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Y
FIRST BIENNIAL REPORT
OF THE
n STATE BIOLOGIST
OF TELE
STATE OF OREGON
TO THE
. TWENTY-FIRST LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY
1901
A—SOME WINTER BIRDS OF WESTERN OREGON:
B—SPAWNING HABITS OF THE RAZOR CLAM;
C—PRESENT CONDITION OF EASTERN OYSTER EXPERIMENT AND
THE NATIVE OYSTER INDUSTRY, JUNE 30, 1900;
D—A CONTRIBUTION TO OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE FOOD FISHES
OF THE OREGON COAST;
E—SANITARY BIOLOGY, OR “WATER ANALYSIS ’’;
F—WORK ON EASTERN OYSTERS, SUMMER OF 1900.
SALEM, OREGON
W. H. LEEDS, STATE PRINTER
1 9 0 1

FRED LOCKLEY
RARE WESTERN B00KS
4227 S. E. Stark St.
PORTLAND, ORE.

FIRST BIENNIAL REPORT
OF THIE
STATE B I O LOGIST
() R' TI-IE
STATE OF OREGON
TWENTY - FIRST LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY
1901
A—SOME WINTER BIRDS OF WESTERN OREGON :
T3—SPAWNING HABITS OF THE RAZOR CLAM:
C—PRESENT CONDITION OF EASTERN OYSTER EXPERIMENT AND
THE NATIVE OYSTER INDUSTRY, JUNE 30, 1900;
D—A CONTRIBUTION TO OUR PCNOWLEDGE OF THE FOOD FISHES
OF THE OREGON COAST;
E—SANITARY BIOLOGY, OR “WATER ANALYSIS ’’;
F—-WORK ON EASTERN OYSTERs, SUMMER OF 1900.
SALEM, OREGON
W. H. LEEDS, STATE PRINTER
1 9 0 1

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REPORT.
TEXT OF BILL CREATING THE OFFICE OF STATE BIOLOGIST, AS PASSED
BY THE STATE LEGISLATURE IN 1898.
Be it enacted:
“That the office of State Biologist, without salary, is hereby created, and
that His Excellency, the Governor of the State, is authorized to appoint a
person properly qualified by Scientific attainments to serve in that capacity.
The duties of such officer shall be Scientific investigation as regards the
animal resources of the State of Oregon, and, as far as possible, the devel-
opment of all such resources which have an economic value. He shall from
time to time, or on demand, make a brief report of the progress of his work
to the Governor of the State.”
$
On February 11, 1899, the present incumbent was ap-
pointed State Biologist by the Chief Executive, in conform-
ance with the provisions of the above act.
In this enactment the legislature doubtless intended to
facilitate the introduction of eastern oysters to Oregon, as
well as that of other east coast animals of value as food.
That this has been the result is evinced by the interest taken
in the work by the general government and by various cour-
tesies extended by them to the State Biologist. -
Quite apart from the question of the introduction of east-
ern oysters or eastern lobsters, there is a large field in this
state for practical work on the part of a biologist; the im-
proving of the conditions of the native oyster industry, the
study of the life history, food habits, spawning habits, etc.,
of clams, crawfish and other food-producing animals, and the
bearing of such habits on legislation for their protection ; a
listing of the birds and reptiles of the state ; a scientific study
of the State’s food fishes of both salt and fresh water. Particu-
larly, as having a direct bearing upon that most important
factor of human happiness, namely health ; the examination
and analysis of drinking water as furnished cities and towns.
This branch of a biologist’s work is well called “Sanitary
Biology,” for in no way is the health of the human family
more seriously threatened, as a whole, than by ignorance as
to the character of the water our children and friends use at
4 REPORT OF STATE BIOLOGIST .
our tables. Insidious because invisible to the naked eye, foes
we do not dream of may abound in countless numbers in
what appears to be a harmless glass of water. A micro-
scopical examination reveals these dangers and leads to a
study of the surroundings of the water supply. In this con-
nection see appendix E of the present report. It is a rec-
ognized fact of water analysis that a microscopical examina-
tion, with a study of the environment (using the clues af-
forded by the microscope), gives more conclusive results
than a chemical examination. I need only refer to the re-
ports of the biologists in Massachusetts, New York, Connecti-
cut and elsewhere, as made in behalf of boards of health or
in connection with the work of water commissioners, to evi-
dence the practical value of their services in this connection.
The biological laboratory of the State University at Eugene is
well equipped with apparatus for water analysis, and the
biologist intends to push this important work as much as
possible without interfering with his regular work in the in-
stitution.
The work accomplished by the State Biologist during the
last two years is described in the appendices of this report.
An illustrated list of some of the Winter birds of Western Ore-
gon has been published (appendix A ) with some notes on
their habits and comparative abundance. This was intended
particularly as a plea for the better protection of our birds.
At the request of the Astoria Progressive Commercial As-
sociation, razor clams sent from the coast were examined,
microscopically, each month for a year to determine the time
of spawning, that wise legislation might be enacted to pre-
went the extinction of this food product. (Appendix B.)
Experimentation with eastern Oysters has been continued
(see appendix C ; also the account of last summer’s work,
appendix F). In this work the most complete — indeed, the
only record of water temperatures of Yaquina Bay—has
been obtained, at different tides, covering a period from Jan-
uary to August. The salinity and temperature at low and
high tide during a part of the summer seasons of the waters
of Yaquina, Coos, Tillamook and Netart bays has been also
secured. Valuable information relative to the behavior of
the eastern oyster in our waters has been gained in two sea-
sons of study, and of particular value is the knowledge ac-
quired of the breeding habits of our native oyster and the
condition of the native oyster industry. (Page 12, appen-
dix C.)
REPORT OF STATE BIOILOGIST. Ö
*
In the work upon eastern oysters the United States Fish
Commission has given the State Biologist most kindly co-
operation, by the presentation of Oysters and in other ways,
though they emphasize their opinion that the states should
bear the cost of such experimentation within their borders.
Appendix D gives a short list, the forerunner of more work
in this direction, of some of the fishes used as food found on
our coast and in Our bays. It Only aims at being a descrip-
tive list by which and by means of the illustrations it is hoped
those interested may identify species. The list is compiled
from a collection presented the university by B. J. Brether-
ton, of Newport, Oregon, and identified by the writer.
Appendix E describes the principal method of water an-
alysis, shows how wells may be contaminated, makes certain
sanitary suggestions and illustrates organisms found in drink-
ing water by use of the microscopes at the State University.
This is a branch of science of great practical importance ; it
is a growing science, and one in which biologists have done
and will do much for the good of the human race.
The biologist has served without any compensation ; in-
deed, has been out of pocket in behalf of the work, but has
done his best to make the office worthy of recognition. Other
states have given a precedent ; why should not we in Oregon
do all we can to foster the welfare of our commonwealth 2 I
have been the object of some little good-natured badinage on
the part of friends because my office has been “without sal-
ary,” and as a rule the average American is too practical to
realize how a scientist can work along a chosen line unless
there “is something in it.” Until the time shall come when
the state sees fit to recognize the Office as a salaried one, the
present incumbent is willing to carry on the work without
pay, but the members of the legislature will readily see that
to maintain an office without furnishing some means for ac-
tual expenses of the work would be farcical, hence the State
Biologist will ask at the coming session for a small amount to
cover such expenses during the next two years. That this is
not for personal gain is evinced by the fact that the Secretary
of State only honors items accompanied by vouchers showing
actual expenditures.
Respectfully,
F. I. WASHIBURN.
APPENDIX A.
SOME WINTER BIRDS
OF WESTERN OREGON.
BY F. L. WASHBURN, A. M., UNIVERSITY OF OREGON, EUGENE.
LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL.
UNIVERSITY OF OREGON, June 30, 1899.
His Ea:cellency T. T. Geer, Salem, Oregon:
DEAR SIR: It gives me pleasure to present this brief report of some of
the birds found in Oregon west of the Cascade Mountains during a part or
all of the winter season. There has been much interest shown in our birds
by the citizens of the state, and, while the list is not complete, the species
described here with are those about which there has been more or less in-
quiry. Some of the birds listed are known to nest within the confines of
the state; hence they are not exclusively winter visitants, although in the
absence of our regular summer bird residents, their presence in winter is
noticeable. -
The growing interest in our feathered friends is an encouraging manifes-
tation and argues that the birds will probably be better protected as the
years go on. There is need of this, for, as the Season of Spring approaches
each year, the small boy begins his cruel work with the slingshot and airgun.
Most of the birds thus persecuted are our familiar birds, in the long run
more or less beneficial to the horticulturist and farmer. Moreover, for
every bird slain, a large number are wounded and escape to drag out a
wretched existence until death relieves them. The thought of the unneces-
sary suffering inflicted upon helpless animals by the thoughtless or cruel,
prompts me to take this opportunity to appeal to citizens of our towns and
cities, urging them to see that the laws which forbid the use of slingshot or
gun in public places within the corporate limits and the laws which protect
our birds be rigidly enforced.
Neither can I neglect the opportunity to correct, as far as possible, an
erroneous idea quite prevalent amongst our people to the effect that all
hawks and all owls are injurious and should be slaughtered whenever pos-
sible. The farmer’s boy feels it his bounden duty to destroy every hawk and
every owl which comes within the reach of his gun, while Some so-called
sportsmen go through our streets boldly flaunting the Great Horned Owl
which they have shot, while the China Pheasants which have been poached
are Snugly stored away in the pockets of their hunting coats. As a matter
of fact, gophers, Squirrels, skunks, rabbits, meadow mice, Snakes, frogs,
grasshoppers and other insects form a large part of the food of hawks
and owls. The number of mice destroyed by this much-maligned class is
enormous. To be sure, the larger hawks and Owls do prey upon poultry and
game birds, but before condemning we should bear in mind that scientific
examination of their stomachs reveals the fact that many birds which are at
One season injurious, may, at another season, be very useful.
Finally, permit me to call attention to erroneous statements regarding
birds which find their way into print. A casual observer, seeing a bird he
is unfamiliar with, jumps at the conclusion that it is an imported bird and
sends a communication to that effect to a newspaper, whereas, were he a
close observer of birds, he would have recognized the bird as a native.
Again, the same observer reports seeing a strange bird, “brown, with a red
head,” thus setting all bird lovers agog with excitement, which abates con-
siderably when he picks out his bird from a museum collection and it is
found that the crown is chestnut and that the bird is olive above, possibly
with streaks of brown on a light ground below. I would therefore urge our
citizens to treat with some suspicion statements regarding Our birds not
coming from a recognized authority. In describing species in this report
technical terms have been avoided. The scientific names given are those
used by Elliot Coues in his “Rey to North American Birds.” Where a
picture of the Oregon variety could not be secured, a cut of the type has
been used. Our acknowledgments are due The Dana Estes Company, pub-
lishers of this work, who, with the permission of Doctor Coues have pre-
sented us with the electrotypes used in illustrating the following report.
Respectfully, F. L. WASHIBURN,
- State Biologist.
SOME WINTER BIRDS OF WESTERN OREGON.
THE VARIED THRUSH, OREGON ROBIN, ALASKA ROBIN.
(Turdus maevius.)
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Common in late winter and early Spring. Familiar enough to render a
description unnecessary. While its note is somewhat monotonous, a plain-
tive whistle, the bird coming as it does at a season when there are but few
bird attractions, is a welcome visitor with its dandy shirt front of orange-
brown crossed with a black collar. Upper parts Slate colored. Remarkably
tame when not molested. From seeing the bird in the timber during the
Summer months, the writer is lead to believe that it nests here quite exten-
sively. A nest and eggs are reported from Yamhill County. Length nine
and one-half to ten inches.
TEVENING GROSBEAR.
(Hesperophoma vespertima.)
This striking bird has of late
years become a very regular win-
ter visitant. Quite tame, and par-
tial in the Spring to buds and green
seeds of the maple. General color
dull yellow with an olive shade.
Yellow on the forehead, over eye,
On rump and shoulders; wing and
tail black, Some white on the form-
er, and wings yellow beneath. Bill
greenish-yellow. Length a b out
seven inches. The above descrip-
tion applies to the male; the female
is much duller. Length from seven
and one-half to eight and one-half
inches.
The writer has noted the occur-
- § rence Of this bird in our towns as
- late as June 10, its presence in the
Shady: maples being betrayed by its sharp chirp, and three years ago, in


















SOME WINTER BIRDS OF WESTERN OREGON. 5
August, while traveling from Alsea Bay to the Willamette Valley, I found
in the timber on Digger Mountain a pair of these birds in frayed plumage,
their condition and the date indicating the possibility of their breeding here,
although no nest was found. They come to us from the north, not, as is gen-
erally supposed, to avoid the cold, but to find more abundant food than is
Offered in their own home.
AMERICAN RED CROSS—BILL.
(Loafia, a mericana.)
º:
On February 3, 1899, the writer observed a small flock of these birds in
Eugene. The members of this genus are readily recognized by the fact
that their upper and lower mandibles cross, hence their name. This struc-
tural peculiarity appears to have something to do with extracting Seeds from
cones, cracking small nut fruits, etc. General color grayish or dusky; the
males tinged with red; wings and tail blackish.Length about Six inches.
CEDAR BIRD, CHERRY BIRD, WAXWING.
(Ampelis cedrorum.)
This beautiful bird is a common resident
winter and summer, usually seen in Small
flocks. General color a rich cinnamon on
head and foreparts: crest of same color.
this color shading to ash near tail: bill
black, a jet black patch running over fore-
head at base of bill, inclosing the eye; a
well marked white line on lower jaw, and
a narrow streak of same color over the
black patch mentioned above. Lower eye-
lid white. The cinnamon of breast shading
into yellowish on belly and white on under
tail coverts. Inner quills of wings tipped
with red appendages, resembling beeswax,
hence the name of “waxwing.” Tail feath-
ers tipped with yellow, sometimes showing
red-wax tips also, Length six and one-
half inches.


6 som E wintER BIRDS OF WESTERN OREGON.
BOEIEMIAN WAXWING.
* (Ampelis garrulus.)
Very much like the last and belonging to Same genus, but much larger,
seven to eight inches. Not observed by the writer. Quoted in “Oregon Nat-
uralist” as a “winter resident of Eastern Oregon, rare in Western Oregon.”
PURPLE LINNET, PURPLE FINCH-‘‘CHERRY THIEF.”
(Carpodacus purpurews.)
A beautiful songster, but with a perni-
cious habit of eating blossoms from cherry
and other fruit trees, which has earned
for it the hatred of all would-be raisers of
fruit. Common, and nesting in Summer.
General colors, grayish-brown, the male
... sº a’ having a crimson crown which color shades
§§ gradually into brownish-red streaked with
*...; § brown on back. Six inches long.
jº It is hard to reconcile the facts that
tº this wonderful songster, approaching in
> -->=
-
:
--
-
º ź
its ability the bobolink of the eastern
$$. Vº # states, should also be such a terrible dep-
#º; redator on fruit trees. We must not, in
*#. § ºś condemning this bird, confound it with
ºšš(ºš the Cedar Bird or Cherry Bird (Ampelis
cedroºrwm) mentioned above, which has
been found to be not only harmless, but,
during the period of raising its young, at
least, decidedly beneficial.
3.
º:
É
-
:
WHITE–BROWN CROWN SPARIROW.
(Zomotrichia intermedia.)
One of our larger sparrows, about six and one-
half to seven inches. Crown black, ellclosing
a medium white stripe, and two lateral white
stripes, all meeting on back of head. Dark ash
with brown above, whitish on chin and belly:
middle of back streaked with dark purple and
ash. Common for the species during the year.
It has rather a pleasing song, bearing a close
resemblance to that of the White-Throated Spar-
row, but not so elaborate. Coues vocalizes it by
using the words, pee, dee, de de de.
OREGON TOWHEE, GROUND ROBIN, CHEWINK.
(Pipilo maculatus Oregonus.)
Common throughout the year in shrubbery and brush. Called “Towhee”
and “Chewink” from its peculiar note. Between seven and eight inches
long. Male black, white below with chestnut sides, white markings on
wings and tail, eyes red. Female brown where male has black. This is
quite a “ground bird ” since it is found, commonly, scratching among the
leaves. Its note and a habit it has of elevating its tail when hopping about
are unmistakable characteristics, even were the colors lacking.








SOME WINTER. BIRDS OF WESTERN OREGON. 7
RUBY-CROWNED EINGLET,
(Regulus calendula.)
An inconspicuous bird except to the student. Length about four inches.
Greenish-olive, pale below; two white bars on wing; a concealed scarlet
patch on crown. This patch confined to the male bird, glows like a living
coal when the feathers of crown are raised. This gem of a bird, re-
minding an easterner of the woods in winter, Snow-laden trees and flocks of
Chickadees with which it associates in the east, is not at all uncommon here
in winter. The writer knows of no record of its nesting here.
- §ºssº.
SAP-SUCRER. §§§º
* - w § WSºº - - g
§§ff
A common pest Winter
and summer. We should
be careful in condemning
him, not to include all
woodpeckers, which, as a
class, are very useful to the
agriculturist. The rows
of holes in our apple trees
and maples are put there
by this bird whose fond-
ness for Sap is said to some-
times lead it to strip bark
from fruit trees. The pic-
ture represents the eastern
form—Sphyrapicus varius.
ARCTIC OWL, SNOWY OWL.
(Nycted scandiacca.)
This large Owl is an occasional
Winter visitant, not fleeing from the
excessive cold of its northern home,
for its thick plumage renders that
Out of the question, but rather
forced Southerly through lack of
food in its accustomed haunts.
About two feet long. White with
blackish or brownish bars and spots.








8 SOME WINTER BIRDS OF WESTERN OREGON.
SCREECH OWL.
(Scops asio Remnicotti.)
A common and useful resident, fond of mice, and hence led to frequent
the neighborhood of dwellings. A carefully prepared work from the Depart-
ment of Agriculture, as the result of the examination of two hundred and
fifty-four stomachs of this species, has this to Say: “Thousands upon thou-
sands of mice of different kinds thus fall victims to their industry.” Their
economic relations therefore are of the greatest importance, particularly on
account of the abundance of the species in many of the farming districts,
and whoever destroys them through ignorance or malice should be severely
criticised.
GREAT BLUE HERON, CRANE.
(Ardea, herodias.)
A picturesque figure of our winter and Summer landscape, whether flying
high in the air with long legs outstretched behind, or standing by the side
of a quiet stream with sharp eyes and sharper beak ready for any luckless
frog which may venture in its vicinity. Too common to need a special de-
Scription. Length three and one-half feet. Nests in trees and bushes, Said
to occasionally build on cliffs. Eggs greenish-blue.

