seventy cities of Epirus, and divided the booty amongst
his soldiers, Paulus returned to Italy. He was received with
the usual acclamations, and though some of the seditious sol-
diers attempted to prevent his triumphal entry into the Capitol,
yet three days were appointed to exhibit the fruits of his vic-
tories. Perseus with his wretched family adorned the triumph
of the conqueror, and as they were dragged through the streets
before the chariot of Paulus, they drew tears of compassion
from the people. The riches which the Romans derived from
this conquest were immense, and the people were freed from
all taxes till the consulship of Hirtius and Pausa; but while
every one of the citizens received some benefit from the victo-
ries of Paulus, the conqueror himself was poor, and appropri-
ated for his own use nothing of the Macedonian treasures ex-
cept the library of Perseus. In the office of censor, to which
he was afterwards elected, Paulus behaved with the greatest
moderation, and at his death, which happened about 168 years
before the Christian era, not only the Romans, but their very
enemies confessed, by their lamentations, the loss which they
had sustained. He had married Papiria, by whom he had two
sons, one of whom was adopted by the family of Maximus, and the
other by that of Scipio Africanus. He had also two daughters,
one of whom married a son of Cato, and the other Ælius Tu-
bero. He afterwards divorced Papiria, and when his friends
wished to reprobate his conduct in doing so, by observing that
she was young and handsome, and that she had made him a fa-
ther of a fine family, Paulus replied, that the shoe which he
then wore was new and well made, but that he was obliged to
leave it off, though no one but himself, as he said, knew where


550 UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. [B. c. 20.
it pinched him. He married a second wife by whom he had
two sons, whose sudden death exhibited to the Romans, in the
most engaging view, their father's philosophy and stoicism.
The elder of these sons died five days before Paulus triumphed
over Perseus, and the other three days after the procession.
This domestic calamity did not shake the firmness of the con-
queror; yet before he retired to a private station, he harangued
the people, and in mentioning the severity of fortune upon his
ily, he expressed his wish that every evil might be averted
fami
from the republic by the sacrifice of the domestic prosperity
of an individual.
Q. AELIUS TUBERO, a Roman consul, son-in-law of
Paulus the conqueror of Perseus. He is celebrated for his
poverty, in which he seemed to glory, as well as the rest of his
family. Sixteen of the Tuberos, with their wives and children,
lived in a small house, and maintained themselves with the pro-
duce of a little field, which they cultivated with their own
hands. The first piece of silver plate that entered the house
of Tubero, was a small cup, which his father-in-law presented
to him, after he had conquered the king of Macedonia. ź
SEMPRONIUS, a legionary tribune, who led away from
Cannae the remaining part of the soldiers who had not been
killed by the Carthaginians. He was afterwards consul, and
fought in the field against Hannibal with great success. He
was killed in Spain. .
L. BANTIUS, a gallant youth of Nola, whom Hannibal
found, after the battle of Cannae, almost dead among the slain.
He was sent home with great humanity, upon which he re-
solved to betray his country to so generous-an enemy. Mar-
cellus, the Roman general, heard of it, and rebuked Bantius,
who continued firm and faithful to the interest of Rome.
L. CAECILIUS METELLUS, who saved from the flames
the palladium, when Vesta's temple was on fire. He was then
high priest. He lost his sight and one of his arms in doing it,
and the senate, to reward his zeal and piety, permitted him
always to be drawn to the senate house in a chariot, an honour
which no one had ever before enjoyed. He also gained a great
victory over the Carthaginians in the first Punic war, and took
from them elephants, &c. He was honoured with the dicta-
torship, and the office of master of horse, &c. *
MARCUS CLAUDIUS MARCELLUS, a celebrated
Roman general, descended from a plebeian, but an ancient and
consular family, entered early into the military service of his
untry, and obtained many honorary rewards for his valour
lism. He was elected consul with Caius Cornelius
the year. B. C. 222. They were, immediately after
puc, and Marcellus Was singled out by Viridomarus,
















B. c.240.j PTOLEMY EUERGETEs to PtoleMy philoMEToR. 551
king of the Gesatae, for single combat. The consul soon de-
stroyed his enemy, and consecrated his spoils to Jupiter Fere-
trius, which being reckoned propitious to his designs, he at-
tacked the enemy, and gained a complete victory. §. account
of this success, a triumph was decreed to Marcellus, of which
the noblest ornaments were the opime spoils, that is, those taken
from a slain king.
In the second Carthaginian war, Marcellus was appointed
praetor of Sicily, and had made ready a fleet for that service,
when the event of the fatal battle of Cannae induced the semate
to send him to take the command of those who survived the
disaster. He threw himself into Nola, which was threatened
by Hannibal with a siege, and gave that commander a consi-
derable check, which revived the courage of the Romans, and
saved the place. In the year B. C. 215, Marcellus was again
unanimously chosen consul, but a thunder storm happening at
the time of the assembly, it was thought the election was dis-
pleasing to the gods, and he refused to accept the office,
though pressed to it by the people. Fabius Maximus, was
elected in his stead, and Marcellus was continued in a pro-
consular command over the troops at Nola. After this he was
chosen consul in connexion with Fabius Maximus, and thus it
was said, Rome was defended at the same time by her sword
and her shield, which were the epithets applied to these two
great commanders. Marcellus was now called to active exer-
tions in Sicily, in which island the Carthaginian interest was
very prevalent; he invested Syracuse, the capital, then one of
the richest and strongest cities in this part of the world. He
first proposed terms of accommodation, which being rejected,
he laid siege to the city by land and by sea, taking command
of the Roman fleet upon himself, while the praetor Appius
commanded the land forces. This siege was rendered very
remarkable by the various mechanical contrivances of the great
Archimedes for its defence. By their means the first attempts
of the Romans were defeated with great loss, and Marcellus,
converting the siege into a blockade, led the greater part of his
troops against the revolted cities of Sicily, many of which he
reduced to obedience. After his consulship was expired, he
was continued as pro-consul in the chief command in Sicily,
and bent every effort to the finishing a siege, upon which the
eyes of all parties were attentively fixed. Marcellus deter-
mined on making an assault upon Syracuse, and fixed on the
ensuing festival of Diana for this purpose, in which it was
imagined the garrison would probably be buried in wine and
sleep. At the appointed time a choice band of troops scaled -
the walls without discovery, and certain quarters of the city
were taken without resistance. Marcellus, surveying from an
eminence the vast and opulent city, which was about to suffer









552 UNivers AL BIOGRAPHY. [B. C. 240.
all the miseries of a capture, is said to have shed tears, because
he could not persuade the inhabitants to save themselves from
plunder by a timely surrender. They were deaf to remon-
strances, and Marcellus had to sustain a furious attack from the
Carthaginians without, and the Syracusans within, which he
repulsed with a loss to the assailants. A plague which broke
out in Syracuse added to the calamities of that unfortunate
city. It ravaged likewise the Carthaginian camp to such a
degree as to break it º after carrying off the commander. It
was not, however, till the end of three years, that Syracuse was
taken by assault, when it was impossible to save the inhabitants
from the effects of a sack; the houses were pillaged, and many
citizens were put to the sword, among whom was Archimedes,
whose fate was particularly afflicting to Marcellus, and who was
slain while he was calmly working a mathematical problem.
The Roman commander, as soon as he was able, put an end to
the atrocities of his soldiers, and displayed much personal
clemency and humanity to the vanquished, but he carried away
all the public monuments of art which decorated Syracuse for
the ornament of Rome. Marcellus continued some time longer
in Sicily, but his last action ended in a considerable victory ob-
tained over the combined forces of Hanno and Epicydes, after
which he returned to Rome with great glory. In the year B. C.
210 he was again chosen consul, when he was accused by the
Syracusans with cruelty and a violation of treaty. He was,
however, after due enquiries, acquitted of the charges, and
his subsequent behaviour would have done honour to any
man. He raised up the Syracusan deputies, who had been his
accusers, and had fallen at his feet to implore forgiveness, as-
sured them not only of his pardon, but of his future protec-
tion, and obtained of the senate that the people of Syracuse
should be reinstated in their liberties, and considered as the
allies of Rome. They, unwilling to be behind in respect for
his manly virtues, expressed their gratitude to him by a decree,
that when he or any one of his family should visit Sicily, the
. should walk in procession before him, crowned with
garlands, and celebrate the day with public sacrifices, and that
thenceforth the whole island should be under the peculiar pa-
tromage of the Marcelli. After this Marcellus was a second
º :alled upon to oppose Hannibal. He displayed as usual
m at military talents in his operations against this general,
but was not sufficiently vigilant against the snares of his adver-
* He imprudently separated himself from his camp, and
n an ambuscade in the sixtieth year of his age, and
fifth consulship, being the year B. C. 200. When the
of this great commander was brought to Hannibal, he
d it a considerable time in thoughtful silence; and
caused it to be buried, or, as others say, to be burned on a fune-
















b. c.240.1 ptoLEMY EUERGETEs to proleMy philometor. 553
crowned with laurel, to his son.
CAIUS DUELLIUS, consul in the four hundred and
ninety third year of Rome, B. C. 256, vanquished the Cartha-
ginian fleet, and was the first Roman to whom a naval triumph
was granted. A column was erected in honour of him with a
fine inscription. It was one of the columns which were called
Rostratae, on account of the prows of the ships, with which
they were adorned. A fragment of this column was dug up at
Rome about the end of the sixteenth century, and still subsists.
SCIPIO, is the name of a celebrated family in ancient Rome,
who were a branch of the Cornelian family, and by their bra-
very and other virtues rose to the highest honours in the repub-
lic. This sirname was derived from Scipio, a staff, because one
of their ancestors had led his father, when blind, and had been
to him as a walking staff.
CNEAS CORNELIUS ASINA SCIPIO, and consul B. C.
257 and B. C. 251. During his first consularship, he was de-
feated in a naval battle, and lost seventeen ships; but in B. C.
256, he took Aleria, in Corsica, and defeated the Carthagi-
nians under Hanno, in Sardinia; took two hundred of their
ships, and the city of Panormum in Sicily.
CNAEUS and PUBLIUS SCIPIO, sons of Asina. In the
beginning of the second Punic war Publius was sent with an
army into Spain to oppose Hannibal, but hearing that Hannibal
had gone to Italy, he endeavoured by quick marches to stop
him. Hannibal, however, defeated him near the Ticinus,
where he would have lost his life had not his son, afterwards
the famed Africanus, bravely defended him. He again went
into Spain, where he gained several victories over the Cartha-
ginians and other inhabitants. His brother Cnaeus shared the
command with him; though at first successful, their confidence
F. their ruin. They divided their army, and soon after
Publius was furiously assailed by the Carthaginians under
Mago and the two Asdrubals. Publius was killed, and his
army cut to pieces. The victors immediately fell upon Cnaeus,
from whom thirty thousand Celtiberians had just revolted. He
retired to a hill, and defended himself bravely, but was over-
powered with his troops by numbers. .
LUCIUS CORNELIUS SCIPIO, sirnamed ASIATI-
CUS, was the brother of Africanus, and accompanied him
in his expeditions into Spain and Africa. He was rewarded
with the consulship for his services, B. C. 187, and was sent
against Antiochus, king of Syria, whom with the assistance
and advice of his brother Africanus, he completely defeated in
a battle at Magnesia, near Sardis, wherein Antiochus lost fifty
thousand infantry and four thousand cavalry, and soon after
submitted. On his return to Rome, Scipio was decreed a
ral pile, and then sent the ashes, enclosed in a silver urn and





triumph and the sirname of Asiaticus. But, notwithstanding
his victories and disinterested conduct, Cato the censor ac-
cused him of having received money from Antiochus, which he
had not accounted for. This produced an inquiry, and the
judge, being prejudiced, decided against Scipio and his two
lieutenants. But upon confiscating his property, the whole
effects of Scipio did not amount to near the sum he was charged
with, which afforded a decisive evidence of his innocence. His
friends and tenants, in this distress made him liberal offers,
which he generously declined. He was soon sent to settle the
disputes between Eumenes and Seleucus, which he accom-
plished; and on his return, the Romans ashamed of their
former injustice, rewarded his merits with such uncommon libe-
rality, that Asiaticus was enabled to celebrate games in honour
of his victory, for ten successive days. He died about B.C. 170.
PUBLIUS CORNELIUS SCIPIO sirnamed AFRICA-
NUS, one of the most illustrious characters of the Roman re-
public, was the son of Publius Cornelius, Scipio, whose life
he saved at the battle on the Ticinus, B.C. 218, being then but a
youth of seventeen. This young man fulfilled the promise of
his early years by his conduct after the battle of Cannae, when,
being informed that certain persons of high consequence in the
state had adopted the design of abandoning their country, he
repaired, with some followers, to the place where they were
assembled, and compelled them, by the threat of instant death,
to take an oath of never abandoning the republic. He was
appointed to the edileship, through the favour of the people,
at the age of twenty-one, which was some years before the
usual age for that high office. In his twenty-fourth year he
was appointed proconsul, for the sake of endeavouring to re-
rieve the affairs that were in an unprosperous state in Spain.
The high character which he had already obtained, he is said
to have rendered still more the subject of admiration by prac-
tices, the result partly of enthusiasm, and partly of artifice. He
insinuated to the multitude, that he acted frequently from
divine inspiration, or, by the admonitions communicated to him
by dreams; and he never undertook public business without
repairing to the temple in the capital, as if he were consulting
the gods. Soon after his appointment, he embarked a consi-
derable reinforcement of troops, and, having on his arrival,
prised and captured the Capitol of the Carthaginian domi-
a Spain, he became master of a great number of pri-
soners, and immense treasuries. It was upon this occasion he
gave an example of continence, for which he has been celebrate
ng fular. beauty was brought to him as a pi º :
insensible to her c




































B. c.284.j ProLEMY EUERGETEs to ProLEMY PHILoMEToR. 555
supposed rights of a conqueror, he sent for her parents and
lover, and surrendered her pure into their hands, at the same
time bestowing the ransom which they pressed upon him as an
addition to her marriage portion. This noble act, which de-
served all the applause that had been bestowed upon it, filled
the Spaniards with admiration, and not only the bridegroom
joined Scipio's troops at the head of a body of cavalry, but the
whole province of Celtiberia came over to the Roman party.
In the next campaign, Scipio marched against Asdrubal, the
brother of Hannibal, with whom was Masinissa, the Numidian
prince. He entirely routed them, and took possession of their
camp, with a number of captives. Among these, was a youth
of very §. aspect, who was the nephew of Masi-
missa. Scipio treated him with great kindness, and thus laid
the foundation of Masinissa's attachment to the Roman cause.
He vigorously pursued his advantages over the Carthaginians,
and, after almost entirely destroying Asdrubal's army, obliged
him to fly to Africa, leaving Spain entirely in the power of the
Romans. In the end, the success of Scipio was complete, and
the Roman senate being informed of the event, recalled him to
Italy, sending two proconsuls to take the command in Spain.
He arrived at Rome near the time of the consular election, and
though he was yet under the age prescribed for attaining that
dignity, the splendour of his exploits caused him to be unani-
mously chosen by the people to the office of consul. This was
in the year B. C. 205. It was his wish to be sent to command
in Africa, but, through the influence of Fabius, he was ap-
pointed to a command in Sicily, with a conditional power of
passing over to Africa with thirty ships. Being, in his own
mind, determined to make that country the theatre of war, he
assiduously employed himself in preparations for the purpose.
The year of his consulship being ended, he was continued in
the command as proconsul, with the permission of carrying with
him to Africa such of the Roman troops in Sicily as he should
think proper. He at length embarked at Lilybaeum, amidst a
vast concourse of spectators, and with all the circumstances of
solemnity that º: impress his soldiers with a sense of the
magnitude of the undertaking and the hope of victory. Almost
immediately after his landing, he was joined by Masinissa,
and, having attained some successors, he proceeded to lay
siege to Utica. This, however, he was obliged to abandon,
and he chose a place for his winter quarters, where he could
readily receive supplies from Italy. In the mean time, his pro-
consular command having expired, it was continued to him by
the voice of the people as long as the war should last. Sypha.
having married the daughter of Asdrubal, was now fixed in the
Carthaginian interest, and lay with his army encamped near
the general. Scipio opened the campaign with surprising by








UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. . . . [B.C. 234,
On
night, and burning the Numidian and Carthaginian camps, and
with a great slaughter of their forces. After this, he defeated
Asdrubal and Syphax, and captured Tunis, and several of their
other towns. The Carthaginians now sent deputies to Rome
to treat for a peace, and Scipio agreed to a suspension of hos-
tilities, till their return. They had, however, in the mean time
recalled Hannibal from Italy, as the only antagonist fitted to
oppose their successful invader. On his arrival, active hosti-
lities recommenced; and the two great commanders met at the
head of their collected forces, near Zama, where a decisive
battle was fought. This action, which happened in the year
B.C. 202, ended in a complete victory over the Carthaginians.
Peace was now restored, but the conditions of Carthage were
extremely severe; her territories were restricted to Africa; her
naval power was annihilated; and a vast sum was exacted from
her by way of indemnification. With the ratification of this
treaty terminated the second Punic war. Scipio returned to
Rome, crowned with glory, and was met at his entrance by the
whole body of citizens. A triumph was decreed him by the
united votes of the senate and people, together with the sir-
name of Africanus, by which he has been distinguished from
all the other branches of his illustrious family. In the year
B. C. 199, he was nominated one of the censors, and in 194
he was elected consul a second time; but, nothing occurred
during the year of his office, that gave him an opportunity of
distinguishing himself. In B. C. 190, his brother Lucius was
chosen consul, and Scipio proposed to accompany him as lieu-
tenant, should he be sent to command in Asia against Antio-
chus the Great, in whose service his old antagonist Hannibal
was engaged. The offer was accepted, and the two brothers,
with their troops, marched from the Hellespont. He crossed
the strait without opposition. Africanus staying some days
after his brother, on account of his being occupied as a priest
of the Salii, in religious ceremonies, of which he was always
very observant. The son of Africanus had been taken prisoner
at sea, and brought to Antiochus, who treated him in the most
honourable way, and offered to restore him without ransom,
provided he might thereby receive the good offices of their fa-
ther. Scipio rejected the offer, and obliged the monarch to
accept of peace upon any terms. Shortly after this, Scipio,
while lying upon a sick bed at Elaea, was gratified with the
sight of his son, restored to him by Antiochus. The decisive
battle of Magnesia, soon after this, obliged Antiochus to
submit to the conditions which the Roman senate imp x
him. Upon the return of Scipio to Rome,
º sº
to ave reti red. to the repose of private life, whi
was not permitted to enjoy very long unmo
§§ Sclernea while i
s accused of various mist















B. c. 234. PTOLEMY EUERGETES To ProLEMY PHILOMETOR. 557
day appointed for a hearing. After some preliminary inquiries,
a second day was appointed; on this, when silence was pro-
claimed, he rose and said, “On this day, tribunes, and Ro-
mans, I gained a decisive victory over Hannibal and the Car-
thaginians. Since, therefore, j, a day should be exempt from
strife and contention, I mean to go and pay my devotion to
Jove and the other gods who preside over the Capitol, and re-
turn them thanks, that, as well as on this day as many others,
they have granted me the desire and ability of doing great ser-
vice to the republic. You my fellow-citizens, to whom it is con-
venient, go along with me, and pray that you may always pos-
sess leaders like myself; for, as from the age of seventeen, to
advanced life, you have outgone my years by your honours, so
I have anticipated your honours by my actions.” He then pro-
ceeded to the Capitol, followed by the whole assembly, not ex-
cepting the scribes and apparitors, so that the tribunes were
left with no other attendants than their slaves, and the public
crier. A more splendid mode of defeating an impeachment
was never practised, and Livy prefers the glory conferred upon
Scipio by his conduct on this day, to his triumph over Syphax
and the Carthaginians. It was, however, but a temporary suc-
cess, for his enemies returning to the charge, cited him a third
time, but he refused to submit to what he felt an indignity, and
retired to his country seat, his brother appearing in his stead,
and pleading the excuse of ill health, which not being considered
as satisfactory, the business was adjourned to another day. Ti-
berius Gracchus, father of the celebrated Gracchi, was one of
the tribunes at this time, and as he was known to be an enemy
to the Scipios, his refusal to put his name to this decree was
thought a prelude to something still more severe; but it arose
from the most honourable feelings; he declared that he would
not suffer Scipio to be accused till he should return to Rome,
and would then even protect him from the necessity of pleading
his cause; adding some strong and severe reflections on the
public prosecution of a man so venerable, from the high ser-
vices which he had performed for his country. This interpo-
sition was successful, and the generosity of Gracchus was re-
warded by the hand of Cornelia, the illustrious daughter of
Africanus; henceforth no mention is made of this great man;
he probably died very soon after, at or about the age of forty-
eight. He desired to be buried at Linturnum, a town on the
coast of Campania, to which he had withdrawn; and he mani-
fested his displeasure against his countrymen, by the epitaph
which he ordered to be engraved on his tomb: “Ungrateful
countrymen who shall not possess my bones.” Livy speaks of
him as a person more illustrious in his concerns in war, than
for his conduct in peace; and he remarks, that little .
to his renown after the second Punic war, the glorious termin




558 UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY, [B.C. 234.
tion of which was justly ascribed to him. That the retirement
of Africanus from public life was owing to inclination rather
than necessity, may be inferred from a saying of his recorded
by Cicero, that “he was never less employed than when at
leisure, nor less solitary than when alone.” To this great ge-
neral, Hannibal, when in exile, paid the following compliment.
Being asked his opinion as to the greatest commanders of his
time, and the order in which they should stand, “The first,”
said the Carthaginian, “is Alexander, the second Pyrrhus, and
the third myself.” “And,” said Scipio, “if you had con-
quered me, in what rank would you have placed yourself?” “In
the first,” said Hannibal. .
C. CORNELIUS NASICA, was the son of Cnaeus Scipio
and cousin-german to Scipio Africanus, senior. He was at first
refused the consulship, though supported by the interest of
Africanus, but afterwards obtained it; when he was sent against
the Boii, whom he conquered, and was decreed a triumph. He
was also successful in an expedition into Spain. It is recorded
to his honour, that when the image of the goddess Cybele was
brought from Phrygia, the senate decreed, that one of their
body, who was most eminent for purity of morals, should be
delegated to meet the goddess of Ostia, and Nasica was ap-
pointed, as best suiting that character. Nasica also distinguished
himself as an orator, and the friend of persecuted virtue, by his
zeal in confuting the invidious calumnies invented against his
relations Africanus and Asiaticus. He was also a man of ge-
nius, and the first inventor of the Clepsydra, or instrument for
measuring time by water, about B.C. 159. . . . . .
CAIUS LAELIUS, a noble Roman, the particular friend
of the first Scipio Africanus, accompanied that commander to
Spain, and was instrumental in the capture of New Carthage.
When Spain was reduced under the Roman power, Laelius was
sent by Scipio to treat with Syphax, and after this he was em-
ployed to ravage the coast of Africa. In conjunction with Ma-
sinissa, he defeated Syphax, and brought him prisoner to Rome.
He commanded the Italian horse at the battle of Zama, and had
a considerable share in the success of the day. He was made
consul in the year B. C. 190. .
T. SEMPRONIUS GRACCHUS, father of Tiberius and
Caius Gracchus, twice consul, and once censor, was distin-
lished by his integrity as well as his prudence and superior
ty either in the senate or at the head of the armies. He
in Gaul, and met with much success in Spain. He
f the family of the Scipios, a woman of great
*























B. c. 232.] PTOLEMY EUERGETEs To PtoleMY PHILOMEToR. 559
that of amonarch. Her virtues have been deservedly commend-
ed, as well as the wholesome principles in which she instructed
her two sons. When a Campanian lady made once a show of
her jewels at Cornelia's house, and entreated her to favour her
with a sight of her own, Cornelia produced her two sons, saying,
these are the only jewels of which I can boast. In her life-time
a statue was raised to her, with this inscription, Cornelia mater
Gracehorum. Some of her epistles are preserved. *:
MARCUS PORCIUS CATO, Major, the Censor, one of
the greatest men among the ancients, was born at Tusculum,
B. C. 232. He began to bear arms at seventeen; and, on all
occasions, showed extraordinary courage; he was a man of
great sobriety, and reckoned no bodily exercise unworthy of
him. He had but one horse for himself and his baggage, and
he dressed it himself; at his return from the campaign, he
ploughed his own ground, though he had slaves to do it; he
dressed also like his slaves, sat down at the same table with
them, and partook of the same fare; he employed his rheto-
rical talents, in generously pleading causes in the neighbouring
cities, without fee or reward. Valerius Flaccus, who had a
country seat near Cato, conceiving an esteem for him, persuaded
him to come to Rome; where Cato, by his own merit, and the
influence of so powerful a patron, was soon taken notice of He
was first elected tribune of the soldiers for Sicily. He was next
made quaestor in Africa under Scipio, whom he reproved for
his profuseness to his soldiers; being afterwards made praetor,
he fulfilled the duties of that office, with the strictest justice.
He conquered Sardinia, governed it with admirable modera-
tion, and was elected consul. Being tribune in the Syrian war,
he gave distinguished proofs of his valour against Antiochus
the Great, and at his return stood candidate for the Censor-
ship. But the nobles, who not only envied him as a new man,
but dreaded his severity, set up against him seven powerful
competitors. Valerius Flaccus, who had been his colleague in
the consulship, was a ninth candidate, and these two united
their interests. On this occasion, Cato, far from flattering the
people, or giving hopes of gentleness in the execution of his
office, declared from the rostra, with a threatening look and
voice, “That the times required firm and vigorous magistrates,
to put a stop to that growing luxury which menaced the re-
public with ruin; censors who would cut up the evil by the
roots, and restore the rigour of ancient discipline.” To the ho-
nour of the Romans, notwithstanding these terrible intimations,
they preferred him to all his competitors, who courted them by
promise of a mild administration. The comiti #
o be his colleag but whom he h






















UNIVERSAL
BIOGRAPHY. [B, C, 232,
any of the great men who stood against him. He was frugal of
the public money, and not to be corrupted; he was a great
soldier, an able statesman, an eloquent orator, a learned histo-
rian, and very knowing in rural affairs. Yet, with all these ac-
complishments, he had very great faults. His ambition being
poisoned with envy, disturbed both his own peace and that of
the whole city, as long as he lived. Though he would not take
bribes, he amassed wealth, by all such means as the law did
not punish. The first act of Cato in his new office, was naming
his colleague to be prince of the senate; after which, the cen-
sors struck out of the list of the senators the names of seven
persons, among whom was Lucius, the brother to T. Flaminius.
Lucius, when consul, and commanding in Gaul, had with his
own hand murdered a Boian of distinction, who had deserted to
the Romans, merely to gratify his passion for a young Carthagi-
nian, who longed to see somebody die a violent death. Titus
Flaminius brought the affair before the people, who highly ap-
proved of Cato's conduct; but what most offended the nobles
and their ladies, was the taxes he laid upon luxury in all its
branches; dress, household furniture, women's toilets, chariots,
slaves, and equipage. These articles were all taxed at three
per cent. of their value. The people, however, were so pleased
with his regulations, that they ordered a statue to be erected
to his honour in the Temple of Health, with an inscription, im-
porting, that by his wise ordinances in his censorship, he had
reformed the manners of the republic. Plutarch relates, that
before this, upon some of Cato's friends expressing their sur-
prize, that while many persons without merit or reputation had
statues, he had none; he answered, “I had much rather it
should be asked, why the people have not erected a statue to
Cato, than why they have.” Cato was the occasion of the third
Punic war, and the total destruction of Carthage. Being des-
patched to Africa to terminate a difference between the Car-
thaginians and the king of Numidia, on his return to Rome,
he reported, that Carthage was grown excessively rich and po-
pulous, and he warmly exhorted the senate to destroy a city
and republic, during the existence of which, Rome could never
be safe. From this time he never spoke in the senate upon any
subject, without concluding with these words, “I am also of
opinion, that Carthage ought to be destroyed.” He judged,
that, for a people debauched by prosperity, nothing was more
to be feared than a rival state, always powerful, and now from
its misfortunes grown wise and circumspect. He held it neces:
ry to remove all dangers from without, when the republic had
so many distempers threatening her destruction. But he
resee, that when the rival republic was destroyed, the
selves would avenge the cause of Cartha,
















B. c. 228.J ProLEMY EUERGETEs to PtoleMy philoMEToR.
in the conflict. The only apology that can be made for Cato's
inhumanity, in recommending the destruction of a whole people,
is, that universal philanthropy was not then understood. Phi-
lanthropy and patriotism were then merely local virtues, which
the wisest philosophers of Greece and Rome never thought of
extending to the whole human race. This great duty, which
exalts modern ethics so far above the ancient, and which makes
no distinction of mankind from country or complexion, was re-
served to be promulgated by an unlearned native of a barbarous
country, who first taught his narrow-minded countrymen, to
consider even the Samaritans as their brethren and neighbours.
Cato, however severe as a public magistrate, was, in private
life, often sociable and good humoured. With his friends at
table he intermixed the conversation with lively discourses and
witty sayings. Of these Plutarch has collected a pretty large
number; of which we shall relate but one. He had married a
very handsome wife, who being extremely afraid of thunder,
always threw herself into her husband's arms at the least noise
she heard in the sky. Cato, who was very willing to be ca-
ressed, told his friends, that “his wife had found out a way to
make him love bad weather; and that he never was so happy
as when Jupiter was angry.” This was during his censorship,
when he degraded the senator Manlius, who would j,
have been consul the year after, only for giving his wife a kiss
in the day time, and in the presence of his daughter. Cato
died, B.C. 145, aged eighty-five. He wrote several works:
viz. 1. A Roman History. 2. Concerning the Art of War.
3. Of Rhetoric. 4. A Treatise of Husbandry. Of these, the
last only is extant. …
TITUS QUINCTIUS FLAMINIUS, or FLAMININUS,
an eminent Roman, was born about the year B.C. 228. He
was brought up to the practice of arms, and acquitted himself
so well in several things which he undertook, that he was in
early life appointed to the conduct of important expeditions.
At the age of thirty he was candidate for the consulship, and
was chosen, though he had not served any of the inferior and
preparatory offices in the state. He obtained, by lot, the con-
duct of the war in Macedon; and performed, in various parts
of Greece, many exploits recorded in history, till at length he
treated with Philip, and made a peace on condition that the
king should withdraw all the troops from the Grecian towns.
Commissioners were sent from Rome to assist Flaminius in dis-
posing of his conquests; these wished Roman garrisons to be
kept at Corinth and other places, regarding them as the keys of
the country; but the conqueror persuaded them to consent to
the full and complete liberation of Greece from foreign domi-
hion. The decree was proclaimed during the Isthmian games.
A vast multitude assembled from all parts, uncertain of their
WOL. I. O o « . .3 .







562 UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY, [B. c.22s.
future fate, and filled with the utmost anxiety for themselves
and their country. Silence was proclaimed by the sound of a
trumpet, and a herald advanced into the middle of the arena,
where, in the name of the Roman people and of the pro-consul
Flaminius, he declared by name all those cities and states of
Greece free which had been possessed by Philip. The procla-
mation was repeated, and the people, as with one voice, rent
the skies with their shouts; so tremendous was the noise, that
the birds were said to have been struck to the ground by the
concussion of the air, and Flaminius himself was in danger of
suffocation from the people who rushed upon him to kiss his
hand in gratitude for his kindness. To him it was a glorious
day; but the Romans refused to ratify the decree, and in a
short time they dictated what terms they chose to the Grecian
republics, which now were declared free by Flaminius. The
consul left Greece with many tokens of gratitude from the peo-
ple, but with none which he so highly prized as a present of
one thousand two hundred Romans made captive in the war
with Hannibal, who had been sold for slaves in the Grecian
states, and whom the Achaeans had carefully collected and re-
deemed, in order to send back with him. In the habits of
slaves, those men followed the chariot of their benefactor at the
splendid triumph granted him on his return. Flaminius was af-
terwards long kept as a resident in Greece; the attachment of
the nation to him, and his accºurate knowledge of the views and
interests of the several states, rendering him very useful as a
negociator. About the year B. C. 190, he was created censor
at Rome; after which he was employed as an ambassador to
Prusias, king of Bithynia, whom he persuaded to violate the
laws of hospitality in delivering up Hannibal, who had taken
refuge in his court; but the veteran soldier prevented the
treachery by taking poison.
CHIOMARA, the heroic wife of Ortiagon, a Gaulish prince,
a lady equally admirable for beauty and chastity. During the
war between the Romans and the Gauls, B.C. 186, the latter
were totally defeated on Mount Olympus. Chiomara, among
many other ladies, was taken prisoner, and committed to the
care of a centurion, no less passionate for money than women.
He at first endeavoured to gain her consent to his infamous de-
sires; but not being able to subvert her constancy, he employed
force. To make her amends, he offered her liberty, but not
withou . He agreed with her for an Attic talent; and
to conceal his design from the Romans, he permitted her to
§ prisoners she chose to her relations, and as-
~~ º could be exchanged for
of her own who was among











B.C.290. PTOLEMY EUERGETES To PTOLEMY PHILOMEToR.
evening two of the relations of the princess came to the place
tº...". whither, the centurion also carried his captive.
When they had delivered him the sum agreed on, the lady, in
her own language, ordered those who came to receive her to
draw their swords and kill the centurion, who was then weigh-
ing the gold. Having thus revenged the injury done her chas-
tity, she took the centurion's head, which she cut off with her
own hands, and hiding it under her robe, went to her husband
Ortiagon, who had returned home after the defeat of his troops.
As soon as she came into his presence, she threw the head at
his feet. Surprised at such a sight, he asked whose head it
was, and what had induced her to do an action so uncommon
to her sex. With a face covered with a sudden blush, but at
the same time expressing her fierce indignation, she declared
the outrage that had been done her, and the revenge she had
taken for it. During the rest of her life, she stedfastly retained
the same attachment to that purity of manners which constitutes
the principal glory of the fair sex.
PHILOSOPHY.
ARISTO, of Chios, a stoic philosopher, who lived about
B.C. 260. He endeavoured to form a sect of his own, and
treated logic and physics as useless. He taught that all actions
are indifferent in themselves, though he maintained that virtue
is the supreme good. He died in consequence of the scorching
rays of the sun striking upon his bald head. There is a saying
of his recorded, which might render the doctrine of Aristippus
less odious than it ordinarily is; that a philosopher might do
those of his hearers a prejudice, who put a wrong interpreta-
tion upon good meanings; for example, that the school of
Aristippus might send out debauchees, and that of Zeno,
cynics; which seems to imply, that the doctrine of this philo-
sopher never produced this effect, but when it was misunder-
ZADOK, ZADOC, or SADOC, a Jewish sceptical ph .
sopher, who flourished about B.C. 260, and founded the sect
of the Sadducees. He taught that virtue is to be practised for
its own sake, without respect to punishments or rewards here-
after. His followers were numerous.
BAITHOUSE, a Jew, who, with Zadoc his fellow disciple,
founded the sect of the Sadducees. From Baithouse, they
*
were for some time called Baithosaei as well as Saddu
ecame a follower of Theophrastus, He ap






















o 63
UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. * , [B.C. 213.
have been an ostentatious character, possessed of more wit than
wisdom. He flourished B. C. 246.
SPHERUS, a Greek philosopher, a disciple of Zeno the
stoic, who flourished about B.C. 243. He came to Sparta in
the reign of Agis III. and Cleomenes III., and opened a school
for ºy. . -
CLEANTHES, a stoic philosopher, a disciple of Zeno,
flourished B.C. 240. He maintained himself in the day by
working in the night. Being questioned by the magistrates
how he subsisted, he brought a woman for whom he kneaded
bread, and a gardener for whom he drew water; and refused a
present from them. He composed several works, of which
there are now only a few fragments remaining. His Hymn to
Jupiter was first published in 1568. It has been often printed,
and was translated into English by Mr. West. . . . . .
CHRYSIPPUS, a stoic philosopher, born at Idas in Cili-
cia, was disciple to Cleanthes, Zeno's disciple. He wrote
many books, several of which related to logic. None of the
philosophers spoke in stronger terms of the fatal necessity of
every thing, nor more pompously of man, than this stoic. It
became a proverb, that if it had not been for Chrysippus, the
|..." had never been: yet the stoics complained, as Cicero re-
lates, that he had collected so many arguments in favour of the
sceptical hypothesis, that he could not answer them himself;
and thus had furnished Carneades, their antagonist, with wea-
pons against them. There is an apophthegm of this philosopher
preserved, which does him honour. Being told that some per-
sons spoke ill of him, “It is no matter,” said he, “I will live so
that they shall not be believed.” * * * *
LACYDES, a Greek philosopher, and native of Cyrene,
was a disciple of Arcesilaus, whom he succeeded in the acade-
mic chair. He was brought up in very humble circumstances,
but acquired great reputation by intense application to his stu-
dies, and a graceful elocution. He was highly esteemed by
king Attalus, who gave him a garden where he might devote
himself to study, and the instruction of others. This was after-
wards known by the name of the Lacydean garden. Attalus
wished Lacydes to come and reside at his court; to which he
espectfully replied, that the portraits of kings should be
viewed at a distance. He taught his disciples never to be
hasty in their judgments, and never to speak positively. Hav-
ing taught philosophy twenty-six years, he resigned the em-
2nt to his scholars Telecles and Evander, B.C. 214. In
graced himself by giving a favourite goose a most
funeral, and he fell a victim to excessive drinking.
ADES, a celebrated Greek philosopher, born a
+ica, and founder of the third academy. H
ſidy, that he not only avoided all entert
:





















B. c.213.]. PTOLEMY EUERGETES To PTOLEMY PHILOMETOR. 565
but forgot even to eat at his own table; his maid servant Melessa
was obliged to put the victuals into his hand. He was an an-
tagonist of the stoics, and applied himself with great eagerness
to refute the works of Chrysippus, one of the most celebrated
philosophers of their sect. The power of his eloquence was
dreaded, even by the Roman senate. The Athenians being
condemned by the Romans to pay a fine of five hundred talents
for plundering the city of Oropus, sent Carneades, Diogenes,
and Critolaus, to Rome, as ambassadors, who got it mitigated
to one hundred talents. Before they had an audience of the
senate, they harangued great multitudes in different parts of
the city. Carneades's eloquence was distinguished by its
strength and rapidity. Cato the elder moved, that these am-
bassadors should be immediately sent back, as it was very dif-
ficult to discern the truth through the arguments of Carneades.
The youth at Rome were so charmed by his orations, that they
forsook their diversions, and were carried with a kind of mad-
mess to philosophy, which spread like enthusiasm. This grieved
Cato, who was particularly afraid of that subtlety of wit with
which Carneades maintained either side of a question. He ha-
rangued in favour of justice one day, and the next day against
it, to the admiration of all who heard him, among whom were
Galba and Cato, the greatest orators of Rome. This was his
element; he delighted in demolishing his own work, because it
seemed to confirm his grand principle, that there are only re-
, semblances of truth in the mind of man; so that of two things
directly opposite, either may be chosen indifferently. Quinti-
lian remarks, that though Carneades argued in favour of injus-
tice, yet he himself acted according to the strictest rules of jus-
tice. The following was a maxim of Carneades: “If a man pri-
vately knew that his enemy, or any other person, whose death
might be an advantage to him, would come to sit down on
grass, in which there fººd an asp, he ought to give him no-
tice of it, though it were in the power of no person whatever to
blame him for being silent.” Carneades lived to be about ninety
years old; his death is placed B. C. 128.
PHORMIO, a peripatetic philosopher, who taught with re-
putation at Ephesus. Hannibal being of that city, and going
to his academy, Phormio had the folly to make a discourse to
him on the military art, which only served to render him ridi-
culous in the eyes of the warrior.
DIOGENES, sirnamed the BABYLONIAN, a stoic phi-
º: who flourished about B.C. 200. He was a disciple
*: Chrysippus, and succeeded Zeno as teacher of philosophy,
He accompanied Carneades and Critolaus on the embassy from
Athens to Rome. His works are lost. " .



UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. [B.C. 299.
poetry.
BION, of Smyrna, a Greek poet, who flourished B. C. 280,
His Idylls are very delicate and tender. They are generally pub-
lished with those of Moschus. His best editions are the Paris
of 1686; the Venice of 1746; Heskin's, at Oxford, 1748;
Scheirs, at Leipsic, of 1752; Wakefield's, London, 1795.
POSIDIPPUS, a Greek poet, who flourished B.C. 280.
He wrote several dramatic pieces, which are lost. There was
another poet of the same name who wrote epigrams, which are
cited by Athenaeus and Stobaeus.
CRANTOR, a Greek poet and philosopher, born at Solos
in Cilicia. He left his native country, where he was admired;
went to Athens, and there studied with Polemon under Xeno-
crates. He was considered as one of the chief supporters of the
Platonic sect, and was the first who wrote commentaries upon
Plato's works. He flourished about B.C. 270.
EUPHORION, a poet and historian, born at Chalcis,
B.C. 272. Suetonius says that Tiberius composed verses in
imitation of Euphorion, Rianian, and Parthenius; with whom
he was charmed to such a degree, that he ordered their writ-
ings and their pictures to be kept in all the public libraries,
among the ancient and celebrated authors.
º
&.
PHILEMON the younger, son of Philemon the Greek
poet mentioned in the last period, was also a poet. He was
the author of fifty-four comedies, of which there are still extant
considerable fragments collected by Grotius, some of which
have been translated by Cumberland. These prove that he was
not a poet of the first rank. He flourished about B.C. 272.
QUINTUS ENNIUS, an ancient poet, was born at Rudiae,
a city of Calabria, near Tarentum, B.C. 237. According to
Silius Italicus, he served as a centurion in Sardinia, when that
island was subdued by T. Manlius, and distinguished himself
by his valour. After the war, he probably remained in Sar-
dinia; for Cornelius Nepos informs us, that Cato, the censor,
when praetor, brought back with him from his government of
Sardinia, the poet Ennius, who must at this time have been in
his thirty-fifth year. Another of his patrons was Scipio Afri-
canus the elder, who made him his companion in most of his
campaigns. This fact, we learn from Claudian.
intimate with Scipio Nasica; the notice taken of him by these
and ers; although, Horace represents him a
is heroic vein by liberal potations. The
w afflicted, and his depressed circumstance
ving to his intemperance. These evils, however, he
&
h great equanimity; and his life was prolonged to the




























B. c.200.) PtoleMY EUERGETEs to PToleMY PHILOMEToR.
age of seventy. He is said to have been the father of epic or
heroic poetry among the Latins, though the Greek was his
mother-tongue. He was distinguished by that rustic vigour,
which is the usual characteristic of genius in an unpolished age.
His fragments were printed at Naples in 1590, 4to, and at
Amsterdam, in 1707, 4to. &
CECILIUS STATIUS, a comic poet, who flourished in
the age of Ennius. He was a native of Gaul, and originally a
slave. Of course, his latinity was bad, yet he required great
reputation by his comedies. He died about B. C. 160, a few
years after Ennius. .
ANDRONICUS LIVIUS, is regarded as one of the most an-
cient of the Roman poets. He was the first who attempted to
compose a drama in verse, which he himself sung and acted, with
a player on the flute to keep him in tune. He was encored and
obliged to repeat his pieces so often, that he lost his voice; and
being unable to sing or declaim any longer, he was allowed to
have a slave to sing, while he only acted the part behind him.
Hence came the custom of dividing the declamation or melody
of the piece, with which the Roman people were extremely de-
lighted. This poet flourished B. C. 240.
APOLLONIUS, author of the Argonautic, sirnamed the
Rhodian, from the place of his residence, is supposed to have
been a native of Alexandria, where he is said to have recited
some portion of his poem while he was yet a youth. Finding
it received by his countrymen, he retired to Rhodes; where
he is conjectured to have polished and completed his work,
supporting himself by the profession of rhetoric, and receiving
from the Rhodians the freedom of their city. He at length
returned, with considerable honour, to the place of his birth;
and succeeded Eratosthenes in the care of the Alexandrian
library, in the reign of Ptolemy Euergetes, about B. C. 246.
That prince had been educated by the famous Aristarchus, and
rivalled the preceding sovereigns of his liberal family in the
munificent encouragement of learning. Apollonius was a dis-
ciple of the poet Callimachus, but their connection ended in
the most violent enmity; which was probably owing to some
degree of contempt expressed by Apollonius for the light com-
tºº. of his master. The only work of Apollonius which
has descended to modern times, is his poem above-mentioned,
in four books, on the Argonautic expedition. Both Longinus
and Quintilian, have assigned to this work the mortifying cha-
racter of mediocrity: “But,” says Mr. Hayley “there lies an
appeal from the sentence of the most candid and enlightened
critics to the voice of nature; and the merit of Apollonius has
little to apprehend from the decision of this ultimate judge.
His poems abound in animated description, and in passages of
the most tender and pathetic beauty. How finely painted is




tº UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. [B. C. 240
the first setting forth of the Argo; and how beautifully is the
wife of Chiron introduced, holding up the little Achilles in her
arms, and showing him to his father Peleus as he sailed along
the shore But the chief excellence in our poet, is the spirit
and delicacy with which he delineated the passion of love in
his Medea. That Virgil thought very highly of his merit, in
this particular, is sufficiently evident from the minute exactness
with which he has copied many tender touches of the Grecian
poet. Those who compare the third book of Apollonius with
the fourth of Virgil, may, I think, perceive not only that Didot
has some features of Medea, but the bards, however different
in their reputation, resembled each other in their genius; and
they both excel in delicacy and pathos.” The ancient scholia
upon his Argonautics, still extant, are extremely useful, and full
of learning The best editions of his poems are those of Ox-
ford, 2 vols. 4to. 1777, and of Brunk, in 8vo. Henry Stephens
published an edition in 1574, 4to, it has been translated into
English verse by Dr. Ekins, late Dean of Carlisle. ~
CNEIUS NAEVIUS, an ancient Roman poet and historian
was a native of Campania, and served in the first Punic war.
Of this war, he wrote a history in Saturnian verse, and he was
the second Roman who brought dramatic compositions on the
stage. His first comedy was acted about the year 235, or B. C.
228. It gave offence to some of the leading men at Rome, and
on account of it he was thrown into prison. He was finally
obliged to quit Rome, and died at Utica in the year B.C. 203.
Only some fragments of his works have come down to modern
times. - & . . %. 28.2% º
ANTAGORAS, a Rhodian poet, in the service of Antigonus,
king of Macedon. None of his works are extant. . "
TEGULA LICINIUS, a comic Latin poet, flourished about
200 years before the Christian era. His fragments have been
published by H. Stephens, and Mattaire. ... 3
MARCUS ACCIUS PLAUTUS, a comic poet of ancient
Rome, born at Umbria, in Italy. He is said to have acquired
the cognomen of Plautus from having splay feet. His parentage
appears to have been mean ; some say he was the son of a slave.
Aulus Gellius says from Varro, that Plautus was so well paid
for his plays, as to double his stock in trading, in which he lost
all he gained by the Muses. He was reduced to work at a mill
for his subsistence; but Varro adds, that his wit was his best
support, as he composed three of his plays during this drudg-
ery. He died in the first year of the elder Cato's censorship,
about B.C. 184. There are twenty of his plays extant, though
Five of his comedies have been elegantly º. .
§ ed in 2 vols.
by Mr. B. Thornton, and publi





200.] PToleMY EUERGETEs to PTOLEMY PHILOMEToR. 569
L IT E R A T U R E.
ZOILUS, a rhetorician, sophist, and grammarian of Amphi-
polis in Thrace, who flourished about B. C. 260, or 270. He
criticised the Iliad of Homer, and the works of Isocrates with
such severity, that he was called Homeromastix, or the chas-
tiser of Homer, and the dog; and his name has been ever since
applied to all snarling critics. He presented his criticisms to
Ptolemy Philadelphus, who rejected them with contempt, and
some say put him to death; but this seems not agreeable to
Ptolemy's liberal character.
ERATOSTHENES, a Cyrenean philosopher, historian,
and poet; styled for his learning Pluto Minor. He was keeper
of the famous library at Alexandria: and was greatly in favour
with Ptolemy Euergetes, by whose order he wrote a history of
the Theban kings of Egypt, which succession had been entirely
omitted by Manetho. He thus fixed the Egyptian chronology,
and his authority is by many preferred to that of Manetho.
He wrote many other things, but his only piece now remaining
entire is a fabulous account of the stars. He is supposed the
inventor of the armillary sphere. With the instruments with
which the munificence of the Ptolemies supplied the library of
Alexandria, he was enabled to measure the obliquity of the
ecliptic, which he called 24 degrees. He also measured a de-
gree of the meridian, and determined the extent and circum-
ference of the earth with great exactness, by means adopted by
the moderns. He starved himself after he had lived to his
eighty second year, B.C. 194, through grief on account of the
dimness of his sight. ~
ARATUS of Sicyon, son of Clinas, was born B. C. 273. He
was only seven years old when his father was murdered by
Abandidas, and narrowly missed the same fate. Escaping into
a house which was that of the tyrant's sister, she took pity on
him, and sent him privately to Argos, where he received a
liberal education. As soon as he had attained maturity, he
determined to restore the liberty of his country, which he did
without bloodshed. By his activity he brought about the
Achaean league, and recovered Corinth from Antigonus of
Macedon. it is supposed that he died of poison, administered
by order of Philip of Macedon, B.C. 216. He wrote Com-
mentaries of his own transactions. -
SOSIBUS, a grammarian of Laconia, B.C. 255. He was
a great favourite of Ptolemy Philopator, and advised him to
murder his brother, and his queen Arsinoe. He lived to a
great age, and was on that account called Polychron ; he was
afterwards permitted to retire from the court, and spend the
rest of his days in peace and tranquillity, after he had disgraced




UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY, (b. c.200.
the name of minister by the most abominable crimes, and the
murder of many of the royal family.
ZENODOTUS, a grammarian in the age of Ptolemy Soter,
by whom he was appointed to take care of the celebrated li-
brary of Alexandria, he died B.C. 245.
JESUS, the son of Sirach, and author of the book entitled
Ecclesiasticus, was a native of Jerusalem. He lived about
B.C. 200. His grandson, Jesus, translated this book into Greek,
which is the version now extant in the Apocrypha. It is full
of excellent moral reflections and lively sentiments.
HISTORY AND ANTI QUIT I E S.
TIMAEUS, the son of Andromachus, an ancient historian of
Sicily, born at Taurominium, who flourished about B. C. 262,
in the time of Agathocles. He wrote a history of Sicily, and
of the wars of Pyrrhus, and other works which were much es-
teemed, but they are lost. He was banished by Agathocles;
and died aged ninety-six. .
HIERONYMUS, an historian of Rhodes, who wrote an
account of the actions of Demetrius Poliorcetes, by whom he
was appointed over Boeotia, B.C. 254. É.
NEANTHES, an orator and historian of Cyzicum, who
flourished B. C. 257. & .
PHILOCHORUS, an ancient Greek historian, who wrote
a history of Athens, in seventeen books, which has not come
down to us. He died B. C. 222.
RHIANUS, an ancient Greek historian and poet of Thrace,
originally a slave; who flourished about B. C. 200. He wrote
an account of the war between Sparta and Messenia, which
lasted twenty years; and a history of the principal events and
revolutions in Thessaly. Of his work, only a few verses are
extant. 3
LUCIUS CINCIUS ALIMENTUS, an early Roman his-
torian and antiquary, flourished during the second Punic war,
B. C. 200, while he was praetor of Sicily, and had under his
command two legions of those who had fought at Cannae. He
was, probably afterwards, taken prisoner by Hannibal, who
seems to have treated him well, since he has mentioned some
circumstances of the war as derived from Hannibal's own
mouth. Cincius is several times quoted by Livy as a writer of
great authority. It appears from Dionysius Halicarnassus, that
wrote his history of the wars of Hannibal in the Greek lan-
His history of Gorgias Leontinus, however, seems to
ween composed in Latin; as likewise his work on military
from which there are quotations in A. Gellius, (l. 16.
Macrobius refers to a work which he wrote on the
1. § -
















B. c. 290.1 ptoLEMY EUERGETEs to ProLEMY PHILOMEToR. 571
Fasti; and Festus speaks of several books of his, on subjects
of Roman antiquities. These are all the notices remaining of
an author, whose learning and opportunities for information
appear to have rendered him valuable, and the loss of whose
works is to be regretted. º
SOSILUS, a Lacedaemonian in the age of Hannibal. He lived
in great intimacy with the Carthaginian, taught him Greek,
and wrote the history of his life in Latin.
POLYBIUS, a famous Greek historian, born at Megalopo-
lis, in Arcadia, B. C. 205. He was the son of Lycortes, chief
of the republic of the Achaeans. He was trained to arms
under the celebrated Philopoemen, and carried the urn of that
great general in his funeral procession. He rose to consider-
able honours in his own country, but was compelled to visit
Rome with other principal Achaeans, who were detained there
as hostages for the submission of their state. Hence he be-
came intimate with Scipio Africanus AEmilianus, and was pre-
sent with him at the demolition of Carthage. He saw Corinth
also plundered by Mummius, and thence passing through the
cities of Achaia reconciled them to Rome. He extended his
travels into Egypt, France, and Spain, that he might avoid
such geographical errors, as he has censured in others. It was
in Rome that he composed his excellent history, for the sake of
which his travels were undertaken. This history was divided
into forty books; but there only remain the five first, with ex-
tracts of some parts of the others. It has had several editions
in Greek and Latin; and there is an English translation by
Mr. Hampton. He lived to the age of eighty-two. * * *
ABYDENUS, a celebrated historian, author of the history
of the Chaldeans and Assyrians, of which only some fragments
have been transmitted to us by Eusebius, in his Praeparatio
Evangelica, Cyrillus and Syncellus, which have been illustrated
with several notes by Scaliger in his book De Emendatione
Temporum. He flourished under the first Ptolemy. *
#º PICTOR, a Roman general and historian. He
first introduced painting at Rome; and having caused the
walls of the temple of health to be painted, some authors have
erroneously reckoned him a painter. He died about B.C. 216,
MAt H E M A tics, AstroNo MY, &c.
POSIDONIUS, an astronomer and mathematician of Alex-
andria, was the disciple of Zeno, of Citticus, and was a con-
temporary with, or lived soon after, Eratosthenes. He pro-
bably flourished about B.C. 260. He is particularly celebrated
on account of his having employed himself in endeavouring to
ascertain the measure of the periphery of the earth, by means



572 UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. [B.C. 280.

of the altitude of a fixed star. He, according to Cleomenes,
concluded that it was two hundred and forty thousand stadia;
but, according to Strabo, he made it one hundred and eighty
thousand stadia only. He is a reputed author of a treatise on
military tactics, which is mentioned by Ælian in the first chap-
ter of his work on the same subject. No fragments of his
writings are extant. & .
CONON, a mathematician of considerable celebrity at Sa-
mos. He was a contemporary and friend of Archimedes, to
whom he communicated his writings, and sent some problems,
which Archimedes received with approbation, wishing them to
be published during the life time of their author, in order that
from him they might receive a just demonstration. Conon
made many observations on the eclipses of the sun and moon,
and gave the name to the constellation called Coma Berenices.
His ii. happened during the period when Archimedes flou-
rished, whose eulogium for his friend has come down to the
present times; speaking of his great genius, he asks, “How
many theorems in geometry, which to others seemed impossi-
ble, would, had Conon lived, have been brought to perfec-
tion?” Conon invented a spiral, the properties of which
having been demonstrated by Archimedes, it has obtained the
name of Archimedes's spiral. : .
ARCHIMEDES, one of the most celebrated mathemati-
cians among the ancients, who flourished about B. C. 250,
being about fifty years later than Euclid. He was born at
Syracuse in Sicily, and was related to Hiero, who was then king
of that city. The mathematical genius of Archimedes set him
with such distinguished excellence in the view of the world, as
rendered him both the honour of his own age, and the admira-
tion of posterity. He was indeed the prince of the ancient
mathematicians, being to them what Newton is to the moderns,
to whom in his genius and character he bears a very near re-
semblance. He was frequently lost in a kind of reverie, so as
to appear hardly sensible; he would study for days and nights
together, neglecting his food; and Plutarch tells us that he
used to be carried to the baths by force. Many particulars of
his life, and works, mathematical and mechanical, are recorded
by several of the ancients, as Polybius, Livy, Plutarch, Pap-
pus, &c. He was equally skilled in all the sciences, astronomy,
geometry, mechanics, hydrostatics, optics, &c. in all of which
he excelled, and made many and great inventions. Archi-
medes, it is said, made a sphere of glass, of a most surprising
contrivance and workmanship, exhibiting the motions of the
When in a glass's narrow sphere confin'd,
Jove saw the fabric of th' Almighty mind,


B. c. 280.] ProLEMY EUERGETES To PToleMY PHILoMEToR. 573
He smil'd and said, “Can mortals art alone
Our heavenly labours mimic with their own?
The Syracusan's brittle work contains
Th’ eternal law, that through all nature reigns.
Fram'd by his art, see stars unnumber'd burn,
And in their courses rolling orbs return ;
His sun through various signs describe the year,
And every month his mimic moons appear.
Our rival's law his little planets bind,
And rule their motions by a human mind.
Salmoneus could our thunder imitate;
But Archimedes can a world create.”
Many wonderful stories are on record of the discoveries of this
extraordinary mechanical genius, and of his very powerful and
curious machines, &c. Hiero once admiring them, Archimedes
replied, “ these effects are nothing, but give me,” said he,
“some other place to fix a machine on, and I will move the
earth.” He fell upon a curious device for discovering the de-
ceit which had been practised by a workman employed by the
said king Hiero to make a golden crown. Hiero, having a mind
to make an offering to the gods of a golden crown, agreed for
one of great value, and weighed out the gold to the artificer.
After some time he brought the crown home of the full weight;
but it was afterwards discovered or suspected that a part of the
gold had been stolen, and the like weight of silver substituted
in its stead. Hiero, being angry at this imposition, desired
Archimedes to take it into consideration, how such a fraud
might be certainly discovered. While engaged in the solution
of this difficulty, he happened to go into the bath; where ob-
serving that a quantity of water overflowed, equal to the bulk
of his body, it presently occurred to him, that Hiero's ques-
tion might be answered by a like method; upon which he
leaped out, and ran homeward, crying out “I have found it out,
I have found it out.” He then made two masses, each of the
same weight as the crown, one of gold and the other of silver;
this being done, he filled a vessel to the brim with water, and
put the silver mass into it, upon which a quantity of water over-
flowed equal to the bulk of the mass; then taking the mass of
silver out, he filled up the vessel again, measuring the water
exactly, which he put in; this shewed him what measure of
water answered to a certain quantity of silver. Then he tried
the gold in like manner, and found that it caused a less quantity
of water to overflow the gold, being less in bulk than the silver,
though of the same weight. He then filled the vessel a third
time, and putting in the crown itself, he found that it caused.
more water to overflow than the golden mass of the same
weight, but less than the silver one, so that finding its bulk


between the two masses of gold and silver, and that in certain
known proportions, he was able to compute the real quantities
of gold and silver in the crown, and so manifestly discovered
the fraud. .
Archimedes also contrived many machines for useful and
beneficial purposes; among these, engines for launching large
ships; screw pumps for exhausting the water out of ships,
marshes or overflowed lands, as Egypt, &c. which they would
do from any depth. § N.
But he became most famous by his curious contrivances, by
which the city of Syracuse was so long defended, when be-
sieged by the Roman consul Marcellus, showering upon the
enemy sometimes long darts and stones of vast weight, and in
great quantities; at other times lifting their ships up into the
air, that had come near the walls, and dashing them to pieces
by letting them fall down again; nor could they find their safety
in removing out of the reach of his cranes and levers, for there
he contrived to set fire to them from the rays of the sun re-
flected from burning glasses. …
However, notwithstanding all his art, Syracuse was at length
taken by storm, and Archimedes was so very intent upon some
geometrical problem, that he neither heard the noise, nor re-
garded any thing else, till a soldier that found him tracing
lines, asked his name, and upon his request to be gone, and not
disorder his figures, slew him. “What gave Marcellus the
greatest concern,” says Plutarch, “was the unhappy fate of
Archimedes, who was at that time in his museum; and his
mind, as well as his eyes, so fixed and intent upon some geome-
trical figures, that he neither heard the noise and hurry of the
Romans, nor perceived the city to be taken. In this depth of
study and contemplation, a soldier came suddenly upon him,
and commanded him to follow him to Marcellus, which he re-
fusing to do, till he had finished his problem, the soldier, in a
rage, drew his sword, and ran him through.” Livy says he
was slain by a soldier, not knowing who he was, while he was
drawing schemes in the dust; that Marcellus was grieved at
his death, and took care of his funeral, and made his name a
protection and honour to those who could claim a relationship
to him. His death it seems happened about the 142nd or
143rd Olympiad, B. C. 210.
When Cicero was quaestor for Sicily, he discovered the tomb
of Archimedes all overgrown with bushes and brambles, which
he caused to be cleared, and the place set in order. There
!e a sphere and cylinder cut upon it, with an inscription, but
º
r part of the verses were quite worn out.
e still extant, though
the works of this great man are
est parts of them are lost. Th
as follows: 1. Two books on the sphere and cylinder;































280. ProLEMY EUERGETEs To ProLEMY PHILoMETor. 575
dimension of the circle, or proportion between the diameter
and the circumference; 3. Of spiral lines; 4. Of conoids and
spheroids; 5. Of equiponderants, or centres of gravity; 6.
The quadrature of the parabolus; 7. Of bodies floating on
fluids; 8. Semmata; 9. Of the number of the sand.
Among the works of Archimedes which are lost, may be
reckoned the descriptions of the following inventions, which
may be gathered from himself and other ancient authors. 1.
His account of the method which he employed to discover the
mixture of gold and silver in the crown, mentioned by Vitru-
vius; 2. His description of the cochleon, or engine to draw
water out of places where it is stagnated, still in use under the
name of Archimedes' screw. Athenaeus, speaking of the pro-
digious ship built by the order of Hiero says, that Archimedes
invented the cochleon, by means of which the hold, notwith-
standing its depth, could be drained by one man. And Dio-
dorus Siculus says, that he contrived this machine to drain
Egypt, and that by a wonderful mechanism it would exhaust
the water from any depth: 3. The helix, by means of which
Athenaeus informs us he launched Hiero's great ship; 4. The
trispaston, which according to Tzetzes and CEribosius, could
draw the most stupendous weight; 5. The machines, which,
according to Polybius, Livy, and Plutarch, he used in the de-
fence of Syracuse against Marcellus, consisting of tormenta,
balistae, catapults, sagittarii, scorpions, cranes, &c.; 6. His
burning glasses, with which he set fire to the Roman gallies;
7. His pneumatic and hydrostatic engines, concerning which
subjects he wrote some books, according to Tzetzes, Pappus,
and Tertullian; 8. His sphere, which exhibited the celestial
motions, and probably many others. A considerable volume
might be written upon the curious methods and inventions of
Archimedes, that appear in his mathematical writings now ex-
tant only. He was the first who squared a curvilineal space,
unless Hippocrates be excepted on account of his lines. In his
time the conic sections were admitted into geometry, and he
applied himself closely to the measuring of them, as well as
other figures. Accordingly he determined the relations of
spheres, spheroids, and conoids to cylinders and cones; and
the relations of parabolas to rectilineal planes, whose quadra-
tures had long before been determined by Euclid. He has left
us also his attempts upon the circle; he proved that a circle is
equal to a right angled triangle, whose base is equal to the
circumference, and its altitude equal to the radius; and conse-
quently, that its area is equal to the rectangle of half the
diameter, and half the circumference; thus reducing the qu
rature of the circle to the deter mination of the ratio b e
has never yet been done. nt













576 Universal, Biography.
quadrature of the circle, for want of the rectification of its cir-
cumference, which all his methods would not effect, he pro-
ceeded to assign an useful approximation to it: this he effected
by the numeral calculation of the perimeters of the inscribed
and circumscribed regular polygons; from which calculation it
appears that the perimeter of §. circumscribed regular poly-
gon of one hundred and ninety-two sides is to the diameter in
a less ratio than that of 3% or #3 to 1 ; and that the perimeter
of the inscribed polygon of ninety-six sides is to the diameter
in a greater ratio than that of 3% to 1; and consequently that
the ratio of the circumference to the diameter lies between
these two ratios. Now the first ratio of 3} to 1, reduced to
whole numbers, gives that of 22 to 7, for 3}: 1: ; 22:7, which
therefore is nearly the ratio of the circumference to the diame-
ter. From this ratio between the circumference and the diame-
ter, Archimedes computed the approximate area of the circle,
and he found that it is to the square of the diameter, as eleven
is to fourteen. He determined also the relation between the
circle and ellipse, with that of their similar parts. And it is
probable that he likewise attempted the hyperbolea ; but it is
not to be expected that he met with any success, since ap-
proximations to its area are all that can be given by the various
methods that have since been invented. - -
Besides these figures he determined the measures of the
spiral described by a point moving uniformly along a right line,
the line at the same time revolving with a uniform angular mo-
tion, determining the proportion of its area to that of the cir-
cumscribed circle, as also the proportion of their sectors.
Throughout the whole works of this great man, we every where
perceive the deepest design, and the finest invention. He
seems to have been, with Euclid, exceedingly careful of ad-
mitting into his demonstrations nothing but principles perfectly
geometrical and unexceptionable; and although his most gene-
ral method of demonstrating the relations, of curved figures to
straight ones, be by inscribing polygons in them; yet to deter-
mine those relations, he does not increase the number, and
diminish the magnitude, of the sides of the polygon ad infini-
tum; but from this plain fundamental principle allowed in Eu-
clid's Elements, viz. that any quantity may be so often multi-
plied, or added to itself, as that the result shall exceed any
proposed finite quantity of the same kind, he proves that to
deny his figures to have the proposed relations would involve
an absurdity. And when he demonstrated many geometrical
properties, particularly in the parabola, by means of certain
rogressions of numbers, whose terms are similar to the in-
§ es; this was still done without considering such
inued ad infinitum, and then collectin §












B. c. 280.] proLEMY EUERGETEs to ProLEMy philomeroR. 577
editions of the existing writings of Archimedes; but the most
complete of any is the magnificent edition, in folio, lately
printed at the Clarendon press, Oxford, 1792. This edition
was prepared ready for the press by the learned Joseph To-
relli, of Verona, and in that state presented to the university
of Oxford. The Latin translation is a new one. Torelli also
wrote a preface, a commentary on some of the pieces, and notes
on the whole. An account of the life and writings of To-
relli is prefixed by Clement Sibiliati. And at the end a large
appendix is added, in two parts; the first being a commentary
on Archimedes's paper upon bodies that float on fluids, by the
Rev. Adam Robertson, of Christ Church college; and the
latter is a large collection of various readings in the manuscript
works of Archimedes, found in the library of the late King of
France, and of another at Florence, as collected with the Basil
edition above-mentioned. …
APOLLONIUS, of Perga, a city in Pamphylia, was a
celebrated geometrician, who flourished in the reign of Ptolemy
Euergetes, about B. C. 240, being about sixty years after Eu-
clid, and thirty years later than Archimedes. He studied a
long time in Alexandria, under the disciples of Euclid; and
afterwards he composed several curious and ingenious geome-
trical works, of which only his books of conic sections are now
extant, and even those not perfect. For it appears from the
author's dedicatory epistle to Eudemus, a geometrician in Per-
gamus, that this work consisted of eight books, only seven of
which however have come down to us.
- From the collections of Pappus, and the commentaries of
Eutocius, it appears that Apollonius was the author of various
pieces in geometry, on account of which he acquired the title
of the great geometrician. His work on conics was the principle
of them. Some have thought that Apollonius appropriated the
writings and discoveries of Archimedes; Heraclius, who wrote
the life of Archimedes, affirms it, though Eutocius endeavours
to refute him. Although it should be allowed a groundless
supposition, that Archimedes was the first who wrote upon
conics, notwithstanding his treatise on conics was greatly es-
teemed; yet it is highly probable that Apollonius would avail
himself of the writings of that author as well as others who
had gone before him; and, upon the whole, he is allowed
the honour of explaining a difficult subject better than had
been done before, having made several improvements both in
Archimedes's problems, and in Euclid. His work upon conics
was doubtless the most perfect of the kind among the ancients,
and in some respects among the moderns also. Before Apol-
lonius, it had been customary, as we are informed by Eutocius,
for the writers on conics to require three different sorts of
cones to cut the three different sections from; viz. the para-
VOL. I. Pp * …







Universal biography. [B. c. 291.
ola from a right angled cone, the ellipse from an acute, and
e hyperbola from an obtuse come, because they always sup-
he sections made by a plane cutting the cones to be
lar to the side of them; but Apollonius cut his sec-
is all from any one cone, by only varying the inclination or
position of the cutting plane; an improvement that has been
followed by all other authors since his time. But that Archi-
medes was acquainted with the same manner of cutting any
come, is sufficiently proved against Eutocius, Pappus, and
others, by Guido Ubaldrus, in the beginning of his commen-
tary on the second book of Archimedes's Equiponderantus,
published at Pisa in 1588. w . 3.
The first four books of Apollonius's conics only have come
down to us in their original Greek language; but the next
three, the fifth, sixth, and seventh, in an Arabic version; and
the eighth not at all. These have been commented upon,
translated, and published by various authors. Pappus, in his
mathematical collections, has left some account of his various
works, with notes and comments upon them, and particularly.
on the comics. And Eutocius wrote a regular elaborate com-
mentary on the propositions of several of the books of the
COITICS. . ~ § . . . . . . .
A meat edition of the first four books in Latin was published
by Dr. Barrow, in 4to. at London, in 1675. A magnificent
edition of all the books was published in folio, by Dr. Halley,
at Oxford, in 1710; together with the Lemmas of Pappus,
and the commentaries of Eutocius. The first four in Greel
and Latin, but the latter four in Latin only, the eighth book
being restored by himself. .
ATHENAEUS, an ancient mathematician, who lived about
B. C.200. A tract of his on warlike machines was printed
at Paris in 1693, . #
PA INTING..
CLESIDES, a Greek painter, who lived about B. C. 276,
under Antiochus I. He revenged the injury, he had received
een Stratonice, by representing her in the arms of a
han. However indecent the painter might represent the
she was drawn with such personal beauty, that she
yed the piece, and liberally rewarded the artist. .
ETRODORUS, a famous painter and philosopher, flou-
B. C. 171. He was sent by Paul
ho , af fer the defeat of Perseu * * *****







































B. c. 299.] PTOLEMY EUERGETES To PTOLEMY PHILOMETOR. 579
A R CHITECTURE.
SOSTRATUS, the most eminent architect of his time, was
a native of Guidos, in Lesser Asia, and flourished in the third
century before the Christian era. The patromage which he
met with, caused him to be denominated the friend of kings;
and he was particularly in favour with Ptolemy Philadelphus,
sovereign of Egypt. He is celebrated in history likewise for
the terraces, supported on arcades, which adorned his native
city, and the famous Pharos, the light-house of Alexandria,
which was reckoned one of the wonders of the world. He
transmitted his name to posterity by an inscription on this light-
house, in the Greek language, of which the translation is,
“Sostratus, the son of bº dedicates this to the gods,
the protectors of navigators.” . * . . ;
MEDIC INE.
SERAPION, of Alexandria, lived about the year B. C. 280,
and is affirmed by Celsus to have been the founder of the em-
pyric sect of physicians, and accused by Galen of vaunting
himself, and of mal-treating the character of Hippocrates.
AREAGATHUS, a Greek physician, who flourished B. C.
269. He practised with repute at Rome, till, for making use
of caustics and the knife, he was banished.


