y Innsborº *...* - *. - *: , 8 - * * * . . . -- . . . * . * . . .” > #3 - • * x- . --rr's. ... . * - - * $. *** * * : s - **. … ." , 9% * * * v * . .” - - …* - . , , = , 4 : * - * = a--> • -- 3. - . * - * x: - *. t *.x. f - $ aſ: * . * & - k 8 * > * = ~ • 4 * -- - • .# * : ..! - f - * * * _*A * . " * * ... = e - s - tº # *** * ‘g > - *: '** - f * • & - -- * * *... ;-- * THE NATIONAL RESOURCES BoARD {) UPI . . . . .” B 46 1665 * “’. To THE HON.GIFFORD PINCHOT GOVERNOR . . of THE COMMONWEALTH }. , **- : * †:; *... . X- > •. < * º- + -- r, * = .** & # -> - * . -- *. * **i. . . - *~ * - ‘’”. - *** * * -> *. * * * * - -3 ; • * . . " & - - *:: º r s sº, * . - * - 3. ... : ** * **- *-- - .* - * * * ** - *. º * - . *'' mº fi. - . a . - - .* - . . . " ºf * *.. - 2. - - : ! ... *.* - - - - . . . .” - - *'. . . ... : . . . . ."'s DECEMBER 1954 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . … . . . + *, *, -- . . . . ‘. . • • - - -- - --- - - , , º, . . * . . . * * *: * * - - & as . t 3. . ." . . " * *e . -: wº-> -** v. " • * * * + - • - :* * jº- 4 - Y- -- * & " • ,” * :*: - - * - r" . . . ... * .** , $ - *- tº PENNSYLVANIA STATE PLANNING BOARD - <- s . . * * . * . scº º - - *. - * * , *. ~. - - -8 *. e; ... k. 3. . ... -- g - - • * e * - i" - . . . .” - -> ºt *- • * . . * * **. 4. - & * * & & . .* -º- , - * -. , tº * > . . . - sº - - - - * * * . . . . . . . . . . commonwealth of Pennsylvania PRELIMINARY REPORT PENNSYLVANIA STATE PLANNING BOARD TO THE HON. GIFFORD PINCHOT GOVERNOR OF THE COMMONWEALTH AND TO THE NATIONAL RESOURCES BOARD COMMONWEALTH OF PENNSYLVANIA HARRISBURG PENNSYLVANIA DECEMBER 1934 Transportation Libra ºv -------------- - - （, ,'„” |×|-(~„”|- ： |… .§.|-| , ， º .§ ; º ;| las dº wos， Kººae ）. º· |ש ，}quod dºº !/** ----- -（, … .|-º.º |-|-|---- |-Wos|-----~. ） --★• „..."\，^ （， ,：^,! |- |-|-| 1|- |-|-K.O.|-|- ----|- |- ... º, ， ， ，Noºr-（~~~~ ~~| 4. – ~ ~ ~ ~~~~！|×S} （）--№rmaaoºººº º»^ ）|-^.ºw,|-|-· →ð|- .----|-L'ſº|- º ， .,，^ .ºsº, ！T.ſae:：Sſºº-,|×|-© .： ~ （__ ----º.swaelº º^.?)ºº|-|-|×|-~ ~ſae|×|-|-|×|-^-） , ， ._ - - - - ~~'， ',¿?|×！ 4©----ſº|×：/|- | ~ ~）__ ~ ~！º} ~~~~）; （º （ º ; （ ）ſº *}|-（~）|^.Lae，, ，|×|-|×|--a^„“ |-，ſºs,|ׄ«ººL-，|×（~~~~！）：ſ._ _ - - -|-ſ.| _ _ _ _ _ ·{ |- aº|- |-_--|-· · _ _ _ ·|- $$（）, ， , ，，，，,，。;" | | Sº $（'ſºoºººº！！！ < .5. №ºoººº… awanao ，|）§ -^\, ，£ （, ， ，!ſ anala avano i º ſº，ſae ſ ao º Now （ ）! ！！ ！！ % ！！！~ ~ ~ ~|-| ºſº : |-|×\_.|º--º-º-".'--,|º·|- |-→| nom svº A|-№ anº ºzn.： ）8|-----|× （-- - - - - …º $|- | _ - _ --~~~~ ~~Lº， №， nounino ：） .|-| 7 r.|-|-|-|-·|-|- |-r.|-· |-|-|-^ ,------------|-|× ºſº xa 1 d.|-|-|№（~）--~~）;|-ſon 1 woo，|-|*---|-|-|-".oºaevae aeſae o ae ?| ----|-|- |- |-|-- .|- |- ~~ ~ | < ∞oºſ， --nns|-------- * * * * = ||-| _ _ _ _ _ _ _ · · ·| ， }„，“ſººſ\ ） ----|- O.| usº do + .|×|- |5 ， !- - - - - ~~|-ſ - ~~~~ - - - - - - -1- - - - - - - - -. . . . . ~ |- ||||-|- 3.^^^'||-||||quaedae o . |-||-||-|-|-|-|- º）, ynaevaenosns, oºoºººººſ voolu ſ ďalloa , ****ow ， na º ºvº（~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ |- _º vyı NvATAS NN 3 d. JO d\/W NATIONAL RESOURCES BOARD Harold L. Ickes, Chairman Secretary of the Interior Frederic A. Delano, Vice Chairman George H. Dern Henry A. Wallace Daniel C. Roper Francis Perkins Harry L. Hopkins Charles E. Merriman Wesley C. Mitchell Charles W. Eliot, 2nd Executive Officer Alexander Fleisher - Robert Whitten Consultants for Pennsylvania | The National Resources Board is not responsible for the opinions, conclusions or recommendations of the Consultants or the State Planning Board as expressed in this report • PENNSYLVANIA STATE PLANNING BOARD Lewis E. Staley, Chairman Eric He Biddle Charlotte E. Carr John W. Edelman Donald Guthrie, M.D. Alice F. Liveright Edward B. Logan James N. Rule Philip Sterling Alexander Fleisher, Consultant-Director Staff F. A. Pitkin, Administrative Assistant J. K. Barnes Catherine Bauer Homer F. Carey Agnes J. Driver Wºme D. Gelloway Editorial Sydney I. Snow Edmund Ce Taylor Me Hernaiz Becerra Secretarial Ruth E. Allen Helen P. Houdeshel Research and Technical A. S. Houchin Leonard J. Grumet L. Z. Holcombe Armand Ge Keller Madaline Kinter Drafting Robert Keiser George M. Greene Me D. Johnston John He Richey G. W. Sollenberger Victor F. LeCoq F. J. Mulvilhill William K. Ragan Horace B. Smith Henry Wan Walzah Sociographers Philip Ragan Allen Decker Fe Raudenbush Clerical Harry C. Potter Robert F. Hartman Agnes Tracy ii 650bernor'g effice HARRISBURG THE GOVERNOR December 31, 1934. To the Honorable Harold L. Ickes, Chairman, National Resources Board, Washington, D. C. Dear Mr. Sebretary: I have the honor to transmit here- With the preliminary report of the State Planning Board of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, appointed by me in accordance with Circular Letter No. 5, of the National Planning Board. I submit this report to you in conformity with my letter of September 21, 1934, in which I agreed to submit a preliminary report of the State Planning Board. iii To His Excellency, The Hon. Gifford Pinchot, Governor of Pennsylvania, Harrisburg, Pa. Sir : The State Planning Board, appointed by you last Summer in agreement with the National Resources Board, here- with presents its preliminary report. The findings and recommendations are submitted as the basis for planning a coordinated and adjusted eco- nomic program for Pennsylvania and as the groundwork for this. State's participation in National and Regional Planning, The Board has cooperated fully with the National Resources Board appointed by President Roosevelt, and has borne in mind the importance of correlating State and Nation- al programs. * Respectfully submitted, LEWIS E. STALEY CHAIRMAN iv. FOREWORD President Roosevelt, in July, l033, appointed a National Planning Board in the Public Works Administration. This was merged with the National Resources Board on June 30, 1934. The purpose of the latter board, according to the Executive Order creating it, was "to prepare and present to the President a program and plan of procedure dealing with the physical, social, governmental and economic aspects of public policies for the development and use of land, water and other National resources and such subjects as may from time to time be referred to it by the President." Planning for the needs of a people is by no means a new movement. Its desirability has long been recognized. In the United States the movement has been thought of most often as town planning with adequate facilities for housing, trans- portation, recreation, zoning, or as metropolitan area planning in which contiguous, economically interdependent communities are defined by such things as the extent of free delivery from centrally situated stores, as distinct from political boun- daries • The Philadelphia-Tri-State Regional Plan, the Regional Plan for New York and the planning for Allegheny County are admirable examples of the latter. Their purpose is to provide a broad framework to which all future detailed plans of the various communities can be made to conform and, to a certain extent, be adapted to state-wide purposes. V The natural next steps were National and State planning. But National planning in the United States, if it is to be successful, must be a cooperative effort. The action of the State and of the National government are mutually inter- dependent. The National Board, therefore, undertook to encourage the establishment of state planning boards by offering to supply to state boards for a limited period the services of competent consultants. As a result, planning boards have been set up in 4l states. In four of these, the state boards have been authorized by their legislatures to continue their work. Similar action is expected within the next few months in others. The State Planning Board for Pennsylvania was appointed on July 23, 1934, by Governor Pinchot. The task of the Board was to lay the foundation for a sound State plan, one that would be, insofar as is humanly practicable, directive - a set task - not a mere forecast. In this report will be found many facts and conclusions which not only demonstrate the need for a State plan but which can form the basis for one. Some of the fundamental problems before the Commonwealth include the location and trends of population, the wealth of the State and the buying power of its people, housing, work- ing conditions, unemployment, mineral and water resources, competitive situations faced by such important industries as yi coal and iron, changing agriculture, transportation, education, social security and welfare. In studying these subjects, the Board has considered, in general, a program looking ten years into the future. A number of facts stand out . On these are based the main recommendations submitted by the Board. The supporting data will be found in the main body of the Report. The various departments of the State government have done a vast amount of planning, each in its own field. They should continue to do so. None, however, has drafted a comprehensive plan embracing the purposes and needs of all the others in re- lation to itself. Consequently, one of the recommendations contained in this Report is for a State Planning Secretary with the same official status in relation to the Chief Executive as is now the case of the Budget Secretary, and a permanent board of outstanding citizens and department heads, The Planning Secretary would supervise State planning as the direct representative of the Governor and correlate State and Federal activities in this field. Such a State official would correlate the planning by the various départments of the State government. Inventories of State resources would be made under his direction and kept up to dates Provision also should be made for special studies to assist the Legislature, if requested. The suggested legis- lation should provide for evolving short range plans to meet vii - immediate needs which may arise and for long term planning. The outstanding conclusions developed from the Board's research do not form an integrated plan that will assure every- one in Pennsylvania reasonable security in an adequate standard of living. But they do look forward to that end. If the suggestions included in this Report are adopted, they should insure a better opportunity for all citizens. They should assist in laying the basis for the integrated planning that must become a part of our united thinking. The State Planning Board wishes to express its gratitude for the cooperation of the Governor, and members of his Cabinet. The departments have provided invaluable assistance, It also thanks the National Resources Board for the ser- vices of its Director and its Consultant, and the Work Division of the State Emergency Relief Board for authorizing use of the funds necessary for the employment of its staff. The Board also is especially appreciative of the hard work. done so generously by many employes of the State, frequently in periods outside their regular working hours. Many in- dividuals in the Federal service or with private agencies have given unstintingly of their time in the preparation of sections of this Report, in reviewing portions and in advising with the members and staff of the Board. The Board also extends its thanks to the authors of certain sections of this Report, whose names appear as foot- notes on the first page of such sections. viii PRINCIPAL FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS: FINDINGS Population Pennsylvania's population shows a tendency to stabilize by l960. The birth rate probably will continue to decline. The death rate, now declining, Will begin to rise in another decade or two as the average age increases • There will be fewer children and more adults. Land and Its Utilization From lºlo to 1930 taxes on Pennsylvania farm lands increased 159 per cent, farm mortgages 85 per cent and invest- . ment in machinery and implements lé5 per cent, From 1910 to l930 prices of farm products increased only 47 per cente - The state lacks a long time program of forest redevelop- ment e The State needs information on flood controle Many streams and other bodies of water necessary to human life are badly polluted. Changes of tremendous importance have displaced many workers in the State's mineral industries, resulting in de- serted areas or stranded populations, in some cases, and de- stitution in many others. *See body of report for otherse ix. Working and Living Conditions Working conditions, minimum wages and hours of labor, have generally improved and are continuing to improve as one of the results of the NRA, but many classes of workers remain whose conditions require further consideration, Income is most unequally distributed. Marked technological improvements have increased the output per individual in the State's industries to such a degree that no places would be available for many now unem- ployed if business regained its former activity. In the last là years relatively few dwellings have been constructed within the price range of a majority of the people. If business activity were to increase and cause reemploy- ment, families now doubling up would find a shortage of sepa- rate houses, Less than one-third of the farm families in Pennsylvania use electricity. The State lacks a program for the security of individuals but does make limited provision in Čertain instances through Mothers Assistance, Old Age Pensions and Pension for the Blind • The Government has failed to accept the obligation to provide employment or to assume proper responsibility for indus- trial workers involuntarily unemployed by industry. It is inconceivable, particularly in mass production indus- tries, that a time will ever come under the most carefully planned program, when during a period of depression a11 unem- X ployed workers can be absorbed by a public works program. The State lacks a coordinated program for public works adjusted to employment in depressions. Industry, Trade and Transportation Marked changes in industries and in their location are having serious effects on the workers dependent upon them. Between 1929 and 1933, the number of stores had decreased l5 per cent, sales arowed 47 per cent and full time employes 3l per cent. The trend is toward chain stores, particularly in the food groups, where the chains do 34 per cent of the total business with only l2 per cent of the stores. Twenty-one per cent of the total retail stores of the State do 80 per cent of the business. Industry uses three-fifths of the electrical power in this State and pays approximately one-third of the total bill, While domestic consumers use one-sixth and also pay approxi- mately one-third of the total bill. Pennsylvania's transportation system, covering railways, highways, airways, waterways and pipe lines, is not adequate- ly coordinated. Regulation of transportation is now attempted under a law not fully applicable to present day conditions. Social Activities More than 5600 taxing bodies exist in this State and many of them have outlived their usefullness and should be combined . Xi Changing population trends indicate need for more teachers and a greater variety of subjects in the high schools. In the elementary schools the number of teachers needed will decrease during the next decade, if present population trends continue. Movements of population and the improvement of transporta- tion have changed the need for many smaller independent school districts, - Three and half million persons in Pennsylvania are without access to public libraries. Many of the smaller cities and five counties have not a single library, The State-aid program for the care of dependents is un- coordinated, The present system of relying mainly on taxation of real property makes the carrying on of services by local units of Government exceedingly difficult. xii RECOMMENDATIONS The Board recommends: Creation of the office of Planning. Secretary as outlined in the Foreword. Research with a view to maintaining the relative impor- tance of Pennsylvania's mineral industries. A long-time program of forest redevelopment. A State program for purchase of abandoned and submarginal land for forestation. Close integration of the purchase of land by the Game Com- mission with the work of the Department of Forests and Waters and with the Federal land-buying program. Collection of information on flood control. Rigid enforcement of laws for control of stream pollu- tion • A housing program based on a stable population rather than on unlimited speculative expansion. Appropriate educational opportunities for the increasing number of youth between l8 and 21 years of age out of employ– ment and out of school, A continuing education for adults at all ages. State aid for free libraries, Expansion of the present system of old age pensions to supplant many almshouses, and the creation of larger alms- house units in geographical districts serving as institutions for chronic disabled aged. • & xiii A State-wide plan for the care of the mentally ill- State industrial farms to replace the present county prisons • Effective planning for rural electrical development • Legislation - The Board recommends State legislation to: Covern the use and development of streams, with a view to better allocation of water • Preserve the gains achieved under NRA in respect to child labor . Consolidate and make permanent the gains through NRA as to standards of wages and working hours. Abolish company police and privately paid deputy sheriffs • Set up machinery to facilitate collective bargaining- Strengthen the Workmen's compensation law. Set up official county welfare boards through new ad- ministrative machinery, for poor relief, mothers' assistance, blind and old age pensions and child care under the super- vision of the Department of Welfare. Develop the proposed ten-year legislative program of— fering protection to childrene Provide that in the absence of available industrial or public employment, a direct money payment to assure at all times the minimum for an adequate standard of living for the worker and his dependents during involuntary unemployment • Provide economic relief and other necessary home or xiv. institutional care through a unified public relief agency to the chronic indigent, the maladjusted individual and similar groups now the concern of public or private relief agencies. Create a State Housing Authority to make possible an orrective housing program and to cooperate with the Federal program, Completely change the State's system of school support so as to guarantee to every school district a foundation program and reduce local taxes on realty to their proportion- ate share of the total tax load. Facilitate the merger of numerous existing school districts into fewer and more competent units. Reduce the number of separate local units of government in order to increase the quality and reduce the cost of pub- lic service rendered. Participate in the Public Works program and other Federal projects, Further Studies The Board recommends that further studies be made of: Water supply needs for domestic and industrial use for the next 25 years • 1Possible sites for hydro-electric developmente Power distribution and costs similar to that just com- pleted by the Power Authority of the State of New York with a view to the possibility of lower rates to domestic consumerse Soil erosion, abandoned farm lands and submarginal lands jºy now under cultivation with the view to development of a plan for use of submarginal lands. Marketing of farm products, to develop a more satis- factory system of marketing. The administration of unemployment relief and other forms of relief, grants or pensions in order to determine their ultimate integration. xvi ACKNOWLEDCEMENT In addition to the many State employes and those of the State Emergency Relief Board, who have materially as- sisted us in the preparation of this report, we wish to express our appreciation for the great help given by the following: John D. Beatty Pittsburgh, Pa. Frederick Bigger Pittsburgh, Pae Philip H. Boyer Philadelphia, Pa., Morris Le Cooke Philadelphia, Pa • Ceorge Evans Pittsburgh, Pa. Leonard Fox Harrisburg, Pa. Harold D. Hynds Washington, D. C - Ewing Laporte Philadelphia, Pa. Elizabeth Logan Chicago, Illinois Hattie Mechlowitz Scranton, Pa. Harry Moul Philadelphia, Pa. Bernard Je Newman Philadelphia, Pa. John Phillips Harrisburg, Pae Benjamin H. Ritter Philadelphia, Pa. Rose Stein Pittsburgh, Pas Walter Thomas Philadelphia, Pa. Joseph P. Tufts - Pittsburgh, Pa. Carter COOdrich Washington, D. C. C. W. Hasek State College, Pa • Walter Me Palakov New York City We Frank Persons Washington, D - C - Spurgeon Bell Washington, D - C - Ceorge S. Bliss Philadelphia, Pa. Ewan Clague Philadelphia, Pa. David W. Day Creensburg, Pa. F. Stuart Fitzpatrick Washington, D. C. Allen E. Harper Washington, D - C - W. W. Jeanes Philadelphia, Pa. Charles F. Lewis Pittsburgh, Pa. Isador Lubin Washington, De C , Warren S. Thompson Oxford, Ohio Robert R. Nathan Washington, D - C - Harvey O'Connor Pittsburgh, Pae Samuel Ratensky New York City Peter Shire Washington, D. C. W. A. Sutherland Harrisburg, Pae C - We Thornthwaite Washington, D - C - Henry Wright Hackettstown, N. J . F. Pe Weaver State College, Pae Jerry Doyle Philadelphia, Pae Mary van Kleeck New York City fºdward Steidle State College, Pao Xvii C O N T E N T S National Resources Board Pennsylvania State Planning Board and Staff Letters of Transmittal Foreword Principal Findings and Recommendations TABLE OF CONTENTS POPULATION: Location and Trends LAND AND LAND UTILIZATION Physiography Agriculture Forest Land as a Basic Resource - Water Resources: Water Supplies and Sanitation Mineral Resources Tentative Outline of Economic-Geographic Regions WORKING AND LIVING CONDITIONS Planning for Reasonable Comfort Coping with Pennsylvania's Changing Working Conditions Housing Social Security: Public Works INDUSTRY, TRADE AND TRANSPORTATION Manufacturing and Trade Retail Distribution Transportation Electrical Power and its Development SOCIAL ACTIVITIES State Government, Note on Local Units of Government A Planned Program of Education for Pennsylvania: Libraries Public Social Welfare APPENDICES Appendix A - Studies in progress ty B - Related studies soon to be published List of Maps and Charts Page ii iii ix 37 73 120 178 232 278 284 3.18 348 391 419 45l 48l. 514 54l 542 583 64l 677 678 6.79 POPULATION LOCATION AND TRENDS The trend in Pennsylvania today is toward a stabilized population within the next twenty or twenty-five years. The effect will mean a fundamental if slow change in the needs and economic habits of more than nine and a half million persons. Equally significant is that the Commonwealth is headed toward an era in which a men larger proportion of the population will be in the older age groups, and one in which there will be a smaller proportion of children and young people. How will this affect the present industrial, school and social structure? A small "child population" obviously will mean fewer primary schools, which in turn will affect the attendance in high schools, colleges and universities. Be- cause of the increased share of the population of 45 years of age and over, a much wider program will be required to provide for this group either by work opportunities or otherwise. Schools for the rehabilitation of this untrained older group will have to be envisaged; old age revion. and the number of indigent people will increase appreciably, while health offi- clais will become more and more concerned with the degenerative diseases now showing rising death rates. If the picture is expanded a little more, it is found that a stabilized population in which the older groups are pre- dominant will bring changes in the transportation system, hous- ing problem and in a dozen other more or less related activi- l ties. Manufacturing plants geared to take care of the needs of children and young people will have to cater to the personal requirements of an older group. In short, a stabilized popu- lation, provided the present trend is maintained, will call for a gradual but inevitable readjustment in the life of the whole State • POPULATION The total population of Pennsylvania in 1930 was 9,631,350, a gain in ten years of 911,333 or 10.5 per cent. Between l890 and 1900, there was a growth of more than a million persons. The following decade witnessed the largest addition on record. The increment for the 1910-1920 period dropped to about lo,000 more than that of 1890 to 1900. This is explained by the World War with its casualties and its re- stricting effect on immigration, in addition to the excessively high death rate during the influenza epidemic of 1918. No such unusual explanations are found for the still lower figure for 1920-1930. During that time, immigration into the United States was drastically restricted. This naturally had its influence in Pennsylvania. Births and deaths were lower, but there was no one event or factor which would account for the smaller increase. Since 1890, with the exception of 1900 to 1910, there has been a steady decline in the percentages of growth. That peak period showed a 21.6 per cent increase, while two decades later the percentage was less than one-half of it. 2 | “ON E \! (nº) | 3 O9OSOţ»O €O 2oı OO63|| PENNSYLVANIA POPULATION 1890 - 1930 TABLE le CENSUS DATE CENSUS INCREASE FROM PERCENTAGE POPULATION PRECEDING CENSUS OF INCREASE June 1, 1890 5,258, ll3 975,222 22e 8 June l; l900 6,302,115 l,044,002 l9.9 Apr. 15, 1910 7,665, lll 1,362,996 2le 6 Jan. 1, 1920 8,720,017 l,054,906 l3.8 Apr. 1, 1930 9,631,350 911,333 10.5 Whether such a marked slowing up will continue is prob- lematical, but that a downward trend will persist is reason- able to suppose. The United States as a whole was *ins the same movement, although at not nearly so fast a rate • States bordering Pennsylvania likewise indicated this trend, but it is to be noted that with the exception of Delaware, Penn- sylvania had the lowest percentage of increase. Why was this true, and if undesirable, what should be done to overcome' it? If this continues Pennsylvania will reach stabilization at an earlier date than these other states or the United States. bºut? ITA tº et 1,00°cºt Tol," 1,82"T 2°88 1,65°zzT WOg"T6% T* 9T wog"ggz GOz"624,”T 480M G*O £98°WT 688° 1,60°g g”9T 969°gz6 TTg"889°9 g”OT gee"TT6 Oge"T89°6 spuraatſsuu.ed A°2 890°LS 928°68t'z 9°22 gez'oes tie"log"w w”gt COg"l.99 L69°959°9 optio T*GT TG,"012 WTT *990°z G*22 90T *286*T zgó*Tzg°OT 2*T2 689°202°z 990°99g" at xxok Aen T*g 92T *T2 O60°2OL 6°ve 908°499 tºg".688°C tº 9& wev'ggs wee*two'w Resier Aen g" et 8TV'91, LG9°999 T*2T Lºw"got 698°WL6 g" 2.T g39*T9T 92 g°T89*T pureTAJan L*2t 966*2T #82°gTT O°2 6L6°2 9*T*gzT 6°9 LLC"gt O88°882 e-reasted {{SW}}{ONI O86T -HsVigºr-GEGT TSVTIONT O86T Tººls JO O% O26T. O86T JO o: O26T. O861 30 O% O26T. O86T HOWINGOMHA NSWTHONI NOILW'Indod IðWINGOHºld ISVETHONI NOILW'Iſld O4 SEWINGOMEld HSVETHONI NOILW'IſldOd TNOTIVTſIOTTWüß NOTWITIOITVºiſi TNOTTWTſū03 TVIOT • 2 HTQWI. 'IWHſib (INV NVERſ) OcéT-026T SHIVIS ENIHSIOI808 (INW WINVAIKSNNH3 JO NOILW'Indod if Population is based upon three factors - births, deaths and migration. All are important not only in themselves but in their relation to each other. Wital statistics are avail- able for the State since 1906. Although the records do not extend over as long a period as was considered for census popu- lation, they are sufficient to present definite trends. BIRTHS AND DEATHS In 1910 there were 203,510 births, or 26.5 per l;000 population. The largest number occurred in 1921, but the rate was only 25.9. By l930 the number and rate had dropped to l89,458 and 19.6 respectively. This indicates the slowing up in reproduction, affecting not only the aggregate but the com- position of the population as welle - The death rate is moving in the same direction, although not quite so rapidly as the birth rate. In 1906 there were ll4,435 deaths, or lé.0 per l;000 population. In 1910, the number had risen, but the rate was only lº. 6. The influenza epidemic of l918 contributed substantially to the record high general death rate of 22.0. Two years later this rate was cut down to 13.8 and 1930 showed lll,606 deaths, or ll.6 per l; 000 population. How men further the death rate can be reduced will depend, in part at least, upon the future composition of the population. At this point, it is sufficient to state that in 1930 a continued downward trend was indicated. The excess of births over deaths, or the "natural in- crease," has varied widely, but on the whole it shows that the -5- source of future population is diminishing. Between the census of 1920 and 1930 the State gained 911,333 persons, but the natural increase for the decade was 967,788. This means that Pennsylvania would have had approximately 56,000 more persons in 1930 than were enumerated, but for migration. By comparing the number of persons born in Pennsylvania but who were living in other states in 1930 with the number who were born in other states and, at the time of the census, were living in Pennsylvania, it is found that the Commonwealth lost 750,569 persons through interstate migration. The three pre- ceding censuses showed losses, although not quite so large • This indicates that for the past twenty years, the State has been on the losing side insofar as this one factor is concern- ed. Among the native-white, 18.7 per cent of those born in the Commonwealth were living elsewhere in 1930; 21.8 per cent of Pennsylvania-born Negroes were residents of other states. Of those residing here in 1930, 8.6 per cent native-mit- and 65.7 per cent native-Negro, were born beyond its boundaries. In addition, there has been a shifting within the boundaries which further changes the relation of the urban and rural sections, $ DISTRIBUTION Of the total population in 1930, 6,533,511 or 67.8 per cent were considered urban. This included all incorporated places of 2,500 inhabitants or more and ten first-class town- ships. The latter were added to this subdivision at the last - 6 -- Q & \’Oº.€ ‘ON B \， ſ^ºO || 3 © N | N N \/ *| & | }SNOS！!Ed OOO OO2 = 3\，} {\º) | H H O\/3NO |_|_\/?-15)||WN WOE SSOT NOl_L\/Tlfno-JOeſ \/|N\//\TÅSNIN Ee! NI SON IAITSE_LVLS （HE H_LO NI ĐN IAIT SB_L\/LS 83 H. LO NI N\} Oº\/|N\//\Tl)\SNNEE| N | N8Oº YYYYYYYYYYYYYY ººk YYYYYYYYYYY ººº YYYYYYYYY ºſº' YY YYYYY ººº V | H & T 3 O v T | H & SONHej\/?>$$OO] OOS census; therefore, the bases for urban and rural totals for 1930 and 1920 are not comparable. Excluding these townships from their lºgo classification, the urban centers gained 715,191 or 12.8 per cent, whereas the Commonwealth, as in- dicated, showed a gain of 10.5 per cent • In 1920 there were four cities over 100,000 population, Philadelphia, Pitts- burgh, Scranton, and Reading. By 1930, Erie had joined this group. The gain in these five cities constituted 33.6 per cent of the actual urban gain. The cities in the 25,000 - lCO,000 population class accounted for 20.8 per cent. Johns- town was the only one of this group which lost in total popu- lation. The remaining cities over 10,000 population made up 17.5 per cent of the urban gain. The remaining 28.1 per cent of this urban gain came in places of less than 10,000 in- habitants. Of the seventeen cities which came into 10,000 population group for the first time, six were in Allegheny County, three in Westmoreland, and Ellwood City in Lawrence and Beaver. In addition, three townships were added to the urban population of Allegheny County. In the southeastern section is Mont- gomery County, which included three of the townships and one of these cities, and Delaware County with two of the townships. The other counties which showed the same development were Lackawanna and Luzerne, in the northeast portion of the State. In the former, Taylor entered the group, and in Lazerne, Kingston and two townships increased beyond the lo,000 popula- ~ 7- tion mark. These facts indicate a concentration of urban centers in three separate areas in the State. The ten first-class townships increased 97.5 per cent from l920 to 1930s According to the l930 Federal census, there were ten met- ropolitan districts in Pennsylvania: Philadelphia, Lancaster, Reading, Allentown-Bethlehem-Easton, Harrisburg, Scranton- Wilkes Barre, Pittsburgh, Erie, Johnstown and Altoona. In l920, 66.2 per cent of Pennsylvania's population was in these districts; by l930 this had increased to 68.8 per cent. With the exception of Johnstown, the central cities in each district gained from 1920 to 1930 and in each instance they were loca- ted in counties which showed increased population during this period. These districts will remain the centers of popula- tion, but whether they will continue to increase in density or in size will depend largely upon future suburban movements • Delaware, Montgomery and Bucks counties, which touch Philadelphia, showed a greater per cent increase from 1920 to 1930 than Philadelphia. Allegheny County, exclusive of Pitts- burgh, increased at a higher rate than Pittsburgh. The country surrounding Lancaster, Harrisburg, Scranton, Paston and Reading likewise indicated a faster growth. This means that a suburban movement was in evidence. This was not true of Erie, Allentown, and Altoona. Considering the metropolitan areas themselves, not the counties in which the central cities are located, the same -8- _& ſ | | | |_ _ _ METROPOLITAN ALTOONA 4's NSTOWN U. S. DEPARTMENT OF comme Rce - Bureau of THE CEN SUS. AREAs º-> a \, WILKES-BARRE SCRANTON f \ \, 2 / ALLENTOWN ſ BETHLEHEM_* EASTO READING \ 35 "zºº HARRISBURG Vºya LAN CASTER º º º - —’ F G U R E NO. 4. facts are brought out. In the Allentown-Bethlehem—Easton dis- trict the area outside the centrel cities gained faster than the cities as a whole, or Bethlehem and Easton separately. Allentown showed a larger per cent increase than the rest of that district, In the Erie and Altoona districts, the sections outside thc se cities showed losses of l6.1 per cent and loe 4 per cent respectively. In all the other districts and territory out- side the central cities increased faster than the cities them- 'selves • A map prepared by C. W. Thornthwaite, who is making a study of population redistribution, gives the net migration of the State by counties.” This indicates the same trends in these districts except in Erie, where the county had a net gain, and in the Scranton-Wilkes Barre and Johnstown districts, where the counties showed net losseso Since 1900 the urban population has predominated, grad- ually increasing in percentage each census until in 1930 it was 67 o8 per cent of the whole • The rural forms but 32.2 per cent e * Net migration was determined for each county by comparing decennial excess of births over deaths with the gain or loss in population as shown by the Federal censuses of l910-20 and 1920-30. PENNSYLVANIA POPULATION - URBAN AND RURAL l880 - 1930 TABLE 3 YEAR PERCENT URBAN PERCENT RURAL l680 4le 6 - se 58.4 1890 48, 6 51.4 l900 54 • ? 45,3 l910 60.4 39.e6 1920 64 • 3 35 o'7 l930 67. 8 32.2 The change in the ten townships from rural to urban made a difference when comparing the 1920 and 1930 census figures. If the 1920 ruling is considered, the rural gained consider- ably by 1930, but under the latter classification a 0.5 per cent loss is recorded. By subdividing the rural figures into those for rural-ºr- (that population which is strictly rural) and rural non-farm (people residing in small villages and in circumstances which are neither urban nor farm), a more detailed picture is obtained, showing that it was the rural-farm section which declined. From 1920 to 1930 there was a 10.1 per cent decrease, while the rural non-farm in- creased 3.7 per cent. There were nineteen counties in the State in rhich fewer people were living in 1930 than in 1920. The 1930 totals in - 10- NET M I GRATION | 9 || O - 192 O * * * * * *m, as sº —-> Z ---- KXXX 3.333 S& SXXXXXX: J 0. , - f i XV ,” I * A YNT . * ~ * | * { $ W ". ... , ; ; ;.... . . . . i s 2" *. : * . .* ... w ſ * &= - ** ---------4-3 { w t Gºe tº º º mimea. -* * * - ~ * = - - - - - - - - N ET GA | N z-z-z-z-z-z-7 | - XXXX º Öx - ^ / / / / / / - tº º E |||||||||| 3: *re O.O1 TO 9.9°/o O TO 9.99 eſo OVER 20°/o O. O I TO 9.9°/o ! O TO 19.99°/o OVER 20 oſo COURTESY OF C. W. THORNTHWAITE PER CENTAGE 8 & SED ON | 9 || C. CEN SUS F GU R E NO. 5 THE STUDY OF POPULATION RED 1 STRIBUTION ? Nou na mw. 1st Q3 a Nolly"ın dod słO AG fils 3 Hl. alıyºw H LN HOH. L. 'A^*0 +O AS3.18 n'O3 9 ° ON 3 8 nº ſ 3snSN 33 oz6 I N O G3$w ſa 39 w LN3283d 38OWN 8O ºb 02©/o 61 - 0 ||o/o. 6'6 - |O” O2\dOWN （JO O2º/oߺ6 | - O ie/o 6° 6 - || O‘O 333 | TTTTTTTTT) E: „'， '·'· 2 · „“ （ ） ���� N | WººD L 3 N X •, es • • • � , ， . . · · · · ·’ſ · } U · ·:‘...}.',$ :}）;?}';*“;::：:§§'.#:.ſy… '|' ..'. '...' -. f .. ' ? * * · · · …’ ，~~~~ ~~~~ *******='2， 4• • • • • • • • O £ 6 || ~ O 26 |-− NO I L\/\）] ©| WN LE NĒ7 POPULATION PER SO UARE M | LE BY COUNT | ES TOTAL POPULATION 8, 72O, O 17 PEN NSYLVAN IA - || 92 O [T] O - 75 75 - || 5 O |5 O-300 3OO-6 OO OVER 600 POPULATION PER SQUARE MILE BY COUNTIES TOTAL POPULATION 9,631, 350 PE NNSYLVANIA - |93 O [T] O - 75 75 – 15 O 15 O-300 3OO-6OO OVER 600 GREATER PEN N A. CO UN C L F | GU R E NO. 7 º * O N ºg 8 nº) | 33. Lww11S3 ee61 – snsN30 noo Hos No 03 swe . (º)º/e O i \! 3 AO©/e 6 - G<>/o tz - O©/e9 - O € | ſivindod|…” £ € 6 | - O TE}%)N \/H O NO twelve of these did not even equal their l900 figures. These counties include those in the northern tier, Potter, Tioga, Bradford, Susquehanna and the adjoining counties, Cameron and Sullivan; four in the central and southern areas, Juniata, Perry, Bedford and Fulton, and toward the northwest, Jefferson and Forest. During the last decade, Clarion, Clearfield, Elk, Clinton, Indiana, Huntingdon and Somerset also lost. In general, the losing counties form one band across the northern part and another north and south through the middle of the State. The se counties are primarily rural in character. Lock Haven with 9,668 inhabitants is the largest community in the group Since the downward trend in the avority of these counties has extended over a period of years, it is reasonable to assume that it will continue in the future. In twenty-nine counties the rural population gained during the decade under review • These are located along the western border and in the eastern section of the State, in general where the larger urban communities are found, although in nine of these counties were there no cities over 10,000 population. The reasons for this growth are varied. Some of the counties are in good farming sections, while in others the increase may be traced to the excess of births over deaths. In still others the propinquity to urban centers may have influenced the growth of the surrounding rural sections. This would be especially true of such sections included in metropolitan districts. —ll- The movement of people within the State is clearly illus- trated by maps showing the density of population by counties. A definite southeastern and southwestern trend is evident, The sparsely populated counties, many of which are in the los- ing class, are seen clearly in the northern and middle portions of the State. On the whole, it seems probable that future population maps of Pennsylvania will be much the same as the 1930 map in regard to urban and rural distribution, although there may be variations in density due to the widening of the metropolitan areas. Better transportation facilities will enable people to move away from the congested districts, or high taxes may drive industry into the smaller communities. On the other hand, with improved farm machinery and a continuance of farm abandonment, less people will be found in the strictly rural sections. Thus it appears that the rural non-farm and sub- urban communities will show the greatest gains in the future • AGE DISTRIBUTION the age distribution of Pennsylvanians proves that the population is growing older. In 1920, llo 5 per cent of the people were children under 5 years of age • In ten years this had decreased to 9.3 per cent, indicating the direct effect of the declining birth rate from 26.l per 1,000 population in 1916 (the first year which would control the 1920 total for children under 5 years), to 19.6 in 1930. Obviously with a continued downward trend in the birth rate, the number of • 12- 6. “ON E \! nº) i 3 ſºĄſäz ſzŻza \! 3 A O º G9ț» 9 O.L. § ?fyfy O1 O26 || O.L. §§ \! º Oſ Nºn OC61 - 0061 • WIN VATAS NN3d NOılıngı dısı o 3ºw Oſ " ON 3 \! ſlº) ] +3-TV/WN 3 3 \!， AO º， º țyDOE)ſy tz - O26 | - º9 \} ： Q N n OO €. l, ºĘ €.€. 606 * | ſ» ſºț»§ 2ºººº 99 66 196’G60’L º 6 O‘ O‘zı ºl 2121 •，，• 9 |699 ººººº !6ț» O’6çț»’I§ | 9 | . | 99 ’96 L’I69.1 °6 O 9 ’l9 | N O |_|\/~lſſneſ||OeſNOlJL\^ "Tſheſ! Oeſ Q N\/S!!! Q !=ļJLQ!\!