APPENDIX B.
NOTES ON THE SPAWNING HABITs
O'B' TI-IE
RAZOR CLAM.
NOTES ON THE SPAWNING HABITs
OF THE
RAZOR CLAM.
Machaera patula – DIXON.
Siliqua (patwila war.) Nuttallii – CONRAD.
RECOMIMIEN DATIONS
REGARDING
PROTECTIVE MEASURES.
BIOLOGICAL LABORATORY,
UNIVERSITY OF OREGON,
EUGENE, April 5, 1900.
His Evcellency, T. T. Geer:
DEAR SIR —This clam, which forms such an important
article of diet on this northwest coast, needs no introduction
to the people of Oregon. The genus is of wide distribution,
being reported as occurring in India, China, Ochotsk, Sitka,
Behring’s Sea, Newfoundland.
It is feared here, that, as a result of its unlimited persecu-
tion, both in summer and winter, it may eventually become
rare, or even extinct. To guard against any possibility of
the loss of this article of food, Mr. Johann Young, in the
legislative assembly of 1898–1899, introduced House Bill No.
118, to provide for its protection. The bill reads as follows:
A BILL
For an Act providing for the protection of razor clams, and declaring an emergency.
Be it enacted by the Legislative Assembly of the State of Oregon:
Section 1. It shall be unlawful from and after the passage of this Act to
dig, take, kill, injure, destroy, buy, sell, or offer for sale any shellfish com-
monly known as the razor clam, between the first day of June and the
2 T.EPORT OF STATE BIOLOGIST.
fifteenth day of July, and the fifteenth day of October and the fifteenth day
of December of each year; provided, however, that it shall not be considered
unlawful for any person to dig razor claims for his or her own use.
Section 2. If any person shall dig any shellfish, commonly known as:
razor clams, whose length is less than two and one half inches, they shall
immediately replace Said clam in the place from which it was dug, with the
least possible injury to the claim.
Section 3. Any person violating the provisions of this act shall be pun-
ished by a fine of not less than twenty ($20) nor more than one hundred
($100) dollars, or imprisonment in the county jail for a period of not less
than ten (10) days nor more than fifty (50) days.
Inasmuch as there is urgent necessity for the protection to shellfish this
act is intended to afford, it shall be in effect from and after its approval by
the Governor.
This bill passed the house and was reported favorably in
the Senate by the Committee on Fishing Industries, but no
further action was taken, and the bill, in consequence, failed
to become a law. * . .
In January, 1899, the Astoria Progressive Commercial
Association, through Mr. H. G. Van Dusen, asked me if I
would make an examination of clams, sent me from time to
time, to determine the season of spawning. This I gladly
agreed to do, and batches of from six to ten were sent me
monthly from Astoria. These were given a careful micro-
scopical examination and the results reported to Mr. Van
Dusen. Before stating these results it will be well, that they
may be the more readily understood, to give a brief and pop-
ular description of the
ANATO MY AND HAIBITS OF THE R.A.Z OR, CILAM .
The name “Razor Clam,” by the way, is doubtless applied
to it on account of its elongated and somewhat flattened shape.
There are other species, however, in the same family, which
are more razor-like in appearance than the one we are so
familiar with as an article of diet.
The shell of a large individual will measure about six and
one-half inches, and, as every clam digger knows, they range
from that size down, the average being, perhaps, five and one-
half inches.
From the anterior end (the end that is down when the clam
is in the sand) protrudes the muscular “foot,’’ the tissues of
which are capable of being distended to some extent with water,
and the whole foot protruded several inches beyond edge of
shell and drawn quickly and forcibly back. This so-called
foot is really a part of the visceral mass or body of the clam
REPORT OF STATE BIOLOGIST. - 3
which contains the alimentary canal, liver, generative pro-
ducts, etc. It is by means of this “foot” that the clam is
enabled to get out of the reach of the clam digger, if the latter
does not work quickly, for it stretches it down through the soft
yielding sand as far as it will go, then the lower end is ex-
panded, forming a temporary suction, and the retractor mus-
cles of the foot are then contracted. Ordinarily, the effect of
this would be to draw back the foot, but, the lower end of
this organ being at this time expanded or curved, the body of
the clam is drawn down to the improvised anchor, and the
process is then repeated. This, with minor modifications, is
the method of locomotion with most of the clams.
At the end of the clam opposite the foot the “siphon,”
wrongly called the “neck,” protrudes. This is a curious
organ and has to do with the respiration and feeding of the
creature. Two tubes traverse this siphon longitudinally, one
opening into the space just above the gills, the other, the one
nearer the ventral or free edge of the shell, opening into the
general space between the valves of the shell. In this space,
on each side of the visceral mass are two gills, four in all,
which serve as organs of respiration ; and covering and pro-
tecting both visceral mass and gills is a thin layer of tissue
known as the ‘‘mantle.” This mantle lies next the nacreous
inner layer of the shell which it has helped to form by its
secretions. When the clam is in the sand and covered with
water the siphon is stretched until its end is above the surface
of the sand. Water is drawn in the lower opening and passes
over and through the gills, the minute particles of food con-
tained therein being carried to the mouth which is at the
lower or anterior part of the animal; the water which has
passed through the gills, flows back and out through the other
tube, the exhalent tube of the siphon. The smooth epidermis
covering the outer surface of the shell is of a brownish color
and glistens as though it were warnished. There are evidently
nerve endings at the distal end of the siphon which are sensi-
tive to light and shadow, though this has not been definitely
proven for this species. The sexes are distinct, as will be
shown later. This is placed beyond all question, even if it
had not been previously known, by these recent studies. Yet
there are those in the State who claim that these animals are
hermaphroditic. Familiarity with the use of the microscope
and a knowledge of the anatomy of the creature would soon
dispel this erroneous conception.
4 FEPORT OF STATE BIOLOGIST .
METHODS OF EXAMINATION AND RESULTS.
In making the following examinations one valve of the clam
was removed, the visceral mass opened above the ‘‘foot,’’ and
some of the contents, after being spread on a glass slide, were
examined under high and low powers of the microscope.
When spawning, the ripe eggs, readily recognized with low
power, look like Figure 1. -
ſº g
459 @
gº
ºe
@:
6 99".)
Wig.
Under the high power, the actively moving sperm resemble
Figure 2.
%

º %
º
%
Fºg 2.
RESULTS OF MICROSC()PICAL EXAMINATION.
Jan. 15, 1899.--NO eggs nor sperm.
Feb. 27, 1899.—A very few immature eggs No ripe sexual products.
Mar. —, 1899.-Omitted lººmination. ut note that the February examination was
- very late.
Apr. 17, 1899.-Eight clams examined.
No. 1, ripe sperm.
No. 2, ripe sperm.
No. 3, many mature eggs.
No. 4, many mature eggs.
No. 5, many mature eggs.
No. 6, ripe sperm.
No. 7, ripe sperm.
No. 8, spoiled.
May 13, 1899.-Ten clams examined.
No. 1, full of ripe eggs.
No. 2, full of ripe eggs.
No. 3, full of ripe eggs.
No. 5, full of ripe eggs.
No. 7, full of ripe eggs.
No. 4, full of ripe sperm.
No. 6, full of ripe sperm.
No. 8, full of ripe sperm.
REPORT OF STATE BIOLOGIST . 5
No. 9, full of ripe sperm.
No. 10, full of ripe sperm.
June 22, 1899.-Eight claims examined.
No. 2, female which had spawned.
No. 3, female which had spawned.
No. 4, female which had spawned.
No. 5, female which had spawned.
No. 8, female which had spawned.
No. 1, male which had spawned.
No. 6, male which had spawned.
No. 7, male which had spawned.
I use the term “spawned” for both sexes. The specimens
were all lank, had discharged their genitive products. Would
be called “poor” by fishermen.
The July examination was omitted because of press of work
connected with oyster investigations.
Aug. 23, 1890.-Ten claims examined.
No. 1, male with sperm.
No. 3, male with sperm.
No. 5, male with sperm.
No. 7, male with sperm.
No. 8. male with sperm.
No. 2, female with a few ripe eggs.
No. 4, female with a few ripe eggs.
No. 6, female with a few ripe eggs.
No. 10, female with a few ripe eggs.
No. 9, no results.
These specimens all looked “lank” or poor, and the scarcity
of eggs would make it appear that the spawning season was
practically over.
Sept. —, 1899.-Batch of clams examined. Very few with eggs or sperm.
Oct. 13, 1899.-Out of a batch received on this date, very few were found with eggs; evi-
dently Way past Spa Wning.
Nov. and Dec. 1899.-NO results.
From the results of the above examinations it is very evi-
dent that the bulk of the spawning is during April and May,
for it was during that time that I found them full of genera-
tive products. June examination showed that they had
finished spawning. A few eggs were found in August, it is
true, but so few as to indicate that the spawning season was
long over. In no case were ova and sperm found in the same
individual ; in other words, the sexes are distinct. The de-
velopment of this species has never been studied. While it
is not of interest economically, it is of sufficient scientific im-
portance to invite investigation on the part of a biologist.
DEDUCTIONS AS TO PROTECTIVE MEASURES.
It is evident from the above that should the razor clam
need legal protection, the close season should be during April
and May, or possibly from March 15 to June 15, thereby
giving them every advantage of variation in seasons.
6 REPORT OF STATE BIOLOGIST.
A clam cannery, in its zeal to make a big season’s pack of
minced clams, might use very small individuals, such as one
seeking clams for his own need would discard. This contin-
gency is provided for in Mr. Young's bill. * -
As I understand, it is not intended to prevent seashore vis-
itors from using clams during the summer months. This, in
view of the long stretches of beach where clam digging is
indulged in, would be a matter of extreme difficulty, if not
an impossibility.
If this treatise throws any light on the best time for a close
season, Supposing such protection were necessary, I shall feel
amply repaid for the expenditure of time and trouble it has
caused. My thanks are due Mr. Van Dusen for very kind
cooperation.
Respectfully,
F. L. WASHIBURN,
State Biologist.
APPENDIX C.
PRESENT CONDITION
EASTERN 0YSTER EXPERIMENT
AND TEIE
NATIVE OYSTER INDUSTRY.
PRESENT CONDITION
EASTERN OYSTER EXPERIMENT.
BIOLOGICAL LABORATORY,
UNIVERSITY OF OREGON,
EUGENE, January 30, 1900.
His Excellency, T. T. Geer, Salem, Oregon :
I take pleasure in presenting to you here with a report on
the status of the Eastern Oyster experiment, conditions of the
native oyster industry, etc., and include several tables of
densities and water temperatures taken within the last three
years, and mailed to Washington, D. C., but not hitherto
published here.
I should like to emphasize at the very beginning of the re-
port a few points which I regard as important, viz.:
1. I have beeem very careful in this work to state to the public
as facts Only what we have actually found to be true, and have
been eatremely conservative in statements which might lead our
citizens to eaſpect immediate results.
2. We know that the introduced oyster flourishes, grows with
extreme rapidity, and 800m becomes an excellent marketable product.
3. We know that they spawn here.
4. We have found a few young Oysters wºndoubtedly hatched in
Yaquima Bay.
Public opinion appears to have decided, with questionable
propriety, that, as far as successful propagation is concerned,
the experiment is a failure, and many of the Oystermen of
Yaquina Bay, being intensely practical and not at all Scien-
tific, share this view. Similar work on the Atlantic Coast
(I refer to the experiments of John A. Ryder, see Report of
Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries for 1885), demonstrating
that oyster spat can be obtained in enormous amounts by resorting
to pond culture, prove that we have no right to draw hasty conclu-
Sions as regards our work here.
4 . REPORT OF STATE BIOLOGIST.
I have no hesitation in saying that, even should we be un-
Successful in propagating the introduced species here, there
is profit, much profit, for an individual, or a company, pro-
vided ground could be secured for such purpose, in importing
seed oysters from the east, planting them in our bays (they
will grow in almost any of our bays), and selling to home
trade a year or two years or more later. As is well known,
an immense business of this kind is conducted at San Fran-
cisco. Now, then, if pond culture of embryo oysters can be
resorted to here (I have already alluded to a successful in-
stance of its use in the east), how much more profit would
there be in raising seed here than in purchasing it on the At-
lantic Coast and paying freight rates to the Pacific.
While I confidently believe that, in time, oystermen will
find more or less eastern oysters in Yaquina Bay, which have
had their origin, naturally, in the plant introduced by the
United States Fish Commission, it may take many years before
this result is attained, and my chief, in fact, my only reliance
for immediate results, now rests upon pond culture in connec-
tion with artificial fertilization. Artificial fertilization con-
sists in mixing the ripe generative products from both sexes
of Oyster in receptacles filled with salt water, and when the
developing eggs have reached the swimming stage of the
embryo, or later, turning them into the bay, or better, into
ponds where proper temperature and saltness can be main-
tained until they fix themselves as “spat,’’ this spat to be
later deposited in the bay.
With this idea of pond culture in mind, a cement pond was
made last Summer in the tide land with the expectation of
testing its efficiency next summer.
Of all the bays of the Oregon Coast examined during the
last three years, Yaquina Bay, though not an ideal place, ap-
pears most suited for successful propagation of this delicious
bivalve, although an abundance of oyster food was found
everywhere, and, as stated above, this oyster will undoubtedly
grow finely in almost any bay on our coast. -
I here insert, seriatim, and very briefly, the conditions
found by the writer to prevail in the localities studied, to-
gether with a few tables of salinity and temperatures. The
density of ocean water is 1.025.
T.EPORT OF STATE BIOLOGIST.


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ALSE.A. B.A.Y.
Same remarks apply here which describe conditions at Tillamook.
. e Surface Tempera- Bottonn. Tempera- *
Date. Locality. Time. Density. ture, OC. Density. ture, OC. Tide.
July 13 Slough at Waldport, one and one-half miles from ge
mouth of bay 1:30 P. M. 1.0245 14 | 1.024 (6 feet 14 | EIigh.
13 || Waldport dock, one and one-half miles from mouth 2:00 P. M. 1.024 13 |1.0245 (14 feet 13 | Ebb.
13 McKinney’s Slough, three miles from mouth------ 2:30 P. M. 1.022 18 1.022 (4 feet 18 || 13, hours ebb.
13 | Titus' Slough, four miles from mouth--------------- 3:00 P. M. 1.019 17 | 1.0235 (15feet) 14% 2 hours ebb.
13 || Nice’s Cannery 3:45 P. M. 1.0232 16; 1.0232 16 # ebb.
COOS BAY.
An ideal bottom for any oysters off Glasgow, and an abundance of food everywhere. But water too cold and too salt for eastern spawn
except in extreme upper part of bay, near Marshfield, where favorable conditions, very favorable, Pºiº when I was there during the
summer, but where an excess of fresh Water in the Winter, accompanied with mud, would be fatal to old and young Eastern Oysters. A
possible danger from sewage in this vicinity must not be Overlooked. Good bottom was also found in the north channel of Coos River, in
the vicinity of Willanoh Slough. From North Bend up (1897), the writer found large numbers of dead shells of the native oyster, such as we
have at Yaquina Bay, and at Shoalwater Bay, Wash., and recently the government dredge has disclosed tons of these dead shells, COrrobo-
rating the prevailing impression that this oyster (Ostres, lwrida) flourished here in great quantities, until killed by some catastrophe, a
sudden and unusual deposit of mud, or possibly of ashes from the great fires of years ago. Before leaving Coos Bay the Writer urged upon
the citizens of that section, the desirability of importing a quantity of these oysters from Yaquina, or Shoalwater Bay, and stocking Coos
Bay. I take this opportunity to again advise Such a move, feeling Sure that it, Will result profitably. -
i H (7. Surface Tempera- • BOttom Tempera- &
Date. Locality. Density. ture, OC. Tide. Density. ture, OC. Tide. Depth.
Aug. 10 Empire City 1.025; 17% à flood --------- 1.023% 21 feet.
10 || Marshfield 1.018 18 # ebb ----------- 1.018? 19 || 3 ebb -----------
10 | Isthmus Slough 1.015 20 Low------------ 1.015 19
11 Marshfield 1.015 19 LOW------------ 1,015 20 | LOW------------ | 12 feet.
ll One half mile below Marshfield--------- 1.015 I9 Flood ---------- 1.016 20 ------------------
ll Empire City - 1.022 16 | # flood --------- 13 feet.
ll | South Slough 1.024 13} #91
ll Life Saving Station 1.024 15 3bb ------------ - 1.024 14 | Ebb ------------ -
11 Empire City 1.024 15 1 hour ebb -
11 Empire City 1.022 16 LOW------------ 1.022 15 | LOW------------
11 | North Slough 1 020 18 || 1 hour flood ---
12 Empire City 1.022 15 ebb -
12 | Pony Slough 1.022 60 F OW -
12 | EIay’s Slough - 1.021 18 1.020 18 || 1 hour flood ---| 9 feet.
12 || Glasgow, at dock 1,020 19 2 bours flood-- 1.021 19 || 3 flood --------- | 10 feet.
12 | North IBend 1,022 I8 # flood
12 | Pony Slough - - 1.022 19 || 3 flood ---------| 2 feet.
|


WATER TEMPERATURES.
The following Very complete list of Water temperatures, made by George King of Oyster City, Yaquina Bay, under the writer's direction,
and extending from January 1, 1897, to August 3, 1897, gives one a very good idea of the condition of the water of Yaquina Bay in the neigh-
borhood of the eastern Oyster plant. Low tide in this table, and high tide, do not mean neccessarily exactly the lowest tide or exactly the
highest tide, but approximately low or approximately high, as the case may be. I believe this is the most complete record of the water tem-
perature. Of Yaquina Bay in existence, and as such, commend it to your favorable attention. It may be well to note here that the best
temperature for eastern oyster spawn is from 700 to 800 Fahrenheit, and the most favorable density or saltness is from 1,012 to 1.016. It must
be added further that, a sudden change, either in the Saltness or in the temperature of the water is exceedingly hostile to eastern oyster
SpaWn. In the density tables given above, unless otherwise noted, the temperature is in degrees Centigrade. To find the equivalent in
Fahrenheit, multiply the figure given by 9, divide by 5 and add 32.
Temperature, 9F. - .
Date. Locality. Tide. Depth. | Time. jºr Remarks.
Surface. | BOttom.
1897.
Jan. 1 | Poole's Slough |High----------- 48 49 | 18 feet 43 | Clear.
2 Oyster City ll-- 48 50 | 12 feet 45 || Clear.
3 || Oysterville Flats 49 50 | 18 feet, 44 || Clear.
8 || Poole's Slough LOW------------ 49 49 9 feet, Rain.
8 || Channel, Oyster City LOW------------ 49 50 | 18 feet,
9 || Oysterville Flats 49 50
9 | Channel, Oyster City 49 50
15 | Poole's Slough 4S 49 || 14 feet,
15 | Channel 48 493 20 feet
19 | Poole's Slough High----------- 48 49
19 Oyster City High----------- 48 49
19 || Oysterville High----------- 48 49
25 | Oyster City 44 47 6 feet, 34
28 || Oysterville High----------- 49 50 | 20 feet, 47
30 Oysterville |High----------- 49 50 47
Feb. 5 Oysterville High 49% 50 20 feet 52 --
13 Oysterville Low------------ 46 47 9 feet Estimated 6 feet. Of
fresh Water.
14 || Oysterville e Beavy rains, water
3: fresh enough to
- drink.
15 Oysterville Storm and rain,
Water fresh.
16 || Oysterville 45 47
16 Poole's Slough 45 47 Fre S h et S a n d
storms to March
4.
|
:
Mar. 4
l
Apr. 7
Oyster Ville and Oyster City------------------ | LOW------------ 50 50 44
PQole's Slough, Oysterville and Oyster City High----------- 49 50
Milligan’s Bend OW------------ 48 48 25 feet, 46
Qyster City, Qysterville and Poole's Slough Low------------ 48 49 | 12 feet, 47
Qyster City, Qysterville and Poole's Slough Low____________ 49 49
Oyster City, Oysterville and Poole's Slough
Qyster City, Oysterville and Poole's Slough Low____________ 50 50
Oyster Ville and Oyster City__________-------- | LOW------------ 50 50 50
Oyster Ville and Oyster City------------------ | LOW------------ 52% 52 63
Oyster Ville, Poole's Slough and Oyster City Low____________ 54 53
Oyster Ville, Poole's Slough and Oyster City| Low____________ 55 55 | 12 feet,
Oyster Ville, Poole's Slough and Oyster City Low____________ 56 56
Miñigan's Bená. LOW------------ 59 57 | 20 feet,__| 6:00 P. M. 54
Oyster City 60 41 feet,
Oysterville, Poole's Slough and Oyster City 54% 54%
Oysterville and Poole's Šiough 59 583
Oyster Ville and Oyster City—ll-______________ LOW------------ 59 59 -
Oysterville 62 59 5:00, P. M.
Docks at Yaquina, 55 52
Oyster City 62 60
Poole's Slough, mouth 60 59
Poole's Slough High----------- 58 57 10:00 A. M.
Oysterville High----------- 59 57
Oyster City High----------- 58 57
Oyster City One-half ebb —- 63 59 7:00 A. M.
Oysterville 62
Oyster Ville and Oyster City------------------ High----------- 60 59
Oyster Ville and Poole's Slough, mouth_____ Extreme low__ ($3 62 6:00 A. M.
Milligan’s Bend 62 60
Qyster Ville, Poole's Slough and Oyster City Low------------ 64 64
Qyster Ville, Poole's Slough and Oyster City Low____________ 64 64
Qyster Ville, Poole's Slough and Oyster City Low____________ 64 64
Qyster Ville, Poole's Slough and Oyster City Low____________ 64 64
Oyster Ville, Poole's Slough and Oyster City Low____________ 62 61
Oyster Wille and Oyster City----------------- LOW------------ 62 60
POOle's Slough and Oysterville_-____________ High----------- 59 57
Qyster'Ville and Oyster City__________________ LOW------------ 63 61 3:00 P. M.
Oyster City 63 61 -
Qyster Ville, Poole's Slough and Oyster City High----------- 60 58
Oyster City, off dock OW------------ 63
Qyster City, off dock LOW------------ 63
Qyster City, off dock LOW------------ 64
Oyster City, off dock Extreme low-- 65
Oyster City, off dock igh----------- 62 61
Oyster City, off dock Extreme low-- 65
Oyster City, off dock igh----------- 62 61
Qyster Ville and Pool’s Slough.---------------- | Extreme low-- 65 65
Oyster City, off dock High----------- 62 61
Beavy rains.
Strong east wind,
heaviest rains Of
SC3USO]].
Raw and cold.
Bright and Warm.