PERIOD XIV.
FROM PtoleMY PHILOMETOR To SPARTACUs.
[B.C. 200.]
REMARKABLE FACTS, Events, AND DISCOVERIES.
B.C. §
194 Sparta and Hither Spain subdued by the Romans.
192 A census at Rome. The number of citizens, 243,704.
191 Antiochus defeated by the Romans at Thermopylae.
190 The first Roman army enters Asia, and from the spoils of Antiochus
brings the Asiatic luxury first to Rome.
188 The Spartans obliged to renounce the institutions of Lycurgus.
179 A census at Rome : 273,244 citizens. & .
173 The Jewish high-priesthood sold by Antiochus Epiphanes.
170 The Temple of Jerusalem plundered by Antiochus.
169 A census at Rome: 212,805 citizens. * :
168 Macedon reduced to the form of a Roman province. The first
library erected at Rome. ..
165 The Temple of Jerusalem purified by Judas Maccabaeus.
164 A census at Rome: 327,032 citizens.
162 Hipparchus began his astronomical observations at Rhodes.
161 Philosophers and rhetoricians banished from Rome.
149 The third Punic war commenced.
146 Corinth destroyed. Carthage razed to the ground by the Romans.
143 Hipparchus began his new cycle of the moon, consisting of 111,035
laws.
141 tº Simantine war commenced.
135 The history of the Apocrypha ends.
133 Numantia destroyed by Scipio.
124 A census at Rome: 390,736 citizens.
105 The Cimbri and Teutones defeated the Romans.
102 The Teutones and Ambrones defeated by Marius.
This period presents us with a view of the ruins of the Greek em-
pire in the declining states of Syria and Egypt.
The general state of the world B. C. 146 was as follows:–
In Asia were the empires of India, Parthia, and Syria, with the
lesser states of Armenia, Pontus, &c., in which we must add that of
Arabia, which during the sixth period had become of some conse-
quence, and had maintained its independence from the days of Ish-
mael, the son of Abraham. In Africa were the kingdoms of Egyp
-- ginian territories, now subject to the Ro-
㺠. -














B. C.200. FROM PTOLEMY PHILOMETOR TO SPARTACUs. 581
mans, and the kingdoms of Numidia, Mauritania, and Getulia, ready
to be swallowed up by the same ambitious and insatiable power, now
that Carthage was destroyed, which had served as a barrier against it.
To the south lay some unknown and barbarous nations, secure by
their situation and insignificance, rather than their strength, or dis-
tance from Rome. In Europe we find none to oppose the progress of
the Roman arms, except the Gauls, Germans, and some nations in
Spain. These were brave indeed; but, through want of military
skill, incapable of contending with such masters in the art of war as
the Romans then were.
The Spaniards had, indeed, been subdued by Scipio Africanus,
during the second Punic war, but in B. C. 155 they revolted; and,
under the conduct of one Viriathus, formerly a robber, held out for a
long time against all the armies the Romans could send into Spain.
Him the consul Caepio caused to be murdered, about B. C. 138, be-
cause he found it impossible to reduce him by force. Numantia de-
fied the whole Roman power for six years longer; till at last, by dint
of numbers, perseverance, and treachery, the inhabitants, reduced to
extremity by famine, set fire to their houses, and perished in the
flames, or killed one another; so that not one remained to grace the
triumph of the conqueror; and this for a time quieted the rest of the
Spaniards. ~
About this time, Attalus, king of Pergamus, left by will the Roman
people heirs to all his goods, upon which they immediately seized
on his kingdom, as part of those goods, and reduced it to a Roman
province, under the name of Asia Proper. Thus they continued to
enlarge their dominions on every side, without the least regard to jus-
tice, to the means they employed, or the miseries they brought upon
the conquered people. In B. C. 122 the Balearic islands, now called
Majorca, Minorca, and Ivica, were subdued, and the inhabitants ex-
terminated; and soon after, several of the nations beyond the Alps
were obliged to submit. -
In Africa the crimes of Jugurtha soon gave these ambitious repub-
licans an opportunity of conquering the kingdoms of Numidia and
Mauritania; and indeed this is almost the only war in which we find
the Romans engaged, where their pretensions had the least colour of
justice, though in no case whatever could a nation show more dege-
neracy than the Romans did on this occasion. The event of it was
the total reduction of Numidia, about the year B.C. 105; but Mau-
ritania and Getulia preserved their liberty for some time longer. In
the east, the empire of Syria continued daily to decline, by which
means the Jews had not only an opportunity of recovering their
liberty, but even of becoming almost as powerful, or at least of ex-
tending their dominions as far as in the days of David and Solomon.
The Syrian empire was still further reduced by the civil dissentions
between the two brothers, Antiochus Gryphus and Antiochus Cyzice-
nus, during which the cities of Tyre, Sidon, Ptolemais, and Gaza, de-
clared themselves independent; and in other cities tyrants started up,
who refused allegiance to any foreign power. This happened
B.C. 100 ; and seventeen years after, the whole was reduced by
Tigranes, king of Armenia. On his defeat by the Romans, the latter




UNIVERSAL prography. [B.c.100.
reduced Syriat
§ º
*
<g ia to a province of their empire. The kingdom of Arme-
mia itself, with those of Pontus, Cappadocia, and Bithynia, soon shared
gover NMENT. *
PTOLEMY PHILOMETOR and PTOLEMY PHYS-
CON, both minors at their father's decease. Philometor, at
the age of six, was declared successor to the crown of Egypt,
under the guardianship of his mother, Cleopatra. She had the
conduct of the regency during eight years; but after her death
the young king was dethroned, and his brother Physcon was
declared sovereign. Physcon, who assumed the name of Euer-
getes II., was expelled by Antiochus, who placed Philometor
on the throne. The two brothers were then persuaded to reign
in conjunction. They did not, however, live in concord, and
Physcon dethroned his brother. The latter proceeded to
Rome in a mean garb, and with a few attendants, in order to
excite compassion ; and representing his wrongs before the
senate, they deputed two of their body to conduct him back
and restore him. They º the difference by de-
creeing the possession of Egypt to Philometor, and that of
Tybia and Cyrene to Physcon. The latter, afterwards, by
a journey to Rome, obtained a decree for the addition of Cy-
prus to his share, which island had before been common to the
brothers. Philometor, not choosing to acquiesce in the decree
aich deprived him of his share of Cyprus, opposed his bro-
ith an armed force in the island, and took him prisoner.
he displayed a truly fraternal spirit, and not only
i the hostility, but restored to him Lybia and Cyre
d lost, and added some territories in lieu of Cyprus.
Philometor was engaged in a contest with Alexan-
Balas, in which he lost his #. in the year B.C. 145. Phi-
toris highly extolled % historians, both for his benevolence
*mency. By his wife and sister, Cleopatra, he left a son
and two daughters.
. Upon the death of Philometor, Physcon prepared to assert his
claim to the succession. By the mediation of the Roman ambas-
sador, an accommodation was effected, on condition that Physcon
i marry Cleopatra, and reign jointly with her, while her son
- idered as heir to the throne. Physcon, however,
be considered as &
d theson on the veryday oft ials; and the remain.

















































B. c. 180.1 from proLEMy philometor to spartacus.
which he perpetrated. He lived the scourge of the l
race, and the curse of his own people, till the year B
Tyrant as he was, he had the reputation of being a gi
tron and promoter of learning, and even such a proficie
letters as to have obtained the title of Ptolemy the Philologist.
He enriched the Alexandrian library with a great number of
books, collected at a vast expense; and himself composed an
historical work, regarded as a commentary on Homer.
PTOLEMY, sirnamed LATHY RUS, from an excrescence
on his nose, succeeded his father, Physcon, as king of Egypt,
He had no sooner ascended the throne, than his mother, Cleo-
patra, who reigned conjointly with him, expelled him from
Cyprus, and placed the crown on the head of his brother,
Ptolemy Alexander, her favourite son. Lathyrus, banished
from Egypt, became king of Cyprus; and soon after he ap-
peared at the head of a large army, to make war against Alex-
ander Jahnaeus, king of Judea, through whose assistance and
intrigue he had been expelled by Cleopatra. The Jewish
monarch was conquered, and fifty thousand of his men were
left on the field of battle. Lathyrus, after he had exercised
the greatest cruelty upon the Jews, and made vain attempts to
recover the kingdom of Egypt, retired to Cyprus till the death
of his brother Alexander restored him to his native dominions.
Some of the cities of Egypt refused to acknowledge him as
their sovereign; and Thebes, for its obstinacy, was closely be-
sieged for three successive years, and from a powerful and po-
pulous city, it was reduced to ruins. In the latter part of H
%
reign Lathyrus was called upon to assist the Romans with a
navy, for the conquest of Athens; but Lucullus, who had b
sent to obtain the desired supply, though received with kingly
honours, was dismissed with evasive and unsatisfactory an-
swers, and the monarch refused to part with troops which he
deemed necessary to preserve the peace of his kingdom.
thyrus died 81 years before the Christian era, after a re
of thirty-five years since the death of his father, Physcon
eleven of which he had passed with his mother, Cleopatra, on
the Egyptian throne, eighteen in Cyprus, and seven after h
mother's death. He was succeeded by his only daughter,
opatra, whom Alexander, the son of Ptolemy Alexander, by
means of the dictator Sylla, soon after married and murdered
ALl XAN. J.I. R I., king of º Egypt, the son of . * É
con, reigned conjointly with his mother, Cleopatri
ween years, till finding, or pretending, that she w
against ther to death B. C. 106, w
nia ev icide, and he was slain

















































UNIversal, Biography. [B. c. 160.
and at his death left his dominions to the Romans, who with
more than usual generosity declared the people free.
ALEXANDER II., king of Egypt, son of Alexander I.
was placed on the throne, upon the death of his uncle Ptolemy
Lathyrus by Sylla. He began his reign by the murder of his
wife and cousin Berenice. After a reign of fifteen years he
was expelled, B. C. 65, and died soon after at Tyre.
AN łºś VI., king of Syria, was sirnamed Enthens,
or noble. His father Alexander Balas, entrusted him to the
care of Malcus, an Arabian; and he received the crown from
Tryphon, in opposition to his brother Demetrius, whom the
people hated. Before he had been a year on the throne, Try-
phon murdered him B. C. 143, and reigned in his place for
three years. x .
DEMETRIUS, sirnamed NICATOR, or conqueror, was
the son of Soter and succeeded Alexander Balas, whom he ex-
pelled by the assistance of Ptolemy Philometor. He married
Cleopatra, the daughter of Ptolemy, and the wife of Balas.
Demetrius gave himself up to voluptuousness, and suffered
his kingdom to be governed by his favourites. At that time a
pretended son of Balas, called Antiochus Tryphon, seized a
part of Syria, and Demetrius, to oppose his antagonist, made
an alliance with the Jews, and marched into the east, where he
was taken by the Parthians. Phraates, king of Parthia, gave
him his daughter Rhodogyne in marriage; and Cleopatra was
so incensed at this new connection that she gave herself up
Antiochus Sidetes, her brother-in-law, and married him. Si-
detes was killed in a battle against the Parthians, and Deme-
trius regained the possession of his kingdom. His pride and
oppressions rendered him odious; his subjects asked a king of
the house of Seleucus from Ptolemy Physcom, king of Egypt;
and Demetrius, unable to resist his enemies, fled to Ptolemais,
which was then in the hands of his wife Cleopatra. The gates
were shut, on his approach, by Cleopatra; and he was killed by
the governor of Tyre, whither he fled for protection B. C. 123.
He was succeeded by Alexander Zebina, another pretended
son of Balas, whom #. raised to the throne.
ALEXANDER ZEBINA, king of Syria, an impostor,
founding upon a former imposture, claimed right to the
of Syria, by pretending to be the son of Alexander
and being assisted by Physcon, the tyrant of Egypt,
d and put to flight Demetrius Nicator, and reigned in
d for two years, but was slain by that monarch's son
ead
The treasures of
s transaction.






























b. c. 160.J FROM proLEMY PHILoMETor to spartAcus. 585
which they plundered the island amounted to the enormous
sum of 1,356,250l. sterling.
PTOLEMY AULETES, an illegitimate son of Lathyrus.
This musical prince derived his cognomen of Auletes, the flute
player, from his excessive attachment to that instrument. He
had such an opinion of his own abilities as to institute musical
contests at his palaces, and had there the courage to dispute
the prize publicly, with the first musicians of his time; and as
the dress of players on the flute among the ancients was pecu-
liar to that profession, this prince submitted to wear the robe,
the buskins, the crown, and even the bandage and veil. His
violent passion for music, and for the company of musicians,
gained him the name of the new bacchus. &
A melancholy truth forces itself upon the mind in reading
the history of this prince, and that of the emperor Nero, whom
he very much resembled, which is, that if the heart is depraved,
music has not the power to correct it. And though these mu-
sical princes obtained prizes in the public games, they acquired
no honour to themselves, nor did they reflect any upon the
profession of music. As his Y.” by his will had left
the kingdom of Egypt to the Romans, Auletes knew that he
could not be firmly established on his throne, without the ap-
probation of the Roman senate. He was successful in his
applications, and Caesar, who was then consul, and in want of
money, established his succession, and granted him the alliance
of the Romans after he had received the enormous sum of
about 162,500l. sterling. But these measures rendered him
unpopular at home, and when he had suffered the Romans
quietly to take possession of Cyprus, the Egyptians revolted,
and Auletes was obliged to fly from his º and seek
protection among the most powerful of his allies. His com-
plaints were heard at Rome at first with indifference, and the
murder of one hundred noblemen of Alexandria, whom the
Egyptians had sent to justify their proceedings before the
Roman senate, rendered him unpopular and suspected. Pompey,
however, supported his cause, and the senate decreed to re-
establish Auletes on his throne; but as they proceeded slowly
in the execution of their plans, the monarch retired from Rome
to Ephesus, where he lay concealed for some time in the tem-
ple of Diana. During his absence from Alexandria, his daugh-
ter Berenice had made herself absolute, and established her-
self on the throne by a marriage with Archelaus, a priest of
Bellona's temple at Comana, but she was soon driven from
Egypt, when Gabinius, at the head of a Roman army, ap-
proached to replace Auletes on his throne. Auletes was no
sooner restored to power than he sacrificed to his ambition his
ghter Berenice, and behaved with the greatest ingrati tide
and perfidy to Rabiricis, a Roman who had supplied him with








money, when expelled from his kingdom.
years after his restoration, . about five
era. He left two sons and two daught
dered the eldest of his sons to marry the eldest of his sisters,
ld to ascend with her the vacant throne. As these children
tection and paternal care of the Romans, and accordingly
Pompey the Great was appointed by the senate to be their
patron and their guardian. Their reign was as turbulent as that
of their predecessors, and it is remarkable for no uncommon
event, only we may observe that the young queen was the
Cleopatra who soon after became so celebrated as being the
mistress of Julius Caesar, the wife of Mark Antony, and the
last of the Egyptian monarchs of the family of Langus.
BERENICE, daughter of Ptolemy Auletes, king of Egypt,
succeeded her father before his death. This banished prince
implored the assistance of the Romans, and Pompey restored
him. Berenice, to support herself on the throne, allured a
prince, whose name was Seleucus, descended from the kings of
Syria, and admitted him to her nuptial bed, and to her sceptre.
She was soon weary of him, and put him to death. She next
cast her eye on Archelaus, who married her, and put himself
at the head of her troops to repulse the Romans. He was
killed in battle. Ptolemy returned to Alexandria, and put his
rebellious daughter Berenice to death. * . . . . . .
PTOLEMYDIONYSIUS or BACCHUS, king of Egypt,
son of Auletes, ascended the throne with his sister Cleopatra,
whom he married, according to the will of his father. Pompey
the Great, who had been his guardian, fled into Egypt after his
him. Ptolemy, who
was no more faithful to Caesar, than he had been to his rival,
* ARCHELAUS, who married Berenice, and made himsel
killed by the soldiers of Gabinius, B.C. 56. He had been mad
We shall now take notice of the Jews of this period; after
ch we return to the Syrians, &c.
Thassi, the son of

























B. c. 110.] FROM PtoleMY PHILOMETOR. To spartAcus. 587
of the Mediterranean sea, from Tyre to the frontiers of Egypt
His administration was singularly prudent, and it was his great
object to render his nation prosperous and secure. With this
view, he made a harbour at Jaffa, for the improvement of the
trade of the Jews, and he extended the limits of his country;
he also renewed the alliance of the Jews with the Romans and
the Lacedaemonians; and the whole Jewish nation acknow-
ledged their obligations to him by various tokens of respect,
and particularly by recompensing him and his children as per-
R. prince and pontiff of their nation. When Demetrius
Nicator was taken by the Parthians, Antiochus, king of Syria,
and brother of Demetrius, applied to him for succour against
Tryphon, and not only confirmed the grants of his brother, but
allowed him the privilege of coining money, remitted to him all
debts owing to the kings of Syria, and declared Jerusalem to
be a free and an holy city. Simon sent him men and money to
assist him in the reduction of Dorea, in which Tryphon had
shut himself up. But Antiochus would not receive him, nor
would he confirm the articles of his treaty with Simon. He
also demanded the surrender of several places, and a thousand
talents of silver, threatening, in case of refusal, to enter Judea
with troops, and to treat him as an enemy. Simon disregarded
his threats; nevertheless he offered a hundred talents #. the
cities of Joppa and Gazara, of which he had made himself
master, because they occasioned great calamities to his coun-
try. The army of Antiochus, which he had sent to the coast
of the Mediterranean, was defeated by John Hyrcan, the son
of Simon; and three years afterwards, Simon visited the cities
of Judea, and came to the castle of Docus or Dagon, where
his son-in-law Ptolemy, son of Ambubus, resided. But Ptolemy,
though he entertained him magnificently, caused him, in the
midst of the entertainment, to be massacred, together with his
two sons, Mattathias and Judas, hoping thus to become master
of Jerusalem, and of the whole country. But John Hyrcan ar-
rived at Jerusalem to prevent it. .
JOHN HYRCAN I., high-priest and prince of the Jews,
was the son of Simon Maccabaeus. On the invasion of Judea
by the Syrian governor, in the year B.C. 139, he and his bro-
ther Judas led a body of troops, who entirely defeated the in-
yaders. After his father's murder, by his son-in-law, Ptolemy,
he went to Jerusalem, where he was declared Simon's successor
in the priesthood and sovereignty. This was in the year B, C,
185. Antiochus Sidetes laid siege to al .






























588 UNIversAL BIOGRAPHY. [b. c. 130.
of Antiochus, he took advantage of the civil dissensions prevail-
ing in Syria, and made himself master of several neighbouring
towns, and entirely shook off all dependance on that crown.
He afterwards became the aggressor, and made considerable
conquests for his country, till at length he extended his domi-
nion not only over Palestine, but also over the provinces of
Samaria and Galilee, and the Jewish state appeared with greater
lustre than under any of his predecessors since the captivity.
He was zealous for his religion, and attached to the sect of
Pharisees, but a quarrel with that haughty and powerful body
embittered the latter part of his life. He died in the year
B.C. 107, and was succeeded by his son Aristobulus.
ARISTOBULUS I., the son of John Hyrcan, was the
first king of the Jews after their return from the captivity. He
was also the first who united the royal and pontifical dignities.
He reigned little more than a year, and died B. C. 105.
ALEXANDER JANNAEUS, king and high priest of the
Jews; a bloody tyrant, who, after a complete victory obtained
over his subjects, had the barbarity, not only to crucify 800 of
them in one day, at Jerusalem, but to increase their dying
agonies in that state, by murdering their wives and children in
their sight, while he, with his wives and concubines, at their
banquet, beheld the horrid scene; notwithstanding which, he
was suffered to die in peace, B. C. 79.
ALEXANDRA, queen of Judea, the widow and successor
of Alexander Jannaeus; a wise and virtuous, princess, who,
contrary to the example of her husband, studied to please her
subjects, and preserved peace and prosperity during her reign,
which lasted only seven years. She died in the seventy-third
of her age, B.C. 70. .
HYRCAN II., high-priest and king of the Jews, was eldest
son of Alexander Jannaeus; but at the death of his father, his
mother, Alexandra, took the reins of government, and allotted
to him the succession of the priesthood. On her decease,
Hyrcan was declared king, but being of a quiet and umenter-
prising disposition, he was quickly dispossessed of his dignities,
and reduced to a private station. He was afterwards persuaded
by Antipater to accompany him to Arabia, in the vain hope of
obtaining the assistance of king Aretas to restore him. The
Romans, gained over by Aristobulus, the brother of Hyrcan,
defeated Aretas, and the two brothers at length pleaded their
person before Pompey. In the year B. C. 63, Hyrcan
alty, and made tributary to P.
protection of the I
sthood. He was then















B. c. 160.J FROM PTOLEMY PHILOMETOR To SPARTACUs. 589
carried into Parthia, where he was well treated, till he com-
plied with an invitation from Herod to return to Jerusalem, and
resume the pontificate. His honours were of short duration,
being beheaded by the tyrant when he was in the eightieth
ear of his age.
ARISTOBULUS II., the son of Alexander Jannaeus, king
of the Jews, succeeded his brother Hyrcan, B. C. 68, and
.." five years, when he was dethroned and Hyrcan re-
stored. .” .
ANTIPATER, an Idumaean of illustrious birth, and pos
sessed of great riches and abilities. Taking advantage of the
confusion into which the two brothers Hyrcan and Aristobu-
lus had plunged Judea, by their contest for the office of high-
priest, he took such measures as to gain Hyrcan that
office, and under his government to obtain the absolute direc-
tion of all affairs, while his great abilities and application to
business, made him so considerable, that he was honoured as
much as if he had been invested with the royal authority in
form, but he was at last poisoned by a Jew named Malachus,
forty-three years before the Christian era. He left, among his
other children, the famous Herod, king of the Jews. .
ALEXANDER II., was the son of Aristobulus the second,
king of the Jews. . He was sent prisoner to Rome by Pompey,
with his father, his brother Antigonus, and two sisters. On being
delivered from prison, and going into Judea, he raised an army,
and opposed Hyrcan, the brother of Aristobulus, but was de-
feated by Gabinius, the Roman general, and sent a prisoner
to Rome. Caesar afterwards restored him to liberty, in hope
that he would be serviceable to him in Syria; but he again
turned against the Romans; and with the same bad success.
Scipio put him to death at Antioch, by order of Pompey, B.C.
ANTIGONUS, king of Judea, the son of Aristobulus; he
entered into an alliance with the king of the Parthians, and be-
sieged Jerusalem; he cut off his uncle Hyrcan's ears, to inca-
pacitate him for the high-priesthood, and put Joseph, Herod's
brother, to death. At length, Herod took him and sent him to
Mark Antony; who, to gratify Herod, cut off his head, and
thereby extinguished the Asmonean race, who had reigned
126 years. This happened B. C. 36. .
ANTIOCHUS VII., king of Syria, called Sidetes, was the
son of Demetrius Soter, reigned nine years. He married Cleo-
patra, the wife of Demetrius his brother. In the beginning of
his reign, he was afraid of Tryphon, and concealed himself,
but he soon obtained the means of destroying his enemy. He
made war against Phraates, king of Parthia, and he fell in the
battle which was soon after fought about 130 years before the .










UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY, . . [B, C, 140.
of justice, and inclined to clemency, but too much addicted to
intemperance and amusement. Phraates is said, on viewing
his dead body, to have exclaimed, “Your wine, Antiochus, and
your too great confidence, have brought you to this untimely
end. You thought you could have swallowed the kingdom of
Arsaces in your cups!” tº ". . .”
ANTIOCHUS VIII., sirnamed Gryphus, from his aquiline
nose, son of Antiochus VII., by Cleopatra. His brother Se-
eucus was destroyed by Cleopatra, and he himself would have
shared the same fate, had not he discovered his mother's arti-
fice, and compelled her to drink the poison which was prepared
for himself. He killed Alexander Zebina, whom Ptolemy had
set to oppose him on the throne of Syria, and was at last as-
sassinated, B. C. 112, after a reign of eleven years. - -
ANTIOCHUS IX., sirnamed Cyzenicus, from the Cyzicus,
where he received his education, was son of Antiochus Sidetes,
by Cleopatra. He disputed the kingdom with his brother
Gryphus, who ceded to him Coelo-syria, part of his patrimony.
He was at last conquered by his nephew, Seleucus, near An-
tioch, and rather than continue prisoner in his hands, he killed
himself, B.C. 93. While a private man, he seemed worthy to
#. but when on the throne, he was dissolute and tyrannical.
He was fond of mechanics, and invented some useful military
§
ANTIOCHUS X., was ironically sirnamed Pius, because
he married Selena, the wife of his father and of his uncle. He
was the son of Antiochus the Ninth, and he expelled Seleucus,
the son of Gryphus, from Syria, and was killed in a battle he
fought against the Parthians, in the cause of the Galatians.
After his death, the kingdom of Syria was torn to pieces by
the factions of the royal family or usurpers, who, under a good
or a false title, under the name of Antiochus or his relations,
established themselves for a little time either as sovereigns of
Syria, or Damascus, or other dependant provinces. At last,
Antiochus, surnamed Asiaticus, the son of Antiochus the Ninth,
was restored to his paternal throne by the influence of Lu-
cullus, the Roman general, on the expulsion of Tigranes, king
of Armenia, from the Syrian dominions; but four years after,
#
Pompey deposed him, and observed, that he who himself while
a usurper sat on his throne, ought not to be a king. From
that time, B.C. 65, Syria became a Roman province, and the
race of Antiochus was extinguished. loº
SELENA, the wife of Antiochus, king of Syria, put to
'hyscom, king of Egypt, and had first married her brother
nother, her othe ther. Grvin






























B. c.185.1 FROM PTOLEMY PHILOMETor to spartAcus.
Antiochus Cyzenicus, by whom she had two sons. According
to Appian, she first married the father, and after his death, his
son Eusebes. ,
PHRAATES I., king of Parthia, who succeeded Arsaces
the Third, called also Phriapatius. He made war against An-
tiochus, king of Syria, and was defeated in three successive
battles. He left many children behind him, but as they were
all too young, and unable to succeed to the throne, he appointed
his brother, Mithridates, king, of whose abilities and military
prudence, he had often been a spectator.
PHRAATES II., made war against the Scythians, whom he
called to his assistance against Antiochus, king of Syria, and
whom he refused to pay, on the pretence that they came too
late. He was murdered by some Greek mercenaries who had
been once his captives, and who had enlisted in his army,
ARTABANUS I., a king of Parthia, after the death of his
nephew Phraates the Second. He undertook a war against a
nation of Scythia, in which he perished. . .
PHRAATES III., succeeded his father Pacorus on the
throne of Parthia, and gave one of his daughters in marriage
to Tigranes, the son of Tigranes, king of Armenia. Soon
after, he invaded the kingdom of Armenia, to make his son-in-
law sit on the throne of his father. His expedition was at-
tended with ill success. He renewed a treaty of alliance which
his father had made to the Romans. At his return into Par-
thia, he was assassinated by his sons Orodes and Mithridates.
MHTHRIDATES VI., was the first of the kings of
Pontus who made alliance with the Romans. He furnished
hem with a fleet in the third Punic war, and assisted them
against Aristonicus, who had laid claim to the kingdom of
Pergamus. This fidelity was rewarded; he was called Euer-
!etes, and received from the Roman people the province of
'hrygia Major, and was called the friend and ally of Rome.
He was murdered B. C. 123. * . . . . . .
MITHRIDATES, king of Pontus, sirnamed “Eupator,”
and “the Great,” was the son of Mithridates VI., the king of
that country, who entered into an alliance with the Romans.
At the death of his father, B.C. 123, he succeeded to the
crown when he was only about twelve years of age. He was,
from a very early period of life, accustomed to martial exer-
cises and the sports of the chace, by which he was i º
N. x inured to
fatigues. In his mind were imprinted the characters of t
his



























592 UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. B. c. 135
ended her days. When arrived at the age of manhood, he
took his own sister, Laodice, for a wife, which was the common
É. of the eastern monarchs of that period. After the
oirth of a son, he made a progress through all the neighbour-
ing Asiatic states, with the view of observing their strength
and policy. In this journey he spent three years, during which
his queen attached herself to one of her lords of the court;
and, on his return, she made an attempt to poison her husband.
He drank the potion, but his constitution was proof against its
baneful contents, and the discovery of her infidelity and wicked
intentions, was the occasion of her death, with that of all her
accomplices.
Mithridates now entered upon his career of ambition; he
overran the neighbouring kingdom of Paphlagonia, which he
at length divided with his ally, Nicomedes, the king of Bithynia,
totally regardless of the remonstrances of the Romans, who had
declared it a free state. He next reduced Galatia, though
under the protection of Rome. After this, he anxiously
wished to make himself master of Cappadocia, then possessed
by his brother-in-law and friend, Ariarathes, whom he caused
to be privately assassinated, upon which the kingdom was
seized by Nicomedes, who married the widow. Mithridates,
however, under the pretence of securing the crown for his
nephew, drove out Nicomedes, and seated the young prince
upon the throne, whom he afterwards stabbed by the most
scandalous treachery. The Cappadocian army, who were wit-
nesses of the abominable deed, threw down their weapons, and
suffered Mithridates to take possession of all the fortresses in
the kingdom. He now placed on the throne a minor son of his
own, under the guardianship of Gordius, who had been his
wicked instrument in assassinating his brother-in-law. The
jealousy of Nicomedes induced him to bring forward a pre-
tended son of Ariarathes, who was sent to Rome to lay his
complaints before the senate, and implore its assistance to seat
him on the throne of his fathers. Mithridates, apprized of the
fact, sent deputies to state to the senate the imposture, and in
conclusion, both kings were commanded to relinquish their
claims, and the crown of Cappadocia was conferred upon Ario-
barzanes. This was but . commencement of the dispute,
and the Roman commanders, according to their usual practice,
endeavoured to excite hostilities among the Asiatic kings, that
they might have a pretence to interfere in their contests. From
the year B.C. 90, open war may be considered as prevailing
the Roman republic and Mithridates, which was ex-
d only by the death of the latter. The early successes
ates led him to aspire to the honour of being th
from the º toman yo ke, and :














B. c.185.1 FROM ProLEMY PHILoMEToR to spartacus.
countries in their alliance and possession, being every w
here
received by the people as their deliverer. His great object
now was to ingratiate himself with people of all classes and
countries by several popular acts; such as restoring, without
ransom, all the Asiatic prisoners who had fallen into his hands.
The free cities of Asia, won over by these specious acts of ge-
nerosity, opened their gates to him, and took pleasure in de-
molishing all the monuments erected by the Romans. Mithri-
dates, determined upon irreconcileable enmity to that people,
and wishing to involve the Asiatics in the same principles, sent
to the magistrates throughout the cities in which any Roman
citizens had established themselves, directing, that on a certain
day, a general massacre should be perpetrated on all of Italian
birth or origin, not excepting women and the youngest children.
In this horrid massacre, it was imagined that at least 80,000
Roman citizens lost their lives; some accounts have indeed
reckoned them at nearly double that number. By this master-
stroke of bloody policy, for which his name must for ever be
transmitted with infamy, Mithridates made himself master of
the whole of Lesser Asia, and proceeded, without remorse or
delay, to the conquest of the neighbouring islands, several of
which he quickly reduced. Af Cos he took possession of a
large sum of money, which had been deposited there by the
Asiatic Jews, and intended for the temple of Jerusalem. He
next made an attempt upon Rhodes, but was defeated, and in-
curred so much personal risk, that he ever afterwards felt an
abhorrence of the sea. Archelaus, one of his generals, cross-
ing over to Greece, made himself master of Athens, while his
own son, Ariarathes, conquered Macedonia and Thrace. He
was now at the summit of power, and is said to have received
the homage of twenty-five different nations. His memory, and
talent for the acquisition of languages were so great, that he
could converse with the natives of all those nations without the
aid of an interpreter. From this period, we may date his de-
cline; Sylla procured of his countrymen the chief command
against Mithridates, and sailing to Greece, recovered Athens,
in the year, B. C. 86. He afterwards defeated with great
slaughter, the troops of Archelaus, at Chaeromea, and by two
other decisive victories, he put an end to the war in Greece.
Mithridates was pursued from place to place, till at length, he
was obliged to submit to conditions, at which the greatness of
his mind revolted; these conditions were, that he should resign
all his conquests, and confine himself within his paternal domi-
nions of Pontus; that he should release all his captives without
ransom; pay down a large sum of money; deliver up the
and practise no hostilities again
greater part of his fleet; and practi x
those who had revolted from him, and taken part wi
mans. Although the king had acquiesced in these terms,
VOL. I. Q q


















Universal Biography. [B. C. 135.
it was with the secret determination to break them, as soon
as he should be sufficiently powerful for the purpose. A new
war was kindled about the year B.C. 74, in which the success
of Mithridates was so great, that he recovered the best part of
Pontus, which had, in the early part of the contest, been
wrested from him, Bithynia, Cappadocia, and Armenia Minor.
At length, Pompey, invested with great power, was sent by the
Romans to put an end to this long-continued war, which he
accomplished by destroying, or dispersing all the king's troops,
except a body of cavalry, through which he forced a passage.
Mithridates fled into Armenia, whence he withdrew to Colchis,
and thence to Scythia, between the Euxine and Caspian seas.
Here he was so completely concealed that it was supposed he
was dead, till he emerged from his retreat at the head of a
considerable army, and made himself master of several important
places. His success was but short-lived, and those even, who
were willing to submit to his power, had no confidence in his
cause, but chose rather to join what they thought was the
strongest party. He now adopted the design of marching into
Europe, and exciting the Gauls in his cause, which created
such discontents in the army, as to lead them to choose Phar-
naces, the favourite son of Mithridates, as their king. Having
in vain attempted to recal his son to the principles of duty, he
attempted to destroy himself first by poison, and then by his
sword, but in both he failed, and was at last despatched, at his
own request, by a Gallic mercenary. This was in the year
B. C. 64, when the king had attained to the 71st year of his
age. He was one of the most formidable enemies of the Ro-
man republic, and the news of his death was received with the
greatest joy and exultation. His body was delivered to Pom-
pey, who, with the magnanimity of a generous enemy, be-
stowed upon it a most magnificent funeral. Mithridates was
learned, and a patron of learning, he was particularly attached
to medicine, and an electuary still bears his name. .
MONIMA, the wife of Mithridates, touched the heart of
that monarch the first time he saw her. It was in the city of
Stratonice, soon after he had gained great advantages over the
Roman generals Oppius, Manlius, &c. He in vain attempted
to seduce her, she would not yield to him, but in the honour-
§ of marriage, Wii. conduct spread her praises
- . She often regretted her "...;
a tragical end; for Mithridates, being vanquished by





















B.C. 135.] FROM PTOLEMY PHILOMETOR TO SPARTACUs. 595
Eupator, who were put to death by his command, lest they
should fall into the hands of his conqueror, Lucullus. He
gave this mandate to prevent their virtue from being stained.
PHARNACES, the favourite son of Mithridates the Great,
who ungratefully rebelled against him, and caused him to commit
suicide. He was defeated by Caesar, in the expeditious battle,
of which he wrote home to Rome, Veni, widi, vici. Pharnaces
was afterwards killed in another battle with the Romans.
METRODORUS, a friend of Mithridates, sent as ambas-
sador to the king of Armenia. He was remarkable for his learn-
ing, moderation, humanity, and justice. He was, however, put to
death by his royal master, B.C. 72. : *
ARIARATHES VII., was proclaimed king of Cappadocia,
and soon after married Laodice, the sister of Mithridates Eu-
pator, by whom he had two sons. He was murdered by an
illegitimate brother, upon which, his widow, Laodice, gave her-
self and kingdom to Nicomedes, king of Bithynia. Mithri-
dates made war against the new king, and raised his nephew to
the throne. The young king, who was the eighth of the name
of Ariarathes, made war against the tyrannical Mithridates, by
whom he was assassinated in the presence of both armies, and
the murderer's son, a child eight years old, was placed on the
vacant throne. The Cappadocians revolted, and made the late
monarch's brother, Ariarathes the Ninth, king, but Mithridates
expelled him, and restored his own son. The exiled prince
died of a broken heart; and Nicomedes of Bithynia, dreading
the power of the tyrant, interested the Romans in the affairs
of Cappadocia. The arbiters wished to make the country
free; but the Cappadocians demanded a king, and received
Ariobarzanes. .
ARIOBARZANESI.,king of Cappadocia, was chosen by the
people of that country, B. C.91; but in a short time after, Tig-
ranes, king of Armenia, expelled him. He, however, having gone
to Rome, obtained such assistance as enabled him to recover
the crown, which he afterwards resigned in favour of his
son, who ascended the throne under the name of Ariarathes
the Tenth; but his title was disputed by Sisenma, the eldest
son of Glaphyra, by Archelaus, priest of Comana. M. Antony,
who was umpire between the contending parties, decided in
favour of Sisenna; but Ariarathes recovered it for a time,
though he was soon after obliged to yield in favour of Arche-
laus, the second son of Glaphyra, B.C. 36.
TIGRANES, a king of Armenia, who made himself master
of Assyria and Cappadocia. He married Cleopatra, the daugh
ter of Mithridates, and, by the advice of his father-in-law, he
war against the Romans. fº
. He despised these distant
, and even ordered the head of the messenger, º, .
toff, who first told him that the Roman general was
3 Q q 2
º
§ *
advice

























596 UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. [B. C. 135
advancing towards his capital. His pride, however, was soon
abated, and though he ordered the Roman consul, Lucullus,
to be brought alive into his presence, he fled with precipitation
from his capital, and was soon after defeated near mount Tau-
rus. This totally disheartened him; he refused to receive
Mithridates into his palace, and even set a price upon his head.
His mean submissions to Pompey, the successor of Lucullus in
Asia, and a bribe of 60,000 talents, insured him on his throne,
and he received a garrison in his capital, and continued at
peace with the Romans. …
TROSINE, wife of Tigrames, king of Armenia, who, upon
her husband being conquered by Pompey, was compelled to
grace his entrance into Rome.
TIGRANES, son of the preceding, revolted against his fa-
ther, and attempted to dethrone him with the assistance of the
king of Parthia, whose daughter he had married. This did
not succeed, and the son had recourse to the Romans, by whom
he was put in possession of Sophene, while the father remained
quiet on the throne of Armenia. The son was afterwards sent
in chains to Rome, for his insolence to Pompey.
ATTALUS III., king of Pergamus, nephew of Attalus II.
He put to death most of his own family, and a great number of
other persons, of whom he was suspicious. He died in the fifth
year of his reign, and having left his goods to the Romans, they
seized the whole of his dominions, and thus put an end to the
kingdom of Pergamus. .
ARISTONICUS, son of Eumenes, by a concubine of
Ephesus, B.C. 126, invaded Asia, and the kingdom of Perga-
mus, which Attalus had left by his will to the Roman people.
He was conquered by the consul Perpenna, and strangled in
prison. . 3.
NICOMEDES IV., of Bithynia, performed nothing worth
transmitting to posterity. As he died without male issue, he
left his kingdom by his last will to the Romans. His daughter
Musa, however, claimed the kingdom of Bithynia for her son,
as the next male heir to the crown, but without success; no
motives of justice being of such weight with the ambitious
Romans as to make them part with a kingdom, B. C. 75.
ARETAPHILA, of Cyrene, the wife of Phaedimus, a noble-
man of that place. Nicocrates murdered the husband for the sake
of the wife. Yet the tyrant, suspecting that she designed a
poison for him, put her to the rack to extort a confession, and
afterwards begged her forgiveness. She, however, manage
so as to get Nicocrates slain; and his brother ascended the
livered to Amabus, king of Lybia, by
throne, whom she de
which she freed her country from oppression.
EUNUS, a Syrian slave, who inflamed the minds of the
titude by pretended inspirations. He filled a mut








b. c. 160.J FROM PTOLEMY PHILOMETOR. To spartACUs. 597
with sulphur in his mouth, and by artfully conveying fire to it,
he breathed out flames to the astonishment of the people, who
believed him to be a god, or something more than human.
Oppression and misery compelled two thousand slaves to join
his cause, and he soon saw himself at the head of fifty thou-
sand men. With this he defeated the Roman armies, till Per-
penna obliged him to surrender by famine, and exposed on a
cross the greater part of his followers. §§ ... 3
JUGURTHA, king of Numidia, was the natural son of
Manastabal, one of the three sons of Masinissa, who, after
the death of that prince, possessed the kingdom jointly. Mi-
cipsa, the survivor, and who inherited his father's kingdom,
educated his nephew Jugurtha, with his two sons Adherbal and
Hiempsal; but as he was of an aspiring disposition, he sent
him with a body of troops to the assistance of Scipio, who was
besieging Numantia, hoping to lose a youth, whose ambition
seemed to threaten the tranquillity of his children. His hopes
were frustrated, and Jugurtha returned with great glory, hav-
ing also acquired the friendship of his general Scipio Africanus.
Micipsa appointed him successor to his kingdom with his two
sons, but the kindness of the father proved fatal to his chil-
dren. Jugurtha caused Hiempsal to be assassinated, and
stripped Adherbal of his possessions, and obliged him to |
to ''. for safety. The Roman people listened to the well-
grounded complaints of Adherbal, but Jugurtha's influence
prevailed among the senators; and the suppliant monarch, for-
saken in his distress, perished by the snares of the enemy, and
with every circumstance of cruelty. These atrocities excited
such a flame at Rome, that the senate, in effect, declared war
against Jugurtha. Caecilius Metellus was sent against him, and,
by his firmness and success, the Numidian was forced to seek
support for his savage neighbours. A variety of actions en-
sued, in which the Roman arms were mostly successful, though
Jugurtha, skilfully pursuing the Numidian mode of warfare,
did not cease to harass his enemies, and oppose obstacles to
their attempts. Marius and Sylla succeeded Metellus, and
fought with equal success; at length they persuaded Bocchus,
a Mauritanian king, who was in alliance with Jugurtha, and
his near relation, to enter into negociations of peace. By
tempting offers he agreed to betray Jugurtha, and put him
into the hands of his enemy; he was accordingly delivered up
to Sylla, after a war of five years. Sylla carried him in chains
to Rome in the year B. C. 106, and the joy testified on behold-
ing him there in the condition of a captive, was a proof of the
dread which he had excited as an enemy. He was exposed to
the view of the Roman people, and dragged in chains with his
sons to adorn the triumph of Marius, after which he was in-
sulted by the populace, and remanded to his dungeon, where


598. 3. UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. [B.C. 180.
he was either strangled or suffered to perish with hunger. He
left two sons, who spent their days in captivity, and his domi-
mions were divided between Bocchus, the remaining heirs of
Masinissa, and the Roman republic. . . §
BOCCHUS, king of Mauritania, who leagued with Jugur.
tha, his father-in-law, against the Romans, but being defeated
by Marius, he sought the favour of his conquerors by deliver-
ing Jugurtha into their hands. The traitor then obtained part
of d.º.º. about B. C. 100. .
PIUS METELLUS, a general in Spain, against Sertorius,
on whose head he set a price of one hundred talents, and
twenty thousand acres of land. He distinguished himself also
in the Marsian war, and was high priest. He obtained the
name of Pius from the sorrow he showed during the banish-
ment of his father Metellus Numidicus, whom he caused to be
recalled.
Romans of this period.
TIBERIUS SEMPRONIUS GRACCHUS, a person
very memorable in the history of Rome, was the son of a father
of the same name, a distinguished commander, and excellent
citizen, who, from the Plebeian ranks, arrived at distinguished
honours, and the highest offices in the state; and at length, to
complete his glory, he was slain while fighting for his country.
Tiberius received every advantage of education that the pious
affection of a wise parent could bestow, and his natural dispo-
sition seconded the efforts of his instructors. He was modest,
and remarkably mild in his temper; and became, at a very
arly age, distinguished for eloquence, sobriety, and political
knowledge; and his reputation was sealed by an admission into
the venerable college of augurs. It is mentioned, as a proof
of the high character which he sustained, that Claudius Ap-
pius, one of the most illustrious persons in Rome, and president
of the senate, offered him, spontaneously, his daughter in mar-
riage, which he thankfully accepted. When Appius informed
his wife what he had done, she replied, “Why so suddenly,
you might have taken time, even if Tiberius Gracchus were the
man!” In conformity with the Roman custom, Tiberius passed
. a in military service; first in Africa, under his brother-
n-law, the younger Scipio, where he obtained great credit in
the army, being equally beloved by tho º
ow him. He was made quaestor in the Numantian war, to
asul C. Hostilius Maniurus. This was in the C. 137.
V of neo-na the ene-

















































B.C. 180.1 FROM PTOLEMY PHILOMETOR TO SPARTACUS. 599.
Tiberius Gracchus, with whose character for probity and
strict honour they were well acquainted. This being admitted,
a peace was immediately . The treaty, though as
favourable as, from circumstances, would be expected, was re-
ceived by the Romans with great indignation; they determined
to annul it, and to deliver those, who had been instrumental in
making it, into the hands of the Numantines. The consul was
accordingly given up to them, naked and in chains, and it is
probable, that Tiberius Gracchus would have shared the same
fate, had not a powerful interest been exerted in his favour. A
sense of the injustice of the senate on this occasion, and resent-
ment of the dishonour they had thrown upon his treaty, was sup-
posed to be a principal cause of the subsequent hostilities in
which he engaged against that body. The condition of the
Romans, at this period, afforded a good opportunity for the
exertions of patriotism; for the great mass of the lower classes
of citizens were in a state of abject poverty. Laelius, the Wise,
the friend of Scipio, had attempted to introduce some remedy
for this evil, but the serious opposition of men in power had
deterred him from the execution of his plan. Tiberius Grac-
chus resolved to take up the cause. He was accordingly elected
a tribune of the people, and proposed a revival of the Licinian
law, with certain modifications, which greatly softened its ope-
rations. It offered a full compensation out of the treasury for
all the land above the five hundred acres allowed, which any
one might be obliged to resign to the public, and permitted a
child of a family to hold two hundred and fifty acres above the
five hundred held in the father's name. This proposal was re-
ceived, as it might be expected, by the superior orders, whose
rights and properties were to be affected by it; they were de-
termined to stand by one another in resisting the innovation.
On the other hand, Gracchus lost no time in rousing the people
to a knowledge and assertion of their claims, as men and mem-
bers of society. His speeches were addressed to their interests
and their feelings; his arguments were specious, and highly
dangerous to the peace of those whose wealth was become the
object of popular discussion; in one of his harangues, he ex-
claimed, “The wild beasts have their caves and dens, but the
brave men who shed their blood in the cause of their country,
have nothing free but the air and the light. It is a m
; a mere mock-
ery, when their generals exhort them to fight for their sepul-
chres and household gods, when, perhaps, not a man among
them is possessed of a domestic altar, or sepulchre, of his an-
cestors. The private men bleed and die to ries
of the great, and they are denominated th
while they are not owners of a
after much tum Pha state +















UnivERSAL Bl ocRAPHY, . [B.C. 180.
ther, Caius, were appointed commissioners, to carry its provi-
sions into execution. In his progress in the business, he was
embarrassed with many obstacles, and, on his part, he took
measures effectually to thwart the purposes of the great; and
by new laws which he got enacted, }. rendered the property of
ill the old families insecure. The difficulties which occurred
in carrying the new law into effect, were suspended by the death
of Attalus, king of Pergamus, who made the Roman people
his heirs. Gracchus procured a law for the distribution of his
treasures among the poorer citizens, and for the disposal of the
revenues of Pergamus, not by the senate, but by the assembly
of the people. These measures gave him a great degree of in-
fluence among the citizens, and he conceived the design of se-
curing the powers of which he felt himself possessed, by raising
his father-in-law to the consulate, his brother to the tribune-
ship, and continuing to himself the same office another year.
He also planned other regulations for abridging the authority
of the patricians, and throwing more weight into the popular
scale. The day of election was approaching, and the senators
resolved to make a stand against the innovations which he pro-
|...} and a conspiracy was openly formed to take away the
ife of Tiberius Gracchus. Of this he was informed by a friendly
senator, as he was proceeding to the Capitol. He, nevertheless,
advanced, and his party prepared to repel force by force. In
the uproar, he attempted to speak, but his voice could not be
heard. He made signs to his friends, by raising his hand to his
head, to show that his life was in danger. This signal was in-
stantly interpreted by his enemies as a demand of the regal
crown, and Scipio Nasica, the inveterate enemy of Gracchus, cried
out, “Since we are betrayed by our consul, let those who love
the republic follow me.” A general contest now commenced.
The adherents of Gracchus were quickly dispersed, and him-
self was despatched with a thousand blows; not less than three
hundred persons were slain in this commotion, and the bodies
of the dead, even that of Gracchus himself, were ignominiously
thrown into the Tiber. Several of his friends were afterwards
banished, and not a few put to death, without the form even of
trial, and the senate passed an act of indemnity for all those who
W. -
e concerned in the massacre. The people, however, indig-
nant against his enemies, drove Nasica from Italy, and would
never permit him to return. With respect to Tiberius Grac-
hus, his character has been celebrated, either as that of a mar.
tyr to liberty, or as a victim to lawless ambition, according to
e different principles of those who have commented on his
i. Many have thrown on his memory reflections, as un-
. sº ims to be acknowledged, on all
are severe. It seer .
OS: great talents, and that he wº
























B. C. 171.] FROM PTOLEMY PHILOMETOR. To SPARTACUs.
deny, and it may be, that a love of popularity suggested the
great measures which he proposed; nevertheless, the historian
may be safely followed, who says, that he was actuated by the
best intentions, but that he prosecuted his design with two much
violence. - -
. CAIUS GRACCHUS, brother to Tiberius, but his junior by
nine years, enjoyed the same advantages of education wi | his bro-
ther, which he so well improved, as to become one of the ablest
orators of his time. Cicero says of him, that he knows not if he
had his equal in eloquence, and recommends his compositions,
though unfinished, to the study of youth. After the tragical end
of his brother, Caius passed some time in retirement, cultivating
his rhetorical talents, and secretly preparing to act his part in the
theatre of the public. In the year }. C. 124 he accompanied
the consul Aurelius AErestes to Sardinia, as his quaestor, and
obtained great applause, as well for his humanity and tem-
perance, as for a strict attention to the duties of his office. The
senate shewed evident signs of jealousy on account of the popu-
larity which he acquired, and retained him as prequaestor in
Sardinia, in order to keep him at a distance from the Roman
forum. Perceiving their intentions, he ventured, in defiance of
their orders, to quit the island without leave of his commander,
and suddenly made his appearance at Rome. He was called
to account for this breach of military discipline, but was readily
acquitted. Soon after, he became a candidate for the tribune-
ship; and such was the zeal of the people in his favour, that
the Campus Martius was not able to contain the multitude who
flocked from the Italian towns to support his election, and
many gave their votes from the tops of the adjacent houses.
Caius had not forgotten the enemies of Tiberius, and would
have pursued them to their destruction, but was probably dis-
suaded from it by his mother. His speeches were calculated to
revive the indignation of the people against the senators for
their conduct towards Tiberius; and he proposed and carried
motions for confirming his brother's laws, and the passing of
others still more objectionable to the patricians. He was appoint-
ed commissioner for the division of lands among the poor citizens
and allies; and in his progress through Italy, he employed his
talents and wealth in repairing roads, building bridges, and in
other works equally useful and important. He established pub-
lic granaries in Rome, from which the citizens were to have
their monthly distributions of corn at a low price, the expenses
of which were to be defrayed by duties laid on goods imported
into the dominions of the late king Attalus. By these, and
other acts of a like kind, he so ingratiated himself with the peo-
ple, that he was chosen a second time tribune. Triumphing in
his success, he proposed a law for transferring from the sena-
tors to the knights the cognizance of all private causes. Whe






602 UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. [B.C. 171.
he had obtained his purpose, he exclaimed, “At length I have
humbled the senate.” He now left himself the arbiter of the
republic, and treated the patricians with contempt. This be-
haviour hastened his ruin. There is a point beyond which the
most successful man, whatever be his pretensions, cannot go
with safety. Caius had transgressed A. boundary, and his
enemies were perpetually on the watch for opportunities to
check his power, and to introduce rivals who might, by the ap-
pearance of more liberality, depreciate his reputation and in-
luence in the state. During his absence in Africa, his enemies
were ever on the alert to injure his fair fame, and to ascribe un-
worthy and base motives to all that he did or proposed to do;
and in the tumult which accompanied the discussion of some of
his laws after his return, he fled to the temple of Diana, and,
unwilling to sacrifice either himself or his adherents to popular
fury, he proposed terms of accommodation. These were re-
jected by the arts of Opimius the consul, and a price was in-
tantly set upon the heads of Gracchus and his friend Fulvius.
A formal battle ensued, in which multitudes were slain on both
sides, and the populace without hesitation deserted their
friends. Fulvius concealed himself, but, being discovered, was
instantly killed. Gracchus, having solemnly imprecated upon
the heads of the Roman people perpetual slavery for the base
desertion of the cause, left the city and crossed the bridge
named Publicius. His retreat was favoured by two faithful
friends, who defended the bridge till they fell covered with
wounds. In the mean time Gracchus reached a grove sacred to
the furies, where it is said a slave, by his order, #. dispatched
him, and then put an end to his own life. Others have, how-
ever, given a different account of the matter; they say that he
was overtaken by his enemies, and by them slain. His head
was cut off and sold to the consul for its weight in gold. The
body was thrown into the Tiber, but afterwards being taken
from the water, it was delivered to his afflicted mother for bu-
rial. This catastrophe, in which three thousand persons pe-
rished, happened in the year B.C. 121; and the senate imme-
diately proceeded to abolish all the laws of the Gracchi. Their
names, however, were still fondly cherished by the people;
statues were erected to their memory, and the places in which
they were killed were consecrated, by religious rites, to their
names. Caius had been generally considered as less pure in his
intentions, and less moderate in #. plans, than Tiberius. From
he evidence of history it should seem, that the disturbance of
ptlb. Aquillity was rather owing to his opposers than
lat,” says the historian, “instead of calling the
period the ‘sedition of the senate against the
e the efforts of the latter were made in vindica














B. c. 111.j from ProLEMy philometoR to spartacus. 603
igns of the former were º: by an armed power from the
country, that had never before interfered in the business of le-
gislation; and the introduction of which gave a most irreco-
verable blow to the constitution.” Caius in his person was
graceful, his action was strong and impressive, his voice of
great compass, and melodious when the vehemence of his plead-
ing did not raise it to too high a key; to correct this defect, he
was accustomed to place a judicious person behind him with a
pitch-pipe, by which he was enabled to regulate his tone. In
temper he was warmer than Tiberius, nor was he distinguished
by sobriety of manners, though in this respect he might be ad-
vantageously compared to the Roman youth in general.
M. AEMILIUS SCAURUS, a Roman consul, who distin-
guished himself by his eloquence at the bar, as well as by his
victories in Spain as a general. He was sent against Jugurtha,
but was suspected of having been bribed by that monarch. He
however conquered the Ligurians, and during his censorship,
built the Milvian bridge at Rome, and paved the AEmilian
road. He wrote several books, particularly his own life, but
none of them are extant.
M. AEMILIUS SCAURUS, son of M. Aemilius Scaurus, is
famous for having erected a large and grand theatre at Rome,
while he was aedile. It was so capacious, that it could contain
thirty thousand spectators. It was supported by three hundred
and sixty columns of marble, and adorned with three thousand
brazen statues. .
LUCIUS CASSIUS LONGINUS, a celebrated Roman
lawyer, who flourished B. C. 113. He was so inflexible a judge,
that his tribunal was called the rock of the impeached. From
him very severe judges have been called Cassiani.
AELIUS SEXTUS POETUS CATUS, a celebrated lawyer
of Rome. While aedile, he gained access to the depositories of
the law, then called Novella, which he published with his name.
He also wrote a work called “Tripartite,” which is the oldest
treatise known onjurisprudence. He served the office of consul,
and was praised for his abstemious habits and inflexible integrity
QUINTUS COECILIUS METELLUS, the son of L
Caecilius Metellus Calvus, was raised to the consulate during
the Jugurthine war, with M. Junius Silanus, in the year B. C.
109. On casting lots for the consulate provinces, that of Nu-
midia fell to Metellus, who made immediate preparations for
urning the honour of the Roman arms, which . lately
ction of the othcers to ser
* mous Marius, who, for want
º for some time remained unemployed at R.ome.
* * * * . . . . .º ated and disp
nto the centre of Numidia, where he defea
































UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. . [B. c. 160.
the whole force commanded by Jugurtha in person. When
the consular year was ended, the command was continued to
Metellus as proconsul, and he pursued the plan of ruining the
country of Jugurtha, and cutting off his resources. At length
the circumstances of the Numidian obliged him to enter into a
treaty with Metellus, by which he delivered up all his elephants,
a number of horses and arms, and all the deserters from the
Roman army. The latter, to the disgrace of the conqueror,
were put to death, with great cruelty. Jugurtha took the first
opportunity of appearing again in arms, and the people rose
upon a Roman garrison, and massacred the whole, excepting
the commander Turpilius. Metellus soon recovered the place,
brought Turpilius to a court-martial, and caused him to be put
to death, on account of which he underwent the keenest re-
morse, having been influenced in his decision rather by popular
clamour than by the strict rules of justice. Marius had been
a leading actor in the condemnation of Turpilius, and triumphed
in the consequences which it had upon the mind of Metellus,
whose character with the people he endeavoured to injure.
The third year of his command was going on, and nothing
decisive had been effected. Of this his rival, Marius, took
advantage, and by his representations to the people was able,
not only to procure his own election to the consulate, but to
obtain a decree for his superseding Metellus in the conduct of
the Numidian war. Metellus deplored his hard fate with tears.
He refused to see his rival; delivered up his army by a lieute-
nant, and immediately embarked for Rome. He was received
with great honour by his friends and partizans, who procured
for him the honour of a triumph. Being charged with pecu-
lation by a tribune, he would have produced his books in his
own justification; but the Roman knights, who sat as his judges,
refused to examine his accounts, declaring that they consi-
dered the whole tenor of his life as a sufficient testimonial of
his innocence. Having passed with honour through his, mili-
tary career, there remained a trial of his heroic virtue and
firmness, in which he obtained equal credit. In the year B. C.
100, the most violent measures were carried on by the popular
leaders; and the tribune Apuleius Saturninus having prepared
an Agrarian law, procured a clause to be previously passed,
that the senate would swear to confirm whatever the people
would enact. Metellus opposed the proposition; the senate,
to a man, joined in a similar opposition. Marius, who had led
them to this determination, by pretending to entertain the same
antim retracted, and took the oath; all the senators,
º M e ellus, followed 11S example. º Metellus, pe
ution, was condemned to banishment. His
this act of injustic
of blood should be spi




















B. c. 160.] FROM PtoleMY PHILOMETOR to spartACUs. 605.
“either the state of public affairs will change, and I shall be
recalled; or, if they remain as they are, I shall be better off
any where than at Rome.” He then went to Rhodes, or
Smyrna, where he passed his time in the study of philosophy.
In the following year, a decree was passed by a great majority
for his return. The news was brought to him while he was as-
sisting at some public games, and though he was informed that
the packet contained pleasing intelligence, he would not open
it iſ the spectacle, perhaps a religious ceremony, was over.
On his return to Rome, he was met at the gates by all the per-
sons of distinction in the city, and was accompanied to the
house by great crowds of people, and at the next consular
election the public esteem for him was shown by accepting his
recommendation of one of his own name and family. After
this, we hear no more of this worthy man. . ... ::: * §:. .3
CAIUS FANNIUS STRABO, a Roman consul in the
year of Rome 592, B.C. 157. That consulship is remarkable
for two things; for the regulations made by the senate concern-
ing the expense of feasts; and for a decree of the senate, au-
thorizing the praetor to expel the rhetoricians and philosophers
from Rome. They were not satisfied with the regulations which
the senate made to restrain the profuseness of feasts; there was
also a law made about it, which from the consul Fannius was
called Fannia. There is nothing worth mentioning concerning
Mºus Fannius, brother to him who is the subject of this ar-
tic. €. . .. . . . . . *
CAIUS FANNIUS, son to Marcus, and cousin-german to
Caius Fannius, was questor in the year of Rome 614, B.C. 135,
and praetor two years after. He bore arms in Africa under
Scipio Africanus the younger, and in Spain under Fabius
Maximus Servilianus. He was a disciple of Panaetius, a great
philosopher of the sect of the Stoics, and married the younger
daughter of Laelius. He composed annals which were in esteem.
He resented his father-in-law Laelius's bestowing the office of
augur upon Quintus Mutius Scaevola, his other son-in-law, nor
would he admit of Laelius's excuses.
CAIUS FANNIUS, son of Caius Fannius Strabo, distin-
guished himself by his eloquence. He was consul with Cn.
Domitius AEnobardus, in the year of Rome 632, B.C. 117, and
opposed the factious attempts of Caius Gracchus, though he
was indebted to him for the consulship. He published an
oration against him, which Cicero has ºniº
Kºš MARIUS, a famous Roman general, and seven
times consul, who sullied his great military reputation by savage
barbarities. He was born at Arpinum, of obscure parents. He
signalized himself under Scipio at the siege of Numantia. The
Roman general saw his courage and intrepidity, and foretold
his future greatness. By his intrigues at Rome, while he exer-