\，{S\ſnOH. 1 O ERHONDHO € 6 || • V | N \//\T1,\ S N B EQ38||C|N|nH XIES O NV SETTORJ5'TE 5V7 TOETNÕTTV7īñETÕE children, in future years, will be correspondingly fewer. In the older age periods, there were actually and pro- portionately more older people in the Commonwealth in 1930 than in 1900. During that time there was a 5 per cent pro- portional increase in the group 45 years of age and older. - There were slight variations in the middle age group. The foreign-born are the oldest, slightly more than one- half being between the ages of thirty-five and fifty-four. Naturally with continued aging of this group, in addition to restricted immigration, the possibility is remote that enough young people will enter the State from abroad to over-balance the large older age group, despite the fact that the death rate for the latter is certain to increase. The advance ages of foreign-born women will be noticeable especially in the birth rate • Among them, fecundity is higher than among the native whites, so that as they pass beyond the child-bearing age the birth rate will falle The decrease of their children in the under-age-five group from 409,144 in 1920 to 247,505 in 1930 shows clearly the effect of age upon the foreign-born and the reduction in their numbers. -lä- FENNSYLVANIA POPULATION 1930 BY AGE AND NATIVITY tº- AGE GROUPS STATE NATIVE WHITE FOREIGN-BORN WHITE NEGRO OTHER RACES State Total 9,631,350 7,959,551 l, 233,051 431, 257 7,491 Under 5 Years 895,843 853,757 2,008 39,345 733 5 to 14 l, 989,211 l,894,916 19,772 73,660 863 15 to 24 1,732,415 1,575,856 80, 372 75,108 l,079 25 to 34 s l,435,705 l, 137,497 200,700 95, 296 2, 212 35 to 44 1,357,057 929,344 351,437 74,819 l, 457 45 to 54 l,033,505 697,691 290,066 45,045 703 55 to 64 674,262 486,080 - l69,755 18,098 329 65 to 74 367,460 272,769 87, 823 6,790 78 75 years and - Over 140, 818 107,775 30,445 2,569 29 Unknown 5,074 3,866 673 527 8 •l4- During this period, the older negro people remained pro- portionately the same , while the young and middle age groups varied. There were higher percentages among the children under fifteen years in 1930 than in 1920. Some of the middle age groups increased while other decreased, which may be ex- plained by the large migration of negroes in the ten-year period • For the State as a whole, in the age groups under four- teen, the boys out-number the girls. From the ages of fifteen to twenty-nine the opposite exists. In the large age group of thirty to sixty-four, the men are more numerous, but after that (sixty-five and over) the women predominate. The pre- ponderance of males in middle age periods is due largely to the fact that the foreign-born are principally in that group, and among them the men far outnumber the women. The dis- tribution varies for urban and rural sections. In the urban, the male predominates only in the age groups under ten and be- tween thirty-five to fifty-four. In the rural, he is more numerous in every group except in the seventy-five-year and over classe Pennsylvania's urban population was in general elder than the rural. In the former in 1930 the children under ten amounted to l8.3 per cent of the whole, one-fourth of the in- habitants were in the thirty-five to fifty-four group, and - approximately one-sixth in the older group. In the rural-farm area, the percentages for the under 10 class dropped from 21.7 -15- to 20.8 during the ten years and in the rural non-farm they fell from 26.0 to 23.5. The higher birth rate in the rural. sections and the economic value of children on the farm ac- counted in part for the fact that there were more children in the rural population. But here too the percentage of children was dropping. Men and women from twenty to thirty-four years of age moved to the urban centers, with the result that boys and girls under twenty and men and women over thirty-five pre- dominate on the farms. SEX Men and women are fairly equally represented in Pennsyl- vania. In 1930, there were 101.2 males to loo females. Al- though the ratio remains in favor of the boys at birth, their death rate, which is higher than that of girls, results in fewer men in middle life. Since the male death rate is also higher than the female rate for older people, the aging of the population will bring about a still closer sex ratio. Another element that will bring this about is the large proportion of foreign-born males to females. With restrictions on immi- gration, this group has had less and less influence on the com- position of the whole population. The proportion of males to females among the White popu- lation was practically the same as that for the State as a whole for 1920 and l330. Subdividing the white population into native-white and foreign-born, it was the female in the former and the male in the latter which predominated . The latter group also had the highest ratio in 1920, 129.6 foreign- born white males for each loC) females; in 1930 it had declined to 117.2. Among the Negroes, the males were also more numer- OUIS • The last census showed more women in the urban centers than men, while the opposite was the case in the rural areas. This has been true for the country districts for at least the past three censuses • In the urban classification, it was t only among the foreign-born and Negro that the males out- . numbered the females. Marriage statistics for 1930 show that of the population fifteen years of age and older, 59.6 per cent were married, 31.9 per cent were single, 7.7 per cent were widowed and 0.7 per cent were divorcede -l 7- PENNSYLVANIA POPULATION - URBAN AND RURAL BY SEX AND NATIVITY 1930. TABLE 5e STATE URBAN RURAL Male Female Male Female Male Female State Total 4,845,517 4,785,833 3,240,853 3,292,658 l,604,664 l;493;175 Native white 3,955,902 4,003,649 2,535,692 2,650,428 l,420,210 lº 353,221 Foreign-born white 665,438 567,613 512,983 454,078 152,455 113,535 Negro 218,412 212,845 186,942 186,638 31,470 26,207 Other races 5,765 l,726 5,236 1,514 529 212 • 18- . * Q&\/Oº• © N 1 N N V T] ©| | ` ON E & (nº) ] + [\ ►IENWOG]] NA O NW/ O ENWOG]] NA gºlv W w | H eſ T : Q \/ *| | H & SO|Hc]\/&]º)OIOOS 83AO CJN w SłłVBÅ GI Oc6I NI SNOILIG NOO TV LIHVW CJE |\-|\！|\/WN+ BT19 NIS ！“TV/NEA, Q NV ETV/W！mvw ►2. "TVyNº. Considering the sexes separately, the percentage of . married persons is exactly the same for both, but the percent- age of single men is higher than that of single women. These were balanced by 10,6 per cent widows and only 4.8 per cent widowerse -l9– PENNSYLVANIA POPULATION BY AGER AND SEX. l.930 TABLE 6 AGF. GROUPS SINGLE MARRIED WIDOWED w MALE Fäliſ/ALE MALE FEMALE lialſº FEMALE State Total l,183,086 971,131 2,018,874 1,999,302 161,432 $57,068 15 to 24 years 744,768 629,948 107,809 240,631 691 2,291 25 to 34 " 213,416 142,458 488,585 556,60l 6,151 14,592 35 to 44 " 104,394 76,993 569,533 535,694 l6,653 38,886 45 to 54. " 63,770 55,401 436,811 371,566 29,029 66,26l 55 to 64 * 35,382 36,933 265,222 204, la 5 37,883 89,040 65 to 74 " 15,936 20,616 120,645 76,398 42,309 89,233 75 and over 4,460 8,0ll 29,262 l3,363 28,539 56,431 Unknown 960 771 l,007 914 177 334 * 15 years of age and older. -20- SOCIOGRAPHICS . P H ! L.A. D. E L PH 1A 1930 SIZE OF PEN NSYLVANIA FAMILIES C P L A N N | NG FIGURE NO. I 2 BOA RD Approximately three-fourths of the foreign-born popula- tion of both sexes are married, while among the native whites there was a higher proportion of single men and women than for either the State as a whole, the foreign-born or the Negro. There were more married negro women than men. The number of marriages in Pennsylvania has declined and the rate, which is the number of persons married per l;000 population, likewise has dropped (from 19.2 in 1920 to 13.4 in 1930). The size of the families in the State also showed a de- cline, not rapid but constant, as shown by the chart • NATIVITY The population in Pennsylvania in the period under review was 95.4 per cent white, 4.5 per cent Negro, with the remaining 0.1 per cent composed of Mexicans, Chinese, Filipinos, Indians, Japanese and less than 100 "others." The whites are sub- divided into the native and foreign-born, the former composing 82.6 per cent and the latter 12.8 per cent of the total popu- lation. Foreign-born whites have steadily decreased since 1910. From 1920 to 1930 there was a loss of llel per cent in actual numbers. Unless jmmigration quotas are changed, the trend here indicated will continue even more rapidly. The foreign-born have settled in the urban centers of the State. In 1930, 78.4 per cent were living there, with only 3.2 per cent in the strictly rural sections, while 18.4 per cent were in rural non-farm areas. It is noted that it was -21- not the large cities to which these people migrated. Of the places over 100,000 population only Reading gained and then but 0.1 per cent. Scranton lost ll,0 per cent; Pittsburgh, 9.3; Philadelphia, 7.3; and Erie 0.7. Of the other cities over 25,000 only seven showed gains, none of which were large. In the lo,000 to 25,000 group it was the smaller communities which showed an increase, The negro population has steadily grown, not only in actual numbers but in percentages of gain. During the decade 1920 - 1930, the increase was 51.5 per cent, due mostly to interstate migration. In 1920, e. per cent lived in the cities; in 1930, 86.6 per cent. Unlike the foreign-born, the negro flocked to the large centers. In Philadelphia, there was an increase of 63.6 per cent. In Pittsburgh they gained 45.7 per cent and in Chester, 29.8 per cent. In only a few of the larger cities was there a decrease and, with the exception of Johnstown and Sharon, the loss occurred in towns where the negro population was less than one per cent of the whole. From this study of the census reports, it is evident that certain trends had developed by 1930, chief among which was the general slowing up in the rate of population growth not only for the State but for most of the metropolitan cities and for some of the rural counties. Through interstate migration, Pennsylvania was losing more than it gained, although there was a large influx of negroes. A faster declining birth rate than death rate, and the maintaining of the present Federal immi- 22 SOCOGRAPHICS P H 1 L A D E L PHIA i NATIVE WHITE FOREIGN NEGRO BORN CHANGING PROPORTIONs OF THE POPULATION P L. A N N | NG FIGURE NO. 3 BO A R D. * gration restrictions indicated a continuation of the slowing- up process. A suburban movement had also started, especially in the southeastern and southwestern sections of the State. The aging of the population, which had been in progress for some time, became even more apparent. MOVEMENTS OF POPULATION, lº&O-l934 The 1930 census, taken soon after the beginning of the depression, did not reflect adequately the effect which the economic crisis had upon movements of the population. Men and women, out of work, went from place to place seeking employ- ment. In some instances, this meant that entire families chang- ed residence; on other cases, one or two members. Many city families when faced with a reduced income moved to cheaper houses, often to small plots of ground, to raise food to supply their needs. "Doubling up" of families and the great tran- sient group which developed meant another shifting of the popu- lation. From 1930 to l934 these marked movements in population grew in numbers and significance. The Federal census results consequently could be depended upon only for l930. Unemployment was growing to such proportions that definite data were necessary in order to cope with it advantageously. To obtain this information a census was undertaken in l934 as a Civil Works Administration project. This enumeration was made in April, except in Philadelphia and Pittsburgh, where it was taken in February. The final results were checked against 23 Other survey figures and against school censuses. While these did not agree entirely, the variations were very slight in most cases • For this reason, the Unemployment Survey is considered accurate and reliable. The strictly rural sections of the State Were not included in the census-- only cities, boroughs and unincorporated communities of a commercial or industrial character were enumerated. This survey shows the results of migration, both inter- State and intrastate. Undoubtedly the movement of population out of Pennsylvania, which was well defined by lºo, was accent- uated by the depression. To this can be credited much of the loss shown by the l934 figures. Shifting of population from rural to urban and vice versa usually follows periods of in- dustrial activity or depression, but unfortunately the exact extent of this movement within the State cannot be determined. It is established, however, that the drift toward the smaller urban communities, noticeable in 1930, was accelerated by the economic crisis. According to the survey, the gains from 1930 to l834 oc- curred in the smaller places and in the sections which are not distinctly urban. In communities having less than 5,000 inhab- itants, approximately one-half showed increases varying from O. l per cent to a few cases where the population doubled itself. In the 5,000 to 10,000 class slightly more than one-fourth add- ed to their lºC) totals, while in the 10,000 to 25,000 group only one-seventh increased. None of the cities over 25,000 24 population showed any gains • An accompanying table shows the shift in population of the State's larger cities and boroughs. Pennsylvania's population computed on the basis of the school census for lo:33 (the last year for which complete totals were available) has been checked against the l834 survey. Both presented the same picture but the estimate is more accurate because it included the entire State. This estimate showed that the population of first-class school districts, Philadelphia and Pittsburgh, had a 3.14 per cent decrease from 1930 to 1933. The second-class districts lost 2.35 per cent while the third-class gained 0.15 per cent.” From these changes, it appeare that the slowing up in the rates of increase in the larger centers which the 1930 census in- dicated, was so marked during the three-year period since that enumeration that in most instances there was an actual loss. The indication of the movement to the smaller urban pieces is verified likewise. The population of fourth-class districts shows a gain (4.l6 per cent) from l930 to lºš. Since these districts in- clude some , of the smaller communities, the increase bears out the above mentioned trends for such places. For the strictly rural sections, such a decided change was not in evidence in l230. - The counties whose entire population is classified as * Second-class school districts have between 30,000 and 500,000 population; third-class 5,000 to 30,000; fourth-class less than 5,000. 25 POPULATION OF PENNSYLVANIA CITIES AND BOROUGHS HAVING 25,000. OR MORE POPULATION IN 1939 1930 1934 1930-1934 Unemployment Percentage * Census taken April 1930 * Census taken April 1934 >k Sk:k Census taken February l934 U.S. Census+ Census++ Change Aliquippa 27, 116 25,332 -6.6 Allentown 92,563 91, l32 -l.5 -Altoona 82,054 78,645 -4 el Bethlehem 57,892 57,279 -lel Chester 59,164 54,713 =7.5 Easton 34,468 32,344 ~6.2 Erie ll3,967 105,818 •8.8 Harrisburg 80,339 79,620 -0.9 Hazleton 36,765 36,392 -l.0 Johnstown 66,993 61,785 ~7,8 Lancaster 59,949 58, 224 -2.9 Lebanon 25,561 23,518 -8.0 McKeesport 54,632 53, 152 -2.8 Nanticoke 26,043 25,437 -2, 3 New Castle 48,674 46,500 -4.5 Norrist own 35,853 31,071 •l3.3 Philadelphia l, 950,961 l,862,032+++ -4 • 6 Pittsburgh 669,817 643,505+++ -3.9 Reading lll, 171 105,977 -4.7 Scranton l43,433 138,207 ~3.6 Sharon 25,908 25,446 -1.8 Wilkes-Barre 86,626 80,292 ~7.3 Wilkinsburg 29,639 28,450 -4 - O Williamsport 45,729 41,996 -8.2 York 55,254 53,733 -2.8 26. alº II POPULATION CHANGE EACH F |GUR E = |O OOO PERSONS SOCIOGRAPH iCS PH L.A. D.EL PHIA | ST CLASS DISTRICTS 2ND CLAS S D S T R 1CTS 3R D C LASS DISTR ic T 5 º 4 T H C L ASS D | ST R J CTS BY SCHOOL DISTRICTS 1930 TO 1933 PLAN N | NG F GURE NO. 14. BOARD fourth-class school districts, gained substantially with one exception. Sullivan County lost le 15 per cent--a downward trend which has been evidenced since l.900. On the other ex- treme, Perry County which also declined from 1900 to 1930, changed completely to gain 20.53 per cent--the largest percent- age change registered for the l930–1933 period. Of the other counties losing by 1930, only Somerset continued in that direction in the three years following. The reason for the general change in trend in these counties lies in the fact that so much of their territory had been abandoned farm land. In these sections people discovered unoccupied buildings and small farms which could be rented cheaply. A study of the third and fourth class school dis- tricts in four counties having a low value of agricultural crops, shows that they gained more proportionally than the same number of counties where the value of the agricultural crops was high . From past experience it is fair to assume that when the economic situation improves it will be the poorer land from which the people will move first. The movement therefore to the areas just mentioned is not a permanent trend. With two exceptions, the same may be said of those counties which lost from 1930 to 1933. The exceptions, Somer- set and Sullivan Counties, which have been losing since 1920, are likely to continue to do so. On the whole the decline from 1930 to 1933 is found in the regions in which the urban popu- 27 lation is predominant. In the southeastern area, Philadelphia lost, but the counties bordering the city increased substantially. This is further proof that the suburban movement indicated in l930 has progressed rapidly since then. With economic recovery, Phila- delphia may regain its loss but the outlying districts will continue to be densely populated centers. In the southwestern section Allegheny, Washington, West- moreland and Fayette Counties showed slight losses, caused principally by the temporary stagnation in the coal and steel industries.* The inactivity of the steel industry accounts likewise for the losses in Lawrence and Mercer Counties. Lackawanna, Luzerne, Cărbon, Lehigh and Northampton Counties in the third urban area, show losses caused by the slack production of coal and steel also. ** So each of these urban districts, depending largely upon manufacturing concerns, have felt the effects of emigration resulting from curtailment on the part of industry. When these companies again start their factories, labor will return to these sections. So the drift from these counties like the drift to the poorer counties is not a permanent shift. * A study of five counties (the four just mentioned plus Greene) showing a high value of bituminous products also bears out the small loss in spite of the fact that Greene County gained considerably. ** A study of five counties having the highest value of anthra- cite products (Carbon, Lackawanna, Luzerne, Northumberland and Schuylkill) reveals a loss despite the fact that the latter two counties gained. 28 The State as a whole increased in the l830–1933 period but at a much slower rate than it did from l920 to 1930. It is probable that the total increase did not exceed 32,000. This is very small in view of the excess of births over deaths by 204,000. This further indicates that many people have left the Commonwealth. & - Births and deaths have continued their downward trend. The deaths from all causes dropped from lll,606 in 1930 to 106, lê3 in 1933, while the births showed an even greater de- Crease for * * period. In 1930 where were l89,458 live births in Pennsylvania--in l933 there were l67,059. In cities over 25,000 population, with the exception of Nanticoke, - Wilkes-Barre and York, the births decreased in l933 from 1930 and in all but seven of the cities in this group the deaths also declined, While the number of marriages performed in the Common- wealth decreased in 1930, 1931, and lº&2, the total increased in l933 by 7,374 over l932. In the past, years which witness- ed large marriage totals were followed by years of increased natality. The eight months' figure available for 1934 when compared with that of the corresponding period in 1933 shows such a small variation that l934 may possibly have as many if not more births than the previous year. However, the general downward trend of the birth rate will not be affected. When comparing the deaths for the same months in l933 and l334 it is discovered that the deaths in the latter year 29 are more numerous indicating that 1934 death totals will be higher than those of the preceding year. FUTURE POPULATION Pennsylvania gained 0.32 per cent in population from 1930 to 1933, estimated on the basis of school census.* If this con- tinues, the increase for 1930-1940 would be 1.07 per cent as compared with 10.5 per cent from 1920-1930. This is an un- usually large drop but it parallels that predicted for the United States for 1930-1940.** The sharp downward trend pro- bably Will continue as indicated for the decade unless marked industrial recovery occurs within the next five years, which would cause migration into the State. Then the rate of in- crease for the Commonwealth for 1930-1940 might be raised some- What . * The use of school census as a basis for population estimates assumes that there is the same proportion of school children in the entire population for each year, which is not the case due to the variation in the birth rate . Ordinarily the margin of error is not great . ** In l933 Dr. Warren S. Thompson and Dr. P. K. Whelptom cal- culated the future population of the United States upon three different sets of assumptions. In each instance, the rate of decennial increase dropped noticeably--from 16.l per cent between 1920 and 1930 to 10, 8.4 or 7.4 from 1930 to 1940, depending upon the birth and death rates and migration used for the calculation. According to their high estimate the United States would increase from 122,775,000 in 1930 to 167,300,000 in 1960. Their medium estimate gives 149,800,000 in 1960, while their low estimate gives 137,900,000 for that year (Population Trends in the United States; Thompson and Whelpton). In a later statement Dr. Whelpton asserts that "unless the decline in births and in the specific birth rates is checked rapidly the low figure of 136,500,000 (estimated for 1956) as a maximum population for the United States will not even be reached" (The Popu- lation Prospect: Whelpton). 30 Beyond lº!0 it would be unwise to estimate population according to this accelerated trend because it appears to be only temporary. It reflects the unusual effects of the de- pression. As economic activity or inactivity causes drifts from rural to urban and vice versa, it is possible that these factors cause shifts to industrial states and away from them. It is reasonable to suppose then that business recovery might retard the large migration from Pennsylvania although it would not check it completely. For comparison, the population on the school census basis has been estimated and charted for the years following l940, using the l930–1940 rate of increase. Dr. Warren S. Thompson of the Scripps Foundation for Re- search in Population Problems, has compiled two estimates of Pennsylvania's future population by five-year periods from 1930 to l960 based upon two general assumptions--first, no migration either into the State or within the State, and second, with interstate migration and with the same movement Within the State as occurred between l920 and 1930. In addition he assumed. that the birth rate would fall until in 1960 it would be about two-thirds of the 1930 rate, that the expectation of life would increase approximately five years during the same period, and that there would be no foreign immigration. Each set of estimates was compiled for urban, rural-farm and rural non-farm. The estimates on the basis of no migration show the urban population continuing to grow steadily until 1950 and then de- - 3l clining so that the l960 total would be less than that of 1940. The rural non-farm would steadily increase while the rurai-tan would gain gradually from 1930 to 1935, then fairly rapidly un- til 1950 and again slowly for the next ten years. For the State as a whole this estimate gives a steadily in- creasing population from lºo to l'º60. For l?35 the figure is 9,912,500 as compared with 9,682,685 on the basis of school census. By 1960 a total of lo,808, 300 is reached, Assuming interstate migration, Dr. Thompson estimates that the urban population will grow steadily from 1930 to 1945 but not as rapidly as it did prior to 1930. From 1945 it would , increase even more slowly until in l955 it reaches the peak. After that there would be a gradual loss. The rural non-farm would change little, gaining about 5.8 per cent in 30 years. The rural-farm would continue to lose, not quite so rapidly as it did between 1920 and lººC), but nevertheless would change much faster than the urban or rural non-farm divisions. When combined for the State, these estimates show the popu- lation increasing slowly but at a rate greatly reduced from the 1920-1930 one. After 1940 the gains are estimated to be still smaller until in 1955 when the maximum of 10,410,500 is reach- ed. By 1960 the total would drop to 10,410, 200, indicating that the decline would be much slower than the gain. These estimates are set forth in an accompanying table, Of the two sets of estimates computed by Dr. Thompson, the second seems preferable. As has been pointed out, prior to 1930, 32 Pennsylvania was greatly affected by interstate migration and since that time, it has played no less a part in determining the location of the State's population. The estimate which include: such an important factor would appear to be more accurate • The suburban movement which was in evidence in l930 indicated a continued growth in the urban and rural non- farm divisions of the State. It was predicted that the large urban centers would increase less rapidly and the future urban growth would be found in the smaller communities adjacent to the large cities • A steady rural non-farm growth was indicat- ed. The strictly rural counties which were not gaining in l930 were likely to continue in the same direction while the rural sections in the vicinity of large cities were likely to gain as they had prior to 1930. All of these movements appear to be included in this estimate • The data concerning the reversal of trends since 1930, especially those affecting the larger cities and the rural sections, were not available when Dr. Thompson's study was made. While it is true that they probably are temporary, they have been so far-reaching that they will noticeably "slow up" the future increases for the State. The losses in the urban sections during 1930 to l934, even if they did not continue any longer, would cause the urban growth of the next few years to be retarded. The unusual increases in the rural sections in the last four years would moderate the downward trend in those areas. Migration from the State recently has been greater than 33 in past years • The number of births has fallen rapidly but the deaths have decreased more slowly, For these reasons it is believed that the future population Of Pennsylvania lies between the estimate based upon school - census and that of Dr. Thompson, assuming interstate migration, although it probably will be nearer the latter figures. Pennsyl- vania's maximum population will be reached probably between 1955 and 1960, with slightly more than lo,000,000 persons. If all the trends continue as indicated and if these esti- mates are sound, Pennsylvania may expect: l. To gain approximately 700,000 in the next 20 years, as compared with l,966,000 in the last two decades, showing that the slowing up in the rate of increase for the State will continue. - 2. The birth rate to decline about one-third by 1960; death rate to decline slowly for a shorter period and then rise as the population grows older. 3. To continue to lose more than it gains by interstate migration • 4. Fewer children and more adults especially in the older age groups, actually and proportionately, than hereto- fore • 5. A more uniform population due to the decline in the number of foreign-born. 6. The larger cities not to gain as rapidly as the areas around them, the rural non-farm to gain steadily while 34 the poorer farm land continues to lose. All of these are factors which will affect the educational, industrial and social activities of Pennsylvania and must be con- sidered in long-term planning. POPULATION ESTIMATES*, 1935-1960 Estimate Based on - - Thompson's Estimate Based on School Census No Migration Interstate Migration 1935 9,682.6 9,912.5 . 9,861.3 1940 9,734.0 10, 173.5 10,057.4 1945 9,783.9 10,416.9 10, 224.2 1950 9,837.7 10,620.6 10,348.6 1955 9,890.2 10,751.6 10,410.5 1960 9,942.6 10,808.3 10,410.2 * In thousands. 35. G - VOt. G| ON 3.8 ſhº) || 3 º N. N N \' T. c. \/ | NVATASN NEcſ - O LNE Wei OT13/\3 Cl 3)|3) OTIOE 3) NI SLN EAE TIVc. I ON 1-d "l 3 A2"| Y 3 S NY sº O Q3 H > 13 SA3TT W A Q3 Hºo.13 All O ounvniv (S) (m H$V WA Q NY Q3 SIV8 NIvºle; A3"|", VA osna slala (S) º) tº ſlº S I tº ti VH (C) vnoon, C) V! He "3 QVT 1 Hø. (C) N v 3 o O (m asvº N | V T. c. O.J. N NAO Q N ti O AW T3 A3T v3s 5) N | H S ºn 8 JLSW3. Hiſ OS 3 H.J. WO83 38 ſh993 tie; H T & A3T v 39 Ali I D D 1.1 NV", LV (C) VIHej Tig GVT 114c. (C) 5) tº ſlº S1& 8 VH (C) J. J. J. 3 W I L LNES38 ci O5)\7 SłłVEA OOO OOO Ol 9 N | OT) O 3 O9)\/ SöVEA OOO OOO OO2 9) tº ſlº S.L.L le; (C) 3 T 3 W.J. S M O O & O9)\y Słł VI: A OOO OOO OOC H S YAA Y! C O& f ... ft & O. O. T. 3 ft...... f O3)\7 S-IVBA OOO OOO OO9 | C V3 S Q N \; T N | -(S)- | T 3. A 3 T W 3 S 98 ſhe SlööVH WN OO. ITV (C) º) tº ſlº S.L. Licſ (C) VI H c T, 3 Q \, , ; H d V H d T. E. O. W. "I H d SOHC V890. OOS PHYSIOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA LAND SURFACE REGIONS. I. POSITION, FORM AND SIZE. A. B. Position Pennsylvania's position is near the northeastern corner of the United States between 399–43'-26" and 429 North Latitude. Pennsylvania is called the "Keystone" state because it held the center position in the origi- nal thirteen states . At present it belongs to the Middle Atlantic States which includes two adjoining states, New Jersey and New York. Form Pennsylvania is nearly rectangular in shape. The northern, southern and western boundaries are regular. In the northwest corner is a small triangle that ex- tends forward to Lake Erie. This small section was bought from the United States government to give the State an outlet to the Great Lakes. The eastern boun- dary, formed by the Delaware River, is irregular, and the boundary between Pennsylvania and Delaware forms the arc of a circle • Size * The area of the State is 45,126 square miles or a total of 28,880,640 acres. The land surface area is 44,832 square miles, and the water surface 294. New York is larger than Pennsylvania by 5,000 square miles, -37- but Pennsylvania is more than twice as large as New Jersey, Maryland and Delaware put together. II. ORIGIN OF PENNSYLVANIA RELIEF. It is estimated that 600 million years ago, Pennsylvania was part of an inland sea. Into the sea were being washed mud, gravels, sands and limy materials mainly from the south- east. The sea bottom rose and sank, but in the main, sink- ing dominated and finally reached so great a depth that 30, 000 feet of rock material has accumulated in southeastern Pennsylvania, but thinning to half of that or less in north- western Pennsylvania. The great weight of the overlying lay- ers, and the action of water changed the sediments to rock, sands to sandstone, gravels to conglomerate, mud to shale, and limy deposits to lime stone. At the end of the carbon- fiferous age of coal, this great mass of rocks was subjected to a great pressure from the southeast. Some of the rocks were heaved into great folds or crushed. In the eastern part of the State, the rocks were pushed westward, shorten- ing the underlying rock by one or two hundred miles • The great rock folds were believed to have reached a height comparable with the Alps or Andes of today. Then followed several million years of erosion, during which time the mountains were wearing down to a plane but little above sea level. The final stage in the formation of Penn- sylvania's relief features has been brought about by a suc- cession of broad uplifts with long stops between the several -38– 91 ºoN 3 dnº) 13 2" • * - - sº ** fº - •• „ ~\'~/` s ....?--| + -º º \,* • • • ||-•4. A !•} \`---- • • • • •!\^- 4• • • •！ſ \!!|}|---- w- - - - - - - - - ~~•!,, º № - - - - - - - ~~~~●*!●}.* ！!} -- -" （-- - - - ~- - ~ ~ ~ ~ ~• • • • • • • • • •-” \|||| \|!●| ||●! }•�}| } �!ſº • • •• • • • • • • `N）,!{{!{ �{ · *• • • • • �!* {|!|! |«…? *）? ſaT--+--• • ►•* •• •4--—------¬ OOO !OOGI OOO !OOO !-' O oosi ·3anunnoſťºw 4O1N3 w Lawd 30 ‘VN N3d • • * * * * i ! ! t t ! t i * * * y * OOO ! dwy w OIHdV dº O d'Ol. III. uplifts, and the gradual wearing down of the softer rocks into valleys and the harder rocks forming the ridges. The level top of the ridges and plateaus tell of a time long ago when they were part of a plain lying but little a- bove sea level. Erosion is taking place constantly by water passing over the land surface and although not so noticeable, the action of water, heat and cold on the land surface is gradually breaking up the mountain ridges, each year bring- ing the land surface as a whole nearer the level of the sea. PHYSIOGRAPHIC OR LAND SURFACE REGIONS Pennsylvania is divided into three large and two small Physiographic Regions :- a. The Piedmont Plateau b. The Ridge and Valley Region c. The Allegheny Plateau, which is part of the Appalachian Plateau d. The Pennsylvania part of the Atlantic Coastal Plain - e. The Lake Erie Plain. Each of the three major regions have their area divided into sections which are discussed separately. A. PIEDMONT PLATEAU The Piedmont Plateau occupies the southeastern part of the State and includes about one-ninth of the entire area. It takes in all the land from the Coastal Plain to the Ridge and Walley Regions. This broad undulating Plateau rises gradually from the Coastal Plain to the base of South Mountain. Above the level of its comparatively smooth surface rise numer- -39- ous hills and low ridges of swelling outline. While the Plateau rises northward there is a gradual ascent south- westward. (See Gontour lap.) The Plateau is divided into three sections; Lowland and Hill Section; Limestone Valleys and Piedmont High- lands. a. Lowland and Hill Section b. This section has many rounded hills and shallow valleys with occasional knobs and low ridges. The rock structure that forms this region is red shale, sandstone and traprock. Much of the soil is thin and not productive. Lime stone Valleys Section This area is a broad lowland, gently rolling, with a few low hills. The valleys are underlaid with lime stone which has weathered into soil rich in plant food. Most of this section is located in Lancaster County which has some of the richest farm lands in the United States. Piedmont Highlands Section. The greater part of this area is rolling into hilly with steep slopes along the streams. The valleys dissected by streams are, for the most part, labar"I"OWe The Piedmont Plateau is one of the most favored regions in the State. It is traversed by: -40- LA * O N 3 & f\ 9 i 3 → * n \ý E _L \/ *l el„L N O WN Q, 3 l dN o į 9 a u A3TT VA º 39 di èl -•---+-------- ... • *-* * * → • ť ● ^ .• . -\, £ ---- N. • * ^“）,eº ^^!-- - - - - - ••• • • • • •„í H → 8 në si iſi ! } ! � � � { } * - • -\!- N\ \● · N p i L o a s • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • \----•* • |- ● ●• →- tae_№• •\ · n w 3 L W T deA N 3 H ∈ 3 T T \/ SNO 1938 – 0 nSo|He}\/\）] ©O I SÅ Hd · N offu o a s`, ºn v 3 lv ºn eſ · A N 3 H Đ 3 T T \， , ! {” \ • ^ „ - ） • • ” ’{ • A N 3 H 53 m i v N • • • • • • n v s i v T a the Delaware, Susquehanna and Schuylkill Rivers and many tributaries. The climate is temperate and well suited for human activity. The fertile son produces abundant crops and the large municipalities within its bounds are a ready market for all its products. B. RIDGE AND WALLEY Region This section includes the Pennsylvania section of the Great Valley or Lehigh, Lebanon and Cumberland Valleys and Pennsylvania's sections of the Appalachian Mountains known as the Ridge and Walley Belt. About one-fourth of the State area is included in this region. a. Lehigh, Lebanon and Cumberland Walley Section. Bounded on the south by the South Mountains, and on the north by the Kittatinny or Blue Mountain lies a broad area varying in breadth from ten to twenty miles and extending across the southeastern part of the State from Northampton County on the east to Franklin County in the South. The southern section is called Cumberland Walley, the central Lebanon Walley and the eastern Lehigh Walley. The valley has the character of an undulating or rolling plain. At present the Valley is a well cleared highly cultivated district. Its northern side is somewhat hilly and broken, but its middle and south- ern belts are smooth, fertile and well tilled. - 41- b. Most of the Walley land is susceptible of cultivation and is underlaid with lime stone which has disintegrated into a loamy soil high in lime content. Though certain parts of the valley near the northern boundary of Lehigh, Berks and Leb- snon Counties are somewhat hilly and broken, it is nowhere interrupted by rugged and lofty ridges. Ridge and Walley Section - This section extends from the Blue Mountains to the Allegheny Mountain Or escarpment of the Allegheny Plateau and is from thirty to fifty miles wide. The chain of ridges in this section is long and narrow, running parallel to each other and separated by a few broad and many narrow valleys. The ridges sometimes end quite abruptly in the form of knobs, while others taper off into the valleys in long slender points. The slopes of these mountains are generally uniform and are not broken by ravines or gullies for many miles. The ridges vary in height from 1300 to 1600 feet above sea level along Blue Mountain. Many of the mountains, however, do not reach the se heights. Several of the valleys between the mountains are broad and flat, while others have small ridges and hills. The scenery when viewed from the crest of some of the higher ridges is quite picturesque. As ~42- - far as the eye can see there is ridge after ridge covered with timber. Looking northeast or southwest there is a picture of long reced- ing valleys dotted with farms, patches of wood- land and streams. This whole mountain chain is the result of the elevation of the rock strata into great folds of long slender parallel waves and the erosion or wearing away of the softer rock material between th. folds by streams. Some of these mountains are arranged in groups with long, narrow crests in a straight line for great distances, while others bend in a general curve to the northeast and southwest. In many instances the crests of ridges come together at their ex- tremities and inclose a narrow oval valley resembling the shape of a canoe. Interspersed among the narrower ridges are tracts of land, broad and flat, and at the same height as the narrow crested mountains. These areas have many large rocks and are covered by scrub growths. There are many water gaps where the rivers have cut through the mountains. These are seen by studying the Relief map. The general direction of travel through this section is northeast and southwest except where the -43- rivers have cut through the ridges, thence the direction is north and south. The relief of the Ridge and Valley section is characterized by three classes of features : the river channels with their associated level bottom; the upland or general level of the valley which is more or less cut into rounded hills of nearly equal elevation; and the ridges which also in a general way rise to a uniform altitude. The two classes of rocks which form this section are quartz rocks and limerocks. There are many varieties differing in composition, color and texture; but they all fa ll into the two great classes of the quartz rocks and the lime rocks. The soluble lime rocks occur in the lower slopes of the ridges and valleys. The insoluble quartz rocks forms the crests of the ridges. C. ALLEGHENY PLATEAU REGION The Allegheny Plateau, a part of the Appalachian Plateau, covers about two-thirds of the state and includes the entire are north and west of the Ridge and Walley Section except the Lake Erie Plain. The Allegheny Plateau is divided into five sections: a. Allegheny Mountain Section b. Eastern Glaciated Section c. High Plateau Section - d. Western Glaciated Section .e. Pittsburgh Section a. Allegheny Mountain Section This section of the plateau is mountain- ous. in character. Entering Pennsylvania from the south and passing through Somerset and - Fayette Counties are three parallel ranges. Through Somerset County on the east passes Allegheny Mountain; on the border of Somerset and Fayette Counties is the Laurel Ridge, and a short distance westward, Chestnut Ridge. These mountains are the highest in the state. Mt. Negro in Somerset County reaches a height of 3200 feet. . There are other places in this area that exceed 3000 feet and most of the highland between the mountains is above 2500 feet. As these mountain ranges extend north- ward, their elevations gradually be come Smaller. In Clearfield County, Chestnut Ridge loses its mountainous character and is replaced by a broad upland running across the northern part of the county. The Allegheny Mountain likewise breaks down in eastern Centre, Clinton and Lycoming Counties into smaller ranges with many wide valleys. In the northeastern part of this sec- tion, in Sullivan and Wyoming Counties, the moun- tains again rise to nearly 2600 feet and have -45- many narrow valleys. The ridges and hills between them have rounded summits and comparatively gentle slopes except where the streams have cut deep into the hillsides. The mountains and hills are covered with second growth timber, while the broad valleys, being fertile, have many productive farms. Eastern Glaciated Section. The eastern glaciated section is bolder in relief and has greater number of lakes than the western glaciated section. The Pocono Plateau in this section is about 1900 to 2200 feet above sea level and covers, a broad area underlaid by nearly horizontal rock layers. The eastern portion of this section has many rounded hill tops and water falls where the streams _leave the plateau entering the valleys below. The northern part has many deep valleys, some having broad bottom lands. The North Branch of the Susquehanna flows through this section and has cut many gaps through the low hills. There are numerous lakes especially in Sus- quehanna, Wayne and Pike counties which were form- ed for the most part by the blocking-up of the valleys and ravines by the glacial drift, thus -46- d. closing the outlets of the streams. This rolling and hilly surface with its many valleys, lakes, waterfalls and forests has become a retreat for hundreds of vacationers seeking recreation and cool highlands surround- ing the many lakes. High Plateau Section. * This section of the Allegheny Plateau region has broad highlands and many deep cut narrow valleys from 300 to 1400 feet deep. The eastern half of this northern plateau has several long par- allel mountains, having the structure of an ele- vated flat basin. While the general surface of the main table-land and its mountain spurs is comparatively level, the hill slopes are extreme- ly steep. The hilltop surface gradually increases in elevation from the Pittsburgh section to an ele- vation of 2000 feet or more in Warren, McKean and Potter Counties. The greater part of this region is covered with timber and sparsely in- habited. Agriculture is carried on a small scale, since the soil is not very productive and the growing season is shorter than in the southern counties. Western Glaciated Section. 