5
:
|

WATER TEMPERATURES.–CONCLUDED.
Date.
1897.
June 5
}
l
Temperature, 9F.
Locality. Tide. Depth. Time. fºr Remarks.
Surface. Bottom.
Oyster City, channel Bigh 62 61
Oyster City, off dock LOW------------ 6S
Oysterville JExtreme low-- 6S 67
Poole's Slough Extreme low-- 69 7
Oysterville High----------- 62 61
Oysterville LOW------------ 65 . 64
Oyster ville High * 62 61
Oyster City Low------------ 65 64
Oyster City High----------- 62 61 A. M.
Oyster City High----------- 59 57 P. M.
Oyster City igh----------- 59 57
Oyster City One-half flood– 62 61 7:00 A. M. Rainy, Wind South-
WGSt.
Oyster City and Oysterville High----------- 63 61 11:00 A. M. Clºwind SOuth-
WeSt.
Oyster City, off dock LOW------------ 63 7:00 A. M.
Oyster City, off dock JHigh 00 57 1:00 P. M. -->
Oyster Ville and Oyster City------------------ Low------------ 65 64
Oyster Ville and Oyster City------------------| High----------- 63 61
Oyster Ville and Oyster City------------------ Extreme low-- 65 64
Oyster Ville and Oyster City------------------ High----------- 62 61
Oyster Ville and Oyster City------------------ Extreme low-- 63 61
Oyster Ville and Oyster City------------------ High----------- 61 59 12:00 IM. 57
Oysterville, Oyster City and Poole's Slough Extreme low__ 64 63
Oyster Ville and Oyster City------------------ High----------- 59 57 54
Oyster Ville and Oyster City------------------ LOW------------ 64 63
Oyster Ville and Oyster City------------------ High----------- 58 57
Oysterville and Oyster City, channel-------- LOW------------ 65 64
Oysterville and Oyster City, channel-------- High----------- 60 59
Oysterville and Oyster City, channel-------- LOW------------ 63 62%
Oysterville and Oyster City, channel________ High----------- 59 57
Oyster City |High----------- 60 59%
Oyster Ville and Oyster City------------------ LOW------------ 65 64
Oysterville and Oyster City------------------ High----------- 60 60
Oyster Ville and Oyster City------------------ Low------------ 66 65
Oyster Ville and Oyster City------------------ High----------- 62 ſilk -->
Oyster Ville and Oyster City------------------| Low------------ 67 65%
Oyster Ville and Oyster City------------------ High----------- 63 62;
Oyster City OW------------ 66# 65%
26 Oyster City, off dock LOW------------ 66%
27 | Oysterville | One-half flood 65
27 Oyster City PQW------------ . 66 - -
28 Poole's Slough and Oyster Ville-------------- High----------- 63% 62 1:00 P. M. 64
29 Oysterville and Oyster City------------------ Low------------ 66 65 67
30 Oysterville, Oyster City and Poole's Slough LOW------------ 68 66 70
July 1 Oysterville LOW------------ 7 65 8:00 A.M. 63
1 Oysterville - High 64 63 -
3 Qysterville, Poole's Slough and Qyster City. LQW------------ 67 67 9:00 A. M. 61
3 Oysterville, Poole's Slough and Oyster City High----------- - 64 63 4:00 P. M. 66
4 || Oysterville and Oyster City PQW------------ - 67 67 10:00 A. M. 64
5 Oyster City - High 64% 63 4:30 P. M. 65
6 Oyster City * E[igh 64% 63 5:15 P. M. 65
7 : Oysterville LOW------------ 68 6S 10:30 A. M.
7 Oysterville High----------- 64; 63%
S Oysterville High----------- - 69 68
9 || Oysterville High 66 64 8:30 A. M.
10 Oysterville Low------------ 68
11 Oyster City High----------- 65 64
12 Oyster City and Oyster Ville_----------------- LOW------------ 6S 6S 5:00 A. M.
13 Oyster City and Oysterville LOW 71 70 7:00 A. M.
14 Oyster City - LOW------------ 70 70 5:00 A. M. 53
14 Oyster City __| High 57 Cold Wave Of Water
14 Oyster City Low------------ 67 8:00 P. M.
15 Oyster Ville and Oyster City------------------ LOW------------ 70 7
16 Oysterville LOW------------ 69 69 7:00 A. M.
16 Oysterville High----------- 59 55
17 Oyster City LOW------------ 69. (3S S:00 A. M.
17 Oyster City Ebb------------ - 58 55 4:00 P. M.
18 Oyster City - LOW------------ 6S 68 9:00 A. M.
18 Oyster City High 57 5:00 P. M.
19 Oyster City LOW------------ 69 68% 10:00 P. M.
23 Oysterville High----------- 64 64
24 Oysterville - |High----------- 65 6:30 A. M. 5S
24 Oysterville High----------- 65 7:40 P. M.
25 Oyster City LOW------------ 6S 60
26 Oysterville 68 68 -
27 Oysterville and Oyster City 69 69 5:30 A. M. 49
28 Oyster City and Oysterville 6S 5:00 A. M. 45
30 Oysterville LOW 67
Aug. 1 || Oysterville LOW 67 8:00 A. M.
2 Oysterville Righ----------- 65 60
3 Oyster City LOW------------ - 68
3 Oyster City High----------- - 62 58
It will be seen from the above that the water temperature during the spawning season of 1887 was, as a rule, favorable, but note the Sud-
den changes on July 14 and July 16. The protected thermometer used in obtaining the above temperatures was kinäſy loaned by the
Portland office of the United States Weather Bureau.
H


12 REPORT OF STATE BIOLOGIST .
SECOND CONSIGNMENT OF EASTERN. OYSTERS.
Since the first consignment in 1896, the United States Fish
Commissioner, George M. Bowers, has been liberal enough to
present the state with ten barrels more of the variety known
as Princess Bays, making in all thirty-two barrels of eastern
oysters donated the state and planted in Yaquina Bay.
Through the courtesy of President John J. Valentine, of the
Wells, Fargo Company, this second consignment was brought
from New York to Yaquina free of charge. The United States
Government bore the expense of transporting the first con-
signment.
A telegram from Auburn, California, received at Eugene,
October 30, advised the writer that the oysters would pass
Sacramento that night, bringing them into Albany on the
morning of November 1, where they were met and arrange-
ments made with the courteous officials of the Corvallis and
Eastern Railroad to have them unloaded at Oysterville. They
were planted the next morning, some with the former plant,
and some farther up the bay in deep water. This consign-
ment left New York City on October 25; they were, there-
fore, just eight days en route. Not a single dead oyster was
found in the entire lot. The consignment weighed in the
vicinity of two thousand five hundred pounds. *
The Small sum ($300) appropriated by our last legislature
for this work having been nearly exhausted, the United
States Fish Commissioner, George M. Bowers, has practically
consented to honor bills representing the expenses of next
Summer’s work. This generosity on the part of the fish com-
missioner is highly appreciated, for, otherwise, the work would
be at a standstill during the coming summer, at which time
it is now intended to make a thorough trial of the concrete
pond constructed last season.
CONI) ITIONS OF THE NATIVE OYSTER INDUSTRY.
Yaquina Bay oystermen get at present $2.50 to $2.75 per
Sack for native oysters, a San Francisco firm having con-
tracted with most of the oystermen for this season’s output
at the latter figure. The oysters on the native beds are so
closely worked now that one-half a sack on a tide is consid-
REPORT OF STATE BIOLOGIST. 13
ered fair work, though one sack is sometimes obtained. In
the past, the business has been much more profitable than at
present. The oysters have dwindled in numbers and in size,
owing to a too persistent tonging, together with a lack of fore-
sight on the part of the Oystermen. If they could unite in a
determination to forbid all tonging for two years or more on
certain reserved portions of the natural beds, and persist for
a number of years in such a plan, using care with the un-
marketable seed, besides taking the best possible precautions
along modern lines for catching “spat,” I believe the in-
dustry could be restored to something like what it was ten
years ago. But if the present methods continue, I will pre-
dict the extinction of the industry before many years. There
are at present less than twelve men oystering at Yaquina
Bay, yet if all of that small number depended for their living
on selling oysters, they would fare badly. Some of them
turn their attention to Salmon fishing during a part of Au-
gust, September, October and November. The oystermen
who do not fish claim, and some of those who do fish ac-
knowledge, that while drifting at low tide the weighted nets
drag the bottom and in passing over the oyster beds disturb
the Oysters at a time when the oyster spat is still young, del-
icate and easily injured, besides rolling the adult oysters
about at a time when they should be let alone, namely, the
spawning period. From necessarily limited observations on
my own part and from careful inquiry from reliable parties,
I am inclined to think that this complaint is well founded.
The Oystermen have been in the past united in the Yaquina
Bay Oystermen’s Association, which, in 1868, drew up certain
laws regulating oystering, which laws were afterwards made
state laws by the legislature. In accordance with these laws,
One is obliged to have resided twelve months in the state and
six months in the county before he can tong oysters. Each
Oysterman can obtain from the state for use as private bed
two acres of tide land, and only two.
Respectfully,
F. L. WASHBURN,
State Biologist.
APPENDIX D .
*=ºgº
A CONTRIBUTION TO OUR KNOWLEDGE
OF TEII.
F00I) FISHES OF THE OREGON COAST.
A CONTRIBUTION TO OUR KNOWLEDGE
OF THE FOOD FISHES OF THE
OREGON COAST.
BIOLOGICAL LABORATORY, !
UNIVERSITY OF OREGON,
July 15, 1900. \
His Excellency, T. T. Geer, Salem, Oregon :
The following notes are based upon a collection of our coast
fishes made by Bernard J. Bretherton, of Newport, Oregon,
presented to the State University, and identified by the writer.
The present collection is to be regarded as a nucleus for further
aggregations, representing in time, it is hoped, all the species
of fish in Oregon.
To anyone who has made a study of ichthyology it is appar-
ent that it would be out of place, and an extravagance to in-
troduce here the long, technical analyses given in scientific
treatises upon the subject, and it has seemed best to give, in
each case, a brief popular description, which, with the aid of
the illustration may help one to recognize the species.
It will be noted that many of our more common fishes are
not listed, the flounders for instance, and some others familiar
to our citizens. In all probability the collector has left some
of the more easily obtainable forms until later, with the thought
that he can easily secure them at his convenience. Mr. Breth-
erton has made careful notes on the colors of the fresh fish,
and has, further, endeavored to list the stomach contents as
throwing some light upon their food habits. His notes are
given in quotation. Coll. No. means “collector’s number”
referring to the number which came with the specimens.
In the case of a few doubtful species my identification was
either corroborated by the United States Fish Commission or
4 FOOD FISEIES OF THE OREGON COAST.
the correct name given. The commission has also furnished
us with six cuts at cost price. Acknowledgment of these
courtesies is hereby tendered. -
It may not be out of place to mention our experience in
preserving fish in a way to best retain their colors. We have
found that if the fresh specimens are placed in very weak for-
mation (3% made from 40% stock solution) and after remain-
ing for a week or so in this, changed to a fresh solution of the
same strength and placed on exhibition most of the colors are
wonderfully preserved, and the liquid does not yellow with
age as does alcohol in which fish are preserved.
In addition to this growing collection of Oregon fish, the
State University has over fifty specimens from the Columbia
River Basin presented a few years ago by the United States
Fish Commission.
Respectfully,
& F. L. WASHBURN,
State Biologist.
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FI G.



FOOD FISHES OF THE OREGON COAST. Ö
CALIFORNIA SMELT.
(Athentinopsis Califormicus—GIRARD.)
About eighteen inches long, a “translucent green” with a somewhat sil-
very or lead-colored lateral stripe; some yellow on gill covers. Eye small,
body elongate. One specimen collected. Given by Jordan and Evermann as
very abundant on coast of California from Cape Mendocino to San Diego;
found in schools near shore, and an important food fish. See Fig. 1.
CALIFORNIA TOMCOD.
(Microgadus proximus—G.I.R.A.R.D. )
This little fish really needs no description. Just why it should be desig-
nated Califon'ſvia Tomcod is a question, for it is in Summer one of our most
abundant, though by no means the best, of our salt water food fishes. Very
common from Monterey to Alaska. Two specimens: Collector’s Nos. 4 and
5. “August 10. Silvery white; pale brown on dorsal surface. Contents of
stomach indefinable.’’ - * .
CALIFORNIA HERRING.
(Cluſpect pallasii—CUVIER and VALENCIENNES.)
Bluish above; silvery on sides and below. From sixteen to eighteen inches
long. Abundant from San Diego to Ramschatka. A well-known fish on our
coast and fully as abundant here as in California. Two specimens collected,
Nos. 6 and 7. “August 10. Stomachs empty.” Fig. 2 represents C. miyablis,
in general appearance resembling the species under discussion. .
CAT IFORNIA SARDINE.
(Clupa/modom, caterwlews—GIRARD.)
Another misnomer, for, under the name of “Herring,” this and the pre-
ceding are at times exceedingly abundant in our bays, and very highly es-
teemed as food fishes. In general appearance like the last, but larger, –
about twelve inches. Found from Puget Sound to Magdalena Bay. Two
Specimens, Nos. 8 and 9. ‘‘Norway Herring, a larger and plumper fish than
the preceding.” See middle figure in Plate I: photographed from a speci-
men preserved in formalin.
6 ROOD FISHES OF THE OREGON COAST.
ALASPCA GREEN FISH.
( Hea:Ctgrammos Octogrammws.)
*
Called “sea trout” by our fishermen. Varies much in coloration, accord-
ing to age, etc., and likely to be confused with H. Stelleri, the “Greenling.”
Two specimens, 18 and 16. .
No. 18. “Sea trout–September 7, 1899. Dorsal surface and sides light
slate, blotched with pale green, each blotch surrounded by several dark
umber spots; ventral Surface, lighter; pectoral fins spotted with pale mus-
tard yellow. •
No. 16. “Medicine fish. Ventral surface, brownish yellow with greenish
tinge. Dorsal surface, burnt umber. Stomach contents, mussels.”
ROCK TROUT, GREENLING, BOREGAT, BODIERA.
( Heavagrammvws, decagrammws—PALLAS.)
Much like the last and liable to be confused with it. Sexes very unlike
in color. The females are extremely variable in coloration. I quote from
Jordan and Evermann to show the great variation in individuals and the con-
sequent confusion among local fishermen: “Adults highly colored ; the
males with large sky-blue spots; the females with smaller red or orange
spots; young sometimes plain brown with dark humeral spots. Males clear
brownish olive of varying shade, often tinged with bluish or coppery and
vaguely blotched, often with Small blue Spots; head and anterior part or
body with rather large sky-blue spots, each surrounded by a rusty ring,
these smaller and more numerous on the top of the head ; lips with bluish
spots, upper fins brown, mottled ; ventrals and anal dusky bluish ; pectorals
dark, both rays and membranes crossed by sharply defined whitish reticula-
tions, so that the fins appear to be profusely spotted with white. Females
brownish, somewhat tinged with reddish, closely covered with round spots
of a reddish-brown; these spots usually quite small and uniform over the
whole body, back and sides; dorsal fin Spotted on the scaly part, the fins
otherwise plain reddish or bluish ; the ventral usually dusky; pectorals light
Orange, without markings. Other females------------------ have the ground
color slaty blue, with round Orange spots considerably larger than usual and
becoming vermiculations on the head; dorsal fin orange, clouded at base
with blue; soft dorsal edged with bluish ; pectorals plain orange; belly
white. These vary into the Ordinary type---------------- Length, eighteen
inches. Abundant from Point Conception to Kodiak Island, Alaska, es-
pecially about San Francisco. A common food fish. See Fig. 3, also upper
figure in Plate I; photographed from a Specimen preserved in formalin.
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FOOD FISHES OF THE OREGON COAST. 7
Is it any wonder that these individuals of the same Species receive differ-
ent common names? I give collector’s description of Color and his notes in
detail to illustrate the misconceptions arising from these Striking variations.
Five specimens, Nos. 3, 11, 12, 13, 15. - -
Nos. 11 and 12. March 24.—Sea trout. Fins, pale yellowish brown; ven-
tral surface, white ; sides and dorsal Surface, Slate thickly spotted with color
of fins. Stomach contents (No. 12), large crustacea.
No. 3. “Kelp fish. Color, dark umber mottled with light green; ventral
surface, pale yellow ; fins, slate gray.
No. 13. “Kelp fish. March 24. Pale brown clouded with black on head;
fore part of body blotched with peacock blue. Each blotch with several
black dots; fins, black. *
No. 15. “Medicine fish. T March 24, Dark brown on dorsal surface fad-
ing into terra cotta, everywhere blotched with gray; folds under jaw bril-
liant bluish green.
LANT, LAUNCE, SAND EEL.
(Ammodytes personatus—GIRARD.)
It is not an unusual thing for Summer visitors at the Seashore to find that
the receding tide has left the beach strewn with little cylindrical fish about
four inches long, of a clear translucent green color with Silvery sides, a
sharp snout, with underjaw projecting, and a forked tail. This is the Sand
Launce, not only attractive from its coloration, from an aesthetic point of
view, but also a most excellent pan fish. They burrow in the Sand to escape
their numerous enemies, and are frequently found in this position where the
tide has left them, their heads only showing above the surface. If the
morning stroller on the beach is wise he will gather all of these he can, and
with an admiring glance possibly at a school darting about in Some im-
prisoning beach pool, he will hurry home and give directions for their cook-
ing. Cleaning these little fish is soon over with. Hold one by the nape
with thumb and forefinger of left hand; then with scissors, or with fingers
of other hand, dexterously remove the head, and at the same time the at-
tached entrails. Wash the fish, dry, flour, and fry in pan with about fifty
of his fellows, and the next morning will find all the members of the family
on the beach hunting for Launce. Abundant on Sandy shores of Atlantic
and Pacific coasts. See Fig. 4.
T3ROWN ROCK FISEI.
(Sebastodes cºwriculatus—G.I.R.A.R.D.) r
One specimen received. Collector's No. 2. —“August 2. Color, mottled, -
orange, yellow, with reddish cast on dark umber ground. Ventral Surface
lightest. Lower lip yellow. Stomach contents, fragments of fish.” Length,
8 FOOD FISHES OF THE OREGON COAST .
**
seven inches. Given as very abundant from Cape Mendicino to Cerros Is-
land. See lower figure Plate I; from a photograph of a specimen preserved
in formalin.
YELLOW-TAILED ROCK FISH.
(Sebastodes flavidws—AYRES.)
A strong, heavy fish, the so-called “Black Sea Bass” of our Oregon Coast.
Olive green or blackish. Twenty-four inches long. Mouth large, strong;
lower jaw projecting. Dorsal fin continuous, but indented; spines of fin
slender. Two specimens. Collector’s Nos. 17 and 22. ‘‘Black Sea. Bass.
Ventral surface, dirty white; dorsal black; stomach empty.” See Fig. 5.
BLUE PERCH, STRIPED SURF FISH, SQUAW FISH.
(Taemitoca latercºlis—AGASSIZ.)
(Ditrema, latercºle—GUNTHER.)
This species and its relative, Damalichthys argyrosomus, the White Perch
or Porgee are almost too common on our shore to need description. They
are both members of a viviparous family, the Embiotocoidae or Surf fishes.
In the summer season when they are carrying their young their flesh is poor
and tasteless, though they readily take the hook and Specimens all the way
from one pound to six pounds are caught off the rocks, the tyro fisherman
being sometimes astonished to see young fish, two inches long, Slipping from
the parent and flopping on the rocks beside him, quite capable of Swimming
if placed in water. This family is so interesting, that I quote from Jordan
and Evermann as follows: ‘‘Viviparous. The young are hatched within the
body, where they remain closely packed in a sack-like enlargement of the
Oviduct analogous to the uterus until born. These foetal fishes bear at first
little resemblance to the parent, being closely compressed and having the
vertical fins exceedingly elevated. At birth they are from one and a half
to two and a half inches in length and similar to the adult in appearance,
but more compressed, and red in color. Since the announcement of their
viviparous nature by Prof. Louis Aguisiz in 1853 and by Dr. William P.
Gibbon in 1854 these fishes have been objects of special interest to Zoologists.
Fishes of the Pacific Coast of North America, inhabiting bays and the Surf
on Sandy beaches. One species (Hysterocampus braski) inhabits fresh water:
three others (Dilhºema lemmincki, D,smittii, and Neoditrema rawsometti) are
found in Japan. These species reach a length of from six to eighteen inches
and are very abundant where found. * * * Most of them feed on Crus-
tacea, but one genus (Abeoma) is partly or wholly herbivrous. Genera. 17:
Species about 20.” - *
The pavement-like teeth, above and below, in the back part of the mouth
(pharyngeal teeth, used for crushing hard substances), are extremely inter-
esting and well worth examination on the part of the fisherman interested


FOOD FISFIES OF THE OREGON COAST. 9
in biological phenomena. One specimen, Collector’s No. 20. “Squaw fish.
Head golden yellow, spotted irregularly with brilliant blue ; entire body
striped longitudinally with alternate golden yellow and brilliant blue. A
distinct black median Stripe from upper corner of gill opening to base of
tail. Stomach contains small jelly fish.” See Fig. 6.
SCULPIN, BULL HEAD.
( Enophrys bison—GIRAR.D.)
A type of a large and variable family known as Cottidae, the Sculpins.
There are about sixty genera in this group and over two hundred species, a
few of which are found in fresh water. Of the salt water forms most of the
species are shore fish, but some descend to great depths. No extended de-
Scription of the Sculpin is necessary, for any fisherman catching one for the
first time, would feel instinctively, as he landed his bony prize (?) and sur-
veyed it bristling with horns, its head flat and wide, its mouth gaping, and
its generally repulsive appearance, that he had caught “a sculpin.”
The species under discussion is very common from San Francisco to Sitka.
Not used for food. One specimen received, Collector's No. 1. “August 1,
1898, Bull Head, or Sculpin. Color dark umber, irregularly mottled with
light lemon yellow. Stomach packed full of young kelp weed.”
SAND FISH.
(Trichodom, trichodon—TILESIUS.)
One specimen sent by Mr. Toner, Yaquina City, the only one observed by
the writer. A striking fish, about eight inches long, of a general silvery
color; brownish above; a brown streak on side, broken toward the head.
Peculiar mottlings between head and first dorsal fin, and irregular brown
markings on back at base of fins. Dark line below or at lower edge of eye.
Habitat, North Pacific, on Sandy shores, from Monterey to Behring Sea,
burying itself in Sand.
Comparison of the straight line, shown with some figures, with the picture
of the fish, enable one to estimate the length of the species in inches.
PLATE. I.