UNIVERSAL Biography. [B.C. 156.
cised the inferior offices of the state, he rendered himself
known; and his marriage with Julia, who was of the family of
the Caesars, contributed to raise him to consequence. He went
to Africa as lieutenant to the consul Metellus against Jugurtha,
and there ingratiated himself with the soldiers; and having
raised enemies to his benefactor, he returned to Rome and
canvassed for the consulship. By his extravagant promises to
the people, and his malevolent insinuations against Metellus,
he proved successful. He was appointed to finish the war
gainst Jugurtha, and showed his military talents by defeating
him. The Roman provinces being suddenly invaded by
an army of three hundred thousand barbarians, Marius was
elected consul and sent against the Teutones. The war being
prolonged, Marius was a third and fourth time invested with
the consulship. At last two engagements were fought, and not
less than two hundred thousand of the forces of the Ambrones
and Teutones were slain in the field of battle, and ninety thou-
sand made prisoners in B.C.99. In B.C.98, the Cimbri, another
horde of barbarians, were defeated; one hundred and forty
thousand of them were slaughtered by the Romans, and sixty
housand taken prisoners. After these victories, Marius, with
his colleague Catullus, entered Rome in triumph; and Marius
received the appellation of the third founder of Rome. He
was elected consul a sixth time; but his restless ambition began
to raise seditions, and to oppose the power of Sylla. This was
the foundation of a civil war. Sylla refused to deliver up the
command of his forces, with which he was empowered to pro-
secute the Mithridatic war; and considered the demand as ar-
bitrary and improper. He advanced to Rome, and Marius was
obliged to fly. Adverse winds prevented him from seeking a
retreat in Africa, and he was left on the coast of Campania,
ylla's emissaries discovered him in a marsh into which
where Syll -
he had plunged himself, leaving only his mouth above the sur-
face for respiration. He was dragged to the neighbouring town
of Minturnae; and the magistrates being in the interest of Sylla,
passed sentence of death on their illustrious prisoner. A Gaul
was commanded to cut off his head in the dungeon; but the
tern countenance of Marius disarmed the courage of the exe-
tutioner; and when he heard him say, Tune, homo, audes occi-
dere Caium Marium? Darest thou, wretch, kill Caius Marius?
werenna v. error, he rushed out, º: his sword, and de-
**























B. c. 156] FROM ProLEMY PHILoMEToR to spartacus.
compelled Marius to fly to a neighbourin ***
after learned that Cinna had embraced his cause at Rome,
where the Roman senate had stripped him of his consular dig-
nity, and bestowed it upon one of his enemies. Marius set sail
to assist his friend at the head of only one thousand men. His
army, however, was soon increased, and he entered Rome like
a conqueror. His enemies were inhumanly sacrificed to his
fury; Rome was filled with blood; and he who once had been
called the father of his country, marched through the city, at-
tended by a number of assassins, who slaughtered all those
whose salutations were not answered by their leader. When
Marius and Cinna had sufficiently gratified their rage, they
made themselves consuls; but Marius, already worn out . &
old age and infirmities, died sixteen days after he had been
elected consul the seventh time, A.U.C. 666, and B. C. 86.
Brought up in poverty, and among peasants, he always retained
his native rusticity, and despised in others those polished man-
ners which education had denied him. Being himself illiterate,
he hated the conversation of the learned; and his sobriety and
temperance were owing to the obscurity in which he had lived
at Arpinum. His countenance was stern, his voice firm and
imperious, and his disposition untractable. He was in his se-
ventieth year when he died; and Rome rejoiced at the fall of a
man whose ambition had proved so fatal to many of her citi-
zens. His only qualifications were those of a great general;
and these rendered him the most powerful of the Romans, be-
cause he was the only one whose ferocity seemed capable to op-
pose the barbarians. .
He was the first man that had ever been chosen seven times
consul, and was possessed of such a palace, and of riches sº
immense, as were sufficient for many kings.
“How can a man,” says Plutarch, in his comparison of
Pyrrhus with Marius, “born of obscure and indigent parents,
who were forced to earn their bread by the sweat of their brow,
brought up in a little country village, with no better than a home-
spun clownish education; how can such a one, I say, be com-
pared with a prince like Pyrrhus, born on a throne?
“This great and sensible difference which nature has raised
between them, may be said to be effaced by fortune, who has
crowned Marius with greater honours, and a larger share of
power than she had ever granted to any Roman before him.
“It is no strange thing for a prince to recover his right, an
ther possessions to his hereditary dominions; but for a
* mnings so
ng
n issuing from the dregs of the people, from begi
k and miserable ; for such a man to raise himself u
















608 UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. [B.C. 138.
man some notable qualities, some uncommon talents, otherwise
she would not have made him, to his dying day, the object
either of her favour or caprice.
“Neither is it fortune only that has set Marius upon a level
with Pyrrhus; nature put in her share in those favours, as if
she had a mind to make him some compensation for the injury
she had done him on account of his birth. He was by nature
lively, frugal, laborious, constant, patient, indefatigable, and
of such presence of mind as kept him as cool and undisturbed
in the heat of action and danger as in times of repose. He like-
wise had an air of majesty, but an air still more austere and
terrible.” … .
After comparing the different incidents of the lives of Pyrrhus
and Marius, Plutarch thus concludes: “ Their end was very
different; Pyrrhus fell unhappily in a fight, in the middle of
the city of Argos, wounded by a woman, and killed outright
by a soldier, who cut off his head. But Marius, notwithstand-
ing all the cruelties he had exercised, still thirsting after blood,
died in his bed. . .
“But this death, which appeared composed and natural, was
in reality more tragical than that of Pyrrhus; for he passed the
last days of his #. under such anxieties and terrors, that he
could enjoy no rest either by day or night. He died equally
tormented with the remembrance of the past, the sense of the
present, and the fear of the future. . . x
“That avenging fury, which he would have delivered over
to Metellus, began to punish him in this life, and call him to a
severe account for all the blood he had spilt. So true is what
Plato saith, ‘ that the impious and wicked, at the approach of
death, begin to fear every thing of which they had made a
mock before. Then does dread and distrust seize them, re-
morse torments them, and their only companion, whether asleep
or awake, is despair.’”
CAIUS MARIUS, the son of the preceding, was as cruel
as his father, and shared his good and adverse fortune. He
made himself consul in the twenty-fifth year of his age, and
murdered all the senators who opposed his ambitious views.
He was defeated by Sylla, and fled to Praeneste, where he
killed himself. ... tº . . . .” ... . . . . . . . . § . . . ; ; ; Ś
L. CORNELIUS CINNA, a Roman who oppressed the
republic with his cruelties, and was banished by Octavius for
attempting to make the fugitive slaves free. He joined himself
o Marius; and with him, at the head of thirty legions, he filled
e with blood, defeated his enemies, and made himself con-
ven to a fourth time. He massacred so many citizen
2, that his name became odious; and one of his of
lated him at Ancona, as he was preparing w
















B. c. 138.) FROM PTOLEMY PHILOMETOR to spartACUs.
SEXTUS ROSCIUS, a rich citizen of Ameria, murdered
in the dictatorship of Sylla. His son, of the same name, was
accused of the murder, and eloquently defended by Cicero, in
an oration still extant. B. C. 96. ºn tº
ALBINUS, a pretorian sent to Sylla, as ambassador from
the senate during the civil wars. He was put to death by
Sylla's soldiers. .
LUCIUS MUMMIUS, a Roman consul sent against the
Achaeans, whom he conquered. He destroyed Corinth, Thebes,
and Chalcis, by order of the senate, and obtained the sir-
name of Achaicus from his victories. He did not enrich
himself with the spoils of the enemy, but returned home with-
out any increase of fortune. He was so ignorant of the value
of the paintings and works of the most celebrated artists of
Greece, which were found in the plunder of Corinth, that he
said to those who conveyed them to Rome, that if they lost
them, they should make others in their stead.
M. PERPENNA, a Roman, who conquered Aristonicus in
Asia, and took him prisoner.
PUBLIUS AEMILIANUS SCIPIO, called also the Younger
Africanus, was the younger son of Paulus AEmilius, but was
adopted into the Cornelian family by Publius, son of the first
Africanus. He served at the age of seventeen in Macedonia,
under his natural father; and during the war in Spain, when
the report of the hardships suffered there deterred the Roman.
youth from enrolling their names in the new levies, he mounted
the rostra, and in a spirited speech declared his own readiness
to go in any quality §. the consuls should appoint. This
conduct produced such an effect, that the levies were very
quickly completed, and he accompanied them as a legionary
tribune. For his great services at this period he obtained a
mural crown, being the first in scaling the wall of a besieged
town; and he slew in single combat a Spaniard of gigantic sta-
ture. The consul, Lucullus, then sent him into Numidia,
where he was when the third Punic war broke out; at the com-
mencement of which, the Carthaginian general, Asdrubal, ob-
tained some advantages over the Romans; and the whole consular
army would probably have been lost, had not Æmilianus, with a
small body of horse, kept the force of the enemy in check, while
the legions were crossing the river. He afterwards, by his valour
and good conduct, saved a party which was surrounded by the
enemy; and the whole of his conduct in this campaign was so
extremely brilliant, that he gained universal reputation. On
his return to Rome he was chosen consul, being then thir y-
seven-years of age; and the conduct of the African war, w
ended in the destruction of Carthage, was committed to him by
a special decree. Scipio, on his return to Rome, was honoured.
VOL. I'









[B.C. 138.
urn fu lof the
ne. Jupiter, as
and disinterestedness of this great man, on the
Q6, rival city, are universally acknowledged # and
make to t
*
§§§
who had been exposed to the pillage of the Carthaginians, and
ving belonged to it. The Romans having
the powerful city of Numantia, in Spain,
treaty which the consul Mancinus had made with
is army, elected Scipio consul a second
s management the war against
invested Numantia, which was situated upon a hill, very diffi-
cult of access, and rejecting the submissive proposals of the ci-
to surrender at discretion. His vigilance was exercised in ob-
viating all attempts suggested by valour reduced to despair;
and when at length they were unable to hold out any longer,
y still resolved never to surrender themselves to the disposal
f an inexorable foe, and set fire to their town, at the same
to grace the victor but an empty triumph, and the sirname,
º %
g the contest carried on between the Gracchi ar
aclined to favour the latter part
popular by seeming to approve the assassination of
us Gracchus, though he was a very near relation. After,
mate friend, the second Laelius, his connexion with
ore celebrated than that of the first Laelius with,
time he returned to Rome, where
in Scipio was found dead in his bed.
have been assassinated, but, the peop



































































B. c. 18s.) From PtoleMy PHILoMeroR to spartacus. 611
favour of his mother, his brother, and sisters; and the whole
property which the conqueror of Carthage left behind him was
; thirty-two pounds weight of silver, and two and a half of
FOICE, . N. # *...* ; 3. . ;
ALLUCIUS, prince of the Celtiberians in Spain, conquered
and taken captive, with his lady, by Scipio, whom he restored
to Allucius, together with the ransom i. had been paid him
for both their enlargements.
CAIUS fººtſ. son of the noble person of the same name
noticed in the preceding period. As his father had been the in-
timate friend of the first Scipio Africanus, so he was equally dis-
tinguished by his º with the second Scipio Africanus;
so that Cicero represents him in his treatise, “De Amicitiã,”
as explaining the real nature of friendship with its attendant.
pleasures. In this work, which is known to every well educated
youth, Laelius appears as the chief speaker. He was an emi-
%
#
ment orator, and a successful cultivator of polite literature. He
was signalized by his prowess in the war with Spain, but is
chiefly celebrated by the civil honours to which he attained.
His oratory is described as of the mild and elegant kind. He
was a member of the college of augurs, and pronounced one of
the most famous orations in that capacity; and was also raised to
the consulship. When his friend Scipio quitted all concern in
publie affairs, Laelius accompanied him to his country retreat,
preferring the pleasures of retirement and friendship to the ho-
nours of the world. He is supposed to have had a share in the
composition, or, at least, in the correction, of Terence's come-
dies. His modesty, humanity, and the manner in which he pa-
tronised literature and learned men, are as illustrious as the
greatness of his mind, and the integrity which he displayed as
a statesman. ---". -- - - - - .
QUINTUS MUTIUS SCAEVOLA, an eminent Roman,
who was tribune to the people in the year B.C. 106, and con-
sul in B.C. 95 with Caius Licinius Crassus. He was praetor in
Asia, over which he ruled with so much prudence and justice,
that he was proposed as a model for all future governors. His
character was extremely high for legal knowledge, with which
he unquestionably possessed a most masculine eloquence. Cras-
sus, in Cicero's dialogue “De Oratore,” styles him the best
orator of the lawyers, and the best lawyer among the orators.
Quintilian gives the same character of him. He was killed in
the civil war between the Marian and Sylla factions, in the year
B. C. 82, in the temple of Lestae, and his body was thrown into
the Tiber. He is thought to have been the first º r
d the civil war to a methodical system. On th






































UNIVERSAL BrogRAPHY. [B. c. 13s.
a Roman of great authority as a lawyer, married the daughter.
of Laelius, and was the father-in-law of Licinius Crassus. He
was praetor in Asia, and consul in the year B. C. 117 with
L. C. Metellus, with whom he had the honour of a triumph.
On various occasions he performed great services to the state;
and though, at that period, far advanced in years, he took
part with Marius against Sylla. Cicero was instructed by this.
venerable person in the principle of wisdom. In gratitude for
his attentions to him, he made his preceptor one of the interlo-
cutors in his first dialogue, “De Oratore.” º .
LUCIUS CORNELIUS SYLLA, was descended from an
illustrious family of the Cornelii, but from a branch quite dis-
tinct from that of the Scipios. His licentious behaviour in his
younger years did not correspond with his excellent education.
Nicopolis, a rich courtezan, left him heir to her great estate.
He learned the art of war under Marius, whom he attended to
Numidia as questor; and soon became the most skilful soldier
in the army, while by his obliging behaviour he gained the
esteem of all. His courage and dexterity contributed to the
success of the war; and his eloquence persuaded Bocchus to
deliver up Jugurtha. He served afterwards in the social war,
and as a reward he was raised to the praetorship, next elected
consul, and soon after declared general of the army against
Mithridates VII., king of Pontus. Marius was exasperated that
the management of this war was not committed to him. The
people were persuaded by his intrigues to reverse the decree,
and substituté him in place of Sylla. Upon this he sent down
officers to take command of the army; but Sylla by this time
had gained over the soldiers; who, instead of obeying the de-
cree of the people, slew Marius's officers, and entreated Sylla
to lead them instantly to Rome. Accordingly he entered the
city sword in hand, slew Sulpicius the consul, obliged Marius
to flee, new-modelled the laws, and afterwards marched into
the East, and immediately laid siege to Athens; for that city,
together with the rest of Greece, had fallen into the power of
Mithridates. He wrote to the Amphictyons, who were assem-
bled at Delphi, to send him all the gold in the temple of
Apollo, promising to restore it at the end of the war; and when
he received it, said that he now was sure of victory, since the
gods themselves furnished him with money. Athens was at
ast taken by assault, and Sylla was upon the point of destroy-
ing it, when he recollected its ancient glory, and spared, as he
said, the living for the sake of the dead. After burning the
Piraeus, he gained two decisive victories over the generals of
idates. In the second battle, fought at 9. he
was almost defeated; his troops began to flee, wh
from his horse, he snatched up a standard, and cryin
% &::::d, º soldiers, when you are
a
“I will die here gloriously; and








B. c. 138.J FROM PTOLEMY PHILoMEToR to spartACUs.
where you abandoned your general, answer, At Orchomemus.
This reproach recalled the courage of the Romans;
lowed him, and gained a complete victory. Mithri
sued for peace. Meantime Cinna had declared against Sylla i
Italy; and Marius returning from banishment, had taken the
most severe vengeance on all his enemies. Sylla was declared a
traitor; his laws reversed, his friends murdered, and the
government new modelled. This news induced Sylla to con-
clude a treaty with Mithridates, and march directly to Rome.
His approach terrified the Romans. Marius and Cinna were
both dead; but the consuls made vigorous preparations to op-
pose him. A civil war was begun; but Sylla in the end sub-
dued all his enemies, and entirely ruined the Marian faction.
He entered Rome at the head of his victorious army, and as-
sumed the title of Felia, Happy. The remainder of his life
was stained with the most abominable cruelties. He ordered
eight thousand wretches, who had thrown themselves upon his
clemency, to be butchered in the Campus Martius. To carry
on these cruelties with the appearance of justice, he commanded
the people to elect him dictator. He kept this office above two
years, and then, to the amazement of all, laid it down, and of.
fered to stand his trial before the people. Soon afterwards
he retired into the country, and plunged into every kind of
excess. He died of a loathsome disease in the sixtieth year
of his age, B. C.78. His person was elegant, his air noble, and
his manners easy. He was eloquent, liberal, crafty, insinuating;
and a profound master of dissimulation, by which he concealed
a hideous train of vices. This Nero of the republic did one
essential service to science, by recovering the works of Aristotle
at the taking of Athens.
MURAENA, a celebrated Roman, left at the head of the
armies of the republic in Asia by Sylla. He invaded the domi-
nions of Mithridates with success, but soon after met with a de-
feat. He was honoured with a triumph at his return to Rome.
He commanded one of the wings of Sylla's army at the battle
against Archelaus, near Chaeronea. He was ably defended in
an oration by Cicero, when his character was attacked and
censured. . . .
* LUCIUS LICINIUS LUCULLUS, a Roman commander,
who has been celebrated for his fondness for luxury as well as
his military talents, was born about the year B. C. 115, and
being well educated, he soon distinguished himself by his pro-
ficiency in the liberal arts, particularly in eloquence and philo-
sophy. As a military man, he was first noticed with applause
in the Marsian war, and was, on account of his good conduct,
made an aedile. He was employed by Sylla in many important
concerns, and during the siege of Athens was sent by that
commander into Egypt and Lybia to procure a supply of ships.









Pct to king Ptolemy he was unsuccessful .
t use of his employer with more effect in other
ed a fleet, with which he gave two defeats
at of Mithridates, and conveyed Sylla's troops from the
- a Chersonesus. After the peace, he was appointed
quaestor in Asia, and praetor, in which offices he rendered him-
self illustrious by his love of justice, moderation, and huma-
nity. He was raised to the consulship when he was about
forty years of age, and entrusted with the care of the Mithri-
datic war, his first prowess was conspicuous in rescuing his
colleague Cotta, whom the enemy had besieged in Chalcedonia.
This was soon followed by a celebrated victory over the forces
of Mithridates, on the borders of the Granicus, and by the
conquest of all Bithynia. His victories by sea were as great
as those by land, and Mithridates was driven with great loss
towards Armenia, to the court of Tigranes, his father-in-law.
His flight was quickly discovered, and Lucullus crossed the
Euphrates, and gave battle to the vast army which Tigranes
had assembled to support the cause of his son. It is not easy
to give entire credit to the account of the numbers said to have
been slain on this occasion, but the slaughter must have been
prodigious, when Plutarch estimates that not less than one
hundred thousand foot, and fifty-five thousand horse soldiers
lost their lives in this battle, and this at the expence of very
few Roman lives, Lucullus is represented by Plutarch as
having paid much attention to dreams and inquiries, yet he
certainly exhibited, at the same time, an avowed contempt of
vulgar superstition, for being admonished by some of his offi-
cers not to give battle on that day, being the anniversary of a
great defeat sustained by the Romans from the Cimbri, he
replied to the monitor, “I also will make this day to be remem-
isful, but he
bered by after ages.” The taking of Tigranocerta, the capital
of Armenia, was the consequence of the victory, and Lucullus
there obtained the greater part of the royal treasures. This
continued success rendered the commander haughty and impe-
rious, and his changed manners were offensive to the soldiers,
and displeasing to those who adhered to the cause of Rome.
He was accused in the senate with designedly protracting the
war for his own emolument, and discontents proceeded so far
ś Prseded, first by the consul Glabria, after
a. seed him, and to continue the
ith acts
Ruvuvuu lauti, a 11
ithridatie war. His interview with Lucullus began w
Autual kindness, and ended in the most determined
s was h * permitted to retire to Rome,




















































country, but under the direction of a refined taste, and not
º the rational pleasures of literature. He collected a
splendid library, which he threw open to all persons of learning
and curiosity. It was particularly the resort of the Greeks
who visited Rome, and whom he treated with great hospita-
lity, delighting to converse with them on topics of philosophy,
with all the doctrines and sects of which '. was thoroughly
conversant. He was himself principally attached to the doc-
trines of the old academy, the defence of which is put into his
mouth by Cicero, in a dialogue entitled “Lucullus.” Toward
the close of his life, Lucullus himself fell into a delirium, and he
died in about the sixty-eighth year of his age, and was much
regretted by the Roman people, who doubtless had tasted the
fruits of his munificence; they would willingly have given him
an honourable funeral in the Campus Martius, but their offers
were rejected, and he was privately buried by his brother at
Tusculum. Lucullus has been admired for his many accom-
plishments, but he has been censured for his severity and ex-
travagance. The expences of his table were immoderate; his
halls were distinguished by the different names of the gods,
and when Cicero and Pompey attempted to surprise him, they
were astonished at the costliness of a supper which had been
prepared upon the word of Lucullus, who had merely said to
his servant that he would sup in the hall of Apollo. In his
retirement Lucullus was fond of artificial variety; subterrane-
ous caves and passages were dug under the hills on the coast
of Campania, and the sea water was conveyed round the house
and pleasure grounds, where the fishes flocked in such abun-
dance, that at his death they were sold for a very large sum of
money. Lucullus may rank among the great men of Rome,
both for his civil and military qualifications. He was a perfect
master of the Greek and Latin languages, and º him-
self some time in composing a concise history of the Marsi in
Greek hexameters. Such were the characteristics of a man
who meditated the conquest of Parthia, and who might have
disputed the empire of the world with Caesar or Pompey, if
his fondness for retirement had not withdrawn him from the
reach of ambition. . . . .
QUINTUS SERTORIUS, a distinguished Roman com:
mander, was a native of Nursia, in the Pisentine regions of
Italy. His father died in his infancy, but by the care of his
mother he received a most excellent education; and even in his
youth he gained a considerable reputation as a pleader at Rome

















[B.C. 115.
military life, and made his first campaign under
* º
ainst the Cimbrians, and Teutones in Gaul.
In an early engagement he was seriously wounded, and would
have lost his life, if he had not possessed sufficient vigour to
swim across the Rhone, when encumbered with his armour.
He next served under Marius, and exhibited proofs of valour
and talents, which much ingratiated him with that general.
Spain was the next great theatre of his exertions, where he
served under Didius, and acquired much reputation in the
campaign. On his return to Rome, he was made quaestor in
Cisalpine Gaul; and when the social war broke out, he brought
a well-timed reinforcement to the Roman army. In a battle
that ensued, he lost an eye, a mark of bravery in which he
always gloried, and which pointed him out to the plaudits of
the people whenever he appeared in the theatre, and other
public places. He was candidate for the tribuneship, but was
disappointed in his hopes by the overbearing interest of Sylla:
he accordingly joined the party of Marius in the succeeding
civil war. He commanded one of the three armies which in-
vested Rome, and honourably distinguished himself by abstain-
ing from all those acts of cruelty which disgraced the arms of
Cinna and Marius. When Sylla gained the ascendancy in Italy,
Sertorius withdrew to Spain, of which country he had been
appointed praetor. Here he hoped to be able to revive his
cause, and with this view he detached a body of troops to
seize the passes of the Pyrenees; but the murder of their
commander induced them to abandon their post, and conse-
quently laid Spain open to Sylla's officers. After some various
adventures, chiefly of the disastrous kind, Sertorius went into
Africa, and assisted the Mauritanians to throw off the yoke of
a tyrannical king; defeated one of Sylla's generals, by whom he
was supported. His reputation now caused him to be invited
to Lusitania; and sailing thither with a small body of Romans
and Africans, he obtained such an ascendancy over the natives,
that he soon had the command of the whole Lusitanian nation.
He exercised them in the arts of warfare, and introduced a
rigid discipline among them. He defeated, with his new trained
armies, several Roman generals, who were sent against him,
and instituted a senate in competition with that of #. and
imitated all the forms of the republic. He foiled the attempts
of that eminent commander, Metellus, to reduce him; conti-
nually harassing his troops by sudden attacks and skirmishes,
and intercepting his convoys. He adopted the liberal policy of
the Lusitanians and neighbouring Spaniards, and
arizing them with Roman letters and customs. For this
se he established a great school in the city of Osca, at
: sons of men of distinction were gratuitously edu-

































b.c. us.) FROM PtoleMY PHILoMETor to spartacus.
cated, and at the same time kept as hostages for the fidelity of
their parents. Feeling that his power was not sufficient
without the aid of superstition, which ever captivates th
rant and uncivilized, he trained a white fawn, that had bee
presented to him, to such a degree of tameness, that it followed
him whithersoever he went, and was his constant companion;
and he encouraged the belief that the animal was the gift of
Diana, and intended by that goddess to convey him informa-
tion of the designs of his enemies. At length the famous Pom-
pey was nominated to the command against him; and when he
arrived, he found that all the Roman troops, which, after the
death of Lepidus, had been carried to Spain by Perpenna, with
the design of setting up there for himself, had joined Sertorius,
who was now at the head of a considerable army. Pompey
proceeded against him with a superior force; but Sertorius
took a town in his presence, and afterwards defeated him at
the battle of Sucro. He gave him a second defeat; but Me-
tellus routed a separate division, and Sertorius was glad to take
to the mountains. He then offered to lay down his arms, pro-
vided the proscription against him might be taken off, and he
were permitted to return to Rome. Soon after he received an
embassy from Mithridates, the formidable foe of the Romans,
offering him an advantageous alliance, provided he were suf-
fered to re-possess the provinces from which he had been ex-
pelled by Sylla. But Sertorius would not agree to more than
his recovery of Bithynia and Cappadocia, without touching
upon the Roman province of Asia; and upon these terms the
treaty was concluded. A conspiracy was formed against Ser-
torius by the Roman patricians in his army, and they suc-
ceeded in exciting a revolt in several Lusitanian towns. In-
censed at this defection, he caused several of the children,
whom he kept as hostages at Osca, to be slain, and others to
be sold as slaves. This is said to have been the only act of
cruelty by which his memory is tarnished. In revenge for the
loss of their sons, the conspirators formed a plot against the
life of Sertorius; in consequence of which he was basely as-
sassinated, while he was at a feast. This event took place in
the year B. C. 73. The great qualities and military talents of
this eminent person would undoubtedly have raised him to the
first rank among the chiefs of his country, had he not been a
leader of a party, instead of a commander for the state. With
nothing to support him but the resources of his own mind, he
created a powerful kingdom among strangers, and defended it
a long time against the arms of Rome, although wielded by
the ablest generals of his time; and he displayed public and
º, virtues, which would have rendered a people happy
*Inder
his rule at a less turbulent period.
PERPENNA, who joined tº
e rebellion of Sertorius, and












UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY, [B.C. 115.
red him to be put to death. gº. . . . . . ;
#: º3 . IUS DRUSUS, a person of considerable
and became tribune of the people about the year B. C. 91.
At this period there sat dissensions in the state; Drusus
º were great d
tried to reconcile the contending parties, but his plan was op-
posed by all those whom he aimed to benefit by it. Conscious,
perhaps, of his own good intentions, he did not readily aban-
don the scheme, and in some instances he made use of means
which were not justifiable to promote the end in view. Finding
himself growing unpopular, he proposed, as a bait to the mul-
titude, a gratuitous distribution of corn among them. This
measure he followed by a still more alarming motion, of giving
to the Latins the privileges of Roman citizens. Hence violent
conspiracies were formed, which required all his address to
ward off for a time, and which, in the end, proved fatal to
him. Returning from the forum, where he had been ha-
ranguing in favour of the allies, he was attended to his house
by a great crowd of people, in the midst of which an assassin,
said to be C. Varus, plunged a knife into his body, and then
made his escape. Drusus fell, and expired a few hours after,
claiming, with his last breath, “ When will the republic
gain possess a citizen like myself!” By the party whose cause
he espoused, his death was sincerely deplored, while those on
the opposite side regarded it as a timely deliverance of the
state from one who was only ambitious of being distinguished
as a popular leader. * º
CAIUS RABIRIUS, a Roman knight, who lent an im-
mense sum of money to Ptolemy Auletes, king of Egypt. The
monarch afterwards not only refused to pay him, but even con-
fined him, and endangered his life. Rabirius escaped from
Egypt with difficulty; but at his return to Rome, he was ac-
cused by the senate of having lent money to an African prince,
for unlawful purposes. He was ably defended by Cicero, and
acquitted with difficulty. ---. -
CULUS GABINIUS, a Roman consul, who m
Judaea, and re-established tranquillity there. H
self to be bribed, and replaced Ptolemy Au
as accused, at his return, of receiving bribes.
the request of Pompey, ably defended him.
3d, and died about forty-one years before Chr
ade war in
itled Lex Calpurnia de ambitu.















































He displayed all the firmness worthy of a consul in one of the
most storm y peric ds of the re] ublic 3. and by his determined
resolution, prevented the people from raising Marcus.
nus, a man of no merit, to the consular dignity. ºn tº
MARC ANTONY, a famous Roman orator. When he
filled the office of praetor, Sicily fell to his lot, and he cleared
the seas of the pirates which infested that coast. He was
made consul, with A. Posthumius Albinus, B. C. 96; when
he opposed the turbulent designs of Sextus Titus, tribune
of the people, with great success. Some time after, he was
made proconsul of Cilicia, where he performed so many great
exploits, that he obtained the honour of a triumph. To
improve his talent for eloquence, he attended the greatest ora-
tors at Rhodes and Athens, in his way to Cilicia, and on his
return to Rome, soon after, he was appointed censor; which
office he discharged with great reputation, having carried his
cause before the people, against Marcus Duronius, who had
accused him of bribery, in revenge for Antony's having erased
his name out of the list of senators, because Duronius, when
tribune of the people, had abrogated a law, which restrained
immoderate expence in feasts. He was one of the greatest
orators ever known in Rome; and it was owing to him, accord-
ing to the testimony of Cicero, that Rome might boast herself
a rival even to Greece itself in eloquence. He defended,
amongst many others, Marcus Aquilius; and moved the judges
in so sensible a manner, by the tears he shed, and the scars he
showed upon the breast of his client, that he carried his cause.
He never would publish any of his pleadings, that he might not
be proved to say in one cause, what might be contrary to what
he should advance in another. He affected to be a man of no
learning. His modesty, and many other qualifications, ren-
dered him no less dear to many persons of distinction, than
his eloquence made him universally admired. He was killed
during those bloody confusions raised at Rome by Marius and
Cinna. He was discovered in the place where he hid himself,
and soldiers were sent to despatch him; but his manner of ad-
dressing them had such an effect, that none but he who com-
manded them, and had not heard his discourse, had the cruelty
to kill him. His head was exposed before the rostra, a place
which he had adorned with his triumphal spoils.
CAIUS ANTONY, the son of Marcus the orator, and
incle to the triu mvir, had the command of some troops ofhorse
JS ANTONY, son of Caius An
º W. º












































º, QUINTUSTULLIUS CICERO, brother of the orator.
He served the office of praetor, and was governor of Asia. The
triumvirs proscribed him; and his soldiers entering his house
in search of him, put his son to the torture to make him con-
ºfess where his father was. Cicero hearing his groans, came
forth to save his son, and the assassins put them both to death.
a SULPICIUS RUFUS SERVIUS, an eminent Roman
jurist and statesman, was descended from the illustrious pa-
ian family of Sulpicii. He was contemporary with Cicero,
and was born about B.C. 107. He cultivated polite literature
from a very early period, especially philosophy and poetry, and
wrote some pieces in the latter class, which were marked with
the licentiousness of the time. He bore arms in the Marsian
war; but finding himself better pleased with the arts of peace,
he appeared a pleader at the bar in the twenty-fifth year of his
age. The professions of advocate and lawyer were then so
distinct, that the former were accustomed to consult jurists
upon all difficult points. Servius once applied for that purpose
to Quintus Mucius, a very eminent lawyer, the latter perceiving
that Servius did not comprehend his explanations, asked him
if it were not a shame that he, a patrician and pleader, should
be ignorant of the law upon which he was frequently called to
speak. This reproof is said to have had such an effect upon
him, that Servius quitted the bar and gave all his attention to
legal studies; and such was his success, that Cicero said of
him. “If all, in every age, who in this city have acquired a
knowledge of the law, were brought together, they would not
be compared with Servius Sulpicius,” and he farther adds, that
“ he was not less the oracle of justice than of the law; he always
referred to principles of equity and obvious interpretation what
he deduced from the civil code, and was less desirous of find-
ing grounds for actions than of settling disputes.” There was
a great intimacy formed between these two personages, and
there are several letters extant from Cicero to Sulpicius, and
two from Sulpicius to Cicero, of which one is a well known
consolatory epistle on the death of Tullia. º sº.
Servius passed through the usual gradations of honour among
Romans of rank. He was first quaestor, then aedile and prae-
tor. When the troubles of the republic were impending, he
was created interrea, in which quality he nominated Pompey
sole consul. He was himself consul with Marcellus, in the year
B.C. 51, and opposed the motion of his colleague to remove
Caesar from his command, lest it should immediately bring on a
war. After the battle of Pharsalia he declared for Caesai
appointed governor of Achaia. When that chief was
e returned to Rome, and acted with the party who
e restoration of public liberty. Durin ege of


























B. c. 107.3 FROM PTOLEM
Y PHILOMETOR TO SPARTACUS. 621.
dertake a legation to him, which, after pleading his age and
infirmities, be accepted; but he foresaw it would be fatal to:
him, and he died in Antony's camp in the year B.C. 43. Ci-
cero's ninth Philippic is entirely employed in pleading for a
brass statue to the memory of this excellent man, as for one
who had lost his life in the service of the republic, which was
voted by the senate. Servius was the author of a great number
of volumes on legal topics, one of which has been preserved;
but quotations from some of them are extant in A. Gellius.
POMPEY, sirnamed the Great, or Cneius Pompeius Mag-
nus, one of the greatest generals of ancient Rome, was the son,
of Cneius Pompeius Strabo, and Lucilia, and born B.C. 107. He
early distinguished himself in the field of battle, and fought with
bravery and success under his father, whose courage and military
prudence he imitated. He began his career with great popula-,
rity; the beauty of his person gained him many admirers; and by:
displaying his oratory at the bar, he gained unbounded applause.
During the civil war between Marius and Sylla, he joined the
party of the latter; and though then only twenty-three years
of age, raised three legions for him, which secured him the
friendship and protection of Sylla during life. In his twenty-
sixth year he conquered Sicily, then in the power of Marius;
and in forty days he recovered all the territories of Africa,
which had forsaken the interest of Sylla. This rapid success.
astonished the Romans, and surprised even Sylla himself, who
complimented him with the title of Great, and gave him a
triumph, though at first he refused it. After Sylla's death, he
supported himself against the remains of the Marian faction
under Lepidus, and defeated them. He put an end to the
war against Sertorius in Spain, and obtained a second triumph,
B.C. 73. He was soon after made consul, when he restored,
the tribunitial power to its original dignity; and in forty days.
cleared the Mediterranean of pirates, where they had committed
dreadful depredations for many years, and had almost destroyed
the naval power of Rome. He next conquered two of the
most formidable enemies of Rome, Mithridates VII, king of
Pontus, and Tigranes, king of Armenia. After conquering the
Albanians, Iberians, and some other nations known to the Ro-
mans, he received homage from twelve kings at once, and
entering Syria, pushed his conquests as far as the Red Sea ;
subdued part of Arabia, made Judaea a Roman province, and
returned to Italy with all the pomp of an eastern conqueror.
The Romans dreaded his approach, knowing his power, lest
the bloody proscriptions of Marius and Sylla should be renewed.
But he soon dispelled their fears, disbanded his army, and the
conqueror of Asia entered Rome as a private citizen. This
modest behaviour greatly increased his popularity, and he >
hich occasion he added.
was decreed another triumph; on wh












º divided the then known world amongst them, was
soon broken; Julia died, Crassus was killed, and a civil war
broke out between Pompey and Caesar. In real power to
sustain the appeal to arms, the two rivals were very unequal.
Pompey, never in vigour and capacity a match for Caesar, and
now habituated to the indulgencies of a civic life, was become
“magni nominis umbra,” the shadow of a great name. He
was not, however, sensible of any decline of his authority;
and when Cicero, finding him deaf to proposals of accommo-
dation, and at the same time negligent in his preparations,
urged him to more vigorous proceedings, he vauntingly re-
plied, “When I stamp with my foot, an army will start out
of the ground.” . .
Caesar at length crossed the Alps, and encamped at Ravenna,
.C. 49. A decree of the senate proclaimed him a public
enemy, and Pompey was required to take upon himself the de-
fence of the state. He began to prepare in earnest for war,
but too late for the rapidity of his rival. Caesar passed the
Rubicon and approached Rome, and Pompey fled. -
Invested by Caesar in Brundusium, he escaped by sea to
Greece, where he assembled a numerous army; Caesar followed
him, and having in vain proposed an accommodation, offered
him battle. This Pompey declined, and encamped before
Dyrrachium. Caesar then adopted the arduous measure
of besieging him in his camp, and drew strong lines of cir-
rallation; but these were forced with great slaughter by
, who followed Caesar into Macedon. There, at Phar-
C. 48, the decisive battle was fought between the two
at rivals. At the commencement of this battle the whole
plain was covered, from Pharsalia to the Enipeus, with two
ºrmies, dressed and armed after the same manner, and bearing
a same ensigns. At first, both kept a mournful silence; but
ength the trumpets sounded, and Caesar's army advanced to
he attack, when Caius Crastinus, a centurion, at the
120 men, threw himself upon the enemy's first line with
*dible fury, and made a great slaughter of them, in conse-
of a promise he had m º he was still
ey's men ran his sword in at his mout h, with such violence
*.
diers, then took courage, and stood the
it up, a


























































their
ranks, with a design
Besar ordered
charged z
d
§
the six cohorts, USiºui Mii tº
reserve. These, upon ming up, ch 2nemy's
horse with determined resolution, aiming only at the faces of
the enemy. This new manner of fighting had the desired ef.
fect; for the young patricians, whom Caesar called the pretty
young dancers, not willing to have their faces deformed with
scars, turned their backs, and fled in the utmost confusion,
leaving the foot at the mercy of the enemy. Caesar's men did
not pursue them, but charging the foot, now naked and un-
#. ded, surrounded them, and cut most of them to pieces.
Pompey was so transported with rage, at seeing the flower of
his forces thus cut in pieces, that he left his army, and retired
slowly to his tent, without speaking a word, and continued
there like one distracted, till his whole army was defeated.
Caesar no sooner saw himself master of the field than he marched
to attack Pompey in his entrenchments; upon which Pompey,
putting on . a garment as might best favour his flight, stole
out at the decuman gate, and took the rood to Larissa, which
city had hitherto shown great attachment to him. He refused,
however, to enter Larissa, out of consideration to the inhabi-
tants, and proceeding to the sea coast, embarked for Lesbos.
In that island, he had a most affecting interview with his faith-
ful Cornelia, with whom, and a few friends, he sailed away to
the coast of Asia. Touching at Cyprus, a consultation was
entered upon respecting further proceedings, Pompey himself
proposed retiring to Parthia, as the safest place of refuge; but
objections were justly raised against a measure so desperate
and disgraceful, as of entrusting the fate of Romans to the
most inveterate foe of Rome. Theophanes, a Greek, then
proposed withdrawing to Egypt, where a friendly reception
might be expected from the young king Ptolemy, whose fa-
ther had been favoured by Pompey. This advice was adopted,
and the fugitives arrived on the Egyptian coast. Pompey,
landed at . entrance of the harbour of Pelusium; and on
quitting his wife Cornelia and his son, he repeated the two fol-
lowing verses of Sophocles, “ The freeman who seeks an
asylum at the court of a king, will meet with slavery and chains.”
He there found death., Scarcely had he landed on the shore,
arged the enem
#
when Theodore, the rhetorician, of the isle of Chios, Septi-
nias the courtier, and Achillas the eunuch, who commanded,
his troops, wishing for a victim to present to his conqueror,
stabbed him with their swords. At the sight of the assassin
man. They cut of his head, and embalmed it, to offer i
Jaesar, and left his body naked on the shore. It was thus that














































; man, whose warlike talents had procured the liberty
eas for the Romans, and added "... kingdoms to their
e: wire, was basely slain in setting foot on the terri-
tory king who owed to him his crown. Philip, his freed
man, collecting together, under favour of the night, the wreck
of a boat, and stripping off his own cloak to cover the sad re-
ºvy
mains of his master, burnt them according to the custom. An
old soldier, who had served under Pompey's colours, came to
mingle his tears with those of Philip, and to assist him in per-
'orming the last offices to the manes of his general. Such
were the obsequies of the late master of Rome! When Caesar
arrived in Egypt, the head of his rival was presented to him,
but he turned away from the spectacle, and burst into tears.
He avenged his death by that of the perpetrators, and burying
the head with great solemnity, erected over it a temple to
Nemesis. > --> -
Pompey perished in the fifty-ninth year of his age, and left
behind him a name among the most illustrious of antiquity.
“Clarum et venerabile momen gentibus.” His private virtues
were many; he was moderate in his pleasures, temperate and
free from dissolute or ostentatious luxury, in the highest for-
tune, kind-hearted, mild and humane, when not under the in-
fluence of party violence. His talents were great and various,
if not of the highest class, and his mind was cultured by letters
and philosophy. As a citizen he cannot rank among pure pa-
triots, yet his ambition tended only to be the chief of a free
state, not to be the subvertor of that freedom. He wished to
be, says Lucan, “Rector senatus, sed regnantis,” ruler of the
senate, but of a senate in authority. He preferred, proceeds
the poet, arms to the toga, but in arms he was a lover of peace.”
In his ambitious pursuits he was occasionally guilty of violence
and ingratitude, but this was in consequence of his commencing
life under the auspices of party, from which baneful influence
he was never free. He finally rose to a station to which he was
unequal, and forfeited, in the last act of the eventful drama of
much of the reputation he had gained in the preceding
life, m
Pompey, after the death of her husband, "P. Crassus: she has
been praised for her great virtues. When her husband left her
in the bay of Alexandria, to go ashore in a small boat, she
stabbed by Achillas, and heard his dying groans with-
he possibility of aiding him. She attributed all his mis-
unes to his connection with her.
ORA, a famous courtezan of Rome, who was suddenly
by Pompey, and had so much regard for him, that she
ever yield to the pressing entreaties of another lover, till
mself desired her to do it. He recommended another
% 6 #
ELIA, a daughter of Metellusivio, who married































B, c. 107.1 FROM PTOLEMY PHILOMETOR to spartAcus. 625
lover, who had begged to speak to Flora in his favour; after
that time, Pompey no more visited his mistress, which threw her
into a fit of melancholy. Flora was so beautiful, that Cecilius
Metellus caused her picture to be drawn, and kept with several
others, in the temple of Castor and Pollux. 2.
M. LICINIUS CRASSUS, a celebrated Roman, sirnamed
the rich on account of his opulence. At first he was very cir-
cumscribed in his circumstances; but, by educating slaves and .
selling them at a high price, he soon enriched himself. The
cruelties of Cinna obliged him to leave Rome, and he retired to
Spain, where he remained concealed for eight months. After
Cinna's death he passed into Africa, and thence to Italy, where
he served Sylla and ingratiated himself in his favour. When
the gladiators, with Spartacus at their head, had spread a uni-
versal alarm in Italy, and defeated some of the Roman generals,
Crassus was sent against them. A battle was fought, in which
Crassus slaughtered twelve thousand of the slaves, and, by this
decisive blow, soon put an end to the war, and was honoured
with an oration at his return. He was soon after made consul
with Pompey; B. C. 67, and in this high office he displayed
his opulence, by entertaining the populace at ten thousand ta-
bles. He was afterwards censor, and formed the first trium-
virate with Pompey and Caesar. Although his love of riches was
more predominant than that of glory, Crassus never imitated
the ambitious conduct of his colleagues, but was satisfied with
the province of Syria, which seemed to promise an inexhaustible
source of wealth. With hopes of enlarging his possessions, he
set off from Rome, though the omens proved unfavourable, and
every thing seemed to threaten his ruin. He crossed the
Euphrates, and, forgetful of the rich cities of Babylon and Pe-
lusia, he hastened to make himself master of Parthia. He was
betrayed in his march by the delay of Artavasdes, king of
Armenia, and the perfidy of Ariamnes. He was met in a large
plain by Surena the Parthian general, and a battle was fought
in which twenty thousand Romans were killed, and ten thousand
taken prisoners. The darkness of the night favoured the
escape of the rest; and Crassus, forced by the mutiny and
turbulence of his soldiers, and the treachery of his guides,
trusted himself to the general of the enemy on pretence of pro-
posing terms of accommodation, and he was killed. His head
was cut off and sent to Orodes, who poured melted gold down
his throat. He has been called avaricious, yet he showed
himself always ready to lend money to his friends without in-
terest. He was fond of philosophy, and his knowledge of his-
tory was great and extensive. &S 3.
PUBLIUS CRASSUS, the son of the rich Crassus, went
* º with his father. When he saw himself surrounded
WOL. I. º: S º

626 UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. [B. C. 107.
by the enemy, and without any hope of escape, he ordered one
of his men to run him through. His head was cut off, and
showed with insolence to his father by the Parthians.
DEJOTARUS, first distinguished as tetrarch of Galatia,
and, on account of the eminent services which he performed in
that station, and of the figure which he made in the Mithridatic
war, was afterwards appointed to the throne of the Lesser Ar-
menia, by Pompey, which appointment was confirmed by the
senate. He was highly respected by most of the principal peo-
ple in Rome, and was of much service in repressing many tu-
mults which were excited in the empire. In the civil war be-
tween Pompey and Caesar, he sided with the former, and was
on that account deprived of part of his territory, and became
tributary to the victorious Caesar. After Caesar's death, Dejo-
tarus, by bribery, recovered his forfeited territories. He in-
tended next to have joined Brutus, but the commander to whose
care he trusted his troops, went over to Antony, which was so
far fortunate for him, that on the defeat of Brutus, he was per-
mitted to retain his kingdom. He arrived at an advanced age,
and towards the close of life, was excessively devoted to the su-
perstitions of the age and country in which he lived, and was
governed almost entirely by omens and auguries.
MENAS, a freedman of Pompey the Great, who distinguished
himself by the active and perfidious part he took in the civil wars,
which were kindled between the younger Pompey and Au-
gustus. . When Pompey invited Augustus to his galley, Menas
advised his master to seize the person of his enemy, and at the
same time the Roman empire, by cutting the cables of his ship.
“No,” replied Pompey, “I wonld have approved of the mea-
sure if you had done it without consulting me, but I scorn to
break my word.”
A. CECINNA, a Roman knight in the interest of Pompey,
who used to breed up young ... and send them to carry
news to his friends as messengers. He was a particular friend
of Cicero, with whom he corresponded. Some of his letters are
still extant in Cicero.
We have the following notice respecting Britain at this pe-
riod; but whether true or fabulous, it is dfficult to say. 2.
LUD, a British king, mentioned in old Saxon chronicles, and
said to have reigned about B. C. 126. He is reported to have
enlarged, and built walls around Trognovant, or New Troy,
where he kept his court, and made it his capital. The name of
London is hence derived from Lud's town; and Ludgate from
it being near the burying-place of King Lud, according to
some writers.



B. c. 199.] FROM PTOLEMY PHILOMETOR To spartAcus. 627
&
PHI Lo so PHY.
PANAETIUS, a celebrated philosopher among the Stoics,
who flourished in the second century before Christ, was a native
of Rhodes, and descended from ancestors, who had distinguished
themselves in the military transactions of the republic. His in-
clination leading him to the study of philosophy, he became a
disciple of Antipater of Tarsus, but did not at this time approve
of the doctrines of the Stoics. He was a great admirer of Plato,
whom he called divine, most wise, and most holy, and he freely
borrowed opinions and sentiments from philosophers of every
sect. From Rhodes he went to Athens, where he maintained
the reputation of the school of Zeno, and had many disciples.
His fame having reached Rome, he went thither; his lectures
were crowded by the young nobility, and he enjoyed an intimate
acquaintance with several eminent Romans, particularly Scipio
and Laelius. According to some writers, he accompanied Scipio
in some of his expeditions, and is said to have rendered him
essential services; he, at the same time, employed his interest
with this great man, in conferring various benefits on his fellow-
citizens at Rhodes. Panaetius appears to have spent the latter
part of his life partly at Athens, and he died at the last named
city, but it is not at all certain in what year. None of his works
have come down to us; but his moral doctrines were doubtless
very excellent, since they are greatly extolled by Cicero, in his
treatise “De Officiis.” N.
CRITOLAUS, a peripatetic philosopher of Athens, sent am-
bassador to Rome, &c. B. C. 140. x
ARISTOBULUS, a Jew of Alexandria, who joined the pe-
ripatetic philosophy with the law of Moses. He is frequently
quoted by Eusebius, but his works are lost; he flourished B. C.
120. -
ANTIOCHUS, a Stoic philosopher, flourished B. C. 100.
Cicero and Plutarch speak of him with great respect.
APELLICON, a peripatetic philosopher, to whom the world
is in a great measure indebted for the works of Aristotle, he
having purchased them, at a very high price, about ninety years
before Christ. He brought his purchase from Scepsis to Athens,
where he caused the manuscripts to be copied. F. were af.
terwards seized by Sylla, and carried to Rome.
ANTIOCHUS of ASCALON, a celebrated philosopher, the
disciple of Philo of Larissa, the master of Cicero, and the friend
of Lucullus and Brutus. He was founder of a fifth academy;
but, instead of attacking other sects, he endeavoured to recon-
eile them together, particularly the sect of the Stoics, with that
of the ancient academy.
ANTIPATER of SIDON, § Stoic philosopher and p
Yet,



628 UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. [b.c. 19.
commended by Cicero and Seneca, who flourished about the
one hundred and seventy-first Olympiad.
CRATIPPUS, a celebrated peripatetic philosopher, was a
native of Mitylene, where he taught philosophy; but at length
went to Athens, where Brutus and the son of Cicero were his
disciples. Pompey went to see him after the battle of Pharsalia,
and proposed to him some difficulties respecting the belief of a
Providence. Cratippus comforted him, and answered his ob-
jections. He wrote some pieces about divination, and is sup-
posed to be the Cratippus whom Tertullian, in his book De
Animá, has ranked among the writers upon dreams.
MOLO, a philosopher of Rhodes, called also Apollonius.
Some are of opinion, that Apollonius and Molo were different
persons, both natives of Alabanda, and disciples of Menecles.
They both visited Rhodes, and there opened a school; but
Molo came some time after Apollonius. Molo had Cicero and
Julius Caesar among his pupils.
ZENO, a celebrated Epicurean philosopher, born at Sidon,
who had Cicero and Pomponius Atticus for his disciples, and
who wrote a book against the mathematics, which, as well as
that of Posidonius's refutation of it, is lost. N.
TITUS ALBUTIUS, a Roman philosopher, and pro-praetor
of Sardinia, who for corruption was banished by the senate. On
account of his attachment to the Grecian language and customs,
he is ridiculed by Cicero. He died at Athens.


PO ET R Y.
PUBLIUS TERENTIUS TERENCE, a Latin writer of
comedies, was born, at it is supposed, at Carthage, about B. C.
194. Being brought to Rome as a slave, when young, he was
in the service of a person named Terentius, a senator, from
whom he derived his name. The purity and politeness of his
language evince his having enjoyed the benefit of a good Roman
education. After an emancipation, he was honoured with the
friendship of several Romans of rank, such as Scipio Africanus
the younger, and the younger Laelius. His comedies were
founded upon the Greek model, and translated, either wholly
or in part, from the Greek of Menander. The first comedy
which he is said to have brought upon the stage, was the “An-
dria,” represented in the year B. C. 166. But though this was
the first of his comedies that was acted, it appears that it was
not the first which he had written. The six comedies of Te-
rence that are still extant, were exhibited at Rome from the
year B.C. 166 to 160. They were heard with great applause;
the “Eunuchus” was repeated twice in the same day, and he
is said to have received for it 8000 sesterces, about £64. After


B. C. 180.] FROM PTOLEMY PHILOMETOR TO SPARTACUS. 629
he had presented these comedies to the public, he departed for
Greece, and never returned to Rome. Some have accounted
for this circumstance, by supposing that he perished by ship-
wreck; others affirm that he died in Greece, from the grief he
experienced on account of the loss of his baggage, and some new
comedies, which he had composed, by an accident at sea.
The judgment of critics on the performances of Terence has
been very different, though their real merit is said not to be of
difficult estimation. It is generally allowed that he is defective
in invention and originality of observation; but a very compe-
tent judge observes, “that he is justly entitled to the praise of
judicious selection, happy disposition, and purity and neatness
of language; and that, as a Latin writer, he wrote in a style of
elegance of which there are few examples. He was highly prized
in his own times, and is invaluable in ours. Cicero, who speaks
of him as a translator of Menander, explains him as the only one
who had expressed in the Latin language all the politeness and
beauty of the original; and Caesar, in some well-known lines,
calls him “the lover of pure diction.’” The best editions of
Terence are that of Bentley, 4to. 1726; Edinburgh, 1758,
12mo.; and that of Zeunius, at Leipsic, in 2 vols. 8vo. 1774.
There is an English translation, by Colman.
QUINTUS FABIUS LABEO, a Roman author, who was
made consul. He was both a soldier and a man of letters.
He obtained a naval victory over the Cretans, and assisted Te-
rence in writing some of his plays.
MOSCHUS, a celebrated Greek pastoral poet, was a native
of Syracuse. It is not ascertained at what period he lived.
Some authors make him a pupil of Bion, but Suidas and some
others speak of him as the friend of Aristarchus, who flourished
about B. C. 160. The tenderness with which he speaks of
Bion, in his beautiful elegy on that poet, is mentioned as a
proof of his personal acquaintance with him. Moschus is a poet
that possesses great elegance of style, and more delicacy and in-
#. in his conceptions than usual among Bucolic poets.
His piece entitled “Run away Love,” in particular, deserves a
high rank among sentimental pieces. His works, at least such
as are usually attributed to him, are commonly printed in con-
junction with those of Bion. %
MARCUS PACUVIUS, a Latin tragic poet, was a native
of Brundusium, and is said to have been son of the sister of
Eunius. He flourished about the year B. C. 154, and is re-
nowned as the friend and guest of C. Laelius. In the rude state
of the Roman theatre, he obtained a high reputation; and his
º of Orestes, is mentioned by Cicero in his “De Amicitiã,”
as having been heard with thunders of applause. He was the
author of some satires, and had a talent }. painting. In ad-
vanced life he retired from Rome to Tarentum, where he died,
having nearly reached his ninetieth year, *



530 UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY, [B.C. 14.
LUCIUS ACCIUS, a Latin tragic poet, the son of a freed-
man, and according to St. Jerome, born in the consulship of
Mancinus and Serranus, in the year B. C. 170. He wrote on
the most celebrated stories, which had been represented on the
Grecian stage; as Andromache, Andromeda, Atreus, Clytem-
nestra, Medea, Meleager, Phyloctetes, Tereus, the Troades,
the civil wars of Thebes, &c. besides another dramatic piece,
entirely Roman, entitled Brutus, and relating to the expulsion of
the Tarquins. Two comedies, the Wedding, and the Merchant,
have also been ascribed to him; besides other productions, par-
ticularly his annals, mentioned by Macrobius and others. He
has been censured for writing in too harsh a style, but in all
other respects has been esteemed a very great poet. He was
so much esteemed by the public, that a comedian was punished
for only mentioning his name on the stage. Cicero, Horace,
Ovid, &c. have spoken of him with much applause.
ATTILIUS, a Latin poet, whose style was severely censured
by Cicero and Licinius. He was the author of some tragedies,
and among others, one entitled Electra, of which Suetonius makes
mention. This piece, however, was only a Latin translation
from the Greek play of Sophocles, as Cicero has remarked.
CAIUS LUCILIUS, a Roman poet, was born at Suessa,
in the country of the Aurunci, about the year B. C. 148. He
was of a good family, and in the Numantine war bore arms
under Scipio Africanus the younger, with whom, and his friend
Laelius, he lived on terms of friendship. He is looked upon as
the founder of satire, and as the first considerable writer of
satire among the Romans. From Horace, who refers to them
several times in his own satires, it appears that he imitated the
old Greek comedians in marking out by his censure individuals
notorious for their vices, even those of the very highest rank.
Though superior to his poetical predecessors at #. and
though he wrote with great roughness and inelegance, he
|ained many admirers. He died at Naples about the year
#. C. 103. His fragments have been collected and published,
with notes by Francis Douza, in quarto. They are also given
in Mattaire's Corpus Poetarum. - *
AFRANIUS, a Roman comic poet, who lived about B. C.
100, and wrote comedies in imitation of Menander. He is
commended by Tully and Quintilian. § 3;
| M. FURIUS BIBALCULUS, a Latin poet, in the age of
Cicero. He composed annals in Iambic verses, and wrote epi-
grams and other poems now lost. - - - -
ARCHIAS, a poet of Antioch, intimate with the Luculli.
He obtained the rank and name of a Roman citizen by the
means of Cicero, who defended him in an elegant oration, when
his enemies had disputed his privileges of citizen of Rome. He
wrote a poem on the Cimbrian war, and began another con-







B.C. 100.] FROM PTOLEMY PHILOMETOR TO SPARTACUs. 631
cerning Cicero's consulship, which are now lost. Some of his
epigrams are preserved in the Anthologia. . 3. ::
BABRIAS or BABRIUS was a Greek poet, who turned
AEsop's fables into choliambics, that is, verses with an iambic
foot in the fifth place, and a spondee in the sixth or last.
Suidas frequently quotes him from the fragments of his works
that remain, Babrius appears to have been a valuable writer;
his representations are natural, his expressions lively, and his
versification harmonious. Mr. Tyr published a valuable tract
at London in 1776, entitled “Dissertatio de Babrio.”
LUCIUS PLOTIUS, a Roman poet, who flourished in the
time of Marius, and celebrated that hero's exploits in his poems.
MELEAGER, a Greek poet, son of Eucrates, was a native
of Gadara in Syria, or of Atthis, a village in its territory, and
is supposed to have flourished about a century before the
Christian era. He spent his youth chiefly at Gadara, where
he formed himself upon the style and manner of Henippus, an
elder poet of that place. He afterwards resided at Tyre, and
finally passed over to Cosby way of refuge from the wars which
ravaged Syria, and died there at an advanced age. He was
the first who made a collection of the short poems called by the
Greeks epigrams. Of these he formed two sets, under the
title of “Anthologia,” the first of which is a lamentable proof
of the licentiousness of the age, and country; the second, con-
sisting of miscellaneous pieces, has formed the basis of the latter
anthologias of Agathias and Planudes. Many of the poems
are the work of M. and possess much elegance; an edi-
tion was given by Brunck in 1709.
ANTIAS FURIUS, an ancient Latin poet, was contempo-
rary with Q. Lutatius Catullus, who is recorded to have sent
him a treaty made during his consulate, B.C. 102. This cir-
cumstance renders it probable that it was this Furius, who com-
posed annals in verse. A. Gellius mentions him as having been
censured by a grammarian for certain innovations in language,
and quotes some lines from him, which appear inflated. Ma-
crobius affirms that Virgil borrowed considerably from Furius
the annalist, and copies some lines in proof of his assertion.





LITE RATURE.

ARISTARCHUS, a Greek grammarian, who flourished
B. C. 160, was a native of Samothrace, and became an inha-
bitant of Alexandria, under Ptolemy Philometor, whose son he
educated. He was a rigid critic, and exercised his talent upon
Homer, Pindar, Aratus, and other poets. It is said by the
ancient commentators upon Homer, that Aristarchus first di-
vided the Iliad and Odyssey into books, answering to the order
632 UNIVERSAL biography. [B. C. 190.
and number of the Greek letters. It was the practice of this
bold critic to condemn those verses as spurious, which did not
appear to him to be worthy of Homer, and to mark them with
an obelisk; and, on the contrary, to distinguish those which
he, thought particularly excellent, with an asterism. (Erasmi
Adag.). Cicero alludes to this practice in two of his familiar
epistles. “If these letters,” says he to Appius Pulcher, “were
not, as you tell me, elegantly written, I entreat you to consider
them as none of mine; for, as Aristarchus insisted that every
verse in Homer was spurious which he did not approve, so,
allow me to jest, I desire you will believe whatever you find
to be inelegant, not to be the produce of my pen.” To Dol-
abella he writes: “I imagine there is nothing going forward in
Rome worth your attention, unless, perhaps, that I am to sit
in judgment between our friend Nicias and Vidius, the latter
of whom brings an account against the former, in two little
verses, which Nicias, a second Aristarchus, marks with the
obelisk as spurious; I, like an ancient critic, am to decide,
whether the }. belong to the poet, or are interpolated.” Au-
sonius, in his poem entitled “Ludus Septem Sapientum,” where
he is challenging the rigorous criticism of Drepanius Pacatus,
introduces Aristarchus's obelisk. - %
Censure my work—nor think the task too hard,
As Aristarchus the Maeonian bard;
Mark'd with your obelisk, the honour'd line
Not stigmatis'd, but grac'd with palms, shall shine.
Cicero makes use of the name of Aristarchus proverbially
for a severe critic, when, in his oration against Piso, he tells
us, he is not Aristarchus, to affix a mark to a bad verse, but a
Phalaris to assault the person of the poet. When he requests
his friend Atticus to examine his orations with strictness, he
calls him his Aristarchus; and Horace suggests the same idea
in his Art of Poetry.
A friendly critic, when dull lines move slow,
Or harshly rude will his resentment show ;
Will mark the blotted pages, and efface
What is not polish'd to its highest grace;
Will prune th’ ambitious ornaments away,
And teach you on the obscure to pour the day;
| Will mark the doubtful phrase with hand severe,
Like Aristarchus rig'rous and sincere;
Nor say, for rifles why should I displease
The man I love?"
uristarchus appears to have been of a con temper;
Suidas relates, that he had many disputes with Crates, the
- 5





B. c. 140.] from PtoleMY PHILoMEToR to spartAcus. 633
grammarian, of Pergamus. He is said to have starved himself
to death. He left behind him at Alexandria a numerous school
of critics, and grammarians, which subsisted some ages after-
wards. Suidas records, that he wrote about eight hundred
books of commentaries; it is not, therefore, with much pro-
priety, that authors have ascribed to him this fine apology for
not writing; “I cannot write what I would, and I will not write
what I can.” º
CLITQMACHUS, a Carthaginian, who, fond of learning,
in his early years, visited Carthage for the purpose of attend-
ing the schools of the philosophers. At Athens he became the
disciple of Carneades, and succeeded him in the chair of the
New Academy. By diligent study he made himself master of
the systems of the other schools; but professed the doctrine of
suspension of assent, as it had been taught by his predecessor.
Cicero says, that he wrote four hundred books upon philoso-
phical subjects. At an advanced age he was seized with a
lethargy; but when he in some degree recovered his faculties,
he said “the love of life shall deceive me no longer,” and then
laid violent hands upon himself. He held the office of preceptor
in the academy from the death of Carneades for thirty years,
or till B. C. 100. According to Cicero, he taught, that there is
no certain criterion by which to judge of the truth of those
reports which we receive from the senses; and that, therefore,
a wise man will either wholly suspend his assent, or decline
giving a peremptory opinion; but that, nevertheless, men are
strongly impelled by mature to follow probability. This moral
doctrine established a natural alliance between pleasure and
virtue. He was a professed enemy to rhetoric, and thought
that no place should be allowed in society to so dangerous an
art. ---
LUCIUS LICINIUS CRASSUS, a famous Roman orator,
was born of a noble family about B. C. 140. He distinguished
himself by his eloquence in the impeachment of the consul Pa-
pirius Carbo; but his modesty was so great, that he always
turned pale and trembled at the commencement of his speeches,
Cicero gives him a noble character. He was consul B. C. 95,
and lastly censor. He died at the age of forty eight.
PLOTIUS "GALLUS LUCIUS, a native of Gaul, who
first taught oratory at Rome in Latin. Cicero himself was one
of his pupils. - -
APOLLONIUS, a Greek orator, surnamed Molo, was a na-
tive of Alabanda in Caria. He opened a school of rhetoric at
Rhodes and Rome, and had Julius Caesar and Cicero among
his pupils. He discouraged the attendance of those whom he
supposed incapable of distinguishing themselves as orators, and
he recommended to them pursuits more congenial to their abi-
8%;

UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. [B. C. 117.
AELIUS ARISTIDES, a celebrated orator, born in My-
sia, about B.C. 129.
PUBLIUS NIGIDIUS FIGULUS, one of the most learned
men of ancient Rome, flourished at the same time with Cicero.
He wrote on various subjects; but his pieces appeared so re-
fined and difficult, that they were not regarded. He assisted
Cicero, with great prudence, in defeating Catiline's conspiracy,
and did him many services in the time of his adversity. He
adhered to Pompey in opposition to Caesar; which occasioned
his exile, and he died in banishment. Cicero, who had always
entertained the highest esteem for him, wrote a beautiful con-
solatory letter to him, the 13th of lib. 4 ad Familiares.
APOLLODORUS, a celebrated grammarian of Athens, the
son of Asclepiades and disciple of Aristarchus. He wrote
many works not now extant; but his most famous production
was his Bibliotheca, concerning the origin of the gods. The
work consisted of twenty-four books, but only three are now
extant. Several other pieces of his age are to be found in
Fabricius's Bibliotheca Graeca.
PUBLIUS RUTILIUS RUFUS, a Roman consul, in the
age of Sylla, celebrated for his virtues and his writings. Sylla
having banished him, he retired to Smyrna, and refused, when
solicited by his friends, to be restored by arms. He was the
first who taught the Roman soldiers to fabricate their own
arms; and, during his exile, wrote a history of Rome in Greek;
an account of his own life in Latin; and many other works,
which are lost.
RUTILIA, a Roman lady, was the sister of Publius Ruti-
lius, and the wife of Marcus Aurelius Cotta. Seneca, in a
i. which he wrote in his exile, speaks of her as a model for
er Sex.
MARCUSTERENTIUS WARRO, the most learned of
the ancient Romans, received from Pompey the Great, in the
piratical war, a naval crown, and joined this chief in the civil
war against Caesar, but afterwards submitted to the latter; he
was employed by him in making a collection of books for
the public library which he proposed to establish at Rome.
The death of Caesar prevented the accomplishment of this
design; and Varro being involved in the proscription by the
triumvirates, escaped with his life, but with the loss of his li-
brary. After the restoration of tranquillity, he retired from his
studies, and composed books till his eighty-eighth year. His
life was prolonged to the age of ninety, and he died about the
year B.C. 27. He is highly extolled for his various talents and
ary performances by ancient writers, and particularly by
oin his “Academics,” Aulus Gellius cites a passage from
Varro, in which he declares of himself, that to the seventy-eighth
year of his life he had composed four hundred and ninety books,
*
*























B. c. 115.] FROM PTOLEMY PHILOMETOR. To spartAcus.
and he continued to write to his ninetieth year. The subjects
on which he wrote, as we learn from Fabricius, were grammar,
eloquence, poetry, the drama, history, antiquities, philosophy,
politics, agriculture, nautical affairs, architecture, and religion.
Such and so pre-eminent was the reputation of Varro, that when
Acinius Pollio, in the reign of Augustus, opened the first pub-
lic library at Rome, and placed in it the effigies of various
learned persons, he was the only living writer who had the
honour of this distinction. The only relics of his numerous
works are six books, in an imperfect state, out of twenty four,
which he composed in the Latin language, with three books on
agriculture, and a few fragments of his satires and epigrams.
A contemporary of the preceding, named P. Terentius Varro
Attacinus, has been confounded with him. He was a native of
Atace in Gallia Narbonnensis, and wrote an esteemed poem,
“De Bello Sequanico,” and translated into Latin verse the
“Argonautics of Apollonius Rhodius.” Some fragments of his
poetry are still extant. The principal of those remaining are—
1. “De Linguà Latinâ,” printed first at Rome in 1471. 2.
“De Re Rustică;” of which there is an English translation, by
Owen. His works, with notes, were printed by Henry Ste
phens, in 1573, 8vo. Virgil made great use of Varro in his
Georgics. -
QUINTUS HORTENSIUS, a distinguished Roman ora-
tor, born about the year B. C. 115. He began to plead before
he was nineteen years of age, and with so much talent, that the
great Cicero said of him, “the genius of Hortensius, like the
statue of Phidias, was at once beheld and approved.” He
afterwards entered the army and rose to the post of military
tribune: he then passed through the usual course of civi
offices to the consulship, which he served with Caecilius Me-
tellus, B. C. 70. At that period he had acquired so much
power and distinction by his eloquence, that when the lot of
general of the Cretan war fell upon him, he resigned it to his
colleague, preferring the distinction and celebrity of the forum
and senate house. He continued to plead till his death, which
happened in his sixty-fourth year, B.C. 51. As an orator
he was elegantly splendid in his diction, apt in his composition,
and copious in his matter. He embraced the whole subject in
his memory, divided it acutely, and omitted nothing which the
cause supplied, either for confirmation or refutation. He was
aided with uncommon powers of memory, which enabled him to
repeat a whole oration in the words which he had previously
conceived, without committing it to writing, and to go through
all the arguments of an opponent in their order. Though
Hortensius died very rich, he lived in a very luxurious style;
he possessed several magnificent country seats, furnished with
parks, aviaries, fish-ponds, &c. in which he very much delighted.

















63. UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. [B.C. 107.
* QUINTUS"BOSCIUS, a Roman actor of great celebrity,
was a native of Gaul. He was contemporary at Rome with
the celebrated actor AEsopus. So great were his talents for the
stage, and such was the degree of perfection to which he car-
ried his art, that, according to Cicero, a complete master in any
other art was popularly called the Roscius of it. Roscius was
not less esteemed for his morals and good conduct, than ad-
mired for his professional talents. The greatest men in the
state were his intimate friends, and the loss of him was uni-
versally lamented. “Which of us,” says Cicero, alluding to
Roscius in his oration for the poet Archias, “was so rude and
unfeeling as not to be affected by the recent death of Roscius,
who appeared, on account of his excellence in his art, worthy of
immortal life.” His death took place in the year B. C. 61. He
composed a parallel between theatrical and oratorical action, .
which is lost. . .
CLODIUS AESOPUS, the celebrated actor, flourished
about B. C. 79. He and Roscius were contemporaries, and the
best performers who ever appeared upon the Roman stage, the
former excelling in tragedy, the latter in comedy; Cicero put
himself under their direction to perfect his action. AEsop lived
in a most expensive manner, and at one entertainment is said
to have had a dish which cost near eight hundred pounds.
This dish, we are told, was filled with singing and speaking
birds, some of which cost near fifty pounds. The delight which
AEsop took in this sort of birds, proceeded, as Mr. Bayle
observes, from the expence. He did not make a dish of them
because they could speak, according to the refinement of Pliny
upon this circumstance,, this motive being only by accident;
but because of their extraordinary price. If there had been
any birds that should not speak, and yet more scarce and dearer
than these, he would have procured such for his table. Æsop's
son was was no less luxurious than his father, for he dissolved
pearls for his guests to swallow. Horace speaks of one pearl of
very great value, which he dissolved in vinegar, and drank.
AEsop, notwithstanding his expences, is said to have died worth
above one hundred and sixty thousand pounds. When he was
upon the stage; he entered into his parts to such a degree, as
sometimes to be seized with a perfect ecstacy. Plutarch men-
tions it as reported of him, that whilst he was representing
Atreus deliberating how he should revenge himself on Thy-
estes, he was so transported beyond himself in the heat of
action, that with his truncheon he smote one of the servants
crossing the stage, and laid him dead on the spot.
ºf MARCUS, TULLIUS CICERO, the celebrated Roman
was born B.C. 107. His father, Marcus Tullius, who
he equestrian order, took great care of his education,
was directed to the bar. Young Tully, at his first ap-























B. c. 107.] FROM PTOLEMY PHILOMETOR. To SPARTACUs.
pearance in public, declaimed with such vehemence against
Sylla's party, that it became necessary for him to retire into
Greece; where he heard the Athenian orators and philosophers,
and greatly improved both in eloquence and knowledge. Here
he met with T. Pomponius, who had been his school-fellow;
and who, from his love to Athens, obtained the sirname of At-
ticus; and here they revived and confirmed that friendship
which subsisted between them through life. From Athens he
passed into Asia; and after an excursion of two years returned
to Rome, where next year he was made quaestor. The quaes-
tors were sent annually into the provinces distributed to them
by lot. Lilybaeum, in Sicily, happened to fall to Cicero's share.
In this office he acquitted himself so well, that he gained the
love and admiration of all the Sicilians. Before he left Sicily, he
made the tour of the island, to see every thing that was curious,
and especially the city of Syracuse; where he discovered the
tomb of Archimedes to the magistrates, who were showing him
the curiosities of the place, but who, to his surprise, knew no-
thing of it. His marriage with Terentia is supposed to have
been celebrated immediately after his return, when he was about
thirty years old. By his quaestorship, he gained an admission
into the senate for life; and he employed himself constantly in
defending the persons and properties of his fellow citizens. In
his thirty-seventh year he was elected aedile, by the unanimous
suffrages of all the tribes, and in preference to all his competi-
tors. After his election, but before his entrance upon the of.
fice, he undertook the famed prosecution of C. Verres, the late
praetor of Sicily; who was charged with many flagrant acts of
injustice, rapine, and cruelty, during his triennial government
of that island. This was one of the most memorable transac-
tions of his life; for which he was justly celebrated by antiquity,
and for which he will, in all ages, be esteemed by the friends
of mankind. The result was, that he so confounded Horten-
sius, then the reigning orator at the bar, and usually styled the
king of the forum, that he had nothing to say for his client.
Verres, despairing of all defence, went into a voluntary exile,
where he lived many years, deserted by his friends. He is said
to have been relieved in this miserable situation by the genero-
sity of Cicero; yet after all was proscribed and murdered by
Mark Antony, for the sake of those fine statues and Corinthian
vessels of which he had plundered the Sicilians. After the
usual interval, Cicero offered himself a candidate for the prae-
torship; and, in three different assemblies convened for the
choice, he was unanimously elected the first praetor. He was
now in the career of his fortunes, and in sight, as it were, of
the consulship; and therefore, when his praetorship was at an
end, he would not accept of any foreign province, the chief fruit
which the generality proposed from that office. He had no




638 . UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. [B. C. 107.
particular love for money, nor genius for arms. The glory he
pursued, was to shine in the city as the guardian of its laws;
and to teach the magistrates how to execute, the citizens how to
obey them. Being now in his forty-third year, he declared
himself a candidate for the consulship along with six compe-
titors, of whom, were four patricians, or nobles, and the two
last the sons of fathers who had first imported the public ho-
mours into their families. Cicero was the only new man among
them. In this competition the practice of bribing was carried
on as shamefully by Antonius and Catiline, as it usually is at
our elections in Britain. However, as the election approached,
Cicero's interest appeared superior to that of all his candidates;
for the nobles themselves, though desirous to depress him, yet
from the dangers which threatened the city, and seemed ready
to burst out, began to think him the only man qualified to pre-
serve the republic, and break the cabals of the desperate, by the
vigour and prudence of his administration. The method of
choosing consuls was not by an open vote, but by a kind of
ballot, or little tickets of wood, distributed to the citizens, with
the names of the several candidates inscribed upon each. But
in Cicero's case the people were not content with this secret and
silent way; but, before they came to any scrutiny, loudly and
ji, proclaimed Cicero the first consul; so that, as he
himself says, “he was not chosen by the votes of particular ci-
tizens, but by the common suffrage of the city; nor declared
by the voice of the crier, but of the whole Roman people.”
Cicero had no sooner entered upon his office than he had occa-
sion to exert himself against P. Servilius Rullius, one of the
new tribunes, who had been alarming the senate with the pro-
mulgation of an Agrarian law, the purpose of which was to
create a decemvirate, or ten commissioners, with absolute power
for five years over all the revenues of the republic, to distribute
them at pleasure to the citizens, &c. These laws used to be
greedily received by the populace, but Cicero, in an artful
and elegant speech from the rostra, gave such a turn to the in-
clination of the people, that they rejected this law with as much
eagerness as they had ever received one. But the grand affair,
which constituted the glory of his consulship, and has trans-
mitted his name with lustre to posterity, was the unwearied pains
he took in suppressing that horrid conspiracy which was formed
by Catiline, '. the subversion of the commonwealth. For this
great service he was honoured with the glorious title of pater
patriae, the father of his country. Cicero had no sooner quitted
This office, than he began to feel the weight of that envy which
is the certain fruit of illustrious merit. He was now, therefore,
the common mark, not only of all the facti gainst whom
he had declared perpetual war, but of anot party not less
dangerous, the envious too; whose united spleen me ††















B. C. 107.] FROM PTOLEMY PHILOMETOR. To SPARTACUs.
him, till they had driven him out of that city which he had pre-
served. Cicero, upon the expiration of his consulship, took
care to send a particular account of his whole administration to
Pompey, who was finishing the Mithridatic war in Asia; in
hopes to prevent any wrong impressions there from the calum-
nies of his enemies, and to draw from him some public declara-
tion in praise of what he had been doing. But Pompey, being
informed by Metellus and Caesar of the ill-humour that was
rising against Cicero in Rome, answered him with great cold-
ness; and instead of paying him any compliment, took no no-
tice of the affair of Catiline; upon which Cicero expostulates
with him in a letter which is still extant. About this time Ci-
cero bought a house of M. Crassus, on the Palatine-hill, ad-
joining to that in which he had always lived with his father, and
which he is now supposed to have given up to his brother
Quintus. The house cost him near thirty thousand pounds, and
seems to have been one of the noblest in Rome. This excited
censure on his vanity; and especially as it was made with bor-
rowed money. This circumstance he himself does not dissem-
ble; but says merrily upon it, that “he was now plunged so
deeply in debt, as to be ready for a plot, only that the conspi-
rators would not trust him.” The most remarkable event that
happened this year, the forty-fifth of Cicero's life, was the pol-
lution of the mysteries of the Bona Dea by P. Clodius; which,
by its consequences, involved Cicero in no small calamity. Clo-
dius had an intrigue with Caesar's wife Pompeia, who was cele-
brating in her house those awful sacrifices of the goddess, to
which no male creature was ever admitted. Clodius wished to
gain an access to his mistress in the midst of her holy ministry;
and with this view he dressed himself in a woman's habit, that
by the benefit of his smooth face, and the introduction of one
of the maids, he might pass without discovery; but by some
mistake between him and his guide, he lost his way when he
came within the house, and ki in among the other female ser-
vants. Here he was detected by his voice, and the servants
alarmed the whole company by their shrieks, to the great
amazement of the matrons, who threw a veil over their sacred
mysteries, while Clodius found means to escape. The story
was presently spread abroad, and raised a general scandal and
horror throughout the city. The defence which Clodius made,
when, by the order of the senate, he was brought to a trial,
was to prove himself absent at the time of the fact; for which
purpose he produced two men to swear that he was then at In-
teramna, about two or three days’ journey from the city. But
Cicero, being called upon to give his testimony, deposed, that
Clodius had been with him that very morning at his house in
Rome. Irritated by this, Clodius formed a scheme of revenge.
This was to get himself chosen tribune, and in that office to




UNIVERSAL Biography. [B. c. 107.
drive Cicero out of the city, by the publication of a law which
he hoped to obtrude upon the people. The first triumvirate
was now formed; which was nothing but a traitorous conspiracy
of three of the most powerful citizens of Rome, to extort from
their country by violence what they could not obtain by law.
Pompey's chief motive was to get his acts confirmed by Caesar
in his consulship, which was now coming on; Caesar, by giving
way to Pompey's glory, to advance his own; and Crassus, to
gain that ascendance by the authority of Pompey and Caesar,
which he could not sustain alone. Cicero might have made
what terms he pleased with the triumvirate, but he would not
enter into any engagements with men whose union all the friends
of the republic abhorred. Clodius, in the mean time, being
chosen tribune, began to threaten Cicero with all the terrors of
his tribunate. Both Caesar and Pompey secretly favoured his
scheme; not that they intended to ruin Cicero, but only to keep
him under the lash; and if they could not draw him into their
measures, or make him at least keep quiet, to let Clodius loose
upon him. Caesar wanted to distress him so far as to force him
to a dependance on himself; for which end, while he was pri-
vately encouraging Clodius to pursue him, he proposed expe-
dients to Cicero for his security. But Cicero was unwilling to
owe the obligation of his safety to any man, far less to Caesar,
whose designs he always suspected, and whose schemes he ne-
ver approved. This stiffness so exasperated Caesar, that he
solved to assist Clodius to oppress him; while Pompey was all
the while giving him the strongest assurances that there was
no danger, and that he would sooner be killed himself than
suffer him to be hurt. Clodius, in the mean time, was obliging
the people with several new laws, contrived chiefly for their ad-
vantage; that he might introduce, with better grace, the ba-
nishment of Cicero. In short, having caused a law to be
enacted, that any who had condemned a Roman citizen un-
heard should himself be banished, he soon after impeached Ci-
cero upon it. It was in vain that this great man went about so-
liciting his cause as a suppliant, and attended by many of the
first young noblemen whom he had taught the rules of elo-
quence; those powers of speaking, which had so often been
successful in defending the cause of others, seemed totally to
forsake his own. He was banished by the votes of the people
four hundred miles from Italy; his houses were ordered to be
demolished, and his goods set up to sale. In this calamity he
did not behave himself with that firmness which might have
been expected from one conscious of his integrity, and suffer-
ing in the cause of his country; for his letters are filled with
ſch lamentable expressions of grief and despair, that his best
ds, and even his wife, were forced to admonish him to
e his courage, and remember his former character. To
*









B. c. 107.1 FROM proLEMy philomeroR to spartacus.
have been as great in affliction as he was in prosperity,
have been a perfection not given to man; yet this very we
flowed from a source which rendered him the more
The same tenderness of disposition which made him love.
triends, his children, and his country, more passionately
other men, made him feel the loss of them more sensibly. W.
he had been gone a little more than two months, a motion was
made in the senate by one of the tribunes, who was his friend,
to recall him, and repeal the laws of Clodius; to which the
whole house readily agreed, notwithstanding the opposition
made by the Clodian faction. Cicero's return was carried in so
triumphant a manner, that he had reason, he says, to fear lest
people should imagine that he himself had contrived his late
flight for the sake of so glorious a restoration. He was in his
fiftieth year when he was restored to his dignity and fortunes;
satisfaction being made to him for the ruin of his estates and
houses. In the fifty-sixth year of his age, he was made
proconsul of Cilicia, where his administration gained him
great honour. About this time the expectation of a breach
between Caesar and Pompey engaged the general attention.
Caesar had put an end to the É. war, and reduced the
whole province to the Roman yoke; but though his commis-
sion was near expiring, he had no thoughts of giving it up
and returning to the condition of a private subject. #. pre-
tended that he could not possibly be safe if he parted with his
army, while Pompey held the province of Spain prolonged for
five years. This disposition to a breach, Cicero soon learned
from his friends, as he was returning from his province of Ci-
licia. He clearly foresaw, what he declared to his friends, that
which side soever got the better, the war must necessarily end
in a tyranny. The only difference, he said, was, that if their
enemies conquered, they should be proscribed; if their friends,
they would be slaves. He no sooner arrived at the city, than
he found the war in effect proclaimed; for the senate had just
voted a decree, that Caesar should disband his army by a cer-
tain day, or be declared an enemy; and Caesar's sudden march
towards Rome confirmed it. In the midst of all this confusion,
Caesar was extremely solicitous about Cicero; not so much to
gain him, as to prevail with him to stand neuter. He wrote to
him several times, and employed all their mutual friends to press
lim with letters on that subject; all which was done, but in
vain; for Cicero was impatient to be gone to Pompey. These,
letters give us a strong proof of the high esteem in which Ci-
cero was held at this time in Rome; when, in a contest for em-
pire, which force alone was to decide, the chiefs on both ..º.
were solicitous to gain a man to their party, who had no s
lents for war. Cicero at º ;
Pompey, who had been obliged to quit
WOL. I. Tº




















642 UNIVERs AL BIOGRAPHY. [B.C. 107.
and was then at Dyrrhachium; and arrived safely in his camp
with his son, his brother, and his nephew, committing the for-
tunes of the family to the issue of that cause.
After the battle of Pharsalia, in which Pompey was defeated,
Cicero returned into Italy, and was received into great favour by
Caesar, who was now declared dictator the second time, and
Marc Antony his master of horse. It appears from his letters,
that Cicero was not a little discomposed at the thoughts of an
interview with a conqueror, against whom he had been in arms;
for though he might expect a kind reception, yet he hardly
thought his life, he says, worth begging; since what was given
by a master might always be taken away at pleasure: but at
their meeting, he had no occasion to say or do any thing below
his dignity; for Caesar no sooner saw him than he alighted, ran
to embrace him, and walked with him alone, conversing very
familiarly for several furlongs. A domestic occurrence of this
f.". which was in his sixty-first year, impressed a stain upon
his private character, which no apologist has been able to
efface. This was the divorce of his wife Terentia, immediately
followed by a marriage with his rich and beautiful ward, Publilia,
then in the flower of her youth. Though Cicero pretended
several causes of complaint against Terentia, who, indeed,
seems to have been a lady of spirit and management, yet the
latter action too clearly explains the former. As he was in-
volved in debt, the possession of Publilia's fortune rather than
person, was probably his chief object in forming so unequal an
alliance. His relation to her as a guardian, aggravated the im-
propriety of his conduct. Soon after this he was oppressed by
a new and most cruel affliction, the death of his beloved daugh-
ter, Tullia, who died in child-bed soon after her divorce from
her third husband, Dolabella. She was about thirty-two years
old at the time of her death; and by the few hints which are
left of her character, appears to have been an excellent and ad-
mirable woman. She was most affectionately attentive to her
father; and, to the usual graces of her sex, having added know-
ledge and polite letters, was qualified to be the companion and
delight of his age; and was justly esteemed, not only as one of
the best, but the most learned of the Roman ladies. His afflic-
tion for her death was so great, that, to shun all company as
much as he could, he removed to Atticus's house where he lived
chiefly in his library, turning over every book he could meet
with on the subject of moderating grief. But finding his resi-
dence here too public, he retired to Asturia, one of his seats
near Antium, a little island on the Latin shores, covered with
woods and groves, cut into shady walks; a scene of all others
the fittest to indulge melancholy, and where he could give a
free course to his grief. “Here,” says he to Atticus, “I live
without the speech of man; every morning early I hide myself


B, c. 107.1 FROM PTOLEMY PHILOMETOR TO SPARTACUs. 643
in the thickest of the wood, and never come out till the evening.
Next to yourself, nothing is so dear to me as this solitude, and
my whole conversation is with my books.” In this retreat, he
drew up one of the gravest of those philosophical pieces which
are still extant in his works. Upon the death of Caesar, Octa-
vius his heir coming into Italy, was presented to Cicero by Hir-
tius and Pausa, with the strongest professions on the part of the
young man, that he would be governed entirely by his direc-
tion. Indeed Cicero thought it necessary to encourage Oc-
tavius, to keep him at a distance from Antony, but could not
yet be persuaded to enter heartily into his affairs. He suspected
his youth, and want of experience; and though he had not
strength enough to deal with Antony, and, above all, that he
had no good disposition towards the conspirators, he thought
it impossible he should ever be a friend to them, and was per-
suaded rather, that if ever he got the upper hand, his uncle's
acts would be more violently enforced, and his death more
cruelly revenged, than by Antony himself. And when Cicero
did not consent at last to unite himself to Octavius's interest, it
was with no other view but to arm with a power sufficient to
oppress the republic. In the hurry of all these politics, he was
still prosecuting his studies with his usual application; and, be-
sides some philosophical pieces, now finished his book De
Officiis, on the duties of man, for the use of his son: a work
admired by all succeeding ages as the most perfect system of
Heathen morality, and the noblest effort and specimen of what
reason could do in guiding man through life with innocence and
happiness. However, he paid a constant attention to public
affairs, and did every thing that human prudence could do for
the recovery of the republic; for all the vigour of its last efforts
was entirely owing to his counsels. This appears from those
memorable Philippics which from time to time he published
against Antony, but all was in vain; for though Antony's army
was entirely defeated at the siege of Modena, yet the death of
the consuls Pausa and Hirtius in that action gave the fatal blow
to all Cicero's schemes, and was the immediate cause of the ruin
of the republic. Octavius having brought the senate to his
mind, marched towards Gaul, to meet Antony and Lepidus,
who had already passed the Alps, and brought their armies in-
to Italy, in order to have a personal interview with him; which
had been privately concerted for settling the terms of a triple
league, and dividing the power and provinces of Italy amon
themselves. The place appointed for this interview, was a small
island, about two miles from Bononia, formed by the Rhine.
Here they met, and spent three days in adjusting the plan of
their accommodation, the last part of which was the proscrip.
tion of their enemies. This occasioned warm contests among
T t 2 . . .




644 :- Universal biography. [B.C. 107.
ifice some of his best friends to
n villa, when he first received the
news of the proscription of himself. It was the design of the
triumvirate to keep it a secret till the moment of the execu-
tion, but some of Cicero's friends found means to give him early
notice; upon which, he set forward to the sea-side, where find-
ing a vessel ready, he embarked; but the winds being adverse,
after he had sailed about two leagues along the coast, he was
obliged to land, and spend a night on shore. Importuned by
his servants, he went on board a second time, but was soon after
obliged to land at a country seat of his, a mile from the shore,
weary of his life, and declaring, he was resolved to die in that
country which he had so often saved. Here he slept soundly,
till his servants once more forced him a little towards the ship,
having heard that he was pursued by Antony's assassins. They
were scarce departed, when the assassins arrived at his house;
ind, perceiving him to be fled, pursued him immediately towards
the sea, and overtook him in a wood near a shore. Their leader
was one Popilius Lenas, a villain, whose life Cicero had formerly
defended and saved. As soon as the soldiers appeared, the ser-
wants º to defend their master's life at the hazard of their
own; but Cicero commanded them to set him down, and make no
resistance. They soon cut off his head and his hands, which they
carried to their cruel employer, Antony, who received them with
joy, rewarding the murderer with a large sum of money, and
ordering the head to be fixed upon the rostra between the
two hands; a sad spectacle to the city, and which drew tears
from every eye, to see those mangled members which used to be
exerted so gloriously from that place in defence of the lives, the
'ortunes, and the liberties of the Roman people, so lamentably
exposed to the scorn of sycophants and traitors. The death of
#e rest, says an historian of that age, caused only a private and
particular sorrow, but Cicero's an universal one. It was a tri-
umph over the republic itself, and seemed to confirm and esta-
blish the perpetual slavery of Rome. Mr. Swinburne, however,
is of opinion, that “posterity has been too much seduced by the
name of Cicero, and that better citizens were sacrificed to the
jealousy of the triumvirs, without exciting so much indignation.
If we take an impartial survey of Cicero's conduct and princi-
avowed in his own epistolary correspondence, and trace
ihrough all the labyrinths of his contradictory letters, we
find more to blame than to admire; and discover, that the
of advancing aking himself a name,
fºº º . »nly object he had in view.
ictates of stern steady virtue,



























B. c. 107.] FROM PTOLEMY PHILOMETOR TO SPARTACUs. 645

actions. The misfortunes that befel him after his consulship,
developed his character, and showed him in his true colours;
from that time to his death, pusillanimity, irresolution, and un-
worthy repining, tainted his judgment, and perplexed every
step he wished to take. He flattered Pompey, and cringed to
Caesar, while in his private letters, he abused them both alter-
nately. He acknowledges, in a letter to his friend, the time-
serving Atticus, that, although he was at present determined to
support the cause of Rome, and liberty, and to bear misfortunes
like a philosopher, there was one thing which would gain him
over to the triumvirs, and that was their procuring for him the
vacant augurship; so pitiful was the bribe to which he would
have sacrificed his honour, his opinion, and the commonwealth.
By his wavering, imprudent conduct, he contributed greatly
towards its destruction, after reproaching the conspirators for
leaving him out of the secret, and loading them with the most
flattering compliments on their delivering Rome from Caesar's
tyranny, he calls Casca an assassin, to pay his court to the boy
Octavius, by whom he was completely duped. His praises of
triumph are in the highest strain of panegyric. Marc Antony
well knew, that the virulent abuse which Cicero was continually
pouring out against him, was not an effusion of patriotic zeal or
virtuous indignation, but merely the ebullitions of personal
hatred. He therefore caused Cicero to be killed, as an angry man
that has been stung, stamps on a venomous animal that comes
within reach of his foot. The cloak he threw over the body of
Brutus, and the speech he pronounced at the sight of that hero
when dead, differ widely from the treatment he gave the re-
mains of Cicero; and show, that he made a distinction between
a Roman, who opposed him from political motive, and one
whose enmity arose from pique.” Cicero's death happened on
the seventh of December, in the sixty-fourth year of his age,
about ten days from the settlement of the first triumvirate; and
with him expired the short empire of eloquence among the
Romans. As an orator, he is thus characterized by Dr. Blair.
“In all his orations, his art is conspicuous. He begins com-
monly with a regular exordium, and with much address prepos-
sesses the hearers, and studies to gain their affections. His
method is clear, and his arguments are arranged with exact
propriety. In a superior clearness of method, he has an advan-
tage over Demosthenes. Every thing appears in its proper
place. He never tries to move till he has attempted to con-
vince; and in moving, particularly the softer passions, he is
highly successful. No one ever knew the force of words better
than Cicero. He rolls them along with the greatest beauty and
magnificence; and in the structure of his sentences is eminently
curious and exact. He is always full and flowing, never abrupt.





646 UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. [B. C. 107.

He amplifies everything ; yet, though his manner is generally
diffuse, it is often happily varied and accommodated to the sub-
ject. When an important public object roused his mind, and
demanded indignation and force, he departs considerably from
that loose and declamatory manner to which he at other times
is addicted, and becomes very forcible and vehement. This
great orator, however, is not without his defects. In most of
is orations there is too much art, even carried to a degree of
ostentation. He seems often desirous of obtaining admiration
rather than of operating conviction. He is sometimes, there-
fore, showy rather than solid, and diffuse where he ought to
have been urgent. His sentences are always round and sono-
rous. They cannot be accused of monotony, since they pos-
sess variety of cadence; but from too great a fondness for mag-
nificence, he is, on some occasions, deficient in strength.
Though the services which he had performed to his country
were very considerable, yet he is too much his own panegyrist.
Ancient manners, which imposed fewer restraints on the side of
decorum, may in some degree excuse, but cannot entirely jus-
tify, his vanity.” The best editions of Cicero's works are that
of Minutianus, 1498, Milan, 4 vols. folio; Paul Manutius, 1541,
Venice, 10 vols. 8vo.; R. Stephens, Paris, 8 vols. 8vo. 1543;
Elzevir, Leyden, 1642, 10 vols. 8vo.: Gronovius, 11 vols. 12mo.;
and 4 vols. 4to.; Verburgius, Amst. 1724, 2 vols. folio; Ernest,
Leipsic, 8 vols. 8vo. 1774; Olivet, Paris, 1740, 9 vols. 4to.;
Oxford, 10 vols. 4to.; Foulis, Glasgow, 1749, 20 vols. 12mo.;
Lallemande, Paris, 1768, 12 vols. 12mo. .
TERENTIA, wife of Cicero. She became mother of M.
Cicero, and of a daughter called Tullia. Cicero repudiated
her. Terentia married Sallust, Cicero's enemy, and afterwards
Messala Corvinus. She lived to her one hundred and third,
or, according to Pliny, to her one hundred and seventeenth
Wear. •
s JULIUS TIRU, a freed-man of Cicero, highly esteemed by
his master for his learning, and other good qualities. He .
invented Stenography, or that species of it used among the
Romans, called Notae. He wrote the life of Cicero, and other
tracts, now lost. .
ACCIUS, an orator, against whom Cicero defended Cluen-
tius. He was born in Pisaurum, and, perhaps, was a relation
of the poet. Lucius Accius.
VATINIUS, an intimate friend of Cicero, once distinguished
for his enmity to the orator. He hated the people of Rome,
for their great vices and corruption, whence excessive hatred
became proverbial, in the words, Vatinianicum Odium.
. X- 9 .





B. c. 190.] FROM proLEMY Philometor to spartAcus. 647
HISTORY.
THEOPHANES, a Greek historian and poet, was of noble
extraction, and born at Mitylene, in the island of Lesbos.
About the commencement of the Mithridatic war, he is supposed
to have come to Rome, in his youth; and when Pompey was
appointed to the chief command, against Mithridates, |. took
Theophanes with him to record his exploits, procuring for him
the citizenship of Rome, and adding to his name those of “Cor-
nelius Balbus.” It is also supposed that it was principally on
his account, that on his return be visited Lesbos, and restored
to the Mitylenians the privileges of which they had been de-
prived by the Roman senate. At Rome, he connected himself
with the most distinguished citizens, and he was deputed to
Alexandria, for the confirmation of treaties of alliance with
Ptolemy Auletes. After the defeat of Pompey, at Pharsalia,
he accompanied him in his flight; and, by his advice, this com-
mander declined to take refuge with Juba, king of Mauritania,
and sailed to Egypt where he met his fate. Theophanes af.
terwards joined the party of Caesar. The most important of
his writings was a “History of the Wars of the Romans, in
different countries under the command of Pompey.” Of the
poetry of Theophanes, which was celebrated in his time, there
remain only two epigrams, inserted in the Anthologia.
AGATHARCHIDAS, a peripatetic philosopher and his-
torian of Cnidas, B. C. 177, he wrote several treatises on the
Red Sea, Europe, Asia, &c. Various fragments of this writer
may be found in the works of Josephus the Jewish historian,
also in the works of Lucian and Photius.
LUCIUS CASSIUS HEMINA, a Roman historian, who
flourished in the beginning of the seventh century of Rome,
B. C. 148. He composed four books of annals. By the pas-
sages we find quoted from them, we may judge that he went
back as far as the times precediug Romulus, and that he conti-
nued it through the kings of Roue, down to his own times. He
described the second Punic war in his last book.
ANTIPATER COELIUS wrote a history of Rome, which
M. Brutus epitomized, and which Adrian preferred to the his-
tories of Sallust. Coelius flourished B. C. 120. w º:
MATH E M At 1 c s AND Astro Nomy.
CTESIBIUS, a mathematician of Alexandria, who was con-
temporary with Ptolemy king of Egypt, about B.C. 120. His
memory is particularly cherished, as the inventor of the pump-

UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. [B. C. 120.
The circumstance that led to the discovery was purely acciden-
tal. On lowering a mirror into his father's shop, he observed
that the counterpoise, which was included in a cylinder, pro-
duced a sound, by driving the air before it; and upon examining
the phenomenon more strictly, he concluded that he might
make an instrument, in which sounds might be produced by
means of the action of water, driving the air before it. This
invention was carried into effect by the emperor Nero. Ctesi-
bius was the inventor likewise, of a clepsydra, or water clock.
Water was made to fall upon a wheel, or a train of wheels,
which were turned by it. The wheels communicated their mor
tion to a small wooden image, which, by being gradually raised,
pointed with an index to the proper hours, which were engraved
on a column near the machine. The invention was, probably,
the means of the more modern construction of the sand-glasses,
for measuring time, which seemed an imitation of the clepsydra.
Ctesibius was author of a treatise, “Geodesia, or the art of di-
viding and measuring bodies,” which is said to exist in the li-
brary of the Vatican.
HIPPARCHUS, an eminent astronomer, born at Nice, in
Bithynia, flourished at this period. By foretelling eclipses, he
taught mankind not to be frightened at them, and that even
the gods were bound by laws. Pliny, who tells this, admires
him for making a review of all the stars; by which his descen-
dants would be enabled to discover whether they are born and
die, whether they change their places, and whether they increase
and decrease. Hipparchus is also memorable for having been
the first who discovered the precession of the equinoxes, on
that very slow apparent motion of the fixed stars, from west to
east, by which, in a great number of years, they will seem to
have performed a complete revolution. He endeavoured, also, .
to reduce to rule the many discoveries of the stars which he had
made, and invented new instruments, by which he marked their
places in the heavens and their magnitudes. Hipparchus made
his first observations in the isle of Rhodes, whence he obtained
the name of Rhodius; but afterwards he pursued his astrono-
mical studies in Bithynia aud Alexandria only. We have still
extant his “Commentary upon the Phenomena of Aratus.’
Hipparchus composed several other works, which are highly
spoken of by the ancients, but are no longer extant; and, upon
the whole, moderns and ancients concur in acknowledging that
the science of astronomy is under weighty obligations to him,
for having laid down that rational and solid foundation, on which
all subsequent astronomers have erected their superstructures,
History also celebrates Hipparchus for his ardent patriotism,
and public spirit, under the influence of which he is said to have
been greatly instrumental in delivering his country from tyranny,
On this account statues were erected to his memory.
%


B.C. 170.] FROM PTOLEMY PHILOMETOR TO SPARTACUs. 649
LUCIUS TARRANTIUS, an ancient Roman mathema-
tician aud philosopher, who was contemporary with Cicero, and
was one of his friends. He has been styled the Prince of Astro-
Iogers. He made two famous Horoscopes; the one of Romu-
lus, the other of Rome.
THEODOSIUS, a celebrated mathematician, who flourished
in the times of Cicero and Pompey, but the time and place of
his death are unknown. Theodosius chiefly cultivated |. part
of geometry which relates to the doctrine of the sphere, con-
cerning which he published three books, of which a good Eng-
lish translation was made by Dr. Barrow.
ARTEMIDORUS, a geographer of Ephesus, is frequently
commended by Strabo, Pliny, and Steph. Byz, and flourished
about the one hundred and sixty-ninth Olympiad, or B. C. 104.
His description of the earth is often cited by the ancients.
Some fragments of this geographer are collected in the first
volume of Hudson's Lesser Greek Geographers,

ME DIC IN E.
HERACLIDES, of TARENTUM, a physician, of the sect
of Empirics, on whom Coelius, Aurelianus, Galen, and Actius,
have bestowed considerable praise. Galen considered him as
the most eminent and able physician of that sect, and as having
possessed a degree of knowledge and practical skill, equal to
that of any of his contemporaries. He seems to have made a
more liberal use of active medicaments, especially of the narcotic
class, than his predecessors; and was very industrious in his
investigation of animal, vegetable, and mineral substances, with
a view to enrich the catalogue of the materia medica, To the
books which he wrote upon this subject, he gave the name of
the individual to whom he dedicated them, according to Galen,
entitling one “Astydamas,” and another “Antiochus.” He
likewise wrote on the subject of diet, and the regimen to be ob-
served on diseases, in which abstinence seems to have been
pushed to a great extent.
NICANDER, a celebrated Greek physician, grammarian,
and poet, who flourished B. C. 140. He was the author of
many works, but the two following alone remain, namely, the
poems entitled, “Thearica,” and “Alexipharmica.” In the
former, he describes the effects of the bites of venemous ani-
mals; and in the latter, he treats of their antidotes. Amon
the works which are lost, were several poetical pieces, entitled
“Ophiaca,” which related to serpents, and “Hyacintha,” which
was a collection of remedies. Athenaeus also cites, in several
places, some poetical works of Nicander, upon the subject of
agriculture, which have been called his “Georgica,” Besides

650 UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. . . . [b. c. 150.
these works, he is said to have composed five books of “Me-
tamorphoses,” which are the prototypes of those of Ovid, and
were 3. copied in those of Antonius Liberalis; and to have
written several historical pieces, especially, “A history of Co-
lophon,” a work entitled “CEtolics,” and a general history of
Europe; so that his Yº...'. seems to have merited
the eulogies which were passed upon him in several epigrams,
in the first book of the “Anthologia.” A great number of edi-
tions of the two poems first mentioned, in Greek and in Latin
versions, have been printed at different times and places. The
best are thosc of Aldus, 1522; Bandini, 1764; and Schnider,
1792, 8vo. º - - -
ASCLEPIADES, a celebrated physician among the ancients,
was a native of Prusa, in Bithynia, and practised physic at
Rome, about B. C. 96. He was the head of a sect; and by
prescribing wine and cold water for the cure of the sick, ac-
quired a very great reputation. He wrote several books, which
are frequently mentioned by Galen, Celsus, and Pliny; but they
are now lost.


PERIOD XV.
FROM SPARTACUS TO CALIGULA.
[B. C. 100.]
REMARKABLE FACTS, EVENTS AND Discoveries.
88 Rome besieged by the Marian faction.
83 Sylla created perpetual dictator.
69 A census at Rome: 450,000 citizens.
66 Catiline's conspiracy.
55 Julius Caesar's first expedition into Britain. Crassus defeated and
killed by the Parthians.
51 Gaul reduced to a Roman province. %
50 A census at Rome: 320,000 citizens.
48 The battle of Pharsalia, between Caesar and Pompey, in which the
latter is defeated. The Alexandrian library, consisting of 400,000
valuable books, burnt by accident.
45 The war of Africa, in which Cato kills himself. The solar year intro-
duced by Caesar.
44 Caesar, after having fought fifty pitched battles, and slain [1,192,000
men, killed in the senate house. :
42 The republicans defeated at Philippi. :
31 The battle of Actium fought, in which Marc Antony and Cleopatra
are totally defeated by Octavius.
30 Alexandria taken by Octavius, upon which Antony and Cleopatra
kill themselves, and Egypt is reduced to a Roman province,
29 A census at Rome ; 4,101,017 citizens. . .
27 Octavius, by a decree of the senate, obtains the title of Augustus Cae-
sar, and an absolute exemption from the Laws. The Pantheon
at Rome built. .” .
19 Rome at the height of its glory. The temple of Jerusalem rebuilt by
Herod. The magnificent aqueducts at Rome, constructed by
Agrippa. . -:
8 A census at Rome: 42,333,000 citizens. - .
5 The temple of Janus shut by Augustus, as an emblem of universal
peace.
DURING this period the kingdom of Judaea fell under the power of
Rome. This state owed the loss of its liberty to the same cause that
had ruined several others, namely, calling in the Romans to be arbi-
trators between two contending parties. The two sons of Alexander
Jannaeus, Hyrcanaeus and Aristobulus, contended for the kingdom.
Aristobulus, being defeated by the party of Hyrcanaeus, applied to the
Romans. Pompey the Great, who acted as ultimate judge in this
affair, decided against Aristobulus, but at the same time deprived
Hyrcanaeus of all power as a king, not allowing him even to assume the


652 UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY [B. C. 99.
regal title, or to extend his territory beyond the ancient borders of
Judaea. He even obliged him to give up all those cities in Coelo-Syria
and Phoenicia, which had been gained by his predecessors, and added
them to the newly acquired Roman province of Syria. Thus the
Romans became masters of all the eastern parts of the world, from the
Mediterranean sea to the borders of Parthia. 3.3%
In the west, however, the Gauls were still free, and the Spanish
nations bore the Roman yoke with great impatience. The Gauls in-
fested the territories of the republic by their frequent incursions, which
were sometimes very terrible; and though several attempts had been
made to subdue them, they always proved insufficient till the time of
Julius Caesar. By him they were totally reduced, from the Rhine to
the Pyrenean mountains, and many nations almost exterminated.—
He carried his arms also into Germany and the southern parts of
Britain; but in neither of these parts did he make any permanent
conquests. The civil wars between him and Pompey gave him an
opportunity of seizing on the kingdom of Mauritania, and those parts
of Numidia which had been allowed to retain their liberty.
The kingdom of Egypt remained alone independent, but to it nothing
belonged except the country properly so called. Cyrenaica was
bequeathed by will to the Romans, and Cyprus was seized by them
without any pretence, about the year B. C. 58. Egypt continued for
some time longer free, which must be ascribed partly to the internal
dissensions of the republic, but more especially to the amours of
Pompey, Julius Caesar, and Marc Antony, with Cleopatra. The bat-
tle of Actium, however, determined the fate of Antony, Cleopatra,
and Egypt itself, which was reduced to a Roman province, B. C. 9.
While the Romans embraced every opportunity of reducing the
world to their obedience, they were making one another feel the same
miseries at home, which they inflicted upon other nations abroad.
The first civil dissensions took their rise at the siege of Numantia in
Spain. This small city had resisted the power of the Romans for six
years. Once they gave them a most terrible and disgraceful defeat,
wherein thirty thousand Romans fled before four thousand Numan-
times, twenty thousand were killed in the battle, and the other ten
thousand were so shut up that it was not possible to escape. In this
extremity they were obliged to negociate with the enemy, and a peace
was concluded upon the following terms. 1. That the Numantines
should suffer the Romans to retire unmolested; and, 2. That Numan-
tia should maintain its independence, and be reckoned among the
Roman allies. The Roman senate, with an injustice and ingratitude
hardly to be matched, broke this treaty, and in return ordered the
commander of their army to be delivered up to the Numantines: but
they refused to accept of him, unless his army was delivered along
with him; upon which the war was renewed, and ended in the tra-
gical manner above related. -
The fate of Numantia, however, was soon avenged. Tiberius
Sempronius Gracchus, brother in law to Scipio Africanus the younger,
h en a chief promoter of the peace with the Numantines, and of
consequence had been in danger of being delivered up to them along
-in-chief. This disgrace he never forgot, and in
: the cause of the plebeians against the patricians,






B.C. 99.1 FROM SPARTACUS TO CALIGULA,
by whom the former were greatly oppressed. He began with reviving
an old law which had enacted that no Roman citizen should possess
more than five hundred acres of land. The overplus he proposed to
distribute among those who had no lands, and to reimburse the rich
*
out of the public treasury. This law met with great opposition, bred
many tumults, and at last ended in the murder of Gracchus, and the
persecution of his friends, several hundreds of whom were put to cruel
deaths without any form of law. ~ .
These disturbances did not cease with the death of Gracchus. New
contests ensued on account of the Sempronian law, and the giving to
the Italian allies the privilege of Roman citizens. This last not only
produced great commotions in the city, but occasioned a general revolt
of the states of Italy against the republic of Rome. This rebellion
was not quelled without the utmost difficulty, and in the mean time
the city was deluged with blood by the contending factions of Sylla
and Marius; the former of whom took part with the patricians, and
the latter with the plebeians. These disturbances ended in the per-,
petual dictatorship of Sylla, about the year B. C. 80.
From this time we may date the loss of the Roman liberty; for
though Sylla resigned his dictatorship two years after, the succeeding
contests between Caesar and Pompey proved equally fatal to the re-
public. These contests were decided by the battle of Pharsalia, by
which Caesar became master of the empire, B.C. 48. Without loss of
time he then crossed over into Africa; totally defeated the republican,
army in that continent, and by reducing Mauritania to a Roman pro-
vince, completed the Roman conquests in those parts. His victory
over the sons of Pompey at Miurda, B.C. 40, secured him from any
further apprehension of a rival. Being, therefore, sole master of the
Roman empire, and having all the power of it at his command, he
projected the greatest schemes; tending, according to some, not less
to the happiness than to the glory of his country; when he was assas-
sinated in the senate house in the fifty-sixth year of his age, and B.C. 44.
From the transactions which had long preceded, as well as those
which immediately followed the murder of Caesar, it is evident that
Rome was incapable of longer preserving its liberty, and that the peo-
ple had become unfit for being free. The efforts of Brutus and Cas-
sius were therefore unsuccessful, and ended in their own destruction,
and that of great numbers of their followers in the battle of Philippi.
The defeat of the republicans was followed by numberless disturbances,
murmurs, proscriptions, &c., till at last Octavianus, having cut off all
who had the courage to oppose him, and finally got the better of his
º: by the victory at Actium put an end to the republic in the year
The destruction of the Roman republic proved advantageous to the
few nations of the world who still retained their liberty. That out-
geous desire of conquest, which had so long marked the Roman
aracter, now in a great measure ceased; because ambitious men
uld not gratify their desire, by courting the favour of the emperor.
After the final reduction of the Spaniards, therefore, and the conquest
of Maesia, Parmonia, and some other countries adjacent to the Ron
the empire enjoyed for some time a profound peace, .
















654 UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY, [B. C. 99.
G O V E R N M ENT.
SPARTACUS, one of the scourges of Roman tyranny and
cruelty, a native of Thrace, was born of very low parents, en-
tered the army, and afterwards became a deserter, and a robber.
Being taken, he was confined as a gladiator in a receptacle at
Capua with those unfortunate men whose lives were devoted
to the pleasure of the Roman people. He escaped the horrid
den, and placing himself at the head of a body of gladiators
and fugitive slaves, he took a fortified place in the year B. C.
72, whence he made predatory excursions throughout Campa-
nia. His force daily increased, and he defeated several com-
manders who were sent against him. He marched into Cisal-
pine Gaul, in order to give the slaves in his army, who were
mostly Thracians and Gauls, an opportunity of returning home.
Part of them, however, greedy of pillage, separated themselves
from their commander, and were cut to pieces. The consul
Lentulus, upon this success, which was extremely partial, pur-
sued Spartacus, who turned about and gave him a total defeat;
and then, in his turn, becoming the aggressor, he marched
against the other consul, Gellius, drove him from the field, and
obliged him to take shelter in the walled towns. He retaliated
the cruelty of the Romans towards the gladiators, by obliging
a number of his captives to fight with each other round the
funeral pyre of one of his commanders. He was now at the
head of one hundred and twenty thousand men, and with these
he ravaged most of the provinces of Italy, and struck such a
terror at Rome, that Crassus, at that time one of the greatest
commanders in the city, was sent against him. He soon confined
Spartacus in Lucania, and cut off some of his detachments, so
that he would gladly have crossed over to Sicily, but being
prevented, he took a post in a peninsula near Rhegium, where
Crassus enclosed him by a rampart drawn from sea to sea.
Spartacus, however, found means to break through this barrier,
and gain the open country, but he was here deserted by a large
body of his followers, who became the victims of Crassus.
Spartacus now retreated towards the mountains, and repulsed
with loss some of his pursuers. This success was, however,
his ruin; for his men insisted upon his return to give battle to
Crassus in the open field. Before the commencement of the
engagement, Spartacus stabbed his horse, exclaiming, “if I am
victorious, I can easily get another; if vanquished, I shall not
want any." After along contest, the Roman discipline pre-
vailed. Spartacus, during extraordinary exertions of valour,
surrounded, and fell, pierced with a multitude of wounds.
He was unquestionably a brave man, and something more than
jurageous barbarian. “He had,” says Plutarch, “not only






B. c. 99. from spartAcus to CALIGULA. 655
strength and elevation of mind, but a discernment and civility
much superior to his fortune." It is said that his wife accom-
panied him into the field, pretended to the gift of prophecy,
and probably inspired him with a fanatical confidence in victory.
ODIN or ODINUS, a celebrated hero of antiquity, who
flourished about the year B.C. 70, in the northern parts of an-
cient Germany, or the modern kingdom of Denmark. He was
at once a priest, a poet, a soldier, a monarch, and a conqueror.
He imposed upon the credulity of his superstitious countrymen,
and made them believe that he could raise the dead to life, and
that he was acquainted with futurity. When he had extended
his power, and increased his fame by conquest and by persua-
sion, he resolved to die in a different manner from other men.
He assembled his friends, and with the sharp point of a lance
he made on his body nine different wounds in the form of a
circle; and as he expired, he declared he was going into Scy-
thia, where he should become one of the immortal gods. He
further added, that he would prepare bliss and felicity for such
of his countrymen as lived a virtuous life, who fought with in-
trepidity, and who died like heroes in the field of battle. These
injunctions had the desired effect; his countrymen supersti-
tiously believed him, and always recommended themselves to
his protection whenever they engaged in a battle, and they en-
treated him to receive the souls of such as had fallen in war.
ORODES, a prince of Parthia, who murdered his brother
Mithridates, and ascended his throne. He defeated Crassus
the Roman triumvir, and poured melted gold down the throat
of his fallen enemy, to reproach him for his avarice and ambi-
tion. He followed the interest of Cassius and Brutus at Phi-
lippi. It is said, that when Orodes became old and infirm, his
thirty children applied to him, and disputed in his presence
their right to the succession. Phraates, the eldest of them,
obtained the crown from his father; and, to hasten him out of
the world, he attempted to poison him. The poison had no
effect; and Phraates, still determined on his father's death,
strangled him with his own hands, about the year B.C. 35.
Orodes had reigned about fifty years. <
SURENA, a powerful officer in the armies of Orodes, king
of Parthia. His family had the privilege of crowning the kings
of Parthia. He was appointed to conduct the war against the
Romans, and to protect the kingdom of Parthia against Crassus,
who wished to conquer it. He defeated the Roman triumvir;
and after he had drawn him perfidiously to a conference, he or-
dered his head to be cut off. He afterwards returned to Par-
thia, mimicking the triumphs of the Romans. Orodes ordered
him to be put to death, B.C. 52. Surena has been admired
for his valour, his sagacity as a general, and his prudence and
firmness in the execution of his plans; but his perfidy, his effe-



UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. [B. c. 73.
minate manners, and his laseiviousness, have been deservedly
censured. &: -
PHRAATES IV., was nominated king of Parthia by his fa-
ther Orodes, whom he soon after murdered, as also his own bro-
thers. He made war against M. Antony with great success,
and obliged him to retire with much loss. Some time after he
was dethroned by the Parthian nobility, but he soon regained
his power, and drove away the usurper, called Tiridates. The
usurper claimed the protection of Augustus the Roman empe-
ºr, and Phraates sent ambassadors to Rome to plead '.
ause, and gain the favours of his powerful judge. He was
|ccessful in his embassy; he made a treaty of peace and alli-
with the Roman emperor, restored the ensigns and stand-
ards which the Parthians had taken from Crassus and Antony,
and gave up his four sons with their wives as hostages, till his
engagements were performed. Some suppose that Phraates de-
livered his children into the hands of Augustus to be confined
ome, that he might reign with greater security, as he knew
his subjects would revolt as soon as they found any one of his
y inclined to countenance their rebellion, though at the
same time they seormed to support the interest of any usurper
who was not of the royal house of the Arsacidae. He was how-
ever at last murdered by one of his concubines, who placed
her son, called Phraatices, on the throne. .
PACORUS, son of Orodes, king of Parthia, signalized him-
self by the defeat of Crassus, whose army he nearly cut to
pieces, in the year B. C. 53, and whom he made prisoner. He
took Syria from the Romans, supported the republican party of
Pompey, and that of the murderers of Julius. After ravaging
Syria and Judaea, Ventidius defeated him, and Pacorus was
ALEXANDRA, daughter of Hyrcanus II., grand-daughter
of Alexander Jamnoeus, and mother of Mariamne, the wife of
Herod the Great, whom that monster murdered, as well as her
brother Aristobulus, and this princess their mother. Her hus-
band and cousin, Alexander, was beheaded by Scipio, the fa-
ther-in-law of Pompey. .
HEROD, improperly styled the GREAT, the execrable ty-
rant of Judaea, was born at Ascalon, about B.C. 73. His fa-
ther, Antipater the Idumean, (or Edomite,) appointed
š t • ź
nor of Galilee. Marc Antony made him tetrarch; and he
tards obtained the kingdom of Judaea, wh
him by Augustus, a short time before the birth o
ting from Judah,” he being an alien by bi
age to be massacred. His barbarity
º




































































B.C. 53.J From SPARTACUs to cALIGULA, 657
as to his subjects; for he murdered his beautiful wife Mari
amme, her mother Alexandra, her brother Aristobulus, her
grandfather Hyrcanus II., and his own sons Alexander and
Aristobulus; which led the emperor Augustus to say, that it
was better to be Herod's swine than his sons. He died mi-
serable within three years after the birth of Christ, aged
Venty 2. & º
MARIAMNE, the daughter of Alexandra, grand-daughter
of Hyrcanus II., and the beloved, wife of Herod the Great;
who, however, murdered her and most of her relations.
BERENICE, the daughter of Costoborus and Salome, sister
to Herod the Great, was married first to her cousin Aristobu-
lus, son of Herod and Mariamne. He having a brother who
married the daughter of Archelaus, king of Cappadocia, often
upbraided Berenice that he had married below himself in wed-
ding her. Berenice related all those discourses to her mother,
and exasperated her so furiously, that Salome, who had much
power over Herod's mind, made him suspect Aristobulus, and
was the principal cause that urged this cruel father to get rid of
him. She married again, and having lost her second husband,
went to Rome, and got into the favour of Augustus. But,
above all, she insinuated herself into the good graces of An-
tonia, the wife of Drusus, which in the end proved of great
service to Agrippa. * . .
HEROD WiiPAs, the son of Herod the Great, by his
wife Cleopatra, a native of Jerusalem. Herod, in his will,
named his son Archelaus his successor, giving Antipas the
title of tetrarch of Galilee and Peroea. Antipas adorned and
fortified the principal places of his dominions. He married the
daughter of Aretas, king of Arabia; whom he divorced about
A. D. 33, to marry his sister-in-law Herodias, wife to his bro-
ther Philip, who still living, St. John the Baptist exclaimed
against this incest and adultery, was imprisoned in the castle
of Machaeus, and afterwards beheaded by Herod's order, as
recorded in Matt. xiv., Mark vi., and Luke iii. Aretas, to
avenge the affront which Herod had offered to his daughter,
declared war against him, and overcame him in a very obstinate
engagement. Herod being afterwards detected as a 8. ty in
Sejanus's conspiracy, was banished by the emperor Caligula
into Lyons in Gaul, whither Herodias accompanied him. This
Antipas is the Herod who, being at Jerusalem at the time of
our Saviour's passion, (Luke xxiii. 11,) ridiculed him, by
dressing him in a white robe, and sending him back to Pilate,
as a mock king, whose ambition gave him no umbrage. The
time when he died is not known; but it is certain he died
exile, as well as Herodias. Josephus says he d Sp
ARCHELAUS, a son of Herod the Great, by Malt

















his fifth wife. He was thought the most cruel and bloody of his .
father's children. Herod having put to death Alexander,
Aristobulus, and Antipater, and deprived Herod Antipas of
his claim to the kingdom, he appointed Archelaus his successor,
if the emperor agreed to it. At Herod's death, when this was
made known to the people, they seemed pleased, and promised
allegiance. Archelaus interred his father with great pomp,
made a solemn mourning of seven days, and gave the people a
splendid entertainment. Having convened them in the court of
the temple, he assured them of his mild government; and that
he would not assume the royal title till he was confirmed by the
emperor. Immediately after, A. D. I, a tumultuous assembly
of the people required him to execute the man who had advised
his father to kill a noted zealot for pulling down the golden
eagle from the gate of the temple; at the same time demanding
that Joazas should be divested of the priesthood, and loading
the memory of his father Herod with bitter curses and re-
proaches. Provoked at this insult, he ordered his troops to fall
upon them, and three thousand of them were killed on the spot.
After this he set off to Rome, to get himself confirmed in the
kingdom; but his brother, Herod Antipas, opposed him, in-
sisting on a former will of his father's, constituting him his suc-
cessor. In consequence of which, Augustus delayed giving an
answer. The Jewish nation petitioned the emperor to set aside
the whole family of Herod, and constitute them into a Roman
province, subject to the governor of Syria. Archelaus opposed
the petition, and the emperor deferred giving judgment. But
a few days after he assigned Archelaus a part of his father's
kingdom, with the title of ethnarch, and promised him the
crown if his conduct should merit it. Upon his return to Judea,
he deposed Joazas the high-priest, and made Eleazer priest in
his stead. When Archelaus had governed about seven years in
the most violent and tyrannical manner, the Jews and Samari-
...'. accused him to the emperor, who sent him to Rome;
ter hearing him, banished him to Vienne in Gaul, where
he died. Alstedius and others say he reigned nine years. To
avoid the fury of this monster, Joseph and Mary retired to Na-
HAPHYRA, a daughter of Archelaus the high-priest of
Cappadocia, celebrated for her beauty and intrigues.
ned the kingdom of Cappadocia for her two sons from
whom she corrupted by defiling the bed of her























B. c. 53.] FROM SPARTACUS To CALIGULA.
padocia, and married Alexander a son of Herod, b.
had two sons. After the death of Alexander, she mar
brother-in-law Archelaus. & #
# JUBA I., a king of Numidia and Mauritiania. He succ
his father Hiempsal, and favoured the cause of Pompey aſ
Julius Caesar. He defeated Curio, whom Caesar had sent t
º is forces to
- those of Scipio. He was conquered in a battle at Thapsus, and
totally abandoned by his subjects. He killed himself with Pe-
treus, who had shared his good fortune and his adversity,
B.C. 42. His kingdom became a Roman province, of which
ź
Sallust was the first governor. .
JUBA II., the son of Juba I. He was led captive among
the captives to Rome, to adorn the triumph of Caesar. His
captivity was the source of the greatest honours; and his ap-
plication to study procured him more glory than he would have
obtained from the inheritance of a kingdom. He gained the
heart of the Romans by the courteousness of his manners; and
Augustus rewarded his fidelity by giving him in marriage Cleo-
patra the daughter of Antony, conferring upon him the title o
king, and making him master of all the territories which his fa-
her once possessed, B.C. 26. His popularity was so great,
that the Mauritanians deified him, the Athenians rais a
statue, and the AEthiopians worshipped him. Juba w ~~~~ -
history of Rome in Greek, which is often quoted and com-
mended by the ancients; of it only a few fragments remain.
He also wrote on the history of Arabia, and the antiquities of
Assyria, chiefly collected from Berosus. He also composed
some treatises upon the drama, Roman antiquities, the nature
of animals, painting, grammar, &c. now lost. . . . . . . .
ARTAVASDES I., king of Armenia, succeeded his father
Tigranes. He joined the Roman forces under Crassus, bu
basely deserted and went over to the enemy, in consequenc
which the Romans were defeated and Crassus slain. He be-
haved in a similar manner to Marc Antony when engaged
against the Medes. Antony, about two years after, got Arta-
vasdes into his power, and took him, with his wife and chil-
dren to Alexandria, where they were dragged at his chariot
wheels in chains of gold. After the battle of Actium, Cleo-
patra caused his head to be struck off and sent to the king
ARTAXIUS II, king of Armenia
when his father Artavasdes I., was t
soon expelled by Antony, an
on th
Africa; and after the battle of Pharsalia, he joined h
*
*
e th but was expelled soon
U u :











































. UNIVERSAL BlogRAPHY. [B, C, 53.
after by his own subjects, who preferred the government of .
the king of Parthia. The emperor restored Artavasdes to his
throne, but he died shortly after. . . . . .
º, ALEXANDER, king of Cilicia, the son of Tigranes,
king of Armenia, the great grandson of Herod the Great, was
promoted to that dignity by the emperor Vespasian.
CASSIBELAUNUS or CASSIBELAN, king of the
Trinobantes, the son of Heli, succeeded his brother, king
Lud. About five years after his accession, Julius Caesar hav-
ing landed his army on the British coast, Cassibelan was chosen
commander in chief of the British forces; but these undisci-
plined and disunited troops, though they made a brave oppo-
sition, fell an easy conquest to the veteran Romans, B. C. 55.
Cassibelan therefore made the best terms he could with Caesar,
and engaged to pay a tribute of about three thousand pounds
a year to the Rºº. and to send hostages for the pay-
ment. Only two of the British states however fulfilled their
part of this treaty; whereupon Caesar returned the next year
with a fleet of eight hundred ships; and though Cassibelan
opposed him with all the united force of south Britain, he was
repeatedly defeated; his capital burnt; and Mandrubatius,
Caesar's ally, established as king of the Trinobantes. Cassibe-
lan died B. C. 48. #
CUNOBELINE, an ancient British monarch, king of the
Trinobantes, who is said to have been a favorite of the Em-
peror Augustus, and to have civilized the people. Dr. Ander-
son says, he began to reign B. C. 26, and died A. D. 17.
JAMBLICUS, king of Arabia, who was deprived of his
estates by Augustus after the battle of Actium, for supporting
the cause of Marc Antony; but his son was restored to the
throne by the same emperor, B.C. 22. . . .
ARTAXIAS III., son of Polemon, whose original name
s Zeno. After the expulsion of Venones from Armenia,
he was made king by Germanicus.
VIRIATHUS, a shepherd of Lusitania, who from heading a
gang of robbers, came to command a powerful army. He
lade war against the Romans for fourteen years with success.
. and Pompey himself, were beaten. Coepio, be-
nt against him, meanly bribed his servants to murder him.
BANUS II., was king of Media, where he was invited
D. 16, by the Parthians to be their king, in oppo-
Wenones, who was in the interest of the Romans. "
ith great severity for some time, which made the
n the aid of the Romans, who compelled him


























B. c.7) from spartacus to cAligul.A.
ARTAVASDES, king of Media, was attacked by Marc
Antony, at the solicitation of another Artavasdes, king of
Armenia. This enterprize proved very fatal to Marc Antony;
and, as he believed himself betrayed by the adviser of it, he
turned all his rage against him, and entered into an alliance
with the king of Media. He gave him part of Armenia, as
soon as he had taken it from the other Artavasdes, and ce-
mented this peace by the marriage of his son Alexander with
Jotape, daughter to the king of i. Medes. The troops, with
which he supplied him, made him victorious over the Parthians
and over Artaxias, the son of Artavasdes, king of Armenia;
but, as soon as he recalled them, and detained those which his
ally had lent him, this prince, unable to resist his enemies,
fell into their hands. Dion relates this under the seven hun-
dred and twenty-first year of Rome. It is probable he was
not long a captive, and that he was the same king of Media,
to whom Cleopatra sent the head of Artavasdes, fi. of Ar-
º in the seven hundred and twenty-fourth year of Rome,
ARIOVISTUS, a king of Germany, who professed himself
a friend of Rome. When Caesar was in Gaul, Ariovistus
marched against him, and was conquered with the loss of
eighty thousand men.
ARMINIUS, or the Deliverer of Germany, was the son of
Sigimer, a chieftain of the Cattai. He served with reputation
in the Roman armies, and was honoured by Augustus with
knighthood, and the citizenship of Rome. But his attach-
ment to his native country prevailed over all considerations,
and at his instigations the Germans revolted against the Ro-
mans. By his contrivance Varus fell into an ambuscade,
where he perished with all his forces. A. D. 16. Germanicus
marched to revenge the death of Varus, and after a variety of
fortune, Arminius was treacherously assassinated in the thirty-
seventh year of his age, A. D. 21. - - - -º
HEROD AGRIPPA, the son of Aristobulus and Mariamne,
and grandson to Herod the Great, was born A. M. 3997, three
years before the birth of our Saviour, and seven years before
the vulgar era. After the death of Aristobulus his father, his
grandfather took care of his education, and sent him to Rome to
make his court to Tiberius. The emperor conceived a g
affection for him, and placed him near his son Drusus. Agril
very soon won the graces of Drusus, and of the empress A
tonia. But Drusus dying suddenly, all those who had
much about him were commanded by Tiberius to with
from Rome, lest the sight and presence of them should re
i.





