47 6 e This section which is covered with a thin sheet of glacial drift rises from lloo to 1300 feet along the Ohio border to 2000 feet in Warren County. It is a gentle undulating or rolling region with many broad divides, moderately deep ravines, lakes and many swamps. There are many interconnecting valleys which at present do not have streams running through them. The surface is most rugged near the Allegheny River, and the valleys are cut quite deep. Pittsburgh Section The area west of Chestnut Ridge and south of the high plateaus and glaciated section has been cut by many streams. The valleys are V shaped, and the hills all rise to about the same elevation. The hills are lowest in the south- western part of the state. Through Pittsburgh and extending northwest and southeast, the eleva- tions are from 1200 to 1400 feet above sea level. From this level the elevation gradually rises to l600 feet in the southwest corner of the state and northeastward from Pittsburgh rise with uniformity to 1600 feet above sea level south- western Venango, Clarion and Indiana Counties. The rock strata is harder in the northern part of this section which has produced broader 48 D. ridges and narrow valleye than those farther south. From the hilltops the horizon has the appearance of a flat plain similar to the prairie regions in the Central States. The great bitu- minous coal deposits, oil and natural gas fields are located in this section. COASTAL PLAIN In the southeastern corner of the state along the Delaware River in Bucks, Philadelphia and Delaware coun- ties is a narrow strip of land known as the Coastal Plain. It is flat lowland close to sea level. The soils are largely sandy loams. The western boundary of this section is marked by the Piedmont Highlands, where the river flows from the narrow valleys or the - eastern •es of the hioiana. out into the lower level of the Coastal Plaine LAKE ERIE SECTION This narrow section lies between th. watershed of the Ohio and the shore of Lake Erie. It descends rather rapidly from the watershed to the lake by a succession of rather steep slopes. The elevation of the watershed to the south is nearly 1200 feet and at the lake about 600 feet above sea level. There are numerous ravines and narrow and steep valleys carrying its waters to the lake. A cross section southward from the lake has the appearance of a series of broad steps. On the 49 Lake shore there are cliffs from 80 to 100 feet high, then a broad flat a mile or more wide, then a rise of 20 to 40 feet, followed by another flat which ends in a sharp rise. In western Erie County there are three such flat areas, each representing an old lake botton and shore line. Lake Erie at one time was much larger than it is now and land along the enor. shows unmistakable signs of having been lake bottom, 50 DRAINAGE Pennsylvania is divided hydrographically into six drainage basins. * | l. Delaware Basin • 2. Susquehanna Basin 3. Potomac Basin 4. Genesee Basin 5. Erie Basin 6. Ohio Basin Sec. Fig. Drainage basins. The State has three important river systems: The Delaware in the east, the Susquehanna in the middle, and the Ohio in the west; while smaller areas drain into the Potomac River in the middle south, into Lake Erie in the northwest, and into Lake Ontario through the Genesee River, in the middle north section. Precipitation in Pennsylvania finds its way into the At- lantic Ocean by the Delaware, Susquehanna and Potomac Rivers, through Delaware and Chesapeake Bays; by the Allegheny and Monongahela into the Ohio and thence into the Mississippi River and Gulf of Mexico; other streams discharge into Lake Erie and . Lake Ontario and flow through the St. Lawrence River and Gulf of St. Lawrence into the Atlantic Ocean. In an area of less than one square mile near the center of Potter County, rivulets find their origin, leading eventually to the waters of the Gulf of St. Lawrence by way of the Genesee River, to Chesapeake Bay by way of the Susquehanna River and to the Gulf of Mexico by way of the Allegheny River. 1. DELAWARE BASIN The Delaware Basin occupies the eastern portion of the State and includes all the area in Pennsylvania draining into the Dela- 51 ware River. The principal streams draining this basin are: Delaware River, Lackawaxen River, Lehigh River and Schuylkill River, a. Delaware River The east and west branches have their headwaters in the Catskill Mountains of eastern New York, at an elevation of about 1900 feet and unite at Hancock, New York, on the Pennsylvania - New York boundary, to form the main stream at an elevation of 895 feet. The course of the stream is irregular. The topography is mountainous in the northern part of the basin which lies within the glaciated area, abounding in lakes and pond 8. Along the eastern boundary of Wayne and Pike counties the precipitous slopes of this high table land finally emerge into a broad, open valley. The river cuts through the Kittatinny Range at Delaware Water Gap and continues across the plain to South Mountain below East on. At Trent on the river is bordered by hills and valleys and drains the low, gently rolling land of the Piedmont Plateau. The river channel is generally swift and shallow, flow- ing over bed rock with numerous riffles separating pools. At Trenton an eight foot fall occurs which limits the tidal effect extending to this point; the river has been improved for navigation from this point southward. The total length of the Delaware is 375 miles. In Pennsylvania the West Branch flows a distance of seven miles 52 PRIMARY DRAINAGE BASINS PROPORTIONAL PART OF PENNSYLVANIA OCCUPIED BY EACH OH |O 34.5 º'c D E LAWARE 14.3 °ſo S US QUE HAN NA 46.4 ºo E R E i. i. ºo --------r- G E N E SEE. O. 2°º ------- -l BASIN º DE LAWARE 6,460 SUSQUEHANNA 20,9 7 POTOMAC 1,570 se NESEE 9 6 ER I E 5 || 2 OH iO 15,571 TOTAL 4 5,126 S Fe FIGURE NO. along the New York – Pennsylvania boundary and then con- # nects with the East branch forming the main stream which has a length of 248 miles. - # * The total drainage area is l2,912 square miles. In New York, 2,650 square miles; in New Jersey, 2,345 Square miles; in Pennsylvania, 6,460 square miles embracing all of 8 counties and portions of 9 counties in the eastern end of the state. b. Lackawaxen River This stream flows through broken, mountainous country containing numerous small lakes, ponds and swamps in portions of Wayne, Lackawanna, Monroe and Pike count- ies and enters the . Delaware River at Lackawaxen. The length of the stream is twenty-seven miles and has a drainage area of 602.8 square miles. The river channel is over a rocky bed, between steep banks, and has a deep gorge with cereases in its lower course. c. Lehigh River The Lehigh River has its source in southwestern Wayne County and drains an area of 1,373 square miles, embracing portions of Wayne, Lackawanna, Monroe, Luzerne, Carbon, Schuylkill, Berks, Northampton and Lehigh counties. The length of the river is loo miles and enters the Delaware at Easton. The basin above Lehigh Gap lies within the Ridge and Valley Region with its parallel ridges and narrow 53, valleys. Below Blue Mountain the basin lies in a broad rolling agricultural section, The river channel has high and rocky banks, es- pecially in its upper course; between White Haven and Mauch chunk it is like a gorge. The waste from coal mines deposit great quantities of culm in the rivere de Schuylkill River The source of the Schuylkill River is in schuylkill County at an elevation of l, lé0 feet. The course of the river is southeasterly a alatas, of 131 miles, The mouth is at League Island, Navy Yard below Philadelphiae The drainage area contains l, 915 square miles, em- bracing portions of somyian, carbon, Lehigh, Berks, Lebanon, Chester, Montgomery, Bucks, Delaware and Philadelphia Counties. The area drained in Schuylkill County is mountainous; at Hamburg the river enters the Great Walley and passes through Reading and south Mountain. below which lies a broad, rich, rolling agricultural plaine 2, SUSQUEHANNA RIVER BASIN The Susquehanna River Basin is the largest drainage basin in Pennsylvania. The water-shed lies in four phys- tographie divisions, Allegheny Plateau, lá,400 square miles; Ridge and Walley section, 8,500 square miles; Great Walley, l,700 square miles; Pigmont Plateau, l,800 square miles. The Susquehanna basin has a total area of 27,400 square miles. It comprises 20,917 Bouare miles in Pennsylvania or over 46 per cent of the State area; 6,270 square miles in New York; and 213 square miles in Maryland. The principal streams in the Susquehanna basin are : Susquehanna River and its North and West branches; Juniata River and its Raystown and Frankstown branches. Each of these streams have many tributaries of local importance. a • Susquehanna River The Susquehanna River is formed by the junction of its North, and West branches at Northumberland, Northumberland County. Below this point the river drains an area of 9,320 square miles. It flows nearly south between Northumberland, Dauphin and Lancaster counties on the east and Snyder, Juniata, Perry, Cumberland and York counties on the west, passing then into Maryland and entering into Chesapeake Bay at its northern extremity, a total distance of 128 miles, in Pennsylvania ll? miles. Between Northumberland and Harrisburg the river cuts through a series of parallel mountain ridges forming many water gaps. The river from Northumberland to a point about 12 miles below Columbia is wide and shallow, averaging about a mile in width and contains many rocky islands. About 25 miles above the Pennsylvania - Maryland boundary the stream enters 55 a gorge where it becomes narrow and rapid and on either g shore is for the most part flanked by rocky bluffs. The main tributaries below Northumberland are: Pennis Creek, Juniata River, Conodoguinet Creek, Swatara Creek, and Conewago Creek. (l). North Branch, Susquehanna River The North Branch of the Susquehanna has its source in Otsego Lake, Catskill Mountains, south- eastern New York. 1. drains a total area of ll, 277 square miles; in Pennsylvania, 5,007 square miles, embracing portions of Potter, Tioga, Bradford, Carbon, Susquehanna, Wayne, Lackawanna, Wyoming, Sullivan, Lycoming, Columbia, Luzerne, Schuylkill, Montour and Northumberland counties. The total length of the North Branch is 316 miles, in Pennsylvania lö5 miles. The river drains a rolling broken country in New York. In Pennsylvania, it drains a mountainous region and is confined to a narrow valley between ridges. The northern part abounds in lakes and ponds of glacial origin. The North Branch drains the great Lackawanna and Wyoming coal basin which extends from Nanticoke on the southwest to Carbondale on the north- east. The river channel is tortuous in many places, through gravel, aand and boulders, between high banks and containing many islands. The stream is polluted 56 with coal waste forming deposits of culm in the channel.• The main tributaries of the North Branch are: Chemung River, Tioga River, Tunkhannock Creek, Lackawanna River, and Fishing Creeke (2). West Branch, Susquehanna River The West Branch of the Susquehanna rises in Cambria County at an elevation of l;990 rest and drains an area of 6,913 square miles, embrac- ing portions of Cambria, Clearfield, Center, Elk, Cameron, Potter, Clinton, Columbia, Tioga, Indiana, Jefferson, Lycoming, Bradford, McKean, Sullivan, Montour, Northumberland, Union and Wyoming counties. The total length of the river is 228 miles, and drops to an elevation of 430 feet at Northumberland. The West Branch drains the high tablelands of the - plateau region and has formed deep trenches in the horizontal strata. From clearfield to Lock Haven the country is rough and rugged, with much of the country covered with timber. From Lock Haven to its mouth it drains many agricultural valleys, and mountains. The channel is tortuous in its upper course, having gravel and sand beds with rocky ledges in many places, and then becomes narrow, flanked with high steep hills and with very little bottom land. From Lock Haven to Muncy the river 57 winds through a wide cultivated valley, flanked with steep wooded ridges, and southwest of Muncy the river crosses a belt or deeply eroded "country, full of conical hills. The main tributaries to the West Branch are: Clearfield Creek, Sinnemahoning Creek, Bald Eagle Creek, Pine Creek, and Loyalsock Creek. b. Juniata River The Juniata River is formed by the junction of its Raystown and Frankstown Branches near Huntington, Hunt- ington County. The drainage area contains 3,426 square miles, embracing portions of Somerset, Bedford, Fulton, Franklin, Cambria, Juniata, Snyder and Perry counties. Its length from near Huntington to its mouth at Juniata Bridge is 86 miles. The basin lies within the Ridge and Valley Section. The main valley is narrow, made up of troughs between parallel ridges, and gaps where the river has cut through the mountains. The river channel is rocky, high and steep banks rise abruptly from the Water, permitting little bottom land to be overflowed during freshets. (l). Frankstown Branch, Juniata River The Frankstown Branch of the Juniata rises in Blair County at an elevation of l; 164 feet. The drainage area contains 99.78 square miles embracing portions of Bedford, Cambria, Blair, Center and 58 Huntington counties • Its length is fifty-six miles. The basin lies in the Ridge and Walley section and the channel has rough rocky beds, flanked with steep banks. (2) Raystown Branch, Juniata River The Raystown Branch of the Juniata has its source in Bedford County at an elevation of l; l’8 feet. The drainage area is l, Ol2 square miles, embracing portions of Somerset, Cambria, Blair, Fulton, Bedford and Hunt- ington counties. Its length is lo& miles. The basin lies in the Ridge and Valley section and its channel is through rough and rocky gorges and bordered with narrow flood plains in many places. 35, POTOMAC BASIN The Potomac Basin occupies the middle southern portion of the state and includes all the area in Pennsylvania drain- ing into the Potomac. River, embracing portions of Franklin, Bedford, Fulton, Adams, Somerset and Cumberland counties. The total area drained in Pennsylvania is l,570 square miles. The streams in this basin drain small areas. The largest area drained in this basin by any of the streams in Pennsylvania is 499 square miles, which is drained by Conococheague Creek. 4e GENESEE BASIN The Genesee Basin occupies a small part of the middle northern portion of the state, in Potter County, and in- 59 cludes all the area in Pennsylvania draining into the Genesee River. a. Gene see River This stream drains 96 square miles in Northern Potter County of rough and hilly country with narrow valleys be- tween steep hills. The total length of the river in Pennsylvania is ll miles. The river flows northward through New York into Lake Ontario. 5. ERIE BASIN The Erie Basin occupies the northwestern corner of the state and includes 512 square miles, all the area in Penn- sylvania draining into Lake Erie, embracing portions of Erie and Crawford counties. The main stream draining this basin is Conneaut Creek which drains 154 square miles in Crawford and Erie counties and has a length of 35.5 miles in Pennsylvania. There are many other smaller streams, the larger of these are Elk Creek and Walnut Creek. 6. OHIO BASIN The Ohio Basin occupies the western portion of the state known as the Allegheny Plateau Region and includes lä, 571 square miles, all the area draining into the Ohio River. The principal streams draining this basin are: Ohio River, Allegheny River and Monorgahela River, with their tributaries French Creek, Clarion River, Kiskiminitas River, Youghiogheny River and Beaver River. 60. a • Ohio River The Ohio River is formed by the junction of the Alle- geheny and Monongahela Rivers at Pittsburgh at an elevat- ion of 703 feet . The total area drained w the Ohio in Pennsylvania is lă, 57l square miles or 34.5 per cent of the total area of the state, embracing all of fourteen and portions of 10 counties in the western part of the State. The length of the Ohio to its mouth at Cairo, Illi- nois where it enters the Mississippi River is 96.7 miles. Its length in Pennsylvania is 39.4 miles. The river channel is through a narrow valley flanked with steep hills, and containing little lowland. The channel is broad and shallow but has been improved for navigation by a series of locks and dams, creating a .9 foot channel. - (l). Beaver River The Beaver River, tributary to the Ohio, has its source formed by the junction of the Mahon- ing and Shenango rivers in Lawrence County and drains a total area of 3,040 square miles; in Pennsylvania, 1,784 Square miles, embracing por- tions of Crawford, Mercer, Butler, Lawrence, Allegheny and Beaver counties. The river basin above New Castle lies in the glaciated region containing broad valleys, swamps, and lakes. 61 South to Wampum the valley is broad with wide flat bottom and from this point to its Tmouth at Ro- chester, the valley is narrower and gorge-iike with many river terraces and rolling hills beyond. Some of the tributaries in their lower courses cut through deep narrow ravines. The channel in places, has cliff banks that rise to 300 feet above the river, at other places, broad river terraces are located be- tween streams and steep hills. The length of the river is 22 miles from the junction of the Mahoning and Shenango rivers to its mouth. b. Allegheny River The Allegheny River is the principal tributary of the Ohio and drains the northern part of the Allegheny Plateau and the greater part of the western slope of the Allegheny Mountains, embracing over one-fifth of the area of the state and a part of the western end of New York. The total area drained by the Allegheny is ll, 705 square miles; in Pennsylvania, 9,771 square miles, embracing portions of Erie, Warren, McKean, Potter, Crawford, Wenango, Forest, Elk, Mercer, Clarion, Jefferson, Clearfield, Butler, Armstrong, Indiana, Allegheny, Westmoreland, Cambria, and Somerset counties. The Allegheny Plateau region is for the most part a highland C&rved deeply with many narrow steep-sided Valleys. The areas east of the main stream are more 62 rugged in outline than those to the west. The river drains the western glaciated section which abounds in small lakes and swamps. The Continental Divide forms the eastern margin of the Allegheny Basin, extending to an elevation of 2,800 feet in Somerset County, The total length of the river from its source in Potter County is 514 miles; its channel flows through many narrow valleys with steep sides and little bottom land. The river is improved for navigation 24 miles from its mouth at Pittsburgh. The main tributaries of the Allegheny are: French Creek, clarion River and Kiskiminitas River. (l). French Creek French Creek, tributary to the Allegheny has its source in southwestern New York and drains a total area of 1,246 square miles; in Pennsylvania, 1,135 square miles, ºr sins portions of **, Crawford, Mercer, and Wenango counties. The area drained by French Creek is rolling country with broad valleys and many lakes and swamps of glacial origin. The total length of French Creek in Penn- sylvania is 78 miles and has its mouth at Franklin, Wenango County. The channel is through marshes, swamps, deep pools, lakes and broad flats. The banks are steeper and narrower in its lower course. 63 {2). Clarion River Clarion River, tributary to the Allegheny has its source in Elk County and drains a total area of l, 231 square miles, embracing portions of McKean, Elk, Jefferson, Forest and Clarion counties. The river drains a dissected plateau of rough character, with streams flowing in narrow steep-sided valleys without bottom lands. The length of the river is 95 miles and has its mouth near Parkers Landing, Clarion County. The ,channel is tortuous, bordered with steep rocky banks. (3). Kiskiminitas River (Including Conemaugh River) Kiskiminitas River, tributary to the Allegheny, has its source formed by the junction of little Conemaugh River and Stony Creek at Johnstown, Cambria County and drains a total area of 1,891 square miles, embracing portions of Cambria, Somerset, Indiana, Westmoreland and Armstrong counties. The land sur- face drained by this river varies from a high, gently rolling plateau at head waters with elevations up to 2,800 feet, to a region less than 1,100 feet marked by narrow steep sided valleys and with high intervening ranges of mountains, through which some of the stream, have cut narrow gorges. the length of the river is 78 miles and has its mouth at Freeport. The channel is through shale, and sand-stone strata which forms - (,4 steep banks, being gorge-like in many places. Other areas have alluvial flood plains, upon which many towns are located. Monongahela River Monongahela River, tributary to the Ohio, is formed near Fairmont, West Virginia at an elevation of 858 feet and flows northeasterly into Pennsylvania draining a total area of 7,340 square miles; in Pennsylvania, 2,728 square miles; embracing portions of Greene, Fayette, Somerset, Washington, Westmoreland and Allegheny count- ies. The basin lies west of the Allegheny Mountains and drains their slopes. The valleys in general are narrow with steep hill sides. From Fairmont to the Pennsylvania border the nine are close to the river and only a few small areas of bottom land are found, but below that point to the north there are a number of stretches bordering the river for several miles. Near Pittsburgh the flâts become ſnore extensive and in some cases are one-half mile in width. The total length of the river is 128 miles; in Pennsylvania, 91 miles. The channel is through mountainous and hilly regions, carved in shale and sandstone in the upper basin and in alluvial clay and gravel in the lower basin. The main tributary to the Morlongahela is the Youghioheny River. a). Youghiogheny River The sources of the Youghiogheny is in Prest- 65 on County, West virginia at an elevation of 2,900 feet. It flows northward into Pennsylvania and drains a total area of l',752 square miles; in Pennsylvania, l, 265 square miles, embracing por- tions of Fayette, Somerset, Westmoreland and Allegheny counties. The greater part of the basin is rough and drains western slopes of the Alle- gheny mountains. Many of the small tributaries in the upper region, flow through deep, narrow valleys with wooded slopes. The channel is through mountainous and hilly regions, some places are very rugged, the stream falling over ledges and boulders that have dropped from the slopes. The total length of the river is lz5 miles; in Pennsylvania, 83 miles. The mouth of the river is at McKee sport where it enters the Allegheny River. CLIMATE Pennsylvania's climate is divided into three sections: eastern, central and westerne The eastern section comprises the comparatively few counties in the eastern part of the State that are drained by the Delaware River and its tributaries. The central section comprises the large middle portion of the State drained by the sequehanne River and its tributaries, and the Potomac and Genesee river basins. The western section includes the portion drained by the Ohio River and its tributaries and the small area that drains into Lake Erie, As Bestern Sections Precipitation Excessive rains are not infrequent, and amounts in excess of 7, inches within 24 hours have been recorded on numerous occasions • Stroudsburg received 7,50 inches in 4 hours on August 1, 1913, Mauch chunk e-66 inches within a period of 24 hours on May 20–21, 1894, while Milford reported 9.78 inches in less than 36 hourse. The excessive precipitation from coast storms seldom extends inland beyond the first ridge of mount- ains. The average precipitation for this section is approxi- mately 46 inches per year, which is almost ideal from an agri- cultural standpoint. The rains during the crop growing season are usually ample and are fairly dependable e However, there are occasional droughts which occur in July and August, but not long enough to destroy the crops. The snowfall is moderate- 67 ly heavy in the northern counties, but is comparatively light in the southern counties. Very little Bnow falls in the . southern portion of the section after April 1, and in November the snows are generally light and do not remain long on the ground. A large part of the winter precipitation is rain or rain and snow mixed. The average annual snowfall at Phila- delphia is about 23 inches, the ground being mor covered an average of 28 days during the winter season. In the central and northern counties these figures are approximately doubled. Temperature Temperatures of 100° or higher are seldom recorded in this section, but high relative humidity sometimes makes the temperatures oppressive • During the hottest periods in summer the wind movement is generally light and affords very little re- lief. These periods are not often protracted beyond a week or ten days, and frequently break up over night with fresh north- east winds. The winters in the southern portion of the section are mild, there being an average of less than 100 days with the minimum temperature below the freezing point, while zerº tem- peratures are not reached more than two or three times during a winter season. The summer mean in the extreme southern por- tion is about 73°, and the winter mean about 32°, while the northern portion has a summer mean of about 66°, and the winter mean about 23°. The extremes of temperature are greater in the valleys than in the uplands. In the southern, or agricultural, portion of the section, the first killing frosts of autumn 68 64 “ON ！！! nºſsºįsiºoniowoaia w ssiºne · s - oaº & = & & & & & & & & & =$ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $83.1VW 8 SlS3t O3 3 O LN3 W.Lövd 30 Oz ‘ON 3 ti ſlº) 13 snisva aewnivsq ào Aavannog --- 6v ol G v tº tº O.J. Ot, 68 Ol. G E - z 2 / / / / / / / 2 / .” Z / , , , z / […] 2. 7 * ~~~~~~~~->>> *.*, *, *, *, *.ſ’,”, / / º º /*, *, º 2 / 2. A / Øſ z'…”.” / / / / / / C / ^ Z 27, ‘2’ z ZZ ^_- º 2 y * , *A : D. l–) 1–? l f'S Ol Oº [T] º r º 'S3H ON | Nl NOI LV_LI d CIE * c TV ſh NNV NV3 W •y 2 z -> * Z e .” z z / z' A ºf zºº. %:5% Af zº % - ! Pſ /* -/ !A : 2 % %2× % ) e ^2 Y 2’ z ./ zº ,” 2 / z º 2%* / z % %A z2, ſ/ º 2 /* ! 2 ** A * -t- & „sz NyHL ss3T,^ J* 4 Ar \,! nſº:38 (nº 83 HJEN/3/W sºnunnoisºv 30 LN3wlww.dag ‘s’n la “ON 3&n913 |- ~~~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ * !-- - • • • • • • • • – — −] Nosw3s pNIMO 89 ĐNI &nd s3 HoNI NI T-Twº Niwyd 39vº 3^v usually occur about the middle or latter part of October, and the last in spring are generally during April. Winds The prevailing winds are from the northwest in winter and the southwest in summer, and the wind movement is generally light or moderate. Thunderstorm winds sometimes reach high velocities and do considerable local damage, especially by the beating down of grain and corn. B. Central Section. Precipitation The average annual precipitation for the whole section is 40.74 inches. The snowfall is moderately heavy, averaging about 50 inches annually in the northern and from 35 to 40 in the southern portion. There is a narrow belt along the western border of the section where the average snowfall is above 60 inches. The last heavy snow of the season usually occurs in the latter part of March, the average April snowfall being about one inch. In autumn there is little snow before the middle of November, and the November snowfall averages a little more than 2 inches. The southern portions of the section are subject to severe thunderstorms; heavy local rains amounting to 5 or 6 inches in 24 hours and to as much as 8 or 9 inches for a single storm have been recorded in many instances • In the northern part of the section the growing season is occasionally too short for some crops, especially corn, and 69 periods of summer drought are not uncommon. The average annual precipitation for the northern region is 36 inches, which is enough for those seasons when it happens to be well distri- buted. The central portion of this section, which includes most of ridge and valley region, has an average precipitation of about 42 inches. The valley lands are comparatively free from damaging frosts and have a growing season nearly as long as that of the southern counties. The precipitation for the rolling southeastern portion of the section is 42 inches per year, and fairly dependable. Temperature The mean temperature in this section decreases about 6° from south to north. In the northern highlands the summer mean is about 679 and the winter mean about 24°, while in the south- eastern counties the summer mean is about 72° and the winter mean about 30°. Temperatures 100° or higher occur in the southern counties practically every summer season, while mid-winter temperatures of 20° to 25° below zero or lower are occasionally recorded in the northern highlands and in the mountains south- ward almost to the State line. Maximum temperatures of 90° or higher are recorded an average of 10 days for each summer season, while the average number of days with freezing is a little more than 100. In the southeastern portion the last killing frost in the spring usually occurs about the middle 70 22 ° on 3\} nº 13 nwauna 83 HIV/3.^^ gununnoisºv so LN3 wledyd30's 'n * Oº !O91 09 || Oſſºl saeva Ni Nosvas oNi NaOH → 3O HLON3T 30V 83^V ca “ON 38 nºl！! ● nwyºung 83.H.LV/3^^ ·gununnousiew go LN3w.lºvd30's 'n * ſ-º №gº - - - ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~) ~ ~ ~ ~!-- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ! y •99, Mon38 A } ~\ \ : _ſ - - - - - - - - -r ¡ | ! r ! � 4 ºg nl ww3aw3ı NV3 W TV'n NNV nyaung 83 Hl\/3^^ ºz. * O N B \} nº) is!gunun nolwew go LN3w.lºvd 30’s ‘n e O 9eº $oº S e O9 •+ș|• «ºº„” º^ <,\：• _，^~）e^pW.^,|/ _ ?●`- fs.·�•,\,,\|e99NAO") Eº,’, ! �••^,v., - - - ~ T \L'،•• ~- - ~~~~ ° { \,>\K••••} • GÖĞ ： 3^Oev,\,eº „*●\, � •*•\,5• •�į， • • ~ . ø09••/* {" …* u- - - - ^«^^ ^ºyºW*ae \u - • ***c, *, ！،~ ~ ~| 0... •. |*| •º, ; eo9 3^Oev， \,●Y---- ^ _• .,^ º.• ‘\„~“ r- \--------- ! .* * * - i•wis wonaa ! N–i––––––-• →- •! •• •---- •_■ *- eț7$999,^ eț»S' .|2 ! ! + 3 AI sninoN | 830 OLDO OL|43） yw – 38 n. Lwººd W31 NV3W «» of April, and the first in autumn about the middle of October, giving about 180 days for the growing season. Winds In the northern part of the section the winds are mainly from the west and northwest,' and in the central and southern parts mainly from the west and southwest. C. Western Section Precipitation The average annual precipitation for this section is nearly as great as that for the central and eastern sections, but occurs as a rule in smaller amounts and at more frequent intervals • Rainfalls in excess of 2.50 inches in 24 hours are comparatively rare. The average annual precipitation for the section is 42 inches, being generally heaviest in the northern and southeastern counties and lightest along the Ohio border. The snowfall is moderately heavy, and the snow lies on the ground longer than it does in the eastern part of the State. The average snowfall for the section is 50 inches. Heavy snows appear occasionally in the northern counties as late as the middle of April. Temperature This section is subject to somewhat lower temperatures and to more trequent and sudden changes than occur in the remainder of the State, excepting the northern tier of counties. Tem- peratures of 100° or higher are recorded in the southern portion and there is an average of about 15 days annually with tempera- 71 tures of 90° or higher. The winters are moderately cold, there being an average of 100 days or more with freezing temperatures, while temperatures of 20° or more below zero are recorded in the northern counties nearly every winter. The summer mean in the northern counties is about 66° and the winter mean 25°. In the southern portion the summer mean is about 71° and the winter mean about 30°. Winds In Warren County on the north the prevailing winds are from the northwest. In Indiana County south and southwest, and Fayette County southwest. At Pittsburgh the prevailing winds are west and northwest. 72 ga “ON 28 nº 14nwy º H nº & 2 H_L\/ 2 NA “ S º ſì ºas Oſ *\! eſ V iſ º awołą974 ff.） oc : wav öı öz: wav ær •• .+-.----- - -; ~ ~ ~ ~) | ！ } • } ;«»! •tae,^ <|rº! / ·！• „...rº -----* *� º • • •|0|- †| �!•}�{ ºº.|--·ſº - 4•• • •50| |---- - - - - {-�● ~�~ !1 Oi Aww w 3.14 w!}~~~~ + – – – –! w º|• • • • • • ~ ~)ſae�+-, º ●�*|&�,º {-; .|ř · · * （- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - . -. - — -^ r|●1||t | }|!� •|－！!|� 0|!\ș|| N||\\!{p ∞!|!|�! � ‘N!{}��! | 90N I H G S NI LSO-J-J ©N ITT I YA LSVT JO 3. L\/C] 3°)\/\）]3/\\/ se on av nº 13 .nváwna wa Huw BM ºgnunnoissow ao lNavnlºvdagºº'^ , oe“ Loo ( 83.13）\/ ... * * ** . * <,- tº º „ “,- • * • •• • • • º • } O O L O 2° 13′O • • ، * →- |×... „ ~ ~ ~ ، !• OI 'LOO O L O £ º Ld3S ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~!• • • + ~~~ _ //‘,„- ***-oz-ú ooOl.ò，12o !- \ - - - - - - - -J Nwniny NI Lso， oNITTIX LSB 13 30 347939wH3^v AGRICULTURE* Since the early settlement of Pennsylvania, agriculture has been one of the leading industries of the state. At first, the farms were practically self-sufficing, producing all the necessities for Which the area was adapted. Very little pro- duce was sold except a few cash crops such as tobacco and wheat. As foreign trade increased and local industry de- veloped more and more produce was needed to feed the rapidly growing urban population. Today farming in Pennsylvania has become more specialized and Inost of the production is for sale . The estimated cash income of Pennsylvania farmers in 1933 was $170,776,000”. Of this amount more than $78,000,000 was from dairy products and $26,000,000 from chickens and eggs. All field crops accounted for a cash income of $30,000,000, fruite $8,000,000, and truck, nursery and greenhouse products $16,000,000. In 1933, according to the Federal-State Crop Reporting Service, Pennsylvania ranked ninth among all states in total cash income from farm products sold. In the same year, it ‘ranked second in cash income from eggs, third in cash income from chickens, potatoes and milk, and fifth in cash income from apples. It also stood high in cash income from the production *Trepared by Mr. David H. Walter, Land Planning Consultant for Pennsylvania, National Resources Board • **Federal-State Crop Reporting Service. 73 of greenhouse products and truck cropse Physical Factors Arfecting Agriculture "Crops that can be produced to advantage in any area alºë basic to the types of farming in that area. These are greatly affected by topography, growing season, and soil. "Topography. The topography of the State is discussed else- where in this report. The fairly level area in the southeast, comprising about one-sixth of the total land in the State, con tains nearly one-fourth of the land in farms. In the West and north, crop land is limited to the valleys. Beyond these high ridges, to the west and north is the Allegheny plateau. The crop maps show how the kind, amount, and proportion of the various crops grown have been affected to a large extent by the topography • "Length of Growing Season. Both the northwestern and south- eastern extremes of the State are near large bodies of water and have relatively low elevations. These features are asso- ciated with growing seasons of l70 to 200 days. Between are the mountain ranges and plateaus, with growing seasons as short as 140 days in the south central part and 90 days in the north central part. The shortest growing season is about the same length as that in western Wyoming and Montana. The areas of longest growing season are similar in this respect to Southern Illinois and southeastern Kansas. The area of short growing season is limited largely to the production of hay, pasture, oats, buckwheat, corn for silage and potatoes • The areas 74 of long growing season have a large part of their crop acreage in corn for grain and winter wheat. "Rainfall. In normal years, rainfall is adequate to produce good crops. The State, as a whole, has 35 to 50 inches of rainfall in an average year. The areas of heaviest rainfall are in the southeastern part and on the western slopes of the Anesian, Mountains; here the annual rainfall exceeds that of Illinois by 10 to lö inches. "Soil. Reconnaissance soil surveys of Pennsylvania were made from 1908 to l8l?. The results are combined in one map. More detailed surveys for 18 counties have been published. The accompanying figure shows la of the most important soil types. The value of any type of soil for farming depends in part on whether it is clay, loam, silt, sand, gravel, stone or some combination of these textures. Considerable areas of the De- kalb soil series, which predominates through the mountainous area and west to the last tier of counties in the northern half of the State, owing to the high stone content, degree of acidity and low amount of plant food elements, are unsuited for farming. In general, the Dekalb soils are not so useful for farming as the Hagerstown, Chester and other soils in the south- eastern, or the Westmoreland soils in the southwestern part of the State. The Volusia soils of the northwestern and north- eastern parts of the State are poorly drained in some areas. Oats, buckwheat, hay and pasture are less sensitive to lack of drainage than is corn, consequently they predominate on the 75 Volusia soil types." * Soil Acidity. A study of the lime requirements of the soils of Pennsylvania shows the highest degree of acidity in the northern counties. In these counties, where liming has not been practiced, applications of over two tons per acre now are necessary to obtain the most satisfactory crop yields. South of this area along the Appalachian Mountains and in the western part of the state, the requirements are considerably less. ranging from one-half to two tons per acre. The highly pro- ductive soils of southeastern Pennsylvania have a natural supply of limestone and usually require only limited amounts. The cost of lime, especially in the northern area, is a limiting factor in crop production. TMARKETS FOR FARM PRODUCTS "Next to the physical features, which determine what the farms can produce, available markets are the most potent factor in determining what is grown. An accompanying figure shows the population per square mile of farm land in various sections of the State. The area of farm land includes all land in farms, whether in crops, pasture, Woodland or Waste. It also shows the amount paid out annually by the industries, in salaries and wages, per square mile of farm land. Thus, in the upper half of the anthracite coal area, comprising Lackawanna and Luzerne *Emil Rauthenstein and F. P. Weaver, Fennsylvania Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 305. 76 La 'ON 3 \d n Đ | 3 ·sos on Nullanına Nollvis inawiºse;},}}}}}}}°°°° Y№ſº oooºç ış Ol OOOºoltº© oo91 dBAOootaea ou oooºoz ØØA oeſ ou oºk oooºçææ o.l oooºooºEEEEEEEE|oooi ologu looo’ı9 oli oooºseſ=ſ.osz ou gºz | Oooºvi ol 000’olØZZAĢ Į Į Ol. 00 N saevºm“T OGNO I L\/~l ſned Od oooºoo, ou oooºº [IIIIIII] Oslo-ººs|y\| +\]\/[\OS \d3doooo ol oooº Cl ou ol 9° // ºg „^22 $ / / „^ ^ Z^ ^ ^ ^ „ / Z //|- · · ·:·º·: ^ ^ ^ „ , , ^ ^ ^ ^ „ / „ * • ^ / *<<. // • • • • • ~ ~ ~) ș { ! { | ！ { } ! * * * _e = - * $ ^~{} 626|| ș O Nwyºn wº w 3 + O BT I W 3ydwn OS 83 d-i-tou №va inv1 d. LSnO NI O NVNO I L\/Tl Tm d'Od Counties, there was paid in salaries and wages. in industry $416,000 for every 640 acres of land in farms. In the south- eastern area, comprising five counties with 1,356 square miles of farm land, the industrial salaries and wages amounted to $412,000 for every square mile of farm land. These two areas had, for each square mile of land in farms, from 1,600 to 2,000 non-farm people as purchasers of the farm products. contrast with these areas the six counties in northeastern Pennsylvania, which have only 54 non-farm people and only $3,000 of salaries and wages in industry per square mile of farm land. This area has no city of 20,000 people or over, while the other two areas, with only slightly more than half as much ferm land, have nine such cities, one of almost 2,000,000 and three of over 50,000. "These differences in population and industrial develop- ment have had a profound effect on the types. of farming possible in each district. The northeastern area has very limited local outlets for products, but its relative nearness to the metropolitan area of New York and New Jersey makes possible an extensive fluid milk development. Farming in the southern portion of this area is affected by proximity to the anthracite coal mines. While there are striking differences in the soil, topography and climate of the northeastern and south- eastern areas, the relative capacity of available markets accounts, in part, for the fact that the former produced farm products worth only about $16 for every acre of land in farms, and the latter $42. 77 "The second largest center of population in the State is Pittsburgh. An area, comprising approximately four and one- hair counties, surrounding Pittsburgh had almost l,000 people and paid over $220,000 in industrial wages for each of the 2,000 square miles of farm land. The second ionºt areas in population and in industrial production per acre of farm land are in central Pennsylvania, the extreme northeast, and in the southwest, where several counties have from 80 to ll:5 people and from $10,000 to $14,000 of industrial payroll per square mile of land in farms. "No part of the State is over 200 miles from some market of considerable capacity, but the areas adjacent to these mar- kets have decided advantages over those lCO to 200 miles away. This has led to differences in types of farming. The best mar- ket opportunity for milk, eggs, fruits and other cash crops, for a few farmers, exists near the many small cities in the State where competition, with produce shipped in by rail is less severe. The capacity of these cities for such products is limited and production is easily overdone; only near the large centers of population have the majority of farmers, because of growing opportunity to sell cash crops and livestock products, made changes in their type of business to such a degree as to show in a statistical analysis of census data.” *Emil Rauthenstein and F. F. Weaver, Fennsylvania Agricultural Experiment Station Bullet in 305. 78 LAND USE IN PENNSYLVANIA Total Land Area in Farms. The total land area of Pennsylvania is approximately 28,692,000 acres. Slightly over 53 per cent in l930 was classed as farm land. The remaining 47 per cent was largely in urban centers and forests. As the physical features and markets would indicate the highest percentages of land in farms occur in the southeastern and Western areas. The area of lowest percentage in farm land is in Cameron, Elk and Forest Counties. Only 8.4 per cent of the total land in Cameron County was farm land in 1930, compared to 88.5 per cent and 85.9 per cent in farm land for Greene and Lancaster Counties, respectively. The low percentage of farm land along the Appalachian Mountains is due to the presence of considerable rough land unsuitable for farming. Crop Land. Farm land is classified by the census into crop land, pasture land, WQod land not pastured, and all other land. Crop land includes all areas that had been devoted to harvested crops, crop failures and idle or fallow land. Twenty-seven per cent of the total land area of Pennsylvania and 5l per cent of the farm land in 1929 was in crop land. The distribution of the percentage of total land area in crop land corresponds, somewhat closely to the percentage dis- tribution of total land area in farm land. Physical conditions ..and types of farming are largely responsible for the difference. The southeastern area has by far the greatest percentage 79 of its area in crop land. In Lancaster County, 63 per cent of the total land area was in crops. The soil is very fertile, there is very little rough land, and the county is located near large markets. In Greene County, southwestern Pennsylvania, the per cent of land in crops is 25 or slightly below the State average • Here the type of farming and the rolling topography requires a large amount of pasture land. Cameron County and the area surrounding it are low in acreage of crop land. The rough mountainous topography and the poor soil types are largely responsible • Only 2 per cent of the entire area of Cameron County was in crops in 1929. Pasture Lands. The total amount of pasture land as given by the lºo census was 4,576, 192 acres or 50 per cent of the entire area in farm land. This amounts to two-thirds of the area in hapvested crops. The accompanying figure shows the distribu- tion and amount of pasture land by minor civil divisions • The areas that clearly stand out as important are the southwestern and northwestern areas and the northern tier of counties east of McKean County. In the southwestern corner of the State sheep raising is the predominating type of farming, which re- quires extensive pastures • Another reason for a large percent- age of pasture land is the serious damage by erosion on the steep hillsides under any form of cropping. The soil in the northern area is adapted to pasture production • As a conse- quence, dairymen must rely upon the home grown hay and pasture and purchased grains to feed their livestock. The southeastern 80 TOTAL LAND AREA IN FARMS. BY TOW N SH | P.S. éºllllll t Fiſh *... | >: =|| Hºº Yº Allllllllli º u º --- º | l, Þ | . —t ā- iº. III : - E ſ Hill º ºl"|Rºll------ ſº º i. º ! Yv, ------ º flºg == |al Eº * - ". º º i. ºfºl; Lº ºf: §ºl m= ºl, it! J. ** { * * * * :* yºs, * * * : *.*.*. i. 3X,* ... i º ...fl. (; lilu º l 5 ſº- Cº- ſº *...* * º gº * *.*.*.* 2: Yºº'ſ!"ſm fººtºs ſillº ºr ºf ~ º sºft iſſº ſ ÉA. Öğ lº E º * E--- -º º º 2:= º #ſº #º : <=iº. *ſū *†: *=#3 tº: º, tº- º - re- ºr ſ |É' & pººl ºSASA # 2:#|| lºſſ º º Fº $º º, º ſº. º 2=ºſſº Ea. cº-º w |- #|ſiſ iſºl Sº Ef º i. º, ºs- ºnly ſlidit # ſº s ** sº #| "iſ s º º § º Bºlly". ºr. A “r”; ; K: . *- sº º - sº º { . - º º 2׺ ſº *}s. Xrºs m ſ Al y - . . " * * •ºf ee Nº. SººYs tº tº § {º * s ºpe • ºº •.” * : *::: tº º d tº * e * sº tº S-sis.” - Nº,…º. e º :^{\ºy S.A.S.T. . —º Ç *.*, 2*N* : * > • We " We ge e e $/. tº • I, " "/e X.2 * \ \ , & Hºſ. a C/º A. e. Y (º 3.As a s a swº º c tº SºCs.” te º tº l - $ * * evºl e º Sºſe tº & ge * * & e ſº gº ey ºc. © e is ge tº e sº dº tº tº tº e ſº & º tº ge e ‘º e º sº sº. e Yeº * * > * >7"Se ºc s gº º Aº ‘s sº © * | * e_º c tº º ºf rºszºº & # & tº iº •.” gº º ge tº • * (, SV - Xe Nº. º º > e & seſ ºf sºlº e e * * > sº º & * © e ‘º tº e * g tº gº © * • *N* e tº i.e. e dº º e * > & g g e gº º & * . © * & *X:2::lº 2 g & * & º * iº wº ſº sy r * * tº g © º º gºes ſº e *: eºs • *.***** sº ** e s e $º z -º-º: *ss : * : :: * = & 3.24. . * : * •". ... -- g §: eº ... • I-.” & * g . . . . sº §Hº—He .s: ºt:º::::::::::::::::::::: tº tº e º,º * 3. & Tº º •Nº. ºlº exºs º e & º: • *s * 3º.”.º. sº º: SE: E. º º • *.*. a * * * Fº sºº ..º.º. *::::::::::..ſº & :*: º: tº *: º º: #: . e & :*: ge º ºg & gº £: \s © Cºº .” ºs- ºr ... Sºº's º jº * *ºſ. º::". :-" g º G & ºº's ºe" º º; º; º º & g * :- sº sº? ſº ×ſº º º: ſº ׺ º *:::::: & rº & & ºº:: º gº ** sº g • * * :* & 4 :*: iº 43. gº e ses .." & *Z.º. * ****.*. ::: * º: º º: tº §ºt. º fe $ *:: X. sº - : º lººſes: * º: ; : area has limited acreages of pasture land but are capable of reading more units of livestock per acre • Other Land. Land not classed as either crop land or pasture land makes up 19 per cent of the total land area in farms. This area consists of wood land not pastured -- rough, stony, and swampy land unfit for any particular use. The percentage of this land is highest where the percentage of farm land is lowest. LAND IN CROPS A wide variety of both field and truck crops are grown in Pennsylvania. Many of them are grown in all sections of the State while others are limited to definite arease Only a few of the more important and widely grown crops will be discussed. Gorn. According to the census figures, almost 19 per cent of the total crop. acreage in 1929 was in corn. Of this, 77 per cent was cut for grain and 18.5 per cent for silage. The bal- ance was hogged down or cut for fodders The heaviest production of corn for grain is in the south- eastern section and along the two branches of the Susquehanna River. In the southwestern area the corn crop is not so important and is still less so in the northern part of the State • The shorter growing season and cool weather limite the amount of corn that can be grown to maturity in the northern counties • Introduction of the silo has meant a more even distribution of corn acreage throughout the State • Dairy farms in the 8l northern areas are able to utilize the corn economically for dairy feed in the form of silage. For this reason a much higher percentage of the crop land in this section is in corn for sil- age than in any other. Wheat. The area planted in wheet in 1929 was lă per cent of the total crop area of the State, or nearly one million acres, This is about the same acreage that was in corn for grain. The distribution of wheat production is quite similar to that of corn for grain. The 27 counties in the southern section produce about 75 per cent of the total production. The acreage in the northern and western regions planted in wheat have steadily declined. It is difficult for Pennsylvania farmers to compete with western producers of wheat, but the crop is well suited to common crop rotations, yields are relatively high, and it is a good source of a cash income. The acreage probably will con- tinue to be about the same, especially in the southeastern area. Winter wheat is the type universally grown in Pennsylvania. Oats. The acreage of oats harvested in 1929 was 13 per cent of the total crop land harvested in the State. Because of its wide popularity in common crop rotations and use as a horse feed, oats is grown quite generally over the State. It is adapted to a cooler climate than either corn or wheat and for this reason it is one of the important crops in the northern counties • Hay. Hay is one crop that is common in every section, being 82 O€ ‘ON 3 & n Đ | 3‘S n'$ N32) 3 × J. & O nw ſaèl n g - 32\d|3 YN YNO O JO J.N.E. W.J. Hve， q *ş ºn ºſe 6， §§ 83AO©/e 6'99 - || ?ºko 6’O? - 92º/e 692 - || ||ºſo Q'O! ！!3.ON：n Sc3 i HS NWA O L ÅG Sc] OMB O N | \/3}} \7 O N \/~T （TV_LO_L|- reported in the l930 census by 81.8 per cent of the farms of the State. More than 2,570,000 acres were in hay, which was 39 per cent of the total crop area harvested. The crop requires a cool climate with plenty of moisture. For this reason the northern counties have a higher percentage of the crop land area in that particular crop. Hay is grown in the regular crop rotation in Pennsylvania. In the northern areas it is common to have a field in sod for four or five successive years, compared with one or two years in other areas in the State. Potatoes. The production of potatoes is quite general through- out the State. Soil and climate conditions are very favorable to good yields. There has been a gradual concentration of the production of this crop on the higher altitudes where the cool moist climate affords optimum growing conditions. The important areas are located in Somerset, Cambria, Crawford, Potter and Lehigh Counties. Lehigh County farmers, because of nearness to markets and favorable soil conditions, have greatly increased production during the past 30 years. Q- In 1933 the Pennsylvania potato crop amounted to 21,357,000 bushels.” According to government estimates, this is about two- thirds of the amount annually consumed in this State, which would indicate a ready market for local production. 2 : Fennsylvania Crop and Livestock Report. 83 RELATIONSHIP OF LIVESTOCK TO LAND USE Income from the sale of livestock and livestock products in Pennsylvania is much greater than the income from the sale of crops • Most of the crops produced, especially the grains , are fed on the farm rather than sold . The economic advantage of having home grown feed is the reason for a close relationship between the number of livestock and acres of crops grown in different areas of the State • Dairying and poultry raising are the leading livestock enterprises • Milk Gows: According to the census enumeration all cows and heifers on farms April 1, 1930, born before l928 were classed as milk cows, There were 76l., 273 head on farms in Penn- sylvania on that dates Fluid milk is by far the most impor- tant product sold from the dairy enterprise, Because of ite perishability, the distribution of dairy cows is thick- est near the larger cities. Another factor influencing the location of dairy farms is the ability to produce suf- ficient hay and pasture. The southeastern area has a dis- tinct advantage in this respect . The steady increase in consumption of dairy products in the metropolitan areas of Pennsylvania and New York has re- sulted in an expansion of the dairy business over the entire state • The counties having the greatest increase in number of dairy cows during the past 40 years have been farthest from the central markets. Centre County had a 45 per cent increase e 84 Mifflin, Snyder, Union, Juniata, Blair, Bedford, Somerset, Franklin, Lycoming and Tioga Counties all had gaoine of 20 to 42 per cent. Chickens • The next most important livestock enterprise is poultry raising. More than 15,000,000 chickens were re- ported on Pennsylvania farms on April 1, 1930. This was almost double the total number reported on farms in this State 40 years ago. The concentration and distribution of chickens corresponds closely to the production of the grain crops. Partly for this reason, the southeastern section of the State produces the bulk of poultry and eggs. In 1933 the five counties of York, Bucks, Berks, Lancaster and Montgomery produced 30 per cent of the total egg production of the State. Several small concentrated poultry raising-centers are scattered over the State, their location determined largely by a good nearby market. Eastern Wayne County is an example of this type of condition. Types of Farming. The wide variation in physical features and market facilities in Pennsylvania has naturally been responsible for a wide diversification in types of farming. The distribu- tion and importance of the leading crops and livestock have already been shown. The accompanying detailed map of the pre- dominant types of farming based on income shows many of the less general but important enterprises. Farms in the United States based on incomes were classified by the 1930 census into 12 main types; 10 of which are found in 85 Pennsylvania. The type of farm most common is the general farm, which comprised 29.6 per cent of the total number of farms. These farms derive less than 40 per cent of their income from any one crop or livestock enterprise . This indicates a Wide diversity in crop and livestock production on a large percentage of the farms. The next most important type of farm is the dairy farm, 26.3 per cent of the total in this State falling in this class. More than 45 per cent of all farms in Crawford, Bradford and Chester Counties are dairy farms. The other types of farms are abnormal, self-sufficing, poultry, crop specialty, fruit, truck, cash grain and animal specialty, most of which have a limited occurrence. A more general picture of the agriculture of Pennsylvania is shown in the accompanying "types of farming" map. The geo- graphical location and the important types of farming determine the boundaries of the 25 more or less distinct areas. The outstanding fact about these areas is the predominance of dairy- ing which accounted for 45 per cent of the total cash income from farm production in 1933.” Farm Tenancy. The percentage of farm tenancy in an area in- dicates roughly the value of the land for agricultural purposes • The better farming areas in Pennsylvania have much more tenancy than the poorer areas. Several good reasons are accountable for this condition. Usually the owner of good land desires. * Federal-State Crop Reporting service. .86 PREDOM INANT TYPES OF FARM ING |929 ABN ORMAL SELF • SUFF 1 CING CASH GRAIN CROP SPECIALTY G EN E R AL AN I MAL SPEC I ALTY % DA 1RY PO U LTRY FRU 1 T T R UC K F | GU R E NO. 3 | PENNA. AGRICULTURAL ExPERIMENT STATION BUl I FT IN NO 305. * Sns N 30 3 H_1 &O nv3?） ng - E283 W WO3) JO „IN 3 W._L\!\/d 30 ° S " f' 20: "ON 3\! (nº) || -3 \!3 AO º ºſſ» OCºſo 6° O2 + O2ºko 6°61 - olºſs. O | \， Q N ^ ſºÀĒĒĒĒĒĒĒĒĒĒ Ē [[IIIIIIII] [T] • • • • • • • • • • •= • • • • • •- * * *= *=> • • ► • • - - - - - … * - - - - • →• • • • → → → SIE I LN n O O \{E \O N\/N 3 L W \!\/--+ to hold title to it and have someone else do the work. It is usually a good form of investment . Another reason is the ability of a farm to support two families rather than one. In Lancaster County 30.5 per cent of the farms were operated by tenants and only 3.3 per cent in Sullivan County and 3.8 per cent in Carbon County. Walue of Real Estate. The value of farm land depends largely upon the productiveness of the soil for agricultural products. Other factors such as possible building site, mineral deposits, and resort areas have a decided effect on the price of land irrespective of its value for farming. In an accompanying figure is shown by townships the value of land and buildings per acre as reported in the l930 census. The areas of high valuation are in southeastern, east central and southwestern Pennsylvania, which corresponds closely to the centers of population. Many of the townships in these areas, according to the 1930 census, have an average value per acre of more than $150. The outstanding fact, how- ever, is the extremely low land values in the northern, central and south central counties. These areas are identical with the poorer farming areas of the State. TREND IN THE USE OF FARM LAND Number of Farms. The number of farms in Pennsylvania in 1870 was a little more than 174,000. Considerable expansion con- tinued to take place until 1900. That year was the peak in the total number of farms, 224, 248, or over 50,000 more than in 87 1870. Since 1900 there has been a steady decline in the number of farms. In 1930 there were 172,419 farms in the state, the lowest number of any census year since l860. The loss in farms between 1920 and 1930 was about 3,000 annually, a 15 per cent decrease in the 10-year period. Every county in the State showed a decrease except Fayette, which had a 3 per cent increase. The largest decrease in the ten-year period seems to have occurred around large population centers and in the poorer farming areas. The sale of farms for estates and real estate development in the thickly populated areas and farm abandonment in the poorer areas probably accounts for much of the decrease. McKean County in northwestern Pennsylvania had a 32 per cent decrease in the number of farms, Delaware County 46 per cent, and Philadelphia County 45 per cent. Size of Farms. There has been a steady decline in the number of acres per farm in Pennsylvania. The average farm in the State contained 103.4 acres in 1870 and only 88.8 acres in 1930. Although the size of farms has greatly decreased, the acreage in improved land per farm has not decreased very much. The land is being better utilized. Because of physical features and market facilities which determine the predominant type of farming, the size of farms varias greatly in different sections. Farms are smallest in Lancaster County, averaging only 53 acres. The largest are in Huntingdon County, near the geographical center of the State, 88 VALUE OF LAND AND BU |LD INGS |N DOLLARS PER AC RE | 93 O 2 r \.” p / ^y a' *: Tl O - 49 |OO - 49 OVER 15 O (DOLLARS) U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE - BUREAU OF THE ce Nsus. F 1 J U R E NO. 33 ºpuſat eanqsađ BIqeMOTä pua puºl dozo septi·TouȚ puaT pºao-duII ** • Keq eurºſ, puſa ºooo aqoºq, ºs eoqºqod, º qąeųMyſonq, º e/ºu º Ke Turaq ºs q%30 º ļaelįM º uJoº 3 ºpnTouI + ç8 ſº 60% º GT6Iſºzae I8º98gº gºgº T2,#* #8O £6T 997* 9.62°9TcţţºoOº£ºT9§3º O ££ º GTgºgº936T £TG º 1,99* LTOG 2°303£ º 1,91, º 83O º T39 º 1,90361 9T2*969°3TG63* 6TºsºſyeO º 1,3T º £3LºveOT6T 1,30 ºg 1,2°6T8īzą ºſºgGº989° 1,36° 83Tºgº006T 8ţTº 899 ºgTLGG ‘TIz8° 98# * #3gº #33 * 8$O68T głºgºg 6LºőTgïgº £I3J, º 368º 63Tº 1,38 ° §§088Tl 698 ºg 56° LIIŤOºſ-LTſº goL* 3 º 1,8Ǻog6 º GºO 1,8T suſ Ia） upStu.I & R. J. OT€4-OJ,ĢĒTĪTāſpueTU-Iº）SÕJOJºaº X SeJºſ TaļOJ,J 3qtun.N T\º%-OJ,pºſao. Idulțun ##pº A0J đúII Jºu!!!0șTeđȚouȚJĄ u I Uſūrāſā eſºta JēAſuſț $ 9，5ſ õē5T-TOEȘTºmēȚūāATK5ūūgā ūȚ5ūīāīūȚsēūõī5ūūFēžīSTŌēāūN 89 where the average is 156 acres. In the southeastern part of the State, the level topo- graphy, rich soil and nearness to market, resulting in an in- tensive agriculture, is responsible for small farms. The farms in the Allegheny Mountain region, compared to the southeastern area, are much larger because of the excessive waste land, con- siderable wood land, and a less intensive agriculture. The size of farms in the different sections of Pennsylvania is continually changing. The average size in some areas is in- areasing and in others decreasing. These changes are the result of inevitable readjustments resulting from unstable population, industry and economic welfare of the people in each section. Most of the counties showed increases or decreases in the average size of farms between 1920 and 1930, in the Census of 1930. The outstanding increases occurred in the north central counties and Lehigh and Northampton Counties. These changes indicate larger farming units with a more extensive agriculture. The outstanding decreases were in Pike and Fayette Counties. The development of Pike County as a resort and sports region, along with considerable farm abandonment, probably was respon- sible for the large decrease in size of farms. Fayette was the only county in the State to record an increase in farms from 1920 to 1930. In the same period, there was a decrease of 14 per cent in that county in the average size of farms. This was due possibly to an increasing number of small self- 90 sufficing or part-time farms. Total Acres in Farm Land. As the number of farms and the average size of farms have decreased, it naturally follows that the total number of acres in farms also has been decreasing. From 1900 to 1930 there has been a loss of 4,065,542 acres of farm land. This means a yearly loss of 135,518 acres. The rate of loss has been much greater since 1920 than before, which shows the rate of farm abandonment is accelerating. Some of this loss has been absorbed by expansion of urban centers, estates, airports and other similar developments. Much of the loss has occurred in the poorer farming areas and this has probably been due largely to . unprofitable operations. TREND IN CROP AND LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION Although the longtime trend in Pennsylvania is toward less land devoted to agriculture, the net farm production in this State has been increasing. More intensive farming and greater efficiency enables the farmers to produce more on less land. A i’ew figures will be sufficient to show the typical changès. Changes in Crop Acreages. The acreage planted to the nine principal field crops in Pennsylvania has decreased 17 per cent since 1900. There was a 478 per cent increase in the acreage of barley and an increase of 128 per cent in tobacco acreage. The acreage of the other seven crops shown in the table on acreage in field crops decreased anywhere from 4 to 60 per cent. The substitution of barley for wheat and rye as a livestock feed probably accounted for the large increase in the a creage G 91 in Acre of Fields Crops in Pennsylvania Since 1900s." Average Acreage (in thousands) Crop. 1896–1904 1929-1952 Per Gent Chenge Corn ls 355 ls 265 as? Wheat l,517. -- 976 ~36 Oats 1sl22 . 964 •19 Barley 9 52 3.478 Rye 3.19 l28 •60 Buckwheat , 243 166 ~32 Potatoes 210 2O2 •4 Tobacco 18 4l ©l28 Tame Bay —£az87 2,562 ~8 Total "7s 648 6.a354. self #General Bulletin its and Pennsylvania Crop and Livestock Reporte Pennsylvania Department of Agricultures 92 Change in Yield per Acre of Important Field .Crops in Pennsylvania from 1886-95 to 1924-3.3% Average 10-year yield per acre Crop 1886-1895 1924-1933–Per cent Change- Corn bus 30.4 39 el +29 Wheat. " 13.6 18.6 •37 Oats " 25.7 31,3 *22 Barley " l9.6 - 26 el •33 Rye " l2.6 15.3 •21 Bučkwheat bu . 14.7 18, 7 +27 Potatoes " 73.5 117.5 •60 Tobacco lbs. ll&2,4 1235 e5 44 Tame hay tons le? 1,4 317 * General Bulletin 445 and Pennsylvania Crop and Livestock Report. Pennsylvania Department of Agriculture. 93 of this crop. The significant change in apple trees has not been in the number but in the rapid change from small home orchards to com- mercial plantings with an outstanding increase in yield. The number of peach trees in Pennsylvania was about three and one- half million in 1930. Since l900 the number of trees has not changed materially but yields have increased because of better Orchard management e Much of the increased agricultural production in Pennsyl- vania has been in the vegetable business. There was a 36 per cent increase in the acreage of the ll most important vegetables from 1900 to 1950s Yield Per Acre • The yield per acre of all field crops had in- creased since the latter part of the nineteenth century. One of the accompanying tables shows lo-year average yields of crops for two periods about 40 years apart. The yield per acre of every crop has increased, the most outstanding being a 60 per cent increase in the average potato yield. Tobacco, with only a 4 per cent increase, is the only one of the nine principal crops not having at least a l’ per cent increase. The principal reasons for these higher yields are the abandonment of some of the poorer land, use of better strains and varieties, improved cultural practices, and better control of insects and diseases. Livestock Production. The number of different types of live- stock has changed materially between 1900 and 1929. Milk cows 94. Number of Livestock on Farms in 1900 and 1929 and Per cent change.” Tumber of Head (in thousands) 1900 1929 Per pent change- Horses - 560 349 -38 Mules 38. 5l. *34. Horses and Mules 598 400 *33 Milk Cows - 970 855 •l2 Other Cattle 524 530 •l Swine 1064 715 -33 Sheep 8l4 44l =46 Poultry 10,025 19,034 •e.90 FGeneral ETIEETZ5 and Pennsylvania Crop and Livestock Report. Pennsylvania Department of Agriculture. 95 decreased la per cent in number but the estimated amount of milk produced was 9 per cent greater in l929 than in l900s This shows a much higher production per cow than formerly. The number of poultry on farms increased from around 10 million to l9 million, or a 90 per cent increase. According to estimates, the production per hen has increased l3 per cent during the same period. This would mean an increase of over loC per cent in total egg production in the State • The decreasing importance of sheep and hog raising and the effect of western competition is indicated by a decline of 33 per cent in the number of hogs on farms and a 46 per cent decline in the number of sheep. The number of other cattle, which are kept mainly for beef purposes, have remained practically the same. The number of work animals has decreased 33 per cent, there being a 33 per cent decrease in the number of horses and an increase of 34 per cent in the number of mules on farms in Pennsylvania. The increased use of the truck and tractor has in part been responsible for the decrease in the number of work animals. AGRICULTURAL LAND-USE PROBLEMS There are three major agricultural land-use problems in Pennsylvania which should be studied to properly plan any land utilization or readjustment program. They are: soil erosion, abandoned farm land and submarginal farmi land now under cultivation. In the past most of the researchi and extension 96 work has been in the better farming areas. This is to be ex- pected because of the better interest and ability to adopt new methods • Progress has naturally been greatest in the better areas. As a result, the increased competition has caused greater maladjustment in the marginal and submarginal farms. There is a need for more land-use studies, especially in the more serious problem arease soil. EROSION IN FENSYLVANIA* There are two types of erosion. One is called "gully erosion," since it results in the formation of gullies. The other, which removes soil a layer at a time over a large area, is called "sheet erosion.” The gully type is the more notice- able of the two. It converts fertile land into a barren waste - by cutting up fields to such an extent that profitable cultiva- tion is impossible • Sheet erosion is not as evident as gully erosion but it removes tons and tons of fertile top soil each year. It does not prevent cultivation but gradually, as the top soil is lost, the field becomes less and less productive • This condition often is blamed on something other than the real cause. Many farm operators whose land is being removed by sheet erosion do not realize What is going on • Sheet erosion is the type that prevails in Pennsylvania • Small gullies are quite common but, except where sheet erosion , is well advanced, gullies are scattered and rather shallowe A recent Reconnaissance Erosion Survey of Pennsylvania *Austin L. Patrick, Soil Technologist, Fennsylvania State College 97 shows that from 25 to 75 per cent of the surface soil of Penn- sylvania has been lost by sheet erosion where the land has been cleared and cultivated. This means that approximately 50 per cent of the top soil has been lost since the land has been under cultivation which, on an average, is not more than 100 years. At this rate the entire surface soil of Pennsylvania would be removed in another century of cultivation. After a few inches of the surface have been removed, the underlying soil is lost at an exceedingly rapid rate. Many persons do not realize that practically all of the available plant food constituents are found in the first 6 inches of soil. Here the organic matter, consisting of plant and animal remains, is found. the uninitiated might suggest that organic matter and plant food elements could be added to the raw sub- soil and so convert this horizon into productive soil. The problem cannot be solved as readily as this, for several reasons. To attempt to restore the plant food constituents and organic supplies in the soil would be economically impossible. Even though it were practical to supply the organic matter in suf- ficient quantities to make up for the losses by erosion it would be impossible to cover each soil grain with a thin or- ganic film, as nature does; this requires many years. This film-like distribution of organis matter is largely responsible for the excellent physical quality of virgin soils. It helps in moisture retention and prevents excessive plasticity and cohesiveness. 98 Seventy-five years ago this waste land in stone Valley was a fertile corn field. FIGURE NO. 34 An excellent example farming to prevent soil erosion, effect by "Master Farmer" Ray Bro Wal ley. of a strip crop system of worked out and put into wn in the Kishacoquillas FIGURE NO. 35 The difference in crop producing ability between surface soil and subsoil is noticeable where clean cultivated crops are grown. The yellow or red spots, which indicate the subsoil, are evident even on nearly level land. These subsoil spots seldom produce as good crops as the surface soil. The differ- ence between the two is even more marked during periods of drought. Some subsoils are Euch more productive than others but no subsoil will produce corn, potatoes and many other crops comparable with productive or normal surface soils unless large amounts of commercial fertilizers and organic matter are added. Soil erosion in Pennsylvania is influenced by a number of interrelated factors. In discussing these it is necessary to treat each as a unit but it must be remembered that one factor influences the operation of another. Aside from climate, the factors which regulate the amount of soil and water run-off are nature of cover, per cent and length of slope, amount of organic matter, filled top soil and soil type. A comparison of a cover map, type of farming map and the general erosion map of Pennsylvania shows a number of interést- ing correlations. There is practically no erosion in timber- land, except here and there where the litter has been removed by man or animals. Old skid trails or ruts made by wagons or paths often act as the beginning of gullies in the forest. On cleared lands, very little erosion takes place where the land is in continuous sod. Where the sod becomes weedy and thin, where peths are worn, or where wagons have caused ruts, erosion 99 often is serious. Fertilizer and lime may often work wronders in erosion prevention on run-down pastures and meadows. The most important live stock sections of Pennsylvania are not badly eroded. The outstanding exception to this is the large live stock section in southwestern Pennsylvania. Most of the land there is in grass, yet the prevailing system of farming calls for plowing the grass when the turf becomes thin. Corn usually follows the grass; being a clean cultivated crop, losses of soil by erosion are excessive. Even though this land is plowed only once or twice every ten or twelve ye &rs 2 erosion is serious because of the nature of the soil and the sharpness of the prevailing slopes. In the dairy sections of northern Pennsylvania erosion is not such a serious problem as in most other sections. The slopes are not as abrupt and hill-sides are covered cºntin- uously with grass, only a small acreage being devoted to the growing of clean cultivated crops. The large stone content also tends to impede losses of water and soil. The land which is used the most for growing clean cultivated crops is the land on which erosion is the greatest problem. Since nearly all crops in Pennsylvania are grown in rotations the short rota- tions are the least desirable and predominate in the general farm sections. Bulletin 305 of the Pennsylvania Agricultural Experiment Station entitled "Types of Farming in Pennsylvania". contains a map which shows the type of farming areas in 1929. It presents a good erosion picture of the State • 100 The beginning of a gully on an Indiana County Farm. FIGURE NO. 36 Small gullies and sheet erosion in northern Indiana County. An excellent method of erosion control put into effect on an Indiana County Farm. FIGURE NO. 37 Cultivated steep slopes wash more readily than flatter areas. In fact, on nearly every farm there are some areas which are so flat that a minimum amount of erosion takes place, while the adjacent slopes may be ruined for cropping purposes. Subsoil often is exposed in cropped land where the slope does not exceed 3 or 4 per cent. In general, the steeper the slope the greater the erosion, other factors being equal. - Certain soil types erode much more readily than others. The old Reconnaissance Soil Survey of Pennsylvania recently was brought up to date and new maps are being prepared. In general, the thinnest soils are those which developed from thin, platy argillaceous shale, schists or from combinations of calcareous and argillaceous shale. Examples of the former are the Calvin, Berks and Dutchess soil series. The latter ar'e exemplified by the Meigs, Belmont, Upshur and Westmoreland soils. The Manor soils represent the main soil derived from schist. There ar'e 58 different soil series recognized on the Reconnaissance Survey and l3l different types. The Pennsylvania State College has been cooperating with the Bureau of Chemistry and Soils of the United States Depart- ment of Agriculture for twenty years in mapping the soils of Pennsylvania. At present, approximately one-third of tº state is mapped. This work is fundamental to the whole land-use program and should be completed as soon as possible. The soil maps Would be more useru, it soil erosion, per cent of slope and land-use features were included, as well as soils. The 10l. Soil Erosion Service has shown, during the summer of 1934, that all of these features can be shown on the same map without much more work than is required to map soils or erosion alone, Farmers in many sections of Pennsylvania practice soil erosion control measures, to some extent. Some of the more common means are strip cropping, planting trees, leaving per- manent grass depressions where gullies might form, and permanent grass for pasture. Mechanical means of control, other than contour plowing, are seldom used. The erosion studies that are being made in Pennsylvania at present consist of three phases: (A) Surveys To show types, location and extent of soil erosion as related to nature of cover, per cent of slope, and soil type. The plan is to make a general or reconnaissance survey, to be supple- mented by many scattered detail surveys or limited acreage made here and there throughout the state. Strip surveys across the state have also been planned , (B) Control Demonstrations Many plots, to illustrate the more desirable methods of control under cropping, permanent pasture, and orchard management practices. In addition, studies are being made which will aid in the selection of trees for timber control • (C) Watershed Demonstrations The aim is to put into practice the most effective measures of control known on a com- plete watershed. The above program is being carried out by the Soil Erosion Service of the United States Department of the Interior. The . 102 Q \} \/ O £92 ° ON BH Thº) | } © IN I N N \/ T e: 38 Ov 83d BVBA 83 d _ Q BQ OHE SIN OL tº T Q3_L\/WN || LSE NOILVAI.LT/mo do SQoH LBW LN3H3+ +IG HEGNm S N O_1, €/2 1.| CI :: AA OTT V/A， soº Q ！! C' \，^e} S \/ I H & TI 3 C \， ^\ | H & Sºoſ Hc] \/\-|90||OOS S N O AL C/2 § € S N O L 6/2 9 }+\/3/N E NO NI SCITE I - JO NO|SONJE N O L Gº/ſ T | --*Jl. V º H NA }}} ŹŃ ŻS $ 2& 2& 2&§ $ $ $ 7ÍNŹN7N E \! ºn JLS Weſ CJ OS �■ M|| || 1||N field work for the Reconnaissance Survey of the State has been completed and several detailed area surveys are available. The semi-experimental or control demonstration plots are being set up on land belonging to The Pennsylvania state College. A * Watershed Demonstrational Area has been selected north of the town of Indiana. It consists of about 130,000 acres and in- cludes about 800 farms. The sum of $200,000 was set aside for this purpose by the Secretary of the Interior on October 5, l234. This report points out the extent of soil erosion in Penn- sylvania and how it is affected by various conditions, including percentage of slope, nature of cover, and soil type; and the work that is being done by the Soil Erosion Service. The State should be made conscious of the seriousness of the situation, Erosion control is too large an undertaking for the average land owner to accomplish unaided. Thousands of acres of land in Pennsylvania already have become unprofitable for agricul- ture through erosion. Thousands of acres more fall into that class each year. It is time that the Federal and State Govern- ments began to work with this problem; if erosion is not con- trolled, it will result in untold losses. ABANDONED FARM LAND A problem which has raised considerable coment and about which little is known is the extent of farm abandonment in Pennsylvania. Anyone who has traveled through the state cannot help but wonder at the vast amount of idle land and the reason 103 for this condition. Farm abandonment is primarily due to cultivating land from which a satisfactory living cannot be derived. There undoubt- edly would be many more farms abandoned if it were not for a reluctance to move away from property accumulated through years of hard work and start life anew in a different environment. From 1900 to 1930 there was a decrease of 51,829 farms and a decrease in the same period of 4,065,542 acres in farm land Within the State. Not all of this former farm land is idle at present. Much has been naturally reforested, purchased by the State, or used for real estate development. A survey made in the winter of 1925-1926 in 15 counties of central and south central Pennsylvania indicated between l,600 and l,700 separate tracts of land, or about 145,000 acres that had not been operated during the previous two years.” The study also indicated about two-thirds of this acreage had been abandoned for the rive previous years. A State-wide survey in the summer of lº26 indicated approximately loã,000 acres of abandoned farm land in the same là counties which checks very closely with the previous study.” in 1928 the Pennsylvania Department of Forests and Waters made a survey in l? counties to determine the amount of idle cleared land in these areas. The total was 232,315 acres, approximately half of the total loss in these counties of non- 5: General EIGHT375, Pennsylvania Department of Agriculture. lC4 wood land farm area from 1910 to l930. Using the results of the study as a basis, it was estimated that approximately 1,200,000 acres of idle cleared land existed in Pennsylvania at that time. This is 7.3 per cent of all cleared land in farms in the State. The results indicated that a much larger percentage of the loss in non-wood land farm area was idle in the poorer farming areas than in the more productive areas. In some counties as high as 20 to 25 per cent of the farms were abandoned by 1929. At that time few of the houses on those farms were occupied but in 1934 practically every house was being used. Until the depression, the trend of population was toward urban centers. This trend has changed in some sec- tions. A comparison of 1929 and 1934 population figures shows four of the poorer farming counties had an increase of 4 per cent in the third and fourth class school districts. During the same period the population in the third and fourth class school districts in four of the better farming counties remained practically the same • Do these people who aré moving to the poorer farming areas and occupying abandoned farm houses expect to invest in a farm only to find in a few years that it doesn't pay and leave as the former occupant has done? To what extent are they paying taxes and supporting the community? To what extent do they add to the poor relief load in these counties? It is highly desirable at present to know the exact con- iO5 Amount of Cleared Landº and Fer Cent of total cleared land Area ille in seventeen counties, issø Loss in Non-Woodland Total of Idle Per Gent of Total County Farm. Area 1319-1930°–Cleared land_Cleared land. Idle Adams 17,422 acres - 5,855 8. Cres 2s2 - Carbon 15,994 4,717 6,2 Centre 24,811 15,390 5,8 Clinton 9,982 12,244 lle6 Crawford 67,875 31,902 6.0 Elk 9,981 8,600 lle 4 Franklin 14,4ll 8,393 2.4 Greene 24,953 12,135 3, 6 Juniata 15,317 8,990 6.0 Lawrence 27,500 17,047 9.4 Monroe 29,140 24,767 15.5 Potter 55,498 23,470 9el Somerset 58,350 21,010 4.9 salivan 9,258 lo,770 lie? Susquehanna 46,271 13,605 3.2’ Union 6,356 4,000 4el York 38,642 9,420 —le? Total 471,761 232,315 5 e4 Estimate for State 2,359,223 1,200,000 7.e3 *Bulletin 51, Pennsylvania Department of Forests and Waters *United States Census 106 · · çoc º on N 113TT nG bº º ON 3 \; ſ^º) | 3•ș noſ 1 w Ls 1. Nawrw 3 & x3 nwun innoi dºwº w NN3e © NI W \iwa WOO8HS nWN%) N | O || 33 TAS-3°13′S Q N\/ 3 VN || L = L\;\/d * OD \!? Lſo■ 3 W 11-Lae wej O NW 3.1 WLS3OD \!? LS3 H|- Nawou Noi Nn – 3-iniasına N Noo Ang LN no.2 vſ HedT3 QVT|H|d A. z? ■♦， .