APPENDIX E.
SANITARY BIOLOGY
ANALYSIS () F I)RINKING WATER,
TEPORT OF STATE BIOILOGIST.
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BIOLOGICAL LABORATORY,
UNIVERSITY OF OREGON, ; ;
- December 10, 1900. )
To His Excellency, T. T. Geer— . . .
DEAR SIR : Probably there is no greater menace to public
health than our ignorance of the character of the water
which we drink. If it be clear and tasteless, we remark upon
its excellence; even if it is discolored or odoriferous from time
to time we endure it and make no special effort to examine it
scientifically or the environments of its source — well, or res-
ervoir, or river, or brook, as the case may be. Many a land-
owner in Oregon has his barn and Outhouses on a slope be-
low his dwelling house and about forty feet, more or less, from
the latter. At a greater or less distance from his back door
we find a dug well, and he imagines, Overlooking the regret-
table fact that slops are often thrown out of said door, that,
the barn being on a level below his well, there can be no drain-
age whatever from his various outhouses into the source of his
water supply. He does not realize that while Mother Earth
Smiles at him on the surface, she may be playing him an ugly
trick below the surface. For, notwithstanding the aforesaid
slope, we may find, and frequently do find, the strata arranged
in such a way that there is drainage from the barn toward the
house. (See Fig. 1). -
It is evident that, under these conditions, there will
be seepage from the barn toward the well, and the water of
the latter will be contaminated. See also, in this connection,
Plate II at end of this report.
Water supplies of towns and cities are defiled in various
ways; and, in the absence of any scientific examination of
said water, the danger is not manifest until an epidemic
arises in consequence. Many eastern states and eastern
cities, realizing the importance of surveillance over the public
health, have created boards of health, or appointed officers
whose duty it is, among other things bearing on public
hygiene, to make careful microscopical examinations for the
purpose of determining the potability of water supplies.
This work, which well might be called “Sanitary Biology,”
has grown to such proportions that books are written upon
the subject, and it has become a science by itself. The color,
Odor, nature and amount of sediment, number of organisms
in a known amount of sampie, and whether they are plant
or animal, amount and character of amorphous matter, the
4 A N A I, YSIS OF D RIN RING WATER, .
number and nature of the bacteria contained in sample under
examination, and whether they are germs of disease—all
these factors figure in a biological examination of drinking
water. The microscope, then, is the chief instrument in
determining the quality of a water supply. By its use we
learn whether there are indications of sewage contamination ;
it explains the cause of certain Odors in water, and whether
they arise from a dangerous cause or not ; it shows us the
minute eggs of internal parasites, invisible without high
magnification, which, if taken into the alimentary canal of
man, may develop therein.
METHOD OF EXAMINATION .
Various processes are used to determine the potability of
water, but perhaps the most common one is known as the
Sedgwick-Rafter method. It is the one in general use, and is
the method pursued at the State University.
A fresh sample of water obtained in a bottle or other vessel
which is absolutely clean is brought to the laboratory, and a
measured amount, usually 500 c. c., is poured into a glass
graduated funnel made for the purpose (Fig. 2).
Previous to this a perforated rubber cork has been
placed in the bottom of the funnel; on top of the cork
is a disk of bolting cloth, and on top of that about an
Ti" inch of clean sand, preferably ground quartz, and
Hso the whiter the better. This 500 c. c. of sample
—and will, if left to itself, gradually filter, but the pro-
cess is usually hastened by attaching a glass tube,
passed through the rubber cork, to an aspirator by
means of a rubber tubing, or to some other mechan-
ical contrivance, which will hasten the process. In
-joº our laboratory we connect the funnel with a stoppered
so | bottle, and exhaust the air in this bottle by means of
the reversed action of a pneumatic injection syringe,
thus rapidly drawing the water into the bottle. This
rapid filtration is of particular value in lessening the
settling of some of the organisms on the sloping sides
of the funnel. When all the water has passed through
the sand, and before the latter has time to dry in the
least, the stopper is removed and the sand, which then
contains practically all, or nearly all, the organisms
present in the 500 c. c. of sample, is washed into a test-tube
with a known amount of distilled water. The usual amount
taken for this washing is 5 c. c. The sand thus agitated
C. C.
-500
-350
-(250
—H200
—150
Fig. 2.

A AN AI.YSIS () F I) RIN KING WATER. 5
quickly sinks again to the bottom of the test-tube, but the
organisms, far lighter than the sand, remain suspended in the
liquid, which is immediately decanted into another tube.
The sand then receives a second Washing with the same
amount of distilled water, which is decanted as before. These
two washings practically free the sand of organisms. In our
10 c. c. of liquid thus obtained it is manifest, then, that we
have a concentration of all the organisms in the 500 c. c. of
sample, or, as technically expressed, the “degree of concen-
tration ’’ is 50, that is, we have all the organisms first con-
tained in 500 c. c. in one-fiftieth as much liquid. To insure
accuracy in this washing a graduated pipette is generally used,
or an automatic burette. The biologist then makes use of a
specially prepared cell, formed by cementing a brass frame
to a thick glass slide (Fig. 3), which cell is constructed to
hold exactly 1 c. c.
|
The 10 c. c. of concentrated sample in t. t. are agitated to
insure of the organisms being evenly distributed through the
liquid, and exactly 1 c. c. of this is placed in cell by means
of a graduated pipette (Fig. 3) ; the coverslip shown in the
drawing is then slid over the sample and
made to rest evenly on the brass frame.
This cell is then placed on the stage of a
good microscope, into the eyepiece of which
an ocular micrometer is fitted, made ex-
pressly for this work. (Fig. 4). The largest
Square, when used with certain combinations
Fig. 4. of ' tube length, subtends just one square


6 AN AI.YSIS OF D FINKING WATER.
millimeter of the field on the stage. For the sake of con-
venience in counting, this large Square
is divided into four, as shown in the t º
figure, and one of these four into
twenty-five smaller squares. One of
these smaller squares is subdivided into
twenty-five minute Squares, each of
which is called a ‘‘ standard unit.’’ | “...
These ‘‘ units '' are of value in determin- - 4 — H
ing the amount of amorphous matter in – 3 — e
Sample. - 2 –
The next step is to focus the micro- F3:4::.
scope upon the sample of water in cell ...;;
and count the organisms contained with- §3 º' :
in area of the larger square of the ocular
micrometer. To obtain a fair average
of the number of organisms contained
in sample, the slide is moved about
until ten — or better — twenty different
squares have been counted. The Whole Fig. 5–An apparatusro.com.
number of organisms counted, plant or º:
animal, divided by the number of any desired level.
squares counted, ten or twenty, as the case may be, will give
the average number in one square ; this multiplied by one
thousand will give the average number of organisms contained
in the entire counting cell. But the “degree of concentra-
tion ” of the contents of the cell is 50, hence we must divide
this product by 50 and the result will be the number of
organisms in 1 c. c. of sample. For example, if twenty
counts gave eight hundred micro-organisms one could make a
formula as follows :
% × 1000+50 = 800 organisms per c. c. of sample, Which, if it obtains throughout the
year, is a high a Verage. - -
This reckoning cannot be exact, for the sample may not have
been properly obtained ; some organisms may remain in the
sand ; some cling to the sides of funnel; all may not have
been decanted, or the organisms may be very unevenly dis-
tributed in the counting cell. Nevertheless, the general aver-
age obtained from the calculations is not sufficiently out of
the way as to cause error in judgment as to the potability of
NoTE-For the use of the cuts illustrating Figs. 2, 3. 4 and 5 We are indebted to the
courtesy of Richards & Company, Broadway, New York City, makers of apº for
Water analysis. - -

ANALYSIS OF D RIN KING WATER. 7
the water. It is claimed that by this method “results are usu-
ally precise within ten per cent. i. e. two examinations of the same
sample seldom differ by more than that amount.”
It is evident that an accurate knowledge of microscopic
organisms, both plant and animal, is necessary in order to
place true value upon one’s analysis, for the presence of some
organisms is very significant, and the presence of others may
be looked for in almost any sample however potable. Of bac-
teria, the germ of typhoid fever is the one most to be feared
in ordinary water supplies. As a matter of fact, disease
germs are especially hard to detect in water samples. The
minute size of a typhoid bacillus, for example, renders it
improbable that a microscopical examination will detect it,
even though there may be many in the five hundred cubic
centimeters of sample. Nevertheless, while the actual dis-
covery of these germs in water may be compared to the pro-
verbial finding of a needle in a haystack, still the miscroscope
may give evidence of the possible existence of typhoid germs
by disclosing organisms and forms of sediment which are not
found to any great extent in pure drinking water. The dis-
covery of many forms of infusoria, particles of fungi like
mold, water mold, etc., and such particles as starch grains,
yeast cells, muscle fibers, epithelial cells, silk, wool, and cot-
ton fibers, minute fragments of paper, of feathers, and of
fibers of wood, may be indicative of sewage contamination,
for such things are found in sewage. Investigation as to the
disposal of sewage in the vicinity would determine the accu-
racy or the contrary of such an influence. In any case such
water is not drinkable, and the presence of so much organic
matter of that nature makes it a favorable tenement for dis-
ease germs like typhoid. Water from stagnant pools, too,
containing ciliated infusoria, water mold, mold hyphae, green
slime, putrefactive bacteria, insects’ scales, etc., should not
be used for drinking purposes.
Water supplies are classified as follows:
Rain water—Purest of all supply. Minute organisms, if
any, coming from the air and generally not to be discovered
by method discribed here.
Ground water—The water found in springs and wells
comes under this head. Originally rain water, it has filtered
through the ground and is thus freed from micro-organisms.
It is rich in inorganic matter, however, which, when the
water comes to the surface, affords a culture for minute plant
8 ANALYSIS OF DBINKING WATER.
life which is not found as long as the water is excluded from
the light. The danger in drinking water from a dug well in
a thickly settled town or city has been emphasized in the
beginning of this report ; surface water, as the term is gen-
erally used, is pretty sure to find its way into the well, par-
ticularly in Oregon, where we have a long rainy season, with
possible contamination from Outhouses, stables, kitchen
waste, etc. Even driven wells, although the inlet is out of
the reach of surface water, are not entirely free from organ-
isms, albeit the presence of such betokens no danger. I refer
to the growth of a fungus, Cremothrix, which is sometimes’
found attached to the pipes of the driven wells.
Surface water—In this division we include waters of lakes,
ponds, rivers, etc. This water is apt to be rich in organ-
isms, the minimum amount being found in Swiftly running"
water and the maximum in standing water. Water drawn
from swift-running rivers where there is no danger of defile-
ment by sewage, and stored in reservoirs of small enough
size to insure frequent refillings will be remarkably free from
organisms. If, however, our running stream comes from a
pond or lake, we may, naturally, expect to find more or less
of the organisms which flourished in said pond or lake.
This brings us to a discussion of water in storage reservoirs,
which are characteristic of water supplies of towns and cities.
Micro-organisms deleterious to drinking water are bound to
occur in reservoirs, the lower layers of water being quiescent.
If however, the reservoirs are covered, the water thus being
protected from the light, there is little or no trouble from this
Source. What precautions should be taken by a city or by a
water company to insure its patrons against not only danger-
ous drinking water, but also against any and all disagreeable
features in the water supply such as turbidity, Odor, color in
solution, etc., factors which are particularly offensive although
they may not be dangerous. In the first place, the source of
Supply must be pure running water if possible, the intake
screened of course, and the reservoirs should be protected from
any possible thoughtless or vicious act at the hands of irre-
sponsible parties. Secondly, and this is of extreme import-
ance, a frequent withdrawal of water and a thorough cleaning
of reservoir is a necessity appreciated by all conscientious
water companies or city officers having the water supply in
charge. In some localities there are two or more storage res-
ervoirs permitting of the cleaning, drying and airing of one,
while other varities are in use.
AN ALYSIS OF DIRIN ECING WATER.. 9
ODOJES IN DRINECING WATER, .
To such a nicety has the Science of biological examination
progressed that the presence of certain organisms can be
inferred by the odor of the water. An “aromatic ’’ odor, for
instance, denotes the presence of diatoms, minute and uni-
cellular plants, while a certain genus of Single-celled animals,
when present in sufficient numbers, imparts an odor of “can-
died violets '' to the water. The presence of different genera
of Cyanophyceae, a lowly tribe of plants, is recognized by
odors designated as “grassy,” “grassy and moldy,’’ ‘‘green
corn odor,” “masturtium odor,” etc. Some plants give off
a “fishy” odor; the odors of some single-celled animals are
characterized as “fishy and oily,” “fishy like rockweed,”
“fishy like clam shells,” “ripe cucumber odor,” “salt marsh
odor,” etc.
THE COLOR OF D RINIKING WATER .
Color in solution is due to vegetable matter dissolved in the
water. When such is the case it is quite harmless, though, if
must be confessed, exceedingly disagreeable. The color may
be but slight, or, when Swamp land is drained, the water may
be as dark as the strongest tea. Note our streams in this
state coming from swampy sections, which streams may be
fairly clear in the dry season, but will quickly become brown,
or dark brown, at the advent of the first rains. Color due to
particles in suspension, i. e., turbidity, must be distinguished
from color in solution. - -
ARE THESE ORGANISMS FOUND IN WATER, APART FROM DIS-
EASE GERMS AND PARASITES, INJURIOUS TO HUMAN BEINGS,
AND, IF SO, WHAT PER CENT IS TO BE REGARDED AS
DANGEROUS 7 -
There is no question but that people in ordinarily good
health can and do use drinking water which contains a larger
or smaller amount of organisms, and do not suffer therefrom.
Yet it is equally true that they may be, particularly those of
a delicate physique, more or less affected. The thought of
taking micro-organisms along with our drinking water into
the alimentary canal is not pleasant to say the least, and par-
ticularly is this so when their presence is evident to the eye
or nose. Furthermore, a new-comer in a vicinity where the
drinking water is rich in organisms, if he has been ac-
| () ANALYSIS OF DRINKING WATER.
customed to pure water, may be unpleasantly affected. If
the new-comer be a child, there is all the more likelihood of
intestinal disorder. Quite apart from this phase of the ques-
tion, these organisms, when they find their way into the
service pipes, which are dark, die and decompose, becoming
filled with putrefactive bacteria (even in Open reservoirs not
properly cleaned this will happen), and thus vitiate the
Watel'.
In a general way it may be said that the presence of much
organic matter in water gives rise to conditions favorable to
the growth of bacteria other than the species which accom-
pany putrefaction, which bacteria may be harmful, in other
words, may be disease germs. The occurrence of conditions
favorable to the existence of the typhoid bacillus has been
alluded to before. The writer wishes to particularly empha-
size the following points:
Do not use water for drinking which comes from dug wells in
a thickly settled community without first Subjecting it to a thorough
boiling.
On a farm do not be too swre because the land slopes from the
well to the barnyard, that there may not be contamination from the
barm and other out-houses in its vicinity.
Avoid all possible danger from Sewage contamination in any
shape.
Insist upon systematic cleanliness in the administration of your
city water Supply.
To which might be added the following injunction : Do
not drink water in which there is a marked turbidity or any odor
whateve". If you are 80 situated that you have to use such water
for drinking purposes, boil it before using.
Reservoirs have yielded five thousand and six thousand
micro-organisms per c. c., and in stagnant water used for
drinking I have found a very much higher record. Some
brook water on the other hand may make a showing as low
as two micro-organisms per C. c., and Spring water even less.
Five and six thousand micro-organisms per c. c., if found to
occur frequently in different seasons, should condemn the
water. However, a microscopic examination alone is not
sufficient to reject a sample of water, but should lead, if sus-
picious, to a study of the environment of a water supply.
And it may be said that a microscopic examination alone will
show as much as a chemical examination alone, while a
microscopic examination, with a study of the environment,
A N A LYSTS (DF DIRIN KING WATER. | 1
is all that is necessary to decide as to the potability of the
water Supply.
WORIK AT THE UNIVERSITY.
The biological laboratory is well equipped for water analy-
sis, having high-power microscopes and all necessary appara-
tus. We will gladly make examinations of water when such
work does not interfere with regular college duties. A quart
of water should be sent. The bottle or jar used should be
absolutely clean before the sample is introduced, and it
should be sent to the university at once, before there has
been any chance for the organisms contained therein to
change. All charges for carriage must be prepaid.
Respectfully, -
F. L. WASHBURN,
State Biologist.
METRIC EQUIVELANTS—l cubic centimeter, c. c.–.061027 c. u. inch; 500 c. c.3-7% of a
pint; 1 millimeter, m. m. = ºr of an inch.
12 AN AI, YSIS OF DRINKING WATER.
EXPLANTATION OF PI, ATE I .
Pen and ink sketches of organisms found (with the excep-
tion of the typhoid bacilli) in analysis of water in the Bio-
logical Laboratory. An X followed by a figure or figures de-
notes the number of times the drawing has been enlarged.
1, 2, 3, 4 and 5, types of unicellular plants called Diatoms, X 500.
6, 7 and 8, types of Desmids; also umicellular plants, X 250.
9, two stages of Protococcus, X 500; an Alga, so-called, giving a green-
ish color to water if abundant.
10, Nostoc (?), X 500; a non-branching filamentous “alga,” rare in drink-
ing water. -
11, Cremothrix, X 500 ; a colorless filamentous plant, or brownish on
account of presence of ferric oxide. Grows well in the dark.
12, Oscillaria, X 500; a bluish-green filamentous ‘‘ alga.”
13, Spirogyra, X 125; a multicellular plant.
14, Zyguema, X 125; a multicellular plant, allied to the foregoing.
15, Ulothrix, X 125; a filamentous multicellular plant.
16, Euglypha, X 250; a minute animal belonging to the Protozoa.
17, Actinophrys, X 250; a Protozoan.
18, Euglena, X 500; a single-celled animal, worm-like in form and in
action.
19, Phocus, X 500; another Protozoan, with the preceding, quite Com-
mon in drinking water.
20, Vorticella, X 250; another single-celled animal, a member of the
group Protozoa.
21, Euplotes, X 250; a single-celled Protozoan.
22, Paramoecium, X 250; another member of this very large group.
23, Diglena, X 150 ; a m croscopic worm belonging to the Rotifera.
24, Brachionus, X 180; inother Rotiferan.
25, Microdon, X 150; a third type of the Rotifera.
26, Typhoid Bacillus, two of the figures showing stained flagella. × 1000.
* * * *
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APPENDIX F.
WORK ON EASTERN 0YSTERS,
SUMMER OF 1900.
work ON EASTERN oystERs,
SUMMER OF I. 9 OO.
The summer's work consisted in testing the cement tank
constructed the previous season. This tank was built in the
tideland and was nine feet by eighteen feet at top, four feet
by seven feet at bottom and seven feet deep. The sides and
bottom of the excavation in the tideland were lined with
heavy lumber and then covered with Portland cement to the
thickness of four inches, the cement being mixed with sand.
A three-inch iron pipe led from the bottom of the tank to the
neighboring slough, for it was first intended to fill or par-
tially fill the tank by means of the rising tide. Both ends of
this pipe were guarded by valves, thus regulating the inflow.
Sinking this tank in the tideland was a mistake, for during
the storms and high tides of last winter the tank was badly
injured, and in the early summer Workmen who were repair-
ing it wrote me that it was impossible to prevent the water
in the mud outside the tank from seeping through ; that is,
that the cement placed in the bottom could not harden be-
fore the water outside forced its way through, thus making a
small leak in the bottom. This seepage from without in was
but slight, yet the water so entering was dark in color, and
had a disagreeable odor like that of bilge water. It was too
late, of course, to make any change in the construction, and
we went ahead with the experiment, relying on the hope that
as the tank filled the inside pressure would be great enough
to keep out this impure water.
Further, inasmuch as the water at low tide in the bay and
sloughs is of a temperature 65° to 70°, and saltness, 1.016,
favorable for the development of eastern Oyster spawn, it was
evident that some means must be devised to keep the tank
filled with such water and not allow the ingress of high-tide
water, which is too cold, 50° to 60° Fahrenheit, and too salty,
1.022 to 1.024, for the embryo of this oyster we seek to intro-
16 IREPORT OF STATE BIOLOGIST.
duce. To that end we procured a force-pump and about forty-
five feet of hose and pumped water daily at low tide into the
tank, at the same time aerating it by moving the free end of
the hose about, so that the fresh Salt water would be forced
through the water already in. This method of aeration has
been found sufficient. Evaporation, and consequent increase
of salinity, was compensated for by the Occasional addition of
a little warm fresh water. The tank was further protected
by a canvas covering, which served not only as a shade
against excessive heat in the daytime, but also prevented
dissipation of heat at night. By these means a temperature
of about 68° Fahrenheit and a salinity of from 1.016 to
1.020 was maintained in the contents of the tank, con-
ditions quite favorable to the success of the experiment,
eliminating the possible contamination of the water above re-
ferred to. - t
The two illustrations included herewith show a near view
of tank and its tentlike cover, and the pump in position on
float in foreground. - . -
Into the tank from time to time were poured swimming
embryos of eastern oysters obtained in laboratory. It takes
about twelve days from the time of hatching for an eastern
oyster embryo to attach itself to some collector, becoming
what is known as ‘‘ Oyster spat.” Hence, on September 1,
about fifteen days from the time the last consignment of em-
bryos were placed in tank, the water was let out and the tile
collectors therein carefully examined. A few oyster spat
were found, too small at that stage to tell whether they were
spat of the eastern oyster or of our west coast oyster which
may have been introduced from the slough through the pump
and hose. On account of pressing college duties, I have not
been able to visit Yaquina Bay since last September to deter-
mine the exact results of experiment. I regret to say, how-
ever, that the water in the bottom of the tank, in the extreme
bottom, was discolored, as was the bottom itself, from seep-
age through cracks from the tideland.
Another time I should construct tanks above tideland,
where they could not be affected by tide or storm.
CONCLUSIONS, EXPENSES, ETC.
In the summer of 1890, all conditions conspiring favor-
ably, there was an immense catch of eastern oysters in San
Francisco Bay; that is, spawn from Oysters planted there de-