N. ; uncle, who had mar-
| Herodias his s in-law, assiste n for some time, made
in princip º magis 2. fate of Tiberius, a º d presented hir s with .
a large sum of money; but all this was not sufficien
º: t to answer
he excessive expences and profusion of Agrippa; so that
od growing weary of assisting him, and reproaching him
with his bad economy, Agrippa returned to Rome. Upon his
arrival, he was received into the good graces of Tiberius, and
commanded to attend Tiberius Nero, the son of Drusus.
Agrippa, however, having more inclination for Caius Caligula,
the son of Germanicus, chose rather to attach himself to i.
as if he had some prophetic views of the future elevation of .
Caligula, who at that time was universally beloved. The great
assiduity and agreeable behaviour of Agrippa, so far engaged
this prince, that he kept him continually abont him. Agrippa
being one day overheard by Eutychus, a slave whom he had
made free, to express his wishes for Tiberius's death, and the
advancement of Caligula, the slave betrayed him to the empe-
ror; whereupon Agrippa was loaded with fetters, and com-
mitted to the custody of an officer. Tiberius soon after dying,
and Caligula succeeding, he heaped many favours upon Agrip-
#. ; changed his iron fetters into a chain of gold; set a royal
iº
iadem on his head; and gave him the tetrarchy which Philip,
the son of Herod the Great, had been possessed of, viz. Bata- .
naea and Trachomitis. To this he added that of Lysanias; and
Philip returned into Judaea to take possession of his new king-
dom." Caligula being soon after killed, Agrippa, who was then
at Rome, contributed much by his advice to maintain Claudius
possession of the imperial dignity, to which he had been
ced by the army. But in this affair Agrippa acted a part
erein he showed more cunni ſhile he
ing than honesty, for while l
show of being in the interest of the senate, he secretly .
1 Claudius to be resolute, and not to abandon his good -
The emperor, as an acknowledgment for his kind
, gave him. Judaea, and the kingdom of Chalcis, which
en possessed by Herod his brother. Thus Agrippa be-
a sudden one of the greatest princes of the East; and
ssed of as much, if territories than his grand-
desire of pleasing them,
ligion, induced him to commit
rded in Acts xii
tº º






















































B. C.7.] from sparracus to cAligula,
to Caesarea, where he had games performed in honour of Clau-
dius. Here the inhabitants of Tyre and Sidon waited on him,
to sue for peace. Agrippa being come early in the morning to
the theatre, to give them audience, seated himself on his
throne, dressed in a robe of silver tissue, worked in the most
admirable manner. The rising sun darting full upon it, g
it an uncommon lustre, and therefore, when the king spoke
the Tyrians and Sidonians, the parasites around him began to
say, that it was the voice of a god, and not of a man. Instead
of rejecting these impious flatterers, Agrippa received them.
with an air of complacency; but the gratification of his vanity.
was disturbed by observing an owl above him. He had seen
the same bird before, when he was in bonds by order of Tibe-
rius; and it was then told him that he should be soon set at
liberty; but that whenever he saw the same bird a second time,
he should not live above five days afterwards. He was there-
fore extremely terrified; and he died at the end of five days,
racked with tormenting pains in his bowels, and devoured with
worms. Such was the death of Herod Agrippa, after a reign
of seven years, in the year of Christ 44. . . …
ve
to.
BERENICE, daughter of Agrippa I., king of Judaea, has
been much talked of on account of her amours. She was be-,
trothed to one Marcus, but he died before the marriage. Soon
after, she married her uncle Herod, who, at the desire of
Agrippa, both his brother and father in law, was created
* king of Chalcis by the Emperor Claudius. She lost her hus-
band in the eighteenth year of the emperor Claudius; and in
her widowhood, it was rumoured she committed incest with her
brother Agrippa. To put a stop to this report, she offered
herself in marriage to Polemon, king of Cilicia, provided he
would change his religion. He accepted her offers, was cir-
cumcised, and married her. Berenice soon left him to follow
her own ways, and he abandoned Judaism to return to his
former religion. She was always on good terms with her brother
Agrippa, and seconded him in his attempt to prevent the deso-
lation of the Jews. She got Titus into her snares; but the
murmurs of the Roman people hindering her from becoming
his wife, there remained nothing for her but the title of mistress
or concubine of the emperor. The French stage, in the seven-
teenth century, resounded with the amours of Titus and Be-
ARIOBARZANES II., of Cappadocia, being very much
attached to Caesar, was declared an enemy by the republic, and
put to death by Cassius, B.C. 42.
ARIOBARZANES III., brother of Ariobarzanes II.,
dethroned and put to death by Marc Antony.
PTOLEMY, a king of Chalcidia, in Syria, who op
Pompey, B.C. 30, but was defeated, and paid the victo
thousand talents to save his life.























[B.C. 99.
º º to MANs. -
§ MARCUS CASTRITIUS, a magistrate of Placentia in 669
of Rome, B.C. 80., when the consul Cneius Carbo, endeavour-
ing to engage all the cities of Italy in Marius's party against
Sylla, demanded hostages of them, Castritius not permitting
the citizens of Placentia to deliver any, Carbo, to intimidate
him, said he had a great number of swords; And I have a great
many years, replied Castritius; the very answer Solon gave
to Pisistratus, when the tyrant asked him, In what he confided,
since he presumed to oppose him with such vigour? In old age,
said Solon.
DAMASIPPUS, an ignoble Roman, who murdered the no-
blest citizens of Sylla's faction at their sacrifices like beasts,
and carried about the corpse of Arvinas, a tribune, on poles.
He was at last slain by Sylla, who proved conqueror. . . . . . . . .
LUCIUS LICINIUS MURAENA, a Roman consul, who
renewed the war against Mithridates, B.C. 57., and was called
home the year after. Cicero pleaded for him before the senate.
LUCIUS SERGIUS CATILINE, a Roman of a patrician
family, who, having spent his fortune in debauchery, formed the
design of destroying the senate, seizing the public treasury, setting
Rome on fire, and usurping a sovereign power over his fellow
citizens. He drew some young noblemen into his plot; whom
he prevailed upon, it is said, to drink human blood as a pledge
of their union. His conspiracy, however, was discovered by
the vigilance of Cicero, who was then consul. . Upon which,
retiring from Rome, he put himself at the head of an army, with
.# of the conspirators, and fought with incredible valour
against Petreius, lieutenant to Antony, who was colleague with
Cicero in the consulship; but was defeated and killed in battle. -
Sallust has given a history of this conspiracy; and has thus
drawn the portrait of Catiline: “His powers of mind and body
were extraordinary, but his disposition bad and depraved. From
his youth he took delight in civil contests, murders, rapines,
and intestine wars, and inured himself to the practice of them.
His constitution was patient, beyond credibility, of hunger,
cold, and watchfulness. In temper he was daring, deceitful,
capable of every kind of simulation and dissimulation, greedy
erty of others, lavish of his own, ardent in his de-
Slausible, rather than deep, in discourse. His bound-
il always aimed at things immoderate, excessive, and out .
º *
ºf IUS CELER METELLUs, who distingu
disgraced him by h














B.C.96.] FROM spartacus to cAligula. 665
Christ. He was greatly lamented by Cicero, who shed tears
at the loss of one of his most faithful and valuable friends,
PUBLIUS CLODIUS, a Roman descendant of an illus-
trious family, but a very worthless character. He made him-
self infamous by his licentiousness, avarice, and ambition. He
committed incest with his three sisters, and introduced himself
in women's clothes into the house of Julius Caesar, whilst Pom-
peia, Caesar's wife, of whom he was enamoured, was celebrating
the mysteries of Ceres, where ho man was permitted to appear.
He was accused of this violation of human and divine laws; but
he got himself made tribune, and thus screened himself from
justice. He was such an enemy to Cato, that he made him go
with praetorian power, in an expedition against Ptolemy, king
of Cyprus, that by the difficulty of the campaign he º ruin
his reputation, and destroy his interest at Rome during his ab-
sence. Cato however, by his uncommon success, frustrated the
views of Clodius. He was also an inveterate enemy to Cicero,
and by his influence he got him banished from Rome. He
wreaked his vengeance upon Cicero's house, which he burnt, and
exposed all his goods to sale; which, however, to his great mor-
tification, no one offered to buy. Clodius was some time after
murdered by Milo, whose defence Cicero took upon himself.
TITUS ANNIUS MILO, a native of Lanuvium, who at-
tempted to obtain the consulship of Rome, by intrigue and se-
ditious tumults. Clodius the tribune opposed his views, and
Milo killed him in a scuffle on the Appian way, for which he
was banished to Massilia, though defended by Cicero himself,
who was prevented from exerting his usual powers by the po-
pular clamour. The friendship of Cicero and Milo were the
fruits of long intimacy and familiar intercourse. It was to the
successful labours of Milo, that the orator was recalled from
banishment, and restored to his friends.
CLUENTIUS, a Roman citizen, accused by his mother of
having murdered his father, fifty-four years before Christ. He
was ably defended by Cicero, in an oration still extant. The
family of the Cluentia was descended from Cloanthus, one of
the companions of Æneas. .
MARCUS PORTIUS CATO, great-grandson of Cato the
censor, born B.C. 96. From his infancy he discovered even
in his childish sports an inflexibility of mind; for he would go
through with ''. he had undertaken, though the task
was ill suited to his strength. He was rough towards those
who flattered him, and quite untractable when threatened;
was rarely seen to laugh, or even to smile; was not easily pro-
voked to anger; but if once incensed hard to be pacified.
Sylla, having had a friendship for the father of Cato, sent often
for him and his brother, and talked familiarly with them. Cato,
who was then about fourteen years of age, seeing the heads of













is preceptor, “Wh
hated.” The boy replied, “Why then did you not give me
a sword when you brought me hither, that I might have stab-
bed him, and freed my country from this slavery?” He learned
the principles of the Stoic philosophy, under Antipater of
Tyre. Eloquence he likewise studied, to defend the cause of
justice, and he made a very considerable proficiency in it. To
increase his bodily strength, he inured himself to extremes of
heat and cold; and used to make journies on foot, and bare-
headed in all seasons. When he was sick, patience and ab-
stinence were his only remedies. Though remarkably sober
in the beginning of his life, making it a rule to drink but once
after supper, he insensibly contracted a habit of drinking more
freely, and of sitting at table till morning. His friends excused
this, by saying that the affairs of the public engrossed his at-
tention all the day, and that, being ambitious of knowledge,
he passed the night in the conversation of philosophers. Cae-
sar wrote that Cato was once found dead drunk at the corner
of a street, early in the morning, and that the people blushed
when they found that it was Cato. He affected singularity,
and, in things indifferent, to act directly contrary to the taste
and fashions of the age. Magnanimity and constancy are
generally ascribed to him. Cato, says Seneca, having received
a blow in the face, neither took revenge nor was angry; he did
not even pardon the affront, but denied that he had received it.
His virtue raised him so high, that injury could not reach him.
He is reputed to have been chaste in his youth. His first love
was Lepida; but when the marriage was upon the point of
being concluded, Scipio Metellus, to whom she had been pro-
mised, interfered, and, the preference was given to him. Ou
Stoic was for going to law with Scipio; but his friends diverte
him from that design, and he revenged himself by making v
ses upon his rival. He married Attilia the daughter of Serra.
nus, had two children by her, and afterwards divorced her for
very indiscreet conduct. He served as a volunteer under Gal-
alſº
'ar of Sparta ised the military rewards
šº e years after, he wentale-
r.

























































B. C. r i. %
chosen quaestor; and had scarcely entered on his charge
he made a great reformation with regard to the reg
whose places were for life, and through whose hands all th
public accounts passed. He greatly pleased the people, by
making the assassins, to whom Sylla had given considerable
rewards, for murdering the proscribed, disgorge their gains. .
He was always the first who came to the senate house, and the
last who left it, and he never quitted Rome during these days,
when the senate was to sit. He was also present at every as-
sembly of the people, that he might awe those who, by an ill-
judged facility, bestowed the public money in largesses, and
frequently, through mere favour, granted remission of debts
due to the state. At first his austerity and stiffness displeased
his colleagues; but afterwards they were glad to have his name
to oppose to all the unjust solicitations, against which they would
have found it difficult to defend themselves. To keep out
every bad man, he put in for the tribunate. He sided with
Cicero against Catiline, and opposed Caesar on that occasion.
His enemies sent him to recover Cyprus, which Ptolemy had
forfeited, thinking to hurt his reputation by so difficult an un-
dertaking; yet none could find fault with his conduct. He
tried to bring about an agreement between Caesar and Pompey;
but seeing it in vain, he sided with the latter. When Pompey
was slain he fled to Utica; and being pursued by Caesar, ad-
vised his friends to be gone, and throw themselves on Caesar's
clemency. His son however, remained with him; and Stati-
lius, a young man, remarkable for his hatred to Caesar. The
evening before his death, after bathing, he supped with his
friends and the magistrates of the city. They sat late, and
the conversation was lively. This discourse falling upon this
maxim of the Stoics, that “the wise man alone is free, and
that the vicious are slaves;" Demetrius, who was a Peripatetic,
undertook to confute it. Cato, in answer, treated the matter
. e suspicion of his friends, that he designed to kill
imself. When he had done speaking, a melancholy silence
nsued; and Cato perceiving it, turned the discourse to the
present situation of affairs, expressing his concern for those
who had been obliged to put to sea, as well as for those who
had determ ake their escape by land, º had a dr
º









































Universal Brography. {B,C, 96.
and g no pertinent answer, he resumed his reading.
Some time after, he asked again for his sword, and without
showing any impatience, ordered it to be brought to him; but,
having read out the book, and finding nobody had brought it,
he called for all his servants, fell into a rage, and struck one of
them on the mouth with so much violence, that he very much
hurt his own hand, crying out in a psssionate manner, “What!
do my own son and family conspire to betray me, and deliver
me up naked and unarmed to the enemy.” Immediately his son
and friends rushed into the room; and began to lament, and to
beseech him to change his resolution. Cato raising himself,
and looking fiercely at them, “How long is it,” said he, “since
I have lost my senses, and my son is become my keeper? Brave
and generous son, why do not you bind your father's hands,
that when Caesar comes, he may find me unable to defend my- .
self? Do you imagine that without a sword I cannot end my
life?” His son answered with tears, and retired. Apollonides
and Demetrius remained with him, to whom, among other
things, he said, “Is it to watch over me that ye sit silent here?
Do you pretend to force a man of my years to live? Not that
I have determined any thing concerning myself; but I would
have it in my power to perform what I shall think fit to resolve
upon. Go tell my son, that he should not compel his father to
what he cannot persuade him.” They withdrew, and the sword
was brought him by a young slave. Cato drew it, and finding
the point to be sharp; “Now,” said he, “I am my own master;”
and, laying it down, he took up his book again, which he read
twice over. After this he slept so soundly that he was heard to
smore by those near him. About midnight he called two of his
Yee men, Cleanthes, his physician, and Butas, whom he chiefly
employed in the management of his affairs. At last he sent to
the port, to see whether all the Romans were gone; to the phy-
sician he gave his hand to be dressed, which was swelled by
the blow he had given his slave. This was thought an inti-
mation that he intended to live, and gave great joy to his family.
It was now break of day, and Cato slept yet a little more, till
Butas returned to tell him that all was perfectly quiet. He
then ordered him to shut his door, and flung himself upon his
bed, as if he meant to finish his night's rest; but immediately
took his sword, and stabbed himself a little below his chest,
lot being able to use his hand so well by reason of the
g. th nd did not kill him. It threw him into a con-
, in which he fell upon his bed, and overturned a table
The noise gave the alarm; and his son and friends,
room, found him weltering in his blood, an
and his






















B.C.96.] FROM spartacus to GALIGULA.
thrust the surgeon from him, and, tearing out his bowel
mediately expired, in the forty-eighth year of his age. By this
rash act, independent of all other considerations, he carried his
patriotism to the highest degree of political frenzy; for Cato,
dead, could be of no use to his country; but had he preserved
his life, his counsel might have moderated Caesar's ambition,
and, as Montesquieu observes, have given a different turn to
public affairs.
CAIUS JULIUS CAESAR, the illustrious Roman gene-
ral and historian, was of the family of Julii, who pretended to
be descended from Venus, by Æneas. He was born at Rome
on the twelfth of the month of Quintilis, afterwards from him
called July, B.C.96, and lost his father B.C. 80. Being nephew
to Marius, he was early proscribed by Sylla; who was with much
entreaty prevailed on to save his life; but he said to his friends
when he consented, that “he saw in that young man many Ma-
riuses.” Caesar had been betrothed, while a boy, to Cossutia, a
rich heiress; but he broke through this engagement, and, in his
seventeenth year, married Cornelia, the daughter of the power-
ful Cornelius Cinna. Sylla strongly urged Caesar to divorce his
wife, for, being the daughter of his old enemy Cinna, he had a
great antipathy to her. But the spirited youth, now become a
father, absolutely refused to comply with the imperious demand.
Sylla's hatred caused Caesar to depart from Rome; he there-
fore made a campaign in Asia, under the praetor Thermus;
and being sent on business to the court of Nºid, king of
Bithynia, he passed some time with that prince, not without
incurring the suspicion of having ingratiated himself with him
by compliances of an infamous nature. In the storming of Mi-
tylene, he gave the first proof of his military bravery, and ob-
tained from his general a civic crown. He likewise served a
short time in Cilicia, under Servilius Isauricus; but the death
of Sylla recalled him to the great theatre of party politics,
Rome, where Lepidus appeared likely to excite new tumults.
This chief made him great offers to join in his designs, but Caesar
thought fit to decline them. About this time he began to sig-
malize his talents for public speaking; and he obtained great
reputation by an impeachment of Cornelius Dolabella, for mal-
administration in his province. In this cause he was opposed
by the two greatest orators in Rome, Hortensius and Cotta;
and though they were successful, he displayed powers which
ſº to raise him to as high a rank among pleaders at the
ar, as he afterwards obtained among warriors and statesmen.
For the sake of further improvement, and the pleasures of a
literary retreat, Caesar then determined to go to Rhodes, and
receive lessons in eloquence from a celebrated Greek professor,
Apollonius Molon. In his passage he was taken, nea
nd of Pharmacusa, by the Cilician pirates, who then in
S,















670
all those seas. His conduc it, on t his occasion, was a striking
proof of a character formed for command. His ransom, which
his captors had fixed at twenty talents, he voluntarily raised to
in
his capt
fifty ; and despatching some of his domestics to levy the sum
the neighbouring cities, he remained with a friend and two at-
endants only, among these fierce banditti, living with them in
rfect security thirty-eight days, and taking upon him the tone
of a master rather than that of a prisoner. He spent his time
in composing orations and verses, which he read to this barba-
rous audience; he conversed familiarly with them, threatened
them with his displeasure when they interrupted his repose, and
frequently, between jest and earnest, told them they should re-
pent of their seizure. The people of Miletus raised among
themselves the price of his ransom, and he was conducted to
their city. The instant of his arrival he fitted out some ships,
pursued the pirates, took a number of them, and inflicted upon
them the punishment of crucifixion, with which he had threat-
ened them. He had indeed the lenity, first to strangle them.
He afterwards proceeded to Rhodes, where he for some time
pursued his studies. During his residence in this place, being
informed that Mithridates was invading the neighbouring pro-
vinces in alliance with the Romans, he crossed over to the con-
tinent, though possessed of no public authority, collected troops,
drove out the king's commander, and secured the cities in the
On his return to Rome, the chief object of his policy was to
ingratiate himself with the people, from whom he expected that
admission to the great offices of state, which his connections
with the Marian party might otherwise render difficult. Cicero
seems at this time to have formed an idea of Caesar's character.
“I perceive,” said the orator, “an inclination for tyranny in all
he projects and executes; but, on the other hand, when I see
him adjusting his hair with so much exactness, and scratching
his head with one finger, I can hardly think that such a man
can conceive so vast and fatal a design, as the destruction of the
Roman commonwealth.” The first proof Caesar had of the af.
fection of the people, was when he obtained a tribuneship in
he army, before #. competitor, Caius Popilius. The second
more remarkable; it was on occasion of pronouncing from
º neral oration of his aunt Julia, in which
to do justice to šić . . . . . .'; sº & º
of a c
roduce the images of
laudits o



















































B. C.96.] * FROM spartacts to cALIGULA. 671
º
dying at this time, he also delivered her eulogy from the
trum, though it was unusual to confer this honour on so young
a woman, and he obtained the praise of the people for this in-
stance of conjugal affection. º - tº
Caesar secured the favour of Pompey by joining Cicero in
promoting the Manilian law, which conferred such extensive,
and indeed unconstitutional, powers on that commander; a pre-
cedent Caesar was probably not displeased to see established.
The next step in Caesar's advancement was the edileship, in
which expensive office he exhibited such a profusion of libera-
lity as greatly increased his popularity, though it deeply in-
volved his circumstances. About this time the famous conspi-
racy of Cataline broke out, which Caesar was suspected of se-
cretly supporting, but he took care that no proof of this kind
should appear against him. After its suppression, however,
when the senate consulted about the punishment of the conspi-
rators, Caesar ventured to make a studied oration in recommen-
dation of clemency, the impression of which on the assembly,
all the severe eloquence of Cato was required to counteract. In
conclusion, Caesar was left alone in his vote against the death of
the criminals; and such was the indignation i. interference in
their favour excited, that the Roman knights, upon guard, are
said to have waited only for a nod from Cicero to despatch him.
At this period, Caesar, amidst all his ambitious projects, lived
like a man of pleasure, engaged in various scenes of gallantry,
and was even intemperate in the use of wine. Servilia, sister to
the stern Cato, was passionately attached to him, and he was
supposed to be the real father of her son, Marcus Brutus.
On the death of Metellus, the chief pontiff, Caesar was a
candidate for that high dignity, and obtained a majority of suf-
frages, notwithstanding he was opposed by two of the greatest
men in Rome. On the day of election, perceiving his mother
in tears, he embraced her, and said, “My dear mother, you
shall see me chief pontiff, or an exile.” His success added
greatly to the jealousy entertained of him by the senatorian
party. Notwithstanding the licentiousness of his own life he
had too much pride to submit to the base suspicion of domestic
dishonour; whence, upon the discovery of an intrigue between
the infamous Clodius and his wife Pompeia, daughter of Pom-
eius Rufus, whom he had married after the death of Cornelia,
he instantly pronounced a divorce, though he refused to make
any charge against the gallant. “Caesar's wife,” said he, “must
not even be suspected.” When this happened he was serving
the office of Fº At its expiration the government of fur-
ther Spain fell to his lot; but his creditors would have prevented
him from going thither, had not Crassus been his sec
r
e sum of money. On his journey, a little incide º
casion to discover the ambition which characterize
#























UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. . [B.C.96.
Passing through a wret shed village in the Alps, some of his
companions were jocularly enquiring whether it was likely there
could be any contentions for power and dignity in such a place.
“I protest,” answered Caesar, “I had rather be the first man
here than the second in Rome." Like most other of the Roman
nobles, he considered his government only as a means of enrich-
ing himself. He found pretexts to quarrel with the natives, and
marched into countries which the Roman arms had never before
reached, subdued and plundered all in his course, and the next
year brought back to Rome sufficient money to discharge his
debts, though they are said to have amounted. to 1,600,000l.
sterling. Caesar, on his return from Spain, found the sove-
reignty divided between Crassus and Pompey. Caesar, no less
ambitious than either, proposed that they should put an end to
their differences, and take him for a partner. In short, he pro-
jected a triumvirate, “Pompey, Crassus, and himself,” in which
should be lodged the whole power of the senate and people;
and, they bound themselves by mutual oaths, to stand by each
other, and suffer nothing to be undertaken or carried into exe-
cution without the unanimous consent of all the three. Thus
was the liberty of the Romans taken away the second time, nor
did they ever afterwards recover it; though none perceived
this, except Cato. The association of the triumvirs was for a
long time kept secret; and nothing appeared to the people ex-
cept the reconciliation of Pompey and Crassus, for which the
state reckoned itself indebted to Caesar. .
The first consequences of the triumvirate was the consulship
of Julius Caesar. This was obtained by the favour of Pompey
and Crassus. Caesar set himself to engage the affections of
the people; and this he did by an agrarian law, so effectually,
that he was in a manner idolized. The law was, in itself, very
reasonable and just; nevertheless, the senate, perceiving the
design with which it was proposed, thought themselves bound
to oppose it. But their opposition proved fruitless; the consul
Bibulus, who showed himself most active in his endeavours
against it, was driven out of the assembly with the greatest
indignity; so that Caesar was reckoned the sole consul. The
next step taken by Caesar, was to secure the knights, and for
this purpose, he abated a third of the rent which he annually
paid into the treasury; after which he governed Rome with an
absolute sway during the time of his consulate. The reign of
his triumvir, however, was ended by his expedition into Gaul,
his military exploits acquired him the highest reputation.
and Crassus became consuls, and governed as despo-
S. $. . On the expiration of their first consulate, the


















B.C.96.] FROM SPARTACUS TO CALIGULA. 673.
the empire was proposed. Crassus was to have Syria and all
the eastern provinces, Pompey was to govern Africa and Spain,
and Caesar to continue in Gaul, all for five years. The law was
passed by a great majority, upon which Crassus undertook an
expedition against the Parthians. Caesar applied with great
assiduity to the completing of the conquest of Gaul; and
Pompey staid at Rome to govern the republic alone. The
affairs of the Romans were now hastening to a crisis. Crassus,
having oppressed all the provinces of the east, was totally de-
feated and killed by the Parthians; after which, the two great
rivals, Caesar and Pompey, were left alone. Matters, however,
continued pretty quiet, till Gaul was reduced to a Roman pro-
vince. The question then was, whether Caesar or Pompey
should first resign the command of their armies, and return to
the rank of private persons. As both parties saw, that who-
ever first laid down his arms, must, of course, submit to the
other, both refused. As Caesar, however, had amassed im-
mense riches in Gaul, he was now in a condition, not only to
maintain an army capable of vying with Pompey, but even to
buy over the leading men of Rome to his interest. One of the
consuls, named Æmilius Paulus, cost him no less than 15000
talents, or 310,625l. sterling; but the other, named Marcellus,
could not be gained at any price. Pompey had put at the
head of the tribunes one Scribonius Curio, a young patrician of
great abilities, but so exceedingly debauched and extravagant,
that he owed upwards of four millions and a half of our money.
Caesar, by enabling him to satisfy his creditors, and supplying
him with money to pursue his debaucheries, secured him in his
interest; and Curio, without seeming to be in Caesar's interest,
did him the most essential service. He proposed that both
generals should be recalled, being assured that Pompey would
never consent to part with his army, so that Caesar would make
it a pretence for continuing in his province at the head of his
troops; and thus, while both professed pacific intentions, both
continued ready for the most obstinate and bloody war. Cicero
took upon himself the office of mediator; but Pompey would
hearken to no terms of accommodation. In the year B.C. 49.
the senate passed a decree by which Pompey was invested with
the command of the troops of the republic, Caesar divested of
his office, and Lucius *... appointed to succeed him;
the new governor being empowered to raise 4000 men to
take possession of his province. War being thus resolved on,
the senate and Pompey began to prepare for opposing Caesar.
They ordered 30,000 . §
0 Roman forces to be assembled, wi
many Roman troops as Pompey should think proper; the
pence of which was defrayed from the public treasury.
governments of provinces were bestowed upon such, §
markable for their attachment to Pompey. Caesar, however,


















[B.C.96
een his friends were driven out of Rome, and arrived in his
in this ignominious habit; and, setting forth the iniquity of the
senate and patricians, exhorted his men to stand by their gene-
ral, under whom they had served so long with success; and
finding by their acclamations, that he could depend on them,
he resolved to begin hostilities immediately. , , , º,
Caesar's first design was to make himself master of Ariminum,
a city bordering * Cisalpine Gaul, but resolved to keep his
design private. At that time, he himself was at Ravenna,
whence he sent a detachment towards the Rubicon, desiring
the officer who commanded it to wait for him, on the banks of
that river. The next day, he assisted at a show of gladiators,
and made a great entertainment. Towards the close of the
day, he rose from table, desiring his guests to stay till he came
back; but, instead of returning to the company, he set out for
the Rubicon, which parted Cisalpine Gaul from Italy. The
misfortunes of the empire occurred to his mind, and made him
hesitate. Turning then to Asinius Pollio, “If I do not cross
the Rubicon,” said he, “ I am undone; and if I do cross it,
how many calamities shall I by this means bring upon Rome!”
Having thus spoken, he mused a few minutes; and then crying
out, “The die is cast!” he threw himself into the river, and
crossing it, he marched with all possible speed to Ariminum
which he reached and surprised before day-break. Thence,
as he had but one legion with him, he despatched orders to
the army he had left in Gaul, to cross the mountains and join
him. The activity of Caesar struck the opposite party
with the greatest terror. No preparations had been made
st an enemy so active and formidable. Pompey not only
left the city, but likewise {uitted Italy. , Caesar, having made
himself master of the public treasury, from whence he drew
ense sum, set out to reduce S.
**** pain, where his op-
ponents powerful. . He returned victorious, all Spain
having submitted to his authority. Caesar then returned to
where the praetor Lepidus, afterwards triumvir, nomi-
him dictator by his own authority. This dignity he ex-
r nod t ng to the generou
l as friends who were not de-
at the consular election, in
mination of himself an
;
were very
ld one o













































FROM spattacUs To CALIGULA.
fleet which he sent back to bring the
nearest towns. But the .
. at part destroyed by a st
remainder of his army, was ingre &
ron of Pompey's, who was much the strongest by sea. "
disaster, and the formidable force of his antagonist, in
him to send repeated proposals for an accommodation, upon
apparently reasonable terms, to which Pompey would not listen.
Impatient for the junction of Antony with the other part of his
army, Caesar made an attempt, for the temerity of which he has
incurred censure. Disguising himself like a slave, he went on
board a fisherman's bark for the purpose of crossing over into
Italy. The vessel, after long struggling with contrary winds,
was obliged to return, notwithstanding the earnestness with
which Caesar pressed the crew to make repeated trials at great
hazard, to get to sea. In one of these, it is said, he discovered
himself to the affrighted master, and bid him fear nothing, for
that “he carried Caesar and his fortune.” This exploit, re-
lated by Plutarch, and dressed out in the most glaring colours
of poetry by Lucan, is passed over in silence by Caesar himself,
in his commentaries, probably as not obtaining the approbation
of his cool reflection. Antony at length arrived with succours,
and Caesar followed Pompey, who marched to secure Dyrrha-
chium, and encamped around it. Caesar now formed a design,
which discovered the vastness of his ideas, though, perhaps, it
may subject him to the charge of undertaking what was beyond
the limits of probability to compass. With an inferior army,
he resolved to invest Pompey's camp and the town of Dyrrha-
chium; and actually drew strong lines of circumvallation many
miles in extent, from sea to sea, including a space in which
Pompey's whole army was confined. Extreme hardships were
undergone by Caesar's troops, in forming this extraordinary
siege, which their zeal for their leader caused them to bear
with heroic patience. Pompey, though his communication with
the sea was perfectly open, began, in course of time, to suffer
for want of forage, and besides, his reputation was likely to be
amc ign nations, by submitting to be cooped up in
such a nook of land. He, therefore, determined to break
through the barrier, and, after several ineffectual attempts, at
length succeeded, with great discomfiture of the enemy. Un-
der some disgrace, Caesar retired into Macedonia, whither he
was followed by Pompey, and though this leader was incline
to prudent rather than hazardous measures, the cla
rº & cers, elated by their fancied superiority
of a general engagement.
duce
º














































676 UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. [B.C.96.
of his camp, and entirely routed his army. Caesar equally dis-
tinguished º: by his valour and conduct in the battle, and
his magnauimity and clemency after the victory. In this action
it was evidently seen, that superiority of numbers avails nothing
against courage and discipline. The conqueror found in the
camp of the enemy the whole apparatus of Asiatic luxury. He
threw all Pompey's letters into the fire without reading one,
“I would rather not be acquainted with crimes,” said he, “than
be obliged to punish them.” He sighed heavily at seeing the
field of battle covered with dead bodies, and endeavoured to
repair, by an heroic clemency, the evils of which he had been
the author. ->
This great commander, who has been justly characterized, as
“thinking nothing done whilst any thing remained to do,” was
not lulled into indolent security, by his success, complete as it
appeared. His object was, by following his blow, entirely to
crush his rival, without giving him an opportunity of availing
himself of the many resources which remained to him entire.
On the third day from the battle he left the plains of Pharsalia,
and proceeded with his cavalry in pursuit of Pompey. The fu-
gitive, however, had fled to Egypt, where he hoped to find a
secure asylum from young Ptolemy, whose father, Auletes,
after his expulsion by the inhabitants of Alexandria, he had re-
established on the throne; but how few friends does misfortune
leave Caesar crossed into Asia, and received on his passage
the submission of a superior fleet of Pompey, which he fell in
with ; he then hastened to Rhodes, and embarked for Egypt.
At Alexandria he was informed of Pompey's murder; and the
head of his rival, wrapped up in a veil, was presented to him as
a token of his final success. He turned his eyes from viewing
the bloody spectacle, and reflecting on the fate of this eminent
personage, once his friend and his kinsman, shed tears on the
occasion; and dismissing the messenger with expressions of
displeasure, ordered the head to be buried with due solemnity.
As a farther tribute of respect for his deceased rival, he set at
liberty all his friends who had been taken on the inhospitable
shore of Egypt, and imprisoned by order of the ministers of
king Ptolemy. At Alexandria he took up his residence in the
royal palace; but by exacting with rigour a sum of money, pre-
tended to be due to the Roman people for their services in re-
storing to the throne Ptolemy, A. father of the present
inor king, and also by undertaking to reconcile young Ptolemy
his sister Cleopatra, who, by the will of Auletes, was to
reigned jointly with her brother, but who had been ex-
the kingdom, he exercised an authority which offended














B. C. 96.j FROM spartACUs to cAligul A. 677
part of the famous Alexandrian library was burnt, in conse-
quence of a conflagration of some ships of the Alexandrian fleet.
Caesar, who had possession of Ptolemy's person, was at length
at lens
so hardly pushed as to be obliged to surrender him in order to
obtain a cessation of hostilities; but he was relieved by Mithri-
dates, king of Pergamus. Ptolemy, however, continued the
war, till he was defeated in two actions, and lost his life in the
Nile, by attempting to make his escape. In consequence of this
event Caesar settled the affairs of Egypt, by conferring the
crown jointly on Cleopatra and a younger brother of Ptolemy.
Fascinated by the allurements of this enchanting woman, by
whom he had a son, he remained in Egypt in a state of inacti-
vity, till he was called away by the progress of Pharnaces, son
of Mithridates the Great, who was expelling the Romans from
Asia Minor. He gave an account of his expedition in three
words, “veni, vidi, vici,” I came, I saw, I conquered.
Having been made consul for five years, dictator one year,
and perpetual fellow of the college of tribunes, with authority to
make peace or war as he judged proper, he appeared again at
Rome in two years, after his passage over the Rubicon, in pos-
session of absolute power. Far from following the example of
Sylla, who wanted to secure his power by sacrificing his fellow
citizens, he was eager to offer pardon to all, and even heaped
acts of kindness upon a number of his principal enemies; but as
yet all were not subdued. During his stay in Egypt, where his
indiscreet attachment to Cleopatra made him neglect his affairs,
the sons of Pompey, Cato, Scipio, and some other republicans,
had collected a body of forces in Africa, where they prepared to
make a vigorous defence. Caesar, having crossed the sea, gained
three battles successively. Cato had fruitlessly recommended to
his party not to . their party to the hazard of a defeat;
and, shutting himself up in Utica, seemed to revive the Roman
senate, and to preserve some ideas of liberty; but his hopes soon
vanished, and he destroyed himself. Upon the news being
brought to Caesar, he exclaimed, “O Cato, I envy thee thy
death, since thou didst envy me the honour of preserving thee
thy life.” It would, indeed, have been more glorious to save
than to conquer such an enemy. # . :
When Caesar had settled the government of Africa, and is-
sued orders for the re-erection of Carthage, he returned in tri-
umph to Rome, and was received by the senate and people with
unbounded adulation. To the dictatorship, extended to ten
years, was added the censorial office. A double guard was as-
signed him, and his person was declared sacred and inviolable.
A thanksgiving of forty successive da §
umphs, were decreed for his victories,
Gaul, Egypt, king Pharmaces, and Juba,









ment, and enacted severa
him ination
mself the mom S---------...- … Liº
time he availed himself of the assistance of S
men of science, in the correction of the c ar an
establishment of the “Julian year.” Whilst Caesar was
employed at home, the two sons of Pompey were collecting a
considerable force in Spain, and his presence was necessary to
restrain their progress. Accordingly, in his fourth consular-
ship he departed for the Spanish war, and having reduced se-
veral places, he marched to the plains of Munda, where the
elder *..., was encamped. Notwithstanding the superiority
of the enemy, he advanced to the attack; and in the battle
which ensued, contended for a long time, as he himself ac-
knowledges, not for victory, but for life. So desperate were
his circumstances, that, at one period of his conflict, he thought
of killing himself; but recovering his self-possession, he exerted
himself with such valour as to turn the fortune of the day, and
in the event of the contest to annihilate the relics of Roman li-
berty. After having completed the reduction of Spain, he re-
turned to Rome, and received new honours. The dictatorship
was established for life, and the title of “Imperator,” as head
of the empire, and denoting the highest monarchical rank, was
conferred upon him, and from him it was transmitted to his suc-
‘s. Notwithstanding all these accessions of rank and ho-
nour, Caesar retained the affable manners of the first citizens of
the republic, and studied to ingratiate himself with the nobles
and people. He pleased the latter by dismissing his guards,
restoring the statutes of their former favourite, Pompey, and
them with shows and largesses; and he secured
achment of the nobles, by the multiplication of offices of dig-
nity and profit. However, he offended the senators by increas-
ng their number from three hundred to nine hundred, and by
*
iting several persons of low origin to this honourable class.
e Romans, who entertained an inveterate prejudice against
name of king, were further offended by Antony offe ‘ing to
a § diadem; for though he refused the gift, he wa
º Of i. ſłº ºl ºvrºr * - | i. f 3. been su º res º
§§





















































B. c. 96.j FROM SPARTACUS TO CALIGULA, 679,
of Rome; and to concur, with some remains of an attachment
to liberty, in producing a conspiracy against Caesar's life.
Caesar himself was warned of it by his friends; intimations had
been circulated, for some time, of the persons concerned in it,
and of the time of its execution; and so fully possessed of the
reality of the danger was Calpurnia, Caesar's wife, that she ear-
nestly urged him not to quit his house on the ides of March, the
day appointed for the meeting of the senate. In compliance
with her entreaties he determined to remain at home. But De-
cimus Brutus, representing to him the importance of the mat-
ters which were to be proposed in the senate, diverted his pur-
pose, and they set out together. In their way thither, a person
named Artemidorus put into Caesar's hand a paper, containing
a discovery of the whole plot; but though he was desired to
read it, he was prevented by the crowd, which surrounded him.
On his arrival in the hall of the senate, a number of the con-
spirators beset him, under the pretext of uniting their suppli-
cations with those of Metellus Cimber, on behalf of his banished
brother; at this instant Cimber gave the signal, by taking hold
of his robe, and pulling it from his shoulders, upon which
Casca stabbed him in the neck. The enraged Cassius wounded
him deeply in the head; and many others concurred in stabbing
him on all sides. Till Brutus appeared, he is said to have resisted
his assassins; but upon the sight of the dagger aimed at him by
Brutus, he exclaimed, “What, my son Brutus too !” and cover-
ing his face with his robe, fell, pierced with twenty-three wounds,
at the pedestal of Pompey's statue. Such was the catastrophe
that terminated Caesar's career, in the fifty-sixth year of his age,
March 15, B.C. 44. His death was amply revenged, and ;
memory was honoured among the tutelary deities of his country;
as he left no direct lineage, his adopted heir was the grandson
of his sister Julia.
The person of Caesar was tall, slender, and fair, and his
countenance was sensible and expressive. To the delicacy of
his form, his first character, which was that of a man of plea-
sure and gallantry, seems to have been better adapted than his
latter occupation, as a warrior. . . . .º.
The following portrait of Julius Caesar was drawn by M.
Ophellot, in his Melanges Philosophiques. “If after the lapse of
eighteen centuries, the truth may be published without
a philosopher might, in the following terms, cen
his blushes. Caesar had one prec
love of glory; and he p fort
sorbed in ambition, di


















UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. [B. c. 96.
rupted one half of the Roman ladies, but his heart had
n the fiery ardours of his senses. In the arms of
he ght of Pompey; and this singular man,
d to have a partner in the empire of the world,
would have blushed to have been for one instant the slave of
a woman. We must not imagine, that Caesar was born a war-
ior, as Sophocles and Milton were born poets. For, if nature
had made him a citizen of Sybaris, he would have been the
most voluptuous of men. If in our days he had been born in
Pennsylvania, he would have been the most inoffensive of qua-
kers, and would not have disturbed the tranquillity of the new
world. The moderation with which he conducted himself after
his victories, has been highly extolled; but in this he showed
his penetration, not the goodness of his heart. Is it not ob-
vious, that the display of certain virtues is necessary to put in
motion the political machine? It was requisite that he should
have the appearance of clemency, if he inclined that Rome
should forgive him his victories. But what greatness of mind
is there in generosity which follows on the usurpation of su-
preme power? Nature, while it marked Caesar with a sub-
lime character, gave him also that spirit of perseverance which
renders it j He had no sooner begun to reflect, than he
admired Sylla; hated him, and yet wished to imitate him. At
he age of fifteen, he formed the project of being dictator.
It was thus that the president Montesquieu conceived, in his
early youth, the idea of the spirit of laws. Physical qualities,
as well as moral causes, contributed to give strength to his cha-
racter. Nature, which had made him for command, had given
him an air of dignity. He had acquired that soft and insinuat-
ing eloquence, which is perfectly suited to seduce vulgar minds,
and has a powerful influence on the most cultivated. His love
of pleasure was a merit with the fair sex; and women who even .
in a republic can draw to them the suffrages and attention of
men, have the slightest importance in degenerate times.
The ladies of his age were charmed with the view of having a
dictator whom they might subdue by their attractions. In
vain did the genius of Cato watch for some time to sustain
the liberty of his country. It was unequal to contend with
hat of Caesar. Of what avail were the eloquence, the philo-
bhy, and the virtue of this republican, when opposed by a
tho he address to debauch the wife of every citizen
2 interest he meant to engage; who, possessing an enthu-
for glory, wept, at the age of thirty, he had
onquered the world like Alexander; and who with the
a despot, was more de o be the first
actions are frequent; when talent














































B.C. 96.] FROM SPARTACUs to CALIGULA.
everything, and those who can only boast of their virtues are
nothing. If he had lived one hundred years sooner, he would
have been no more than an obscure villain, and instead of giv-
ing laws to the world, would not have been able to produce
any confusion in it. I will here be bold enough to advance an
idea, which may appear paradoxical to those who weakly judge
of men from what they achieve, and not from the principle
which leads them to act. Nature formed in the same mould
Caesar, Mahomet, Cromwell, and Kouli Khan. They all of
them united to genius that profound policy which renders it so
powerful. They all of them had an evident superiority over
those with whom they were surrounded; they were conscious
of this superiority, and they made others conscious of it. They
were all of them born subjects, and became fortunate usurpers.
Had Caesar been placed in Persia, he would have made the
conquest of India; in Arabia, he would have been the founder
of a new religion; in London, he would have stabbed his sove-
reign, or have procured his assassination under the sanction of
the laws. He reigned with glory over men whom he had re-
duced to be slaves; and, under one aspect he is to be consi-
dered as a hero; under another, as a monster. But it would
be unfortunate, indeed, for society, if the possession of superior
talent gave individuals a right to trouble its repose. Usurpers
accordingly have flatterers, but no friends; strangers respect
them; their subjects complain and submit; it is in their own
families that humanity finds her avengers. Caesar was assas-
sinated by his son; Mahomet was poisoned by his wife; Kouli
Khan was massacred by his nephew; and Cromwell only died
in his bed, because his son Richard was a philosopher. Caesar
the tyrant of his country; Caesar, who destroyed the agen
his crimes, if they failed in address; Caesar, in fine, the hus-
band of every wife, and the wife of every husband, has been
accounted a great man by the mob of writers. But it is only
the philosopher who knows how to mark, the barrier between
celebrity and greatness. The talents of this singular man, and
the good fortune, which constantly attended him till the mo-
ment of his assassination, have concealed the enormity of his
actions.” The best editions of his Commentaries are, that of
Dr. Clarke, folio, 1712; that of Cambridge, with a Greek
translation, 4to. 1727; that of Oudendorp, 2 vols. 4to. 1737;
and that of London, 2 vols. 8vo. 1790. There are two English
translations, one by Bladen, and the other by Duncan, of which
the last is the best. .
CORNELIA, a daughter of Cinna, who was the fi
U1 s Caesar. She became mother of J
and was so affectionately *r husb
th, he pronounced a funeral o • ** **** **-y
ghter of Julius Caesar and Cornelia
o





























universal biography.
he best of the Roman
** *** Line ladies. She married, first, Corneliu
Caepio, and the second, Pompey, who had an uncommon re-
gard for her. She died in childbed, B.C. 53.
SERVILIA, a sister of the celebrated Cato of Utica, who
was deeply enamoured of Julius Caesar, though her brother was
one of his most inveterate enemies. One day she sent Caesar
a letter, full of the most tender expressions of affection. This
epistle was delivered to Caesar in the senate-house, while the
senate were debating about the punishing of Catiline's associ-
ates. Cato, supposing that the letter was from one of the con-
pirators, insisted on its being publicly read. Upon this, Caesar
gave it to Cato, who having read it, returned it, saying, “Take
it, drunkard'" - º
* BRABO, an illustrious Roman, kinsman to Julius Caesar,
came with him to Gaul, and gave his name to Brabant. There
is a ridiculous story of a giant, where now stands the city of
Antwerp, whom Brabo overthrew, and, as the reward of his
ruelty, cut off his two hands. They show, at the gate of Ant-
werp, some remains of his fortress and bones.
MAMURRA, a Roman knight, and native of Formium,
acquired vast riches in Gaul, whither he accompanied Caesar
as prºfectus fabrum, master of the workmen and works. He
spent them as profusely; nothing could be more sumptuous
han his palace at Rome, upon mount Caelius. Catullus wrote
very keen verses against the rapines of Mamurra, and the de-
bauched familiarity between him and Julius Caesar. -
BASSUS VENTIDIUS, a Roman of mean birth, became
so famous in the army, first under Julius Cae
sar, and then un-
Marc Antony, that he rose to all the great offices of the
onwealth; for he was tribune of the people, praetor, high-
and at last consul. He defeated the Parthians thrice,
triumphed, and after his death was buried honourably.
C. ASINIUS POLLIO, an eminent Roman, was born
bout the year B. C. 86. Although he was descended from an
ised himself by his merit, to the highest
in the state. I
ne year B. C. 40; rit
He was consul with Domitius Calvinus, in
iumphed over the Dalmatians, and per-
med much important service to Antony in the civil wars.
ter this, he was regarded friend by Augustus, and was
as a literary character, ranked very
posed a history of his own times. Ho
the first ode of his second book, and
his intended history of the civil wars.



















































B.C. 86.] FROM spartacus to CALIGULA.
Caesar, and Cicero. To the well-earned glory of the latter, he
was exceedingly inimical. His own style is represented by
Quintilian, as studied, weighty, and expressive, but harsh and
abrupt, and ..". more to that of the earlier writers,
than to the polish and sweetness of Cicero and his contempo-
raries. Pollio was a man of extensive erudition and great in-
dustry. He wrote a narrative of Roman affairs; a Grecian his->
tory; and likewise composed tragedies in the Greek language.
He is said to have been the first who founded a library in Rome
for the public use, to which laudable purpose he devoted the
spoils he had taken in war. Of his writings nothing remain,
excepting a few passages quoted by other authors. He died
about the year A. D. 4. -
MARC ANTONY, the triumvir, grandson to Marc Antony
the orator, was handsome in his youth; for which he was greatly
beloved by Curio a senator; who, by carrying him about in .
is debaucheries, made him contract such heavy debts, that
his own father forbade him his house. Curio however, was so
generous as to bail him for two hundred and fifty talents.
When the civil war broke out, Curio took Caesar's part, and
prevailed with Antony to do the same; for which he was
made a tribune of the people, and in that office did Caesar great
service. Caesar, having made himself master of Rome, gave
Antony the government of Italy; at the battle of Pharsalia,
Caesar confided so much in him, that he gave him the command
of the left wing of his army, whilst he himself led the right.
After Caesar was made dictator, he made Antony general of the
horse, in which station he exerted his power with the utmost
violence. He was made consul, when Caesar enjoyed that ho-
mour for the fifth and last time. On Caesar's death, he ha-
rangued the populace with great art, and raised their fury
against his murderer; flattering himself, that he should easily
get into the place which Caesar had filled; but his haughty
behaviour made him lose all the advantages his affected con-
cern for Caesar had gained him. His ill treatment of Oc
vianus, and quarrel with him produced another civil war;
ended in an accommodation between him, Octavianus, and Le-
pidus, fatal to the peace of Rome. They agreed to share the
supreme power among them; and many of the most illustrious
Romans were sacrificed by proscription, to cement this bloody
te, which is known by the name of the second triumvirate,




































UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. " [B. c. 86.
become publicly his enemy, Antony entered into a confederacy
with Sextus Pompius, who was still master of Sicily. He then
went into Italy, to fight Octavianus; but Fulvia, who had been
the promoter of this war, dying, Octavianus and Antony came to
an agreement. One of the conditions of this new peace was, that
they should attack Pompey, though the former had lately made
an alliance with him. Antony then married Octavia, sister
to Octavianus, as a pledge of their renewed friendship; but re-
turned soon after to his beloved Cleopatra, and lived with her
in Alexandria. Octavianus took hold of this pretence to inveigh
against him and begin the war again. At last, they engaged
in a sea fight at Actium, in which Octavianus gained a j.
victory. Antony, having reason to think himself betrayed by
Cleopatra herself, fell into utter despair. He first rushed to
Cleopatra's palace, in order to take vengeance on her, which
she eluded by flight. Resolved upon death, he then called
upon his faithful servant Eros, to perform his promise of kill-
ing him when should require it. Eros, pretending to comply,
desired him to turn away his face, and then stabbed himself,
and fell dead at his feet. Animated by this example of affec-
tionate heroism, Antony then threw himself upon his sword.
The wound was not immediately mortal; and, desiring to take
a last farewell of Cleopatra, he was carried to the bottom of the
tower where that queen had taken refuge from his fury, and was
drawn up to her by ropes, she assisting her women in the task.
Here, after many expressions of tenderness, and much kind
advice, he expired in her arms, in the fifty-sixth year of his
age, B. C. 30. His body was most magnificently interred by
Cleopatra; but at Rome his statues were thrown down, and
his memory declared infamous.
Antony left seven children by his three wives, for he had
lawfully married Cleopatra after his divorce from Octavia; two
sons by Fulvia; two daughters by Octavia; and two sons and
a daughter by Cleopatra. Octavia took the most generous care
of her step-children, and brought up with her, his daughter by
Cleopatra, whom she married to Juba, king of Mauritania.
Her own two daughters, by their alliances, gave three empe-
rors to Rome.
The romantic cast of Antony's character and adventures has
rendered him a more conspicuous object in the records of fame,
than his endowments could of themselves have done. With
some splendid qualities, he had neither strength of understand-
ing, nor vigour of mind sufficient to rank him among great
men. Still less can he class among good men; since, besides
unded love of pleasure, he was always unprincipled,
el, and, mean. Yet few men have been mo
by their friends and partisans; an

























B. C. 68.] FROM SPARTACUS TO CALIGULA. 685,
him much above his more prudent rival, the cool and crafty,
Octavianus. . ,
FULVIA, wife to Marc Antony, who married twice before;
first to Clodius, the great enemy of Cicero; secondly, to Curio,
who was killed in Africa, fighting on Caesar's side, before the
battle of Pharsalia. After the victory gained at Philippi by
Octavius and Antony, the latter went into Asia to settle the
affairs of the east, and Octavius returned to Rome, where,
happening to quarrel with Fulvia, she took arms against him;
and was not satisfied with retiring to Praeneste, with the senators
of her party, but armed herself in person, gave the word to the
soldiers, and harangued with them. §
“She was a woman,” says Plutarch, “not born for spinning
or housewifery, nor one that could be content with the power
of ruling a private husband; but a lady capable of advising a
magistrate, and of ruling the general of an army, so that Cleo-
patra had great obligations to her, for having taught Antony to
be obedient.” Antony, however, upbraided her so bitterly
for entering into this war, that she went into Greece, where she
contracted a disease through the violence of her anger, of
which she died. During the massacres committed by the tri-
umvirate on the great and leading men of the city, in which her
husband was a principal actor, Fulvia assisted him to the ut-
most of her power. She put several persons to death of her
own accord, to gratify either her avarice or revenge. Antony
caused the heads of the principal to be set on a table before
him, that he might feast his eyes with the sight. Amongst
them was that of Cicero, which he ordered to be fixed to the ros-
trum, where that great orator had so often gloriously defended
his country; but first, Fulvia took the head, spat upon it, and
placing it on her lap, drew out the tongue, which she pierced
with her bodkin, uttering all the while the most opprobrious
language. “Behold,” says Mr. Bayle, “a woman of strange
species. There are some villains whom we are almost forced
to admire, because they show a certain greatness of soul in their
crimes; here is nothing to be seen but brutality, baseness, and
cowardice, and one cannot help conceiving an indignation full
of contempt.”
CLEOPATRA, a very celebrated woman, who is intro-
duced at this place in consequence of her connection with Caesar
and Antony, was eldest daughter of Ptolemy Auletes, king of
Egypt. On his death, B.C. 51, he left his crown to her, then
; seventeen years old, in conjunction with her brother Pto-
lemy, directing them, according to the custom of that family,
to be joined in marriage. The ministers of young Ptolemy,
however, deprived Cleopatra of her share in the royalty, and
banished her from the kingdom. She retired to Syria, and
raised an army, with which she approached the Egyptian fron-
e º




graphy. [B.C. 68.
tiers. This was during the civil war between Caesar and Pom-
pey, and the latter having fled to Egypt, after his defeat at
Pharsalia, was assassinated by the contrivance of Ptolemy's
ministers. Caesar soon arrived at Alexandria, and took cogni-
zance of the disputes between Cleopatra and her brother, as re-
presentative of the Roman people, who had been appointed
guardians of the crown by the testament of their father. Here
Cleopatra began to essay the power of those charms which dis-
tinguished her in so peculiar a manner, and proved the instru-
ment of enslaving to º: dominion some of the most distinguish-
ed characters of her time. At a private interview with Caesar,
which continued the whole night, she so impressed him with
the justice of her cause, that he made a decree in her favour.
The Alexandrian war which followed, equally injured the fame
and endangered the life of Caesar. It ended, however, in the
discomfiture of the Egyptians, whose young king was drowned
in the Nile. Caesar then caused Cleopatra to marry a younger
brother, named also Ptolemy, who being a mere boy, could
only contribute his name to the joint sovereignty. This mature
statesman and warrior, who had almost forgot ambition for love,
at length tore himself from Cleopatra, who had bore him a son,
named Caesarion, and followed his fate at Rome. After his de-
parture, Cleopatra reigned unmolested, and when her husband
and brother had reached his fourteenth year, the age of majo-
rity, she poisoned him, and thenceforth reigned sole sovereign
of the Egyptian throne. She displayed her regard for the me-
mory of Caesar, by refusing to join the party of the assassins,
though threatened by Cassius; and she sailed with a fleet to the
assistance of the triumvirs, but was obliged by a storm to return
to Egypt. After the battle of Philippi, Antony visited Asia,
in order to pillage and settle that wealthy province. On the
pretext that Cleopatra, or some of her commanders, had fur-
nished Cassius with some supplies, he summoned her to appear
before him, at Tarsus, in Cilicia. Cleopatra prepared for the
interview in a manner suited to the character of the conqueror,
and to the state of a young and beautiful eastern queen. Laden
with money, and magnificent presents of all descriptions, she
sailed with her fleet to the mouth of the Cydnus; and her voy-
age along that river has furnished a subject for the most florid
descriptions of poets and historians. }. following is Shake-
e's description of it, imitated from Plutarch.
The barge she sat in, like a burnish'd throne
Burnt on the waves; the poop was beaten gold;
with them; the o



























B.C. 68.] FROM SPARTACUS TO CALIGULA.
It beggar'd all description; she did lie
In her pavilion, cloth of gold, of tissue—
——— On each side her
Stood pretty dimpled boys, like smiling Cupids,
With divers colour’d fans, whose wind did seem
To glow the delicate cheeks which they did cool.
§º — At the helm .
A seeming Mermaid steers; the silver tackles
Swell with the touches of those flower-toft hands,
That yarely frame the office. From the barge
A strong invisible perfume hits the sense
Of the adjacent wharfs. The city cast
Her people out upon her; and Antony
Enthron'd i' th' market-place, did sit alone.
The consequence of this studied and voluptuous presenta-
tion, was such as she expected. Antony became her captive,
and the impression she made by her elegance and splendour,
she secured and improved by the durable charms of her society.
“Her beauty,” says Plutarch, “was neither transcendant nor
beyond rivalry, but it derived force from her wit, and from a
fascinating manner, which was absolutely irresistible. Her voice
was delightfully melodious, and was capable of all the variety
of modulation belonging to a musical instrument. She spoke
most languages, and seldom employed an interpreter in her an-
swers to foreign ambassadors. She herself gave audience to the
Ethiopians, the Troglodytes, the Hebrews, Arabians, Syrians,
Medes, and Parthians. She could converse on all topics, grave
and gay, and could put on any humour, according to the pur-
pose of the moment.” Discovering that Antony had a coarse-
ness of taste, contracted from his military habits, she frequently
assumed the sportive and hoydenish character, and gamed,
hunted, raked, and drank with him. She continually planned
new scenes for his amusement, and scrupled not to sacrifice all
the decorums of sex and rank, in order to suit herself to his
vitiated inclinations. Habitually she was luxurious, and bound-
lessly profuse. Her temper was imperious and cruel, and she
abused her influence over Antony to the worst purposes. At
her request, her younger sister was assassinated; and she scru-
pled no act of injustice for the aggrandizement of her domi-
nions. After Antony had spent a winter with her, in Alexan-
dria, he went to Italy, where he married Octavia. Cleopatra's
charms, however, drew him back to Egypt; and when he had
proceeded on his expedition against Parthia, he sent for her into
Syria, where she rendered him odious by the cruelties and op-
pressions she urged him to practise. After his return, he be-
stowed upon her many provinces, by which he incurred the
displeasure of the Roman people. Wh . §§
| war broke














UNiversal biography. [B, C, 68.
set of sixty ships to his navy. It
ding battle was fought by
Antony, and she added a fl
was by her persuasion t º
sea, at Actium. She commanded her own fleet in the engage-
ment, but her courage was not equal to the conflict. Before
the danger reached her she fled, and was followed by her whole
squadron; and the infatuated Antony, “whose heart was to
her rudder tied by the string,” steered after her, to the eternal
disgrace of his name, and ruin of his hopes. The conduct of
Cleopatra, after this period, appears to have been perpetually
wavering between remaining attachment to Antony, and care
of her own interest. Returning to Alexandria, she put all to
death whom she suspected of disaffection to her; and she un-
dertook the extraordinary project of drawing her ships across
the isthmus of Suez, into the }. Sea, in order to convey her-
self and treasures into some remote land, in case of being ex-
pelled from Egypt, but the ships fell into the hands of the
Arabs, who destroyed them. By her arts she was reconciled
to Antony, who felt a deep remorse for his unmanly subjection
to her, and began to suspect her fidelity; and they pursued
their voluptuous course of life until the approach of Octavi-
amus. She joined Antony in a public attempt to treat with the
victor, at the same time giving her ambassadors private instruc-
tions for negociating with him separately. Hoping to secure
the kingdom of Egypt for herself and her children, she pro-
mised to put it into º hands of Octavianus, and as a pledge
for the performance she delivered up to him the important city
of Pelusium. By way of security against any sudden danger,
she caused the most valuable part of her property to be remov-
ed to a high tower which she had erected near the temple of
Isis, and . conveyed thither a quantity of aromatic woods and
combustibles, under the pretext of consuming herself and her
riches in a funeral pile, should the enemy take possession of
Alexandria. Thus she lulled the suspicions of Antony, while
at the same time she kept Octavianus in respect, through fear
of losing her person and treasures, with which he greatly de-
sired to decorate his triumph.
After the last defeat of Antony, she retired into her tower,
and shut herself up; and when he gave himself the mortal stab,
he was carried to the foot of the tower, and drawn up by Cleo-
patra and her women. A most tender scene ensued, in which
her feelings were sincere, and her lover expired in her arms.
It appears that she did not form any resolution of dying with
him, but rather that she reserved a voluntary death as the last
ient for avoiding the disgrace of a triumph. When Pro-
surprised her in the tower, she attempted to put an end
life, but he prevented the stroke. She was suffered to
y of Antony, which she performed in a very
manner. She afterwards attempted to captivate
. hat the decidir

























B.C. 68.] FROM SPARTACUS TO CALIGULA.
Octavianus, but either the decay of her charms, or the coldness
of his temper, rendered the design abortive. She had, how-
ever, secretly gained the heart of Cornelius Dolabella, an inti-
mate friend of Octavianus, who gave her secret intelligence of
the intentions of the conqueror. When she was informed by
him that orders were given for her embarking for Rome, she
resolved to detroy herself. The poison of a small serpent called
an asp, which is said to induce a kind of lethargy without pain,
was the fatal application; and the guards who were sent to se-
cure her person, found her lying dead on a golden couch,
dressed in her royal robes, with one of the women dead at her
feet, and another just expiring. The victor, though disap-
pointed, buried her with great magnificence, and laid her in the
same tomb with Antony. She was in her thirt y-ninth year, at
the time of her death, and she left two sons . a daughter by
Antony, besides her son by Caesar, whom Octavianus put to
death as a kind of rival in his inheritance. With her termi-
nated the family of Ptolemy Lagus, and the monarchy of Egypt,
which thenceforth was reduced to the form of a Rºº. pro-
vince. Cleopatra was an object of great dread and abhorrence
to the Roman people, who detested her as the cause of An-
tony's divorce from Octavia, and of the subsequent civil war,
and apprehended that her lover, if victorious, would bring her
as his wife and queen, to Rome, Virgil, in his prophetic sketch
of the battle of Actium, speaks of the “AEgyptia conjux,” as
a species of abomination; and Horace has .# an ode expressly
on Y. death, in which he triumphs over her fate as that of the
most inveterate foe of Rome, . “meditated the ruin of the
capitol, and destruction to the empire." It is indeed said, that
it was her usual oath, “So may I give law in the capitol,” and
her schemes of ambition seem to have been as immoderate as
her propensity to pleasure. × <
OCTAVIA, a Roman lady, distinguished for her virtues and
accomplishments, was the daughter of Caius Qctavius, the father
of the emperor Augustus. Suetonius indeed says, she had the
same i. with that emperor, but according to Plutarch, she
was the daughter of a former wife of Octavius. She was ac-
cordingly either sister or half-sister to the emperor. She was
first married to Claudius Marcellus, by whom she had two
children before his death, which happened a little after the war
of Persia, when she was pregnant º: third child. After this,
she married the triumvir Marc Antony, as the medium of re-
conciliation between him and her brother. Antonyhad previously
to this been captivated by the allurements of Cleopatra, but the
merits of Octavia appeared to make a proper impres Oſ.
him, and he d some time in conjugal union with
rin ź. whi sh º s *> ; : * * rº §§§ º 3: & : # 3. . mpa ni *
him into Greece, and had a second opportunity of restoring
VOL. I. Yy
























690 universal BIOGRAPHY. [B. C. 68
concord between her husband and brother. She returned to
Rome, while Antony went into the east; then it was, says
Plutarch, “that the worst of all diseases, the love of Cleo-
jatra, which had lain dormant in his breast, and seemed to
18We ſº place to the temperate duties of life, upon his ap-
proach to Syria, gathered strength, and broke out into a flame;”
}. had another interview with her, which rivetted his fetters,
and sealed his fate. Octavia was soon apprized of his infidelity,
but determining he should have no pretence for his misconduct,
resolved to omit no duty that became her situation as his wife;
she collected considerable supplies for the war, in which he was
engaged, and sailed with them to Athens. Here she received
the mortifying and distressing orders to advance no farther.
Despairing now of a renewal of his affection, she returned to
Rome. Augustus, extremely enraged at this treatment of a
beloved sister, wished to persuade her to retire from the world.
But she refused to quit her husband's house, and preserving the
dignity of her station, devoted herself to the education of her
children, bestowing no less care on those of Antony by Fulvia,
than she did upon her own. She readily and liberally enter-
tained all her husband's friends who were sent to Rome on busi-
ness, and used her best endeavours to promote his interest. His
attachment, however, to Cleopatra rendered him insensible to
her kindness; he solemnly divorced her, and married Cleopa-
tra. The Roman people were not less indignant than her
brother at this profligate conduct, which Octavia herself, we
are informed, chiefly lamented on this account, that she should
become one of the causes of a civil war. After the death of
her unfeeling husband, she even undertook the care of his
children by Cleopatra, and married the daughter to Juba, king
of Mauritania. Her own son Marcellus lived to be the hope of
the empire, and was considered as the heir of Augustus, but
his untimely death threw the mother into a state of dejection,
bordering upon absolute despair, from which she never reco-
vered. The effect upon her of Virgil's beautiful lines, in the
sixth AEneid, in commemoration of that lamented youth, is
highly characteristic of a mother's feelings. When the poet,
reciting them in her presence, came to the name of Marcellus,
so artfully supp ºf to make the close and climax of the pas-
sage, Octavia }. away. On her recovery, she expressed
her gratitude for so noble an effort of genius consecrated to
her sorrow, by a most munificent recompence. Octavia sur-
vived the loss of her beloved son about twelve years, the whole
of which she spent in mourning, refusing that consolation which
her other children were capable of affording, and remaining in
darkness and solitude. She died B. C. 11, and very extraor-
dinary honours were paid to her memory by her brother and