∞ … ºº § & ºccº º ºr -- a --~~~~ º: * * * - sº §º **º- * A º-º-º: . 6.- : *****rº º - * *. ----- OLVLOd roo HĐıHan | ; oNi w dwº zixwą Naº | nvalvºſē AN3H83Ttv *** • • •• " }* • • • • • „º | «， ، ، ، ، ، ،oN16144řis - 413s！Ģae • și œ}•-ººſº§ 8 •••• • • • • • • •© º{T^- ，^ſ šį Sº№ſıvıNņow AN3.H™T'nw; ;# * - e º*№.Ķºj， ſae`ſ ·***-------|------}}} }}！ * * * *-} | N82ısvaHlaeon |-} *\ſ ſ ſae … º（~7），Ķī£r - wae sººººº，，, ſae; -ºſ? »， º.a.:¿№taſ ‘AtdJT no d 'Aſd ſvo ’ıl nuº 3183 3×, vºn S\/?\！] \/ *) N I WN\！] \/ d -, O S3 eſ A.L. dition of these idle lands in regard to their tax and debt situation. Are they still a source of tax income? How has abandonment of some farms affected the costs of schools and road maintenance for those that remain? Is the amount of State aid going into these sparsely settled areas justified or should it be curtailed? Would not the total of State aid over a few years in some sections be enough to buy all the land and turn it into a self-liquidating forest project? . Would this solve the problem of a living and educational opportunity for the present occupants? The se areas of idle land constitute a real land utiliza- tion problem. Two agencies in Pennsylvania have instituted definite programs for better use of large areas of abandoned land. They are the State Department of Forests and Waters and . the State Game Commission. Their future program would possibly absorb all of the idle farm land, but many small tracts are un- suitable for their purposes. Complete adjustment cannot result from the work of the above agencies alone. SUBMARGINAL FARM LAND * The term submarginal farm land as used in this report refers to land so low in productivity and value of products sold per acre that arable farming is uneconomic and undesirable. It is land from which a satisfactory living cannot be derived over a period of normal years. There is no clear cut division between a marginal and a submarginal farm. A slight change in the price of farm products may enangº the classification of LO7 many farms, The fact that both the number of farms and the number of acres in farm land has been steadily decreasing in large numbers since 1900 indicates a trend of conditions which is rendering these farms unprofitable. Even the high prices of farm products during the war period did not stop the trend of farm abandon- ment. The increased use of Inachinery under high prices probably intensified the unfitness of many areas that formerly supported farm people. Without definite standards for judg- ment and detailed studies it is almost impossible to say which farms are submarginal and how many exist. Although it is prob- able that many unprofitable farms are being operated at present, the social welfare of the people living on these areas should not be overlookede Reliable information for locating the poorer farming areas in Pennsylvania is essential. To determine the value of land for agricultural purposes two important factors must be con- sidered. One is cost of weauction, influenced largely by yields; the other the cost of marketing. An attempt has been made to make a preliminary estimate of the number of submarginal farms in the State • As a basis for determining the more serious areas, a weighted index number of crop production per acre and and index number of value of products per acre for Pennsylvania, each by minor civil divisions, was used” . The power areas *TOEtained from a SūyTOFECOnomic LanāTGTESSIFICATIOTIn Fenn- sylvania which is now being made by the Department of Agricul- tural Economics, the Pennsylvania State College, 108 C\tº “O N E ± n ∈ I & ( Nolli N1330 woº Lx3 L 33s) - º.º. Ni waevº dos TvN10&vwens ‘SweJwJ TV LOL JO 3&OW & O ºſoO2 --ģ 'S d | H S NAVAO_L \E SVy2}} \/ WN?} V_J T\/N|9}}\/WN € (nS were mapped from the se indices and with the assistance of per- sons well informed in the various counties. The results of the survey, completed in November, 1934, are shown in an accompanying figure. The shaded areas are townships where 20 per cent or more of the farms under culti- vation are estimated to be submarginal. These shaded townships are considered a distinct problem land-use area. The general location of these areas is in the northern counties and the south central section along the Appalachian Mountains, where the soil, topography and climatic conditions are less favorable to agricultural production. It is estimated from this preliminary survey that slightly more than 10,000 farms within the designated problem areas are submarginal. This is about 6.5 per sent of all farms in the State and 40 per cent of all the farms in the problem areas. Approximately l, 133,000 acres are included in these submarginal farms. Of the total, 357,000 acres are in crop land and 403,000 in pasture land. It has been estimated that there are about 120,000 acres of submarginal farm land not included in the above problem area. This would make a total of approx- imately 1,250,000 acres of such land in the State, or slightly more than 8 per cent of the total land area in farms in 1930. Reliable estimates place the value of the land and buildings per acre on the submarginal farm land at $20.80. These estimates were inclined to be higher than actual sales indicated. The section with lowest valuation was the 109 Appalachian Mountain region in central and south central Penn- sylvania, which was $14.80 per acre. In the Pocomo Mountain resort section in northeastern Pennsylvania, the value was es- timated at $53 per acre. This is too high for agricultural purposes but the area is a popular hunting and resort section, which keeps the value of land very high. Tax Delinquency. Since 1929 current tax delinquency has not in all cases been most serious in the poorer farming areas. Farmers who had large cash incomes were affected more by the sudden drop in prices than the farmers with low incomes. For this reason, current tax delinquency is not a very good indica- tion of poor farm land or submarginal conditions. A better indication of the net returns from farming is the amount of continued tax delinquency. Data was obtained from the County Treasurers' books in several counties on the number of farms on which the 1931 and 1932 taxes were not paid on August 1, 1934, at which time such farms were to be put up for sale, With one exception the problem areas had a much higher percentage of tax delinquency than the non-problem areas. In McKean County it was almost five times as great. Wenango County showed a very high percentage of delinquency, 18 per cent for the non-problem area and 34 per cent for the problem area. The 1932 figures show an enormous increase in de- linquency over 1931 for McKean and Susquehanna Counties, the only counties for which the later figures were obtained. ll.0 Per Cent of 1931 and 1932 County Taxes on Farms Delinquent August la 1934 Non-Problem Area Problem Area - Number of FF Per Cent Delinquent RESSF of Farms Per Cert Delinquent County 1930 Census: 1931. 1932 1930 Census 1931 1932 McKean 191 4. 10 890 19 25 Susquehanna 2030 2 15 1140 2 18 Warren . 902 lò 1090 22 Wenango 1132 18 638 34 lli Incomes. The average farm income by townships worked out from the l930 census figures is shown in an accompanying map. This is not a true picture of the value of the land for agricultural purposes but it does show distinct areas of high and low in- comes. The southeastern area stands out clearly as having high farm, incomes. The areas of low income per farm correspond closely to the problem area map where 20 per cent or more of the farms are considered submarginal. The Pocono Mountain re- sort section, and the central and south central sections show exceptionally low incomes per farm. These areas would show a much lower income if it were not for a few or the better farms. raising the average. The area in sueuehanne and northern Wayne Counties have high average incomes for problem areas. This is due to the fact that dairying was very profitable the year the census was taken . ; Population Decline. The trend of population within Pennsylva- nia from l?00 to l929 was usually away from * poor farming areas. Most of the counties showing a decrease contain large areas of submarginal and abandoned farm land. The principal areas where population has declined is in the northern counties east of McKean, where the people are mostly rural. Potter County had a 42.9 per cent decrease between i910 and 1930, Tioga – 35.l, and Sullivan - 38.2 per cent decrease. These losses have probably been at the expense of the rural popula- tion. The per cent of abandonment in these counties is estimated to be very great. Little informationſ is known con- ll2 lº * O N 3\a nºD i 3· Sns N 3:0 za H.L. Jo nv 28 nº - 3 O& 3 W WO3 + O -iN 3 W.J. & Veł3Q *S* n (sgwnnog) OO ȘI \} E AOO OO || • ! O ºO O G • O | • *** ！! $.a. }:-） ||| || $ ſº ſº;∞∞∞ Ēģ|ſſſſ |Ģ :$:$●į$|| ķ{{#ll | } { | *…*i. | W ºwy - 3 H_L NO G3 WnSNOO （8 Q3G v 8. L‘GTOS S.L.OnQO8d S3CJ^T DNÍ 626 || • Sc} | HS NNW O L ź 35)\/\ł 3 /\\/ S_LO Q CJOH, el WN \} \， + + O E TITI \//\ G \，\/OG**) || . © N | N N V ºl eſ2 tz ' ON E H {nº} | } Q A&E NIHOVW W HVA NI B'HCV HEd LNB WN LSBANI ĒLĒT TĒTI 17| ••• TJETJETJ || 7 || … Eāīl |7|| … VÌ H ei ºl 5. O vºſ į H & SOIHd\/ OIOOS cerning the effect of this emigration on fiscal conditions and social life in these areas. Factors Responsible for suwarginal Farms and Farm Abandonment. The fact that the farm land in Pennsylvania has been decreasing at the rate of 135,000 acres annually for the past 30 years is ‘conclusive evidence that some sound social and economic factors have been responsible. It is hard to say how long this trend Will continue. Increasing Cost of Production. In the past twenty years there has been a decided increase in the cost of production on Penn- sylvania farms. From l910 to 1930 taxes on farm real estate increased l39 per cent, farm mortgage indebtedness 85 per cent, and the investment in machinery and implements per acre l65 per cent. While these steady increases in costs were taking place, prices of farm products in this State advanced only 47 per cent. Farm prices did not advance nearly as much as the major costs of production. This more extensive farm equipment can be used, with profit, only on the better land. A study” of taxation in Pennsylvania in 1925 indicated that 13.6 per cent of the gross income of farm people was re- quired to pay their taxes that year while only 9.5 per cent of the income of all other people went for the same purpose. In the same study it was found that 38 per cent of the net income of farms and mining corporations was required to pay x-F-F. Weaver, Pennsylvania Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 263 ll3 their taxes • These are the types of businesses that require large investments in real estate • Other types of businesses requiring limited investments in property rata only 13 to 27 per cent of their net income for taxes. These figures indicate the unjust tax burden that is placed on farm real estate. Early in 1933 a survey* of 53 counties indicated that approximately 139,996 acres of cleared land had reverted to county ownership, no bids being made for the amount of the de- linquent taxes • This condition may not have existed if more equitable tax assessments had been • Competition from Other Areas. Improvements in agricultural production and in marketing have been the cause of considerable maladjustments in many eastern farming areas. Before mechanic- al power was used there was not much difference in the efficiency of farming anywhere in the United States. The specialized producing areas in the west are well adapted to large scale mechanized farming while certain sections of Penn- sylvania, with its rough topography, are not. For this reason some Pennsylvania farmers have found it difficult to compete with areas of more level topography, Along with specialized production came improvements in transportation. In 1955 Wisconsin supplied 31 per cent of the cream receipts in the Philadelphia markete. In the same year only 10 per cent of the egg receipts in that market were sup- *TPennsylvania Department of Forests ºters 114 0 & VOC）€ț» ‘ ON E H TºO|…} © N | N N V” leſ { }&+\/TTO Q SHE WN HW+ 3 HL S 8 W/TT O Q X \/ _1s 8 v. T T O Q 3 W O O N I 04.01O@ OOI O|6|| 55 | 5 || || 5 || FÈ so I w I Hed ºn 3 Q v ºn 1 H & SO[He] \/\.jſ$") OÍDOS plied by Pennsylvania farms. Most of the eggs consumed in our eastern markets are produced in the mid-western states. Low cost of production and adequate transporation facilities enable them to successfully compete in our markets. These conditions are tending to make farming less profitable on the poorer farm land in this State. Farming, especially for crop production, will have a tendency to concentrate in the more level areas. Large areas of marginal land in the west are still undeveloped. This fact indicates that abandoned and sub- marginal farm land in Pennsylvania probably will not be needed in the future for agricultural production. Depletion of Soil Fertility. Loss of soil fertility is occur- ring in Pennsylvania in two principal ways, by soil erosion and by removing plant food by crop removal without restoring this fertility. The loss by soil erosion has been adequately dis- cussed already in another section of this paper. Information on loss of fertility by crop removal is not available. Tests of lime requirements indicate that many of the farms, es- pecially in the northern counties, are becoming more acid. When the farming area of Pennsylvania was still increasing, larger areas of cut-over land were put under the plow. Prices of farm products were relatively high, competition from other areas not oppressive, and the soil. fairly productive. Under these conditions, farming was profitable. As competition became more keen, these farms did not pay so well. Fertility of the soil and building repairs were ll.5 neglected. All of the income was needed to pay ourrent ex- penses. As the fertility of the land decreased the returns also decreased. The inevitable result was tax delinquent sales and farm abandonments Other Factors. The disappearance of local markets in some areas is also an important factor in the welfare of nearby farmers. Decadent mining, and the disappearance of lumbering and manufacturing towns that once furnished good local markets for a limited number of farmers have, in many cases, resulted in submarginal conditions for farmers. Supplemented income and employment in the lumbering business was at one time an important item for many farmers, especially in the central and northern sections of the State. rh. peak of lumber production was reached in 1900. Since then both farm land and the lumbering business have declined rapid- ly. Pennsylvania lumber production in 1930 was only about ten per cent of what it was in 1900. In 1928 a land utilization study was made in Wyoming Coun- ty to determine what factors made land submarginal for farming in the poorer areas of Pennsylvania. * The area studied is in the northeastern part of the State, some of it being in the problem area already referred to. Accurate information of all operations was obtained on 50 selected farms and a record of land use and occupancy on 1,307 F-F-T: WFIgley Fernsylvania Tzricultural ExperimeTETSEREIGHT Bulletin. 257. - ll6 of the l,543 farms reported in the 1920 census. Although the study involved only a small number of farms for the short period of a year some definite recommendations and conclusions were made • Operating expenses are so nearly equal to returns that any unfavorable relationship between these items would have a tendency to increase farm abandonment • Consolidation of holdings should and will take place in the future to increase the efficiency of the farming unit. The smaller farming units are having the most difficulty. Wolusia and Lordstown soils, which are unsuited for crop production, are usually submarginal for farming and should be abandoned in most cases • Approximately one-fifth of the county, an area of 50,000 acres, was recommended for forestry and recreational purposes as its best possible use. These areas lie chiefly in the southwestern and northwestern parts of the county.” It is possible tº this discussion of submarginal farm land to point out certain trends that probably will occur in the future • Land now out of cultivation or abandoned will not be needed again, for many years at least, for agricultural purposes. Operations on the poorer farm lands in Pennsylvania will tend to become less profitable • Decrease in farm acreage probably will continue. Problems of readjustment in land use will become greater, More research will be necessary to ade- quately cope with the situation • *F. I. WFigley, Fennsylvania IgEIGUIETFEI Experiment.TSECTIOT Bullet in 257, 117 Studies in land utilization have been neglected in, the past. The Wyoming County study has been mentioned. Early in l932 the Greater Pennsylvania Council planned and started ex- tensive land use studies but this organization was terminated. before any satisfactory results were obtained. At present the Department of Agricultural Economics at The Pennsylvania State College is working on an economic land classification map of the State . This map is to classify land in Pennsylvania according to its value for agricultural purposes. This study Will be of invaluable assistance in any future program of land use. More detailed study is needed covering also the social problems involved. The large areas of submarginal farm land in Pennsylvania should eventually be put to their best possible use with the least amount of disturbance within our social structure. These lands probably should be retired from farming and devoted to forestry and recreational uses. Before any definite programs are started by either National, State, or other agencies, de- tailed studies should be made of both land and people in each 8|I’83 a As H. A. Wallace, Secretary of Agriculture, stated before the American Civic Association in St. Louis, October 24, l?34, concerning land use planning, "We cannot move much faster than research makes the facts available, and we must not attempt to move faster than local public opinion will permit." 118 Index Numbers Showing Changes in Prices of Farm Products, Farm ortgage Indebtedness, Taxes on Farm Real ºstates and Investment in Implements and Machinery £er Acre of farmland In Pennsylvania from 1910 to 1882: Year Prices of Farm Mortgage Indebtedness Real Estate Taxes Investment in Products Miachinery and Equipment, 1910 100 lCO 100 100 1920 218 l45 1635 244 1925 160 l80 221 226 1930 147 l85 259 265 Prices of Farm Products from Pennsylvania Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 309; other from United States Department of Agriculture. 119 FOREST LAND AS A BASIC RESOURCE* Forests have become valuable because of the multitude of wood products that civilized man has been able to extree! i’r'Om them, from construction timber to paper, pulp and fuel weed. As accessible virgin timber supplies have been blotted out , nations have quickly discovered their dependence on wood and forest pro- ducts, and have set about producing wood as a planned crop. Further, with the greater leisure for the masses of our people, the forest has become a playground. It is sought for the pleasures of hunting and fishing. Many citizens build in it summer homes and camps. . It is used as sites for hotels and sanatoria. The forest is recognized as a conservator of rain- fall and &S 3. reservoir protection for domestic water supply and power use, as well as a regulator of stream flow. Forest areas would be retained and developed as a public resource even if there were not a stick of timber coming from them. The certainty not only of self support but of their becoming the source of an important financial income from the wood produced as a raw material, improves their position as a capital resource subject to public planning and development. Even though our industrial ingenuity is able to develop acceptable substitutes for many wood products, the cheapness * Prepared by E. A. Ziegler, D. Sc., Director Forest Re- search. Institute, Department of Forests and Waters, Mont Alto. ~! . 120 | : -* of producing wood and wood fiber, and the new uses for it constantly developing, will always keep it as one of our im- portant raw materials. Wood has the advantage over coal, oil and gas for fuel, and over the metals for construction, in that it is a reproducable crop. If the forest lands are properly handled our wood supplies can be forever replenished, but the mineral fuels and many metals are subject to ex- haustion. In the last analysis, we may have to fall back on the solar energy-storing abilities of our forests on a large scale for our increasing fuel and power demands • Already some European nations are requiring a certain percentage of wood alcohol to be used with gasoline for motor fuel. Further, it is good public policy to keep large 8.1768. S of lands in forests, for with no other profitable use these areas would soon deteriorate through erosion and injure ad- jacent agricultural lands as well as ruin our commercial waterways and water works of all kinds. NECESSITY OF LONG TIME PLANNING Forest trees develop more slowly than shade trees be- cause of the smaller portion of light received by each tree, when many trees are on 3.11. 8. CT 8 of land. This crowding of forest trees is necessary to shade out the lower branches and produce long clean tree trunks of maximum lumber value. The soil where ornamental trees are placed is also generally enriched. Knotty trees are desired for practically no use - not even fire wood. Unlike shade and ornamental trees which l2l may grow an inch in diameter in one to two years, forest trees require three to five years to grow each inch in diameter, and generally require 30 to 40 years to grow small diameter wood materials like paper-wood, mine timbers and posts; 40 to 60 years to grow poles for wire lines or to grow railroad ties; and 50 to 100 or even more years to grow fine quality saw timber 12 to 30 inches in diameter • Rapidity of forest growth varies with timber species, rainfall and temperatures in different parts of our country, but within fixed limits. Even though we still have some virgin high quality tim- ber left in our Pacific Coast and Rocky Mountain forests which may be had at a reasonable price, including trans- portation to the eastern seaboard, this supply is strictly limited and will not remain plentiful to the end of the long period of years, necessary to grow high grade timbers on our devastated forest lands in the East . It is essential, therefore, that we take forest planning more seriously, es- pecially in * eastern half of the country where the great preponderance of our population resides and where our great lumber and wood markets are bound to continue • This long time element is a great retarding factor for private forestry, and coupled with the expanding and dominant social benefits of forests, forms the chief reason for govern- ment ownership and management of forests on a large scale. Forests are pre-eminently fitted for investment and management by continuous organizations such as corporations using them 9 ſºÀ v roN 3wnowa Skł3.LV/AA º SLS3 d'O+ + O LN3 w Laeva zao'w NN3d ºs../Aº{ ~•••* așşamºriasA’ ºg ºſ} <,\，į § sº ºr→ �~~~~(_）xae） sºwº.^ NJ „º șN. × auswºnºn Asºvºoºº…?čºvé„”*«» •••\，;^NJLºrº----* 7•••••,N< >A√∞A/’ �\,~.**.^••{ |-.rº”§ § §§ *aeÑ/N...”`----$ .^·ºdºkſºſºmu wnae\ºwº-saºpaeºs！ ●V’S） N|----~* <^\ſ\s*（\?|&sovº. Asiana„* • • •）, „...„ www.vs… / sela*/ ſº|?{} tsanqwaequuwr,y�·•· �„º4w ºbawºrę o |} |4 •sawwoçQYp-|- J*^Ų?!…inA，.^.^\--^--.--._.--.^ | ， ، ،/*|/ øÁº �/-! \，\！}，● . .，...）��*ş•••••�Q^ataxawa'nış|-----| ??!!,，，{Q|• J•\ıławnee&q � |Nºnºswºwº włºſºw ºwº，|ș·ſae }___/_ºuwo^^ºC-）， ±，±）， |-|ſºț¢ © ® ||ſºr+•çºs w NºwMºunbºns||4·|Mae/2y^3\， S LS3}} O_3 3_L\/ LS for raw material supply, or vital protection of water re- sources, and by the different branches of the government itself. amºria OF WOOD PRODUCTS An examination of the consumption of wood products by some other nations of Europe and America shows that those nations are exporters of wood when the productive forest acreage exceeds one acre per capita, and importers when the national forest acreage is less than one acre. Their managed forest grows about 50 cubic feet or a little over a half cord of wood per acre a year, taking all classes of forest together. The colder nations grow less. Nations like Germany, France and Switzerland, with only .5 to .6 per acre of productive forest per capita must import a con- siderable part of the wood used. Poland is one of the few nations that export timber but have less than 1.0 acre of forest per inhabitant. This is accomplished through great self-denial in domestic wood use. Although with central European standards of living and advanced forest management one acre of forest per inhabitant. makes a nation self-supporting in wood and timber supply, our own American standards are much higher. We, in this State and Nation, require three to four times the wood volume per inhabitant that the front rank Central European nations do, despite the fact that we have a greater abundance of mineral fuels - coal, oil and gas. The United States with four acres. 125 of forest land per capita is in a position to maintain this higher standard of living and high wood consumption, by in- tensifying its forest management, and doubling the wood grown per acre of forest. Pennsylvania with its less than leg acres per capita will always consume more wood than it can grows even with a slow growing or stationary population. Comparison of Wood Growna Consumeda and the Eorest Acreage per Inhabitant for a number of Nations Per Inhabitant –––...º. Wood Consumption Wood Forest Countr - or Drain Growth. Area (cubic feet) (cubic feet) (Acres) Wood exporting countries Canada 285 plus 225 25.0 Finland 350 369 14 • 7 Sweden 265 197 9 •9 United States 134 73 4 •0 Norway 149 123 5.3 Russia (Europe) 7O 127 3,7 Poland . 23 31 Oe 9 Wood importing countries Switzerland 36 22 Oe 6 Germany 33 27 0.5 Belgium 30 ll 0-2 France 27 23 Oe 6 Great Britain - 2l 1. 0-l Pennsylvania - 89. 39 le4 Note - Canada's total commercial forest is not thought to be much over 250 million acres. The above figures on con- sumption apply to 1928-29, except for Canada, Sweden and Russia where they apply to an earlier year and may be relatively high for present consumption • The authorities used are "A National Plan for American Forestry" - U. S. Forest Service; "Forest Resources of the World," Zon and Sparhawk; For Pennsylvania, The Pennsylvania Forest Research Institute Reports; "Forestry in Sweden," Perry. * - 124 RECREATION The recreational use of the forest is an equal public service, and shortly may be recognized as even a greater one than supplying raw wood materials where population is as dense as in Pennsylvania. The greater leisure time of the people, the improved roads and the almost universal use of the automobile have made more and more distant areas of forest land accessible to larger portions of our population. Extensive forest areas are available or can be developed on otherwise idle and waste land in every part of the State. The recreational use of the forest may modify timber grow- ing plans but is readily correlated with such plane. HUNTING AND FISHING - A specialized phase of the use of land for recreation must be recognized in hunting and fishing. These uses of land in Europe, with the iron-clad development of property ownership and rights over them are generally made the sub- ject of commercialized forest income. Private and even state owners of forest land and waters in Europe lease the exclusive hunting and fishing rights to the highest bidder and as a result, hunting and fishing recreation on forest lands are the prerogatives generally only of the wealthier class. The average man in Europe cannot hunt and fish. In America, with our long enjoyment of the open forest as a "commons" we have developed by custom the rights of the masses to hunt and fish on unenclosed lands as long as they do not injure the property. This mass right to hunt and fish over adequate lands should be preserved to our people for all time through gov- ernment ownership of such lands. Private forest lands are rapidly being secured and enclosed by private hunting and fishing clubs and the general public is excluded. This movement should be headed off by the extension of govern- ment forest Tand ownership. Walues involved for fishing are much less quantita- tively than for hunting. Also the State Fish commission seeks to keep open streams on private lands to public fishing, through stocking with game fish. It seems reason- ably certain that public fishing rights will be preserved even in streams on private lands. Forest cover on fishing streams is important in maintaining clear waters at rela- tively low temperatures for such game fish as trout and bass. The fishing license method of financing State hatcheries and state stocking, together with limitation of the seasonal and daily catch of game fish, should bring back good fishing - provided the waters are kept pure and cool by foresting the maximum area on their watersheds. The continued development of water reservoirs for power, domestic use and stream control will add to the fishing re- creation of the State. Such artificial lakes as Wallenpau- pack, Pymatuning, the three dams on the lower Susquehanna, the dams on the Clarion ana Monongahela, and the many smaller developments will be powerful aids in enhancing this popular 126 recreation. The policy of the State Department of Forests and Waters and Water and Power Resources Board, of reserving to the public maximum fishing, shooting and recreation rights on these lakes even when privately owned, is to be highly commended. Considerable improvement in making streams on State forests and game lands favorable for fish life is possible by the building of artificial pools and improvement of stream channels, COOPERATION IN USE OF FORESTS Maximum benefits from large forest areas require close cooperaticn between technical foresters, seeking to perpetuate the needed timber supply, and the health and recreation in- terests, the hunters and sportsmen, the Water conservation engineers and others. This is particularly true of govern- ment-owned forests. A good example of this may be found in the Mont Alto State Forest in Franklin and Adams Counties. An area in the center of was forest, on a mountain plateau, has been set aside for the State Health bearine's free tuberculosis sanatorium, where the health dividends of the forest are paramount. Several watersheds are closed to camping for the pro- tection of the water reservoirs which furnish the populations of Waynesboro, Mont Alto and the sanatorium with water. These watersheds will never be denuded or contaminated, and the forest springs held up even in such droughts as 1930 and 1931. 127 Mont Alto and Old Forge Park areas are set aside for public picnic grounds • Camp sites are leased for SUlrºlēI* homes and camps. An are: in this state forest is set aside as a game refuge, where the public is excluded in the hunting season. The entire forest outside this refuge is a public shooting ground. Camp sites are leased to hunters. The Fish Commission stocks the low temperature streams with trout. With all these social services this forest is producing wood for local fuel and timber for wood-using industries • Between 1920 and 1928 there was sold, from this forest of 22,000 acres, over $200,000 worth of wood (largely blighted chestnut) most of which went into wages for local labor. The original cost of this forest to the State was but $77,000. Reduction of roºst AREA The United Btates once had about 820,000,000 acres of forest. This has been reduced by clearing for agriculture and by lumbering and repeated burning to less than 500,000,000 acres. Likewise Pennsylvania, which was once an almost Ull- broken forest of 28,000,000 acres, has had its forest growth reduced (largely by agricultural clearing) to 13,000,000- acres. In this reduced area are included several million acres of burned brush areas, hardly worthy of being called "forest." This reduction of forest area in Pennsylvania pro- gressed so far on steep and inferior soils, that a strong. t—- * Abandoned farms and other lands reverting to forest raise - this figure to 14,533,292 acres. r 128 counter movement of farm abandonment has set in. Already al- most 1,500,000 acres of farms are in the abandoned class. Agricultural specialists believe that another 1,700,000 acres of still active farms will be found submarginal in the near future and should be transferred to forest, game and park ll S6 e l29 Present Land Use (1) Forest Land (a) Mature forest (b) 2nd growth (c) Restocking (d) Not restocking a" erosion negligible. l,544,347 b' erosion moderate 387,923 c" erosion critical 404 aô80 Total not restocking (e) Game & wild life forest (f) Farm forest Total forest (2) Park & Recreational Land (3) Agriculture (a) Crop (b) Pasture - (c) other farm (exc. woodland) Total agriculture (4) Estimate for towns, railroads, roads and Misc. use Acres 694;492 5,800,455 1,464,682 2,336,950 873,399 3.1363 aglº 7,813,826 3,238,419 893 1925 14,533,292 94,946 11,946,170 Total land in State 2all3.072 28.692,480 l30 If abandoned farms and other land slowly reverting to forest is excluded, there still remains something over 13,000,000 acres of land under some forest cover. These figures are partly estimates. They include data from all special forest land and abandoned farm land surveys made in the State and available to date, as well as data from the United States Census and the State Departments con- cerned. TIMBER REDUCTION To arrive at the present timber stand and growth in the state it is necessary to reclassify the forest area, ex- cluding the reverting cleared land and rounding to thousands: Forest Land by Types and Stand Conditions Forest Beech-Birch-Maple Oak-Hickory Class Type’ Type (Acres) (Acres) Saw timber 450,000 1,381,000 Cordwood stands 1,959,000 3,470,000 Growth below cordwood - (a) Restocking ... l;563,000 1,670,000 (b) Unsatisfactory 200,000 1,000,000 Practically deforested 285,000 11107,000 Totals 4,457 ,000 8,628 ,000 Total Area (Acres) i,831,000 5,429,000 3,233,000 l, 200,000 laš92a000 13,085,000 The approximately 28,000,000 acres of virgin forest in Pennsylvania may be safely estimated to have averaged 10,000 board feet per acre • Large areas of virgin hemlock and hard- woods averaged 20,000 board feet, and individual stands ran up to 50,000 and even 100,000 board feet per acre. It is evident lól that this magnificent virgin forest contained about' 280,000,000,000 board feet of timber. There were cut and utilized about 70,000,000,000 board feet of timber (log size) up to l870 and 100,000,000,000 board feet since 1870. The other l10,000,000,000 board feet must be accounted for in actual destruction of logs in the clearing of early farms; for the bark alone used in tanning, leaving the then un- merchantable peeled hemlock, chestnut oak, and chestnut logs to rot on the ground; for fuel wood; ties; poles; mine tim- bers; pulpwood, and minor products. Forest fires also took a heavy toll, though these have been worse in their cumulative effect on the second growth forest. This virgin forest has been stripped from our lands and only a few small remnants of its glorious expanse now remains The following table shows the total lumber cut of Penn- sylvania for census years from 1870 to 1930. Detailed record of species is available only from 1900. Hemlock, oak, white pine and chestnut have been the leading species. In 1900 the conifers, hemlock, white pine and yellow pine, formed 71 per cent of the cut. In 1930 they formed only 29 per cent of the cut. It is estimated that our lumber cut will fall to about 200,000,000 feet, and that over 90 per cent of this cut will be hardwood, before the improved forest management is able to again start the cut upward. 132 PENNSYLVANIA's LUMBER GUT (U. S. Census) C e n s u s Y e a r Species 1870-1880-1890 1900. 1910 1920, 1930 TMillion board feet cut) Hemlock 1,558 687 225 80 Oak Cut not 342 297 145 92 Chestnut 45 108 85 19 Maple detailed 49 92 49 40 White pine 221 92 44 ll Beech by species ~ 57 39 34. Yellow pine 18 33 2 gº Birch prior to 1900 10 22 ll 6 Yellow poplar 10 15. 7 º Ash census 5 lO 4. sº Basswood 10 13 6 3 Hickory 4. 15 l 2 Allowance for other species and for mills not reporting 61 22 22 27 Total cut l,630-1,734-2,113 2,333 l;463 640 314 The next table shows Pennsylvania's fall from first place among the lumber producing states of the Union in 1850 to twenty-second place in 1929. The maximum cut occurred in 1899 (1900 Census report) when 2,333,000,000 board feet were cut, and the lumber towns such as Cross Fork, Cammal, Sinnemahoning, and a dozen others of the north central part of the State had not yet vanished. Had adequate planning and fore sight been exercised by the State fifty years ago, these communities would be thriving today and nearby agricultural lands, now also abandoned, would still be the location of prosperous families. There would be millions more of taxable property. Pennsylvania has sufficient land for forest management to bring back her 133 maximum limber cut and associated forest industries - tanning, paper making, wood distillation, stave manufacture and all the others , PRESENT FOREST INDUSTRY The accompanying table on Forest Industries gives the Census data on Pennsylvania primary and secondary wood indus- tries, whose raw material is wood or wood fiber to a consider- able degree. These industries employed over 62,000 workers or 5.4 per cent of all gainfully employed workers in the State. They received almost $91,000,000 in salaries and wages, or 5.2 per cent of all paid in the State. The output of these plants had a value of $348,000,000 or 4.7 per cent of all manufactures in the State. Even at our low ebb of 1929 the wood industries are found large enough to have their future supply of raw material planned for on a large scale. Addition- al industries will be developed as the lumber and wood products again begin to increase, WOOD CONSUMPTION The following table sets forth the approximate wood consum- ed and that cut within the State. The excess consumed is shipped into the State from other states, Canada, and other foreign countries. Wood and wood pulp have come in from as far as Scandinavia and Russia. 134 SOCIOGRAPHICS P H 1 L A D E L PH1 A 1850 1860 1880 1890 A = PENNSYLVANIA 13 TH 1900 |9|O 1919. FALL OF PENNSYLVANIA IN RANK OF STATES PRODUCING LUMBER F GURE NO. 4.6 B OA R D 19TH Forest Industry in Pennsylvania (Census for 1929, figures rounded) Industry Employee Primary Wood Products Lumber and timber 3,605 Planning mill 7,069 Box mſge l,757 Cooperage 563 Custom - saw-mills (este) 2,000 Paper and pulp lC),864 Wood distille and charcoal 721 Wood preserving ll.8 Wood turned, etce liºz Total 28,054 Secondary and Part-wood Products Agricultural Implements 897 Bags - paper 698 Boxes - paper 5,985 Cardboard 365 Carriages, wagons, sleds 245 Caskets, burial cases 8,834 Envelopes 96l Furniture 13,713 Lasts, etce '67 Models & patterns 635 Refrigerators 514 Wall paper l,518 Total 34,232 $3,716,000 l2,405,000 2,299,000 829,000 2,000,000 l'7,453,000 857,000 171,000 labbé,000 4.l., 284,000 l, 327,000 973,000 6,575,000 765,000 337,000 l4,57l,000 l, 236,000 19,841,000 ll'7,000 l,033,000 867,000 3,041,000 49,683,000 Walue of Product $10,874,000 35, 367,000 7,567,000 5,063,000 5,000,000 95,509,000 5,654,000 3,493,000 4,064,000. 