REPORT OF STATE BIOLOGIST. 17
veloped and large numbers were found fastened to rock,
piling, etc., all over the southern part of the bay. Since that
particularly favorable year dealers in Oysters in San Fran-
cisco claim there has been but little increase, though they
have to acknowledge that the spawn from eastern oysters
planted there does develop to some extent.
While Yaquina Bay is the most favorable place on our
coast for eastern oyster culture, the water of the bay is, at
high tide, cold and salt, and I have practically abandoned all
hope of spawn developing in the bay itself, although the east-
ern oysters themselves thrive wonderfully, and we know they
spawn. Of course, it is possible, through a happy combina-
tion of circumstances, that Some seasons at Yaquina may
offer unusually fine conditions and eastern “spat '' may re-
sult. The summer of 1900 offered seemingly fair conditions
for natural spawning, the water and atmosphere being quite
warm, and I have tendered a reward for the first five eastern
spat brought me as a result of last Summer's spawning.
I have confidence, however, in our ability to Secure spat in prop-
erly constructed and properly managed tanks, and believe that said
spat when placed in the waters of the bay will thrive and may prop-
agate naturally whem mature.
In this connection I might add the statement of Dr. H. F.
Moore, an oyster expert connected with the United States
Fish Commission, who was detailed to visit this coast in 1899
and report upon the condition of the experiments. Dr. Moore
reports as follows:
“So far as I could learn, there is no evidence that the east-
ern oyster has ever naturally spawned here ; or, rather, that
there has ever been a set of spat. I think that the cold water
here will prevent that, under ordinary conditions, but I be-
lieve that in shallow ponds suitably constructed, and with proper
precautions against the deposit of silt on the cultch, spat may be
Taised for subsequent planting in the open bay,” thus substan-
tiating, in a measure, my opinion on this subject.
During the last summer the United States Fish Commis-
sion showed its interest in the experiments of the State Biolo-
gist by appropriating a small sum for the summer’s work,
the amount appropriated by the state for this purpose having
been exhausted. The commission, however, is of the opinion
that each state should pay the expenses of all such experi-
mentation. It is needless to add, perhaps, that the small
sum set aside for this work by our legislature of 1898 was
18 REPORT OF STATE BIOI, OGIST .
used with economy and judgment and has yielded good re-
turns in the shape of further knowledge upon this important
subject, upon the matter of water temperatures of Yaquina
Bay, and, incidentally, upon the vital question of preserving
the native oyster industry, which is threatened with extinc-
tion unless measures are taken to prevent.
INTRODUCTION OF LOBSTERS.
A member of our delegation in congress promises me to do
all he can to secure an importation of eastern lobsters for
planting on this coast next season under the direction of
the State Biologist. It is to be hoped he will succeed in his
efforts.
New York ºf it. LipšARY
§
FEB20 1934 ... "
2. r: rs at sº
jºy ºf M ;:
#7 DocuWENT -
e 2, ºf THIRD BIENNIAL REPORT
<y- f -,
• *
of THE
STATE BIOLOGIST
OF THE
|
STATE OF OREGON
To
His Excellency, Geo. E. Chamberlain, Governor
SALEM, OREGON
J. R. WHITNEY, STATE PRINTER
1906



THIRD BIENNIAL REPORT
OF THE
STATE BIOLOGIST
of the
STATE OF OREGON
TO
His Excellency, George E. Chamberlain, Governor
TVVENTY FOURTH LEGISLATIVE ASSENMBLY
[REGULAR SESSION]
1907.
& AT§§
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SALEM, OREGON
J. R. WHITNEY, STATE PRINTER
1906

"MEW YOR tº º, . . Li 3 ºr ARY 9 - //
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QCT 2 39
LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL
UNIVERSITY OF OREGON,
. . November 20, 1906.
To His Eaccellency, the Govermor, Geo. E. Chamberlaim, Salem—
SIR: In accordance with the laws of Oregon, I herewith present
the third biennial report of the State Biologist. -
The invoking of the referendum held back the appropriation
until so late that little work could be accomplished.
The experiments with the Eastern oysters have been continued,
but along new lines which seem to give promise of a partial success.
Routine sanitary water analysis has been undertaken by the State
Board of Health to whom it properly belongs. The work in this
line, now engaging the attention of this office is an attempt to
establish standards of purity in harmony with the conditions exist.
ing in the state. - -
Preliminary notes have been made on the habits of some of the
shell fish with the hope of completing them in the future.
Two curious forms of marine life cast up on our shores are
briefly described.
Arrangements had been made with the U. S. Fish Commission for
importing a considerable number of Japanese oysters but this of
course had to be abandoned for lack of funds.
Respectfully,
. ALBERT R. SweBTSER.
FIG. 2. — Half a native shell attached to an Eastern oyster, showing
relative size.

EASTERN OYSTER EXPERIMENT.
These experiments, and indeed all work, were delayed by the
holding up of the appropriation through the referendum petition.
, Four lines of work were planned: -
1. The introduction of Japanese oysters.
2. The transfer to a new bed.
3. Float experiment.
4. Record of temperatures. * * * *
1. Arrangements were completed during the previous year, with
the United States Fish Commission for the importation of Japanese
oysters. It was planned to expend five hundred dollars for this
purpose, the Government to pay half and conduct all the negotia-
tions. It seemed probable that an oyster could be found, living
under conditions similar to our own, which would grow and propa-
gate in our waters. Especially was this probable from the fact that
the Japanese cultivate several varieties of oysters and under very
varied conditions. The funds not being available this was neces-
sarily abandoned, and when resources were assured it was too late.
A few Japanese oysters have been brought in by private enter-
prise and some of them have thrived. . It is believed that the experi-
ment of introducing them in larger quantities is worth trying.
2. It was decided to transfer the oysters to new beds in search
of more favorable environment, and also to protect them from the
injury by the drag nets of the fishermen. -
They were situated on the north shore of Yaquina Bay near the
railroad station of Winant. Mr. George King offered the use of one
of his private beds on the south side and almost opposite. -
In making the transfer many empty shells and dead oysters were
found. As the most of them were ten years old or over this dying
was probably due to old age. A large number showed that they had
made and were still making a vigorous growth. Several measured
without the shell, i. e., just the fleshy portion, two by four inches.
Fig. 2 shows half shell of native oyster at right, attached to an
6 REPORT OF STATE BIOLOGIST.
Eastern oyster, indicating relative size. The work of transfer is
nearly complete though a few still remain in the old bed.
In order to furnish clutch for any possible spat, peeled twigs
were stuck in the mud of the bed quite close together. These
seemed to catch great quantities of floating weeds and became cov
ered with slime making it impossible for any spat to attach them-
selves if they were produced. To obviate this difficulty brick tiles
were suspended from the poles above the beds. (Fig. 1.) These
tiles were made some time previous under the direction of Prof.
F. J.J. Washburn. They are fourteen inches by five and slightly
curved and were clean when suspended. At the close of the season
a careful search failed to reveal anything except a good catch of
barnacles. (Fig 1, Tile 2.)
3. From a careful consideration of local conditions and from .
the results obtained in other places it was thought advisable to
attempt to secure spat with a sunken float. This was constructed on
two logs and had a length of twelve feet, width of three feet on the
illside, and a depth of water of about a foot. It was provided with
a tight cover and had sufficient space between the bottom boards for
a good circulation of water. - -
It was prepared by placing on the bottom a layer of clean oyster
shells, then a layer of selected oysters, and above them a layer of
tiles concave side down. The temperature at this time being low,
not over sixty at low water, the float was towed up the river about
a mile and anchored in the inner channel. The cover serves to
prevent radiation and thus keeps the water at a higher and more
equable temperature. -
On July 12th, while examining the tiles Mr. King noticed several
individuals spawning, ſhe temperature within the float being 74
degrees while on the outside it was 71.
About the first of September it became necessary to move the
float because the fishermen were drifting their nets over the spot,
and it was brought down the river again to Mr. King's float.
The tiles were found to be free from barnacles and slime and
contained numerous healthy spats on the concave side, (Fig. 1,
Tile 1.) The shells on the bottom also contained a considerable
fix of the spat. .
FIG. 1.- Two tiles.
Tile 1. From sunken float, showing spat.
Tile 2. From oyster bed, covered with barnacles.

REPORT OF STATE BIOLOGIST. 7
Whether these are Eastern spat or not it is impossible to say at
this writing. But this much has been demonstrated by the experi-
ment that by this method it is possible to obtain a good catch of
spat free from barnacles. The absence of barnacles may be due to
the covering of the float, or perhaps to the lower salinity of the
water of the upper bay. This remains to be determined. This is
desirable for at least two reasons. First they appropriate all the
space, crowding out the young oyster. And second it is possible that
they may consume the young oysters while in their unprotected
and motile stage. - . - -
If funds become available it is planned to repeat the experiment,
using a much larger float and undertaking artificial fertilization,
turning the fertilized eggs free in the float.
Considerable money has been invested by private parties in plant-
ing Eastern seed oysters in the bay. These and all the native beds,
both natural and private, are seriously menaced unless the law
prohibiting the dumping of sawdust is strictly enforced. Trouble
has been experienced from the deposition of this sawdust on the
beds with the result that many of the oysters are smothered. For
the benefit of the oyster lover this ought not to be permitted.
4. Temperatures.
These were bottom temperatures, taken on Brown's Flats and
channel. -
DATE | TEMPERATURES DATE | TEMPERATURES
1906 | High Tide | Low Tide 1906 | High Tide | Low Tide
May 15 57 | June 2 | 59
- 16 57 | 8 57 | 59
17 57 59 4 57 | 59
18 59 5 57 | 59
19 57. 60.8 6 | 59
20 57 60 8 7 | 59
21 57 60.8 8 | 60
22 . 57 60.8 9 | 60
23 57 60.8 10 59 |
24 | 57 60.8 - 11 59 |
25 57 59 12 | ($0.8
26 57 | 13 | | 60.8
27 59 59 14 | | 60.8
28 59 59 15 59 | 60.8
29 | 59 59 16 | | 60.8
30 59 | 17 | 60.8
31 | 59 | 18 | 59 |
| | 60
June 1 || | 59 19
S - REPORT OF STATE BIOLOGIST.
DATE | TEMPERATURES DATE | TEMPERATURES
1906 || High Tide | Low Tide 1906 | High Tide | Low Tide
June 20 60 Aug. 14 60 66
21 | 60.8 15 60 66
22 60.8 16 60 68
23 62 17 60 68
24 64 18 60 68
25 | 64 19 60 68
26 62 20 53 67
27 * | . 60.8 21 53 67
28 60.8 22 53 67
29 59 | 62 23 63 66
30 - 59 | 62 24 58 66
July 1 | | 64 - 25 58 66
. 2 59 68 . 26 58 66
3 * 66 27 58 67
4 59 68 28 60 68
5 59 68 29 | 58 68
6 59 68 30 58 64
7 59 . . 68 31 64
8 59 68 Sep. 1 57 64
9 | 60.8 68. 2 58 64
10 59 68 3 58 | 64
11 62 68 4 54 64
12 60.8 68 5 54 64
13 60.8 69.8 6 55 64
14 60.8 69.8 7 56 64
15 52.6 68 8 57 64
16 62.6 68 9 57 64
17 62.6 68 10 58 64
18 60.8 68 11 60 64
.19 60.8 - 68 12 60 62
20 60.8 68 13 60 62
21 60.8 68 14 60 60
22 - 57.2 68 r 15 60 62
23 57.2 66.2 . . 16 60 64
24 59 | 68 17 60 64
25 | 59 | 68 - 18 58 64
26 59 | 68 19 58 64
27 59 68 20 ' 58 64
28 57.2 66.2 21 54 64
29 | 57.2 64.4 22 - 54 64
30 57 64 23 56 . 64
31 57 64 24 54 64
August 1 57 | 66 25 | 52 64
2 57 66 26 | 57 64
3 57 66 27 56 64
4 53 6 66 28 57 64
5 53.6 66 29 | 54 62
6 53 | 64 3 | 54 62
7 53 | 66 Oct. 1 54 62
8 53 | 66 2 | 54 62
9 55 | 66 3 54 62
10 | 57 66 4 | 60
11 | 59 | 66 5 | 60
12 59 | 66 6 | 60
13 60 | 66 |
Fig. 3.- Upper and side view of erºt/fish.

REPORT OF STATE BIOLOGIST. 9
In the vicinity of the Ship Yards where the sunken float was
located, the few temperatures have indicated about three degrees
warmer on low tides and four on high tides. 3.
The temperature within the float has averaged two degrees higher
all through the season. . * m
Results. The observations go to show : 1. That the oysters are
still growing although of considerable age. -
2. That they can be made to spawn in a sunken float.
SOME PRELIMINARY NOTES ON THE CRAY-FISH.
The cray-fish, or craw-fish as they are often commonly called, are
becoming a common article of diet. While found at present in such
• abundance as to be almost a pest, yet its habits should be definitely
understood that it may be protected by legislation if the necessity
arises.
It belongs to the branch of the animal kingdom, Arthropodes,
(jointed appendages), class Crustacea, (joint-appendanged animals
with a crust). The cray-fish are found in fresh and Salt water and
are closely related to the lobster. Those found in the rivers empty-
ing into the Atlantic belong to the genus Cambarus. Those of the
Pacific rivers differ only by some unimportant structural detail and
are placed in the genus Astacus.
The upper of Fig. 3 shows an upper or dorsal view. From the
front backward we first note the firm protecting beak; then the short
and long feelers or antennae; the stalked compound eyes can be
protruded giving a backward view, or turned under the protecting
beak. The head and thorax are covered by a single covering called.
the carapace and behind this the abdomen consisting of six complete
segments and one incomplete forming a part of the tail.
Around the mouth is a pair of strong jaws and below the jaws
five pairs of accessory jaws, used in preliminary breaking up of the
food and passing to the true jaws. The final mastication takes place
within the stomach by a set of teeth called the gastric mill.
On the under side first are a pair of large biting and fighting
claws, then four pairs of walking legs. w
The lower of Fig. 3, is a side view showing the abdomen fixed to
produce the characteristic backward movement.
13 REPORT OF STATE BIOLOGIST.
The upper of Fig. 4, is an under view of a male; the lower the
Same view of a female in berry, i. e., bearing eggs. Each segment of
the abdomen, except in females, has a pair of appendages, modified
in the last segment to form the lateral portions of the tail. The
first pair in the male are modified for fertilizing, and in the female
are wanting.
The size varies with the location, those of the small ponds and
streams are small, in the large rivers they attain considerable size.
Our supply for experimental purposes has been obtained for the
last two years from Astoria. Measurements of forty-one males and
cleven females were made, the length being from the front end of
the beak to the end of the tail and the width the widest portion of
the carapace. This gave for the males, shortest 4.2 inches, longest
5.3 inches, average 4.7 inches. Width, greatest 1.4 inches, least 1.0
inches, average 1.2 inches.
Females, longest 4.9 inches, shortest 4.2 inches, average 4.5 inches.
Width, greatest 1.2 inches, least 1.0 inches, average 1.2 inches.
The females are fertilized in the fall by the males who spread the
'spermatozoa on the under side of the abdomen of the females. The
eggs make their way to the exterior through an opening at the base
of each of the third legs, are passed back through the spermatczoa
and fertilized and then adhere to the appendages of the abdomen.
They are carried all winter by the female and hatch in the spring.
This is the history of the specimens studied in the aquarium of our
laboratory. A specimen in berry was taken in the Willamette river
near the University about the 24th of October. With the coming of
the colder weather they apparently retire to burrows. The young
resemble the parent when first hatched, differing from the crab in
this respect. After hatching they remain for a short time attached
to the mother, holding on to the appendages by their claws. Some-
times they will swim away for a short distance and then return to
the mother again. (Fig. 5.)
Being encased in a shell it is impossible for them to increase in
size. At certain seasons they shed their shells, drawing out all the
parts with great cate. This is the time of growth and is of limited
duration, for the new shell forms very quickly. This is one of the
most dangerous periods when they are open to the attack of their
Fig. 4.- Under side of male, and under side of female showing eggs.

FIG. 5.- Under side of abdomen of female crawfish with young attached.

FIG. 3.- Edible crab, Cancer magista. Upper male, lower female.


T
FIG. 7.- Under side of male.

FIG. S.–Under side of female.