B. C. 84.] FROM SPARTACUs To CALIGULA.
JULIUS ANTONY, the son of Marc Antony, was consul
along with Paulus Fabius Maximus, and is immortalized by
* who addresses the second ode of his fourth book to
PTOLEMY, a son of Marc Antony by Cleopatra, whom his
father made governor of Phoenicia, Syria, and all the territories
of Asia Minor, between the AEgean sea and the Euphrates.
PTOLEMY, a son of Juba king of Mauritania, by Cleo-
patra Selene, daughter of Marc Antony and Cleopatra. He
succeeded his father, but was put to death by Caligula. .
TIGELLIUS, a native of Sardinia, who became the favour-
ite of J. Caesar, of Cleopatra, and Augustus, by his mimicry
and facetiousness. He was celebrated for the melody of his
voice, yet he was of a mean and ungenerous disposition, and
of unpleasing manners. .
LUCIUS CORNELIUS THEOPHANES BALBUS,
was born at Cadiz, and distinguished himself by his valour in
the war carried on by the Romans in Spain, against Sertorius
and the Lusitanians, on which account Pompey gave him the
privileges of a Roman citizen. He was consul in the seven hun-
dred and fourteenth year of Rome, and was the first foreigner
on whom that dignity was conferred. He was the friend of
Pompey, Caesar, Crassus, and Cicero. * . . . . . . . . ;
CIMBER METELLUS, one of the conspirators against
Julius Caesar. It was he who gave the signal to attack and
murder the dictator in the senate house. * . ;
C. VERRES, a Roman who governed the province of Si-
cily as praetor. The oppression and rapine of which he was
guilty while in office, so offended the Sicilians, that they
brought an accusation against him before the Roman senate.
Cicero undertook the cause of the Sicilians, and pronounced
those celebrated orations which are still extant. Verres was
defended by Hortensius, but as he despaired of the success of
his defence, he left Rome without waiting for his sentence, and
lived in great affluence in one of the provinces. He was at
last killed by the soldiers of Antony the triumvir, about twenty-
six years after his voluntary exile from the capital.
TITUS POMPONIUS ATTICUS, one of the most sin-
gular characters of ancient Rome. He managed himself with
such address, that, he preserved the esteem and affection of all
parties. He sent money to the younger Marius, and yet he was
a favourite with Sylla. He pleased Caesar, without º
Pompey. He sent supplies to Brutus, while he was doing kind
offices to Antony. His strict friendship with Cicero did not
hinder him from having great intimacy with Hortensius, and
in the contests between Antony and Augustus, he preserved
the regard of both. The contests at Rome between th
ties .# Sylla and Marius, however induced him to retire to



y y 2
ined the affection of the Athenians so
eft them, was a day of mourning.
was very fond of learning, and kept several librarians and rea-
ders. He might have obtained the most considerable posts in
the republic; but chose rather not to interfere, because in the
corruption and faction which then prevailed, he could not dis-
charge them according to the laws. He wrote annals, which
Cicero praises, as having been of great use to him. He mar-
ried his daughter to Agrippa; and died at the age of seventy-
SCVerl.
MARCUS JUNIUS BRUTUS, an illustrious Roman, de-
rived his name and descent, as some have said, as well as his
spirit, from J. L. Brutus. However this may be, M. J. Bru-
tus was the son of a senator of the same name, who belonged
to the party of Marius, and who was put to death for his seve-
rities by Pompey, at the surrender of Mutina. His mother was
Servilia, the sister of Cato, who disgraced herself by her con-
nection with Caesar, which gave rise to the opinion that Brutus
was his natural son. But as he was no more than fifteen years
younger than Caesar himself; this circumstance fully con-
futes the vulgar story of his being commonly believed to be
Caesar's son. As Brutus lost his father, when he was young,
the care of his education devolved on his uncle Cato; under
whose direction it was conducted on that liberal plan which
prevailed among the Romans of distinction, after their connec-
tion with Greece. He studied the language and philosophy of
that country; and he acquired by means of his natural talents
and sedulous application, a distinguished reputation for elo-
quence. At the bar and in private assemblies his rhetorical
powers were exercised; he pleaded several causes of great im-
portance, and he was allowed to be the most eloquent and
learned of all the young men of rank and family at the period
in which he lived. His manner of speaking was correct, ele-
gant, and judicious; though he wanted that force and copious-
ness, which are required in a consummate orator. But he was
principally delighted with the study of philosopy, in which,
though he possessed himself a disciple of the moderate sect of
the old º my, he nevertheless, from a certain pride and gra-
vity of temper, and from a deference to the example of Cato,
2. the severity of the Stoic. His disposition
as mild, gentle,
&
and compassionate, was incompatible
* Syswan he was often constrained, by the tender-
his nature, to confute the rigour of his principles. On
which
he doctrine
t
wrote
ophy which he had adopted, he
transfused both the language and
Latin His accomplishments a



















































B. c. 84.1 FROM sparracus to cALIGULA.
speakers in his dialogu i
d to him his treatise entitled ‘ ºntºhtºrſ
from his youth, he imbibed, under his discipline, an ardent
love of liberty and virtue; and having accompanied him in hi
expedition to Cyprus, where he was employed by his uncle,
In hi
after the unhappy end of its king, Ptolemy, in secu º thé
royal treasures for the public. This commission he execu
to the satisfaction of his uncle; and by marrying his daughter
Porcia, he formed a closer alliance with this venerable patriot,
and was led to make him the model of his public conduct. A.
cordingly, after his example, when the civil war broke out be-
tween Caesar and Pompey, he joined the party of the latter;
although he had reason to resent his conduct for the murder
of his father; and Caesar's familiarity with his mother induced
him to manifest his partiality in favour of her son. At the bat-
tle of Pharsalia, in which Brutus was engaged on the side of
Pompey, Caesar gave special orders to find out and preserve him
unhurt; and after this battle, which terminated the republic, he
surrendered himself to Caesar, who rejoiced in his safety, and
immediately received him into favour, testifying his regard for
him by pardoning his friend Cassius at his intercession. Caesar
entrusted him with the government of Cisalpine Gaul, and after-
wards nominated him praetor of Rome. Notwithstanding the
gratitude and respect he was thus induced to entertain for Caesar,
he was alarmed by his usurped dominion, and a view of the de-
graded state, into which his country was reduced by the viola-
tion of the laws and constitution, excited a disgust which no
favours could compensate. At the same time, Cassius, who
had married his sister, was assiduous in endeavouring to kindle
th patriotism in his breast. He caused the name of
his supposed ancestor, Junius Brutus, to be sounded in his
ears; and led him to believe that the Romans expected
suming the hereditary office of rescuing them
These arguments at length prevailed, and Brutus ag
take the lead in a conspiracy against Caesar's life.
ter induced several other eminent citizens to join
and they resolved to execute it on the ides of M
fifteenth, B. C. 44. It is said, that when Čº º hiſ
loved Brutus among the conspirators, with his dagger d
her self-defence, wrapped
Averse from needless effus an.
forbearance, permitted Antony to






































694 UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. [B.C.84.
retiring from Rome to Antium. Afterwards, when Octavia-
mus joined Antony, and they concurred in assuming the sove-
reign power, he and his faithful Porcia quitted ". and set
sail for Athens. Here at convenient intervals, he renewed the
prosecution of his philosophical studies; whilst at the same
time he secretly prepared for war, and sent a-messenger to
Macedonia, to engage the Romans of that province in the party
of the republic, and to facilitate his admission into it as gover-
nor for the senate. Having obtained a complete supply of men,
arms, and money, he marched into Macedonia; and gained
possession of the army, and of the person, of Caius, the bro-
ther of Antony, who had been deputed to seize Dyrrachium
and Appollonia.
When Octavianus became sole master of Rome, he pro-
ceeded to the condemnation of all who had been concerned in
the murder of his adopted father; and the names of Brutus and
Cassius were inserted, much to the regret and grief of the peo-
ple, in the bloody roll of proscription. They, however, were at
this time in the command of powerful armies, which speedily
formed a junction at Smyrna. Having performed some separate
services in the subjugation of those maritime powers, the Rho-
dians and Lydians, they met again at Sardis; and determined to
direct their march to the straits of Hellespont, in order to pass
over into Europe, for the purpose of opposing the progress of
Antony and Octavianus, who had now arrived at Macedon.
It was in the course of this march that the frightful apparition,
recorded by Plutarch and other historians, presented itself to
Brutus, and which under the appellation of his evil genius, an-
nounced another visit to him at Philippi. Cassius ascribes this
phenomenon, to the illusion of a troubled imagination, under
the influence of anxiety, and bodily fatigue; and if it be any
thing more than an idle fabrication, to this cause it may be rea-
sonably attributed. On the plains of Philippi, the two hostile
armies assembled for the decision of the interesting contest.
Brutus and Cassius having settled their plan of conduct, if the
issue of this conflict . prove unfavourable, they prepared
for action. In the first battle Brutus defeated Octavianus, but
in the ardour of the contest he left Cassius unsupported, and
thus occasioned his defeat and death. This event he griev-
ously deplored, and shedding many tears over the body of his
ºriend, bewailed the loss of him under the honourable appella-
of “the last of the Romans.” He had now the sole com-
of a numerous and mutinous army; which compelled
risk another engagement, having first put to death
le slaves whom he had made prisoners, and having pro-
is soldiers, in case of victory, the pill











B.C. 84.] FROM SPARTACUS TO CALIGULA. 695
feated the other, committed to the conduct of Cassius's lieute-
nant. But instead of pursuing this advantage by following
the fugitives, this experienced general availed himself of it, by
turning round on the rear of Brutus, and entirely breaking and
dispersing his troops. Brutus having escaped being made pri-
soner by the heroic friendship of Lucilius, who surrendered
himself under the name of Brutus, and who was generously
saved by Antony after the discovery of the fraud, fled with a
few friends to a retired valley, where he spent an anxious night.
With the returning dawn, he perceived that he was surrounded
by the enemy, and conjured some of his domestics to put an
end to his life, upon their refusal, he dismissed them with a
request that they would provide for their own safety; and he
then renewed his application to Strato, an Epirote, and his
former fellow student; but Strato persisted in his denial, till
Brutus called upon a slave to perform the fatal office. Upon
this the generous Greek exclaimed, “Forbid it, gods, that
it should ever be said, that Brutus died by the hand of a
slave for want of a friend!” and covering his face with his left
hand, presented with his right his sword, upon which Brutus
threw himself with such violence, that it pierced through his
body, and he instantly expired. Thus perished in the forty-
third year of his age, one of the most irreproachable charac-
ters in Roman history, B. C. 42. :
To his generosity, humanity, uprightness, and well-princi-
pled virtue, public and private, writers of all parties have
borne testimony; and those who have condemned the act of
assassinating Caesar, have ascribed it, on the part of Brutus,
to patriotic motives. Indeed Antony himself did him the justice
to say, that “ he was the only one of the conspiracy who en-
tered into it out of principle; that the rest, from private
malice, rose up against the man, he alone against the tyrant.”
No man in public life seems to have set up virtue more sin-
cerely as the object of his veneration and pursuit than Brutus;
and it does not, therefore, seem probable, that according to the
report of some writers, his last speech should be a confession
of error in having followed an empty name. “His memory,”
says one of his biographers, “ was cherished and honoured as
long as a spark of Roman spirit survived the loss of constitu-
tional freedom, and the names of Brutus and liberty are to
this day inseparably associated.” His body was treated with
respect by Antony; but the vindictive Octavianus caused the
head to be cut off, in order to expose it at the feet of Caesar's
statue. But its destination was defeated, as it was thrown
overboard in a storm. The remains were honourably burnt by
order of Antony, and the ashes sent in an urn to Servilia.
PORCIA, one of the most celebrated females of antiquity,
was daughter of Cato, of Utica. She was married to Bibulus,

{JNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY, [B. C. 84.
y whom she had two children. Becoming she was .
ed in a second marriage to Marcus Brutus, who was her
The events of the times called forth all the principles
titude which she had imbibed from her father and hus-
band. When the latter engaged in a conspiracy against Caesar,
the agitation of mind under which he laboured could not be
º, the thigh
confined her to her be
daughter of Cato, and his wife, might hope to be considered as
something more than a mere female companion; aware, how-
ever, of the weakness of her sex, she did not claim a partici-
pation in his secret anxieties, till she had made trial of her for-
ed up a prayer that he might : #º
h a wife, informed her of the conspiracy. In her
st the secure, yet when the important day ar-
d, she was unable to conceal the agitation of her mind, but
sent messenger after messenger to bring her word what Brutus
was doing, and at length fainted away, so that a report reached
her husband that she was dead. After the death of Brutus,
Porcia declared her resolution not to survive him, but being
closely watched by her friends to prevent her from executing
her purposes, she snatched burning embers from the fire, and
thrusting them into her mouth, was suffocated. This was the
current account, but Plutarch, who speaks on good authority,
. that the neglect of her friends was the cause of her refusing
to live. . N. N.
DECIMUS ALBINUS BRUTUS, a relation of Marcus
Brutus, and one of those who engaged in the conspiracy against
% with whom he had served and lived on terms of great
iendship. Caesar appointed him governor of Cisalpine Gaul,
and intended him also for the consular dignity. What there-
fore could be his inducement to conspire against him, is a mys-
ery. actually forced him, by his entreaties, to leave his
ouse, and repair to the senate, on the day of the murder, an
* * * . eled. After that event
he head of
tus for-
and
besieged him in Mutina, but Bru
o withdraw, after which he drove him out
was forced to retire in his turn; his troops
I in his hrough Gaul, he was put to d



































































B. C. 84.1 from sparracus to CALIGULA.
the highest employments of the state. On the death of Caesar,
Lepidus, who was zealously attached to his interests, thought
it prudent to conceal himself. He afterwards joined Antony in
driving away the conspirators, and obtained the dignity of
chief pontiff, through the influence of that leader. Afterwards,
when Antony was treated as a public enemy, Lepidus com-
manded an army of seven legions in Transalpine Gaul. Here
Antony arrived in a very distressed situation, and conjured his
friend to join his forces to those which he commanded. Le-
pidus refused, but assured him he would not act with hostility
against him. Antony knowing in what estimation he was held
by the army, rushed into the camp of Lepidus, where he was
saluted with the loudest acclamations. Lepidus was now, in his
turn, glad to supplicate the aid of his competitor. Antony
treated him with apparent respect, left him the nominal com-
mand, while he himself exercised all the real authority. By this
conduct, Lepidus lost the confidence of the senate; and in a
short time he was declared a public enemy, and Octavianus
and Decimus Brutus were sent out against him and Antony.
In dividing the Roman world between three masters, Lepidus
was allowed a place, º by way of a connecting medium
between the other two. He possessed a considerable family-
interest, and was not destitute of military abilities; but he had
neither capacity nor temper to take a leading part in political
concerns. In the formation of the triumvirate, it was agreed
that while Antony and Octavianus should carry on war against
Brutus and Cassius, Lepidus should remain at Rome with four
legions, and maintain their authority in the capital. At the
bloody proscription, and while the butchery was still raging,
Lepidus had the unfeeling vanity to insult the public distress
by a triumph, on account of some considerable victories for-
merly obtained by him over the revolted Spaniards. He was
consul a second time, B. C.42, with Manutius Plancus. The
part of the empire which was allotted to Lepidus, after the Tri-
umvirate was fully established, was Africa. In the war with
Sextus Pompey, Lepidus brought a large force to Sicily, with
which he joined Octavianus; and he shared in the victory ob-
tained over that great general. The confidence he felt at being
at the head of a large army, induced him to treat his colleague
with haughtiness and neglect; but he had soon the mortification
to see himself deserted by all his troops, who joined Octavianus.
He now supplicated his life of his rival, which being granted
him, he retired into a kind of exile at Circeii, a small town in La-
tium, where he passed the remainder of his days in obscurity.
M. VALERIUS CORVINUS MESSALĀ, an illustrious
Roman, of an ancient and noble family, who distinguished him-













UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. [B.C. 84.
republican army, under Brutus and Cassius, against the trium-
virs. He is described in very high terms by Cicero, in a letter
to Brutus, as being almost or altogether unequalled for inte-
grity, constancy, and the affection which he displayed for the
commonwealth. Of his eloquence, Quintilian says, it is splendid,
fair, and bearing the stamp of his nobility. At the battle of
Philippi he had a distinguished command, and with his legion
was the first that turned the left wing commanded by Octavia-
nus Caesar. After the death of the two republican chiefs, he
made his peace with the victor, and according to one of the
historians of Rome, there was no circumstance of the victory
more pleasing to Caesar, than the preservation of Messala, nor
did any man ever give proof of greater attachment and grati-
tude than Messala towards Caesar. Yet, to his honour, it is
asserted, that he never, on any occasion, was backward in show-
ing his regard to the memory of his earlier friends, and his de-
cided preference of their cause. When he recommended Strato
to Caesar, he said, with tears flowing from his eyes, “this, Sir,
is the man who performed the last kind office for my be-
loved friend Brutus;” and at another time, when Caesar reminded
him that he had been no less zealous for him at Actium, than
against him at Philippi, he answered, “I always espoused the
most just side of every question.” In the year B. C. 31. he was
the emperor's colleague in the consulate, and was sent as his col-
league into Asia, a year or two afterwards. In thirty-seven he
obtained a triumph over the Aquitanians; after this, he for a
a short time held the office of prefect, which he resigned, find-
ing it ill adapted to his habits. He was addicted to literary
ursuits, and was a patron of literary persons, particularly of
Tibullus, who commemorates him in his elegies, and has left an
express panegyric upon him. In old age, he composed a work
“De Familiis Romanis,” cited by Pliny. At the age of seventy,
two years prior to his decease, the faculties of his mind under-
went a total decay, and his memory so completely failed him,
that he forgot his own name.
HIRTIUS AULUS, a consul with Pansa, who assisted
Brutus when besieged at Mutina by Antony. They defeated
Antony, but were both killed in battle B. C. 43.
C. VILIUS PANSA, a Roman consul, who with his col-
league, A. Hirtius, pursued Caesar's murderers, and was killed
in a battle near Mutina. Hirtius and Pansa were the two last
consuls of the Roman republic, who enjoyed the dignity of
hief magistrates with full power. The consular authority after
windled into a mere title.
CINUS LUCILIUS, a famous Roman, who fled with
tus after the battle of Philippi. They were soon after over-
by a party of horse, and Lucilius suffered himself to be






B. C.84.] FROM SPARTACUS TO CALIGULA.
severely wounded by the dart of the enemy, exclaiming that he
was Brutus. He was taken and carried to the conquerors,
whose clemency spared his life.
CAIUS CASSIUS, a celebrated Roman; who made him-
self known by being first quaestor to Crassus in his expedition
against Parthia, from which he extricated himself with uncom-
mon address. He followed the interest of Pompey, and when
Caesar had obtained the victory in the plains of Pharsalia,
Cassius was one of those who owed their lives to the mercy of
the conqueror. He married Junia the sister of Brutus, and with
him he resolved to murder the man to whom he was indebted
for his life, on account of his oppressive ambition; and before
he stabbed Caesar, he addressed himself to the statue of Pom-
pey, who had fallen by the avarice of him he was going to as-
sassinate. When the provinces were divided among Caesar's
murderers, Cassius received Africa; and when his party had
lost ground at Rome, by the superior influence of Augustus
and Marc Antony, he retired to Philippi with his friend Brutus
and their adherents. In the battle that was fought there, the
wing which Cassius commanded was defeated, and his camp
was plundered. In the unsuccessful moment he suddenly gave
up all hopes of recovering his losses, concluding that Brutus
was conquered and ruined as well as himself. Fearful to fall
into the enemy's hands, he ordered one of his freedmen to run
him through, and he perished by that very sword which had
given wounds to Caesar. His body was honoured with a mag-
nificent funeral by his friend Brutus, who declared over him
that he deserved to be called the last of the Romans. If he
was brave, he was equally learned. Some of his letters are
still extant among Cicero's epistles. He was a strict follower
of the doctrine of Epicurus. He was often too rash and too
violent, and many of the wrong steps which Brutus took are to
be ascribed to the prevailing advice of Cassius. He is allowed
by Paterculus to have been a better commander than Brutus,
though a less sincere friend. The day after Caesar's murder
he dined at the house of Antony, who asking him whether he
had not a dagger concealed in his bosom ; yes, replied he, if
you aspire to tyranny. 3. - -
P. CORNELIUS DOLABELLA, a Roman, who married
the daughter of Cicero. During the civil wars he warmly es-
poused the interest of Julius Caesar, whom he accompanied at
the famous battles of Pharsalia, Africa, and Munda, he was
made consul by his patron, though Marc Antony his colleague
opposed it. After the death of Julius Caesar, he received the
government of Syria, as his province. Cassius opposed his
views, and Dolabella, for his violence, and for the assassination
of Trebonius, one of Caesar's murderers, was declared an enemy
to the republic of Rome. He was besieged by Cassius in



[B. C.84.
Laodicia, and when he saw that all was lost, he killed himselfin
the twenty-seventh year of his age. He was of a small stature,
which gave occasion to his father-in-law to ask him once when
he ºrd his house, who had tied him so cleverly to the
SWOrd.
TULLIOLA, or TULLIA, a daughter of Cicero by Te-
rentia. She married Caius Piso, and afterwards Furius Cras-
sippus, and lastly, P. Corn. Dolabella. With this last husband
she had every reason to be dissatisfied. Dolabella was turbu-
lent, and consequently, the cause of much grief to Tullia and
her father. Tullia died in childbed, about B. C. 44. Cicero
was so inconsolable on this occasion, that some have accused
him of an unnatural partiality for his daughter. According to
a ridiculous story which some of the moderns report, in the age
of pope Paul III., a monument was discovered on the Appian-
road, with the superscription of Tulliolae filiae meas. The body
of a woman was found in it, which was reduced to ashes as soon
as touched; there was also a lamp burning, which was extin-
guished as soon as the air gained admission there, and which
was supposed to have been lighted above fifteen hundred years.
CNEIUS and SEXTUS POMPEY, sons of Pompéy the
Great, who commanded a powerful army, when they lost their
illustrious father. Julius Caesar pursued them into Spain, and
defeated them at the battle of W. in which Cneius was
slain, B. C. 45. Sextus made himself master of Sicily; but
being defeated in the celebrated naval engagement at Actium,
by Augustus and Lepidus, he fled into %. with only seven
ships, the remains of his fleet, which consisted of more than
three hundred and fifty; and from thence, unable to continue
the war, he was obliged to retire to Lesbos, where renewing
the war by raising an army, and seizing on some considerable
cities, Marcus Titius, in the interest of Marc Antony, gave him
battle, defeated him, took him prisoner, and basely put him to
death, B.C. 35. * ... " .. .
CORNELIUS CINNA, a grandson of Pompey. He con-
spired against Augustus, who pardoned him, and made him one
of his most intimate friends. He was consul A. D.9, and made
Augustus his heir.
r QUINTUS LIGARIUS, a Roman pro-consul in Africa,
. Šiš. Taking part with Pompey, he was forbid by Julius
ºr to enter Rome; to obtain his pardon, Cicero made that
ired oration in his defence, which has immortalized the me-
rated advocate. . . . .
he client with that celeb 3 -º x
CILIUS METE LLU S. a tribune in the º al s























B. C. 84.] FROM SPARTACUS TO CALIGULA.
roke open by Caesar, and Metellus retired, when threatened
with death. .
PETRONIUS, a renowned Roman senator. When gover-
nor of Egypt, he permitted Herod, king of the Jews, to pur-
chase in Alexandria, a large quantity of corn for the supply of
his subjects, who were afflicted with a severe famine. When
Tiberius died, Caius Caligula, who succeeded him, took fro
º
Vitelsius the government of Syria, and gave it to Petronius,
who discharged the duties of his office with dignity and honour.
From his favouring the Jews, he ran the risk of losing the em-
peror's friendship and his own life; for when that prince gave
orders to have his statue deposited in the temple of Jerusalem,
Petronius, finding that the Jews would rather suffer death than
see that sacred place profaned, was unwilling to have recourse
to violent measures; and therefore preferred moderation to
cruel means of enforcing obedience. In his voyage to Africa,
of which country he had been appointed quaestor, the ship in
which he sailed was taken by Scipio, who caused all the sol-
diers to be put to the sword, and promised to save the quaestor's
life, provided he would renounce Caesar's party. Petronius
replied, that “Caesar's officers were accustomed to grant life
to others, and not to receive it;” and, at the same time, he
stabbed himself with his own sword. 3. x
CAIUS CILNIUS MAECENAS, the great friend and
counsellor of Augustus, and the celebrated and liberal patron
and protector of men of letters. He was descended from the
kings of Etruria, but his immediate forefathers were only of
the equestrian order. He is supposed to have been born at
Rome, as his family lived there; but we have no notice of him
previous to the death of Caesar. B. C.44, when Octavius Cae-
sar went to Rome, to take possession of his uncle's inheritance,
Maecenas became first publicly known. From that time he
accompanied him through all his fortunes, and was his ad-
viser upon all occasions, so that Paedo Albinovanus called him
Caesar's right hand. In B. C. 39, Maecenas distinguished him-
self by his courage and military skill at the battle of Modena,
as he did afterwards at Philippi. After this last battle, began
his memorable friendship with Horace, who was a tribune in
the army of Brutus, and was taken prisoner. Maecenas recom-
mended him to Augustus, who restored him his estate with no
small additions. The league made at Brundusium, between
Antony and Augustus, was negociated by Maecenas on the
part of the latter. In B.C. 32, when Augustus and Agrippa
went to Sicily, to fight Sextus Pompey by sea, Maecenas,
who accompanied them, was sent back to appease some com-
motions at Rome. After the battle of Actium, he was placed
rer the military concerns of the empire. While Augustus was
uishing the remains of the civil war in Asia and Egypt,

















UNIversal biography. [B, C, 63.
conspiracy to assassinate the emperor on his return to Rome,
and putting to death young Lepidus the founder of it. The
civil wars being ended, Augustus returned to Rome; and from
this time Maecenas indulged himself, at vacant hours, in literary
amusements, and the conversation of men of letters. His house
was open to all the learned of his time, Virgil, Horace, Pro-
pertius, Varius, Fundarius, Fuscus Aristius, Plotius Tucca,
Valgius, Asinius Pollio, and many others, whom it would be
tedious to mention. All these dedicated their works, or part
of them, to Maecenas, and celebrated his praises; and Plutarch
says, even Augustus himself inscribed his commentaries to him
and Agrippa. Maecenas continued in Augustus's favour to the
end of his life, but not without interruption, for the emperor
broke through all the rules of friendship as well as morals, by
forming an intrigue with Maecenas's wife. Maecenas died in the
year, B. C. 8, but at what age is not known. He is often men-
tioned with respect by Paedo Albinovanus, a contemporary poet,
whose elegy upon him is extant. He made Augustus his heir,
and recommended his friend Horace to him. Maecenas is said
never to have enjoyed a good state of health in any part of his
life; and many singularities are related of his bodily constitu-
tion. Though he was on the whole a virtuous character, yet it
is agreed on all hands, that he was very luxurious and effemi-
nate. But his name will ever be venerated by men of letters,
on account of the disinterested patronage and support he gave
to all the wits and learned men of his time, whence his name
was become almost an appellative for a patron of learning and
CHILLS.
g AUGUSTUS OCTAVIANUS CAESAR, nephew of Ju-
lius Caesar, the dictator, being the son of Accia his sister, by
Octavius, a senator, and afterwards became emperor of Rome.
He was born B. C. 63, during the consulship of Cicero. His
uncle Julius Caesar, adopted him, and left him the greatest part
of his forture. When he was but twenty years of age, he was
raised to the consularship. His youth and inexperience were
ridiculed by his enemies, but his prudence and valour soon
raised his consequence. He made war against his opponents
on pretence of avenging the assassination of his uncle. He en-
aged in five civil wars with great success, viz. the wars of
Mutina, Perusia, Philippi, Sicily, and Actium. The first and
last of which were against M. Antony, and the second against
L. Antony, brother of the triumvir; the third against Brutus
and Cassius; and the fourth against Sextus Pompey, son of
Pompey the Great. He united his forces with Antony's at the
battle of Philippi; and had he not been supported by the ac-
++...+4 ry of his colleague, he would, doubtless, have
enas prevented the origin of a new one, by detecting a










B. C. 63.] FROM spartacus to caligula.
Antony and Lepidus, he obtained the western parts of the
Roman empire; and, like his colleagues, to establish his power,
F. his enemies and cut them off. The triumvirate
asted for ten years. He had given his sister Octavia in mar-
riage to Antony, to make their alliance more lasting; but when
Cleopatra had charmed this unfortunate man, Octavia was re-
pudiated. Augustus immediately took up arms, professedly to
revenge the wrongs of his sister; but, perhaps, chiefly to re-
move a rival, whose power and abilities he dreaded and envied.
Both parties met at Actium to decide the fate of Rome. An-
tony was supported by all the power of the East, and Augustus
by Italy. Cleopatra fled from the battle with sixty ships, and
her flight ruined Antony, who followed her into Egypt. The
conqueror soon after went into Egypt, besieged Alexandria,
and honoured with a magnificent funeral his unfortunate col-
league, and the celebrated queen, whom the fear of being led
in the victor's triumph at Rome, had driven to commit suicide.
After he had established peace all over the world, he shut the
temple of Janus. He was twice determined to lay down the
supreme power, immediately after the victory at Actium, and
on account of his health ; but his two faithful friends, Mecaenas
and Agrippa, dissuaded him, and contended, that if he did,
he would leave it to be the prey of the most powerful, and ex-
pose himself to the greatest dangers. He died at Nola, in the
seventy-sixth year of his age, after he had held the sovereign
power for fifty-nine years. He was an active emperor, and
consulted the good of the Romans. He visited all the pro-
vinces except Africa and Sardinia; and his consummate pru-
dence and experience occasoined many salutary laws. He is,
however, accused of licentiousness and adultery; but the fideli-
ty of his friendship, and the many good qualities, which the
poets whom he patronized have perhaps truly celebrated, made
some, though in the eye of strict religion and true morality, but
little, amends for his foibles. He distinguished himself by his
learning; he was a complete master of the Greek language, and
wrote some tragedies, besides the memoirs of his life, and other
works, which are now lost. He married four times; but was
unhappy in all these connections; and his only daughter, Julia,
disgraced herself and her father by her debaucheries. He re-
commmended at his death, his adopted son Tiberius, as his
successor. He left his fortune partly to him and to Drusus,
and made donations to the army and Roman people. The
title of Augustus was conferred upon him by the senate after
the battle of Actium. The high reputation of Augustus, and
his long and eventful reign, have rendered him the theme of .
many writers, of whom the principal are Suetonius, Dioleassius,
Welleius, Paterculus, and Tacitus. Various circumstances re-
specting him are finely recorded in the poems of Horace, whose





L. Biography, [B, C, 64.
panegyric does not frequently pass the bounds of truth. In
particular, his introduction to the first epistle of the secºnd
book is a sober and judicious summary of the emperor's cha-
racteristic merits: - -
Cum tot sustineas et tanta negotia solus, .
Res Italas armis tuteris, moribus orues
Legibus emendes; in publica commoda peecem,
Si longo sermone morer tua tempora, Caesar.
SCRIBONIA, the daughter of Scribonius, the second wife
of Augustus, after he had divorced Claudia, and mother of
the infamous Julia. She was divorced to make room for the
worthless Livia. She had been twice married before she be-
came Augustus's wife. - º
LIVIA, a celebrated Roman lady, daughter of Livius Dru-
sus Calidianus, who joined the party of i. and Cassius,
and killed herself after the battle of Philippi. She married
Tiberius Nero, by whom she had two sons, Drusus and the
emperor Tiberius. The attachment of her husband to the
cause of Antony was the beginning of her greatness. Octavia-
mus, afterwards the emperor Augustus, saw her as she fled from
the danger with which he threatened her husband, and resolved
to marry her, though she was then pregnant. He accordingly di-
vorced his wife Scribonia, and with the approbation of the au-
gurs he celebrated his nuptials with Livia. She, from this mo-
ment, enjoyed the entire confidence of the emperor, and was, in
fact, the partner of his whole reign, enjoying a large share of his
power and imperial dignity. She gained a complete ascend-
ancy over the mind of Augustus by a constant obedience to his
will; by never expressing a desire to diye into his secrets; and
by affecting ignorance of his amours. Her children by Drusus
were adopted as his own by the complying emperor; and that she
might make the succession of her son Tiberius, Drusus being
dead, more easy and undisputed, Livia has been accused of hav-
ng secretly involved, in one common ruin, the heirs and nearest
relations of Augustus. There are facts adduced, however, which
seem to render the suspicions of her baseness and cruelty wholly
poison to her husband, which is rendered exceedingly improba-
ble by the account we have of his last illness, and by the tender-
ss which he expressed for her in the last words he uttered.
he was instituted co-heiress with Tiberius, adopted
ºr, and directed to assume the name of Julia Au-
}n his deification she became the priestess of the new
Tiberius, whose elevation had been the object of her po-
% inted ‘pectation of sharing with him the im-
indeed to subject. her. to various



























B.C. 63." FROM spar'TACUs To CALIGULA. & 705

mortifications; and at length there was an open rupture be-
tween them. She died in the year 29.
Tiberius neglected her funeral, and would not permit public
or private honours to be paid to her memory. Tacitus has
drawn her character, saying, that “in strictness of conduct she
was not inferior to the Roman matrons of old, though her de-
meanour was freer than they would have approved; that she
was an imperious mother, a compliant wife, and a match for her
husband in art, and her son in dissimulation.” x.
JULIA, the daughter of Augustus, was famous for her ac-
complishments, and infamous for her lewdness, for which her
father banished her. She married, first, Metellus; second,
Agrippa; and third Tiberius; who suffered her to perish for
want. Her daughter, Julia, turned out as bad as her mother.
MARCUS VESPANIUS AGRIPPA, although of ple-
beian birth, was son-in-law to Augustus, and one of the most
considerable generals among the Romans. Augustus's victory
over Pompey and Marc Antony was owing to his counsel. He
adorned the city with the Pantheon, baths, aqueducts, &c.
PUBLIUS SULPICIUS QUIRINUS, consul, was born
in Lanuvium. Augustus advanced him on account of his ser-
vices. After his consulship, he commanded an army in Cilicia,
in order to subdue certain nations, called Homonadenses. He
conquered them by starving them, for which he was honoured
with a triumph. Augustus appointed him governor to Caius
Caesar his grandson. He married Æmilia Lepida, but he soon
divorced her, and afterwards got her sent into banishment.
He passed his old age in a sordid manner, in the midst of an
immense estate, and died A. D. 25. He is undoubtedly the
Cyrenius mentioned by St. Luke.
MARCUS CICERO, the son of Cicero, the celebrated
orator, has frequently been cited among the most remarkable
instances of the degeneration of the sons of illustrious men.
His father educated him with the utmost care, sent him to study
at Athens, under the particular tuition of Cratippus, and com-
posed the excellent work “De Officiis,” for his peculiar use.
or does Marcus, from a Letter of his to Tiro, seem to have
been insensible to the advantages of his situation; on the con-
trary, he expresses the highest esteem and affection for Cra-
tippus. When Brutus came to Athens, he found young Cicero
an enthusiast in favour of liberty, and such was his interest,
that he gained over an entire legion to the party of the republic.
Brutus took the youth into his army; and having entrusted him.
tonius, brother of the triumvir, Cicero overtook and completely
routed that commander. He returned to Rome with the rest
of the proscribed, after Cneius Pompey's peace with the tri-
umvirs. Augustus, according to Plutarch, made him his col-
VOI, I. Z z



UNIVERSALBIOGRAPHY. [B. C. 63.
league in the consulate, at the time of his war with Antony,
and it was under his auspices that the senate took down An-
tony's statues, and defaced all the monuments to his honour.
Marcus Cicero's name does not appear in the consular fasti, so
that he must only have been suffectus. In character he is said
to have been brutal, debauched, extremely addicted to drink-
ing, and without taste or capacity for literature. Yet, from
what is above related, he seems not to have been void of qua-
lities fitted for active life. . 3. x 3 &
CASSIUS CHAEREA, a captain in the legions, which mu-
tinied in Germany, a little before the death of Augustus. Upon
that occasion, he made his way, sword in hand, through the
soldiers, who abused their captains. He afterwards entered
into the service of Caligula. He did not execute Caligula's
severe orders without repugnancy. The compassion, which
he had for the poor lº. was the reason that he did not
gather the money of the tributes and imposts, with all the for-
wardness that the emperor required; for he had a commission
for it. This humanity passing for want of courage with Cali-
gula, that cruel tyrant insulted and reproached his captain of
the guards insufferably. Provoked by this treatment, he formed
the plan of a conspiracy; he managed the plot so well, that it
was executed by the death of Caligula. After this execution
he fled to the house of Germanicus, and, hearing that the se-
mate was pleased with his conduct, he showed himself publicly.
One of the consuls made a long speech on liberty, and con-
cluded, that the conspirators, and chiefly Chaerea, ought to be
raised to the greatest honours. Chaerea went to ask the word
from the consuls; they gave him the word liberty; he brought
it to the cohorts, who obeyed the senate; and, as he was in
favour with that party, he sent a tribune, whose name was
Lupus, to kill Caesonia, the wife of Caligula, with their daugh-
ters. In the meantime, Claudius was saluted emperor in the
camp of the praetorian cohorts, and the senate was forced to
approve this election. The new emperor did not fail to cause
Chaerea to be punished, who suffered death with great con-
stancy. . X.
sº º NIUS, a person who killed himself when apprehended
in a conspiracy against Augustus. & .
PROCULEIUS, a Roman knight, very intimate with Augus-
fus. He is celebrated for his humanity and paternal kindness
is brothers, Murena and Scipio, with whom he divided his
*...*
sions, after they had forfeited their estates, and incurred
leasure of Augustus for siding with young Pomp
t by Augu Cleopatra, to endeavour to b
his out to no purpose. He destr
stus to




















B.C. 63.] FROM SPARTACUS TO CALIGULA. 707
of Augustus, and governor of Syria under Tiberius, whose con-
fidant he was. It is said, that by the order of this emperor,
he caused Germanicus to be poisoned. Being accused of that
crime, and seeing himself abandoned by every body, he laid
violent hands on himself, A. D. 20. He was a man of insup-
portable pride and excessive violence. Of this many instances
are recorded, but the following is the most extraordinary and
horrible. Having ordered a soldier to be executed, because he
had gone out of the camp with another soldier, and returned
without him; the other soldier presented himself to the centu-
rion, who, finding he was not murdered, stopped the execution,
and all three went to Piso, amidst the joyful applause of the
whole army, whereupon Piso put a stop to their joy, by order-
ing all three to be put to death.
PLANCINA, a woman celebrated for her intrigues and her
crimes, who married Piso, and was accused with him of having
murdered Germanicus, in the reign of Tiberius. She was ac-
quitted, either by means of the empress Livia, or on account of
the partiality of the emperor for her person. She had long
supported the spirits of her husband during his confinement,
but when she saw herself freed from the accusation, she totally
abandoned him to his fate. Subservient in every thing to the
will of Livia, she, at her instigation, became guilty of the great-
est crimes, to injure the character of Agrippina. After the
death of Agrippina, Plancina was accused of the most atrocious
deeds, and as she knew that she could not elude justice, she
put herself to death, A. D. 33. . '... . .”
HORTENSIA, a Roman lady, daughter of Hortensius the
orator, of great wit and eloquence, as a speech preserved by
Appian demonstrates; which, for elegance of language, and
justness of thought, would have done honour to a Cicero or
Demosthenes. What gave occasion to it was, that the trium-
virs of Rome wanted a large sum of money for carrying on a
war; and having met with difficulties in raising it, they drew
up a list of fourteen hundred of the richest of the ladies, in-
tending to tax them. Those ladies, after having in vain tried
every method to evade so great an innovation, at last chose
Hortensia for their speaker, and went along with her to the
market-place, where she addressed the triumvirs, while they
were administering justice, in the following words: “The un-
happy women you see here imploring your justice and bounty,
would never have presumed to appear in this place, had t
not first made use of all other means their natural mode
the rules prescribed to our sex, h
ved, yet the loss of our fat














708 º UNIVERSAL Biography. [B.C. 63.
fortunes. You plead that they had offended and provoked
you; but what º have we women done, that we must
e impoverished? If we are blameable as the men, why not
proscribe us also : Have we declared you enemies to your
country 2 Have we suborned your soldiers, raised troops
against you, or opposed you in the pursuits of those honours
and offices which you claim : We pretend not to govern the
republic, nor is it our ambition which has drawn our present
misfortunes on our heads; empires, dignities, and honours, are
not for us; why should we, then, contribute to a war in which
we have no manner of interest ? It is true, indeed, that in the
Carthaginian war, our mothers assisted the republic, which
was at that time, reduced to the utmost distress; but neither
their houses, their lands, nor their moveables were sold for
that service; some rings, and a few jewels, furnished the
supply. Nor was it constraint or violence that forced those
from them; what they contributed was the voluntary offering
of generosity. What danger at present threatens Rome 2 If
the Gauls or Parthians were encamped on the banks of the
Tiber or the Anio, you should find us not less zealous in the
defence of our country, than our mothers were before us; but
it becomes not us, and we are resolved that we will not be any
way concerned in a civil war. Neither Marius, nor Caesar, nor
Pompey, ever thought of obliging us to take part in the do-
mestic troubles which their ambition had raised; nay, nor did
ever Sylla himself, who first set up tyranny in Rome; and yet
you assume the glorious title of reformers of the state, a title
which will turn to your etermal infamy, if, without the least re-
ard to the laws of equity, you persist in your wicked resolu-
tion of plundering those of their lives and fortunes who have
given you no just cause of offence.” >
Struck with the justness of her speech, and offended at its
boldness, the triumvirs ordered the women to be driven away;
but the populace growing tumultuous, they were afraid of an
insurrection, and reduced the list of those who should be taxed
to four hundred. s.… " -
CLAUDIUS NERO TIBERIUS, a Roman emperor,
after the death of Augustus, descended from the family of the
Claudii. In his early years he commanded popularity by en-
tertaining the populace with magnificent shows and fights of
gladiators, and he gained some applause in the funeral oration
e pronounced over his father, though only nine years
His first appearance in the Roman armies was under
s, in the war against the Cantabri, and afterwards in
pacity of general, he obtained victories in different parts
empire, and was rewarded with a triumph. Yet, in the

















years as an exile, till, by the influence of his mother Livia with
the emperor, he was recalled. His return to Rome was the
more glorious; he had the command of the Roman armies in
Illyricum, Pannonia, and Dalmatia, and seemed to divide the
sovereign power with Augustus. At the death of this cele-
brated emperor, Tiberius, who had been adopted, assumed the
reins of government; and while with dissimulation and affected
modesty he wished to decline the dangerous office, he found
time to try the fidelity of his friends, and to make the greatest
part of the Romans believe that he was invested with the pur-
ple, not from his own choice, but by the recommendation of
Augustus, and the urgent entreaties of the Roman senate.
The beginning of his reign seemed to promise tranquillity to
the world; Tiberius was a watchful guardian of the public
peace, he was the friend of justice, and never assumed the
sounding titles which must disgust a free nation, but he was satis-
fied to say of himself, that he was the master of his slaves, the
general of his soldiers, and the father of the citizens of Rome.
That seeming moderation, however, which was but the fruit of
the deepest policy, soon disappeared, and Tiberius was viewed
in his real character. His ingratitude to his mother Livia, to
whose intrigues he was indebted for the purple, his cruelty to
his wife Julia, and his tyrannical oppression and murder of
many Roman senators, rendered him odious to the people,
and suspected even by his favourites. The armies mutinied
in Pannonia and Germany, but the tumults were silenced by
the prudence of the generals, and the fidelity of the officers,
and the factious demagogues were abandoned to their condign
punishment. This acted as a check upon Tiberius in Rome;
he knew from thence, as his successors experienced, that his
power was precarious, and his very existence in perpetual dan-
er. He continued, as he had begun, to pay the greatest de-
'erence to the senate, all libels against him he disregarded; and
observed, that in a free city, the thoughts and the tongues of
every man should be free. The taxes were gradually lessened,
and luxury restrained by the salutary regulations, as well as by
the prevailing example and frugality of the emperor. While
Rome exhibited a scene of peace and public tranquillity, the
barbarians were severally defeated on the borders of the empire,
and Tiberius gained new honours, by the activity and valour of
Germanicus and his other faithful lieutenants. Yet the triumphs
of Germanicus were beheld with jealousy. Tiberius dreaded
his power, he was envious of his popularity, and the death of
that celebrated general in Antioch was, as some suppose, acce-
lerated by poison, and the secret resentment of the emperor.
Not only his relations and friends, but the great, and opulent
was scarcely in Rome one single family that did not reproach
•








710 . UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. HB.C. 63.
Tiberius for the loss of a brother, a father, or a husband. He
at last retired to the island of Capreae, on the coast of Campa-
nia, where he buried himself in unlawful pleasures. The care
of the empire was entrusted to favourites, among whom Sejanus
for a while shone with uncommon splendour. In his solitary re-
reat the emperor proposed rewards to such that invented new
pleasures, or could produce luxuries. He forgot his age as well
as his dignity, and disgraced himself by the most unnatural vices
and enormous indulgences, which can draw a blush, even upon
the countenance of the most debauched and abandoned. While
the emperor was lost to himself and the world, the provinces
were harassed on every side by the barbarians, and Tiberius
found himself insulted by those enemies whom hitherto he had
seen fall prostrate at his feet with every mark of submissive
adulation. At last grown weak and helpless through infirmi-
ties, he thought of his approaching dissolution; and as he
well knew that Rome could not exist without a head, he nomi-
mated as his successor, Caius Caligula. Many might inquire,
why a youth naturally so vicious and abandoned as Caius, was
chosen to be the master of an extensive empire; but Tiberius
wished his own cruelties to be forgotten in the barbarities which
might be displayed in the reign of his successor, whose matu-
ral propensities he had well defined, in saying of Caligula that
he bred a serpent for the Roman people, and a Phaeton for the
rest of the empire. Tiberius died at Misenum March 16,
A. D. 37, in the seventy-eighth year of his age, after a reign
of twenty-two years, six months, and twenty-six days. Ca-
ligula was accused of having hastened his end by suffocating
him. The joy was universal when his death was known; and
- the people of Rome, in the midst of sorrow, had a moment to
rejoice, heedless of the calamities which awaited them in the
succeeding reigns. The body of Tiberius was conveyed to
Rome, and burnt with great solemnity. A funeral oration was
pronounced by Caligula, who seemed to forget his benefactor
while he expatiated on the praises of Augustus, Germanicus, and
his own. The character of Tiberius has been examined with
particular attention by historians, and his reign is the subject of
the most perfect and elegant of all the compositions of Tacitus.
When a private man, Tiberius was universally esteemed; when
no superior, he was proud, arrogant, jealous, and re-
l. If he found his military operations conducted by a
warlike general, he affected moderation and virtue; but when
he got rid of the powerful influence of a favourite, he was
yrannical and dissolute. If, as some observe, he had lived in
nes of the Roman republic, he might have been as con-
jus as his great ar --> gn power, lodged
and oppressive. Yet,

























B. C. 53.] FROM spart Acus to CALIGULA. 711
blushed at the mean servilities of the senate, and derided the
adulation of his courtiers, who approached him, he said, as if
they approached a savage elephant. He was a patron of learns
ing; he was an eloquent and ready speaker, and dedicated
some part of his time to study. He wrote a lyric poem, enti-
tled, A Complaint on the Death of Julius Caesar, as also some
Greek pieces in imitation of some of his favourite authors.
He avoided all improper expressions; and all foreign words he
wished totally to banish from the Latin tongue. As instances
of his humanity, it has been recorded that he was uncommonly
liberal to the people of Asia Minor, whose habitations had been
destroyed by a violent earthquake, A. D. 17. One of his
officers wished him to increase the taxes, no, said Tiberius, a
good shepherd must shear, not slay his sheep. The senators
wished to call the month of November, in which he was born,
by his name, in imitation of Julius Caesar and Augustus, in
the months of July and August; but this he refused, saying,
what will you do, conscript fathers, if you have thirteen Caesars?
Like the rest of the emperors, he received divine honours
after death, and even during his life. It has been wittily ob-
served by Seneca, that he never was intoxicated but once all
his life, for he continued in a perpetual state of intoxication
from the time he gave himself to drinking till the last moment
of his life.
VIPSANIA, a daughter of M. Agrippa, mother of Dru-
sus. She was the only one of Agrippa's daughters, who died
a natural death. She was married to Tiberius when a private
man, and when she had been repudiated, she married Asinius
Gallus. w
NERO CLAUDIUS DRUSUS, son of Tiberius Nero,
by Livia, and brother of the emperor Tiberius, was distin-
guished, on many occasions, for his ..". and talents in pub-
lic employments. His conduct against the Rhetians, a fierce
people, inhabiting the country of the modern Grisons, over
whom he obtained a complete victory, is celebrated by Horace
in the fourth ode, of the fourth book. This was about the
year, B. C. 15; and in two years afterwards, Augustus, who
was his patron, committed to him the charge of stopping
the incursions of the Germans into Gaul. In this, and in va-
rious other instances, he evinced the characteristics of cou-
rage, and of the highest military, prudence and skill; till, at
length, his successes were so brilliant and important, that his
army, on the field of battle, saluted him imperator. On his
return to Rome he obtained the honour of a triumph, an
the following year, B. C. 9, he was raised to the cons
Foreign war called him again to Germany; he cros
º
Rhine and the Weser, and made some ineffectual a
pass the Elbe. Here he erected trophies to attest his con-












712 UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. [B. C. 53.
quests, and then began to march homewards; a fall from his
horse, however, impeded his progress; and a fever, the conse-
quence of the accident, put an end to his life, in the thirtieth
year of his age. †. cut off in the prime of life, and even
in the ardour of youth, he had lived sufficiently long to esta-
blish a high reputation as a soldier, and magistrate. #. pub-
lic and private character exhibited the strongest marks of ho-
mour and integrity. He was lamented by the army and the peo-
ple, and all classes of the citizens rendered him every token of
homage and respect. He left three children; viz., the cele-
brated Germanicus; Claudius, who was afterwards emperor;
and Livilla. - .
ANTONIA, a daughter of Marc Antony and Octavia, was
equally virtuous, but equally unfortunate with her mother.
While young, she was married to Drusus, brother of Tiberius,
who died on his return to receive a triumph for his victories in
Germany. Disconsolate at her loss, Antonia would never en-
ter into a second marriage, but devoted herself to the educa-
tion of her three children, The death of her son Germanicus,
from the jealousy of Tiberius, and the ill conduct of her
younger son Claudius, and her daughter Livilla, were sources
of new miseries to this most excellent woman. She died in the
reign of her grandson, the infamous Caligula.
MACRO, a favourite of the emperor Tiberius, celebrated
for his intrigues, perfidy, and cruelty. He destroyed Sejanus,
and raised himself upon the ruins of that unfortunate favourite.
He was accessary to the murder of Tiberius, and conciliated
the good opinion of Caligula, by prostituting to him his own
wife called Ennia. He soon after became unpopular, and was
jº, y Caligula to kill himself together with his wife.
CAIUS LUTORIUS PRISCUS, a Roman knight, was
punished with death, for an offence that can hardly be thought
capital. After having received a good reward from Tiberius, for
a poem he had made upon the death of Germanicus, he was
accused of having composed another, on the death of Drusus,
while this prince was sick; and it was affirmed, that he kept
this poem ready to be produced, with hopes of a greater re-
compense, in case Drusus should die. The prince's recovery
should have obliged this poet to suppress his work, but he
could not deny himself the glory of it. He read it to some
ladies; all of whom, except one, durst not deny the fact. All
judges, except two, condemned him to death. Tiberius,
was then absent, practised his usual artifices, when he
tood that the sentence was executed, and made some
tie was introdu ced by Augustus to offices i n
'e
s, son of the emperor Tiberius and Vip.
w the state














B.C. 53.] FROM spartacus to CALIGULA. 713
at an early age, and at the time of the death of that emperor,
he was nominated to the consulship. In the first year of his
father's reign, viz. A. D. 14, he was sent out to appease a
sedition, which had broken out in the legions in Pannonia, in
which, he happily succeeded. In the year seventeen, he was
sent to command in Illyricum, in order to keep that province
free from war, which was then raging in Germany. For his
prudent and successful services, he had the honour of an ora-
tion on his return. He was elected consul, the second time, in
the year twenty-one, and during the absence of the emperor,
in Campania, he fulfilled, alone, the duties of the office to the
entire satisfaction of the public. In the following year the tri-
bunitial authority was conferred upon him, for which he return-
ed thanks by letter, instead of presenting himself in due form
before the senate, which was regarded in the light of an insult.
Drusus, however, felt his importance in the state, and could
not brook a rival, which led him to dread the growing influence
of Sejanus, and to take every opportunity of treating him
with indignity. Sejanus was too aspiring and ambitious to sub-
mit even to the prince, and determined to destroy him. For
this purpose, he insinuated himself into the favour of Livilla,
the wife of Drusus, and, at length, seduced her affections, and
contrived, by her means, to administer poison to her own hus-
band, the foe of her infamous gallant. In early life Drusus
was supposed to betray a cruel disposition, by some feats at
the gladiatorian games; he was also, in some degree, addicted
to wine, and in other instances, he gave tokens of a haughty
and violent character. It must, however, be mentioned to his
credit, that, while the court was divided between him and his
cousin Germanicus, the two princes remained in perfect union,
and almost indifferent as to the final decision.
AELIUS SEJANUS, a native of Vulsinum, in Tuscany,
who distinguished himself in the court of Tiberius. His father
was Seius Strabo, a Roman knight, commander of the praeto-
rian guards. His mother was descended from the Junian fa-
mily. Sejanus first gained the favour of Caius Caesar, the
grandson of Augustus, but afterward attached himself to the
interest and views of Tiberius, who then sat on the imperial
throne. The emperor, who was naturally suspicious of every
other person, was free and open with Sejanus; and while he
distrusted others, he communicated his greatest secrets to this
fawning favourite. Sejanus improved this confidence <
when he had found that he possessed the esteem of Tiber
he next endeavoured to become the favourite of the soldi
and the darling of the senate. As commander of the p
rian guards, he became the second man in Rome; and, by aſ
pointing his own adherents to places of trust and honour, all
the officers and centurions became devoted to his interest.







APHY. | B.C. 53.
Yet, however successful with the best and noblest families of
the empire, Sejanus had to combat many in the house of the
the children and grandchild º
gra ren of Tiberius were sacrificed to
the ambition of this favourite, under various pretences. Livilla,
the wife of Drusus, the emperor's son, was corrupted by Seja-
nus; and this monster, assisting his adulterer in the murder of
her husband, consented to marry him, when Drusus was poi-
soned. But the marriage was strongly opposed by Tiberius.
When Sejanus could not gain the consent of the emperor, he
persuaded him to retire to solitude from the troubles of govern-
ment. Tiberius, naturally fond of ease, retired to Campania,
leaving Sejanus at the head of the empire. This was highly
gratifying to the favourite. He called together his friends and
followers; paid his court to the disaffected; held forth rewards
and promises; and, having increased his partizans, resolved to
seize the sovereign power. A powerful league was rapidly
formed, and great numbers of all descriptions, senators, as
well as military men, entered into the plot. Among these, Sa-
trius Secundus was the confidential friend and prime agent of
Sejanus. But he resolved to betray the secret to Tiberius.
For this purpose he addressed himself to Antonia, the daugh-
ter of Marc Antony, the widow of Drusus, and the mother of
Germanicus. When this illustrious woman, who was honoured
by the court, and revered by the people, heard the particulars,
she sent immediate information to the emperor. Tiberius was
astonished, but not dismayed; the danger pressed, the time
called for vigorous and decisive measures. He sent Macro to
Rome, with a commission to take command of the praetorian
guards. In the morning on the fifteenth day before the kalends
of November, a report was spread that the emperor intended
to associate Sejanus with himself in the tribunitian power. The
senate was summoned to meet in the temple of Apollo, near
the imperial palace. Sejanus attended. A party of the prae-
torians followed him. Macro met him in the vestibule of the
temple, and with all demonstrations of profound respect, said,
“Be not surprised, that you have no |. from the prince;
it is his pleasure to declare you his colleague, in the tribunitian
power; I am going to deliver the emperor's orders.” Sejanus,
flushed with his new dignity, entered the senate house; Macro
followed him. As soon as the consuls arrived, he delivered
the letter from Tiberius, and immediately went forth to the
rian guards. He informed them, that by order of the
. . donative was to be distributed among the sol-
!, that by a new commission he himself was ap-
commander; and, if they followed him to the
ere receive the promised bounty. The
pra torian guards followed, and Macro immediately surrounded































B. C. 53.] FROM SPARTACUS TO CALIGULA. 715
the senate house, with a body of the city cohorts. Tiberius's
letter to the consuls was confused, obscure and tedious, only
glancing at Sejanus; till at last the language of invecti º
room for doubt. Sejanus sat benumbed, senseless, and stupid
with astonishment. His flatterers, who had just congratulated
him on his new dignity, deserted him on every side. He was
commanded by the consul to rise and follow him, and being
loaded with irons, was conducted to prison. His downfall filled
the city with exultation. The ºl. rejoiced at his sad ca-
tastrophe, and followed in crowds, pouring forth a torrent of
abuse. They reviled him for his acts of cruelty, and dashed
his statues to pieces. He was doomed by Tiberius to suffer
death, and was strangled in prison. His body was dragged
to the Gemoniae, and, after every species of insult from the po-
pulace for three days, was thrown into the Tiber. Such was
the end of this unprincipled monster. He fell a terrible ex-
ample to all, who endeavour by their vices to rise above their
fellow citizens. .
CAESAR GERMANICUS, grand nephew of Augustus, ne-
phew of Tiberius, and grandson of Livia. When Augustus
adopted Tiberius, he obliged him to adopt Germanicus, who
thus, according to the Roman law, stood in the filial relation to
them both. Germanicus married Agrippina, grand-daughter of
Augustus, a lady not more illustrious for her rank than for her
virtues; and he himself grew up in the general affection of the
public, on account of the excellence of his temper, and the mild-
ness of his disposition, and was denominated the “delight of
the Roman people.” Germanicus was very learned and elo-
quent, and at an early age he became illustrious in warfare, and
was raised to the most important offices of the state. When
Augustus died, he was engaged in a war in Germany, and the
affection of the soldiers unanimously saluted him emperor. He
refused the honour, and then appeased the tumult which his in-
difference to the rank had occasioned. He continued his exploits
in Germany, and defeated the celebrated Arminius, and upon
his return was rewarded with a triumph. The Germans fought
with the greatest bravery, but were at length obliged to yield to
superior discipline and generalship. The concluding battle was
attended with great slaughter to the Germans, and gave the
Roman commander occasion to raise a trophy with this inscrip-
tion: “The nations between the Rhine and the Elbe subdued
by the army of Tiberius Caesar.” But this subjugation was only
a temporary cessation of the contest; and, upon the disaster ex-
perienced by the Romans from the elements, the Germans re-
newed their attack, which afforded Germanicus an opportunity
of acquiring new laurels, and he expected to have made an en-
tire conquest of Germany; but the emperor, jealous of his suc-
cesses, recalled him, with many compliments upon his past con-















716 UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY, [B.C. 53.
duct, and the prospect of a second consulate. On his return he
was honoured with another triumph, which was celebrated with
extraordinary magnificence. That part of the spectacle which
was most affecting to the Roman people, was the chariot of the
victor, filled with his three sons and two daughters. Germani-
cus was soon sent into the East to quell some disturbances there.
The powers entrusted to him on this occasion were very exten-
_sive, but the suspicious Tiberius had placed Piso as a spy and
Theck on the illustrious general. Germanicus entered upon his
second consulship, having the emperor for his colleague; he vi-
sited Athens, and was received in that city with all the adula-
tion usually practised by the inhabitants. He then sailed to
Euboea º Lesbos; thence he touched upon Thrace, and cross-
ing into Asia, viewed the ruins of Troy, and consulted the oracle
at Colophon. Piso hastily followed him, and after terrifying the
Athenians with a severe harangue, and throwing out insinua-
tions against Germanicus, embarked for Rhodes, where he would
have perished, had he not been saved by the humanity of the
prince, whom he overtook there. Germanicus now proceeded
to execute his commission. He placed the crown on the head
of Zeno, son of the king of Pontus, an ally of the Romans. He
then reduced Cappadocia and other places to the state of Roman
provinces; and in the ensuing year he made a progress into
Egypt, and viewed every thing that was deserving of notice in
the country, at the same time opening the public granaries to
the people, who were suffering under a scarcity. Upon his re-
turn from Egypt to Syria, he found that Piso had abrogated
every regulation which he had established among the legions
and in the cities; and his indignation at this behaviour widened
the breach between them. At this time Germanicus was at-
tacked with a disease which afterwards proved fatal, and which
was imputed to the effects of poison; but some of our best his-
torians having impartially examined the collateral facts, do not
think the evidence sufficient to justify the assertion. Germani-
cus himself had no doubt that he was the victim of the malignity
of Piso, and, in his last moments, conjured his friends to prose-
cute with the utmost rigour the authors of his death. He died
at Epidaphne, near Antioch, in the year 19, in the thirty-fourth
of his age. His death was the subject of universal lamen-
at Rome. Every other concern was forgotten, and the
jle, without waiting for an order from the magistrates, for-
'oreign princes and nations joined their testi-
ct. He had been highly esteemed
ccomplishments, but also for hi º
sive benevolence. In the
















B. C. 30. I from spartAcus to CALIGULA. 717.
with two Greek comedies, some epigrams, and a translation of
Aratus in Latin verse. . º . º º
AGRIPPINA, a Roman lady, daughter of Vipsanius Agrippa,
and of Julia, daughter of Augustus, famous for her pride, amb
tion, courage, and, above all, for her fidelity and love to her hus-
band Germanicus. Formed to be the wife of a hero, Agrippina
accompanied him wherever he went, shared his dangers and his
toils. She was seen often at the head of armies, appeasing the
seditious, encouraging the soldiers, and filling all the offices
of the most able general. Germanicus dying in Spain, Agrip-
pina, having shown her tenderness by her tears, attacked Piso,
who was suspected of having poisoned him, forced him to de-
stroy himself, and returned to Rome, bearing the ashes of her
husband in a sepulchral urn. Tiberius, who had been jealous
of the glory of Germanicus, was pained by the high reputation
of his widow, and banished her to the island of Pandatiere.
Always proud, even in the bosom of misfortune, she reproached
him to his face, with his injustice and cruelties. This tyrant
commanded a centurion to strike the daughter of Augustus,
which was done with such violence, that she lost one of her
eyes. Reduced to despair by this outrage, she abstained from
food, and died in the fifth year of her exile, A. D. 33. The
rage of Tiberius was not appeased by the death of Agrippina;
he persecuted her even in her children, and ordered the day of
her birth to be numbered amidst the unhappy ones.
PLANCUS MUNATIUS, a consul, sent to the rebellious
army of Germanicus. He was almost killed by the incensed sol-
diery, who suspected that it was through him that they had not
all been pardoned and indemnified by a decree of the senate.
Calpurnius rescued him from their fury. ... º
DRUSUS, a son of Germanicus and Agrippina, who enjoyed
offices of the greatest trust under Tiberius. His enemy Seja-
nus, however, effected his ruin by his insinuations. Drusus.
was confined by Tiberius, and deprived of all aliment. He was
found dead nine days after his confinement, A. D.33.
JULIA AGRIPPINA, daughter of Germanicus and Agrip-
pina, was placed under the care of her grandmother Antonia,
after her parents’ death, who endeavoured to establish and im-
prove those virtuous principles which her amiable mother had
instilled into her infant mind. Nature and fortune seemed to
have been peculiarly favourable to this young princess; illus-
trious in birth, distinguished in beauty, blest with vigour of
alents, and superiority of sense, she appeared calculated to .
adorn hat elevated station which it was her destiny to fill; but
sº :
n vain was she taught to admire the loveliness of virtue, for all
that period of life when candour is most conspicuous, Agrip-










characters that existed in those licentious times, and instead of
becoming the guardian of Agrippina's virtue, he initiated her into
every species of vice. The #. Tiberius, who was believed
to have been accessary to the death of Germanicus, affecting to
court popularity, undertook the guardianship of his child, and
gave her in marriage to Demetrius AEnobarbus, a man who
disgraced his nobility, by licentiousness and crimes. Nero, the
tyrant, was the fruit of this marriage; but soon afterwards Agrip-
pina was accused of infidelity to her lord; for it was proved
that she had carried on a criminal intercourse with her cousin
Lepidus; and Caligula, who had ascended the throne of Tibe-
rius, ordered him to be put to death. Agrippina was also con-
demned to do public penance, and was banished to the island of
Pontia, under pretence of having conspired against the state;
but upon the death of Caligula, she was ...i. by her uncle
Claudius; who had been appointed successor to the crown.
The designing Agrippina, delighted with this proof of her uncle's
kindness, resolved to make an attack upon his heart; for the
gratification of being placed at the head of the Roman empire,
reconciled her to the union with a man to whom she was so
nearly allied. Claudius, however, rejected the indirect over-
tures which were made him, and Agrippina then practised her
artifices upon Crispus Passienus, a man far advanced in life,
whose popularity was great, and whose fortune was an object to
any woman who made wealth the first object of her wishes. Pas-
sienus, attracted by the allurements of the princess, married her,
and died soon afterwards, in a manner that gave rise to many
suspicions. By this circumstance, she came into the possession
of immense property, which enabled her to prosecute with success
her former designs. The emperor's attendants were induced to
favour herwishes by theirresistible influence of gold; and by their
persuasions, Claudius at length consented to raise Agrippina to
the imperial throne. Agrippina maintained, in the station to
which by refined artifice she had raised herself, an authority of
the most despotic kind; while the weak emperor was left only
the shadow of regal consequence; for through her hands every
favour, and every preferment, passed. Regardless of birth or
merit, she bestowed upon her flatterers the most important
§ state; and so complete was the dominion which
ad acquired over Claudius, that he actually made Nero a
'r in the throne, to the extinction of his own son Britanni-
prince of distinguished merit and worth. After a succes-
, too iniquitous to enumerate, Agrippina at length
Kecute one, which had long occupied mind;











































B. C. 30.] FROM SPARTACUS TO CALIGULA.
was lawful heir to the throme. Though the aggrandisement of
her son had been the first object with Agrippina, yet §
titude and affection were strangers to his heart; and he %
accused her of the crimes which she had committed, without
reflecting that in endeavouring to advance his honours many
of them had been performed. To the stings of ingratitude
were added the distresses of degradation; for this unnatural son
deprived her of those pageantries which belong to the great;
her guards were dismissed, and she was compelled to quit her
palace, and reside in the suburbs of the city, without grandeur
or state. Her monster of a son, Nero, had formed many plans
for the destruction of the author of his existence, whom he ima-
gined was raising a party to deprive him of the throne; but at
length, after devising various measures, it was suggested to him
that by constructing a vessel with a false bottom, she could, by
a little contrivance, without difficulty, be drowned. To prevent
the possibility of suspicion falling upon this parricide, overtures
for a reconciliation with his mother were made; and after ex-
pressing the utmost contrition for his past conduct, he treated
her with every mark of filial esteem. As the gardens and baths
at Baiae were then open for public reception, Nero persuaded
Agrippina to accompany him there, and a most splendid vessel
was constructed, under the direction of Anicetus, for the pur
pose of depriving the empress of her life. The vessel, by design,
touched at Antium, when Nero formed an excuse for pursuing
his way by land, and taking an affectionate leave of his mother,
he recommended her to Anicetus's care. A Roman lady, of the
name of Aceronia, was the only female attendant who accom-
panied the queen, and as soon as the vessel had cleared the
shore, Anicetus withdrew the bolts; the flooring gave way, con-
sternation followed, and the greater part of the crew were pre-
cipitated into the stream. Aceronia loudly called upon the
sailors for assistance, who mistaking her for Agrippina, knocked
out her brains with their oars; Anicetus got to land, whilst
the being whose destruction he had meditated, was taken up
with scarcely any injury, by some boatmen who had observed
the disaster, and went to offer aid. Agrippina was convinced
that the vessel had not sunk from accident, and justly attributed
it to the artifice of her son. She disguised her suspicions, and
sent a messenger to inform him that she had escaped with her
life. He heard the intelligence with rage and mortification; but
upon Anicetus assuring him he would complete the task he had
begun, he embraced him with marks of the liveliest affection,
claring he should consider even the empire as a gift from his
ds. Attended by a party of assassins, Anicetus immedi
went to the empress, and forced himself into her p .
pretending he came with an embassy from her son. V
s beheld the sanguinary band enter, they des
a.
