170,591,000 2,996,000 5, lă3,000 21,568,000 2,489,000 l,035,000 74,364,000 4,093,000 55,512,000 216,000 2, lêl,000 6,794,000 178,337,000 135 PENNSYLVANIA ANNUAL WOOD CONSUMPTION AND CUT (PRE-DEPRESSION) Equivalent Material Unit Suantity or Bach unit standing Tree/volume Consumed Cut Consumed-Cut in State See unit column Million cus ºft. Lumber Mill-ft.B.M. 2/1,900 3.13 414e O 68s. 6 Fuel wood Farms Thoue cords 859 859 Other rural º * 487 487 Total $º º l,346 ls346 lC2• 3 lO2.5 Hewed ties " pcs. 4/1,000 506 4/ lz.6 6el Fence posts Q º 5,100 5slCO 7.7 7.7 Pulpwood º cords 353 82 40e O 9.5 Woodpulp (imported) tº Cº. 400 tº-e 46.0 º (equivalent) Mine timber (round) Mille cu. ft. 100 75el l30,0 97.7 Logs, veneer, export & Infge ſº Wº tº ll ll 2.8 2.8 0.7 Cooperage stock, slack and tight 3/ small 3/ 24.0 small Shingles Thousands 4/ 100 4/ 2.0 small Poles and piling 1. 4/ 20 4/ 5.0 0.2 Cordwood * cords 212 212 l2.l 12-l (Distile stann 3. excelsior, etce Total (utilized) - 797,9 307.7 Fire drain-93,000 acres loss yearly l8.6 18.6 10 yrs, growth or 200 cu. ft. per Ae Insect drain 3.0 3.0 Loss in natural thinning unutilized trees over 3.5 ine dºº-º-º-º: 108 or growth —39-0 59e O Total forest drain - 858-5 368 e5 # cooperage products in the U.S. Peeled volume. Approxe ave pre-depression figure; 596 mille bde fºe consumed in l932. Pennae cooperage plants manufacture 8 per cent of the value of all The consumption of staves and heading was therefore taken as 8 per cent of the U.S. Total. Estimatee # The "cut" figures are averages for l925–29, The "consumed" figures are pre-depression but not always five year averages as these are not available in many cases. Q &\/O £Lț7 ° O N B \，-} {\º) | -! © N ! N N \/ *（1 € | }- VINVATASNNEd NI Q = WinsNoo H3 gwn-ı */s 0$ a \! ， HAWA， ST， Q ！) n G O & & ! ！！ ！！ ！！ ！！ ！！ ！！ ！！ !！ ！！ ！！ ！！ !！ ！！ ！！ ！！ ！！ ！！ ！！ ！！ ！=q º/o ſº ſº V || N. WAT A S N Nºrdeſ N | O riº n Q Q \， --------- q w | H & " E Q \/ *|? || H. d. SO|Hc] \/85) O|OOS STANDING, TIMEER Using the same forest land classification as is included under "area”, the volume of growing trees may be estimated as follows: The growth of peeled wood is estimated below for the Standing Timber in Pennsylvania Land Beech—Birch-Maple Oak-Hickory Total Class” Type ** © Stand (NHTTion Bd. Ft.) Softwood 367 779 l, l46 Saw Timber Hardwood l, 317 3,434 4.75l. Total l,684 4,213 5,897 (Thousand cords) gº Softwood 88O 4,254 31,716 Cordwood Hardwood 30,836 30,179 34,433 Total 31,716 34,433 66, 149 (Below cordwood size generally) Restocking g-e gº tº º Satisfactory *-º gºe º Unsatisfactory * = •. gº • Deforested • gº gº forest land classes adopted. A recent growing stock survey of 60,000 acres in 70 scattered compartments of State Forests gave an average growth of 37 cu. ft. of unpeeled wood or about 33 cu. ft. of peeled wood per acre and year in trees 3.5 inches in diameter breast high and over. The average growth of 29 cu. ft. per acre for this State-wide estimate appears good if trees above 3.5 inches in diameter lost in natural thinnings are included. Some allowance must then be made under "forest drain" for this loss. 137 ANNUAL WOOD GROWTH IN FENNSYT WANIA Beech-Birch-Maple Oak-Hickory Total - Type Type Total Land Class Growth per acrº Total—Growth. Growth per acre Total Growth. Saw Timber Gus Vol. Bde Fte Cu,Ft. Mille Mille Bde Ft. Cueft. Mill. Mille Mill. Bd. Mille Bdelºte CueFt. • Bde Ft. Cuejºts F't e Cu-Ft. Saw Timber 80 2O 35 9 30 36 llo 49 l45 .58 Cordwood - 50 - 59. º 40 • 139 * lºS Restocking: satisfactory we 35 º 55 Tºº 3O tº 50 tº l()5 unsatisfactory tº l'7 4 º' 3 tº l,5 tºp l6 * > 18 Deforested dº O.5 tº ºn' tº tº º tº-e º º tº º Grand Total dº tºº 35 l26 tº º ll.0 253 l45 379 Note: The average acre stand for the 13,085,000 acres of forest land is placed at 643 cu. ft. of peeled wood - the average increment 29 cu. ft. per acre or 4.5 per cent. This increment per cent falls as the average stand increases in quantity and size. Here is the vital argument for growing more timber in the State, by extending State forest ownership; by better forest protection and management; and by reforesting all abandoned farms and idle lands available. We are growing but 379,000,000 cubic feet of wood each year, and we are consuming almost 858,000,000 cubic feet. In other words, the State is importing 56 per cent of its wood requirements. Our supplies are being brought from farther and farther points, until now much comes from the Pacific Northwest. Importation of lumber, wood and paper pulp from Canada, Russia or Finland is frequently held as a solution for our excess wood needs. Imports from these countries must be a temporary expedient only. Densely populated Europe will in the long run absorb any exportable surplus from her northern nations. The Canadian supply of timber is now definitely known to be much less than was formerly thought, and relief does not lie there. It costs $18 to $30 per thousand feet to transport lumber from the Pacific Northwest via the Panama Canal to points inland from the east coast by combined ship and rail haul. Freight rates on lumber from the south to Pennsylvania run from 35 cents to 45 cents per hundred pounds, or from $10 to $2l per thousand feet. In many instances timber can be grown in the State for the excess freight costs. After the war forest products formed about 10 per cent of the railroad freight traffic of the country. It exceeded any 1.59 simple commodity except bituminous coal, in freight volumes. It averaged in 1922 +4.03 per ton for the average haul of 175 miles.” Forests produce lºoo to 3000 pounds of wood per acre and year for transportation. This is a larger production of freight volume per acre than the average from farm land. EFFECT on Agârguinſ: In many counties of the State agriculture went forward with the nearby forest industries furnishing the required market. It is no coincidence that the peak of the State's lumber production was also the peak of the total and improved farm land area. An accompanying chart shows the decline in agriculture with the de- cline in the lumber industry, In some counties like Lycoming the decline in the forest industries - lumber and tanning - was obscured by added develop- ments in other industries. The results of the up-surge of the forest industries and agriculture in the north central part of . the State about 1900 only to be followed by the exhaustion of the forest and the abandonment of near-by farms since 1910, may be noted in the data on population and non-forest farm areas in this section. The population of Cameron, Elk, Forest, Potter and Sullivan Counties reached a peak, in the lumber boom in 1900, of 93,745. By 1930 the population of the same counties had shrunk to 88,906, a loss of 26 per cent. Individual counties like Sullivan, Potter and Forest had higher percentage lossess *Tºrne American Lumber Tºdustry, "TNelson G. Brom, Tºž. l40 Loss in Population and Cleared Farm Land in Certain Forested Counties Population Cleared Farm Land l900 l930 Decrease Decrease lºl.0-l930. (Number) (Number) (Per cent) (Acres) (Percent) Potter 30,621 17,489 43 55,498 28. Cameron 7,048* 5,307 - 25 13,347 6l Elk 32,903* 33,431 (From 1910) 7 9,981 lsº Forest ll,039 5, 18O 53 5, lé3 2l Sullivan lºal&4 Zn492– 358 98.258 l4 Total 93,745 68,906 26 93,247 26 * Peak in 1910 was 35,871 in Elk County and 7,644 in Gameron. Elk County had a large tanning industry which has suffered from the wiping out of the hemlock forest. But the timber from Elk County was milled at mills in adjacent counties. Hence its loss in population (from 1910) is not as great as that in the surrounding counties. The retaining of non-forest industries has helped this county. For the group the loss of 26 per cent of the population, compared to a gain of 8.6 per cent in the State rural population 818 &l whole is significant. The loss of 26 per cent of the non- wooded farm area in these counties compared to 16 per cent for the State as a whole also possesses significance greater than the actual difference in figures. The conclusion that the forest portions of the state can be benefited greatly both agricultur- ally and industrially by the restoration or the rorest and its re specific analyses showing the decreased economic-welfare of the forest region were not possible in the time available, such measures as assessed property values, farm incomes, etc. are com- plicated for comparison by changing dollar values, changing bases for assessment, lack of uniformity in census methods, etc. 141 supply of raw materials seems fully warranted. TAX. DELINQUENCY In addition to a detailed forest tax study in 1932 in Elk, Sullivan, Potter, Centre and Clinton (forest) Counties, and Adams, Franklin and crawford (agricultural) Counties, the Department of Forests and Waters obtained reports of land tax delinquency early in 1933 in 43 additional counties. The eight counties studied in detail possess 2,518,000 acres of forest land, or almost 20 per cent of the total forest land of the state. The other 43 counties brought the tax delinquency survey up to over 80 per cent of the forest land. Estimates were made for the missing lé counties. County records are very incomplete in separating clear and forest land. They also lack uniformity in dates to which the lands were sold or advertised for sale for delinquent taxes. The last delinquent taxes involved were for lgål, but for some counties no action was taken that recently. The canvass does not reflect the full seriousness of land tax delinquency. Lands are constantly being redeemed by the owners (a legal privilege for 2 years after sale), new sales are being advertised, and County Commissioners are selling land to which the county has taken tax title, whenever it can be passed back to private owners. So the situation is a rapidly changing' one. The following data show the serious situation in private forest land ownership. *A. C.W.A. project directed by Pennsylvania State College and the U.S. Department of Agriculture made another canvass of delinquent lands late in 1933 and early 1934. Results of this canvass are not yet available. - l42 Land Tax Delinquency - lº Sold to Counties Advertised for Sale Area Assessed Value Area Assessed Walue Land Class (Acres) (Dollars) (Acres) (Dollars) Forest land 412, 10l 1,953, 144 326,476 l, 296,533 Cleared " l39,996 2,033,028 264, lél 7,643,709 Total 552,097 3,986, l?2 590,637 8,940,242 When the books are cleared for unpaid taxes for 1932, 1933 and lºé, and the records of the slower counties for earlier years are brought up to date, this delinquency will have much larger totals • Forests cannot produce a crop of timber each year unless the property consists of a considerable acreage and until there has been secured a complete tree assortment of sizes from seedlings to mature timber. This requires forestry practice with long time planning, and a long period to build up our cut-over and burned forest lands. Detailed studies show that repeated annual taxes of from 15 cents to $7.00 per acre will confiscate the final value of the periodic timber crop 30 to 80 years from the seedling stage. There is no longer a large unearned increment in the value of timber lands, such as in the past furnished the funds to pay high annual taxes on virgin timber bought for a song, and held in a rapidly rising market for 20 to 40 years and then slashed off. Forest assessments should not average over $3.50 to $4.00 per acre: during the long growing period when well set with trees, 143 and when all property is assessed at market value, When other property is assessed at 40 to 60 per cent of full value, or when the land is not well set with desirable trees the assessed value anoma be reduced to an amount as low as 50 cents per acre • The Auxiliary Forest acts, declared unconstitutional by the Bucks County Court in 1934, should have a constitutional amend- ment and should be repassed, in case the higher courts sustain this decision. These acts permitted assessment up to $1 per acre for the annual tax, and required 10 per cent of the final timber crop value as a "yield tax." These acts afforded relief for forest land from local excessive property *. PARKS AND RECREATION AREAS Pennsylvania has natural facilities for parks and recreation equalled by few states. It has beautiful forest-clad mountains, studded with springs and glens. It has sparkling rivers, gorges and water vistas that make a perfect complement to the forests. The variety of its plants and trees provides one continual parade for the nature lover, •rans, summer, autumn and even into the winters The rapidly restoring wild life - the hundred and more species of song birds and game birds; the squirrels, raccoons, deer, and bear, and the host of other animals, even the fish- stocked streams add life and movement and zest to the outdoors to a degree not met with in most states. Pennsylvania’s recreational paradise now is open to our large population by a magnificent road system. There are no 144 fees beyond the nominal resident hunters' and fishing licenses for our citizens. The poorest can enjoy our recreation with the richest, except for transportation. But these recreation facilities need great expansion within the radius of a day's outing (perhaps 50 miles) of our urban population centers. Shorter working hours and more vacation increase the recrea- tional use of our forests and streams. The popular response to added picnic, park and outing facilities is out stripping the present facilities. On the State Forests the recreational demand is being met by setting aside special use areas for (a) State Forest Parks and picnic places (b) State Forest Monuments (c) Public camps (d) Permanent camp sites and the creation of semi-independent (e) State parks not directly a part of the state forest system. (a) The State Forest Parks and picnic places on the state forests now... include such places as the Caledonia and Mont Alto Parks in Franklin County, Childs Park in Pike County; Womeida Park (Hairy Johns") in Centre County; Leonard Harrison Park in Tioga County; Colerain and Greenwood in Huntingdon County; Sizerville in Cameron and the Hemlocks in Perry County. These places have facilities for cooking and picnicking and personal comfort. Trails lead out from these parks and tempt to healthful hiking. Four have swimming facilities. Four park areas are being added: Parker Dam, Clearfield County; Half-Way, in Union; Riansares, in Clinton and Black Moshannon, in Centre County. 145 (b) The State Forest Monuments include historical, botanical, or scenic places and are equally picnic and recreational places. The Buchanan Birthplace in Franklin, the Ole Bull in Potter, Snyder-Middlesworth in Snyder, Bear Meadows in Centre, Detwiler Run and Alan Seeger in Huntingdon, Joyce Kilmer and McConnell Narrows in Union, Mount Logan and Mount Riansares in Clinton and Martins Hill in Bedford Counties. (c) The State Forest Public Camps have special camping facilities added to the picnicking facilities. The se include shelters, fireplaces, water, tables, benches and comfort facilities. Fifty- one Public Camp sites in the State forests have now been set aside and are still being added to . These may be illustrated by Pine Grove Furnace Camp in Cumberland, Old Forge in Franklin, Laurel Run in Mifflin, Cherry Springs in Potter, Laurel Summit in Westmoreland, and Promised Land in Pike County. These camps are most popular for week end and holiday outings. (d) Permanent camp sites are leased on suit- able areas in the State forests for summer cottages, hunting lodges, etc. The lease is for a period of ten years with an extension privilege. Building plans must be approved so as to prevent a spoil- ing of the landscape with unsightly build- ings. These camp sites meet the recre- ational desires of an ever growing class, of citizens, as the list of leases shows. Even the depression has not decreased the number of sites leased as is shown by the following figures: Year Camp Sites Leased Receipts 1913 - - 38 $ 138 1915 252 l, 361 1920 * 573. 3,712 1925 1,277 12,611 1930 2,319 22,171 1933 2,850 27,958 Total receipts to date $226,517 146 Up to l830 the number of personal camp site leases doubled each five years. The taxable value of these camp buildings in three of the 20 State forest districts with state land, already exceeds the cost of the forest to the State and so replaces the forest land withdrawn from taxation. For all the State forest land the taxable value of these camps and summer homes (almost $3,000,000) is almost 75 per cent of the total cost of the land to the State (slightly over $4,000,000). With the five cents per acre paid by the State annually in lieu of taxes to the local governments, this camp taxable value goes far to make up for the loss of local tax income from State owned forest lands. (e) State Parks include historical spots such as: Fort Necessity Fayette County 350 Acres Walley Forge Chester and Montgomery lé00 " Bushy Run Battlefield Westmoreland 169 rº Washington Crossing Bucks 440 " Presque Isle Erie 437O ºf Fort Washington Montgomery 36O. * also a 40-mile section of the old Delaware Canal in Bucks County known as the Roosevelt State Park 3.15 " the Cook Forest Park with a small body of magnificent virgin white pine and hemlock in one part 6500 " the Ralph Stover Park in Bucks County now being developed along the Tohickon Creek 37 tº A measure of the service of State Forest and Park recre- ational areas may be seen in the record of visitors to these areas made each year by the Department of Forests and Waters. 147. Year Wisitors l.923 524, 405 1925 - 84l,057 1930 l, 289,347 1933 3,484,437 In 1931 additional parks like Roosevelt, Bushy Run, and Fort Necessity were added accounting in part for the increase in visitors. A table in this section shows that the total land area in park and recreational use in the state is placed at 94,946 acres owned as follows: Municipal parks l:5,078 Acres l/ County " 4,010 " 2/ State n 22,258 " 3/ Federal vº l, 200 " Total Public 42,546 " Private recreation 58,400. " State total 94,946 " GAME CONSERVATION Pennsylvania is famous today for its wildlife. Its wilderness areas furnish a home for thousands of white-tailed deer and for black bears; its mountains harbor flocks of wild turkeys; its woodlands and countryside grouse, bob-whites, and ringnecked pheasants. In the brush, fields and fence-rows rabbits live, and squirrels frisk in the woodlands. On the lakes and streams are migratory waterfowl. This assemblage of game-life places Pennsylvania in the forefront among hunting states of the Union. Foxes, both red and gray, raccoons, wild cats, skunks, l/ Allegheny County. - . 2/ Part in State forests. 3/ Gettysburg National Park, part of which is classified as "farms." l48 minks and weasels are so abundant as to keep a large number of trappers busy during the winter season. A host of valuable small song birds live throughout the Commonwealth, many of them even in the towns. In the mountains are found black ravens, and bald and golden eagles. Forty years ago no such assemblage of wild life existed in Pennsylvania. In 1900 there were but few white-tailed deer, and black bears were very rare, Far-sighted sportsmen and naturalists foresaw that our wild life would have to be protected carefully, that laws would have to be enacted and enforced, that a body of men who should care for the wild animals would have to be organized, and that an efficient and business-like system of game management would have to evolve. WILD_LIFE PLANNING Thus in June, l895, there was created by act of law, a Board of Game Commissioners in Pennsylvania. The Board had one great advantage; they were dealing with a region wonderfully varied and almost ideally located geographically for the protection and development of game-life. While lumbering interests and forest fires had swept most of the mountains, some forests remained, and the wild areas were potential game wer-ºne ºints. The climate was favorable; food bearing plants abundant, and the average citizen of Pennsylvania socn caught the spirit of conservation and tries to cooperate. At first the Board had little money with which to work. A total of $800 was available in 1896, which was used entirely lá9 for postage and express. This sum was available each year until 190l., when $3000 was appropriated. The sum increased rapidly, doubling itself each biennium, until in 1913 $97,400 was in use. Financial difficulties were so great at first that but one Game Protector could be hired to patrol the Whole Commonwealth. HUNTING. RESTRICTIONS The Board was especially interested in saving Pennsylvania's deer, which at that time were practically extinct. In June, l897. they obtained passage or a law which stopped the use of hounds in hunting deer. Market hunting had not yet been stopped, but the unfairness of hunting the rapidly dwindling deer herd with hounds, as well as with modern firearms, had a popular appeal and the law was put into effect at once as efficiently as possible under the circumstances. The act of 1897 was the first concentrated attempt to put a stop to market hunting, which was recognized by the Board to be the most objectionable single feature of the game conserva- tion problem as it stood at the close of the Nineteenth Century. The act of l897 led to a subsequent law which prohibited the sale of game and which eventually put a stop to ºn mºst hunting. In l903 a law was passed which established the non-resident hunter's license fee at $10. The sale of such licenses was not. great. * In 1905 was passed the first Game Refuge law which set into motion a system which has since become world famous, and which has been widely followed. The first Game Refuge was established in Clinton County on State Forest Land, since that was the only 150 - C1M. VOº8f7 ° ON 38 (nº) | -! ºÐ N | N N \ſ*（' -） ©..…!C] OOO G = LEITT (19 HOVE » \/|N\//\TÅSNIN EICH NI GJET TIYA HEEC) WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW • WWWWWWWW •• W9||6|| SIE OO \/|Hej ºl 3 G W T H H d. SO|Hc]\/85DO|OOS SYA Ofnº ol 6261 Ol ºzºl Ol. 616|| OL ſz]6|| land available. On this refuge the game was safe, and about the tract of land set aside as absolute sametuary was an area of public hunting ground where all sportsmen of the Commonwealth could •rena their recreation hours, on State-owned property available for their use for all time. While the refuge system has grown and been modified considerably, the original prin- ciples have been retained, and the fact that hunters have a wholesome respect for the refuges because they recognize them as the best sources of their game supply, has made the system. tremendously popular.' In 1905 black bears were given protection. While some men at that time regarded bears as destroyers of property, Others felt they were a valuable game animal. The sportsmen won, and Pennsylvania was the first state of the Union to recognize the black bear as an almost altogether harmless animal, desirable as game. By degrees the bear law tightened so that eventually steel traps, dead-falls, and such means of capture were not permitted. Finally, hunters were permitted to take but one bear apiece, and small cubs were given complete protection. In 1907 two important laws were passed - one protecting all female deer, permitting only bucks with antlers visible above the head to ve shot; but placing no restriction on the size of the antlers. Such restriction followed in later years until today only bucks with two or more points to an antler are legal. The other one prohibit B the use of automatic guns in killing game. The so-called "buck law" of l907 is largely 151 responsible for the tremendous deer population present in Pennsylvania today. In 1908 a law was passed preventing unnaturalized foreigners from possessing shotguns and rifles. In 1915 a law was passed preventing foreigners from owning dogs and FINANCING OF GAME PROGRAM Probably the most important step in the development of our Game Protection System was the hunters' license law of 1913. With the adoption of this law, which provided for a license fee of $l, funds immediately became available. A corps of Game Protectors could now be hired and properly paid; lands could be acquired for game refuges; game animals could be brought in from outside the Commonwealth to replenish the de- creasing supply; law enforcement could begin in earnest. The wild life conservation movement was gaining impetus rapidly. In 1913 was brought into being the first effective "bounty law. " which permitted the paying of a certain sum of money for each animal destructive to game. killed by citizens who reported their work by sending the dead animal or its skin in for exam- ination and for payment of reward. According to this law #4 was to be paid for each wildcat, $2 for each gray fox, $2 for each weasel, and 50 cents for each goshawk. sharp-shinned hawk, and great-horned owl. In 1915, and during subsequent years, this bounty law was IIIodified to its present form. Bounty was paid on lºg hawks and owls only during 1913 and 1914. From 1915 to 1921 a bounty of $l was paid on minks. By 1914, most of the features of the game conservation movement which are recognized as so important in Pennsylvania today were in effect. Market hunting had long since been stopped, and with the stopping of this practice "game hogs" were gradually weeded outs. But market hunting was stopped too late to save the Passenger Pigeon -- a bird which might today be a splendid form of game life, so abundant and so easily approached that the youngest hunter might go to the woods reasonably certain of returning with a bag of game. By 1914 deer were noticeably on the increase, bears were prospering, small game was holding its own, game refuges surrounded by public hunting grounds were being established, natural enemies of game were being controlled, and over the Commonwealth was developing such a genuine interest in and sympathy for wild life that the average Pennsylvania citizen was by degrees, and in a sense, himself becoming a Game Pro- tectore In 1917 the Auxiliary Game Refuge law was passed. This gave the Board authority to lease the hunting rights, for • period of ten or more years, on lands suitable for game refuges and public hunting grounds. Refuges could thus be established in sections where land was not available or was too high priced for purchase, In 1919 the Legislature passed a law authorizing the Board 153 of Game Commissioners to purchase lands to be known as State Game Lands and to be used for game refuges and public hunting ground purposes. This made it possible to purchase lands in sections of the Commonwealth where no State-owned land was available • The first purchase was made in Elk County in 1920. Thus was started a program whereby the sportsmen purchased their own land. It is of the greatest importance that the larger State Forest lands are also in effect public shooting. grounds, with many game refuges on theme In l923 all the Game Laws were codified and thereby made more intelligible. In 1923 the Resident Hunter's License fee was increased to $l.25, the Non-Resident Hunter's License fee to $15. BOARD OF GAME COMMISSIONERS Today, there are eight, instead of six, Board members, Not one of these men receives a salary. The Board is still free of political entanglements. It is the duty of the Board to determine Pennsylvania's policy of wild life conservation, The Legislature fixes the hunting seasona and acts upon certain features of wild life control, but the Board has the power of changing the seasons and daily and seasonal bag limits of game as local conditions seem to warrant. This power of changing seasons, of regulating bag limits, and of closing certain sections or all of the Commonwealth to the shooting of certain species, is one of the most important powers of the Board and is one of the fundamental reasons for the success of game. l64 management in Pennsylvania today. The Board has control of the funds which accumulate from the sale of hunters' licenses, from fines and other sources of revenue. The Game Fund is maintain- ed separately from other monies so that direct returns are made to the sportsmen who have paid their license fees. The revo- cation of hunters' licenses and of special licenses is in the hands of the Board. All of the Board members are official. Game Protectors and may arrest on sight, without warrant; any violator of the Game, Fish or Forestry Laws. The Board elects an Executive Secretary who carries out their plans and policies. He is the Chief Game Protector of Pennsylvania and with the approval of the Governor has charge of the hiring of men throughout the field and office force, has direct supervision of the various branches of the work with offices in Harrisburg, and carries out as nearly as possible the program of game management as conceived by the Board • REFUGES AND SHOOTING GROUNDS The Bureau of Refuges and Lands is charged with the acqui- sition of all lands for game refuges and public hunting grounds for the Board of Game Commissioners; the creation of game refuges; the supervision over refuge keepers and the maintenance of State Game Lands and Game Refuges. The Pennsylvania Game Refuge system at present consists of lll Primary Game Refuges, most of which are under the supervision 155 of salaried game refuge keepers, some of the keepers having supervision of several refuges, and 66 Auxiliary Refuges which are looked after by Game Protectors and other salaried field officers. Primary Refuges total loo, lz7 acres and Auxiliary Refuges, 23,231 acres. The system of control is the same with each class. All are surrounded by a single strand of No. 9 wire, a brushed line eight to ten feet wide and conspicuously posted. All refuges are surrounded by public hunting grounds • Refuges for large game are l; 500 to 3,000 acres in size, for small game such as wild turkeys, grouse, quail, etc. are smaller. ranging in size from loo acres to l,000 acres. To date the sportsmen of Pennsylvania have acquired by purchase over 452,950 acres of State Game Lands. The land purchase program was further extended in 1927 when the Resident Hunting License fee was increased to $2, seventy-five cents of which was ear-marked for purchase of land, the creation of game refuges and the maintenance of the game refuges and public hunting grounds. The land purchase program is proceeding with the purchase of approximately 75,000 acres per year. This will continue for several years unless there is a change in the present law, and should enable the Commission to completely finance a long time plan for perpetual gaine and wild life conservation in the States This Bureau also arranges for cooperative construction of door-proof fences to relieve landowners from depredations by deer, 156 6ty " ON 3 & nº) | 3S & E NO I SS | WN WNO'O E WN\79) º O CJ \J \^ O £ \/ [ N\//\TAS NN3|| d € £2€.| ºO€.6292A1292ga�2€222| 2O2€3||© |4.I9 |º |�!€ | 6 || O OO2 ±O SQNWySQOH. 1 Refuge keepers, with whatever assistance is needed, keep old roads, trails and refuge lines well brushed out at all times. The refuge wire is kept in good condition. Lines around the refuge are brushed out to a width of about ten feet, and are posted with notices bearing the words : "State Game Refuge; Hunting is Unlawful" about every seventy-five yards, in addition to notices containing rules and regulations governing the refuge, which are placed between these signs. They wage constant warfare on natural game destroyers. A large part of their time during the winter months is taken up with the trapping and killing of predatory animals. They make repairs on roads leading to the refuge, where the road is under the control of the Game easºn. Each . refuge is provided with a telephone and it is usually necessary to construct a few miles of telephone line to the refuge house. Each refuge keeper, wherever it is possible to do SO 9 plants a number of game-food and game-cover trees or shrubs, and in certain cases cultivates plots with grain for game food. The grounds around each refuge keeper's house are kept as attractive as possible at all times. This is accomplished by planting ornamental trees or shrubs. GAME PROTECTION The Bureau of Protection has charge of field work in en- forcing the game laws and its force comprises seven supervisors, 65 county protectors, 12 assistant county protectors and lo 157 traveling protectors. Appointments to this service as well as for refuge keepers are made by competitive examination, which is duly advertised, and the applicants are subjected to a very thorough examination on ten different subjects, and the appoint- ment is made by a selection from the three highest papers, physical qualifications, of course, being taken into consider- ation. As a result of this examination we are getting an unusually high type of officer in the service. All salaried field officers are now fully uniformed and a permanent training school for these officers has been established. Here game laws are studied carefully. The officers are given a special course in public speaking to better enable them to present the work of the Game Commission at sportsmen's and other gatherings. They are taught the art of self-defense and how expertly to use and handle firearms. Pennsylvania also has a force of over 600 Deputy Game Protectors who serve without remuneration be- cause of their keen interest in the work, One of the important phases of the work of the Game Commission is the control of animals which destroy game. The Game Protectors and refuge keepers destroy all the predatory creatures that they can, but it has been found worthwhile to offer stated sums of money for the killing of certain species of animals, when these animals or their pelts are properly forwarded to Harrisburg together with a legal claim for bounty. The policy is not to exterminate any kind, but merely keep them under control to save game species. A bureau for this purpose 158 was established in April, 1915. This bureau, known as the Bureau of Predatory Animals, is concerned principally with the examination and payment of all such legal bounty claims. Today bounty is paid as follows: $15 for each wildcat ; $4 for each gray fox; $l for each weasel, and $5 for each goshawk killed between November l and May l. Over $100,000 is spent annually for this purpose. The payment of bounties in Pennsylvania is more or less traditional for it goes back as early as lé83, when lo shillings was paid on dog wolves. The Bureau of Education conducts biological researcnes, delivers lectures to organizations on request, makes motion pictures of wild animal life of the Commonwealth, and pre- pares and issues a monthly magazine known as the Pennsylvania Game News, as well as bulletins and posters of interest to sportsmen and scientists. There is an increasing demand for accurate information as to the wild life of the Commonwealth from sportsmen's associations, service clubs, nature study societies and Boy and Girl Scout organizations, which the Commission has been greatly pleased to recognize, and some 300 lectures were delivered during the past year. PROPAGATION AND STOCKING Game propagation, which was started on several Game Refuges in l928 on a small scale and with almost no facilities, has progressed so that now the Commission owns four regular State Game Farms, two for rearing ringnecked pheasants and rabbits, one for quail, and one for wild turkeys. 159 This year these farms set a production record never before equaled by any state or privately owned game farm system. From January 1, 1934, to September 20, 1934, the four State Game Farms shipped the following birds for restocking purposes: 43,995 ringnecked pheasants, 5,325 bob-white quail, 2,000 wild turkeys and 833 wild ducks. Further shipments which will be made before the end of this year will increase the production for restocking purposes to approximately the following: 45,000 ringnecked pheasants, 7,000 bob-white quail, 2,500 wild turkeys, and l,000 wild ducks. Much game is also purchased annually. Last season ever 50,000 cottontail rabbits were purchased and released, also a goodly number of fox squirrels and raccoons. Under the present policy of restocking depleted areas of the Commonwealth with wild life, game is never released on lands which are posted against hunting, nor on areas which are open only to a privileged few. It is released only on areas that are closed to hunting entirely, such as game refuges, or on lands which are wholly open to public hunting, EXPENDITURES AND REVENUE The budgeting and accounting in connection with the Game Fund is handled by the Bureau of Office Maintenance • The income, which makes up the Game Fund comprises that received from the sale of hunting licenses, from the sale of special licenses such as taxidermy, fur dealers, ferret owners and numerous others, and penalties. This amounted during the fiscal year June 1, 1933, to l60 May 31, 1934, to $1,134,664.8l. Hunting is a source of great revenue. The value of the game killed, computed on the average prices paid for iike species in the open market, is well over $10,000,000; that of fur-bearing animals is nearly $2,000,000. Also, it is con- servatively estimated that each hunter spends approximately $10 per capita a year. This includes his #2 license, arms anā ammunition, clothing and other equipment, foodstuffs, trans- portation and other items of expense. During the year lº there were 524, 337 licensed resident hunters in Pennsylvania. On the basis of $10 each this amounts to *.*.