REPORT OF STATE BIOLOGIST. 11
enemies, and is usually passed in the retirement of the burrow.
In spite of the fact that they are being caught in increasing num-
bers there is no appreciable diminution in the supply. If such
should occur it would be necessary to protect them during the
breeding season. - -
THE EDIBLE CRAB.
The edible crab of the Pacific Coast is scientifically known as
Cancer magister, magister because of its size. It is an important
article of diet, taking the place of the lobster of the Eastern coast
Though caught in considerable numbers the supply does not seem
to be falling off, but it is important to see to it while there is
opportunity that the exterminating fate which is following up the
lobster does not come upon our crabs. Accordingly a study of the
life history and breeding habits has been undertaken and these
few notes are an introductions
Figure 6 is from a photograph showing the relative sizes of the
two sexes, the upper being male, the lower female. The female as a
rule is below the marketable size and in this fact is an assurance
of a continuance of the supply, much better than law which man’s
avarice often leads him to disregard. *
Figure 7 is a view of the under side of the male with the
abdomen turned back. The same general plan is found here as in
the cray-fish but the abdomen is greatly reduced. At the beginning
of the abdomen will be the same pair of ridged appendages for
fertilization. * •
Figure 8 is the under side of the female. The abdomen is
broader and has a pair of appendages to each segment, doubtless for
the carrying of the eggs. By the side of the third legs will be
noticed the opening of the oviduct where the eggs are laid.
The history of the fertilization has not to our knowledge, been
worked but probably it is much the same as in the case of the edible
blue crab of the Atlantic. The virgin female is caught in the
embrace of the male as it is about to shed its shell and after the
shell splits the sperms are introduced. Then the female withdraws
from the shell, increases in size, and a new shell grows and the eggs
are carried on the abdomen. The individuals in berry are only
found in the deep water.
Ž REPORT OF STATE BIOLOGIST.
In the case of our own crab the shedders are often found in the
embrace of the male, these are doubtless virgin females. The crabs
were shedding in Alsea Bay this year during the early part of
September and individuals in embrace were abundant at that time.
Individuals in berry have been reported in a few cases by Prof.
Heath of Stanford taken on the California coast. There are a few
who report having seen them on our coast, but it is probable that
they go to deep water and are not commonly taken in the traps of
the crab men. - - -
It would be a contribution of considerable value if anyone finding
such specimens would send them to the University.
NOTES ON SOME CURIOUS FISH.
WEIALE.
During February, 1904, a curious fish was washed ashore on the
beach below the life-saving station near Newport. The head was
severed form the rest of the body, which eventually was carried out
to Sea.
The head was photographed at South Beach by Mr. J. G. Craw-
ford, who by his views has enthusiastically and beautifully exploit-
ed the Newport coast, and through his courtesy we have the use of
them. Mr. Crawford obtained the head, cleaned the bones and sent
them to the Smithsonian Museum at Washington. Dr. J. W. True,
an expert of the museum, pronounced it a Delphinioid whale
Mesoplodon bidens. Specimens are rare, only a few having drifted
ashore. They are known to exist in considerable numbers in the
southern seas. Figure 9 shows the head. Notice the blow hole
on top and the eyes low down, also the two large teeth.
Figure 10 is an end-side view of the skull.
Figure 11 is a view of the same from above.
WOLF EEL.
Figure 12 is from another photograph made by Mr. Crawford
of a fish washed up on the beach, near Newport. It is the Wolf-Eel
or scientifically Amarºhichthys ocellatus. The following is from
Jordan & Evermann.’ Fishes of North America: ‘‘Pacific coast from
Monterey north to Puget Sound; generally common. One of our
Fig. 10.– Skull of whale, endside view.Fig. 9. – Head of whate Mesoplodon bidens.

Fig. 12.– Wolf eel, Amarrhichthys ocellatus.FIG. 11.– Skull of whale, top wtew.

REPORT OF STATE BIOLOGIST. . 13
most remarkable fishes; rarely used as food. It feeds chiefly on
sea urchins and sand dollars.” . -
For the coming year there are several problems worth attention
should there be any available funds. te
1. Continuation of sunken float experiments with Eastern oysters
resorting to artificial fertilization in a few cases. - . -
2. The obtaining of exact data on the life history and breeding
habits of the crab. -
3. The life history of the Razor Clam."
4. The accumulation of a large amount of data for the establish-
ment of standards of purity in potable waters.
DRINKING WATER.
The routine bacterial examination of drinking waters of the state
is being done in the laboratory of the State Board of Health where it
properly belongs.
The following problems of a more general nature are receiving
attention in the laboratory of the State Biologist:
1. The efficiency of filters. 4.
2. The establishment of standards of purity.
3. The bacterial flora of our water.
4. Chemical and electrical purification.
1. All forms of filters, both municipal plants and household de-
vices, are considered to fall within the province of this problem.
MTUNICIPAL FILTERS.
There are at least three sorts used in the state: 1, The natural
filtration, through sand and gravel, into a well or sunken crib on the
river bank or in a bar of the river. Such was considered in our last
report on the Salem water. - -
2. Slow mechanical filtration, by gravity. The case of the Ore-
gon City water in the last report.
3. Rapid pressure filtration. This is the type in use at Eugene
and Albany, but sufficient data has not as yet been collected for
any report. -
EIOUSEEIOLD FILTERS.
There are numerous forms of these filters and great care is neces-
14 REPORT OF STATE BIOLOGIST.
sary lest the confidence born of their use become a source of danger.
A common kind which can be attached to the faucet and contains
sand or charcoal is only effective for the removal of sediment. Unless
frequently washed in boiling water this may become the breeding
place for bacteria and should there be pathogenic forms in the
supply at any time would render the water more dangerous than
the normal. -
Another type, Noxall Junior, can be attached to the faucet and
contains a cylinder of porous stone through which the water is
forced by the pressure. The following table shows the results:
Average No. Time of Fil- Fluid Ounces Average No. Reduction
in tap water. tration. Filtered. Filtrate. per Cent.
425 - 1 hour 13 1. 99.5
413 3 “ 32.5 2 99.2
361. 7 “ 55 1 5 98.6
351 24 “ . 148.0 7 98.0
356 1 “ 12.9 2 99.4
372 3 “ 32.3 3 99.2
366 7 “ 54.8 5 98.6
368 24 “ 146.0 10 97.2
505 1 “ 12.8 2 99.6
543 3 “ 32.0 1 99.8
539 7 “ 53.3 6 98.8
518 24 “ 145 6 7 98.6
It will be seen that a large percentage of the bacteria are re-
moved, rendering the filtrate purer than the natural water. In this,
as in all filtration methods, there is a residium which though but a
small per cent of the original, yet if pathogenic forms were in the
crude water there is always a possibility that they may appear in
this remnant. While infection is reduced to a minimum by such a
device yet in the case of an epidemic absolute perfection can only
be obtained by the use of boiled water. -
The most effective of household filters are those of the Pasteur
type. Of this there are various modifications but essentially it con-
sists of a long metal cylinder having a small cylinder, called the
candle, within made of fine unglazed porcelain. The water is forced
through the fine pores of the candle and has most of the organisms
removed. This becomes coated quickly with sediment and requires
frequent cleansing. The better method is to have two of these
candles which can be alternated. They can be cleaned by scrubbing
with a brush and should occasionally be boiled for a short time in
|REPORT OF STATE BIOLOGIST. 15
water. The filtration is slow and there should be a covered jar for
storage. . - *.
. The following results were obtained:
Average No. Time of Fil- Fluid Ounces Average No. Reduction
in tap water. tration. Filtered. Filtrate. per Cent.
409 1 hour 20 8 1 99.7
473 3 “ 63.0 0 j ()() ()
477 7 “ 144.0 2 9 & 6
449 24 “ 480.0 2 99.5
291 1 “ 20.0 4 98.6
277 3. “ 61.2 1 . 99.6
261 7 “ 143.8 ... 2 99 6.
189 24 “ 449 5 2 98.9
195 1 “ 20.4 2 98.9
129 3 “ 61.0 2 98.4
206 7 “ 143.1 0 100.0
200 24 “ 3.12.0 3 98.5
Other models are under examination but are not yet ready for
report.
CONCLUSION.
1. The safest proposition is to obtain a pure supply and one that
can be absolutely protected. This may mean a considerable expendi-
ture because of the distance and also the area which must be pur-
chased to control the water shed. The bacterial content of such a
supply may be considerable, but if there is no chance of animal
contamination they will be of a harmless type.
If the former is impossible, the next best thing is to purify the
water. Heretofore this has been done by filtration, but chemical and
electrical methods are coming to the front and give some promise of
complete sterilization on a large scale.
As has been said, filtered waters always leave a few organisms
in the filtrate and though a high rate of efficiency may be obtained,
the source of such a supply is often such as to readily be polluted,
e. g., river water. If "contagious diseases prevail along its banks
there is a remote chance that some of the remnant may be patho-
genic. -
2. Standards of Purity.
It becomes evident, as routine analyses are continued, that the
purity standards of Europe and the Eastern states are not appli-
cable to this region.
Albany New York depends on sand filter beds for purification of
1(; REPORT, OR STATE BIOLOGIST.
its water. In the last report one sample of water 99.7 per cent pure
contains an average of 50 colonies per cubic centimeter, while
another which is 99.9 per cent pure has 4050 in the same quantity.
Lawrence, Mass., having the same sort of filtration has as high
as 110 colonies to the cubic centimeter with a purification of 99.7
per cent. In this state we may have crude river water with a
bacterial content not higher than much of the purified water of the
Eastern states, and in many cases not as high, yet at times active in
its infecting power. - t -
The low bacterial content is due to the fact that most of our
streams are mountain streams and have a sparse settlement along
their banks. When such waters do become infected, however, there
being such a small number of non-pathogenic forms, the law of the
survival of the fittest inheres in this case and the disease-producers
have a better chance to persist for a longer time. -
3. The classification of the bacteria of the waters of the state
will be carried out as rapidly as compatible with accuracy.
4. Considerable attention has already been given to the use of
chemicals for the sterilization of water, that shall be harmless and
thoroughly effective. But much remains to be done before publica-
tion. The electric sterilization of water, or its modifications, seem
to offer possibilities, and in the next two years, work is planned along
these lines. -
ALBERT R. SWEETSER.
BíOLOGICAL LABORATORY, s
UNIVERSITY OF OREGON.
November, 1906.
$
4…a state +
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. . . ." FOURTH BIENNIAL REPORT
* R - - -
*
OF THE
STATE BIOLOGIST
O'F TI-IIC
STATE OF OREGON
TO
His Excellency, Geo. E. Chamberlain, Governor
TWENTY-FIFTH LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY
REGULAR SESSION
1909
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SAILEM, OTREGON
WILLIS S. DUNIWAY, STATE PRINTER
1908


LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL
UNIVERSITY OF OREGON, |
November 20, 1908.
To His Ea:cellency, the Governor, Geo. E. Chamberlain, Salem–
SIR : In accordance with the laws of Oregon, I herewith
present the fourth biennial report of the State Biologist. e
The experiments with the Eastern oysters have shown that
it is impossible to make them breed in these waters because
of the low temperature, and attention is being turned to native
oysters and the possibility of increasing the supply on the
natural beds or stocking new localities, the latter being of
special interest in Coos Bay, where at present the Oyster is
extinct though at one time flourishing abundantly. It seems
very desirable that the appropriation should be continued that
part of it may be used in such experiments.
Some attention has been given to the habits of the crab
and shell fish with a view to protective legislation, and the
attempting of some experiments in artificial propagation.
Also work has been begun on the fresh water fishes which
it is hoped may be continued in the future.
Respectfully,
ALBERT R. SWEETSER.
EXC M A N Gº.
Muniv ERsiTY OF MINNEROrä
LABRARY
ji)(a 2'- " .
REPORT OF STATE BIOLOGIST.
UNIVERSITY OF OREGON,
Eugene, November 20, 1908.
During the past two years the State Biologist has under-
taken the following lines of work:
First—A continuation of the oyster experiments in Yaquina
Bay.
Second—A preliminary biological survey of the region
around the mouth of the Umpqua River.
Third—A reconnaissance of Coos Bay, with a view of at-
tempting to restock these waters with the native oyster.
Fourth—An examination of the fauna and flora of the
water and land round about Sunset Cove.
Fifth–The gathering of material for the study of the breed-
ing habits of the crab ; and,
Sixth–The study of some of the common fresh water fish,
their habits and parasites.
OYSTER EXPERIMIENTS.
Sunken Float. A large sunken float was built having sixty
feet of inside surface, floated by two large logs, and provided
with doors on the top, the bottom being submerged about a
foot. The water had free access to the inside of the float and
was continually being changed so that the interior was prac-
tically as pure as the surrounding water. This was towed
up Yaquina River in June, 1907, to a point known as the
Ship Yard, about a mile above Oysterville. It was found
that the temperature on the inside of the float was usually
slightly higher than the temperature of the outside waters.
The bottom was covered with a layer of clean shells; on this
were placed over three hundred Easten'n Oystem's which had
been carefully culled to remove, so far as possible, all native
Oysters; over these was placed another layer of clean shells,
and on top of all twenty-three tiles, slightly concave and hav-
ing the concave side down. At the close of the season the
shells and tile were found covered with spat (Figure 1), but
whether Eastern or native it was difficult to say, and were free
from barnacles. The float was carried back to Oysterville
and the shells and tile removed to the Oyster beds. In Novem-
ber, 1908, some of the tiles were taken up and photographed
(Figure 2). On examination these proved to be the native
oyster, Ostºia lun'ida, and no evidence of Eastern spat was
found. The spat of the first season (Figure 1, Title 1) were
4 REPORT OF STATE BIOLOGIST.
on the average 15.1 millimeters (.59 inches) by 12.5 milli-
meters (.49 inches). Those of the second season (Figure 2)
were 24.5 millimeters (.96 inches) by 23.0 millimeters
(.90 inches). The spat at the close of the second year have
three times the shell area that they had at the end of the
first season.
These results suggest other problems:
1. The feasibility of raising spat on a larger scale by some
similar method and restocking the beds which are rapidly
being depleted.
2. The possibility of gradually accustoming these oysters
to a lower degree of salinity and thus enabling them to grow
in an environment unfavorable to the barnacles. -
Antificial Environment. An attempt was made to imitate
artificially the temperature condition favorable for spawning
and to keep the young oysters for a time under these condi-
tions. A small tank was so arranged that a current of Salt
water was constantly passing through and kept at a tem-
perature ranging between 70 F. and 80 F. Shells were placed
on the bottom. The plan was to artificially fertilize the ova
and liberate them into the tank. Either because of the old
age of the Eastern oyster or for some other reason it was
impossible to accomplish this, and at the time the experiment
was made no results were obtained. With young and vigorous
individuals there are possibilities of success if the experiment
were continued for some considerable time. If a few ripe
oysters were also placed in the tank as well as the artificially
fertilized ova natural fertilization might be induced.
Analysis of Oystem's for Copper. The striking coppery fla-
vor of our native oysters, which is especially noticeable the
first few times they are eaten, has led some to imagine that
they might really contain more copper than the Eastern
Oyster. To settle this point analyses were made in the chemi-
cal laboratory of the Eastern Oysters planted in Yaquina Bay,
of the Olympias, and of the Netarts oysters. The analysis
of the native Yaquina Bay oysters was lost through a mishap
in the process of analysis. Each sample was drained in a
funnel and the liquid and solid portions analyzed separately,
the copper being estimated by the electrolytic method. The
results were as follows: º
Eastern Oysters from Yaquina Bay. . .0038 per cent
Olympias, first sample. . . . . . . . . . . . . .0025 per cent
Olympias, second sample. . . . . . . . . . . .0021 per cent
Netarts Oysters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .0023 per cent
From this it is seen that the Eastern Oyster fattened on
this coast has more copper than the natives.
UMPQUA RIVER,
e A little time was given to collecting and studying the crabs
and shell fish at the mouth of the Umpqua River, and On the
REPORT OF STATE BIOLOGIST. 5
adjacent beaches. An interesting species of crab was found
living in the same shell with certain clams, but has not been
fully classified. The special object of interest, however, was
the edible crab, Cance?" magisten'. A number of individuals
of different ages were collected (Figure 3). Those of edible
size are fairly abundant at present, but with the increase of
population and the improvements in transportation they are
likely to be rapidly thinned out, as is the case in some of
the other bays along our coast.
Along the beach some shells were picked up which were
apparently oyster shells, but which differed from our native
oysters. As they were for the most part well smoothed and
rounded, it is difficult to say whether they were brought
from a considerable distance or were thrown up from some
neighboring reef.
There were also indications in many places between the
Umpqua and Coos Bay of beds of razor clams. The writer
feels confident that if he had had more time at his disposal
he could have located such beds.
COOS BAY AND OYSTERs.
It is well known by the inhabitants of this region, and can
be easily shown to any one visiting the bay that there were
at one time large beds of native oysters in these waters. De-
posits of the old shells are to be seen in many places, and the
Government dredge brings them up in great numbers, but
they were exterminated by some catastrophe the nature of
which is now unknown. The Indians have a tradition that
this was brought about by the great forest fires which at One
time swept over the whole coast. They believe that the waters
were heated, by radiation or by the glowing embers falling
into them, and the Oysters destroyed. Some have asked why
the clams did not suffer also. The Oyster is practically help-
less, and if an abundance of mud or sediment is suddenly
heaped upon it, may be suffocated, since it cannot move from
its position, and has no tube or siphon which it can push
through this layer up into the pure water above. The clam
on the other hand, has a foot which enables it to move with
a greater or less rapidity, and a siphon with which it can
reach out toward clear water. If this conflagration had any-
thing to do with the destruction of the Oysters the result would
seem to be due rather to the sudden accumulation of ashes
washed in by the rains and the burying up of the shell fish,
thus causing the death of the helpless Oysters, while many
of the clams might escape.
The following table gives the results of the Observations up
to the time of the writing of this report :
REPORT OF STATE BIOLOGIST.

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°CH WIĘIV QL
REPORT OF STATE BIOLOGIST. 7
It is possible that at some time a sudden and unusually
severe freshet may have reduced the salinity to a point below
the endurance of the oyster. At present it seems highly
probable that if the native oysters were planted in the bay
they would grow and multiply. With this plan in view an
examination was made of the surrounding shores, and a point
near Glasgow selected as a favorable site for the development
of beds. Some temperature and salinity observations were
made, and these will be continued at intervals throughout the
winter. If all the indications prove favorable and the appro-
priation for the work of this office is available for another
year, it is planned to bring in and plant a considerable number
of sacks of our native oyster in April or May. The beds will
be prepared by putting down a layer of clean shells and scat-
tering the Oysters on top of this, placing on these another
layer of clean shells to furnish a chance for the young spat
to fix themselves.
SUNSET COVE.
This is a small bay opening directly to the Ocean twelve
miles from Marshfield, and a few miles south of the Coos
bar. The coast at this point is precipitous, with flanking
reefs, furnishing an ideal collecting spot, and yielded in the
short time that was given to it evidences of a very varied
fauna and flora. Plans are on foot to establish a seaside
laboratory for the University of Oregon at this point, and it
may be desirable for the State Biologist to conduct experi-
ments here also, if funds are available, which shall have both
scientific and economic value, such as a study of the habits
of the crab and the possibility of breeding them in captivity;
a description of the food fishes of the region; also a scientific
description of the fauna and flora of the water and adjacent
land.
Ei)IBLE CRABS. (Cancer Magister.)
For several seasons the State Biologist has offered to pay
a good price for a live female edible crab carrying its eggs.
Crab fishermen were all positive that they had seen such, but
none could be obtained. In March, 1907, a dead female crab
with eggs was found by Mr. Harrison on the beach amongst
the seaweed with which it was washed ashore, and sent to
me. Figure 4 shows the under side of a female crab without
eggs and Figure 5 shows one with the eggs. It will be seen
that these are attached to the little swimmerets on the under
side . Of the abdomen. They are carried by the female until
hatched. During September the beach is often strewn with
what people think to be dead crabs, but which prove, on
examination, to be the cast-off shells, this being the moulting
8 REPORT OF STATE BIOLOGIST.
time for the crab. It is probable that the female is fertilized
at this time and then goes out into deep water carrying the
eggs. The problem to be worked out is whether it would be
possible to keep the females over the winter in a sunken float
or corral in such a locality as Sunset Cove, where the water
would more nearly approximate that of the deep sea, and
liberate the young in the spring in the bay when the other
crabs return.
FRESH WATER FISH AND PARASITES.
From the mill race near Eugene two specimens were ob-
tained which abound in our rivers, and have a considerable
resemblance to each other. On comparing the heads and
mouths a difference is evident. Figure 6 is described by
Jordan and Everman as the Squaw Fish or Sacramento Pike,
Ptychochielus Oregonensis. Figure 7 by some authors is
called Chisel Mouth, Ach?"Ochielus alutaceºus. Each of these
was badly infested with parasites, both in the intestinal tract
and in the muscular tissues, and on that account would hardly
be fit for food. These and other forms may Often be seen
in great numbers sporting near the mouth of sewers, appar-
ently feeding on the sewage.
In the latter part of May some specimens of trout were
sent in by Mr. F. A. Anderson, of Goldson, from the mill pond
at that place. These were more or less infested by parasites
in the form of a round hair-like worm or nematode, which in
certain stages of its development becomes inclosed in a sac
or cyst in the flesh of the fish. These were reported as being
almost entirely confined to the fish of the pond and wanting
in those living in the swift water. These do not seem to be
due to any disease but may attack any individuals, especially
those in sluggish water. -
FIG. J. Two tiles (at close of first season).
Tile 1. From sunken float, showing spat.
Tile 2. From oyster bed, covered with barnacles.