[b. c. 30.
rtunate Agrippina, determining to preserve their own safety
ight. “If you come commissioned by your master to en-
Huire after my health,” said the empress, too justly foreboding
the nature of their designs, “tell him I am recovering; but if
you harbour any evil against me, you are not the agents
of my son, for he is incapable of being a parricide.” The inhu-
man wretches instantly surrounded the couch upon which she
was reclining, and one, even whilst she was speaking, gave her
a blow upon the head; “strike here,” exclaimed Agrippina,
presenting her body to them, “for this womb has given a mon-
ster birth.” The fatal tragedy was soon completed, and the
detestable parricide heard the account of his mother's death
with emotions of delight. In perusing the life of Agrippina, the
undutiful conduct of her son seems a just punishment of her
crimes; yet it is impossible not to sympathize with the sufferings
she must have experienced at having given birth to a being who
was capable of every vice. In the catalogue of human crimes,
none appear more atrocious than that of filial disrepect; but it
is not in the power of language to convey the horror which is
excited by the very idea of a son planning the death of a parent.
For the aggrandisement of her son, Agrippina had sacrificed
both probity and principle; the death of Claudius had paved
his passage to the throne; Britannicus was excluded from his
lawful inheritance; yet the monster, for whom she had been
guilty of such iniquities, raised his hand against her life.
TACFARINAS, a Numidian, who, after serving some time
in the Roman legions, became a general in his own country, and
commanded an army against its conquerors in the reign of Ti-
berius. In the course of this war, he repeatedly defeated Ti-
berius's generals. Tacfarinas was at last killed in battle, after
performing heroic deeds of valour. § 3.
API( ºs. a celebrated glutton, who lived under Tiberius,
spent immense sums on his appetite, and invented divers sorts
of cakes, which bore his name. He kept, as it were, a school of
gluttony at Rome. After having spent two millions and a half
in entertainments, finding himself very much in debt, he exa-
ed into the state of his affairs; and seeing that he had but
hundred and fifty thousand livres remaining, he poisoned
out of apprehension of starving with such a sum! .
LINA, a Roman lady, wife of Saturninus, governor of
n the reign of the emperor Tiberius. Her conjugal
disturbed, and violence was offered to her virtue, by
§ M , who fell in love with º: º
me temple of means of the


























. B. C. 93.] FROM SPARTACUs to cAligula. 7:21
CNEIUS CORNELIUS LENTULUS, sirnamed GAE-
TULICUS, was consul A. D. 26, and was also a man of let-
ters. He wrote a history mentioned by Suetonius, and Martial
says he was a poet; but his works are lost. He was put to
death by Tiberius, who was jealous of his popularity. º
NERVA COCCEIUS, a friend of Horace and Mecaenas,
and grand-father to the emperor Nerva. He was one of those
who settled the disputes between Augustus and Antony. He
afterwards accompanied Tiberius in his retreat in Campania,
and starved himself to death. , , , , , ,
ATEIUS CAPITO, a celebrated civilian, who adorned the
age of Augustus, and was distinguished by the favour of his
sovereign. He was an opponent of Antistius Labeo, who was
more illustrious by his contempt of that favour, and his stern,
though harmless opposition to the tyrant of Rome. Their
legal studies were influenced by the various colours of their
tempers and principles. Labeo was attached to the form of the
old republic; his rival embraced the more profitable substance
of the rising monarchy. Capito, with the tame and submissive
disposition of a courtier, seldom presumed to deviate from the
sentiments, or at least from the words of his predecessors;
while the bold republican pursued his independent ideas with-
out fear of paradox or innovation. Labeo decided according
to the letter of the law the same questions which his indulgent
competitor resolved with a latitude of equity more suitable to
the common sense and feelings of mankind. This opposition
of sentiments was propagated in the writings and lessons of the
two founders; and the schools of Capito and Labeo maintained
their inveterate conflict from the age of Augustus to that of
Adrian. The two sects derived their appellations from Sabinus
and Proculius, their most celebrated teachers. } %
… ph I Loso PHY. ;
ANDRONICUS of Rhodes, a peripatetic philosopher, who
flourished B. C. 63, to whom we are indebted for restoring and
publishing the works of Aristotle, in the time of Sylla. He also
wrote commentaries on some of that philosopher's works.
POSIDONIUS, a celebrated Grecian philosopher of the
Stoic sect, who flourished about fifty or sixty years before
Christ, was a native of Apaucea, in Syria. He taught philo-
sophy at Rhodes with so much reputation that Pompey, on
his return towards Rome, after the successful termination of
the war against Mithridates, came thither with the design of
attending his lectures. “When he came to the house,” says
the historian, “he forbade his lictor to knock at the door, but
by ordering him to lower the fasces at the gate of Posidonius,
VOL. I. 3 A

722 UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY, [B. C.63.
this mighty conqueror of the eastern and western world paid a
respectful homage to philosophy.” Posidonius being confined
j. severe attack of the gout, Pompey visited him in his cham-
ber, and expressed his regret that the philosopher's situation
would deprive him of the pleasure of hearing his discourses.
Upon this Posidonius made an effort for the gratification of his
illustrious visitor, and delivered a discourse, to prove that no-
thing could be deemed good that was not honourable. He
studied astronomy as well as morals, and constructed a kind of
sphere, with which he exhibited the apparent motions of the
sun, moon, and planets round the earth. Cicero says, that he
himself attended the lectures of this philosopher, and it is as-
serted, upon the authority of Suidas, that he was brought to
Rome by Marcellus, in the seven hundred and second year
from the building of the city, which was B.C. 52. He is
thought to have written a continuation of the history of Poly-
bius in a polished and elegant style. ; : 3
SOSIGENES, a Peripatetic philosopher, and skilful astro-
nomer, was brought from Egypt by Julius Caesar, with the view
expressly of assisting him in reforming the calendar. The
philosopher, by accurate observations, discovered that the year
was three hundred and sixty-five days and six hours; and to
make allowance for the odd days, he invented the intercalation
of one day in four years; and the duplication of the sixth day
before the calends of March was the intercalary day; and
hence the day in which this took place was called Bissextile.
This was called the Julian year, the reckoning by which com-
menced B.C. 45, and continued till it gave place to something
more accurate, and a still farther reformation under Pope Gre-
gory XIII. Sosigenes was author of a commentary upon Aris-
totle's book “De Coelo.” . . . . .
QUINTUS SEXTUS, a Pythagorean philosopher, who
flourished about the time of Augustus. He seemed formed to
rise in the republic; but he shrunk from civil honours, and de-
clined accepting the rank of senator when it was offered him by
Julius Caesar, that he might have time to apply to philosophy.
It appears that he wished to establish a school at Rome, and that
his tenets, though chiefly drawn from the doctrines of Pytha-
: fº. some particulars resembled those of the Stoics. His
laws were tinctured with great severity; and in an early period
of his establishment, he found his mind so harassed, and the
harshness of the doctrines which he wished to establish so re-
º to his feelings, that he had nearly worked himself up to
sh of desperation, as to put a period to his existence.
Of t hool of Sextius were Fabianus, Sotion, Flavianus,
itius, and Celsus. Of his works only a few fragments
n; and whether any of them formed a part of the work
Seneca admired so much, cannot now be determined,








B. c. 63.) FROM SPARTACUS TO CALIGULA. 723
Some of his maxims are valuable. He recommended an exa-
mination of the actions of the day to his scholars when they
retired to rest; he taught that the road to heaven was by fru-
ality, temperance, and fortitude. He used to recommend
holding a looking-glass before persons disordered with pas-
i. He also enjoined his followers to abstain from criminal
‘OOOl.
PAPYREAS FABIANUS, an intelligent naturalist, who
lived in the reign of Tiberius, and wrote a treatise on animals.
_ATHENODORUS, a famous Stoic philosopher, born at
Tarsus, who went to the court of Augustus, and was made by
him tutor to Tiberius. Augustus had a great esteem for him,
and found him, by experience, a man of virtue and probity. He
used to speak very freely to the emperor. Before he left the
court to return home, he warned the emperor not to give him-
self up to anger, but, whenever he should be in a passion, to
rehearse the twenty-four letters of the alphabet, before he re-
solved to say or do any thing. He did not live to see his bad
success in the education of ºbj ? . . tº
ANAXILAUS, a Pythagorean philosopher in the time of
Augustus, who banished him from Italy as a magician, though
he appears only to have been a juggler, A. D. 28.
XENARCHUS, a Peripatetic philosopher, who taught phi-
losophy at Alexandria and Rome, and was intimate with Au-
rustus. .
DICENEUS, an Egyptian philosopher in the age of Augus-
tus, who travelled into Scythia, where he ingratiated himself
with the king of the country, and by his instructions softened
the wildness and rusticity of his manners. He also gained such
an influence over the multitude, that they all destroyed the vines
which grew in their country, to prevent the riot of dissipation,
which the wine occasioned among them. He wrote all his
maxims and his laws in a book, that they might not lose the be-
mefit of them after his death. . .
NICOLAUS DAMASCENUS, a philosopher and histo-
rian, was in great esteem in the age of Augustus, by whom, as
well as by King Herod, he was admitted to an intimate friend-
ship. He was a native of Damascus, of the Peripatetic sect, and
extensively learned. . Many of his writings are mentioned by
Suidas and others, of which only a few fragments are come down
to our times. A history of Assyria of his composition is quoted,
which appears to have been part of a universal history. Some
passages of this are cited by Josephus, who also impeached
their veracity with respect to their account of Herod, written
during the life of that prince. Strabo quotes from him some
matters relative to India. Henry de Valois published at Paris
in 1634, in Greek and Latin, the colle sº ifferent works
* * * * cºme rowhurstem, and
3 A 2 º
§















724 UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. [B. C.96.
brought from the isle of Cyprus by Peirese. Joseph Scaliger
lad previously published two of his fragments at the end of his
treatise “De Emendat. Temporis.” lº
: ; : . * : * ~ * z.
; : % # 3 &
*.
. . . . . . . . . * * * * : * * * º, P.O ETR Y. %: #
TITUS CAIUS LUCRETIUS, a celebrated Roman
poet and philosopher, born about B. C. 96, was sent at an early
age to Athens, where he is said to have studied under Zeno
and Phaedrus. Here he imbibed the philosophical tenets of
Epicurus and Empedocles, which, at that period, prevailed
at the great seat of Greek learning; these and other doc-
trines, popular º the literati, he afterwards explained and
elucidated in his celebrated work, entitled “De Rerum Na-
turä;” it contains, in fact, the first complete and accurate state-
ment of the Epicurean philosophy in the Latin language. In
this poem the writer has controverted all the popular notions
of heathemism, and even those points which are fundamental
in every system of religious faith, the existence of a first cause,
by whose power all things were and are created, and by whose
providence they are supported and governed. Nevertheless,
the masterly genius, and unaffected elegance of the poet, are
every where conspicuous; his language and versification some-
times partake of the rudeness of an early period of literature,
and, in the argumentative parts of his work, the poet is fre-
quently difficult to be understood; but where the subject ad-
mits elevated sentiment and descriptive beauty, no Roman poet
has taken a loftier flight, or exhibited more spirit and subli-
mity; the same animated strain is supported almost throughout
entire books; Virgil studied him, and has borrowed much of
his diction. This poem was written and finished while the poet
laboured under a violent delirium, occasioned by a philtre,
which the jealousy of his mistress, or his wife, had adminis-
tered. The morality of Lucretius is generally pure, but many
of his descriptions are licentious. The absurdities and im-
piety of his philosophy cannot in this country, and in this age,
be accounted dangerous, and persons of high integrity and the
greatest respectability have become, in modern times, the edi-
tors and commentators of Lucretius's poem. The best editions
are those of Havercamp, Lugd. Bat. 4to.: and Wakefield,
London, 3 vols. 4to. * *
CASSIUS PARMENSIS, a Latin poet, and one of the
conspirators against Caesar, attached himself after that event
first to Pompey's son, and afterwards to Antony, under both
of whom he held commands. After the battle of Actium he re-
tired to Athens, where, by the orders of Octavianus, he was
put to death, while engaged in his studies, by Quintilian Va-
* . . . . * *




B. C. 74.] FROM spartAcus Tp cALIGULA. 725

rus. He is mentioned with honour by Horace, in his epistle to
Tibullus, who asks his friend whether he is employed in writing
what may excel the works of Cassius Parmensis. z .
Scribere quod Cassi Parmensis opuscula vincat.
Varus, when he killed him, carried off his papers; which has
given cause to suspect that the tragedy of Thyestes, published
under the name of Varus, was written by Cassius, who is known
to have composed works of that class. The verses on Orpheus,
published by Achilles Tatius under the name of Cassius, are
thought to be spurious. - .
AUSIN, a poet, who wrote the actions of M. Antony, and
was rewarded by him.
ALBINOVANUS, a Latin poet, whom Ovid styled divine.
No part of his works is extant, except two elegies on Drusus
and Mecaenas. &
VALERIUS CATO, a Latin poet and grammarian in the
time of Sylla. The only piece of his that has reached us is a
poem, entitled Dire, and is to be found in the Corpus Poetarum,
by Mattaire. He died B. C. 30.
CAIUS VALERIUS CATULLUS, a Roman poet, born
at Verona B C, 86. The harmony of his numbers acquired
him the esteem and friendship of Cicero, and other great men
of his time. Many of his poems, however, abound with gross
obscenities. He wrote satirical verses against Caesar, who, in-
stead of resenting them, heaped favours upon the poet. Ca-
tullus, however, lived in poverty, and died in the flower of his
age, and the height of his reputation. Catullus was the first
Roman who imitated with success the Greek writers, and intro-
duced their numbers among the Latins. Though the pages
of the poet are occasionally disfigured with licentious expres-
sions, the whole is written with great freedom of style. Joseph
Scaliger, Passerat, Muret, and Isaac Vossius, have written
learned notes on his poems.
ATTACINUS WARRO, the Gaul, a Latin poet of the age
of Caesar, was borne in Narbonne. He wrote a poem, De Bello
Sequanico; and translated into Latin the Argonautics of Apol-
lonius. Only some fragments remain.
DECIMUS JUNIUS LABERIUS, a Roman knight, who
wrote mimics, or short satirical pieces for the stage. Julius
Caesar obliged him, contrary to his inclination, to perform one
of his own mimics; whereupon he spoke a prologue, in which
he threw out several fine strokes of satire against Caesar. This
piece is preserved in Aulus Gellius; and fragments of his other
works are also extant. N. .
PUBLIUS SYRUS, a Syrian mimic poet, who flourished
about B.C. 44. He was originally a slave sold to a Roman pa-
*} -:


726 § 3. UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. |B. C. 70.
trician, called Domitius, who brought him up with great atten-
tion, and gave him his freedom when of age. He gained the
esteem of the most powerful men at Rome, and reckoned Julius
Caesar among his patrons. He soon eclipsed the poet Labe-
rius, whose burlesque compositions were in general esteem.
There remains of Syrus a collection of moral sentences, written
in iambics, and placed in alphabetical order. w
CAIUS HELVIUS CINNA, a poet intimate with Julius
Caesar. He went to attend the obsequies of Caesar, and being
mistaken by the populace for another Cinna, he was torn to
D16CeS. .
r SORANUS VALERIUS, a Latin poet in the age of Julius
Caesar, put to death for betraying a secret. He acknowledged
no god, but the soul of the universe. ... -
AEMILIUS MACER, an ancient Latin poet, born at We
rona, who flourished under Augustus Caesar. Eusebius relates,
that he died a few years after Virgil. Ovid speaks of a poem
of his, on the nature and quality of birds, serpents, and herbs;
which, he says, Macer, being then very old, had often read to
him. There is extant a poem upon the nature and power of
herbs under Macer's name, but it is spurious. He also wrote
t * to Homer, as Quintus Calaber did afterwards in
ºn reek. & .
PUBLIUS VIRGILIUS MARO VIRGIL, a celebrated
Roman poet, whose name is familiar to every classical scholar,
was born in the year B.C. 70, at Andes, a village near Mantua,
and liberally educated at Cremona, Milan, and Naples. His
teacher in philosophy was named Syro; and the philosophy in
which he was instructed was the Epicurean. From his first
eclogue, in which he is supposed to have related his own
adventures under the appellation of Tityrus, it appears that he
first visited Rome in his thirtieth year, for the purpose of re-
covering lands that were in the possession of the military be-
longing to Octavius and Antony, after the war against the re-
publicans; and having been introduced to Octavius by Pollio,
or some other person, and to his subsequent patron Mecanus,
he succeeded in the object of his visit by their influence.
His life, however, was endangered by the violence of the ve-
teran who occupied his farm, and who resisted the surrender
9f it; so that he was obliged to seek redress by another visit to
Rome, and to obtain an order for his re-instatement. His ec-
logues, which were completed in his thirty-third or thirty-fourth
year, were very favourably received; and in his thirty-fourth
year he was induced by Mecaenas to commence his Georgics;
and during a period of seven years, which he employed in the
prosecution of them, he resided chiefly at Naples. "The latter
years of his life were devoted to the AEmeid. At this time he
was ranked among those friends who were particularly distin-


B.C. 70.] FROM SPARTACUS To CALIGULA. 727
guished by the attention and confidence of Augustus. After
the death of Marcellus, in the year B. C. 23, he paid that ad-
mirable tribute to his memory which occurs in the sixth book
of the AEneid, and concerning which Doratus says, that when
it was recited before Augustus, in the presence of Octavia, the
mother of the deceased, as soon as the words “Tu Marcellus
eris” were pronounced, she fainted away; and afterwards re-
warded the poet with ten sesterces, above eighty pounds, for
each line of the passage. After the completion of his AEneid,
Virgil went to Greece, with a view of further polishing it; and
on this occasion Horace is supposed to have addressed him
with the third ode of the first book, beginning, “Sic, te diva,
tens Cypri;” in which he expresses the warmest affection for
is brother poet. At Athens he met with Augustus, and pro-
posed returning in his company; but at Megara he was seized
with a disorder which detained him, as some say, at Brundu-
sium, or, according to others, at Tarentum, and which soon
terminated his life in the year B. C. 19, in the fifty-second year
of his age. His remains were conveyed, in pursuance of his
request, to Naples, and interred on the Puteolan way. On his
death-bed he is said to have expressed a wish that his AEneid,
which he regarded as an imperfect work, might be committed
to the flames; but it was saved either by the interposition of his
friends Tucca and Varrus, who prevailed upon him to bequeath
it to them, on the condition that they should make no altera-
tions in it, or by the injunctions of Augustus to his executors.
His modesty, indicated by this wish, was combined with other
similar qualities. He was mild and gentle in his manners,
unassuming in conversation, sincere and faithful in friendship,
so that he was singularly beloved by Augustus, Mecacnas, and
all the most distinguished persons of that period. His poetical
talents, as well as general character, were highly appreciated
by his contemporaries, insomuch that, whenever his verses
were recited in the theatre in his presence, the audience
rose up and paid him the respect which was usually manifested
to the emperor. His eminent merit has been also acknowledged
by ancient and modern critics; and though they have differed
in opinion as to his peculiar and distinguished excellencies, they
have generally agreed, as one of his most judicious biographers
have said, “in placing him upon one of the highest seats in Par-
massus.” Of the faculty of invention he seems to have possessed
a very moderate share, insomuch that his Bucolics, Georgics,
and Æneid, abound with traces of imitation, and even of trans-
lation; but it is in the diction and phraseology of poetry, in
all that constitutes the artist, that his chief excellence consists;
and his admirers will not allow that the Virgilian splendour and
majesty of style have ever been equalled. In two species of
composition Virgil has afforded models to almost all succeeding





728 UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. (b. c.60.
poets, the didactic and the epic. His fame has been testified
by the numerous editions of his works, as well as the commen-
taries and translations which they have produced. The best
editions of Virgil are those of Masvicius at Leuwarden, 2 vols.
4to. 1717; Burman, Amsterdam, 4 vols. 4to. 1746; and Heyne,
London, in 1793. We have several translations of this great
oet; the most popular of which are, Dryden's, Pitt's, and
Wºo. but one, combining their several excellencies, with
substantial improvements, and a most valuable commentary,
has recently been published by John Ring, Esq. in 2 vols. 8vo.
GRATIUS, a Roman poet, sirnamed from the place of his
birth FALISCUS, was a contemporary of Virgil. They are
both mentioned by Ovid in a single distich. The work by
which this author is known, and for which he claims a short
notice, is entitled, “Cynegeticon,” or the Art of Hunting with
Dogs. It was entirely unknown to the moderns till it was
brought to light by Paul Manutius, in 1534. This learned
editor printed it from a MS. copy brought by Sannazaro from
France. It is said to be written with a purity not unworthy of
the Augustan age. .
CORNELIUS GALLUS, a Roman of considerable rank
in life, and celebrated as a poet and man of letters. He was
born about the year B.C. 69. Little is known of the events of
his life; the most interesting occurrence was, perhaps, his in-
timacy with Virgil, who is thought to have been introduced to
Mecanas by his means. That poet has inscribed his tenth ec-
logue to Gallus, whose dissertation by Lycoris is the subject
of the composition. Gallus was passionately fond of his .
Lycoris, and wrote four books ..? elegies to her honour, which
became very popular, and which raised him to considerable re-
putation for this kind of verse. He is referred to by Ovid, as
having established an immortal celebrity:


“ Gallus from East to West shall spread his name,
And fair Lycoris share her poet's fame.”
He is mentioned also with applause by Propertius, Martial, and
other writers of antiquity. Lycoris was probably a feigned
name for Cytheris, who captivated Marc Antony. Gallus, as
well as the other poets of the age, was in high favour with Au-
gustus, by whom he was appointed governor of Egypt, after
the death of Antony and Cleopatra. His future conduct proved
that he was unworthy of this high honour. He forgot the du-
ties of his office, and, ungrateful for the distinguished favours
of his sovereign, he conspired against his government and au-
thority, and pillaged the province; for which he was banished,
by the emperor. This disgrace operated so powerfully upon
him, that he killed himself in despair, A. D. 26,

B. C. 65.] FROM SPARTACUS TO CALIGULA.
TITUS SEPTIMIUS, a Roman knight, celebrated for his
poems, both tragic and lyric. He was intimate with the empe-
ror Augustus and the poet Horace, who addressed the sixth
ode of his second book to him. ºf
SEXTUS AURELIUS PROPERTIUS, a Roman poet,
was a native of Umbria, and flourished in the reign of Augus-
tus, by whom, and by Mecaenas, he was favoured, and who,
in his turn, makes their praises a frequent theme of his verse.
Little is known of the history of this poet; Ovid places him be-,
tween Tibullus and himself. His father wes of the equestrian
order, and lost his life in Perusia, among other partisans of An-
tony. The confiscation of his property followed, and young
Propertius came to Rome, where he obtained the patronage of
the great. It is not exactly known when he died, but it has
been conjectured to have happened about the year 10 B.C.
He has always been ranked among the most eminent of the
Latin elegiacs; four books of his elegies are remaining. He is
often compared with Tibullus, but is not so natural or pathetic,
and is more learned, various, and ornamented, abounding in al-
lusions to fable and mythology. He is elegant and ingenious,
but frequently obscure. His amatory pieces are addressed to a
single object of passion, whom he calls Cynthia, which is the
poetical name of a Roman lady named Hostia or Hostilia, and
with whom his connection, if real, appears to have been of the
licentious kind. The editions of the elegies of Propertius, both,
separately and in conjunction with those of Tibullus, are very.
numerous; among the best are those of Broukhusius, 1702;
Vulpius, 1755; Burman, 1780.
PAULUS PASSAENUS, a Roman knight, nephew of the
poet Propertius, whose elegiac poetry he imitated. He also at-
tempted Lyric poetry with success, in which he followed
Horace.
PONTICUS, a poet of Rome, contemporary with Proper-
tius, by whom he is compared to Homer. He wrote an account
of the Theban war in heroic verse. . . . . . . .
QUINTUS HORATIUS FLACCUS HORACE, one of
the most celebrated of the Roman poets, was born at Venusium,
in the year B.C. 65. . His father was the son of a freedman,
and followed the employment of a tax-gatherer; but notwith-
standing the meanness of his origin, he felt the importance of a
good education; the advantages of which he resolved his son
should enjoy. He accordingly took him to Rome, and caused
him to be instructed in all the branches of knowledge which
were taught to young people at that time. At the age of eigh-
teen he was sent to Athens for the purpose of pursuing philoso-
phy and Greek literature, which was now become fashionable
among the Romans. While he was in that city he was noticed
by Brutus, who took him into his army and made him tribune;

UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. [B. c. 43.
but Horace was more distinguished by his wit, than illustrious
for his valour; and at the battle of Philippi, he is said to have
thrown away his shield and fled. He was now reduced to great
difficulties, even to a state of indigence, having nothing to de-
nd on but his literary talents. He recommended himself to
irgil, who obtained for him the patronage of Mecaenas. To
this patron of letters, he rendered himself so agreeable, that he
made him his familiar companion, and took him to Brundusium,
in that journey which he has so well described in verse. Me-
caenas procured from Augustus the restitution of Horace's es-
tate, which he had forfeited by the part that he took in the
war under Brutus, and introduced him to the emperor, who be-
came greatly attached to him, and would have made him his
F. secretary, but the poet declined this high honour, pre-
erring the independence of a private life to the business of a
court. Having no ambitious views, and detesting parade and
splendour, he determined to remain his own master. In the
latter part of his life he retired to the country, where he in-
dulged himself in philosophical ease, which he has admirably
described in his odes. He died eight years before the Chris-
tian era, and was buried near his #. and patron Mecaenas,
whose death is said to have hastened his own. He appears to
have had many friends among persons of rank, whom he ad-
dressed with easy familiarity, and he was ready to do friendly
offices in the way of advice and recommendation. No ancient
writer has been so popular as Horace; the variety of his man-
ner, and of the subjects treated of, has rendered him the
favourite of the most different tastes. His odes are models of
that kind of composition in the Latin language. His epistles
and satires abound in moral maxims expressed with vigour, in
acute observations on human life, and in pleasant stories related
with ease and vivacity. The Art of Poetry displays much sound
sense and good taste, but the precepts contained in it are desul-
tory and without method. The best editions of his works are
those of Bentley, Baxter, Samadon, and Combe. -
PUBLIUS OVIDIUS NASO OVID, a celebrated Roman
poet, was born at Sulmo, the present Alruzzo, in the consulate
of Hirtius and Pansa, in the year B. C. 43. He was of an
ancient equestrian family, and was sent in his youth to Rome
to be educated in liberal studies under the best masters; he
shewed a propensity to poetry at an early period of his life, and
it was not without extreme difficulty, that his father could pre-
vail on him to relinquish the culture of the muses for the thriv-
ing pursuits of the law. At length, however, he was prevailed
on to sit down to business, and he appears to have made good
progress in forensic eloquence and judicial knowledge, for he
refers to some ..". that he had pleaded with great success;
and he afterwards sat as one of the triumvirs, to whom criminal
















B. C. 43.1, FROM SPARTACUS TO CALIGULA. 731
jurisdiction was committed. By the death of his brother he
was probably no longer obliged to follow the law as a gainful
profession, deserted the court, and gave himself up to pleasure
and poetry. His talents and amiable qualities introduced him
to the best society in Rome. He was married three times;
from the first two wives he was divorced, but he speaks of the
third, Perilla, with great affection, by whom he had a daugh-
ter, who adhered to him in all his fortunes, and who is thought
to have survived him. He seems to have lived at his ease, and
in affluence, possessing a house near the Capitol, and pleasant
gardens on the Appian way, as well as a villa in his native
country. A lively genius and a fertile imagination gained him
many admirers ; Virgil, Propertius, Tibullus, and Horace, ho-
noured him with their correspondence, and Augustus patro-
nized him with the most unbounded liberality. He had ren-
dered himself famous by several poetical compositions, when,
at about the age of fifty, he incurred a sentence of banish-
ment, which was never revoked, and which made him an exile
for the remainder of his life. The true cause of this circum-
stance has never been known. Few incidents in classical
biography has more excited the discussion of the curious than
this; still a mystery hangs upon it which no elucidation can
thoroughly clear. He has himself assigned two reasons for the
anger of Augustus; one, and that the ostensible cause, though
containing not the true reason, the licentiousness of his juve-
mile poems; the other, he says, was an error, not a crime,
something of which his eyes had been guilty, not his inten-
tions. .
“Juscia quod crimen viderunt lumina plector,
Peccatumque oculos est habuisse meum.”
And in another place he writes,
“Perdiderunt cum me duo crimina, carmen et error
Alterius facticulpa silenda mihi est.” &
It was something in which the emperor's feelings were parti-
cularly concerned ; some attribute it to an amour of Ovid with
Livia, the wife of Augustus, while others suppose it arose from
the knowledge which the poet, involuntarily, had of the shock-
ing incest of the emperor with his daughter Julia. The place
of Ovid's exile was Tomi, a town in Scythia, near the Euxine
sea, and not far from the mouth of the Danube. His elegiac
epistles from that place are full of complaints of the severity
of the climate, the wildness of the scenery, and the savage
manners of the surrounding people. How long he lived in this
condition is not certainly known; he was alive in the eighth




732 Universal biography. LB. C. 43.
year of his exile, which was two years after the death of Au-
gustus. That event had no effect in producing his recall, for
Tiberius was either hostile or indifferent to him. He felt most
bitterly this perpetual exclusion from cultivated life, and all
the consolations of friendship and domestic affection, and does
not affect a strength of mind which did not belong to his cha-
racter. The Eusebian chronicle places his death in the fourth
*. of Tiberius, but the authority cannot be relied upon.
The people of Tomi are said to have mourned publicly for
him, and to have erected a stately monument to his memory,
without the walls of their city. Ovid was a copious writer,
and the greater part of his works have come down to our
times. The best editions are Heinsius 1666, and Burman
1727. *
PERILLA, a daughter of Ovid the poet, was extremely
fond of poetry and literature.
AULUS SABINUS, a Roman poet, contemporary and in-
timate with Ovid. He wrote elegies and epistles from AEneas
to Dido, from Hippolytus to Phaedra, from Jason to Hypsi-
pyle, from i. to Phyllis, from Paris to CEnone, and
from Ulysses to Penelope; but the three last are by some
reckoned spurious.
LOEVIUS, a Latin poet. He wrote a poem entitled, Cre-
topagnia, i. e. Cregames. Aulus Gellius quotes two lines of it.
Apuleius quotes six lines, but does not say from what work he
borrowed them. Laevius also composed a work entitled, the
Centaurs, which Festus quotes under the title of Petrarum.
MARCUS MANILIUS, a Latin poet, whose poem lay
buried in some German libraries, and was not heard of until
Poggius, about 1580, published it from some old MSS. he
found there. There is no account to be found of him but what
can be drawn from his poem, which is called Astronomican; and
contains a system of the ancient astronomy and astrology, toge-
ther with the philosophy of the stoics. It consists of five
books, but there was a sixth, which has not been recovered.
From the style, and no mention of the author being found in
ancient writers, it is probable he died young. It is collected,
However, that he was a Roman of illustrious extraction, and
lived under the reign of Augustus, whom he invokes, though
not by name, yet by circumstances and character that suit no
other emperor. #. poem was first published at Bologna in
1474; and the best editions since, are that of Scaliger, 1600,
4to.; of Bentley, 1738, 4to, ; and of Burton, London, 1783,
VARIUS, a tragic poet, intimate with Horace and Virgil.
He was one of those whom Augustus appointed to revise Vir-
gil's AEneid. Some fragments of his poetry are still extant.
Besides tragedies, he wrote a panegyric on the emperor. Quin-






B.C. 43.] FROM SPARTACUs to CALIGULA. 733
tilian says, that his Thyestes was equal to any composition of
the Greek poets. N. º N. tº
LUCIUS CORNELIUS SEVERUS, a poet of the Au-
gustan age, whose AEtna was published with notes, and a prose
interpretation, by Le Clerc in 1703.
C.TURANIUS, a Latin tragic poet in the age of Augustus.
RABIRIUS, a Roman poet in the age of Augustus. He
wrote a poem on the victory over Antony at Actium. Seneca.
has compared him to Virgil for elegance and majesty; but
Quintilian is not so favourable. -
AULUS ALBIUS TIBULLUS, a Roman knight, and a
celebrated Latin poet, was born at Rome, B.C. 43. His father
was, of the equestrian order, and he himself set out into the
world with all the advantages of fortune, and the greatest ac-
complishments of mind and person. Among the great men of
his age, he singled out Messala Corvinus for his patron, who
was a very brave and polite Roman, admired by Cicero, men-
tioned by Horace with respect, and ranked by Quintilian
among the masters of oratory. He was to Tibullus, what
Maecenas was to Horace. This poet had a country seat at Pe-
dum, a town in Latium, not far from Rome. He was a great
sufferer in the civil wars, yet does not seem to have been con-
cerned in any party. He was, like Ovid, a man devoted to ease
and pleasure, and his time was divided between the muses and
his mistresses. He seems indeed to have abandoned himself en-
tirely to the passion of love, even to the neglect of his affairs;
but there is no doubt that he might have retrieved the losses
he had sustained, if he had been a man of the least application
to business. His love for Messala, however, made him forget
his love of ease and pleasure, and follow that nobleman into
Gaul, who was there victorious, and had a triumph decreed.
him upon his return to Rome. In this expedition he saw, as
he tells us, a man at Arupinum above one hundred years of
age, and even then a vigorous active soldier. He was attend-
ing Messala on a second expedition to Syria, when he ſell sick,
by the way, and was forced to stay in the island of Phaeacia or
Corcyra. -
Though he recovered from this attack, death did not spare
him much longer, but carried him offin the flower of his age.
As to his character, Horace, with whom he was intimately
acquainted, as well as with the other wits of the Augustan age,
gives him that of a fine writer and good critic. Nor is Ovid
sparing of his praises of Tibullus; the ninth elegy of the third.
book is written to bewail his death. There Ovid finely de-
scribes the sweetness and elegance of this poet's elegies, by
introducing Cupid and Venus to mourn over him; after which
he places him in the Elysian fields, in company with Calvus,
Catullus, and Gallus.


734 UNIVERSAL Biography. [B. c. 99.
His works are usually printed with those of Catullus and
rtius. Tibullus has been translated into English by
Pº,
3.
a111
#.
L IT E R AT U R E.
TYRANNIO, a Greek grammarian, was a native of Amisae,
in Pontus, and a disciple of Dionysius of Thrace, at Rhodes.
Upon the conquest of the kingdom of Mithridates, by Lucul-
lus, in the year B.C. 70, Tyrannio became a captive, but was
liberated by Muraena, and taken to Rome, where he opened a
school, in which he gave instruction to the son and nephew of
Cicero, and also to Strabo. In this situation he acquired con-
siderable wealth, and accumulated a library of more than thirty
thousand volumes. Among other valuable works which he pos-
sessed, he preserved the writings of Aristotle and Theophras-
tus, which he obtained from a librarian of Sylla, and which he
afterwards imparted to Andronicus of Rhodes. Tyrannio lived
to an advanced age ; but none of his works are extant.
CAIUS SCRIBONIUS CURIO, a Roman orator, distin-
guished for the part which he took in the civil war between
Pompey and Caesar. He was at first a partizan of Pompey, and
selected to oppose the ambitious designs of Caesar; but being
of licentious manners, and overwhelmed with debts, he could
not withstand the temptation of a high bribe offered him, and
became the opponent of him in whose cause he had joined. In
battle, with the º: of Pompey, he fought with vigour and
success, but being afterwards led into an ambuscade, his troops
were cut to pieces, and himself killed either by his own hand,
or in the general slaughter. This happened B.C. 40. By
:he poet Lucian, Curio is spoken of in extravagant terms of
applause, but, by the historian Velleius Paterculus, he is de-
scribed as “a man of noble birth, an accomplished speaker,
bold, lavish alike of his own fortune and person, and of those
of others, most ingeniously profligate and mischievously elo-
quent, one whose lust for money and for pleasure, no wealth, no
enjoyments could satiate.” By Plutarch, Curio is represented
as the friend and associate of Cato in his early years.
MUNATIUS, an orator and disciple of Cicero. His father,
grand-father, and great grand-father bore the same name. He
was with Caesar in Gaul, and was made consul with Brutus.
He promised to favour the republican cause for some time,
he deserted again to Caesar. He was long Antony's favourite;
, the favours
lvius. His services were great in the senate; for
the office of .
but hel aft him at the battle of Actium, to conciliate




























B. c. 80.] FROM SPARTACUs to CALIGULA. 735
ANTONIUS GNYPHO, a native of Gaul, who came to
Rome, and taught rhetoric and poetry, in the house of Julius
Caesar, while he was but a boy. His school was frequented
by Cicero and other great men. He set no price upon his la-
bours, which made his scholars the more liberal to him.
POLUS, an orator in the age of Julius Caesar, wrote in three
books an account of Antony's expedition in Parthia, and like-
wise published orations. - ºntº
ARTEMIDORUS, a man of Cnidas, son to the historian
Theopompus. He had a school at Rome, and he wrote a book
on illustrious men, not extant. As he was a friend of Julius
Caesar, he wrote down an account of the conspiracy which was
formed against him. He gave it to the dictator, from among
the crowd as he was going to the senate, but Julius Caesar put it
with other papers he held in his hand, thinking it to be of no
material consequence. . . . . . . . . . . --
CAIUS JULIUS HYGINUS, one of the ancient gram-
marians, is mentioned by Suetonius, as a native of Spain,
though some have supposed him an Alexandrian, and to have
been brought to Rome, after the capture of that city by Julius
Caesar. He was appointed keeper of the palatine library, and
received pupils for instruction. He was intimately acquainted
with Ovid, and other literary characters of the age. He was
said to be the imitator of Cornelius Alexander, a Greek gram-
marian, who wrote the lives of illustrious men, which are re-
ferred to by Aulus Gellius; a volume of examples, and a co-
pious treatise on the cities of Italy. Other works have been
attributed to him. ? 3. * : * *
SPURIUS MARTIUS TARPA, a Latin critic, in the time
of Julius Caesar and Augustus. He had his tribunal in the
temple of Apollo, where, with four assistants, he passed sen-
tence on the works of the poets, which, after his approbation,
were deposited in the temple of the muses. Cicero and Ho-
race make honourable mention of this critic. He also reviewed
the plays. * . . .
PUPILLUS ORBILIUS, a grammarian of Beneventum,
who was the first instructor of the poet Horace. He came to
Rome in the consulship of Cicero, and there, as a public teacher,
acquired more fame than money. He was naturally of a severe
disposition, of which his pupils often felt the effects. He
lived almost to his hundredth year, and lost his memory some
time before his death. . . . . . . . . . . . .
BATHYLLUS and PYLADES, inventors of pantomimic
entertainments on the stage. Bathyllus º in repre-
senting comedy; Pylades in tragedy. The art consisted in
expressing the passions by gestures, attitudes, and dumb show;
not, as in modern times, in machinery, and the fooleries of
Harlequin. They flourished at Rome, under Augustus. Each



736 UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. [B.C. 40.
of them kept scholars, who perpetuated their master's name,
for the followers of Bathyllus, who excelled in the comic called
themselves Bathylli; and those of Pylades, who excelled in the
gic called themselves Pyladae.
TUCCA PLOTIUS, a learned Roman, who flourished in
the Augustan age, and was intimate with all the literati of that
dignified º He was the particular friend of Horace,
Maecenas, and Virgil, who left him his heir.... Augustus ap-
pointed him, along with Varius, to review Virgil's AEneid.
WINDALUS, a writer in the age of Augustus, who wrote
ten books on agriculture. |
* CAIUS TREBATIUS TESTAS, a writer of the Augus-
tan age, who was banished by Caesar as a partizan of Pompey's,
but was afterwards reconciled to him. He was eminent for his
integrity. He wrote on council law, and was also author of
some good poems. - . . . . . .”.”.
ºf FLACCUS VERRIUS, a freedman, and grammarian, fa-
mous for his power in instructing. He was appointed over the
grand-children of Augustus, and also distinguished himself by
his writings. 2. s & .
ºn APOLLONIUS, a learned grammarian in the time of
Augustus who compiled a Greek lexicon to Homer, which was
re-printed at Paris in 1773, 2 vols. 4to. gº &
ºn ASCONIUS PEDIANUS, an ancient grammarian of Pa-
dua, and according to Servius, an acquaintance of Virgil. He
wrote Commentaries on Cicero's Orations, fragments of which
are published in several editions of Cicero's works.
DIDYMUS, of Alexandria, sirnamed CHALCENTRAEUS,
an ancient grammarian, who lived in the reign of Augustus, and
composed four thousand books, none of which have reached us.
ATHENAEUS, a Roman orator and Peripatetic philosopher
in the time of Augustus. ; : , ; .
MARCUS ANNAEUS SENECA, a celebrated orator,
born at Corduba, in Spain, but descended of an equestrian
Roman family, which had emigrated with the colony from
Rome. He married Helvia, a Spanish lady, by whom he had
three sons, Annaeus, Novatus, Lucius the philosopher, and
Annaeus Mela, the father of the poet Lucan. He came to Rome
with his family, where he became so eminent as an orator, that
he was styled Declamator, or the Rhetorician. He published
a collection from the most celebrated orators of that age, part
of which is extant. . . . . . .
* CASSIUS SEVERUS, an orator, who was banished into
Crete by Augustus for his satirical language. He was distin-
guished for his eloquence, but he was more zealous than pru-
dent. His declamations were ordered to be destroyed by the
senate. § % . . . . . . .
AFENUS WARUS, a celebrated Roman lawyer, was born










B. C. 36.] FROM SPARTACUS TO CALIGULA. 737
in the year of Rome 713, at Cremona, from whence he came
to Rome, and studied under Cassius Severus. His distinguished
talents and probity of character raised him at length to the rank
of consul. }. was the first who made those collections of the
civil law which are called Digests; but none of his writings are
now extant. There have been several persons of the same
name, whose characters have been confounded. x
CAIUS ALBUTIUS SILUS, a Roman orator in the time
of Augustus, was a native of Novara, which he left on account
of some insult he had received, and went to Rome, but returned
to his native place in his old age, and there starved himself to
death. .
JULIUS BASSUS, an orator in the reign of Augustus,
some of whose orations have been preserved by Seneca.
SEVERUS TITUS CASSIUS, a Roman orator in the
time of Augustus. He was so much addicted to accusing as to
become a libeller and calumniator; and his writings were the
cause of a law passed by Augustus against libels. That mo-
march also banished Cassius, who died miserably. Seneca
speaks highly of his eloquence. “He had every quality,” he
says, “ of a good declaimer, a choice phraseology, an ardent
and weighty mode of expression, containing more thoughts than
words; great care and diligence in preparation, yet an extraor-
dinary facility in speaking unprepared. He succeeded even
better in extemporary effusions, and derived advantage from
being interrupted.” Tacitus indeed mentions Cassius as the
first corruptor of ancient eloquence; aud Quintilian, while he
allows him great ingenuity, quickness, and force, represents
him as deficient in gravity and judgment.
PHAEDRUS, well known for his fables, was a native of
Thrace, and probably brought to Rome at an early age in the
condition of a slave. He came into the service of the emperor
Augustus, by whom he was enfranchised, as appears from the
title prefixed to his work of “Augusti Libertus.” Of this life
mothing more is known, except that in the reign of Tiberius he
was a sufferer under the injustice and tyranny of Sejanus, whom
he survived. It is probable he lived to an advanced age. He
was author of five books of fables, composed in iambic verse.
They are valuable for their precision, purity, elegance, and
simplicity. The matter of these fables is generally borrowed
from Æsop; but Phaedrus intermixes stories on history–pieces
of his own. This work appears to have been little known in
his own time, for no extant writer of antiquity alludes to it.
This circumstance, together with the assertion of Seneca,
“ that the Romans had not attempted fables and AEsopian com-
positions,” might throw a suspicion on the genuineness of the
work, did not its style and manner refer it to the best age of
Roman literature. It remained unknown to the moderns till
lºº º, when Francis Filou discovered a copy in the
I , 2 H




738 UNIVERSAL biography. [B. C. 36.
library of Remi, at Rheims, and sent it to his brother Peter,
who published it. Two manuscripts of Phaedrus are said to
exist both of which are not only imperfect, but, being tran-
scribed from the same copy very ... they are full of er-
rors; hence, few ancient works have given more trouble, and
room for conjecture to critics. &
STRABO, a celebrated geographer, was born at Arpasia,
a city of Pontus. It appears that he studied grammar, and rhe-
toric, at Nyssa, and that he was instructed in the principles of
the various sects of philosophers, in several of the most cele-
brated schools of Asia. He owns himself a stoic, and he followed
their dogmas. Of the general course of his life, little is known;
but he appears to have been a great traveller, and to have visited
most of the countries which he describes. Besides his geogra-
phy, contained in seventeen books, which was written in his
advanced age, and which is highly valued, he was the author of
some historical works, which have been lost. His geography,
though from the time in which he lived it must be imperfect,
and erroneous in various particulars, is very useful, for the il-
lustration of the history and . of the ancients: more
especially, as he intersperses many philosophical remarks, which
indicate a cultivated mind, and many short narratives, which
serve to extend our acquaintance with the history and antiqui-
ties of remote periods. Strabo frequently mentions music, and
the illustrious musicians of antiquity, with great respect. He
places Zeno at the head of all science; and says, that the prin-
cipal invention of the poet does not consist in teaching, but in
delighting mankind. But though a grave and solid writer, and
a stoic, Strabo has related a story in his fourteenth book, which
throws a ridicule, not only on eminent individual musicians, but
on the pretended lovers of music. He says, that in Greece,
near Bargilia, on the sea-coast, there was a market town, in a
barren country, in which the inhabitants subsisted chiefly on
fish; and a great performer on the cithara, passing that way,
wished to display his talents in public. On notice being given,
the inhabitants assembled in great crowds to hear him. But,
soon after he began to perform, on hearing the fish-market
bell, the audience hastened away, and left the citharist only
one solitary person behind, who had not heard the bell, for he
was deaf. The musician complained of ill-treatment, but
finished by saying to the remaining gentleman, “Kind sir! I
thank you for your politeness, in staying after all the rest had
left me; but I perceive that you are a man of taste, a true
lover of music, and did not run away in the midst of my per-
formance, merely because the fish-bell rung.”—“What do you
say ? Why, has it rung?” demands the deaf gentleman; and
the performer answering in the affirmative, “Oh, then, I wish
º i good day, sir;" and hastened to the markei as fast as he
COuld, . .

B.C. 36.1 FROM SPARTACUS TO CALIGULA. 739

LUCIUS MUNATIUS PLANCUS, a writer of the Au-
gustan age, but a very versatile character. He rendered him-
self ridiculous by his follies and extravagancies. He was an
orator, and a disciple of Cicero. He was with Caesar in Gaul,
was a governor of a province in Gallia Celtica, where he built
Lugdunum, now Lyons; and was made consul along with Bru-
tus. He then favoured the republican cause, but afterwards
deserted to Caesar. He disgraced himself still more, by be-
coming a mean flatterer of Antony and Cleopatra; to please
whom he acted as a stage dancer, and, in a comedy, personated
the sea-god Glaucus, by dancing quite naked, with his body
painted green, a crown of reeds on his head, and the tail of a
large fish appended to his back. Finding that this sycophantic
adulation procured him contempt instead of approbation, even
from Antony, he deserted to Octavius, before the battle of
Actium, who received him with great marks of attention and
respect: which Plancus returned by proposing in the senate to
confer on him the title of Augustus, as expressive of the dig-
nity and the reverence which the greatness of his valour and
his heroic achievement seemed to claim. About this period
Horace dedicated his seventh ode to him. The elegance of his
Letters to Bicero, which are still extant, prove that he was not
unworthy of a literary compliment.
HILLEL, of Babylon, president of the Sanhedrim of Jeru-
salem. He formed a celebrated school there, in which he
maintained the oral tradition of the Jews against Shamai, his
colleague; whose disciples adhered only to the written law;
and this controversy gave rise to the sects of the Pharisees and
Scribes. He was likewise one of the compilers of the Talmud.
He also laboured much at giving a correct edition of the sacred
text; and there is attributed to him an ancient MS. bible, which
bears his name. He flourished about B. C. 30, and died in a
very advanced age,
AMARA-SINGHA, a learned Hindoo, and counsellor to
the celebrated rajah Vikramaditea, lived in the first cen-
tury B. C. He is the author of a dictionary of the Sanscrit,
which is esteemed very correct and complete. It is called
“Amara-Kocha,” or the treasure of Amara, and is not in the
alphabetical order, but divided into sections, as the names of
the gods, the stars, the elements, &c. in the manner of some
vocabularies. It is written in a species of verse, and the ex-
planations are given in the different Indian languages. w
POTAMON, of Lesbos, or Mitylene, an orator, who flou-
rished in the time of Tiberius, was the son of the philosopher
Lesbomax. He was the author of a panegyric on Tiberius, who
showed him great distinction.


GALLUS ASINIUS, son of Pollio Asinius, the orator,
married Vipsania after she had been divorced by Tiberius.

3 B 2
740 UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. [B. C. 36 .

This marriage gave rise to a secret enmity between the em-
peror and '... who starved himself to death, either vo-
untarily, or by order of his imperial enemy. He had six
sons by his wife. He wrote a comparison between his father
and Cicero, in which he gave a decided superiority to the
former. .
Q. RHEMMIUS PALAEMON, a famous grammarian of
Rome, in the time of Tiberius. He was born of a slave at
Vienna, and was first bred up a weaver; but attending his
master's son to school, he acquired so much learning, that he
obtained his freedom, and became a teacher at Rome. He
had an excellent memory, and ready elocution, and could make
verses extempore. But his arrogance and his debaucheries
were so great, that his large income was not sufficient to sup-
port them. We have only some fragments of his works.
APION, a famous grammarian, born in Egypt, was a pro-
fessor at Rome in the reign of Tiberius. He had all the arro-
gance of a pedant, and amused himself with inquiries, difficult
in their investigation, and insignificant in their consequences.
One of his principal works was his Antiquities of Egypt.
DOMITIUS AFER, a famous orator, born at Nismes,
flourished under Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, and Nero.
Quintilian, who, in his youth, cultivated his friendship, makes
frequent mention of him, and commends his pleadings. But
he disgraced his talents by turning informer against some of the
most distinguished personages in Rome. Hispleadings abounded
with pleasing stories, and there were public collections of his
witty sayings. He also wrote two books on witnesses. Afer
was once in great danger from an inscription he put upon a
statue he had erected in honour of Caligula, wherein he de-
clared, that this prince was a second time consul at the age of
twenty-seven. This he intended as an encomium, but Caligula,
taking it as a sarcasm upon his youth, and his infringement of
the laws, raised a process against him, and pleaded himself in
person. Afer, instead of making a defence, repeated part of
the emperor's speech with the highest marks of admiration;
after which he fell upon his knees, and, begging pardon, de-
clared, that he dreaded more the eloquence of Caligula than
his imperial power. This mean flattery succeeded so well, that
the emperor, not only pardoned, but raised him to the consul-
ship. He died in the reign of Nero, A. D. 59. .

H is to R Y.
CAIUS CRISPUs SALLUSTIUS SALLUST, a cele-
brated Roman historian, was born about B. C. 85, in the coun-
try of the Sabinnes. He was educated at Rome, and was not
B.C. 85.] FROM spartacus to CALIGULA. 74.1
less distinguished for his licentiousness than for his talents. It
is recorded of him, that being detected in an adulterous inter-
course, he was actually scourged, by the hand of Milo, and
obliged to pay a fine before he obtained his dismission. His
extravagance and debauchery caused him to be expunged from
the list of senators. . He was afterwards restored by Julius
Caesar, promoted to the dignities of quaestor and praetor, and
nominated to the government of Numidia. In this high office
he enriched himself so much by pillage and rapine, that on his
return to Rome, he was enabled to build himself a magnificent
villa, with extensive gardens, on the Quirinal Hill, which even
still retains the name of Sallust. He married Terentia, the di-
vorced wife of Cicero, and from this circumstance, it has been
said by some, arose an everlasting hatred between the orator
and the historian; though, according to others, this enmity was
occasioned by the defence which Cicero undertook for Milo in
the case of Claudius. Sallust died in the fifty-first year of his
age, in the year B.C. 35. The vices of this man deserve a pe-
culiar stigma, on account of their contrast with the rigid mora-
lity contained in his writings, which might lead the incautious
reader to take him for a Cato. But while the man and the
statesman must be ever held in contempt and abhorrence, the
author has always been regarded as one of the ornaments of the
age and country in which he flourished. . He had composed a
history of the Roman republic, from the death of Sylla to Cati-
line's conspiracy; of this nothing remains but a few fragments.
His only compositions, that have come down to modern times, in
a state of tolerable perfection, are the history of Catiline's con-
spiracy, and of the wars of Jugurtha, king of Numidia. In
these works, which have met with uniform applause, the author
is greatly admired for the elegance, the vigour, and the anima-
tion of his sentences; he every where displays a wonderful
knowledge of the human heart, and paints with a mostmasterly
hand the causes that gave rise to the great events which he re-
lates. No one was better acquainted with the vices that pre-
vailed in Italy, from his own practice of many of them; and no
one seems to have been more severe against the follies of the
age, and even those failings of which he himself not only stood
guilty in the face of the world, but must have stood self-con-
demned. His descriptions are elegantly correct, and his ha-
rangues are nervous and animated, and, apparently, extremely
well adapted to the character and different pursuits of the great
men in whose mouths they are placed. By the moderns it is
agreed, that the concise energy of the Latin language is no
where displayed to more perfection than in the existing works
of Sallust, in which there is great skill shown in sketching the
characters that come under his notice. Though faithful in every
other respect, he has not painted the character of Cicero with


742 Universal biography. [B. C. 85.
historian; and in passing over in silence many actions which re-
flect the greatest honour on the first husband of Terentia,
the rival of Cicero, he has disgraced himself and rendered his
compositions in some respects suspicious. The best editions of
Sallust are the Variorum of 1670; that of Wasse, at Cambridge,
in 1710; and that of Homer, London, 1789, 8vo. There are
four English translations, one by Gordon, another by Dr. Rose,
8vo., one by Dr. Steuart, in 2 vols. 4to., and another by Mur-
phy, 8vo.
ALEXANDER, an historian, called also Blyhiston, who
wrote five books on the Roman republic; in which he said that
the Jews had received their laws, not from God, but from a
woman he called Moso. He also wrote a treatise on the Pytha-
gorean philosophy. º
TIMAGENES, a Greek historian of Alexandria, who flou-
rished about B.C. 54. He was brought to Rome by Gabinius,
and sold a slave to Sylla's son. His abilities procured him his
liberty, and gained the favour of Augustus, which he returned
by impertinence; on which the emperor dismissed him; and he
in revenge burnt the admired history he had written of his
reign. .
º . EMNON, a Greek historian, is thought to have flourished
in the time of Augustus. He wrote a history of the affairs of
Heraclea in Pontus, sixteen books of which were abridged by
Photius. They came down to the death of an Heraclean am-
bassador of Julius Caesar, the emperor. A Latin translation of
his history was published at Oxford in 1597.
all the fidelity and accuracy which the reader claims from the
TROGUS POMPEIUS, a Latin universal historian to the
time of Augustus Caesar, of whom we have an abridgment by
Justin, flourished about B.C. 41.
CAIUS OPPIUS, a Roman biographer, and a friend of Ju-
lius Caesar, who wrote the lives of Scipio Africanus and of
Pompey the Great. But in the latter he is accused of having
paid little regard to facts, his chief object being to defame Pom-
pey, and extol his patron Caesar. w
CRITOLAUS, a Greek historian, who wrote a treatise on
the Epirots, mentioned by Plutarch; also one on astronomy.
EVAGORAS, a Greek writer in the time of Augustus, who
wrote a history of Egypt; the life of Timagenes, De Artificio,
Thucydidis Oratorio, º in Thucydidem.
FENESTELLA, a Roman historian in the age of Augus-
tus. º He . died at º: Cumae.
AUFIDIUS BASSIUS, a Roman historian who lived in the
reigns of Augustus and Tiberius, and was a great admirer of
s of N. ELIUS NEPOs, a Roman historian and biogra-
pher, who flourished in the time of Julius Caesar and Augustus.











B. C. 85.] FROM SPARTACUS TO CALIGULA,
He was born on the banks of the Po, probably at Hostilia, and
like some other of his learned contemporaries, he shared the
favours, and enjoyed the patronage of the emperor. He was
the intimate friend of Cicero and Atticus. We have no other
account of his life. As an author, he is known to every school-boy
by his “De Vitis Excellentium Imperatorum,” which is his
only work that has reached modern times. It consists of twenty-
two articles of biography concerning Greek and other foreign
generals, with a fragment of the life of Cato of Utica, and a
more detailed memoir of Atticus. This work long passed un-
der the name of Emilius Probus, who presented it to the em-
peror Theodosius in the fourth century; but the purity of the
style, which is that of the best age of the Latin language, as-
signs them to their real author. According to some writers, he
composed three books of “Chronicles,” also a biographical
account of all the most celebrated kings, generals, and authors
of antiquity. The best edition is that of Oxford, 1803.
DIODORUS, an historian, sirnamed Siculus, because he
was born at Argyra in Sicily. He wrote a history of Egypt,
Persia, Syria, Media, Greece, Rome, and Carthage, which was
divided into forty books, of which only fifteen are extant, with
some few fragments. This valuable composition was the work
of an accurate enquirer, and it is said that he visited all the
places of which he has made mention in his history. It was the
labour of thirty years, though the greater part may be consi-
dered as nothing more than a judicious compilation from Be-
rosus, Timaeus, Theopompus, Callisthenes, and others. The
author, however, is too credulous in some of his narrations, and
often wanders far from the truth. His style is neither elegant
nor too laboured; but it contains great simplicity and unaffected
correctness. He often dwells too long upon fabulous reports
and trifling incidents, while events of the greatest importance
to history are treated with brevity, and sometimes passed over
in silence. His manner of reckoning, by the Olympiads and the
Roman consuls, will be found very erroneous. This historian
flourished about B.C. 44. He spent much time at Rome to
procure information, and authenticate his historical narrations.
The first Latin edition is that of Milan, in 1472, fol.; and the
first of the Greek, that of Henry Stephens, 1559. The best
editions are that of Wesseling, Greek and Latin, Amsterdam,
2 vols. fol. 1745; and of Heyne, in 10 vols. 8vo. 1793.
DIONYSIUS, sirnamed Halicarnassus, an historian who
left his country and came to reside at Rome, where he care-
fully studied all the Greek and Latin writers, whose composi-
tions treated of the Roman history. He formed an acquaint-
ance with all the learned of the age, and derived much infor-
mation from their company and conversation. After an unre-
mitted application, during twenty-four years, he gave to the






744 UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. [B.C. 60,
world his Roman Antiquities, in twenty books, of which only
the eleven first are now extant, nearly containing the account
of 312 years. His composition has been greatly valued by the
ancients as well as the moderns, for the easiness of his style,
the fidelity of his chronology, and the judiciousness of his re-
marks and criticism. Like a faithful historian, he never men-
tioned any thing but what was authenticated, and totally dis-
regarded the fabulous traditions which fill and disgrace the
pages of both his predecessors and followers. To the merits of
the elegant historian, Dionysius, as may be seen in his treatises,
has also added the equally respectable character of the elo-
quent orator, the critic, and the politician. He lived during
the Augustan age, and came to Rome about B. C. 30 years.
Besides his Roman antiquities, he wrote “De structură Ora-
tionis,” the best edition of which is that of Upton, in 1702;
and of all his works, that by Hudson at Oxford, in 2 vols.
folio, 1704. Mr. Spelman translated his history in 4 vols. 4to.
There was another Greek writer of the same name, commonly
called the junior, who lived in the reign of Adrian, and wrote
a history of ancient musicians, and a defence of music against
Plato ; but his works are lost. º
TITUS LIVIUS LIVY, an eminent Roman historian, is
supposed to have been a native of Padua. He came to Rome
in the reign of Augustus, and was admitted to the familiarity
of several persons of rank, and of the emperor himself. He
made himself known by some philosophical dialogues; but his
literary reputation was principally built upon his Roman his-
tory, which enjoys a perpetual celebrity; no work of the kind
was ever received with greater applause. Few particulars of
his life are known, yet his fame was so universally spread, even
in his life time, that a person traversed Spain, Gaul, and Italy,
merely to see the man whose writings had given him such plea-
sure and satisfaction in the perusal. Livy died at Padua, in
his sixty-seventh year, and according to some, on that same
day Rome was also deprived of another of its brightest orna-
ments, by the death of Ovid. Livy wrote a letter, addressed
to his son, on the merit of authors, which is greatly com-
mended by Quintilian, who expatiates with great warmth and
ardour on the judgment and candour of the writer. His Ro-
man history was comprehended in one hundred and forty books,
of which only thirty-five are now extant. It began with the
foundation of Rome, and was continued till the death of Dru-
sus, in Germany. The merit of this history is well known, and
the high rank which Livy holds among historians will never be
disputed. His style is clear and intelligible, laboured without
affectation, diffusive without tediousness, and argumentative
without pedantry. His descriptions are singularly lively and
picturesque; and there are few specimens of oratory superior


B.C. 60.] FROM SPARTACUS TO CALIGULA. 745
to that of many of the speeches with which his narratives are
copiously interspersed. The first edition of Livy's history is
that of Rome, printed by Sweynhaym and Pannartz, in 1469;
and the best that of Gronovius, in 3 vols. 8vo., 1679. Of four
English translations the best, and last, is that by Baker, in
vols. 8vo., 1797. z N.
QUINTUS CURTIUS, a Latin historian, who wrote the
life of Alexander the Great, in ten books, of which the two
first are not extant, but are so well supplied by Freinshemius,
that the loss is scarcely regretted. When this writer was born,
or even when he lived, is not known. By his style he is sup-
posed to have lived near the Augustan age; though some ima-
gine the work to have been composed in Italy, about three
hundred years ago, and the name of Quintus Curtius fictiti-
ously prefixed. Cardinal du Perron was so great an admirer
of this work, as to declare one page of it to be worth thirty of
Tacitus; yet M. le Clerc, at the end of his Art of Criticism,
has charged the writer with great ignorance, and many contra-
dictions. He has nevertheless many qualities as a writer, which
will always make him admired and applauded. .
VALERIUS MAXIMUS, a Latin historian, who served
with Sextus Pompeius, in the army, and at his return wrote a
collection of remarkable actions and sayings, of eminent Ro-
mans, dedicated to Tiberius. The best edition is that of Ley-
den, with notes, 8vo. 1670. 3.
M. POMPEIUS THEOPHANES, the son of Theopha-
nes, an historian, was made governor of Asia, and was other-
wise highly favoured by Tiberius.
CAIUS VELLEIUS PATERCULUS, an ancient Ro-
man historian, who flourished in the reign of Tiberius Caesar,
was born B.C. 14. His ancestors were illustrious for merit
and offices. His grandfather espoused the party of Tiberius
Nero, the emperor's father; but being old and infirm, and not
able to accompany Nero when he retired from Naples, he killed
himself. His father was a soldier of rank, and so was Pater-
culus. He was a military tribune when Caius Caesar, a grand-
son of Augustus, had an interview with the king of the Par-
thians, in an island of the Euphrates A.D. 31. He commanded
the cavalry in Germany, under Tiberius; and accompanied
that prince for nine years successively, in all his expeditions.
He received honourable rewards from him, but was preferred
to no higher dignity than the praetorship. The praises he be-
stows upon Sejanus make it probable that he was a friend of
this favourite, and was involved in his ruin. His death is
placed by Dodwell in the year A.D. 46., when he was in his
fiftieth year. He wrote “An Abridgement of the Roman His-
#
tory,” in two books, which is very curious. His purpose was
6



UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. [B.C. 14.
only to reduce things from the foundation of Rome to the time
wherein he lived, but he began his work with things previous
to that memorable era; for, though the beginning of his book
is wanting, we yet find, in what remains of it, an account of
many cities more ancient than Rome. He promised a larger
history, and no doubt would have executed it well; for during
his military expeditions he had seen, as he tells us, the pro-
vinces of Thrace, Macedonia, Achaia, Asia Minor, and other
more easterly regions, especially upon the shores of the Euxine
Sea, which had furnished his mind with much entertaining and
useful knowledge. In the Abridgement we have many parti-
culars related, that are no where else to be found; and this
makes it more valuable. The style of Paterculus, though mi-
serably disguised through the carelessness of transcribers, and
impossible to be restored to purity for want of manuscripts, is
yet manifestly worthy of his age, which was the time of pure
Latinity. The greatest excellence of this historian lies in his
manner of commending and blaming those of whom he speaks,
which he does in the finest terms, and the most delicate ex-
pressions. He is condemned, and indeed with the greatest
reason, for his partiality to the house of Augustus, and for
making extravagant eulogies, not only upon Tiberius, but even
upon his favourite Sejanus; whom, though a vile and cruel
monster, Paterculus celebrates as one of the most excellent
persons the Roman commonwealth had produced. Lipsius,
though he praises him in other respects, yet censures him
severely for his insincerity and partiality. “Welleius Patercu-
lus,” says he, “raises my indignation; he represents Sejanus,
as endowed with all good qualities. The impudence of this
historian' But we know that he was born, and died, to the
destruction of mankind.” After many commendations, he con-
cludes, that Livia was a woman more resembling the gods than
men; and as to Tiberius, he thinks it a crime to speak other-
wise of him, than as of immortal Jove. What sincere and
honest mind can bear this. On the other hand, how artfully
does he every where conceal the great qualities of Caesar Ger-
manicus? how obliquely does he ruin the reputation of Agrip-
pina and others, whom Tiberius was thought to hate?. In
short, he is nothing but a court prostitute. You will say, per-
haps, it was unsafe to speak the truth at those times. I grant
it; but if he could not write the truth, he ought not to have
written lies; none are called to account for silence. La Mothe
Vayer has made a very just remark upon this occasion.
me fault,” says he, “may be observed in many
ho have written the histor
published while they lived.” It is strange that
it and worthy to be preserved, and of which,















I FROM SPARTACUS TO CALIGULA. 747
by reason of its shortness, copies might be so easily taken,
should have been so near being lost. One manuscript only
was fortunately found, as well of this author among the Latins,
as of Hesychius among the Greeks; “ in which,” says a great
critic of our own nation, “the faults of the scribes are found so
numerous, and the defects so beyond all redress, that, notwith-
standing the pains of the most learned and acute critics, for two
whole centuries, these books still are, and are like to continue,
a mere heap of errors.” No ancient author but Priscian makes
mention of Paterculus; the moderns have done him infinitely
more justice, and have illustrated him with notes and commen-
taries.
MIU S I C.
NICHOMACHUS, one of the seven Greek writers on mu-
sic, that have been preserved, and collected and published by,
Meibomius, who supposes him to have flourished in the time
of Augustus. -
MATH E M ATICS, &c.
SPURINA, a mathematician and astrologer, who told Ju-
lius Caesar to beware of the ides of March. As he went to
the senate house, on the morning of the ides, Caesar said to
Spurina, the ides are at last come. Yes, replied Spurina, but
not yet past. Caesar was murdered a few moments after.
ARCHITECTURE. x
MARCUS VITRUVIUS Pollio VITRUVIUS, a ce.
lebrated ancient architect, was born at Formio, in Italy. He
was greatly esteemed by Julius Caesar, and employed by Au-
gustus in constructing public buildings, and warlike machines.
Nothing is known of him, but what is to be collected from his
ten books “De Architectură,” still extant. His books of ar-
chitecture, are addressed to Augustus Caesar, and not only
show consummate skill in that particular science, but also a
very uncommon genius, and matural abilities. Cardan ranks
Vitruvius as one of the twelve persons, whom he supposes to
have excelled all men in the force of genius and invention.
Those twelve persons were, Euclid, Archimedes, Apo
Pergaeus, Aristotle, Archytas of Tarentum, Vitruvi
ebra, Duns Scotus, John
º
S, Achin-
ver





















UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY, [B.C. 96,
Galen, and Heber of Spain. The best edition of the archi-
tecture of Vitruvius is that of Amsterdam in 1649. Perrault
gave an excellent French translation of the same, and added
notes and figures; the first edition of which was published at
Paris in 1673, and the second, much improved, in 1684. Mr.
William Newton, surveyor of the works at Greenwich, pub-
lished in 1771, Commentaries on Vitruvius, illustrated with
figures; to which is added a description, with figures, of the
military machines used by the ancients.
ME DIC IN E.
LARGUS SCRIBONIUS, a physician in the reign of Au-
#". or Tiberius, who was the author of several works.
He compiled a collection of remedies, which is extant, pub-
lished at Basil in 1529. The best edition is that of John
Rhodius. #
ANTONIUS MUSA, an eminent Greek physician, who
cured the emperor Augustus of a dangerous illness by bathing.
He was the first who prescribed the use of the cold bath. The
Romans erected a statue to his honour. He wrote two trea-
tises, which are both extant.
THEMISON, a celebrated physician of Laodicea, a disci-
ple of Asclepiades. He founded the Methodic sect, with a
view to the more easily teaching and practising the art of medi-
cine. Themison gave the first account of diacodium, which
was prepared of the juice and decoction of poppy heads and
honey. He invented a purging medicine called heira. ww.
AMELIUS CORNELIUS CELSUS, a celebrated phy-
sician in the reigns of Augustus and Tiberius. He wrote on
agriculture, rhetoric, and military affairs, as well as medicine.
He wrote eight books on medicine, in elegant Latin. He was
the Hippocrates of the Latins, and Quintilian gives him a high
eulogium. Boerhaave says, Celsus is one of the best authors
of antiquity, for opening to us the true meaning of Hippocrates;
and that without him, the writings of this father in physic,
would be often unintelligible, and often misunderstood by us.
He shows us also, how the ancients cured distempers by fric-
tion, bathing, &c. The best edition is that of Padua, 1722,
8vo.; Leipsic 1766, 8vo.; an English translation was published
by Dr. Grieve in 1756. There is also a treatise on rhetoric,
which passes under the name of Celsus. ;
PRAXAGORAS, a physician, born in the island of Cos,
of Nearchus. He was of the family of the Ascle-
e of the last of them who supported the medical
* line. He was contemporary with Diocles. .