* spent by the hunters of Pennsylvania that year. In addition over loo,000 hunt without license on their own land and non-residents would increase this amount considerably. Computed also on a conserve- lative basis we find that, with the value of game killed and fur- bearers taken, hunters receive on an average almost $18 for - every #1 spent. One other important valuation accruing as a result of hunt- ing but which is seldom credited to this great sport is the value of song and insectivorous birds to the farmer. Every dollar spent to protect and increase these valuable allies of man is contributed by the sportsmen. LAND USE PLAN The principal uses for non-agricultural lands are: (l) Forests (2). Game L61 (3) Recreation The forest is the basis for all of them and the three uses are so inextricably associated that there is need for the closest cooperation to assure the maximum service of these lands to all our people. Lands producing timber can simultaneously produce game, and the beauty spots can be set aside and developed for recreation. Likewise game lands with rational planning can pro- duce wood products to a great degree without sacrificing cover or food for wild life. The growing social aspects of forests and the failure of private ownership as reflected in the obliteration and devasta- tion of the virgin forests, the subsequent burning of the cut- over lands, and now the extensive abandonment of large areas for taxes - all point to a need of greatly extended government interest in and ownership of our forest lands. The outstanding recommendations for forest lands are the increase of land in State Forests by 3,081, 340 acres; the establishment of county ones rerests (largely from delinquent tax lands) of l?l, 962 acres; the increase of State game lands of 601,331 acres; the increase of land in the Allegheny National Forest by 199,277 acres, or a total increase of 4,056,753 acres of forest in public ownership. This is made up partly of forest land now privately owned, and partly of non-forest land now privately owned to be bought and reforested by the State, county and Federal governmentse l62 (2) (3) RECOMMENDED FUTURE LAND OWNERSHIP AND CHANGES Present Area Recommended Future Permanent - Increase Dacrease Future Area (l). Forest Land (a) Municipal lă, lé9 2,663 l'7,832 (b) County O 171,962 tº-º l?l, 962 (c) State a"Forest l,647,881 3,08.l.,340 -º-º-º: 4,729,221 b" Game 440,286 60l.,33l ** l,04l, 617 (d) Federal 4Ol.023 • 199,377 *-- 600,300 Total public 2,504,359 4,056,573 6,560,932 (e) Private farm (f) Private non-farm, inc. game land & abandoned farms 8,665,619 -- 2,443,854 6, 221,765 Total private lz,028,933 -- 2,443,854 9,585,079 Total all forest l4,533,292 l,612,719 tº-sº l6, l46, Oll Recreation and Park Land (a) Municipal l3,078 6,367 gº-º-º: 2l, 445 (b) County 4,010 2,800 rº-º- 6,810 (c) State 22,258 135,072 --> 157,330 (d) Federal 1,200 gº tº tº º l, 300 Total Public 42,546 l44,239 tº gº 186,785 (e) Private recreation 58,400 7,877 --> 60,377 Total all recreation 94,946 152slló - º 247,062 Agriculture (a) Crop land a" Private) 7,813,826 <--> 429,585 (7,359,957 b” Public ) ( 24,284 (b) Pasture (exc. woodland pastured) a"Private 3,238,419 -* 44l, 325 2,785,687 b'Public ll, 407 (c) All other land in farms 893,935 tº gº 893,925 ºsº- Total Agriculture (ex. woodland) ll, 946, 170 -- l,764,835 lo, 18l, 335 Urban, R.R. roads etc. (except farm wood) 8,118,07? dº-it- º-º-º-º: —£ullSiO7& State land area 28,692,480 tº-º-º- -ºº. 28,692,480 163 REcoºnDED FUTURE FOREST ONNERSHIP In PENNSYLVANIA (All figures in acres) WERNMENT RECOMME.DED GOM Quºd FoºtSST LAND | Total Private Total Municipal | County 8tate Rational Public Forest all Forest - Game Lands Forest Adams; O O 30,370 10,000 3OO 40,670 61,911 102,581 Allegheny 681 O O 15,399 O 16,080 91,494 107,574. Armstrong O 41 50,000 20,000 O 70,041 126,986 197,027 Beaver O 5,058 10,000 20,500 O $5,558 82,519 118,077 Bedford O 80 120,000 31,400 O 151,480 237,221 388,701 Berks 255 8,000 53,774 20,000 O 82,009 81,575 163,584 Blair 5,000 5,000 75,000 15,000 O 98,000 108,640 206,640 Bradford O 5,000 50,000 40,000 O 95,000 259,111 354,111 Bucks O 1,482 O 19,700 O 21, 182 98,936 120,118 Butler 2,000 4,500 55,000 30,000 O 71,500 147,849 219,549 Cambria O 12O 60,000 14, 127 O 74,247 200,738 274,985 Cameron O O 140,000 16,000 O 156,000 68,444 224,444 Carbon O 5,000 81,000 13,500 O 99,500 92,296 191,796 Centre 100 O 262,500 22,500 O 285,100 247, 161 552,261 Chester O 152 151 12,000 O 12,503 96,355 108,658 Clarion O 5,000 40,000 13,300 O 58,300 141,162 199,482 Clearfield O 5,000 200,000 24,000 O 229,000 855,909 584,909 Clinton O 4,000 302,000 17,400 O $23,400 133,302 458,702 Columbia 61 | 10,000 31,000 12,000 O 53,061 87,427 140,488 Crawford O 9,000 10,000 10,000 O 29,000 189,205 218,205 Cumberland O 75 40,000 10,000 O 50,075 41,765 91,850 Dauphin O 5,000 30,000 10,000 O 45,000 86,675 131,675 Delaware O 4,000 O 5,000 O 9,000 17,563 26,565 Elk O 36 155,000 53,000 | 123,000 $31,036 130,448 461,484 Erie O | 10,070 O 10,000 O 20,070 104,728 124,798 Fayette O 44 100,000 20,000 O 120,044 160,190 280,254 Forest O 50 10,000 7,900 | 159,000 176,950 60,271, 237,221 Franklin O 49 45,000 15,000 O 60,049 100,595 180,644 Fulton O O 40,000 19,890 O 59,890 96,679 156,569 Greene O 5,000 O 12,000 O 17,000 50,612 67,612 Huntingdon O 100 114,300 23,906 O 138,306 273,881 412,187 Indiana O 77 80,000 11,020 O 91,097 183,877 274,974 Jefferson O 5,525 80,000 24,000 O 109,325 146,720 256,045 Juniata O 5,000 50,000 10,000 O 65,000 75,938 138,938 Lackawanna 284 5,000 60,000 10,000 O 75,284 61,551 136,855 Lancaster O 15 3,000 8,000 O 11,015 92,731 103,746 Lawrence O 9,002 O 10,000 O 19,002 35,663 54,666 Lebanon O 41 10,000 10,000 O 20,041 37,138 57, 179 Lehigh O 2,077 5,052 8,000 O 15, 129 42,168 57,297 Luzerne 5OO O 160,000 10,000 O 170,500 198,061 368,561 Lycoming O 5,005 230,150 27,500 O 262,655 290,111 552,766 McKean 8,000 5,000 100,000 22,000 | 168,000 503,000 232,827 535,827 Mercer O 3,000 19,500 5,000 O 27,500 90,639 118,139 Mifflin O 2,500 65,000 11,233 O 78,733 60,579 139,312 Monroe O 5,075 95,000 9,848 O 109,923 157,760 267,683 Montgomery O 28 20,132 6,000 O 26,160 85,864 112,024 Montour 15 O 10,068 4,900 O 14,983 7,832 22,816 Northampton O 47 20,077 4,500 O 24,624 40,145 64,769 Northumberland 45 O 30,000 8,000 O 38,045 81,170 119,215 Perry O 5,046 75,000 10,000 O 90,045 121,924 211,969 Philadelphia O 23 O O O 25 531 554 Pike O 5,000 120,000 10,000 O 135,000 173,251 308,251 Potter O 110 350,000 22,870 O 372,980 125,855 496,855 Schuylkill O 5,050 145,000 20,000 O 170,050 141,232 311,282 Snyder O O 35,300 4,800 O 40,100 42,568 82,668 Somerset O 240 120,000 20,000 O 140,240 196,355 336,575 Sullivan O O 90,000 43,000 O 135,000 103,355 236,355 Susquehanna 2O6 O 60,000 13,000 O 73,206 129,009 202,215 Tioga O 55 190,000 13,400 O 205,455 168,703 372,158 Union O O 60,263 5,000 O 65,263 35,498 100,761 Wenango 500 5,060 50,000 20,000 O 75,560 211,048 286,608 Warren 160 4,140 79,500 20,000 | 150,000 253,800 180,101 433,901 Washington O 5,050 20,000 20,000 O 45,050 79,111 124,161 Wayne 45 O 70,484 8,000 O 78,529 168,452 246,981 Westmoreland O 5,129 90,600 14,000 O 109,729 203,396 513,125 Wyoming O O 30,000 24,200 Q 54,200 81,892 136,092 York O 11 20,000 9,824 O 29,835 128,240 158,075 Total 17,832–1171,962 |4,729,221 11,041,617 | 600,300 6,560,932 | 8,238,893 14,799 .825 NOTE: Forest County Private Forest Land reduced by 8,415 acres and pasture land increased by 8,413 acres from that in County Schedule submitted to Washington Planning Board. l64 FEDERAL assistance & The water conservation benefits of the forests for power, navigation and irrigation on the headwaters of our inter-state streams, give the Federal Government a direct interest in re- forestation and forest management. Already the Federal Government is: (l) Contributing toward the protection of State and private forests by a co-operative pro- tection fund, Federal, State and private. This should be continued and somewhat en- larged, - (2) Contributing toward the maintenance of state nurseries for the production of cheap re- forestation stocks. This should be continued. (3) Extending National forests.” by purchase of land • This should be completed within the boundaries agreed on in Pennsylvania. An additional l99,277 acres is needed to com- plete the Allegheny National Foreste (4) Purchasing sub-marginal farm lands for park purposes for development with relief funds or C.C.C. Camps and leased to the State. , This should be continued and extended to lands for State Forest additions. The game land extension policy is well in ‘hand and needs no Federal assistance • (5) Carrying on forest research from the - Allegheny Forest Experiment Station located in Philadelphia, and investigating some forest problems from Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Delaware and Maryland. This scattering of effort of a small group of investigators over such a large territory is open to serious question. States are doing some of their own forest research, and lately State agricultural colleges and experiment stations are also entering this field. There is a question as to whether all this effort should not be merged under a system of State forest experiment stations 165 (6) parallel to the State agricultural ex- periment stations with Federal coordination and supervision, but attached to the state forestry departments in those states where the state has accepted the dominant position and responsibility in forest land ownership and management • The Federal C.C.C. camps should be made a per- manent feature for the development of our forests. . . STATE FOREST PROGRAM The State ownership of, forest land may be divided into two parts according to present organization, (1) game lands, and (2) forest (l) (2) and park lands • Game lands now have been purchased by the State to the extent of 440,286 acres. This report recommends the purchase of an estimated 601,331 acres additional, The fixed portion of the hunters' license fee available for land purchase permits the addition of about 75,000 acres of land annually at present prices to the State game land holdings. At this rate approximately eight years will see this plan completed. The great problem is the financing of the State purchase of an additional 3,081,340 acres for the completion of the State Forest system. Part of this area is abandoned farm land which must be reforested. During a previous administration a bond issue was de- feated, largely by the argument that the pro- gram could be financed by annual appropriations from current income and the payment of bond interest avoided. This plan has broken down, and unless an annual appropriation of one million dollars can be provided for the next twenty years, a bond issue should again be. brought before the electorate • New York is well along with a policy of abandoned farm. land purchase and reforestation, for which a constitutional amendment authorizes the annual appropriation of one million 166 Q & V Q G OS ON 3 tº ſlº) || 3 º)N | N N V Tlei ſ): TIVILNB.LOd S383)\7 OOO'ga = BT13) NVLOERH HOVE TV | LNE LO c O N V ON | LS | X_2 JLS38O3 SNLLSIX3 S383)Y OOO'ga = 33.8 L H CV3 S LSE & O- SWYGY NITYNVö3 NOLTIſ).3 Q \}O3Cl3: _LESł313 WOS 3.1.13AV- EN33b5) WWVTEQ inj b3. LSVONVT ºrk Iſiſ VVV VVV | | | d blº t; ||ww. VVV CINVT839Wſho Hä # ”*. | | | miri NONVGET NIH cºſ\VG A883 iº b|VT13 WłºdºwVO ONVTIEbOW.LS3AW Hº | || º: º º NIT]3.J. W. º tº: VNVIGN #: it. H9)|HET TT||y|T|Aſhk-oS vºnnr VVV # º, ºr ºrjī ºſ ºf # NO3}{\70 Hº 'º V V VV -užawnº sons \{3_LN3O GT3 ||3}{VET2) º V V QNOb-LS iii º NOSug.-- Eſ. V wwwºw Vº Vº Vºl.-, | | | |W tº $ tººl （º # #. *śl, W. T.; WVVVVVV .****RR it. VV NO LNITIO | || itri QNIWOOAT VVV NOYMEWVO XITE "tº §". ###### #######m."º. 3NAVW VVV VVV - {{{{ GłłO3 WAVY-3-) VV º VVVVV VVV VVVVVV VVVVV § Vº)Oll 83.L.LOd NV3)4 OW NE\{\{\ſ/W O-jQV8º § siri º Aº Aºi.gº. 3|83 # º, Vºlºlº. In VVVVV VVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVV B- SOIH c \ſbj9)O] ) OS dollars for 20 yearse Forestry requires a continuous policy as free from temporary interruptions of political expediency as possible • If the rederal government, in trying to permanently solve the problem of agricultural surplus, can finance the purchase of a part of the submarginal and abandoned farm land for park and forest use and lease them to the State under long term lease, such aid in the solution of the land problems of the State is recommended. The State-wide forest protection system developed by the Department of Forests and Waters is getting results and should be continued. Federal, State and private cooperation should be continuede - The production in State nurseries of forest trees for economical reforestation by the government arid private planters should be continued. The nurseries must be greatly extended, if the policy of State reforestation of abandoned farms and submargined farms is adopted on an adequate scale. To reforest 50,000 acres a year or l,000,000 acres in 20 years-a minimum program for the combined private property owner and the state - will require a 60:000,000 tree output per year. Our forest nurseries now have facilities for but la,000,000 to 15,000,000 outpute Since the present State forest lands are now reºching an age when large scale marketing of thinnings is necessary, the State should establish a special fund for the proceeds of such 167 thinnings, from which the cost of making them may be paid. An appropriation of perhaps $100,000 would start this special fund. It was only the existence of such a special fund that permitted the self-supporting salvage of 35,000 cords of blighted chestnut from the Mont Alto State Forest (lg80–27) with proceeds of about $200,000. This special fund was legislated out of existence with other special funds, without a consideration of its special merite FOREST RESEARCH The Department of Forests and Waters, with its problems of technical management of highly complex natural forest stands, and in its extensive reforestation problems, and also in the problem of finding markets for its wood crop now approaching harvest in the first stage, must carry on a continuous series of practical experiments as yell as basic forest research. Its needs are pressing and it cannot wait for the efforts of more remote forest agencies, interested often in different problems, to come to its assistance. For this reason the Department long has had a Bureau charged with forest research, and centralized at the Mont Alto Forest and Nursery, though the experimental work is as State-wide as the State forest landse The interest of the Department of Forests and Waters is paramount and its State Forest Research Institute should be continued. Merging should be considered only if a National system of State forest experiment stations is established with the local administration of such a State forest experiment station 168 associated with the State forest administration, Forest administration and research are inseparable. The Department of Forests and Waters holds the responsibility for leadership in reforestation. It should establish demonstration forest areas in each county situated in accessible places for the inspection and encouragement of private forest owners in re- forestation and forest management, Such abandoned farm land, reverting to the counties for non-payment of taxes, as can be attached to and economically administered by established State Forests should be so ad- ministered. But there will remain smaller scattered blocks which might well be put under permanent forest administration by some of the counties themselves. Enabling legislation now exists for thise The State should subsidize the reforestation of such county forests and furnish professional consultation in their reforestation and management as New York State is now doinge EXTENSION OF PARK AND RECREATIONAL LANDS An accompanying table shows that there is a total of 94,946 acres of land devoted to park and recreation purposes, including an estimated 52,400 acres privately owned, most of the latter in golf courses. While the State Forests and Game Lands are open to visitors everywhere (game refuges excepted) and are to a degree a vast system of State recreational lands, they are often not advantageously placed for park and recreational Uls6 9 l69 PRESENT PARK AND RECREATION LAMD ONNERSHIP IH PENNSYLVANIA (All Figures in Areas) TGOVERIFESTOTEDT Total | Privately Municipal Coun State Federal Public Total Allegheny 2,028 4,010 O O 6,038 10,000 16,038 Armstrong O O O O O 300 500 Beaver 21 O O O 21 200 221 Bedford O O 15 O 15 IOO 115 Berks 835 O 25 O 860 400 1,260 81air 59 O O O 59 250 309 Bradford O O O O O 150 150 Bucks O O 765 O 765 1,000 l,765 Butler O O O O O 500 500 Cambria 435 O O O 435 5OO 935 Cameron O O 109 O 109 50 159 Carbon 3 O O O 5 500 503 Centre O O 887 O 887 3OO 1,187 Chester 10 O 1,500 O 1,510 5,000 6,510 Clarion O O 5,958 O 3,958 200 4,158 Clearfield O O 330 O 330 IOO 4SO Clinton Il O 229 O 240 IOO 340 Columbia O O O O - O 2OO 200 Crawford 42 O 4,414 O 4,456 5OO 4,956 Cumberland 87 O 410 O 497 300 797 Dauphim 1O6 O l O 107 1,500 1,607 Delaware 119 O O O 119 1,500 1,619 Elk O O 15 O 15 100 115 Erie 219 O 3,000 O 5,219 500 5,719 Fayette O O 254 O 234 500 734 Forest O O 1,927 O 1,927 50 1,977 Franklin O O 386 O 386 3OO , 686 Fulton O O 15 O 15 50 65 Greene O O O O O 200 2OO Huntingdom 8 O 517 O 525 IOO 625 Indiana 3 O O O 3 3OO 3O3 . Jefferson O O 193 O 193 3OO 493 Juniata O O 4. O 4. IOO 104 Lackawanna 226 O O O 226 500 726 Lancaster $19 O O O 3519 500 819 Lawrence 387 O O O 387 500 887 Lebanon O O l O 1. 500 5O1 Lehigh 495 O O O 495 1,000 1,495 Luzerne 375 O O O 375 5OO 873 Lyooming 180 O 37 O 217 2,500 2,517 McKean 6 O O O 6 100 106 Merger 6 O O O 6 200 206 Mifflin O O 48 O 48 100 148 Monroe O O 8 O 8 2,000 2,008 Montgomery 95 O O O 95 5,000 5,095 Montour O O O O O 200 200 Northamptom 249 O 35 O 284 1,000 1,284 Morthumbdriland IO O O O IO 2OO 210 Perry O O 134 O 154 1OO 234 Philadelphia 8,353 O O O 8,553 5,000 13,353 Pike O O 1,209 O 1,209 2,000 3,209 Potter O O IO6 O 106 100 2O6 Schuylkill l O O O l 1,000 1,001 Snyder O O 452 O 452 IOO 552 Somerset O O 58 O 58 200 256 Sullivan O O 27 O 27 300 327 Susquehanna O O O O O 100 100 Tioga O O 261 O 261 IOO 361 Union O O 468 O 468 2OO 668 Wenango 45 O O O 45 200 245 Warren 130 O * 0 O 130 150 280 Washington 6 O O Q 6 500 506 Wayne O O O O O 500 500 Westmoreland 143 O 477 O 62O 5OO 1,120 Wyoming O O O O Q 200 200 York 68 O 0 O 68 300 368 Total 15,078 4,010 22,258 1,200 422546 52,400 94,946 179 Another table indicates for the future there should be an increase of l44, 239 acres in publicly owned park and recreation lands. This would bring such lands publicly owned up to 20 acres per 1000 inhabitants. With a moderate increase in private recreational lands of 7,877 acres, an additional 5 acres per lC00 inhabitants would be available largely in golf courses, ball parks, etc. These figures seem large, but probably half of the recommended increase in State owned recreational and park land will be set aside for this special use as the State Forests and Game Lands are built up to the point indicated in this plan. This agrees with the recommendation of the Greater Pennsylvania Council that the special public park areas should total about 10 acres per lood inhabitants and these parks should be located within a 30 to 60 mile radius. Of the population to be served. With the rapidly increasing speed and facility for transportation, probably the 60 mile radius may be used, as it offers a more adequate choice of natural park arease The suggested increases in State parks include such pro- jects (for further investigation) as: Park Project Area County (acres) Blanket Hill l,500 Armstrong Sinking Walley 2,500 Blair Haycock Mountain 4,000 Bucks McConnells Mills 8,000 Butler Sinking Walley 2,500 Cambria Buck-tail 6,650 Cameron Warwich Twp. 26,000 Chester Buck-tail 4,000 Clearfield 171 25577;Taizos Tssºrgaſ ToogºſTOETETTOTE'STGW'íž Tºol, 898 002 ºgg O OOg O 89 >{*01. OOL OO2 OO9. O 009 O O 3trymolºu O2.I*2 OO3 O29*I O 14.5"I O ºt potate tour, sell OOO"I OOg O09 O O O eußem 909°3U OO3 900°SI O OO6°zt O 90T uoqiangusuka O84, O9. 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OOP 9 O O O 9 LIO'S O09 AIg°2 O 1.82°2 O O8T 2upnooſ'ſ OOg"I A29 249 O OO3 O $48 eu-Lestºſ g6?"z OOO"T 966°t O 000°I O g6? ułłue"I TOO"I O09 T09 O TOg O Q woueqe"I 18s"I 009 A88 O O09 O 1.89 eoue.Lavi 6Is"I 009 618 O O09 O 6Tº Jeºsuouwſ 92,"I O08 926 O 926 O O uuuunuxovſ *Oº OOT *Og O 1908 O O eºs punſ. 26/, OO}} 269 O 969. O O Uſos. RejJef SO8 OO2 909 O OOº O º uurappur 926 OOI 9.28 0. AI8 O 8 tropºrºquºng OO9 OO9 O O O O O 6&99.19 G99 Og 9tg O GTS O O Tºoq Ind 990°I OO2 984, O 98/, O O TETXTerä LLW'2 O99 A.26*I O 1.26°I O O 3 seaſoğ #81. "I OOg WQ2"I O #22°t O O e349ſº 6tz"; OO9 6TA," 2 O OOg°2 O 61.2 o;13. 919. OOT 312 O 3'I2 O O AT: 6L9°2 Oog"I 6UI*I O 000°I O 6TT erasasteq A.OI*2 OOg"I 4.09 O TO9. O 90I wrpudnu(I 4.62°I OOS A66 O OTS O l,8 pueT.Ioqºmo 996** OO9 99.9° 5 O #Tiff" ty O 25 pºojas IO O09 OO2 OOS O 008 O *Qamtoo Ojºs"O2 OOI Oºz*02 O OS2°02 O Olſ Uloºtfºto Osłº, OO2 O32"W O O22** O O 9te ºrbet:) 99.9°y 00/. 99.6°g O 99.8°g O O Woº Jiuto OUg°28 O09°y OTO"92 O OOg"12 O QIS Joººot!o 1.92*I O09. A96 O AE86 O O e-Rºueo soo’t OO9. SOg O OOg O S woqrwo 609°9 Og 694,”9 O 694,"9 O O uo.1eurso 985°s 009 926*2 O O0s"2 O 981, tºº.Rºuſso O09°9 000°I OOg°4. O 000°4. O09 O Jelſºng 994.”g 000°I 99."? O 99.", O O 8×ong O92 Q9I OOI O OOI O O Pºojpurg 608°2 69? Ogg"2 O O02°2 O O3t Jººſq. O9A."[ OO9 O9I*I O 928 O 988 six-reg OSS OOI O22 O O22 O O ProJºeg 69**t OO8 699 O O O 699 JºeAutog O09"I OO6 OO6 O O09 O 008 Żuo.13 surv 880°8'I 000°ol 880°9 O O OIO*9 || 920°2 Auteuºstly gog"I 90'ſ OO!"I 003*t OO2 O O surspy tºo;3 seroeg peumo 9TLGºd Terepeș G484s ZººL Harº sº I bºoi 93.9A ºrd Tº 93. gºlºlº_ººſao? (se-ow up semiya Ily) dIHSHARMO (INV'I DILysaosa qaw Szawa INANVRºad {{{{f\ºſli QºſţNºNO03ſ: ‘24T Buck-tail 20,000 Clinton Pine Grove Furnace 500 Cumberland In Philadelphia and vicinity lo,000 Philadelphia Clarks Valley 7,000 Schuylkill To be named 5,000 Somerset Ricketts Glen 6,000 Sullivan Ten Mile Run l3,000 Washington The accompanying figure" shows the location of some of these proposed State park areas and existing park areas, with their relation to population density, on a State map. The Federal government is disposed to make a material con- tribution to this advanced program by the purchase of several park areas close to the metropolitan areas, develop them with relief funds or C.C.C. camps and then lease them to the State Department of Forests and Waters for administration as State parks • For financing the State's share of this program, a special item should be added to the Department of Forests and Waters land purchase appropriation, or bond issue, if the latter is resorted to. An annual appropriation of $100,000 would seem adequate for the first years in launching this greater State Park Plan, Some expansion of county parks may be feasible, though recreational land us. knows no county lines and is more especially a state interest. * Adapted from "An outline of a Balanced state Park System" by Joseph Talmage Woodruff of the former Greater Pennsyl- vania Councile L73 SUMMARY OF LAND USE PLAN (l) The forest provides social services for our citizens, which in time may exceed its much needed wood crops in value. These services include , to restate the more important one 5, water conservation in all its forms-domestic Supply, power, irrigation, regulation of stream flow, and protection of navigation channels; soil erosion; climatic influence; hunt- ing, fishing and recreation, - Private ownership has failed to grow new crops of wood after it exploited the virgin timber. It has failed to maintain a forest cover adequate to furnish the above social services. It is now abandoning large areas of forest land and submarginal agricultural land for taxes. Public forest ownership must be . greatly extended to protect the paramount public interest involved. (2) Pennsylvania normally consumes 858,000,000 cubic feet of forest grown wood each year. It grows only 379,000,000 cubic feet. It must purchase outside and ship in 56 per cent of its wood needs for its industries and home consumption. There is a home market for all the wood our forest land, plus the already abandoned farm land and the sub-marginal farms to be abandoned, can produce if fully reforested and propers managed. (5) The present forest area of about 13,000,000 acres must be increased by the addition of these starvation farm lands to above l6,000,000 acres. There must be a further 174 Q \\ \/Og| 9 " ON 3 H {nº) | ] ‘O N I N N V”) eſ A LISN3C] NOI_L\/T^d Od AWOH S SEY-Iſmº)[ -]NO I_L\/Tl Tmd Od O. IL NO | L\/TEI- NI G3SOdOdd DJ LNBS3\ld || || SE H OV OOG = '-|\！|\/nOS HOVES\/E|\+\/ M\-]\/d C]B SOd OH'd Q N\/ _LNE SE Hd /JELSEHOSyNN/CIV XA E O ÅNITX NV8.3 NO1Tnae13$\.|B WOS 3.L.L3/\\/4 ¡¡¡¡iºſĮĖ ĮE "¿ †ºſº\!!!!F!!! f\} ELLSWON\/TCIN\/T \} （eſ: W no „aeſſa ſijoſ， FNOG ‘DNIJLNȚAHCIN\/TEY， OW_LSEAW Å\!3! WNO%DLNOWN!！!!!Eſ= |!!!!EE|NONVOEET)A\}\}:3d\/|\.|9|W|\/OANEHDETTy SYł\，}3€.WłºņijſįEE!!!! \， 1\，ſiiſ!!!!!!H– SY!\！!！！!_{\!|-VNVIGNI —) | _ |__ \/ L\/|Nfnfº| | | \T TT|XAT|AnHOS№ul !!!Hiliſi}}\iffſ twºįſęſą， ºrſa; !ĶĒĻſraeliſ NOLdwºſługoNQTE!! JHVETID !!!!E º ſiſi ''! }|||||3NYJE, ZnT ！ !!!!!= ĐÌNH WODAT ©NI VNOAAA }}*E t-i lSB8O+\! \/NNWAAVYMO\/T}D] !!!!!!Hwr-!----ſii \!3.L.L.Od!••••••••• • • N\/EX OWN~ -…-- Q\}O3C]\/\dºŤ!D]!NEYJYJVAW （ET) NIE? JAAN/T }====|NOSYJE: BºſºNOIHVTO!!!!|- ļļºſ NOHOEWWO----YHTEDYJEVN OºONY/N BA!!!!D] 3.NAWAA WNNWHEDOSnS!!DI1E lº º D|D \/|Hedºn º Q) \wºn | H & SO|He}\/89OſCOS shift in ownership. The State must add over 3,000,000 acres to the l,600,000 now in State Forests, replanting perhaps a million acres of this added area. The State must add an estimated 600,000 acres to its game lands bringing that forest land holding to about one million acres • This extending of State forest lands will assist mightily in the reorganization and consolidation of local government units and school districts advocated elsewhere in this report. The Federal government plans to add 200,000 acres to the Allegheny National Forest to attain its goal of 600,000 & CI'e S e The counties are permitted by law to set up county forests from their county owned tax-forfeited lands. They should be counted on to handle between loo,000 and 200,000 acres with State aid in their reforestation and management. This program calls for a total increase of public owner- ship of 4,000,000 acres of land now under unsatisfactory forest cover, or in already abandoned plus active but submarginal farms. (4) The park lands of the State should be increased 144,000 acres, generally as State Parks. Public parks no longer serve only local populations. (5) The game interests have already worked out their land program. They are adding 75,000 acres annually to the State's holdings for wild life refuges and public shooting grounds. The program is financed by the hunters, without asking for tax money 175. and should be completed in 8 years. This portion of the plan needs but to be let alone. The Federal government has its National Forest already two-thirds complete and is proceeding on the last third. This requires only the support of our Members of Congress at Washington. Only the State Forest (and the minor county forest) and State Park programs are lagging. Since the defeat of a bond issue, the alternative is to make a State appropriation of $1,100,000 a year for 20 years to carry out this essential part of the State land use program. This need must be classed in importance with the state support of schools and welfare insti- tutions. Thus far building up the State Forest and Park system has been regarded only as a project for surplus funds in pros- perous periods. It must become an established policy like the game development which has already shown the Nation what a steady year by year planned policy can accomplish. The Federal government is offering some little aid by pur- chasing submarginal farm lands and leasing them to the State for State Parks and State Forests. (6) Minor points in the forest plan call for (a) Continued Federal financial cooperation in forest fire protection and in State forest nursery support. (b) continued forest development by the Federal conservation corps. (c) More adequate support of forest research by Federal and State agencies. 176 (d) A system of county demonstration, reforestation and forest management areas should be established as a practical help to private land owner's, To start this at once the Federal government might be interested in buying submarginal land and leasing it to the State, 177 warra RESOURCES.” Pennsylvania is divided topographically and hydrographi- cally into six drainage basins, three of which are further divided into sub-basins presenting in its watershed the div- ides between the Atlantic Ocean, the Uiulf of Mexico and the Great Lakes drainage systems. The most important river sys- tems are the Delaware in the east, the Susquehanna in the cen- ter and the Ohio in the west. The Potomac River drains a com- paratively small area in the middle south, while in the north- west there is a small area draining into Lake Erie. In the extreme northern central part of the State, the Genesee River System drains northwardly into Lake Ontario. Precipitation General and systematic observations of rain and snowfall were not begun in Pennsylvania until 1887. In 1915 the Water Supply Commission, (now known as the Water and Power Resources Board, a unit of the Department of Forests and Waters) collect- ed all available rainfall records. These were analyzed and all that appeared authentic and of value were published. At pre- sent there are about 190 precipitation stations, or an average of one station for each 258 square miles of area. The United States Weather Bureau operates lºš stations; 40 are maintained by the Department of Forests and Waters and l3 by private in- *Reduced from a larger report by Charles E. Ryder, C.E., Chief Engineer Water Resources Service, Department of Forests and Waters, 178 zg ， oN 3\} nº i 3- su 3.1 v NA º SLS3\łO + 3O LN 3 Wu ſawd 3G "W NN3d 3 vſ. V NAVT3Cſ - 2\/WOJ. Od – VyNN VH-3 nDS nºs - 33 SE NI39 - O I HO - 3 | \\ 3 - 7-7- tu O (2 tſ) 0- O （5-W 4 .ae� |-7 ^~~^,，oze,< ●cd•£ €2}9€., , Oeſ ,，• ^）.| \ºvaſ -#A^^®.y • !-.- ! 32ſºze€ ©|?~\eve'w«-»*º）!!© -«” w• 4.•, º••--*~… • *O €·-• •º ^ ^ „--~ ~ ~ ~ ~ •-,••zy^^{22O^~~~,/‘,^ ^ , ^ ^T^--.-.-.-.-^^！°,„“•Vä- �• ^| 2O„ ” （ ）،·- - ）,>, ~ ~ ~... •|- - - - - - - -;L @•- - - - - -• J.! O ~\, , , !/}} ، ·^ ,|-!●„ “•|/!●2O 4?- → Gł’O. -„%* • •„ ©$ $_ _…:）Tºyº©9€./�}€C) „ “ v|| ()ö3）șoi\,L€œ„--~**6€C) ·9 O;„€.|| .CD|- • • • • • • ,^\~~ ~ /^A1C) ſ \w„“ț» ©•|- • • • • • • •; si •}-~;· ** ~ ~ ~ ~1psz, º---- ^,！ 3}|< ‘! �• �. „~ ~ ~^*,\ „vesz s, g.ſ ºs ſ ， , , ， , !},( ! ! --~~~~）; o ， ez • -s, CIv ?\; ; , ; * ~~~~* • „�6 ©!|! 14. " \，O}-... • ?\-,,--- A --y-^,OL 2`,r. {•};1ça@;.zº.` ------- •* -- º. - - - - - / （ }}）/\ ,'e `--!,-， $_ __ _ _ _ _ __ ſº ' yº !:: - - - - ‘ſ’ 09|| º！»”, ،2ț»`s|-1° - - - - - - - （ ）|●}62 '---- №ſ{|?O|---~~~ �}! }O€ ©! see}ſ ºs！.--�!|eº-4 N}| r �!\€2|ç^|�| gęO|--* - - - - - - - - -/- • • • • • • �\0 •O6 \ •º （\ (ſ）!\ ©_}\ON__|O £!--• • }3 --; /^T 3. SNĮ Swa BºwNIVAJO Å8 VWN ledd~^ CJN \/ s No I. LVLS NO 1 LV-Lld 193 dd, terests • The average annual precipitation for the 46-year period, 1883 to 1933 inclusive, was 42.29 inches. Within this period the maximum recorded yearly rainfall, for the State as a whole was 52.67 inches in 1889, and the minimum 28.82 inches in l930s Precipitation data are valuable in connection with the investigation of all forms of utilization of water resources, particularly where direct measurements of stream flow are lacking. In some parts of the United States it is difficult to trace relationship between precipitation and runoff, but climatic conditions in Pennsylvania permit practical use of raini’all records. Although the rainfall stations in Pennsyl- vania are fairly well distributed, additional stations are needed at particular localities where data are now lacking. It is believed that 40 additional stations should be estab- lished as soon as possible, There are 26 precipitation stations in the Delaware Basin; 43 in the Susquehanna Basin; 38 in the Ohio Basin; l in the Erie and 3 in the Potomac Basins • - HYDROGRAPHIC DATA Surface Runoff No comprehensive plan for water conservation can be Car- ried out without reliable basic information concerning the behavior of streams over a long period of years. Work of this kind was begun shortly after the creation of the Water Supply 179 Commission in 1905 and is now being carried on by the Water and Power Resources Board in cooperation with the United States Geological Survey. It includes not only the operation and maintenance of 96 permanent gaging stations, but also a col- lection of stream flow data on miscellaneous streams during times of drougth and floods. At present 37 permanent stations are located in the Ohio River, 40 in the Susquehanna, L6 in the Delaware, and three in the Potomac basins. The development of this form of water resources investiga- tion has been gradual and possibly has not kept pace with the needs for such data. Requests are constantly being received for hydrographic information on streams which are not being gaged. In such cases it is necessary to make long range de- auctions, using records of other streams in which conditions may not be entirely similar, so that the results are very often misleading. A more complete knowledge of runoff characteris- tics of certain important streams is desirable by extension of the stream gaging program. Up to date, 52 gaging stations have been provided with self-recording equipment. This means that 4l of the stations are supplied with only chain or staff gages. At least one half of such stations are located on important streams where depend- able recording equipment should replace the present non-record- ing gages • Not less than 25 additional stations should be es- tablished and maintained, with major efforts directed to streams of small drainage areas. Weirs are needed as control 18O 3\{\%\\\/T3C] - Q € 9 " ON E\{ſ^5) | 3D\/WNO. LOed - d. VýNNW/H3 nOSnS - S § . .23 SE N 3°O - ºD ºsOJHO - Osae 3 Ly M º su s 38'O）, JO LN3 WLB ºd 30 ‘VNN3d º iſhº - 3 : SN | sive '35)\/NIV&Q OL Q N 3937+ o !„º-º--º---º---º--º-º-3! * \）//A ”AVA ſº i ---------------------7-\~~№-~~—;�■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■-★ → * * * *2.” JĘ， Z „’TĀTS，Ś}}\\5.�ſae，} -- -！ /，& ſººſ}5%ſé{\5€.ſº\,- } ∞* tº， \,3 �： ! ，%^） ∞% Saep ،ťſae•+ %% №, wº •\ \ ș§*{-~<！---、、、。！ 5 <！-- + ~`\， ſae × 8 O AN NA 3 N SNO|_|_\/_|_S £) N | €)\79) sections at many gaging stations because of continual shifting channel conditions • There are twenty gaging stations in the Delaware Basin, forty-three in the Susquehanna Basin, two in the Potomac Basin and forty in the Ohio Basin. In the first group four are at communities along the Delaware River from Port Jervis, N.Y. to Trenton, N.J. Two each are located along the samylan and Lehigh Rivers and others along the principal creeks tributary to these streams. In the Susquehanna Basin, the distribution is along the Susquehanna, its branches and tributaries and in the Ohio along the Allegheny and its tributaries. The following table gives basic information with respect to the average rates of runoff in the streams in various parts of the State: AVERAGE DISCHARGE (Cubic feet per second per square mile) (Stations with records of 10 years or more) CHIO BASIN Station Total Average years dis- , Drainage Of charge Area record Q. Beme Allegheny River at Franklin 5,982 lº le65 Blacklick Creek at Blacklick 390 26 le.7l Brokenstraw Creek at Youngsville 304 L9 l,83 Casselman River at Markleton 382 L3 le60 181 Station Drainage Total Average Area years dis- Of charge record c. some Chartiers Creek at Carnegie 264 l2 le30 Connoquenessing Creek at Hazen 356 14 le38. Crooked Creek near Ford City 280 22 le59 Cussewago Creek near Meadville 90e2 26 le44 French Creek at Carters Corners 208 L7 2.04 French Creek at Saegertown 629 L2 le,69 Kiskiminitas River at Avonmore l,723 26 l,75 Laurel Hill Creek at Ursina l2l 17 2,27 Little Shenango River at Greenville 105 13 le36 Loyalhanna Creek at New Alexandria 265 10 le,69 Mahoning Creek near Dayton 321 13 l,76 Pymatuming Creek near Orangeville 169 L5 le28 Redbank Creek at Saint Charles 528 2O 1.70 Shenango River near Jamestown” 181 15 le24 Shenango River at New Castle 792 23 l.l.4 Shenango River at Sharon 603 25 l.l7 Slippery Rock Creek at Wurtemburg 406 2O 1.38 Stony Creek at Johnstown 4.67 19 le,69 Turtle Creek at Trafford 54.8 13 le46 Youghiogheny River at Connellsville l;326 24 le.88 Youghiogheny River at Sutersville l,715 13 le63 SUSQUEHANNA BASIN Clearfield Creek at Dimeling 37l 20 le58 Driftwood Branch Sinnemahoning Creek - at Sterling Run 28l. l4 le61. Frankstown Branch Juniata River at Williamsburg 291 l4 le32 Juniata River at Newport 3,354 32 le34 Lycoming Creek near Trout Run i.73 L6 le54 North Bald Eagle Creek at Beech Creek Station 559 23 la 45 North Bald Eagle Creek at Milesburg ll.9 18 le.82 North Branch Susquehanna River at - Danville ll, 220 3O l. 35 North Branch Susquehanna River at Towanda * 7,797 L5 le28 North Branchi Susquehanna River at Wilkes-Barre 9,960 34. l. 37 Pine Creek at Cedar Run 604 14 le?2 TºStation discontinued July 1934 182 Station Drainage Total Average Area years dis- Of charge record Gessm: Raystown Branch Juniata River at Saxton 756 22 le26 Susquehanna River at Harrisburg 24,100 43 le45 Swatara Creek at Harper Tavern 333 14 le62 Towanda Creek near Monroeton 214 L5 le39 Tunkhamnock Creek at Dixon 383. 15 le42 Tuscarora Creek near Port Royal 214 22 le?3 Upper Little Swatara Creek at Pine * Grove 34 e5 l2 le55 Wapwallopen Creek near Wapwallopen 45.8 13 le35 West Branch of Susquehanna River at Bower 315 20 le.80 West Branch of Susquehanna River at Renovo 2,975 2l le62 West Branch of Susquehanna River at Williamsport 5,682 38 le58 Brandywine Creek at Chadds Ford 287 22 le29 Bushkill Creek at Shoemakers ll." 2l 2.02 Delaware River at ‘Belvidere, N.J. 4,540 ll l,72 Delaware River at Riegelsville 6,340 27 I.”O Delaware River at Port Jervis, N.N.3,070 28 le.8l. Delaware River at Trenton, N.J. 6,800 20 le66 Lehigh River at Tannery 322 14 2 el? Little Schuylkill River at Tamaqua 42.9 15 2.24 McMichaels Creek at Stroudsburg 64.4 2O le.86 Schuylkill River at Philadelphia l;893 ll le29 Wallenpaupack Creek at Wilsonville 228 L7 l,70 Ground Water In some parts of the country ground water is the most valuable natural resource, but it is only within recent years that its importance has been recognized. From 1912 to lºl B, during the preliminary investigations and surveys for the Pymatuning Reservoir Project in north- western Pennsylvania, observations were made at 40 wells. Since l93l, about 35 wells have been observed weekly around the margin of the reservoir. The purpose in collecting these 183 records was to determine the influence of ground water on stream flowe In the fall of 1931, 3e Wells in the vicinity of sween seeins stations distributed in the Ohio, Susquehanna and Delaware basins were selected for ground water observations and weekly records showing the ground water fluctuations have been obtained since that time. The study has been going on for too short a period to make any conclusive statements con- cerning the results. Ground water observations should be continued and a large number of additional wells should be driven and main- tained e D ts Droughts may be divided into two classes; the first oc- curring when the rainfall is inadequate to satisfy the growing crops although the streams are kept near normal stages by ground water flow; and the second when neither the previous ground conditions nor the rains are sufficient to maintain normal ground and surface flows. The former affects chiefly the crops, while the latter arrects water supplies • Authentic records of droughts during past years are scarce and conflicting, as the beginning of such periods are not well marked and the State has not been subjected to such frequent and devasting dry spells as in some other parts of the country. However, ten noteworthy ones have been experienced during the last se years, but there are no records to show that any of them were accompanied by losses and inconveniences to popula- 184 tion, and industry equal to that of l?30s The unprecedented drought of lo30 covered the period July to December inclusive • At the end of June there was an accumu- lated deficiency in precipitation of five inches over about one-fourth of the State, and during the following four months, covering the growing period, the deficiencies increased in the dry regions to 15 inches and to lo inches on fully three- fourths of the State. The average deficiency for Pennsylvania during those four months was over eight inches or less than one-half the normal amounts For the State as a whole, the mean precipitation in 1930 was 28.82 inches as compared with a normal years of 42 s?9 inchese The deficiency in 1930 was equivalent to one-third of the usual amount, with the nearest approaching condition in 1895 when it was one-fifth of the normal. During this drought water supplies from small streams and ponds, shallow wells and thousands of springs became exhausted. Conditions became so accute in some localities that it was nec- essary to use mine water, while in others resort was had to water that had collected in abandoned quarries • Consequently, restrictions were placed on the use of water in many locali- ties • Water supplies failed in August in some sections of the State, and at one municipality waste condensor water was pumped into the distribution system at a temperature of lz5 degrees • Water power outputs were below anticipated minimum produc- tions. Slightly more than two-thirds of the usual electric 185 output by public utilities in Pennsylvania, normally generated by water power, was furnished by hydro-electric plants in 1930, Forestry suffered great losses through lack in tree growth, by the dying of trees and destructive fires which numbered 3,700 more than were ever known in any previous year. Fish life was exterminated in many streams and food for wild life was scarce and of inferior quality, The distribution of rainfall for the growing seasons of 1931 and l332 was in most sections favorable to plant life. So far as vegetation was concerned, the drought ended with the growing season of lºl, but as related to water supply the ef- fects of that drought were still being felt in the fall of 1932. It was the marked and long continued deficiency in stream flows and extremely low ground water levels that made the l930 drought outstanding. From August 1950, to March 1931, the low- est monthly flows for each of the eight consecutive months were observed in many Pennsylvania streams, Droughts are important not as isolated freaks of climatic conditions but as menaces that are virtually certain to recur. Future planning for the many uses of water must be based on a thorough realization of this fact. If supplies are to be ade- quate, full provision must be made for a recurrence at any time and allowance must be based upon a complete statistical know- ledge of what has happened. Natural Lakes and Ponds Information concerning lakes and ponds exceeding 20 acres 186 in extent is published in Part IV of the Water Resources. In- ventory Report. Two hundred and ninety-three lakes were sur- veyed with 254 exceeding 20 acres each in area. Gonneaut Lake in Crawford County is the largest natural lake, with an area of 928.5 acres. The second in size is Harvey Lake in Luzerne County, with a water surface of 658.6 acres. There are 17 others in the State exceeding 200 acres each. Four hundred and twenty-four lakes and ponds are listed in the publication, with a total surface area of over 23,530 acres. The natural lakes and ponds of Pennsylvania are compara- tively small and although they are found in considerable num- bers, are used principally as pleasure resorts or in some cases as sources of ice supply for rural districts. Conservation by Storage There are in Pennsylvania about 870 storage reservoirs, either built or building, each with a capacity of 1,000,000 gallons or more • The aggregate drainage area about these re- servoirs is 10,900 square miles, or an average drainage area for each reservoir of about 12.5 square miles. The total stor- age is 238 billion gallons, or an average of about 275 million gallons for each reservoir. Two reservoirs, Lake Tallenpau- pack, in Pike and Wayne counties, and the Pymatuning Reservoir, in Crawford County, have a combined capacity of 133,000,000,000 gallons, or 56 per cent of the total. Lake Wallenpaupack has the greatest capacity, 70,000,000,000 gallons, although its wat— er surface area of 5,760 acres is but slightly more than one- 187 third of that of the Pymatuning Reservoir, which has an area of 16,400 acres and a capacity of 63,000,000,000 gallons. The drainage area about Lake Wallenpaupack is 227 square miles, while that above Pymatuning is lö0 square milese Disregarding these two reservoirs, which have capacities for exceeding those ..of any others in the State, the average storage per reservoir is about 120,000,000 gallons • The importance of storage for conserving water and regula- ting stream flow is usually not