Frº. 2. Two tiles (at close of second season). Both from sunken float.

|-
！\!\！ on bditun otſi jo tihnout oun nu pom-pollow （soºus nuo uouip jo solutuaj umo） ºuansınırı， i， ut， quae aequae au L （; -soi）

*sāža nnounſw qw to ºluştuaj o jo ºpis tapun atij,ºf_^*（1 +

FIG. 5. The under side of a female crab with eggs on the abdomen.

* 1 **91, H.
‘º ‘:01，


APPENDIX
Leaflets Listing and Describing
Birds of Oregon
LEAFLET NO. 1 JUNE, 1907
INTRODUCTORY NOTE
This is the first of what is hoped may be a series of leaflets for the use of the
pupils Of Our Schools and Others interested in nature study. Mr. Finley has gained
not Only a State but a national reputation, and any Who have heard his lectures or
read his articles lºnow that he has accumulated a Stock Of first-hand information
On the subject. It is the Object of this leaflet, to give brief directions how to study
the birds and more especially to emphasize the fact that the majority Of the
feathered tribe assist the farmer and horticulturist, and that their destruction is
not only to be depreciated from a sentimental point of view, but may be productive
Of a large financial loss. -
ALBERT R. SWEETSER.
State Biologist.
STUDY ()F BIRI)S AND THEIR ECONOMIC VALUE
By WILLIAM L. FINLEY.
The most important factor in the progress of our present-day education
is that book knowledge must be supplemented by original work. Book
information must be assimilated by each child working it into his own life
through his own experience. The effort of the teacher should be to develop
originality in the child and lead him by close observation to think broadly
and be self-active.
HOW TO INTEREST CHILDREN.
If we are to interest children in birds, we must give them something to
do and encourage them to observe. The child that plants the seed watches
it grow, cultivates the plant till the flower comes, has an interest in the
flower that he can obtain in no other way. So the child that provides food
and a bath for the birds, finds his interest growing. The first impulse of
the boy’s mind is generally to take bird and animal study from the stand-
point of the savage. The instinct to catch and kill is uppermost. It comes
naturally because the effort of the wild bird or animal is to keep just out of
reach. This hunting instinct of the boy may be overcome by using his
stratagem to capture the bird confidence by supplying food and water when
it is needed, and by furnishing homes for birds and animals that are accept-
able. Whenever the boy’s interest grows toward watching, bird habits, and
whenever, he feels a responsibility of protecting a creature under his care,
[4]
his attitude changes. If we can get him to build a bird house and place it
about his home, he can easily get tenants. If part of the school work is to
report on bird study, he is encouraged to observe. He watches during the
period of nest-building and incubation, and then while the young are reared.
-
-
:
-
-
-
-
With a little encouragement, he will become a staunch protector instead of
a destroyer of bird life.
It is not a difficult matter for children to make friends with the birds.
If one has a yard with some trees and bushes, he may have a real bird
retreat. Fortunate is the boy or girl who has a big yard with a tangle of

[5]
bushes on an old fence, or a few trees and a wild corner where the weeds
run riot. It is easy to arrange a shallow dish or basin where fresh water
may be kept every day for the birds to bathe and drink. This makes a
most attractive bird resort for summer. Then build some bird houses and
put them about in the trees or on posts and you are sure to have bird tenants
all summer. For the fall and winter, start a bird lunch-counter, by all means.
Nail up a box or board just outside your window where you can watch it
and where the table may be set without trouble. Keep it supplied with a
few cracked nuts, seeds and crumbs. In the coldest weather, suet chopped
in fine bits may be put out, or a large piece nailed down so it can be pecked
but not dislodged. The news will spread and you will have boarders every
day, and one may establish the closest relations with his feathered visitors.
Accustom them to your presence gradually and do not make sudden move-
ments and the birds will learn not to be afraid. Later you may have the
birds come at call or even take a bit from your hand. Such a bird friend-
ship is worth working for and such familiarity with the wild birds cannot
help but make a boy’s or girl’s life better. -
DISCRIMINATE BETWEEN BIRDS.
We should not lose sight of the ordinary utility of a bird. Too many of
us know little or nothing of their real economic value. As a result we are
unjust. We are all too likely to saddle the sins of a particular bird upon
the whole tribe. We see a Cooper’s hawk swoop into the yard and strike a
chicken and we are immediately out with a gun for every other hawk we
can see, regardless of the fact that many of the hawks live almost entirely
on Squirrels, gophers, mice, grasshoppers, beetles and the like, and are
among the most useful birds we have. It is a grave error to sacrifice a
hundred birds, as we do, for the sins of one guilty bird. A man who lives
in the country ought to have a common knowledge of bird habits. For his
own good and the welfare of the state, he ought to be able to discriminate
between good and bad wild birds, just as he learns to distinguish between
good and bad domestic birds and animals.
Because a blackbird is in a grainfield, it does not signify that he is doing
harm. Woodpeckers are often shot for coming into orchards, when a care-
ful examination will show that they are destroying injurious insects. There
are many instances where birds have been killed because of their destruction
to fruit, when an examination of their stomachs showed they were eating
more insects than fruit.
CHANGES THAT AFFECT BIRD LIFE.
When the white men came to the Pacific Coast and began cutting away
the forests and plowing the great stretches of land, it naturally made some
changes in the bird and animal life of the country. Instead of living on the
Seeds of wild weeds and grasses, the birds soon found a new and abundant
Supply that man planted in the fields and it is not surprising that many
Species, such as blackbirds and quail, took to living on the new food that
man brought. Nor is it surprising that one or two species of hawks that
were accustomed to live on wild birds and animals took to catching the tame
unwary birds that man kept about the yard.
Later on, as the native bushes and trees were cleared away and even
the grain fields gave way to orchards, the birds changed their nesting places
to Orchard trees and to modern homes and they liked the cultivated fruit
[6]
better than the wild fruit, berries and seeds. For this reason, birds that
were almost unknown came to be regarded by some orchardists as enemies
because of the fruit and grain they ate. The change of conditions that
made food abundant and gave good nesting facilities and killed off the
smaller animals that lived to some extent on birds and their eggs and held
the bird numbers in check, naturally gave the chance for some birds to be-
come more numerous. However, there are few instances where birds become
so abundant as to do more real harm than good. For although some of the
birds eat fruit, this is not the main part of their diet. The majority of birds
are continually hunting and catching insects. During the breeding season,
they live largely and rear their young almost exclusively on this food.
Wherever insect food is plentiful, the birds resort to such a locality.
HOW BIRDS REGULATE OUTEREAKS OF INSECTS.
The part that birds play in the economic life is to hold the balance of
Nature even by keeping in check the great number of insects and small
rodents. They are active at every season of the year. Their rapidity of
digestion is remarkable. Many young birds digest food in one or two hours.
A young bird will consume about ten times its own weight from the time it
hatches till it leaves the nest. Birds often raise two or three broods and
they perform a great amount of work. Where insect and animal food is
abundant, the birds thrive; where it is lacking, Nature keeps the bird
numbers in check. -
In certain places where insects and rodents have threatened crops and
become abnormally numerous, the birds soon discover the abundance of food
and congregate in large numbers. In this way they help to regulate such
outbreaks. An example of this was shown a few years ago in a large apple
orchard in Central Illinois, that was attacked by cankerworms. Prof. S. A.
Forbes of the State Laboratory of Natural History visited the orchard for
two successive seasons and collected various specimens of the birds found
about that locality. An examination of the stomach contents of these birds
showed that the birds were very useful in reducing this outbreak of injur-
ious insects. Out of 141 bird stomachs examined, including thirty-six
species of birds, it was found that sixty per cent of the birds killed had
been eating the canker-worms, and of the thirty-six species seventy-two per
cent were eating worms. Taken as a whole, it was found that thirty-five
per cent of the food of all the birds of the locality consisted of canker-
worms. So we find that during this time when the pest got the upper
hand, Nature used the birds to restore the equilibrium. Birds of field and
forest were attracted by the bountiful supply of insect food, and birds of
all sizes and habits were feeding on worms and reducing the numbers.
Out of a flock of thirty-five cedar waxwings, seven birds were shot.
With the exception of a few small beetles, it was found that these birds
were living entirely on canker-worms. By actual count it was found that
there were from seventy to a hundred and one worms in the stomachs of
each of these birds. If we assume that as an everage each of these birds
ate a hundred of these worms during the day, the flock of thirty were de-
stroying three thousand worms a day, or during the month when cater-
pillars were out, the flock were destroying ninety thousand.
Another instance showing the utility of birds in checking insect pests is
shown in the experiments carried on by Prof. Samuel Aughey of the Uni-
[7]
versity of Nebraska during the outbreaks of the Rocky Mountain locust or
grasshopper. These experiments were made between 1865 and 1877, and
showed that all the birds of the locality were doing their best to check the
outbreak of these injurious insects. Thrushes, kinglets, chickadees, nut-
hatches, warblers, vireos, swallows, crows, bluejays, blackbirds, kingfish-
ers, cuckoos, woodpeckers, hawks, owls, pigeons, grouse, quail, gulls and
even hummingbirds and water birds had all taken to eating locusts. Forty-
one locusts were taken from the stomach of a single yellow-headed black-
bird. A tiny ruby-throated hummingbird had four small locusts in its
stomach. Six robins had eaten two hundred and sixty-five locusts. Sixty-
seven locusts were found in the stomachs of three bluebirds, and one little
ruby-crowned kinglet had eaten twenty-nine. Many of these and other
birds were feeding their young on locusts. One barn owl had eaten thirty-
nine locusts. Eight screech owls had eaten two hundred and nineteen
locusts. And the hawks were feeding on grasshoppers the same as the
owls.
STUDYING FOOD OF BIRDS.
In order to tell whether a bird is of more value than harm economically,
the Department of Agriculture at Washington has for the past fiften years,
been making a study of the contents of birds’ stomachs. In various parts
of our country and during all the seasons of the year, different species of
birds have been taken and the stomachs have been preserved. These are
carefully tagged and placed in a solution of five per cent formalin and
eighty per cent alcohol. Later on these have been carefully examined and
studied by experts who have identified such insects as are eaten, and taken
an exact percentage of the various kinds of food eaten. After an examina-
tion of a large number of each species these experts have been able to tell
exactly the part that these birds take in our economy of Nature, to what
extent, if any, the bird is harmful to farmers and orchardists, and to what
extent it is beneficial.
VALUE OF BIRDS TO AGRICULTURIST AND HORTICULTURIST.
Nature has given the birds a special task of holding insect life in check
in order to protect plant life. Some birds live by hunting through the
leaves and branches, others by hunting the larvae that are in the bark of
the tree trunks, others scratch up the fallen leaves and the loose soil, while
others are continually engaged in catching the flying insects.
In a day’s time the bush-tit and chickadee have been known to eat
hundreds of insect eggs and worms that are harmful to our trees and
vegetables. A brood of three young chipping sparrows were watched dur-
ing one day and they received food a hundred and eighty. Seven times from
the parents. A family of four song sparrows seven days old were fed
seventeen grasshoppers and two spiders in sixty-seven minutes. The fly-
catchers and swallows destroy vast numbers of flies and gnats that annoy
horses and cattle. The food of the flicker or woodpecker consists largely
of ants; 3,000 of these have been taken from the crop of a single bird.
The food of the meadow-lark consists of seventy-five per cent of injurious
insects and twelve per cent of weed seed; which shows it is a bird of great
economic value. A single robin has been known to eat a hundred and
seventy-five caterpillars. One bob-white that was killed had over a hun-
dred potato bugs in its craw. Another had eaten two spoonsful of chinch
[8]
bugs. After the day-flying birds have ceased their work and gone to sleep,
the night-hawk is busy catching untold numbers of mosquitoes, moths and
other insects.
Hawks are especially equipped to catch moles, gophers, mice and squir-
rels, and they keep these harmful rodents in check. During the summer
a pair of red-tailed hawks will destroy hundreds of squirrels, gophers and
mice. The sparrow-hawk lives mostly on grasshoppers, crickets and mice.
One bird that was killed had eaten a gopher and thirty-one insects. The
hawk hunts by day and the owl by night. The work of the one supple-
ments that of the other. Observations show that one owl consumed over
six hundred mice in two hundred and forty-six days. The barn owl will
capture as many mice and gophers in one night as a dozen cats.
|BIRDS AS NATURAL RESOURCES.
The birds about a farm may be classed as natural resources. Some
birds will destroy a large amount of fruit or grain unless driven from the
trees and fields. Sometimes they have to be driven away to save crops.
In keeping the birds from eating fruit we compel them to hunt insects;
thus instead of being an injury, they are turned to real advantage.
According to Weed and Dearborn, in “Birds in Their Relation to Man,”
“No prudent farmer will leave the birds out of his plans. He will attract
them by ministering to their needs. In his dealings with them he will be
guided by the same motives that direct his actions towards his domestic
animals. His cattle and his poultry are fed, housed and slaughtered, all
for his personal benefit. So long as his animals are more profitable living
than dead, he cares for them; when they are fit for market or vicious, he
kills them as unhesitatingly as he has nutured them. There is no reason
why this same sort of management should not be applied to birds. An
unprofitable oriole should be killed as promptly as an unprofitable sheep.
But sheep are not slaughtered for their sins or their infirmities so long as
they are of more value living than dead. We do not kill our animals for
faults we can correct. The flower-loving housewife fences round her posy-
bed, covers it with brush, or even applies socks to the feet of the chronic
scratchers among her fowls sooner than take their heads off for unearthing
Seeds. When birds are turned away from maurauding by some harmless
device, not only are their lives spared for good work in the future, but they
are often turned to better business at the moment.”
Have we the right to clear the land of the natural food of birds and then
refuse them the fruit of our trees and the grain of our fields? Should we
not provide something for them in return for the good they do us, just as
we provide for our domestic fowls? It is a sign of thrift when an orchard-
ist or farmer tries to get the most out of the birds about him instead of
killing them off. If the birds insist on destroying fruit, there is always a
little unused ground about a farm; why not plant a few mulberry trees or
Some evergreen blackberries along the fence, or in some out-of-the-way
corner let a few seedling cherry trees grow for the birds? The number of
birds that are harmful, including those that do slight injury, is so small
that we ought to be able to control these. The number of culprits all told
is but a small fraction of our birds.
PORTLAND, OREGON.
| |SSUED BY THE OREGON STATE BIOLOGIST |
Leaflets Listing and Describing
Birds of Oregon
LEAFLET NO. 2 FEERUARY, 19C8
Aº
INTRODUCTORY NOTE
For this our second loulletin we are again fortunate in llaving a contribution
from 1 Mr. Finley, which is 1nnade doubly interesting by Mr. Bohlman’s plmotographs
from life. It is hoped that other bulletins may be available later if the appropria-
tion is sufficient. The birds here treated, with the exception of the California
Purple Finch, are found throughout this State in winter as well as in summer.
Agriculturists and horticulturists should endeavor to find out to what extent
birds about their hornes are helpful or injurious. In determining the economic
relations of any bird, it must be considered front all points of view, and during the
entire year or season in which it lives about the locality. -
ALBERT R. SWEETSER,
State Biologist.
SOME COMMON BIRDS OF OREGON
With notes as to their economic relation to man
By will.IAM L. FINLEY -
Illustrated with photographs from life
By HERMAN T. BOHLNIAN
RED-SHAIFTED FLICKER.
The Red-shafted Flicker or Woodpecker (Colaptes cafer collaris) may
readily be recognized by the brownish throat and sides of the head, with
a black crescent on the upper chest and the breast covered with round
black spots. The male has a patch of red on each cheek. When flying
away, the flicker may be identified by the snowy-white patch on the rump
and the red lining of the wings and tail.
The flicker is rather an odd mixture of woodpecker and robin. He
climbs straight up the tree trunk, clutching with his claws and using his
stiff, pointed tail feathers as a prop, or he sometimes sits like an ordinary
percher. Instead of a chisel-shaped bill like other woodpeckers, his is
more like a pickax. He has the long elastic tongue that characterizes
woodpeckers, and this is covered with a sticky saliva and is thrust out
to catch small insects. Like the robin, this bird often digs and hunts in
the ground for ants and worms.
If the flicker was good for nothing else, he would deserve careful
protection because he is the persistent enemy of the ant family. He
[10]
seems to have been created and equipped largely for this one purpose.
Although ants have some use, they are often a great pest. Many kinds
of ants are exceedingly harmful. Besides being wood-borers, they infest
houses and destroy timber; but the worst of all, perhaps, they protect and
Copyrighted 1905 by H. T. Bohlmas
RED-shafted FLICKER AT NEST Hol-E
care for many aphides or plant lice, which are among the greatest
enemies of trees, plants, and shrubs. The flicker also destroys a good
per cent of beetles, moths, and other insects. In some of the flicker

|11]
stomachs that have been examined by Prof. F. E. L. Beal, of the Depart-
ment of Agriculture, he says three were completely filled with ants. Two
of these each contained more than 3,000 of these creatures, and one con-
tained over 5,000.
I have heard a few horticulturists complain of the flicker for
pecking apples and pears. Investigation shows that these complaints
come only from a few sections and are in no way general. As a rule,
the damage is comparatively small, and, as a whole, the bird undoubtedly
does a great deal more good than harm.
west ERN. Roel N
WESTERN ROBIN.
The Western Robin (Merula migratoria propinqua) is the commonest
bird resident about our gardens, orchards, and meadows, and because he
is so common, considerable discussion has arisen concerning the amount
of fruit he eats. As far as I can learn, the most complaint is found
against the robin as a cherry-eater. Cherries ripen early in Oregon,
and as it is about the only fruit accessible at the time, the robin's appe-

[12]
tite is undoubtedly sharpened by his long continued diet of worms. I
have talked with many orchardists concerning the amount of harm that
is really committed by robins. The earliest cherries are bothered most,
while those that ripen later are not disturbed to any extent, because of
the other fruits and berries that are ripe by this time. The severest
complaints seem to come from places where there are just a few cherry
trees about a locality, and to these all the robins from the neighborhood
seem to go for a feast. In places where cherry trees are abundant, the
loss is so scattering that it is not noticed to a great extent. For instance,
in an orchard of 1,700 Lambert cherry trees, a few miles east of Portland,
the owner told me the robins destroyed very little, if any, fruit.
From the data furnished by the Biological Survey, the table of the
robin’s food for the year shows that cultivated fruit is not eaten to any
serious extent except during the months of June and July. The amount
is 30 per cent during these months, but during the same time the amount
of insect food is over 46 per cent, which shows that the benefit exceeds
the damage. Scientific research, carried on by the Department of Agri-
culture at Washington, shows that for their own interests, horticulturists
should try to protect their crops during the short season when the robin
may be injurious, and let him live to perform his good work of destroying
thousands of insects that are harmful to tree and plant life.
Even if the robin was not of real economic value, he surely would be
worth something from the esthetic standpoint. What would a June
morning mean without the caroling of the robin? He is the boldest bird
about our dooryards. He puts himself directly under our protection and
builds as near about the house as possible. Who has not watched him
hunt for worms on the lawn 7 As an integral part of a child’s life, we
need the robin about our homes, even if he does eat fruit.
There is always some vacant space about a farm where one or more
trees might be planted especially for the birds. It is better to let the
birds have a few seedling cherry trees, or as birds are very fond of
Russian mulberries, a few of these could be planted. These are good
bearers and the birds prefer mulberries to cherries. In this way a few
trees planted about a garden or orchard would protect more valuable fruit.
WESTERN BLUEBIRD.
The Western Bluebird (Sialia mea;icama occidentalis) may readily be
told by the blue coat and the brick-red breast, which changes into white
on the lower part of the body. In the East he is known as the fore-
runner of spring. But in the West, where the winters are not so cold, a
few always stay the year around. They are together in flocks during
the day and sleep together at night. The bluebird is one of the birds that
has taken remarkably to civilization. He formerly built his nest in some
hole of an old tree about the woods, but now he prefers a modern home.
He prefers to live in a bird house that is put in the back yard or about
the barn, or nailed in the crotch of a fruit tree.
Although the bluebird often lives about the city, I associate him with
country life. I know of no better way to cultivate bird friendship to ad-
vantage than to put up bird-boxes in various places about a farm. One
is sure to have one or more bluebird tenants, and, with a little care, they
[13]
become very tame. They not only pay rent in the quality of their singing,
but by ridding the trees of many harmful worms. On several different
occasions, I have watched the mother and father bluebirds feed their
young. In one day's time they have brought in hundreds of green worms,
caterpillars, grasshoppers, ants, and other such insects. Over three-
fourths of the bluebird’s food consists of various kinds of insects.
The bluebird is one of our songsters that is not accused of being
injurious. He does not partake of the crops raised by man, although he
w EstERN BLUEBIRD AT N Est HOLE IN SLDE OF HOUSE
boards himself about the farm and garden. He is gentle and friendly.
If undisturbed, he will raise two or three broods during a season. But
like other birds, his numbers do not seem to increase. He should receive
careful protection by man, for, like other birds, he has many enemies
that we know not of. Many birds die of disease or starve to death during
the winter, and many are killed by animals.