B.C. 50.] FROM SPARTACUS TO CALIGULA. 749
He studied anatomy assiduously by the dissection of brutes,
and left some works on the subject, which are now lost, of
which Galen spoke with some contempt. Nevertheless, his
reputation attracted the celebrated anatomists, Philotimus,
Plistonicus, and Herophilus, to his school. Some fragments
of his medical doctrines, however, which are preserved by
Caelius Aurelianus, seem to confirm the opinion which Galen
maintained of his skill.
Absyrtus ........
IND EX () F N A M ES
A. PAGE
Aaron, brother of
Moses . . . . . ... 5)
Abaris . . . . . . . . . 197
Abas, of Argos .. 68
Abdolonymus. . . . 437
Abel, brother of
Cain . . . . . . . . . 4
Abiather. . . . . . . . 139
Abigail . . . . . . . . . 133
Abihu . . . . . . . . . . 56
Abijah.......... 144
,wife of Ahaz 174
, son of Je-
roboam ....... 145
, son of Re-
hoboam . . . . . . . 146
Abimelech I., king
of Gerar . . . . . . 23
II.. . . . 28
. . . . . . 119
son of .
Gideon........ 73.
Abiram *** * * * * * 57
Abisares . . . . . . . . 436
Abishag . . . . . . . . 138
Abishai . . . . . . . . 134
Abner ... . . . . . . . 82
Abradates ...... 236
Abraham ....... 20
Abrentius # * * * # # 546
Abrocomas......
249
Absalom, son of
David * * * * * * * * 135
86
Abydemus....... 571
Academus ...... 106
Acamas ........ 102
Accius, Lucius .. 630
| Adriel ..
TO
SERIES I.
PAGE
Accius, Orator... 646
A cestes . . . . . . . . 95
Achaemenes . . . . 248
Achaeus . . . . . . . . 523
A chan, or Achar. 62
Achilles . . . . . . . . 96
Achior . . . . . . . . . . 185
Achish. . . . . . . . . . 137
Acilius. . . . . . . . . . 548
—— G. M..... ib.
Acron . . . . . . . . . . 400
Acusilas ... 304
Ada,sister of queen
Artemisia . . . . . 443
Adonijah . . . . . . . . 138
Adonizedec . . . . . 60
Adoram . . . . . . . . 145
Adrammelech.... 177
Adrastus. . . . . . . . 84
. . . . . . . . 489
. . . . . . . . 119
68
18
* * * * * * *
AEgeus. * * * * * * * * *
AEgialus . . . . . . . .
AEneas. . . . . . . . . . 94
Tacitus .. 500
AEschines . . . . . . 364
-“ . . . . . . . . 499
AEschirom ....... 490
AEschylus ....... 301
AEsculapius ..... 112
AEsop * * * * * * * * * * 279
• * * * * * * * * * 502
AEsopus, Clodius 636
Ætion . . . . . . . . . . 613
Afer, Domitius ... 740
Afranius . . . . . . . . 630
Agamemnon .... 96
Agatharchidas . . . 647
PAGE
Agatharcus . . . . .
Agatho . . . . . . . . .
Agathocles . . . . . .
-- . . . . . .
Agathon . . . . . . . .
Agesilaus I. . . . .
Agesipolis I. . . . .
Agesistrata. . . . . .
Agis, son of Euris-
theus . . . . . . . .
Agis I. . . . . . . . . . .
— II. . . . . . . . . .
IV. . . . . . . . .
Agnodice . . . . . . .
Agrippa, Herod. .
Marcus
Vespanius ....
Agrippina ......
- , Julia . .
Ahab * * * * * * * * * * *
Ahasuerus • . . . . .
Ahaz . . . . . . . # * *
Ahaziah, son of Je-
horam # * * * * * * *
Ahiezer . . . . . . . .
Ahijah. . . . . . . . . .
* * * * * * *
Ahikam . . . . . . . .
Ahimaaz. . . . . . .
Ahimelech . . . . . .
Ahithophel. ... . .
Ahitub. . . . . . . . . .
Ahuzzath . . . . . . .
Ajax, son of Oi-
leus * * * * * * * * * *
%iº
# * * * * * * * * * * * *
398
388
442
453
388
| 6 |
334
336
337
454
150
334
336
454
307
664
705
717
717
153
217
173
157
56
139
146
212
143
139
133
139
28

98
PAGE
PAGE
PAGE
Ajax, son of Tela-
mon . . . . . . . . . 99
Albinovanus . . . . 725
Albinus . . . . . . . . 609
Albutius, Titus .. 628
Alcaeus 387
* * * * * * * * * 230
Alcamenes . . . . . 181
Alcibiades ...... 327
Alcidamus . . . . . . .391
Alcimas . . . . . . . . 528
Alcinous. . . . . . . . 103
Alciphron . . . . . . 486
Alcmaeon . . . 182
284
200
* * * * * * * *
* * * *
# * , º º # 4
Alcman * * * #
Alexander,
Jan-
588
580
584
II. 4 * *
Zebina
of Phe-
, Balas of
Syria . . . . . . . .
of Cili-
cia . . . . . . . . . . 660
-— I., king
of Egypt . . . . . . 583
§ºś% 584
In 80 UIS . .
Alexander
*śº #
Tº . . 340
530
Amasis . . . . . . . . . 262
Amaziah • **-* . . . . . 157
-— . . . . . . . . 179
Amestris, wife to
Xerxes . . . . . . 248
Amilcar ........ 453
. . . . . . . . ib.
Aminadab ...... 50
Aminias . . . . . . . . 302
Ammon, or Ben
Ammi .....
Ammonius . . . . . .
Amnon . . . . . . . . .
Amon . . . . . . . . . .
Amos . . . . . . . . .
Amphares ......
Amphictyon ....
Amram . . . . . . . . .
Amraphel . . . . . .
Amyntas I. . . . . . .
— II. . . . .
Anacharsis. . . . . .
Anacreon
Anah . . . . . . . . . .
Anak . . . .
Anamim . . . .
Anaxagoras ..... 354
Anaxandrides ... 240
. . . 490
Anaxarchus . . . . 484
Anaxilas . . . . . . . 263
Anaxilaus ... . . . . 723
Anaximander. . . . 285
Anaximenes . . . . 286
501
500
221
991
539
86
26
532
135
155
. . . . . . . . . . . 178
. 179
539
64
47
26
248
337
278
294
29
# * *
tº dº º # * *
14
gº tº * *
%& 3% &#####
Anaxippus . . . . . .
Ancus, Martius. .
Andocides . . . . . .
Andriscus . . . . . .
Androclea ......
Androgeus. . . . 70
Andromache . . . . 91
Andronicus . . . . . 400
-— of Rho-
des . . 721
Aner and Eschol . 26
Angita. . . . . . . . . . 86
Anicerris. . . . . . . . 375
Anna, daughter of
Belus ........ 161
Antagoras . . . . . . 568
Antigenes . . . . . . 432
Antigenides .... 395
Antigone. . . . . . . . 69
Antigonus, Cary-
stius. . . . . . . . . . 503
of Asia 436
# # # & & # # $.
61
Antigonus, Sochae-
us. . . . . . . . . . . . 502
—, Gonatas 446
—II. Doson 534
of Judaea 589
Antimachus .... 388
Antiochus . . . . . . .391
— of Asca-
I., Soter
—II. Theos
III., The
— IV., E-
piphanes. . . . . .
— V., Eu-
pator . . . . . . . .
VI., Eu-
theus . . . . . . . .
— VII., Si-
627
440
521
lon
Great 523
524
530
584
I. of Epi-
rus . . . . . . . . . . 414
. II. . . . . 450
— I. of Ma-
cedonia ...... 248
*~~ II. * * * * 337
— III. . . . . 417
— IV. . . . . 442
— — V... * * * ib.
“ , , , , , , , 742
Alexandra, queen
of Judaea. . . . . . 588
—, daugh-
ter of Hyrcan II. 656
Alexippus * * * * * * 5 16
Alexis. . . . . . . . . . 490
Alimentus, Lucius
Cineius . . . . . . . 570
: Allucius * * * * * * * * 61 1.
Alyattes . . . . . . . . 205
Amalek ........ l I
-, king of
Edom . . . . . . . . 44
Amalthea . . . . . . . 267
Amara, Singha ... 739
Amasa, son of Abi-
ail • * * * * * * * * * 136
g
Amasa,son of Hadi 146
Amasai . . . . . . . . 137 |
# & # * * * * *
# * * * * *
Antipator, of Si-
don . . . . . . . . . . ib.
—, of Idu
H1838 - 9 s > * . . . . 58. A
– ,of Mace-
don . . . . . . . . . . 416
, son of
Cassander . . . . .442
Antiphanes... . . 490
Antiphibus. . . . . . 513
Antiphon,the Rham-
musian . . . . . . . . 391
Antisthenes. . . . . . 377
Antonia . . . . . . . . 712
Antony, Julius .. 691
, Marc . . . . 619
— . . . . 683
, Caius. . . . 619
% º # * * * 619
Anytus ......... 391
Apelles ...... ... 512
Apellicon ....... 627
Apicius . . . . . . . . . 720
Apion . . . . . . . . . . 740
Apis...... . . . . . 48
Apollodorus . . . . 634
& #&
Apollonius, of Per-
ga. . . . . . . . . . . . 537
x. --of Rhodes 567
'4 # * * * * 633
* .
INDEX,
Aram # * * * * * * • . . § 12
Aramah, or Orman 135
Aratus ....... . . . 494
—, of Sicyon... 569
Arbaces . . . . . . . . 163
Arcesilaus....... 435
*- . . . . . . . . 485
Archelaus ....... 368
%. 3.3.x:::::::: ź. N. * * * * * * * * * 509
-, son of
Herod . . . . . . . .
& .3:3 of Ma-
eedonia. ....... 336
Archeptolemus ... 94
Archias ......... 182
. . . . . . . . . . 630
. . . . . . . . . . . 725
Archidamus ...... 336
Archilochus. . . . . . 199
Archimedes. . . . . . 572
Archimelus ...... 301
Archytas . . . . . ... 369
579
657
PAGE . . . . … ...
Aristo, of Chios .. 563
Asahel * * * * * * * * * *
Asi
page page
Aspasia of Milto... 318
Aristobulus I..... 588
* * * 589
" * * * * * * 627
§§
Aristocrates, of Ar-
cadia. . . . . . . . . . 182
Aristodemus ... . . 88
— * * * * * 182
Aristogiton ...... 251
Aristomenes .... 183
Ariston..... . . . . . 477
Aristonicus * *** **** 596
Aristophanes .... 383
Aristophon ... . . . , 397
Aristotle *** *** * * 471
ºğ
Aristoxenus ...... 506
Arminius is * * * * * * * 661
Arphaxad * ***...* * * * 12
Arsaces . . . . . . . . .. 520
. . . . . . . . . . 520
Artabanus I., of
Parthia. . . . . . . . 591
Artabanus II., of
Media * * * * * * * * 660
Artabazus ... . . . . 249
Artavasdes, king
of Media ...... 661
, of
Armenia ...... 659
— II. ... 659
Artaxerxes I..... 309
—— II. ... 317
* - III. . . 443
Artaxias I., of Ar-
menia * * * * * * *.*.* 524
—II. . . . . . . 659
º º: II]. * * * * 660
Artemidorus...... 649
Artemisia I., of Ca-
ź ria . . . . . . . . . . . 249
— II., of
Caria ... . . . . . . . 443
Asa ...... * * * * * * * 146
134
Asaph . . . . . . . . . . 135
Ascanius • * * # * * * * 95
Aselepiades...... 481
º
:-º-º-º:3:...:3:...--& N. * * * * * * * pa
Asdrubal, Barca. 54
* &:::3% ; . . . . . . . . .
. º: --
its, Gallus .. º 74
:
n
Baasha . . . . . . . . .
5 * * * * * * * * 54 -
PAGE
—— of Miletus 323
Assinius, Pollio. 737
Aster * * * * * * * * . . . 416
Astyages. . . . . . . . 214
Astyanax # * * * * * .. 91
Asy chis . . . . . . . . 162
At haliah.. * * * • . * * * 156
Atheas “. . . . . . . . . 416
Athenaeus ........ 736
- -- ... . . . . . 578
Athenis.......... 307
Athenodorus . . . . 723
Atlas............ 49
Atreus # * * * * • * * * • & 83
Attalus I.. * * * * * * * 533
ż ż II. . . . . . . . 534
— III. • - - - - - 596
Atticus, Titus Pom-
ponius *** * * * * * * 691
Attilius. * * * * * * * * * 630
Atys . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Aufidius, Bassius 743
Augustus, Octavia-
nus Caesar ..... 762
Aulus, Hirtius.... 698
Ausin ........... 725
Autolycus ....... 507
Automenes ....... 182
Axiothea • - - - - - - - 375
Axylus.......... 162
Azariah, or Uzziah 171
B. .
Baalis **-es-e-e . . •. 212
147
Babri as . . . . . • . . . . 631
Bacchylides...... 300
Bagoas.......... 444
Baithouse........ 562
Balaam.........."
Baladan ........ 1
Balak • * * •- - - . º
Balbus, LuciusCor-
Bantius, L. ......
Areagathus ......
Aretaphila, of Cy-
rene . . . . . . . . . . 596
Arete. . . . . . 469
Ariarathes I. . . . . .317
..:X.3%:...: :...& I W., * * * 522
V. .... 524
- VI..... 524
Aridaeus, of Mace-
don . . . . . . . . . . 435
Ariobarzanes I., of
Cappadocia. ... 595
§ rioch • * * * -- *, * * *
Arion * * * * * * * * * * * * *
Ariovistus ....... 661.
Aristaeus # # # * * * * • 502
Aristagoras . . . . . . .247
Aristarchus...... 64
# # *** * *
Aristeas ......... 303
Aristides, the Just 257
bes ... . . . . . . . . 512
stillus........ 490
PPus . . . . . . . . 466
* * * * * * * * * * 536
5 Baruch.......... 214
{5 Barzillai ........ 1
5 | Bassus, Julius....
| | Bathsheba, or Bat-
sher . . . . . . . . . 37 sh .
shua • * * * * * * • * * 130
lades... *** * * * * 7: t;
Battus • * * * * * * * * * .






























. . . . . . . PAGE
PAGE
Bazaleel * * * * * *
Belus, the Assyrian 15
Benaiah . . . . . . . . 138
— º: ºº º I. • * * * * 146
— III. ... 171
Benjamin. . . . . . . . 43
Bera, king of So-
dom • * * * * * * * *
Berenice, daughter
of Ptolemy Au-
3. letes . . . • *-*-*-* *-* 586
Ptolemy Euer-
getes. ... -- - - - 520
— daughter
of Costoborus .. 657
daughter
of Agrippa I. .. 663
daughter
of Ptolemy Phila-
delphus . . . . . . . 522
— of Chios 594
Berosus . . . . . . . . 503
Bessus......— . . . . 446
Betis. . . . . . . . . . . . 445
Bias . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
Bibalculus, M. Fu-
rius ........ • 630
Bildad, the Shuite 45
Biom . . . . . . . . . . . . 562
-— of Smyrna .. 566
Birsha . . . . . . . . . . 23
Boaz. • * * * **-* * * * , 76
Bohan . . . . . . . . . . 60
Brabo ... • * * * * * 682
*
Brennus ........ 465
Lucius Ju-
Brutus, 270
* º: ſº
* * * * * * 6
Bellutus, Sicinius 278
II. .... 155
Cadmus ......... 304
Caesar,Caius Julius 669
Cain . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Cainan * * * * * * * * * * 5
Calanus * * * * * * * * * 486
Caleb, son of Je- §
phunneh ...... 60
Callicrates ....... 399
Callicratides .... 332
Callimachus...... 307
— . . . . . . 495
Callinus, of Ephesus 197
Callisthenes ..... 486
Callistratus . . . . . .
Cambyses * * * * * * 282
Camilla . . . . . . . . . . 95
Camillus ....... 353
Canaan . . . . . . . . . . 11
Candaules, or Myr-
cilus . . . . . . . ... 181
Capaneus. . . . . . . . 86
Capito, Ateius .... 721
Caramus . . . . . . . . 181
Carmenta........ 198
Cassander ....... 442
Cassandra ........ 91
Cassibelaunus.... 660
Cassius, Caius .... 699
—, Severus
Titus .......... 737
Castritius, Marcus 664
Catiline, Lucius
Sergus ........
Cato, Marcus Por-
tius . . . . . . . . . .. 559
— Marcus Por-
tius ........... 665
— Valerius .... 725
Catullus,Caius Wa-
lerius.......... 725
Catus, AElius Sex-
tus Paetus...... 603
Cebes • * * * * * * * * * 375
Cecinna ......... 626
Cecrops ......... 63
68
Celsus, Aurelius
Cornelius...... 749
Chabrias ........ 332
C
664
• * * * * * *
306 || Chaerea, Cassius... 706
š. * º %
p
| Charondas ....... 349
| Chares . . . . . . . ... 615
w Charidemus • . # * * * 437
Charilaus ........ 161
Charixena........ 382
Chedorlaomer....
Chelonis.......
- Cherilus * * * * * * * * 3. *
501
303
Chine, Noung of
China * * * * * * * *
Chilo....... * * * * * * *
Ching, or Xi-
Hoam-Ju ...... 534
Chiomara. # * * * * * * 562
Chiron * * * * * * * * * *-* 110
Chrysippus ...... 564
Cicero, M. Tullius 636
, Quintus
Tullius . . . . . . . .
—— Marcus . .
Cideas . . . . . . . . . .
Cimon ...... * * * *
Cincinnatus, Lu-
cius Quintius ..
Cinna, Caius Hel-
vius . . . . . . . . . .
—— Cornelius..
——, L. Cornelius
Claudius, Appius
620
705
51 1
320
350
hes ...
* * *
leo-
. 161
* * * * * *
| Cleon :* * * * * * * * * * * * *
… Clesides * * * * * * * *
Corinna .........
726
700
608
277
350
** 351
152
564
319
“ e s - e. e. e. e. e. 320 x
Cleeta . . . . . . . . . . 202
Clelia * * * * * * * * * * * 278
Cleobulus . . . . . . . 227
common,... ... 259
w - I # * * *
Cleomenes I. . . . .
Cleanthes ... . . . . .
* * * * * * * *
Clearchus ... . . . . .
ºwº, º żº # *
— —III. * * * *
Cleonymus . . . . . .
Cleopatra. . . . . . . .
Cleophes . . . . . . . .
Cleostratus . . . . . .
Clineas.. * * * * * *** **
Clisthenes . . . . . . .
Clitomachus ..... 633
Clitus ........... 417
Clodius, Publius... 66
Cluentius........ i
Cocceius, Nerva... 7
Codrus . . . . . . . . . .
Collatinus, Lucius
Tarquinius . . . . .268
Confucius, or
Kong-fu-tse
. . . . . . * *-*




















0
INDEX.
33.3 : PAGE
Coriolanus ...... 276
Cornelia * • * * * * * * 558
*… * * * * * * * * 624
wife of
Julius Caesar . . 681
Crantor ... ....... 566
Crassus, Lucius Li-
cinius ......... 633
*ś M. Lici-
nius . . . . . . . . . . 625
—— Publius.... 625
Craterus......... 432
Crates ... . . . . . . . 484
. . . . . . . . . . . 489
Cratinus ........ 382
Cratippus........ 628
Creophilus ...... 162
Creusa, daughter
of Priam . . . . . . 95
Crinna * * * * * * * * * * 230
Critias . . . . . . . . . . 333
Crito. . . . . . . . . . . . 375
Critolaus .... ... 627
“ , , , , , , , , 743
Croesus ... . . . . . . . 237
Ctesias.......... 319
Ctesibius ........ 647
Ctesidemo....... 511
Ctesifonte, Chersi-
sonte, or Ctesi-
phon . . . . . . . . . . 306
Ctesiloco . . . . . . . . 512
Cunobeline.. * * * * * 660
Curiatii............ 197
Curio, Caius Scri-
º bonius * * * * * * * * * 734
Curius, Dentatus
Manlius........ 466
Curtius, Quintus... 745
Curtius..... . . . . . 460
Cush. . . . . . . . . . . 10
Cyaxares I....... 205
Cydias. • . . . . . . . . . . 291
Cymisca. • . . . . . . . 336
Cynaegirus....... 302
Cyneas, or Cineas 449
Cypselus......... 184
Cyrus, the Great 232
Cyrus, the Younger 318
. aedalus . . . . . . . . 106
Damascenus, Nico-
II. . . . . . 220
. PAGE.
Damasippus...... 664
Damo. . . . . . . . . . . 283
Damocles......... 346
Damon. . . . . . . . . . 376
. ... . . . . . . . . 896
Dan, of Denmark 150
Dan, 5thson of Jacob 36
Danaus........... j{
Daniel. . . . . . . . . . . 215
Dares............ 112
Darius I......... 245
- II.......... 316
— III........ 444
Datames. . . . . . . . . 319 |
Decius, Manlius P. 461
Dejotarus......... 626
Demades . . . . . . . . 500
Demaratus . . . . . . . 263
Demetrius Phala-
reus . . . . . . . . . . . 478
I. Soter 530
Nicator 584
—— I... of
Macedonia. . . . . 438
— II..... 534
šº
£ºšé gº
§§
Democedes ...... 307 ||
Demochares....... 414
Democritus...... 367
Demophoon...... 85
Demosthenes...... 328
%3% . 496
Dentatus, Siccius
Deucalion......... 64
Diagoras........ 483
—of Rhodes 301
Dicearchus........ 475
…--> *** * * * * * * 535
Diceneus ........ 723
Dictys • . . . . . . . . . . 112
Dido, or Elissa ... 159
Didymus......... 736
Dinah, Daughter of
Jacob.......... sº
| ——, of Apol-
350
37 Epicharmus...... 378
Dinarchus........ 501 || ź :: ::
laus........... 723 Syracuse ...... 347 |Euclid, of Maegara :
Dinocrates....... 513
Dinostrates . . . . . . 397
Diodorus, Siculus 743
Diogenes, the Cynic 379
—, the Ba-
bylonian .....: 565
lonia. . . . . . . . se 291
Diomedes ........ 100
Dion * * * * * * * * • . . . 347. .
Dionysius I, , of
Syracuse ...... 345.
--- PAGE
Dionysius, of Hera-
clea # * * * * ... . º . 446
# Halicar-
massensis........ 744
Dolabella, P. Cor-
699
nelius... . . . . . . . §
Draco... . . . . . . . . 217
Drusus, son of Ger-
manicus......... 717
–, Caesar.... 712
--, Marcus
Liarus *** * * * * * * 618
———, Nero Clau-
dius ....... ... 711
Duellius Caius.... 553
Duilius, Caius Ne-
462
P08 . . . . . . . . . . . .
E.
Eglon ........... 63
Elah • - - - --------- - - 147
Elam ............ 12
Eleazer........... 66
. • * * * * * * * * * 502
80
26
Eliezer..........
Elihu * * * * * * * * * * * * 45
Flijah............ 147
Eliphaz........... 45
Elisha. • * * * * * * * * * 148
Elon, of Israel.... 75
Empedocles...... 293
Ennius, Quintus. 566.
Enoch, son of Cain 4
Enoch, son of Jared 6
'nos . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Epaminondas..... 341
Ephorus • * * * * * * * * 502
Ephraim, son of
Joseph ........ 45
* . . . . . . 284
Epicurus ........ 482.
Epimenides...... 226
Erasistratus...... 615
Eratosthenes .... 569
Erectheus........ 68.
Esarhaddon......
Erostratus, or Era-
177
Esau............ 3.
Esdras, or Ezra... 316
Esther. • * “. . * * * * 316.
Eubulides, or Hou-
chan Eliquis...
3 C 2









º PAGE
Eudoxus......... , 507
Eumelus. • * * * * * * * 198
Eumenes • * * * * * * * 431
. - I. . . . . . . 533
ib.
596
ź . .3% ...; * * * * * *
Eunus . . . . . . . ---. 5
Euphorbus . . . . . . 92
Euphorion.... . . . . .
Euphranor....... 511
t upolis. - - - - - - - - - - 382
Euripides ... . . . . . .383
Europs........... 18
Eury biades....... 258
Eurydice. * * * * * * * * 337
* * * * * * * * * 435
Eurysthenes...... 87
Evagoras I. of Cy-
prus. . . . . . . . . . . 349
II. of Cy-
prus • . . . . . . . . .
456
7.43
Evephenus... . . . . 376
Evil, Merodach... 212
Ezekiel........... 215
§§ 3. . . . . . . . . . . . . 494
# * * * * * * *
F.
Fabianus, Papy-
rius ...... . . . . . . 723
Fabius, Quintus
Maximus...... 547
— Quintus
Fabricius, Caius. 463
Fannius, Caius....
— Caius.... ib.
—......... 706
: Strabo • * * * * * * * 605
Figulus, Publius
Nigidius ....... 634
a. --- • *** * * * * * 624
Fulvia.. . . . . . . . . . 685
F. ius, Antias. ... g31
Gallus, Cornelius
Gomer. . . . . . . . . .
Gaudentius....... 507
Geber. • * * * * * * * * * 198
. Gedaliah..... *** * * * 21 2
Gehazi . . . . . . . . . . 148
Gelon of Syracuse 261
Germanicus, Caesar 715
Gideon ........... 71
Gilead, son of Ma-
chir....... . . . . . 45
Gisco... . . . . . . . . . . 453
Glaphyra. . . . . . . . 658
Gnypho, Antonius 735
Gobrias.......... 245
Goliath * * * * * * * * * * 119
10
Gorgias........... 304
Gracchus, 'T. Sem-
promius . . . . . . .. 558
--.. -.. ------- - T. Sem-
pronius. . . . . . . . 508
——, Caius. . 601
Gratius. . . . . . . . . . 728
Gryllus. . . . . . . . . . 367
Gyges............ 181
Gylippus......... 333
H.
. Habakkuk. *****...*.*.*.*. # 216
Hadad . . . . . . . . . . 137
Hagar... * * * * * * * * * 23
Noah.... • * * * * * 9
Haman........... 31.5
Hamilcar, Barca. 542
Hamlet........... 187
Hanani.......... 146
Hananiah, son of
Hannah, mother of
Samuel • *-* * *-* * * , 81
. Hannibal * * * * * * * * 54: º
Hanun, king of Sy-
º i, of China.... 8
Haran, brother of
Harmodius...... 251
H rpagus * * * * * * * . 237
§ * * *
PAGE ||
Hector . . . . . . . . . .
Hellen * * * * * •. * * *
Haggai • * * * * * * * * * 24i.
Ham, the son of
| Hipponax. . . . . . . . 294
Ho
. §: "...º.º.:.3% & Hophni, and Phi-
| Harpalus....... . 397 | -
— 432 || Horace,
. . . . PAGE.
Hecataeus, of Ab-
dera . . . . . . . . . . º
91
Hecuba........... 89
Helen ........... 92
Helenus ......... 91
Hellenicus........ 392
Hemina, Lucius
Cassius. . . . . . . . 687
Hephaestion. . . . . . 434
Heraclides of Ta-
rentum * * * * * * * * 649.
Heraclides . . . . . . . 486
Heraclitus........ 289
Hercules . . . . . . . . 85.
Hermes . . . . . . . . . . 48
Hermocrates ..... 349
Hermogenes...... 201
Hermolaus . . . . . . 431
Hero............ 509
Herod, the Great 656
& Antipas. * * 657.
Herodicus......... 400
Herodorus....... 606
Herodotus ....... 392.
Herophilus ...... 307.
Herulia .......... 192
Hesiod.......... 167.
Hezekiah........ 175
Hicetas .......... 490
Hiero I. of Syra-
cuse . . . . . . . . . . 262.
— II. of Syra-
N. Cuse . . . . . . . . . . . 4āl,
Hieronymus ...... 641
§ º - ºse e º ºsº Fº ;: º
Hillel • * * * * * * * * * * * 739
Hipparchia * * * * * * 485.
Hipparchus, and
Hippias Pisistra-
tidae * * * * * • * * * * * 251,
Hippasus, of Me-
* lapontus * * * * * * * * | º
of Tyre... 144,
* * * * * . . . . . . İb.
ºvrvºsa 28, . . . . is sº 35,
mer..........
nehas..........
Quintus
Horatius Flac-

























INDEX.
3. PAGE
Hortensius, Quin-
tus. . . . . . . . . . . . 635
Hosea, or Hoshea 175
Hosea ........ . . . 178
Hur, son of Caleb 56
Hushai, David’s
friend.......... 133
Hyginus, Caius Ju-
lius ............ 735
Hyperides........ 500
Hyrcan I. ........ 587
. II. * * * * * * * * 588
Hystaspes ........ 245
* #
I.
Ibycus . . . . . . . . . . 304
Icetas . . . . . . . . . . . 348
Ictinus . . . . . 400
Idomeneus....... 102
Inachus ........... 48
Intaphernes...... 245
Ion .............. 382
Iphicrates ........ 331
Iphigenia. # * * * * * * 99
Irad 4.
Isaac * * *-*** * * * * * * 27
Isaeus. * * * * * * * * * * * * 391
Isaiah * * * * * * * * * * * 180
Ishmael, son of
Abraham . . . . . . 26
Isidore of Charax 503
Ismenias . . . . . . . . 506
Isocrates * * * * * * * * 390
Issachar, son of Ja-
cob 35
# & # * *
**
sº
* * * * * * * * * * * * *
* * * * * * * * * * * *
J.
Jabal * * * * * * * * * * • *
Jabin, of H
Jacob. . . # • . . . . . . #
Jaddus ... . * - - -
Jael, wife of Heber 63
Jair * * * 74
Jamblicus . . . . . . . . 666
Japheth, son of
Noah .... . . . . .
Jared ... .
Jason .
Jehoahaz. . . . . . . .
* * * * * * * * * *
8
5
86
158
# * * * * * * *
* * * * * * * * * * *
% §§
* * * * * * * *
Jehoiachin . . . . . . . 207
oiakim........ 206
ram . . . . . . . . . 156
Joshua . . . . .
Juba I.,
Jubal...... # * * * * * *
Judith . .
PAGE |
Jehosaphat....... 155
Jehu, of Israel.... 158
Jephthah ........ 74
Jeremiah......... 214
Jeroboam, son of
Nebat * * * * *-* * * * 145
II. . . ... 171
Jesus, son "of Si-
rach . . . . .
Jezebel, wife of
Ahab & # * * * * * * * * 154
Joab . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Joash, of Judah... 157
of Israel.. 158
Jocasta.......... 69
Jochebed, mother
of Moses . . . . . . 37
Joel .............. 181
Jonah.. 178
Jonathan Macca-
bacus * * * * * * * * * * 527
Joram, or Jehoram 157
Joseph . . . . . . . . . . 37
59
570
* # * * : * *
* * * * * * * * * *
# , º # * *
Josiah, of Judah. . 203
Jotham, son of Gi-
deon. . . . . . . . . . 74
of Judah 173
of Numi-
dia . . . . . . . . . . . 659
— II. * & # * * * 659
4 |
# * * * * * 35
Judas Maccabaeus 526
. . . . . . . . . 186
Jugurtha......... 597
Julia, daughter of
Augustus . . . . . . 704
— daughter of
Caesar * * *-es s is a • 681
K.
Kapila . . . . . . . . . . .303
Keturah, wife of
Abraham .
Korah * * * * * * * * * * # *
28
57
** * * * *
L.
46 Lampon...
. 3. PAGE
Laberius, Decimus
Junius . . . . . . . . 726
Lacydes.......... 564
Laelius, Caius.... 558
Laertius, Florus... 277
Laevius.......... 732
Lais . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
Laius............. 69
Lamachus......... 327
Lamech .. 4
* } . . . . . . . . 6.
Lamia . . . . . . . . . . 504
Lamiras .......... 151
# * * * * * * * 396
Lao-Ruin. . . . . . . . 224
Laobotas........ 150
Lasus . . . . . . . . ... 305
Latinus I......... 87
Laurentia, Area.. 190
Leaena. . . . . . . . . . . 251
Lear * * * * * * * * * * * * 165
Lelex, of Megara 86
Lentulus, Cneius
Cornelius...... 721
# * * * * * * *
Leo, of Byzantium 481
Leonatus ........ 434
Leonidas I. ...... 258
Leontium ........ 484
Leosthenes ...... 437
Leotychides of w
Sparta . . . . . ... 334
Lepidus, M. AEmi-
lius . . . . . . . . . . . 697
Leucippus........ 369
Levi, son of Jacob 35
Licinius, Caius ... 450
*ś —Tegula. 568
Ligarius, Quintus 700
Linus * * * * * * * * • ... 106 .
Livia, wife of Au-
gustus * * * * * * ... 704
Livius, Androni-
cus ---------... • - * * * 5. 57
Livy, Titus Livius 744
Lokman ......... 150
Longinus, Lucius
. Cassius. § . • . • * * ś
Lot •- - - - - - - • • * * • • .
Lucanus, Ocellus
Lucilius, Lucinus 698
Caius. * * * 539
Laban, brother of
Rebekah • *-* * * * * 2
Labeo,0aintus Fa. ..
} | . Gallus....
| | Lucretia...."
Lucius, Plotius
• * * * *
# * * *
º
ºbius ...... . . . . . 629'
retius,
lus. . . . . . . . . . .























INDEX.
§: ; ; Ś PAGE
Lucullus, Lucius
Licinius ....... 613
Lud • * * * --- • * * * * 626
Lycambes........ 200
Lycaon I. of Arca-
N. dia ....... # * * * *
Lycophron, of Co-
. rinth . . . . . . . . . 220
… . - * * * * * * * * 493
Lycurgus........ 160
— * * * * * * * * 498
Lysander ........ 332
Lysias * * * * * * * * * * 389
Lysimachus, of
Thrace . . . . . . . . 441
Lysippus......... 514
Lysis............. 283
48
M.
§ PAGE
Medon . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Megalostrata ..... 200
Megasthenes ... .. 504
Mehujael.......... 4
Melampus........ 113
Melanippes....... 305
Melanthus * * * * * * * 87
Melchizedec. . . . . . 24
Meleager........ 631
Melissus ... . . . . . , 367
Melitus .......... 388
Memnon . . . . . . . . 445
. 742
Menander. . . . . . . . 491
Menas .......... 626
X-- - -
“ , , , , , , , ,
Menedemus. . . . . . 480
--.3 * * * * * * 481
Menelaus, of Sparta 95 |
Menenius, Agrippa 278
Mencs . . . . . . . . . . 11
Menippus......... 381
Mephibosheth, son
of Saul . . . . . . . .
SO11.
of Jonathan....
Merab. * : * : * * * * * * *
Merodach-Baladan
Merops...........
Messala, M. Vale-
rius Corvinus... 697
Metellus, Pius .... 598
Coecilius 603
L. Caeci-
lius • *-* * * * * * * * * * 700
Caecilius
Celer .......... 664
L. Caeci-
112
gº º
131
1 19
176
92
PAGE
son of
. Cush. . . . . . * * * * 13
Milo • . . . . . • • * * * * 284
— Titus Annius 665
of Taren-
tum... . . . . . . . . . 450
Miltiades........ 218
--------...- :-- * * * * * * * * 252
Mimmermus. . . . . 225
Mindarus. . . . . . . . 334
Minos I., of Crete 68
—-- II., of Crete 70
Miriam, sister of
Aaron. . . . . . . . . .
Mithridates I., of
Pontus *** * *** * * 337
II., of
Pontus . . . . . . . .
*ś IV., Ol
£ºšš.
*ś,
456
Macer AEmilius... 732
Machaon ........ 112
Macro ... . . . . . . 712
Maecenas, Caius
Cilnius........ 701
Mago. . . . . . . . . . . . 348
— & 4 is º º s # * * * * * 391
Mahaleel ........ 5
Makeda, or Balkis 142
Malachi.......... 242
Mamercus.... ... 349
Mamre, friend of
Abraham . . * * * * 24
Mamurra ........ 682
Manahem, of Is-
rael............ 172
Mamasseh, son of -
º Joseph . • . . . . . . .45
Manasseh, of Ju-
dah ........... 178
Mandanes....... 484
Mamethos........ 503
Manilius, Marcus 732
Manoah, father of
Marcellus, Marcus
us Numa ... 195
riamne......... 657
§.3%. 3%
54
6|M
lius * * * * * * * * * * * * 550
Cimber 691
Methusael ....... 4
Methuselah ...... 6
Meto, or Meton... 397
Metrodorus...... 400
* * * * * * , 578
sº -- . . . . . . 594
Mezentius # # * * * * * 104
Micah * * * * * * * * * * * 180
— the Eph-
raimite ......... 62
Micaiah, son of Im-
lah............ 155
Michal, daughter
of Saul * * * • *. š
• sº ... 546
... 129
Pontus ........ 524
– VI., of
Pontus • * * * * * * 591
3. •3
or the Great.... 691
Mizraim.......... 10
Mnestheus ....... 85
Moab, son of Lot 26
. Maenius.. * * * * * * * * * 462
Moeris. . . . . ... . . . . 19
Molo. . . . . . . . . . . . 628
Monima. * * * * * * * * * 594
Mordecai.... . . . . .315
Moschus ......... 629
Moses, son of Am-
ram............. 51.
Mummius, Lucius 609
Munatius. . . . . . . . 734
& Plan-
cus............. 717
Muraena.......... 613
— Lucius Li-
cinius *** * •. . * * * * 664
Musa, Antonius... 748
Musaeus. * * * * * * * * * ſº 109.
Mutius, or Mucius,
Caius. . . . . . . . . . . 274
Mycerinus. • * * * * ... 161
Myrtis. § “. . e.e. sº sº 301
Myson. * * * * * * * * * * 279
Naaman.... .. • * * ... 155
Nabal • * * * * * * * * * , 132
- Nabis • * * * * * * * * * * * 541.


















INDEX.
: PAGE
Nabopolassar, of
Babylon . . . . . . . 206
Naevius, Cneius... 568
~ 222
Nahor..
* * * * * * * * * * * * 17
Nahum ........... 180
Naomi, mother of
Ruth. . . . . . . . . .
Naphthali, second
son of Jacob ....
Naphtuhim, son of
Mizraim,. . . . . . .
Nasica, C. Corne-
lius ... . . . . . . . . . 558
Nathan, the Pro-
phet . . . . . . . . . . . 135
... . . . . . . . . 136
Naucrates......... 389
Neanthes . . . . . . . . 570
Nearchus........ 433
Nebuchadnezzar,
of Babylon..... 208
—— . . 184
Necho I. of Egypt 182
* * * * * * * *
* * * * * * * * *
75
35
16
Nectanebus I..... 349
II., of
Egypt. . . . . . . . . . 456
Nehemiah......... 241
Neleus. . . . . . . . . . . 150
Neocles........... 482
Neoptolemus...... 434
Nepos, Cornelius 743
Nestor, of Pylos... 100
Nicander . . . . . ... 649
Nichomachus . . . . 747
Nicias............ 324
. ... ... . . . . . . 511
Nicocles.......... 456
Nicomedes I...... 532
ºš
§ºgº &
— II * # # 532
% III.... 533
— IV. . . 596
Nimrod, son of
% Cush. . . . . . . . . . 15
Ninus ........... 15
Ninyas.......... 17
Nisus ......... . . . 96
Nitocris, wife of
Evil Merodach. 213
Noah * • § “. . . • # , º • . 7
Numa-------....... 192
Numitor.......... 190
o.
obadiah.......... 188!
04 || Othniel, of Israel..
PAGE
Obadiah . . . . . . . . 155
Octavia . . . . . . . . . 689
Oded * * * * * * * * * * * 178
Odin. . . . . . . . . . . . 656
GEdipus.......... 69
Oenotrus......... 48
Og, of Bashan.... 58
Ogyges, of Thebes 48
Olenus........... 106
Olympias . . . . . . . . 413
Olympus......... 110
Omri . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Onan... * * * * * * * * * 45
Onesicritus....... 486
Onomacritus...... 303
Onomarchus...... 416
Ophir, son of Jok-
tan. . . . . . . . . . . . .
Oppius, C. . . . . . . .
gººººººººººº. Caius.. # *
Orbilius . . . . . . . . . . 735
Orodes, of Parthia 655
Orpheus . . . . . . . . . 108
Osymandyas...... 18
62
Othryades........ 334
Ovid, Publius Ovi-
dius Naso e-s e s e-e 730
13
735
742
P.
Paris • * * * * * * * * * * * 89 .
Parmenio......... 434.
. Passaenus . . . . . . . . 729.
Pacorus .......... 656
Pacuvius, Marcus 629
Palaemon, Quintus
Rhemmius...... 740
Phalaephatus ..... 481
Palamedes........ 102
Pamphilus........ 51 l
Panaetius......... 627
Pandion I........ 67
– - II. . . . . . . 68
Pansa, Vibius... , 698
Papirius, Cursor. 462
* * N.
• *
— Praetex-
. tatus... • * • * * * * 465
Parmenides # * * ***** 292
Parmensis, Cassius 725
Parrhasius ....... 398
Parysatis, wife of
Darius II. . #º • 317
Paterculus, Caius
Welleius....... 746
Pharnabazus ...
Pharmaces... . . . .
Pherecrates. . . . . . .
Pherecydes......
Pheretima ....... 2
| Pheron ..........
& PAGE .
Patroclus. . . . . . . . 101.
Paulina • *-* * *-* * * * * 20
Paulus AEmilius .. 548
Pausanias ... . . . . . 259
Pausias. # *, *.*.*.*.*.*.* • •
Pedianus, Asconi-
us . . . . . . . . . . . . 736
Pekah * * * * * * * * * **** 173
Pekahiah........ 172
Pelatiah ........ 208
Peleg, son of Eber 14
Pelopidas. • * * * * * * * sº
Pelops . . . . . . . . . . .
.
Penelope ........ 103
Peninnah, father of
Samuel. . . . . . . .
Penthesilea, of the
Amazons # * * * * * 94
Perdiccas * * * * * * * * 336
“ , , , , , , , , 337
* * * * * * * * * 182
-, of Ma-
cedon . . . . . . . . . 430
Periander . . . . . . . . 219
Pericles * * * * * * * * * * 321
Perilla # * * * * * * * * . 732
Perpenna, M. tºº lºº 609
. ... ... ... 617
Perseus, of Mace-
don . . . . . . . . . . 537
Petronius........ 701
Phaedon • *-*-* * * * * * 364
Phaedrus * * * * * * * 737
Phaedyma ... . . . . . 245
Phalaris ....., .. 220
Phalti, or Phaltiel 131
Phanes * * * * * * * * * ... 262
Phanocles....... 303
Phantasia * * * * * * * * 110
Pharaoh, of Egypt 24
— — 43
#
- 47.
— 138
-......... 176
— Hophrah 208
Pharez, son of Ju-
dah • - - - - - - - - - • 45
| Phidias, . * * * * . . * . º














INDEX.
PAGE I
Phidon.......... 161
º ilemon. • . . . . . . " º
—- . . . . . . . . 506
miletas . . . . . . . . . 490
Philidas • * * * * * * * * * 340
Philinus ......... 30
- * * * * * * * * * * 545
* **** * * * * * * * * * 525
— II., of Mace-
don # * * * * * * * ***
* • * * * * * * * * *
* milistes . . . . . . . . 26
Philistus . . . . . . . . 394
Philla . . . . . . . . . . . 433
Philo, .. * * * * * * * * * 513
Philochorus. . . . . . 570
P} ilocles • * * * * * * * 330
Philocyprus...... 220
Philolaus, of Cro-
tona . . . . . . . . . . 376
Philombrotus . . . . 257
Philopoemen .... 536
Philotis.......... 353
Philoxenus . . . . . . 388
º . . . . . . . 435
Phineas, or Phine-
º has . . . . . . . . . . . .
Phocylides ...... 2:
Phocion . . . . . . . . . 414
Phocus. * * * * * * * * • 416
Phaebidas ........ 334
P s »rmio * * * * * * * * 332
— . . . . . . . . 665
Phraates I., of Par-
591
ºthia. --------. . . . .
Parthia........ ib.
. . **
Parthia • * * * • * * * ib.
— IV., of
Parthia.. . . . . . . 656
Phraortes,of Media 183
.* me . . . . . . . . . . 514
r no. * * * * * * * * * 217.
etaerus ...... 4
• *
Polypemon ......
. Pratinas • * * * * * * --- 3(
Piso, Cneius Cal-
§ purnius. . . . . . . . 706
—, Caius Calpur-
nius .......... 618
—, L. Calpur-
nius ....... 546
Pittacus...... 198
Plancina ........ 707
Plancus, Luscius
Munatius. . . . . . 739
x Plato # * * * * * * * * * * * 370
* * * * * * * * * * * * * 387
Plautus, Marcus
Accius ........ 568
Plisthenes........ 84
Plistomax ........ 261
Plotius, Lucius... 631
Tucca. ... 736
Podalirius ........ 113
Polemon ........ 471
682
Polus. • . . . . . . . . . . . 507
" * * * * * * * * * * * . . . 735
Polybius... . . . . . . 571
Polybus .......... 69
Polycletus ... . . . . .399
Polycrates ....... 262
Polydorus, of Troy 92
, of Thebes 70
, of Spar-
| Pollio, Caius Asi-
ta . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Polygnotus ...... 397
Polymnestor, of the
Thracian Cherso-
nesus ... . . . . . . . 93
87
Polysperehon .... 435
Polyxo ......... § 105
Pompeius, Progus 742
Pompey, the Grea
. Cneius,
. and Sextus * * * * 700
Ponticus......... 729
Popilius, Laenas... 548
Porcia........... 695
Porsenna ........ 278
Porus • * * * * * * * * * * 435
Posidippus....... 566
Assyria . # • • * * . • 172. . Posidonius * * * * * • • 57.1
º th ... 11 ||— .
• * * * * • . • . 721
Praxagoras ...... "
• * * • * * * % tºvº
25 - - - - - - - - ºl
PAGE .
PAGE
Priam ........... 88
Priscus, Caius Lu-
torius. .
Procles,
Sparta
Procrustes . . . . . .
Procucius ........ 706
Prodicus ........ 389
Prometheus . . . . . . 49
Pronapides ...... 165
Propertius, Sextus
Aurelius . . . . . . 728
Protagoras . . . . . . 378
Protesilaus . . . . . . 104
Proteus ....... 105
Protegenes 512
Prusias I., of Bithy-
nia . . . ... . . . . . . 532
. II., of Bi-
thynia . . . . . . . . . ib.
Psammenitus, of
Egypt. . . . . . . . . 184
Psammeticus, of E-
gypt . . . . . . . . . . 263
Ptolemy ......... 691
—, Philadel-
z 459
SOI.
Pyrrhus. • * * * * * * 450
- ... . . . . . . . . 584
—, son of
Ptolemy Apion 583
— Cerau-
nus . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
— Euerge-
tes. . . . . . . . . . . . 519
ter. . . . . . . • - - - - 5 J
—, Epiphanes 521
& , Philometor 582
---- , Lathyrus, 583
—, Auletes... 585
—, Dionysius, 586
........ 712
king of
• * * * * * * *
* * * * * *
* * * * * * * * * * 6 ~.
Pygmalion, of Tyre 161
Pylades . . . . . . . . . . 9.
Pylas, king of Me-
gara --- . . . . . . . . 68
Pyrrha . . . . . . . . . . 64
Pyrrho.......... 487
Pyrrhus, of Epirus, *g
Pythagoras ...... 280
Pytheas.......... 500
* * * • * * * * * * 508
Pytheus * * * * * * • *. ‘. 249









































INDEX.
page
Q.
Quirinus, Publius
x Sulpicius * * * * * * 705
R.
Raamah ... . . . . . 13
Rabirius, Caius... 618
... . . . . . . 733
Rabshakeh, ser-
want of Senna-
cherib.......... 177
Rahab . . . . . . . . . . 60
Regulus, M. Atti-
lius . . . . . . . . . . . . 465
Rehoboam, of Is-
rael . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Reu . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Reuben .......... 33
Rezon . . . . . . . . . . 135
Rhianus ......... 670
Rhodope . . . . . . . . 280
Riphat, or Riphath 13
Rizpah. * * * * * * * *** * * 118
Romulus, and Re-
mus . . . . . . . . . . 190
Roscius, Quintus, 636
Roxana . . . . . . . . . . 430
Rufus, Publius Ru-
tilius # * * * * .. * * * 634
Rullianus, Fabius
Maximus ...... 462
Ruth. . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Rutilia . . . . . . . . . . 634
s.
Sabinus, of Sparta, 453
— Aulus .. 732
Sadyattes.......... 204
Salah ... . . . . . . . . . 14
Salathiel, father of
Zerubbabel.... 213
Sallust, Caius Cris-
pus Sallustius. .
Salma - " . . . .. &
Samson, of Israel,
Samuel, of Israel, 82
Sanballat • * * * * * * * 24t.
Sanchoniathon ...
Sandrocottus ... .. 4
741 Se
175 |
78 || Se
240 serviſius, Ahala...sº
112 || Ser
º
arah, or Sarai ... 23 Sesostris, of Egypt. 65
- PAGE
Saul . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Scaevola, Quintus
Mutius........ 611
—-, Quintus
. Mutius. . . . . . . . ib.
Scamander . . . . . . 65
Scaurus, MI. AEmi-
lius ... . . . . . . . .
. — M. AEmi-
lius.. * * * * * * * * * * ib.
Scipio. . . . . . . . . . . 553
—, Cneas Corne-
lius Asina ..... ib.
—, Cneas, and
Publius........ ib.
—, Lucius Cor-
nelius * * * * * * * * * *
, Publius Cor-
nelius .......... 564
ib.
Cornelius...... 7
Spurina.........."
àf Statira ........
vius, Sulpicius Stat
| Rufus........
& #3 & # .” PAGE
Seth . . . . . . . . * .. • - º 4
Severus, Cassius... 73.
Lucius
&
Seraiah * * * * * * * * * *
—, Publius AE-
milianus . . . . . . 609
Sciron . . . . . . . . . .
Scopas. . . . . . . . . . . 400
. . . . . . . . . . 521
Scribonia, wife of
Augustus. . . . . . 704
Scribonius, Largus 748
Scylax . . . . . . . . . . 305
Sejanus AElius..... 713
Selena ... . . . . . . . 590
Seleucus I., of Sy-
ria. . . . . . . . . . . . 439
II., of Sy-
ria. . . . . . . . . . . . 522
%.<<&&…i. III., of
Syria. • . . . *-* * * * 523
——, Philopa-
ter ... . . . . . . . * * * 524
Semiramis, of As-
syria * * * * * * . . . s w
Sempronius. . . . . . 550
Seneca, MarcusAn-
naeus *** * * * * * * * 736
Sennacherib, of As-
syria ... . . . ..... 177
Sequinius...... # 34. 194
215
ertorius, Quin-
19 - - - - . . . . . . . . . 3 &
º ilia. • * * * * * * * * *
Shamgar, son of
Shebna. . . . . . # # # *
86 ||
Sotades # * * • * * * • • * 4. 4
tus 's sº e º 's sº * * * *
Sextus, Quintus... 7
Shadrach, Meshach
and Abednego, 2
A math * ... . . . . . .
Sheba • - - - - - - - - -
Shechem, son of
Hamor. . . . . . . .
Shelomith, daugh-
ter of Dibri ....
Shem, or Sem, se.
cond son of Noah 9
Shemaiah........ 147
Shimei, son of Gera 136
Shiphrah, and Puah 47
Sihon, of the Amo-
rites . . . . . . . . . . .
Silus, Caius Albu-º
tius • - - - - - - - • - -
Simeon, son of Jo-
chai . . . . . . . . . . ;
Simicus .........
Simon . . . . . . . . . .
— the Just . . . .
— Maccabaeus, 5
Simon . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sisera ... . . . . . . . . 63
Sisigambis, or Sisy-
gambis........ 444
Smerdis . . . . . . . . . 245
i...º ib.
. # * * * * * * * * *
Sogdianus ....... 3
Solomon, of Israel, 140
Solon ... . . . . .-------- 217.
Sophocles ........ 381
Sophonisba....... 645
Sosibus. . . . . . . . . . 569
Sosilus . . . . . . . . . . 571.
Sostratus • - - . . . ..
Spartacus........ 6
Spendius ........ 5
Speusippus ...... 3
Spherus . . . . . . . . .
enelus.....




































nius * * * * •. • * •. 60 w
Strabo, • . • * * . * * * *... 738
Strato .......... 477
Stratonice ........ 440
Surena. • * * * * * * .. 655
Syagrus.......... 168
Sylla, Lucius Cor-
nelius • * * * * * * * * 612
Syphax........... 546
Syrus, Publius.... 725
T.
Tacfarinas ....... 720
Tachos, or Tachus
of Egypt...... 349
Talthybius ...... 104
Tamar, wife of Er 44
Tamaquil . . . . . . . . 222
Tarpa, Spurius .
Martius........ 735
—, Spurius
Martius......... 739
Tarpeia.......... 192
Tarquinia • * * * * * * * 265
Tarquinius, Super-
; : * WS • . . . . . . . * * * * -
—— Sextus 267
—, Priscus, 221
Tarrantius, Lucius, 649
Tatius, Titus..... 192 |
Taxilus, or Taxiles 430
Technessa ...... 94
Telamon ........ 100
Telchin .......... 48
Telecles......... 181
Telemachus...... 103
Telephanes...... 505
Terence, Publius
Terentius...... 628
I rah ... . . . . . . . . 17
ander ....... 200
atius ........ 736
ais • * * * * * * • * * * * 430
eta
Theophanes, M.
--- 3. " .. " Timoea..........
Terentia ......... 646,
Ter:
… | — the Misan-
Teucer, of Phrygia 65
Tirhakah
tris......... 430 | Ti
Theodorus ... . . . . 478
Theognis........ 294
Theophanes ... ... 647
Theophrastus..... 474
Theopompus..... 500
Theramenes...... 331
Thersander ...... 99
Thersi pus, * * * * * * , 152
Thersilochus...... 99
Thersites........ 104
Theseus.......... 83
Thespis ......... 293
Thessalonice ... . . 442
Thomyeis ....... 237
Thrasybulus...... 328
Thrasymachus .... 375
Thucydides ...... 394
Thymgetes . . . . . . 95
Thymaetes,of Attica 92
Tiberius, Claudius
Nero.......... 708
Tibullus, Aulus Al-
bius • * * * * * * * * * 733
Tidal ....... . . . . . 57
Tigellius ........ 691
Tiglath-Pileser ... 174
Tigranes, of Arme-
mia . . . . . . . . . . . .
— of Arme-
nia * * * * * * * * * * * * 595
Timaeus ......... 368
Timaeus, son of An-
dromachus .... 570
Timanthus - • * * * * * * 511
Timochares....... 509
Timoclea ........ 436
Timocreon ...... 303
334
Timon, the Phlia-
sian . . . . . . . . . . 489
thrope . . . . . . . . . 331 ||
- ; : • * *-* * * * * 490.
*-e-a-e's e - 176 %
PAGE
Tubal-Cain ...... 4
Tubers, Q. AElius, 550
Tullia........... 267
Tulliola, daughter
* , of Cicero. * * * * * 700
Tullus, Hostilius, 193
Turannius, C.. ... 733
Tymicha . . . . . . . . 368 z
Tyrannio ........ 734
Tyrtaeus.......... 224
U.
Uchoreus ... . . . . . 18
Ulysses ........... 103
Urijah . . . . . . . . . . 178
. . . . . . . . . . 215
V.
Valerius, Carvinus 353
Soranus, 726
Poplicola
Publius ... . . . . . 273
Varius ... . . . . . . . 732
Varro Attacinus. . 725
Vardo . . . . . . . . . . 634
Varus, Alphenus, 277
Asenus .. 737
596 || Vatinius ........ 646
Ventidius, Bassus, 682
Verres, C. ...... 691
Verrius Flaccus... 736
Vindalus ........ ibid
Vipsania. . . . . . . . . 711
Virgil, Publius Vir-
gilius Maro. . . . 726
Virginia . . . . . . . . .352
Viriathus . . . . . . . . 666
Viscellinus, S.C.. .277
Vitruvius Marcus
Pollio ......... 747
Volumnia........ 275
xanthus, of Samos 286
— of Sardis 502.
issaphermes..... 320
Iu. • * * * * * * * ... 462
Xantippe, wife of
Socrates • * * * * * * 364 . -
Xantippus • - - - - - - - 324 3.
& '8' '. & agº.
* * * * * * * * * *
bai, son of ja-
723
Xeniades. * * * * * • 381 º


























INDEx.
. . PAGE
Zadoc, or Sadoc. 140
Zadok, Zadoc, or
Sadoc . . . . . . . . . 563
Zebulun, son of Ja-
cob • * * * * * * * * * *
Zechariah, son of
Barachiah
. , son of
Barachiah ..... 237
Zedekiah, son of
Josiah * * * * * * * * 208
PAGE
Xenocles........ 383
Xenocrates...... 469
Xenophanes ..... 286
Xenophilus ...... 377
enophon ....... 365
Xerxes, of Persia, 247
. II. * * * * * * 316
Z. x-
Zaccheus......... 527
Zaleucus. • * * * • *- 263
489 || Zamolxis........ 284
Zachariah ......... 172| Zeno, the Eleatic, 365
..... 180,
** * PAGE
Zeno the Stoic .. 475
|—the Epicurean 628
Zenodotus • * * * * * . 570
Zephaniah .... ... 215
• * * * * * *-* 216
Zerubbabel # * * * * * 23 *
Zeuxis.......... 398
Ziba, servant of
z Saul * * * * *** *** 131
Zoilus • . . . -------- 569
Zophar....... . . . 45
Zopyrus......... 246
Zoroaster ........ 202


$ §§ 3. ...} %. . %. § - … º tº . sº § 3. § & § 3: $2 &
to the
suBJECTs AND CLAssEs
ANTIQUITIES.
Page 570.
ARCHITECTURE.
Pages 201, 202. 306,
307. 399, 400. 513. 579.
748,
ASTRONOMY.
* Pages 49. 152. 397.
578. 647,648.
geography.
Pages 508, 509. 649.
738.
gover NMENT.
Pages 1–48.50–70.
71–105. 115–150. 153
–165. 171 — 178. 181
-197, 203–214, 217–
222. 232–241. 242–
278. 309–354. 366. 403
–466. 478. 519–563.
582–626. 629,634. 636.
65 4–721. 737.
History, AND biogra-
Pages 112. 804. 366.
printed by
1N
s ERIEs I.
-º-
392–395.489.500. 502.
566. 568, 569, 570, 571.
647. 669. 723, 737. 741
- LITERATURE.
Pages 19.48.70. 110.
152. 303, 304. 321. 375.
382, 389–392.478.490.
493, 494. 496–502.559.
569, 570. 629. 631.650.
728. 734–740.
MATHEM ATICS.
Pages 305. 369. 397.
507 — 510. 571 – 578.
647–649, 747.
MEDICINE,
Pages 112–114, 307. ,
400. 515, 516. 679. 649,
650. 748, 749.
MUSI C.
Pages 4. 106–110.
168, 169. 199, 200. 304,
305. 395, 396.490. 504
—507. 747.
PAINTING.
Pages 152.201. 307.
397,898, 511–513,578.
London:
37. 46.51, 59. 139, 140.
PHILOSOPHY.
Pages 19.48. 106. 150.
197, 198.222–224. 226.
278–293,294.354.381.
466–490.496. 503. 507.
5 10.5l 5.563—565. 566.
569. 627–628, 647, 721
—723, 724.
POETRY.
Pages 106–110. 119.
151. 165–168. 198-
200. 22.4—230, 284. 293
—303. 381—389. 490–
496. 566–568, 569.627,
628–631. 647. 650. 724
–733. 737.
RELIGION.
Pages 4.6, 7, 20. 24.
146, 147, 148. 155. 178
—181. 214–217. 241,
242.316. 602, 525-529.
582–589.
SCULPTURE.
Pages 202. 306, 307.
399,400. 511.513—515.
. Gilbert, sr. John's-square.