[14]
BLUE JAY.
Two Blue Jays are common residents through the western part of
Oregon. The Steller Jay (Cyanocitta stelleri) may be recognized by its
long crest and deep blue coat; upper parts of the body are blackish,
changing to rich blue on the lower back and belly. The California Jay
(Aphelocoma califormica) looks more like the blue jay of the Eastern
woods in color; upper parts are blue, except the back, which is dark
brownish or black. The bluish on the throat fades into white on the lower
part of the body. His military coat gives him distinction from other
birds.
A bad reputation in the bird world is as hard to live down, as it is
among men. A man’s character may be injured by a false report; so a
bird is often condemned by actions that are misinterpreted, or on hearsay.
evidence. The man may find recompense, but the bird cannot. The jay
is universally known as a robber and murderer: he robs other nests and
he eats nestlings. This report has gone the rounds among men so long
that many people think a blue jay does nothing else but hunt up mischief.
It is mighty hard to persuade some people that any good can come of a
blue jay. --
Before we condemn the blue jay, let us consider the real facts against
him and weigh the evidence. Grant that one blue jay steals eggs, it is
logically false to reason from a particular to a general conclusion and
say all jays steal. Professor Beal, of the United States Department of
Agriculture, has made a most careful study of the food habits of the
blue jay. His results show that 292 stomachs of this bird were examined
after being collected in every month of the year in twenty-two different
States, the District of Columbia and Canada. The food of the blue jay
is composed of 24.3 per cent animal matter and 75.7 per cent vegetable
matter. The animal food was made up largely of insects. In all these
stomachs, only two showed the remains of birds, one of a young bird and
the other of a bird that had likely been found dead. Only three stomachs
contained the remains of birds’ eggs, and one of these was taken in
October and was evidently an old shell found in some nest. In several
other stomachs, the shells of the eggs of domestic fowls were found, but
the evidence seemed to show that these were old egg shells picked up
about farm houses.
It is evident, therefore, that the depredations of the blue jay are not
as general as supposed. But here in Oregon some complaint has been
made against the blue jay for stealing fruit, and because of its reputa-
tion, it is denied protection under the Oregon laws. The injury to fruit
by the blue jay seems to be more local in places than it is general. The
reports of its destruction have come from places where fruit is not
abundant or where an orchard is surrounded by woods and the birds can
swoop down, take smaller fruits, and fly back to the woods.
As to the home life of the two blue jays here in Oregon, I have never
caught either one breaking up the homes of smaller birds, but I know
of one case where I was positive a warbler’s nest was robbed by a pair
of Steller jays. There is no doubt that a blue jay will at times rob
other birds, but we need not interfere for the other birds in this case, for
[15]
they know how to care for themselves. They hide their nests carefully,
and one of the parents is most always on guard about the premises.
One reason that makes me think that the blue jay is often wrongly
accused, is that I knew of a Steller jay's nest in a patch of woods. I was
of the opinion that these birds did little else but hunt up mischief, so I
watched the place carefully. Near by I found the nest of a thrush with
young birds in it, and also a robin's nest with eggs. The latter was not
YOUNG CALL FORN A JAY ABOUT TO LEAVE NEs.T.
concealed and I am sure would have been robbed if the blue jays had
wanted eggs, but neither of the jays seemed inclined to mischief.
In another case, where I saw a pair of these jays about my chicken
yard, I thought I would catch them red-handed stealing eggs, as one of
them was about an open nest that contained a chicken’s egg. The bird
flew down in the yard and picked up a hazelnut and flew back to the fir,
where it held the nut between its toes and pounded it. He couldn’t
crack it and presently flew off. Several times afterward I saw the same
pair about the chicken yard and near the chicken house, but they were
merely foraging for nuts and other eatables found about the yard.

[16]
AMERICAN CROW.
The American Crow (Corvus americanws) is one of our bi su known
bird characters. Like the blue jay, his reputation is bad; it is as black
as his coat. It is very true that if a man once catches a crow in the act
of stealing grain, eggs, or young birds, it makes an impression that he
does not forget, and he is soon persuaded that the habit is universal, and
that the crow indulges in thievery all the time. Even though we have
never seen an instance of crow destruction, whenever we see this wily,
black individual, we are accustomed to think of him as an enemy.
To determine the economic status of the crow, the Department of
Agriculture has examined nearly a thousand stomachs of crows killed in
every month of the year and all over the country. The bird has been
charged with causing injury to the corn crop, stealing fruit, robbing
nests of poultry, and eating young birds. On each count, he was proven
guilty. It was also shown that most of the corn eaten was waste corn
and the part destroyed while growing was only 3 per cent of the total
food. The destruction of fruit and eggs was only trivial, while, on the
other hand, the amount of harmful insects and mice eaten rendered the
final verdict in favor of the crow, for it was proven beyond doubt that
he was of more real economic value than harm.
Out of 909 crow stomachs that were examined, only forty-one con-
tained eggs, feathers, bones, or other remains which could be identified
as those of wild birds, and some of these were very likely the remains
of dead birds that were found. It is doubtful that more than one crow in
twenty ever becomes addicted to this sort of stealing. Even if he has the
tendency to steal, it is only occasionally that the chance is offered, for
other birds are generally on the watch.
No animal food is hunted and eaten more regularly by crows than
frogs and toads. Of the 909 stomachs examined, 151 of these contained
the remains of frogs and toads. Those also showed that a great percentage
of the crow’s food is insectivorous. It is composed of grasshoppers,
beetles, cutworms, ants, and various kinds of flies. e
Many of the reports of the crow doing damage come from the East,
and especially in the spring and winter when the natural food is scarce.
Here in Oregon the crows remain with us the entire year, and there is
seldom a time when he cannot find abundance of natural food in the
woods and fields.
Crows are fond of various kinds of fruits and berries, and where they
do not get this supply of food in the native woods, they often frequent
orchards, and in some cases in fruit-growing sections of our State have
been known to do damage. But where they see cultivated fruit, they are
generally very sly in stealing. If one or two of the birds of the flock are
shot, the rest are very wary about visiting the trees again.
The crow undoubtedly destroys eggs and young of other birds, but the
real amount of damage he does is often exaggerated. He will eat chicken
and turkey eggs where the nests are found out away from the farm
houses, but where he has been shot at a few times, he seldom comes very
near about the premises. -
Mice form one of the most important articles of the crow’s food. The
crow’s habit of searching the ground for food enables him to find many
[17]
mice as he walks along and pokes his nose into bunches of leaves, under
grasses and weeds, in the meadows and pastures. Crows are most active
in their search during the spring and summer when the hay is cut and
when they are likely to find nests of mice that contain young. The crow
stomachs that have been taken in July and examined have contained
more mice than in any other month. This is a fact that the argricul-
turist should credit to the crow's account. Even tame crows are very
AMERICAN cRow AT N Esºr
partial to mice, for even when they refuse other food, they seldom
refuse these. In a case where several young crows were in a cage to-
gether, the bird that gets the mouse will swallow it whole to keep the
others from getting it, but later it is generally disgorged and torn to
pieces.
CALIFORNIA PURPLE FINCH.
The California Purple Finch (Carpodacus purpureus californicus) or
Red-headed Linnet, is a bird that is complained of at times because it
destroys the buds when the trees are in blossom. This species is not
abundant enough later in the summer to cause much damage to fruit. It
is only in the early spring when they come in flocks that complaint is
made. The House Finch (Carpodacus mea:icanus frontalis) is a bird
that is almost identical and is so common through California. This is


[18]
the species that is found in some of the valleys through Southern Oregon,
where the climate is so like that of California. The male purple and
house finch may be recognized by the red color on the head and throat,
fading to a more pinkish tint on the back and to a whitish on the breast.
The female of both is plain colored, grayish-brown on the back, while
the under parts are streaked with brown and white. All have the large
finch bill.
As to the mischief some orchardists think the purple finch does to
fruit blossoms, it is often exaggerated. The birds do eat the buds and
blossoms, but experience has shown that they really do very little damage
to the fruit crop. At Corvallis one of the faculty of the Agricultural
College noticed that a flock of purple finches attacked one particular
tree on his grounds. The birds were about the trees for a week and
-
- -
- -
- - -
- - - - -
- - - - - -
- - -
- - -
-
Hous E FINCH C R RED-HEADED LiNNET
were undisturbed. The ground under the tree was covered with blossoms,
but the crop of cherries was not by any means destroyed. This is an
unusual case, for in an orchard the purple finches seldom, if ever, limit
their attacks to one tree. So the amount of harm generally done is
scarcely enough to be obvious. The showers of blossoms that fall to the
ground are not conclusive proof against the bird. In the end, the budding
does little, if any, damage, for the buds are usually superabundant, and
whether they are thinned out by birds or man it is frequently beneficial,
relieving the trees from excessive bearing and improving the size and
quality of the fruit.
The linnet is a bird of strong, conical beak that is readily recognized
as a seed-eater. During the fruit season, it is not backward in taking its
share, and a casual observer would think that fruit was its only article
of diet. The examination of stomach contents by Prof. F. E. L. Beal
shows conclusively that over 86 per cent of the food of the house finch
for the year is weed seed. In his investigations, he examined the stomachs
of 1,206 linnets through the fruit-growing sections of California. Of the
total number of stomachs examined 1,133, or 94 per cent of all, held weed
seeds, while 807, or nearly 67 per cent, contained no other food. There

[19]
were only 63 stomachs that did not contain weed seeds, while there were
909 that contained no fruit. When we consider that each one of these
birds destroys several hundred seeds daily, the bird renders valuable
service to agriculture, for the amount of weeds so destroyed is enormous.
KING FISHER.
Nature has specially adapted the Kingfisher (Ceryle alcyon) for his
life work. He seems top-heavy in appearance. Everything is forfeited
to furnish him with a big head, a spear-pointed bill, and a pair of strong
wings to give this arrow-shaped bird a good start when he dives for fish.
I have often watched the kingfisher along the river near my home.
He sometimes occupies an old willow along the bank, and he sits there
for half an hour at a time, occasionally turning his head and watching
the water carefully. I sat on the bank one day as he came rattling down
the river and swerving up, caught himself in mid-air and came to a stop
fifteen feet above the water. What an eye he must have, to see a fish
under the surface when going at such a pace. He fluttered for a moment
as a sparrow hawk does above his prey, and dropped arrow-like, com-
pletely disappearing beneath the surface. The next instant he was in
FAMILY of You NG King Fish ERs
the air again with a crawfish. His clothes were water-tight, for the
water ran off his satiny plumage as if his coat were thoroughly oiled.
Some people advocate shooting the kingfisher at every opportunity,
claiming that he destroys too many trout. But along many of our
streams he lives on the fish that are of little or no value to man. He
catches comparatively few trout and never does he live on these alone.
In Oregon his favorite food is crawfish, and he often catches different
kinds of insects. Along some streams he lives mostly on frogs, lizards,
and beetles. In the Southern States, where the streams are few and run
dry in summer, the bird takes to a fare of grasshoppers and mice.
The kingfisher is not a social bird, and from an economic standpoint
he may not compare well with some of our other birds, but he was here
before man came, and should he not have the right to live a secluded
life along our water ways? I wouldn’t want a field without a meadow.
lark, even if it did raise a good crop of hay. It would be a desolate patch

[20]
of woods with no chickadee. It would be a barren orchard without a
robin or chippy, even if it did bear apples. The river would be robbed of a
part of its interest if the kingfisher were not there. To my mind, the
river can never be quite the same if the kingfisher does not nest in the
bank.
WESTERN MEADOWLARK.
Those who live anywhere in the country districts about our State need
no introduction to the Meadowlark (Sturmella magma neglecta.) It is a
bird of the field. It is a songster of the highest type. From an esthetic
standpoint, no farm is complete without this bird. Economically it is of
the greatest importance in any agricultural community. In Oregon the
meadowlark stays in sunshine, rain, and snow, even in the dead of
You NG MEADow LARKS IN GRAss N Est

[21]
winter. He is an early builder, for he often rears a first brood in March
or April before other birds have returned.
The meadowlark builds its nest on the ground in the middle of or in
under a tuft of grass. The nests that I have found have been made in
little hollows which the bird has worked out so that the home is com-
pletely arched over and covered by grass stems, making a sort of a cave
from which the bird has a little beaten path to enter its nest. The
meadowlark is a deceptive bird, for she seldom, if ever, lights near her
nest. When feeding young, the parent bird will light from fifty to a
hundred feet from the nest, and after a careful survey to see that she is
not watched, will dodge low and creep through the grasses till she
reaches her young. When leaving the nest, she takes the same caution
by sneaking off in another direction for some distance before taking wing.
The meadowlark is easily recognized by its size, which is about the
same as the robin. On the ground, he walks like a crow instead of
hopping like a robin. The distinguishing marks in the male are the
brilliant yellow of the breast and the crescent of black hung about the
neck. The female has duller plumage throughout.
A study of the food of the meadowlark shows that it is a bird of great,
economic value. Its food is largely composed of weed seeds. When the
grain is ripening and being harvested, the meadowlark lives almost en-
tirely on grasshoppers, crickets, beetles, and other insects. The bird
also destroys large numbers of cutworms, army worms, and chinch bugs.
It is often thought that the bird eats considerable wheat and other grains,
but a scientific study of its food shows that grain is but a small part of
its diet. The grain eaten is largely gleaned from the stubble fields after
the harvest is over when the insect food is scarce.
In the investigation of the food of the meadowlark, carried on by the
Department of Agriculture, 238 stomachs were examined. These were
collected in twenty-four different States, representing every month in the
year. A summary of stomach contents for the whole year is, insect food
71.7 per cent, vegetable food 26.5 per cent, mineral matter 1.8 per cent.
In other words, nearly three-fourths of the meadowlark’s food for the
year, including the winter months, consists of insects. During the sum-
mer months, when grasshoppers, caterpillars, and other insects are
plentiful, the meadowlark lives on these almost entirely. Even in March,
when insects are not easily found, they make up 73 per cent of this bird’s
food. So it is a wise provision in our Oregon laws that makes it a crime
to kill this bird or destroy its nest.
SPARROW HAWK.
The Sparrow Hawk (Falco sparverius deserticola) is a bird whose
name is against him. He should have been named the grasshopper hawk,
which would have been more appropriate in every way, for he seldom
touches a sparrow, while he lives to a large extent on grasshoppers. He
is the smallest in our family of hawks, and is also the most beautifully
marked, as well as a most beneficial bird. He may be recognized by the
general color of bright red-brown on the back and the lighter brownish
breast with black spots. The top of the head is slate-colored, with two
black stripes on the cheeks. This hawk may often be recognized as it
perches on the top of some pole, or as it flies out over the field and on
fluttering wing poises in mid-air, looking for its food. The nest of this
bird is built in a hole in a tree, the same as the woodpecker,
[22]
Dr. A. K. Fisher of the Biological Survey has made a careful study
of the food habits of this hawk. Stomachs of 320 sparrow hawks were
examined, and only one of them contained the remains of a game bird.
spa RRow H.Aw K
It also contained twenty-nine insects. He proved that the bird is almost
exclusively insectivorous, except when insect food is difficult to obtain.
In many localities in the West where grasshoppers and crickets are
abundant, these hawks will congregate, and rarely do they touch other
kinds of food as long as the grasshopper crop lasts.

[23]
Among most people in the country, there is a deep-seated feeling
against all hawks. They have seen a hawk Swoop down and carry off a
chicken, and the conclusion is that all hawks steal chickens and do
nothing except fly about and wait for the chance. The farmer, who
has seen his chickens go sailing off in the clutches of a hawk, it is mighty
hard to persuade that a hawk is good for anything except a profes-
sional chicken thief. And under the circumstances, he can’t be blamed,
for hawks are not easy to get acquainted with and it takes an expert
to tell the different kinds. Notwithstanding these facts, it is well to
understand something of the real economic value of hawks, for they are
not all given to stealing chickens.
Years ago, when the farmers of Pennsylvania saw hawks catching
their chickens, they concluded that all hawks and owls were dangerous
to their poultry yards. As a result, a law was passed offering bounties
for the bodies of these two species of birds. Before long, the Department
of Agriculture at Washington began to receive letters from farmers of
Pennsylvania complaining that field mice were destroying their crops to
an unusual extent. A study of the problem soon revealed the fact that
the destruction of the birds of prey had destroyed the natural check upon
these harmful rodents. In interfering with Nature's balance to this
extent, the farmers lost several million dollars’ worth of grain. The
hawks and owls are Nature's check against the great army of harmful
rodents that inhabit our fields and gardens. The hawks hunt by day and
keep the small diurnal animals in check, and the owls are especially
equipped to supplement the work of the hawks. Their eyesight is keenest
during the early hours of the night and morning when moles, gophers,
and mice are more active.
SCREECH OWL.
The Screech Owl (Megascops asio kemmicottii), like the sparrow hawk,
is largely an insect-eating bird. It is common all through the western
part of our State, where it makes its home in some hollow tree in a
patch of woods nearest a farm house. In the day time it is sometimes
seen Snuggled up on the limb of a thick tree, close against the trunk,
where its mottled color matches well with its surroundings. It is some-
times called the Mottled Owl, or the Little Horned Owl, because of its
small size and its ear-tufts, which it generally holds erect.
Superstitious people think the owl is a bird of bad omen, but to one
who loves bird life, the wierd whistle of the screech owl among the trees
or about the garden on a still summer or fall evening, has a peculiar
fascination. We may well marvel at his wonderful sense of sight and
hearing, for as he floats shadow-silently over the garden, he hears even
the foot-step of a mouse or sees the slightest movement of a gopher and
swoops to catch his prey with steel-trap claws.
It is comparatively easy to determine the exact economic status of
the hawks and owls by an examination of the pellets found about their
homes or roosting places. These birds often swallow the smaller rodents
entire, or tear them apart, swallowing the fragments. As soon as the
nutritious portions of the food are absorbed, the other portions, such as
hair, feathers, and bones, are rolled into a ball by the action of the
muscles of the stomach. These are vomited up, and are known as
pellets, and by examining these, scientists can tell exactly what kind ol
food has been eaten.
Through many of the Middle Western States, where the interests are
largely agricultural, the Rocky Mountain locust is at times very destruc-
tive to crops. In the first annual report of the United States Entomo-
logical Commission, there are figures showing that in the four States of
Kansas, Nebraska, Iowa, and Missouri the loss to crops by locusts was
142,942,800 bushels, which with a money value of 28 cents per bushel,
would mean a loss of $40,000,000. An examination of the stomach con-
[24]
tents of eight screech owls taken at that time in Nebraska showed that
they had eaten just before they were killed 219 locusts and 247 other
insects, besides two mice.
In speaking of the value of owls, Mr. George C. Jones says: “I think
the smaller species of owls feed upon the cutworm to some extent. I
have found cutworms in the stomach of the common screech owl. The
fact that both the cutworms and the owls are nocturnal leads me to
believe that the owls, of all the birds, are the most efficient exterminators
of this formidable pest and should on this account receive protection.”
In one locality, almost every tree of a five-acre peach orchard was
screech ow-L LEAving NEs.T.
girdled by mice and rabbits during the winter. It would have paid the
owner of the orchard to have had owls and hawks about the locality, even
though a chicken might have been stolen occasionally. In many places
where our young fruit trees are alive and in good condition, we do not
realize that it may be due to the hawks and owls, for we often credit
them with more harm than benefit. Here in Oregon, the mice, gophers.
moles, and rabbits stay with us summer and winter, and so do the hawks
and owls.
sa LEM, OREGON
wi LLIS S. DUN. Iw A. Y. STATE PRINTER
19 Oe