fully appreciated nor under- stood. Without such regulation, the dependable amount of water which may be obtained from a stream for water supply purposes is limited to the minimum flow prevailing during the driest months. Low flows during the warm summer season likewise gov- ern the design of works for the treatment of sewage and trade wastes and determine the sanitary quality of a stream. Water power developments require dams to dreate working head and to equalize the stream flow, although the combination of steam and hydro-electric plants materially increases the average rate of stream discharge which may be put to useful work. In the case of the typical unregulated stream, probably less than five per cent of the total yearly runoff can be said to be useful and dependable for water supply purposes • It is possible, with storage reservoirs, to increase a stream's usefulness all the -way through the range from mini- mum flow to practically 100 per cent of the yearly yield, de- pending upon the availability of storage reservoir sites and 188 ºg “ON BYH nº.)] + AA ºn N A 3. Sèd 3 ſº q N \， +\ /\ & \， yn swalwm º sisado， 30 LN3w.lavdao .LS 3AA Vi M1983 A depending upon the extent to which such sites may be econom- ically developede The variation in rain and snowfall from year to year in any given locality covers a wide range and is a governing fac- tor in determining stream flow and its usefulness for water supply purposes. There may be successive years of deficiency in precipitation resulting in depletion of ground water stor- age, thus causing streams to fall far below the average. It is periods such as these which must be considered in determin- ing how much water may be counted on for meeting the needs for domestic, municipal and industrial supplies • The rate of discharge of a stream is a function not only of the rainfall but also of the topographical, geological and other physical characteristics of the watershed and of the size of the drainage basin. We know that certain streams may dry up entirely during long continued periods of warm weather with little rain, and that other streams in glaciated country appear to be dry because the entire flow is passing beneath the sur- face of the gravel stream beds. We may then have a range vary- ing between zero flow for certain classes of streams of small size to comparatively high summer flows for those streams draining forested mountainous areas and areas underlain with limestone where the underground storage is large. It is not possible to make a general statement with respect to how much water may be obtained from a stream of any given size without storage regulation, and the smaller the stream the more diffi- 189 cult it is to make such estimate. In the case of particular streams, however, fairly accurate estimates can be made if the flows have been measured over a long period at reliable gaging stations. Less accurate estimates of safe and dependable yields of certain streams can be obtained by comparing them with streams having similar physical characteristics on which stream gaging stations are located, For the purpose of illustrating the value of storage, let us assume that a water supply is to be obtained from a mountain stream having a drainage area of 10 square miles • If only 811 intake is built in the stream, the dependable yield cannot ex- ceed the low flows of drought seasons. A fair estimate of the minimum flow would be 0.05 cubic feet per second per square mile, or 325,000 gallons per 24 hours total supply. This would be sufficient for a town of 3230 inhabitants at a per capita consumption of 100 gallons per day. If this same stream con- tained a suitable site for a dam so that it could be completely regulated by a storage reservoir of 3 or 4 billion gallons cap- acity, the safe yield would probably be about one million gal- lons per square mile of drainage area, or a total of 10 million gallons per 24 hours, a supply adequate for a city of 100,000 population. New York City is planning to obtain 440 million gallons of water a day from tributaries of the Upper Delaware River having a drainage area of 440 square miles. Large stor- age reservoirs will make this possible and also provide for releasing compensation water to augment the flow of the main 190 Delaware River during dry seasons of the year when the flow at Port Jervis or Trenton falls below a certain specified amount. As another illustration of the effectiveness of storage there may be cited the effect of the Pymatuning Reservoir in regulating the flow of the Shenango River at Sharon. During August, 1930, the average flow at Sharon was 13.5 cubic feet per second, or 8,725,000 gallons per 24 hours, and during Sep- tember of the same year the average daily flow amounted to ll, 370,000 gallons. With the reservoir in operation, the sum- mer flow will be maintained at not less than 400 cubic feet per second, or 258,000,000 gallons per 24 hours, almost 30 times the low monthly flows now experienced. INDUSTRIAL WATER SUPPLY Consumption It is estimated that the industrial consumption of water in Pennsylvania is 2 billion, 500 million gallons daily. Many steel, iron, coal companies and other industrial plants use large quantities of water and pump directly from the large rivers if conveniently located. At Johnstown, the Bethle- hem Steel Company secures its principal supply from large stor- age reservoirs on tributaries on the Conemaugh River. One, on Hinckstown Run in Johnstown, has a capacity of one billion, 124 miliion gallons; the other on Quemahoning Creek, the larg— est water supply reservoir in the State, holds 12 billion gall- ons. Water is also diverted from the Little Conemaugh River, several miles east of the city. 191 . The Philadelphia and Reading Coal and Iron Company, and the Lehigh Coal and Navigation Company have extensive water supply systems covering the territory in which they operate. The last named firm is now using clean water for cleaning its coal from a large storage reservoir which is being built by its subsid- iary, the Panther Valley Water Company on Still Creek, Schuyl- kill County, with a capacity of two billion 500 million gallons. Railroads are also large users of water. The Pennsylvania railroad supplies its main line principally through controlled incorporated water companies. Included in this system, mainly in the western and central parts of the State, are 17 reser- voirs with a combined storage capacity of two billion, 600 million gallons. Cement mills, glass plants, tanneries, paper mills and dye works likewise use considerable quantities of water, and a large number have their own supply systems. WATER POWER Present conditions In the early days of Pennsylvania and almost down to the present time, "Water Power" meant mechanical power generated by water. Now when we speak of Water Power we usually mean hydro- electric power or electric power generated by water. The first power plants, although small, were well suited to furnish power to small local industries. Power could not be transmitted any great distance and these industries were built up around the sites of the power developments. Many of the smaller plants have outlived their usefulness and have since been abandoned. 192 Sd3 LVM * S.J.S3łJOJ JO LN 3 W 18veſ 30 $ $ ° ON 3\！! Thº)}.} �Q N w ‘ “ ’ / d w w·* \））? * • ?5;„ - ） • • •=> • •--－-———* * ， ，-ae ae œ© ®ș± & �…）--~~~~）;_ſt& wA^^ • • •=æ →0：�ø §/~5）Ng�|/●/}°N}： 3 u ºd º „º)/ ©šË，LaQ^ A; ºf7|-&$→ 8 Ş7 ;tºgſj2!SAlº ∞•●ſaeĢÈ&š ©ſae• ！ Ģ! \\ºx-->*< \ \:4 02•Zi7（\ /* ^®*6@\，■ ©Š.// ±ºz;^<∞? -->!* ±■ ∞=*�!9∞�> & *�--> []*3).}！_^ a ×`N --> 2îWws：（2% 2„º •`N SàuraNIHdnwgL-ºſſ-ºzºrºſ rri§.N.�！|- ●Ķī£.óſ)，vºly)ğ)*„~~^ 3№.LºCąáºſº 9Hºy，：&}N] ºldWº}{180N（ ）.---+ A 3 S & 3 ſº 3\łOWN 8O 83AWOd 3.S8 OH OOI S_LN\/Tld （HE WOd }}}_L\/WW The flow of water in most Pennsylvania streams fluctuates greatly and there are but very few places where reservoirs large enough to equalize the seasonal flows can be built economical- - lye Auxiliary plants, usually steam, are accordingly necessary to supply power during periods of low water. When hydro-elec- tric plants were first built they were generally considered as being in competition with steam plants; but it was soon dis- covered, in view of the wide variations in stream flows and the few opportunities for large storage, that hydro-electric and stem ºiate (in Pennsylvania at least) were not competitors; but on the contrary, supplemented each other. State Policy Prior to 1914 or 1915, the State had no definite policy in regard to the development of water power, but in 1923 the Legis- lature passed two acts establishing the present policy. The first act provides for issuing permits for power dams. Permits issued for projects not within the jurisdiction of the Federal government are limited to periods not exceeding 50 years, and provide for renewal until the projects are recaptured or pur- chased by the State. Permits granted for projects within the jurisdiction of the Nation provide that the permittees must secure licenses from the Federal Power Commission, and also pro- vide that upon the waiver of any rights included in the Federal License, including any rights of recapture, that these rights may be exercised by the State. Every limited permit is subject to an annual charge. 193 The second act gives to public service companies holding limited permits for public service projects the right to condemn and appropriate any lands, waters and other property and rights which the Water and Power Resources Board finds necessary for the construction and operation of these projects. Jºrior to 1905, and before the creation of the Water Supply Commission, 73 water power companies had been incorporated, and from loos to l8l4, 52 others. It has been held that the act under which water and water power companies are incorporated restricts the territory for which a company may be incorporated to a single municipal sub-division – a city, borough or town- ship, or a part thereof. When a large Water power project is contemplatea, companies are incorporated for each of the town- ships in which portions of the project lie, these companies later being merged into one company. The company is required to complete its works within a period of seven years, which per- iod may be extended under: certain conditions. Water Supply for Steam Plants Modern steam electric plants require large amounts of Water for condensing purposes in addition to the Water used for boiler feed supply. For proper condensing, water in the amount of three to four cubic feet per second is required for each l,000 kilowatts of power generated. This is equivalent to a flow of about 2,500,000 gallons per day, or about 100,000,000 gallons per day would be required for a plant of 40,000 kilowatts capac- ity. As very few streams in Pennsylvania can furnish such a- 194 mounts of water during periods of low flow without large and expensive reservoirs, the general practice has been to build large steam plants on main rivers where there is always an abundant supply of water • The Giant Power Survey The l923 Legislature created a Giant Power survey 3oard for the purpose of securing facts and recommending a policy that would secure for industries, railroads, farms and homes of the Commonwealth an abundant and cheap supply of electric powere Realizing the State's water resources can supply only a decreas- ing proportion of the increasing power demands, the Board declar- ed that the policy of Pennsylvania should be one concernied chiefly with electric power produced by steam from the rich bit- uminous coal deposits from the western part of the State • The Board gave five essentials necessary for a wide devel- opment of steam electric power: l. Adequate public agencies obligated to a scrupulous re- gard for investors' rights to attract capital and to guide it towards the social ends easily within reach. 2. Mass production, which means abundant and cheap produc- tion at sources of raw materials 3. Mass transportation to all parts of the State by an in- tegrated system of transmission lines • 4 • Effective, simple and stimulating regulation to pass OIl to the power consumer the abundance and cheapness • 5. Fair and justly regulated interchange of power with 195 \ other States to increase abundance and cheapness. Legislation was recommended establishing a permanent Giant Power Board; enlarging powers of the Public Service Commission; authorizing incorporation or giant power generating and giant power transmission companies; and providing for the negotiation of interstate compacts for the regulation of interstate trans- mission of the power. Nineteen bills were introduced in the l925 Legislature and seven in the extra session of lº25, but all failed to pass. FLOODS AND FI,00D CONTROL Causes of Floods Floods are caused by heavy concentrated precipitation by prolonged and moderate winter and spring rains over large areas, clotudbursts or rains of great intensity and short duration con- fined to small areas, and by ice gorges. Other important fac- isers are the **, wereºs and geology of the watersheds, the direction or path followed by the storms, the moisture con- tent of the ground, snow, channel encroachments and the tempera- ture • About 30 major floods have been recorded in the Delaware River in the past lö0 years, 35 in the Susquehanna River and about 50 in the Ohio. Numerous floods localized on the Smaller tributaries of these streams are frequently experienced and cause serious flood damage • The June l, 1889, flood is the greatest on record in the 196 Susquehanna Basin. Although the storm was concentrated over the watersheds of the Juniata and the West Branch of the susquehanna River, the central and eastern section of the State suffered un- paralleled losses • At Johnstown, Cambria County . 2142 lives were lost and a large part of the City destroyed. The Pittsburgh Flood Commission estimated flood toll to the City of Pittsburgh alone, from 1898 to 1908, at $12,000,000, of which #6,500,000 was caused by three floods in l907 and 1908. The total financial loss along the Allegheny River resulting from the 1913 flood, amounted to $720,000. The Shenango and Beaver Walley damage from this same flood was $2,100,000. Along the Lehigh River, the ‘loog flood loss reached #760,000. In August, 1915, in the City of Eities 34 people were drowned and damage amounting to $2,000,000 resulted from a flood in Mill Creek. In July, 1931, Norristown suffered a loss of $1,000,000 as the re- sult of floods in two small creeks traversing the borough. York lost $260,000 in 1884 and $4,360,000 in 1933 from floods in Co- dorous Creek. Floods can be controlled by retarding or storage basins, di- version channels, stream channel improvements and by the construc- tion of levees and embankments • . The logical and proper method Of control is to limit the quantity of water reaching the channel to the discharge capacity of the channel by means of retarding or storage basins • Protection generally may best be secured, not by any one single method 3) but by a combination of several methods applicable to each other in a limited way. l27 The construction of 17 storage basins and certain channel improvements has been recommended for flood protection for the City of Pittsburgh. A combination of channel improvement and levee or dike construction has been suggested along the North Branch of the Susquehanna River to protect the wains Walley. A combination of retarding basin, diversion and channel improve- ment has been in successful operation for years at Harrisburge At present there are two flood control projects under way in the State, one consisting of retarding basin control combined d with channel improvement, the other a retarding basin flood con- trol project alone e Flood control by storage basin retardation has been effect- ed by the completion of the State Pymatuning Reservoir Project in Western Pennsylvania. While the primary reason for the con- struction of this reservoir was to provide sufficient water dur- ing the dry season for domestic and industrial use in the Shen- ango and Beaver valleys , the capacity of the Pymatuning lake will be sufficient to absorb and hold back the flood flow enter- ing it until the waters from the watershed below have passed downstream and the river receded to below flood level. Had the Pymatuning Reservoir been in operation during the 1913 floods the flood height at Sharon would have been reduced by 23.3 per cent and the maximum rate of discharge 32.5 per cente A carefully determined public policy for control and super- vision of the streams of the Commonwealth was adopted and put into effect when the 1933 Legislature enacted the Dam and En- 198 croachment Act which made it unlawful for anyone to construct any "water obstruction" without a State permit. ‘Stream channels with adequate areas to discharge maximum expected floods have been conserved and protected. Streams that have been encroached upon and the channels restricted so as to make them inadequate to pass floods without backwater and overflow have not been all- owed to become worse, and where possible serious water obstruc- tions have been modified or removed and the channel improved for flood discharge e In communities subject to flood damage the State has made ‘8. number of surveys and hydraulic studies. Channel lines limiting all new construction along both sides of stream cnannels, and to which existing encroachments are removed from time to *, new been established in Johnstown, York, Manayunk, Sharon, New Cas- tle, Butler, Reading, Norristown, Scranton, and Erie. The major flood control problem in Pennsylvania, flood pro- tection for Pittsburgh and the upper Ohio River, was studied un- der the direction of the Pittsburgh Flood Commission from 1908 to 1912. The Pittsburgh Flood commission recommended construc- tion of 17 retarains or flood storage reservoirs distributed over the drainage areas of the Allegheny and Monongahela Rivers and supplemented by a river wall at Pittsburgh. The cost was estimated to be about one-half the direct loss that would otherwise be caused by flood damage to the city within a 20-year period. Between 1924 and 1929, U. S. Army engineers studied the problem and developed much additional valuable data. In 1955 199 the Commission submitted a new plan based upon all the essential data developed to date providing for the construction of ten storage reservoirs, seven in the Allegheny watershed and three in the Monongahela watershed, at an estimated cost of $57,500,000. Legislation approved in 1931 authorized the Water and Power Resources Board to study and develop a plan of flood control. Under the Act, the Board is empowered to proceed on its own ini- tiative, or at the request of some outside person or agency, to improve stream channels, build levees and diversion channels and to construct retarding storage basins for flood control. ris Board and its agencies are further empowered to "enter upon, take, appropriate or injure any land or lands", and aw ºn- •ses sustained thereby are to be paid by the Department of For- ests and Waters. The question of culm and flood control in the Schuylkill, Lehigh and Susquehanna rivers and their tributaries have been investigated and studied from time to time for many years, but very little has been accomplished toward bettering conditions. The anthrasite coal industry is the basic industry of the re- gion. The pollution of streams by coal colliery wastes has been in the past a necessary evil of the industry, While collieries are recovering a larger percentage of the finer sizes of coal, nevertheless a great quantity of culm is still being wasted in the streams. To successfully solve this problem the cooperation of the coal operators must be secured and present methods of preventing pollution improved and put in 200 * more general use, or new methods devised to combat a condition - & that is becoming more serious each years . STATE ADMINISTRATION OF WATER RESOURCES Pennsylvania was one of the first states in the Union to enact legislation leading to the development of a definite sys- tem of planning with respect to its water resources. In l905 the Water Supply Commission of Pennsylvania was created and organized as an administrative State agency charged with the responsibility of planning not only for the imediate but for the future use, conservation and development of the Wat- er resources of the State, except in matters pertaining to the purity or quality of water, which was a function previously placed by the Legislature under the jurisdiction of the Depart- ment of Health. It continued to function until 1923 when it was merged with the Department of Forestry to form the Depart- ment of Forests and Waters, and a new Board was created within the Department known as the Water and Power Resources Boardie The personnel consists of the Secretary of Forests and Waters as Chairman, the Secretary of Health, the Commissioner Of Fisheries, a member of the rºle service Commission and an en- gineer member, both appointed by the Governor. Its duties son- sist principally in acting upon applications for charters of water power companies, mergers and applications for permits for the construction of dams and other water obstructions, etc. The Board has power, upon application of the Secretary of Forests 201 and waters, to hold hearings upon and decide any other matter or thing relating to waters "which may be within the jurisdiction of the Department. A primary consideration in the creation of the Water Supply Commission came about as the result of a practice which had dev- eloped rapidly, prior to 1905. of incorporating water companies for the purpose of securing control of streams, either for pure- ly speculative purposes or for industrial supplies to railroad companies, coal companies, steel mills or other large commercial Consumers of water. These companies secured some of the best streams in the Commonwealth. Many were created solely for the purpose of speculation, and the water supply rights thus held in the more desirable streams were subsequently sold to municipali- ties or other water companies. The Act of May 4, 1905, correct- ed., many of these abuses by giving the Commission power over allo- cation of streams and the right to decide whether the streams will be fully developed by means of storage in the interest of the conservation of water. This power is now exercised by the Water and Power Resources Board. The Board, however, has not been given authority over the use and diversion of streams by Water companies created prior to 1907. As the ownership of the water flowing in the streams rests in the Commonwealth, it would appear reasonable that the State should determine how the water should be used and to whom it should be allocated. The authority of the Board in respect to supervision over 202 the development of water power is conferred by two laws; one providing for the issuance of limited power and limited water supply permits for a term not to exceed fifty years, and the other providing a method by which holders of such permits may condemn and appropriate lands, waters and other property. Pro- vision is also made for extension and renewal of the permits and for recapture or purchase by the commonwealth. Realizing the necessity for foresight in dealing with the water resources of the Commonwealth, Governor Tener in 1913 made certain recommendations to the Legislature in consequence of which the body passed "The Inventory Act" which directed the Wat- er Supply Commission to make a complete inventory of all the wat- er resources of the Commonwealth. However, the appropriation made available was insufficient to complete the work as outlined in the Act, and the Commission was only able to compile informa- tion with respect to the present condition and utilization of the water resources as a groundwork for future studies. The re- port was published in l92l and is divided into ten parts. Part l contains introductory matter of general applicabil- ity to various topics, with the Commission's deductions from the information contained therein and its recommendations. Part 2 outlines a method of improving flood conditions in the Turtle Creek Walley. Part 3 is a Gazetteer of Streams compiled from maps and other information collected. Part 4 contains information on all lakes and ponds whose * 2O3 names could be found, while those whose areas are 20 acres and over were described in detail. Part 5 contains s collection of all existing authentic rain- rail records in Pennsylvania and a discussion of the influences effecting precipitation. Part 6 contains descriptions of all operating water supply systems and statistics concerning the use of water for this pur- pose, as well as lists or smartered water companies showing their present statuse t Part 7 contains descriptions of the operating hydro-elec- tric plants as well as the larger direct utilizations of water power for manufacturing purposes. Part 8 contains a record of floods on all the large rivers and inventories of damage done in numerous communities • Part 9 traces the use of the water courses from early Col- onial times through the canal era and includes the present ex- tension work of the Federal government with respect to naviga- tion. Part lo deals with the culm and mine drainage situation in the streams draining the Anthracite coal fields. Following its creation, the Water Supply Commission adopted a fixed policy for the conservation, development and administra- tion of the State's water resources, which may be summarized as follows: (a) Thorough knowledge of the streams of the State so that the problems of control may be known. (b) General plans for solving those problems. 204 a (c) An orderly legal code which will make practicable the execution of plans when developed and insure control and supervision over constructions affect- ing the river systems It also advocated: Topographic Surveys: Through cooperation with the United States Geological Survey the topographic map of the State should be completede - rographic Studies: Stream gaging records and studies of flood conditions should be continued and increas- ed in scope • Rainfalls Steps should be taken to secure a more com- plete knowledge of rainfall conditions • General Plans: Sufficient information should be secured concerning each river system to enable general plans to be worked out for the control and use of the waters of hat particular system. This infor- mation should include: (a) Character and extent of its drainage area. (b) Conditions of rainfall and runoff. (c) Extent to which the streams may be called upon in the future to furnish water supply for domestic and industrial use e (d) Extent to which floods menace life, destroy property and restrict growth, and the extent to Which this menace and damage may be ex- pected to increase in the future • (e) Possibility and feasibility of water power development, the possible extent to which the stream might become part of a navigation systeme With this information at hana, the commission further de- termined that tentative general plans should be made for the con- trol, use and development of each stream to the end that a gen- eral policy might be follows without conflict or lack of coor- dination • The Water and Power Resources Board, which succeeded the Commission, now acts as a clearing house for general information on all problems of public water control. As projects are initi- 2O5 ated from time to time in various parts of the State, the Board furnishes advice as to the general methods which may be used in approaching each problem and exercises regulatory pow- ers over all undertakings, Water Control Code A legal code should be outlined which, in attion to con- tinuing and supplementing wherever necessary the present powers of the Water and Power Resources Board, will provide methods for legal cooperation and organization for constructing and main- taining Water control works. The following essentials of water control programs are found in nearly all American and European codes • le. Improvement is not demanded by the State unless necess- ary to correct some abuse, but is initiated, by petition or otherwise, in the community most directly concerned, 2. A court, commission or other public authority determines whether the undertaking is or public value and whether it should be carried oute 3. If the improvement is wertºwn, the territory involved is set apart by formal action of court or commission and exists so far as is necessary for carrying out the purposes of the im— provement as a municipal corporation or a governmental subdiv- ision, commonly known as a district," and usually with its own board of officers. 4. The improvement is paid for by special assessments, each piece of property paying an amount proportional to the benefits 2O6 received. Where city or village property or interests are affected; the city or ques. is treated as a person or cor- poration owning property and dealt with just as any other pro- perty owner. In only a few exceptional cases are improvements of this sort paid for by flat rate taxes, and these exceptions prove the wisdom of the general rule. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS The State has very complete and accurate data concerning rainfall and runoff, floods and droughts. Ground water stud- ies, however, have only recently been made and much additional information is needed, especially in the determination of the relation between ground and surface runoff. g with respect to the utilization or both ground and surface waters, very complete information is available in the report Of the Inventory of Water Resources published by the Water Supply Commission as the result of information collected in 1914. we additional subsequent data may be found in the records of the Department of Forests and Waters, the Department Of Health and other State departments, boards and cºntestone. Further in- formation may be obtained from reports of the U. S. Army engin- €61°S 8.8 the result of studies recently made in the Delaware, Susquehanna and onio basins to seemine howſ the streams could be developed for navigation, water power, the control of floods am irrigation. It would be highly desirable to assemble this information 2O7 and thus bring up to date the inventory of Water resources, planning this work in such a way as to have available a con- timing record of new developments and changing conditions from year to years. With respect to the various uses of water resourc- es the investigation should include: Domestie and Industrial water supply: A study of the water supply needs of each community or district for the next 25 or 50 years, in addition to a determination of the present needs and how they may be mate Industrial use of Water: The survey should develop in a general way the present and reasonable future needs of water for industrial purposes. Such survey will tend to avoid fut- ure conflict between domestic and industrial water supply de- velopments and indicate how they may be combined to mutual ad- vantagee Iater Power: The survey should result in a selection of possible sites for hydro-electric development and a determina- tion as to where storage reservoirs may be built to regulate stream flow and thus increase the power which may be derived from flowing water. It should also indicate the possibilities of combining power development, water arris, flood control and river regulation • ºlpod controls Information should be collected concerning the extent to which floods meaace life, destroy property and re- strict growth, and the extent to which this menace may be ex- pected to increase damage in the futures 2O3 Navigation: It is believed that the studies made by the U.S. Army engineers will cover the subject of navigation. The State's investigation should, however, determine needs of water for navigation and how the development of streams, by means of storage or for other purposes, may be correlated with havigation needs • - Storage Reservoirs: The investigation should include a study of possible reservoir sites in each drainage basin, and indicate how and for what purposes they may be developed. It is particularly desirable to secure regulation of streams near the headwaters and this may be aetomplished in part by the creation of state forests areas and in part by the construction of sto- rage reservoirs where suitable sites are available. Allocation of Waters. In order to make possible the alloca- tion of the water resources of the state for all purposes and users, the present laws conferring limited power on the flater and Power Resources bears should be broadened to include super- vision and control over the use and diversion of streams by water companies incorporated prior to 1907 or by any natural person, corporation or municipality engaged in supplying water. or water power for domestic, commercial or manufacturing pur- poses requiring a new er additional supply of water, Cuim: A complete investigation and study should be made for the purpose of developing a sane and practical plan for the improvement of stream channels affected by culm and other wastes from anthracite minese 209 WATER POWER PLANT'S IN PHINNSYLVANIA 100 Horse Power or More Field Stream Name of Plant Owner Total installed Head No. capacity help. 3 Fishing Creek Benton Pas Power & Light Co. 15O l6 3. Conodoguinet Creek Newville ſº \ 18O '7 5 Conodoguinet Creek Carlisle Carlisle Gas & Water Co. 400 8 6 Lehigh River Raubsville Pa. Power & Light Coe - 2,250. § 15 (Del. Div., Canal) - 8 Muddy Creek Delta Southern Pa, Power Co., 3OO 2l 9 Rock Run ‘Muncy Walley Northern Pa. Power Co. 462 50 IO Penn. Creek • Swengal Pa. Power & Light Co. 250 7. ll Swatara Creek Hummelstown º 2ll 8 l2 Comestoga Creek Rock Hill th 525 8 13 Conestoga Creek Slackwater º 924 l6 15 W. Br. Susquehanna River Williamsport º - l,00 9 l? Schuylkill River Klapperthel Dam Metropolitan Edison Co. 724 20 2l Frankstown Branch Warrior Ridge Penn Central Light & Power 2,680 27 (Juniata River) .* w 23 Fishing Creek Bloomsburg Pa. Power & Light Co., 570 29 25 Lehigh River Canal Easton Metropolitan Edison Co., 1,340 22 26 Brodheads Creek Stroudsburg t? ls 250 25 27 Susquehanna River Holtwood Pa, Water & Power Coe 158,000 to 63 28 Schuylkill River (Canal) Manayunk Phila. Electric Co. 2,800 23 3l Raystown Br. Juniata River Huntingdon Penn Central Light & Power Co. 3,900 36 33 Conodoguinet Creek Roxbury Penn Central Light & Power Co., 800 58 34 Spring Creek Milesburg West Penn Power Co., 3.15 li 36 Susquehanna River Susquehanna Northern Pa. Power Co., 800 9 37 Susquehanna River Lanesboro ſº 300 6 39 Lehigh River (Canal) White Haven Pa. Power & Light Co., 220 22 sº § WATER POWER PLANTS IN PENNSYLVANIA 100 Horse Power or More Continued Field 3tream Name of Plant Owner Total instalied Head No. capacity h.p. 4l Kishacoquillas Creek Yaegertown Yeagertown Water Power Cos 400 16 to 20 42 Susquehanna River York Haven Metropolitan Edison Co. 29,213 22 48 lºountain Creek Mount Holly Springs Eaton Dikeman Co. 150 l.9 5 Susquehanna River York Haven York Haven Paper Co. 3,400 l9.5 5l. Beaver River Eastvale Borough Beaver Walley Water Coe 730 ll 52 Beaver River New Brighton tº 440 l4 54 Clarion Rivor Piney Clarion River Power Co., 34,009 75 55 ſiallenpaupack Creek Hawley Pa. Power & Light Co. 57,000 350 56 North Bald Eagle Craek Howard West Penn Power Coe LOO 6 57 Susquehanna River Safe. Harbor Safe Harbor Water Power Co.855,800 53 58 Swatara Creek Hummelstown Hummelstown Water Supply Co 234 8 59 Penn Creek and Laurel Run Laurelton Pa. Power & Light Co. l?4 8 & 24 60 Octoraro Creek Pine Grove Octoraro Water Coe 165 l2 61 Tulpehocken Creek West Bridgeport. Althouse Chemical Co. 225 6 §3 Brodheads Creek Minisink Hills. Analomink Paper Co. l,800 l8 63 Yellow Breeches New Cumberland Rivertown Consolidated * Water Co. 335 8 Total Horsepower Installed 562, 197 É Stºshº Rºscºwongs ring CAPACITIES OF 109,000,000 Galicºs 08 Mºe WS = Water Supply. IWS = Industrial Water Supply. WP is Welter Powere Name of Owner Name of Dam Purpose Capacity ls OOO,000 gale Adams Co. Borough of Chambersburg Birch. Run WS 38 Bedford. Co- - i. - Evitts Creek Water Company Lake Gordon lis le400 Evitts Creek Water Company Thomas We Koon W.S. 2,475 Berks Co. " City of Reading Antietam W.S. 101 City of Reading Lake Ontelaunee W.S. 3,880 Blair Co. Tyrone Gas & Water Company Upper Sink Run LS 150 Blair Gap Water Company Kettle IºS 188 Blair Gap Water Company Plane Nine I S liſ) City of Altoona Lake Altoona Vºs 800 City of Altoona Impounding Wis 365 Tipton Water Company Tipton Run IWS 250 Butler Coe Butler Water Company Thorn Run WS 206 Butler Water Company Lake Oneida Wis 574. Cambria Co. Summit Water Company Wilmore IºS l,025 Summit Water Company Lloydell I S 2O7 Johnstown Water Company Salt Lick *S 900 Manufacturers Water Company Hickston Run IWS l,lºé, Johnstown Water Company Mill Creek Noe 2 Wºls 97 Johnstown Water Company Laurel Run Noe 2 WS lCl Carbon Coe Panther Walley Water Company Hauto IºS l,385 Chester Co., - Borough of Coatesville Rock Run TS 332 - Philadelphia Suburban Water Co. Pickering Creek *S 380 Clarion Coe Clarion River Power Company Piney †P ll,000 Clearfield Co. - City of DuBois Anderson Creek †S l32 Crawford Co. Commonwealth of Pennsylvania Pymatuming Stream Regulation 64,275 Dauphin Co. - * City of Harrisburg Wildwood Park Flood Control 200 Delaware Co. Philadelphia Suburban Water Co. Crum Creek W.S l62 Philadelphia Suburban Water Co. Springton TºS 3,500 212 STOBAGE RESERVOIRS. HITH CAPACITIES OF 100,000,000 GALIONS OR MORE. (Continued) ºmºmºmºsº, Name of Owner Name of Dam Purpose Capacity’ - ls OOO,000 gale Rik Co., Ketner Water Bompany Ketner I\s 92 Borough of Ridgway Big Mill Creek WS 20C Fayette Coe - Mountain Water Supply Co. Indian Creek IºS 23]. Citizens Water Co. of Scottdale Green Lick iS. 166 Huntingdon Co. " y Pennae Hydro Electric Co. Warrior Ridge inp 515 Raystown Water Power Coe Raystown Branch Yi P 3,000 Jefferson Coe Kyle Water Company Kyle It is 390 Glow Water Company Clour I'S ll.4 Lackawanna Co. Scranton-Spring Brook W. Supply Co. Brownell WS 847 Scranton—Spring Brook W. Supply Co. No. 4 WS 264 Scranton-Spring Brook W. Supply Co. Nesbit. WS l,279 Scranton—Spring Brook W. Supply Co. Lake Henry W. S 205 Scranton-Spring Brook W. Supply Coe Oak Run WS 418 Scranton-Spring Brook W. Supply Coe Elmhurst WS l,200 Scranton-Spring Brook. We Supply Co., Noe 7 WS lCl 'Scranton-Spring Brook W. . Supply Coe Williams Bridge WS 343 Scranton-Spring Brook W. Supply Co. Lake Scranton WS 2,617 Scranton-Spring Brook W. Supply Co., Summit Lake WS 259 Scranton-Spring Brook W. Supply Co. Griffin 2WS 548 Scranton-Spring Brook We Supply Coe Falling Spring WS 258 Scranton-Spring Brook W. Supply Co. Maple Lake WS 214 Charles A. Sisk. Estate Lake Sheridan WS 176 Scranton-Spring Brook. We Supply Co. Watres Ws l,885 Lancaster Coe - Pennsylvania Water & Power Company Holtwood WP 6,975 Susquehanna Water Power Company Conowingo, Hºd. WP 93,750 Safe Harbor Water Power Corporation Safe Harbor WP 30,000 Lehigh Co. ‘Clear Spring Water Company Spring Creek WS . IOO Luzerne Coe - - Scranton-Spriug Brook W. Supply Coe Mill Creek Storage WS 617 Scranton-Spring Brook W. Supply Co. Deep Hollow WS 252 Scranton-Spring Brook. W. Supply Co. Huntsville WS ls 922 Hazelton Water Company Dreck Creek YS 192 Scranton-Spring Brook W. Supply Co., Pike Creek WS 2,94l Scrantori-Spring Brook W. Supply Co. Crystal Lake WS l,650 Diamond Water Company Wolfs Run W.S 144 Mc Kean Co. - City of Bradford Gilbert Run WS 202 City of Bradford Marilla Creek WS l2O 213 STORAGE RESERVOIRS WITH CAPACITIES OF 100,000,000 GAILONS OR MORE. —Tarifar Continued Name of Owner Name of Dam Purpose Capacity l,000,000 gale Northumberland Co. Acaring Creek Water Company Noe 6 W.S le330 Bear Gap Water Coggany Moe 2 WS 600 Pike Co. Pennsylvania Power & Light Co. Wallenpaupack *P 70,000 Schuylkill Co. & Girard Water Company Noe 5 WS 264 Silver Creek Water Company Silver Creek *S 25l. Silver Creek Water Gompany Lower Tumbling W3 I-73 Silver Creek Water Company Mud Run †S 20:5 Panther Valley Water Company Greenwood WS 370 Silver Creek Water Company Upper Tumbling WS 224 Pottsville Water Company Wolf Creek Tºs 400 Pottsville Water Company Kaufman Run ºS 104 Pottsville Water Company Eisenhuth WS 500 Ashland Borough Little Mahoney Cr. WS 108 Girard Water Company Noe 6 YS 27O Tamaqua Borough Upper Owl Creek ºffs 3:ll East Penn Electric Company Sweet Arrow TºS 560 Pottsville Water Company Indian Run. WS 480 Panther Walley Water Company Still Creek TºS 2,535 Pottsville Water Company Tar Run WS 160 Somerset Co. Johnstown Water Company Dalton Run Yºs 150 Manufacturers Water Company IºS 12,000 Johnstown Water Company Bens Creek WS lelOO Sullivan Co. Associated Gas and Electric Coe Trout Run †P 156 Susquehannā Co. Scranton-Spring Brook W. Supply Co., Stillwater \ſs 3.25 Samuel Entrot Lewis Lake TºS 240 Canawacta Water Supply Company Comfort Pond WS 22O Consumers Water Corypany Snake Creek WS 262 Washington Coe - * Citizens Water Co. of McDonald H. Branch Patricks Run Yis 250 Citizens Water Co. of Washington No. 4 - #S 675 Citizens Water Co., of Washington No. 3 WNS IO6 Citizens Water Co. of Washington Speers Run WS i25 Citizens Water Co. of Washington Canonsburg WS 210 Wayne Co. te Honesdale Consolidated. Water Yºs 282 Westmoreland Co., High Ridge Water Supply Company Tub Mill US 200 High Ridge Water Supply Company Little Sugar Run WiS 124 214 STORAGE BESERVOIRS WITH CAPACITIES OF 100,000,000 GALIONS OR MORE. ! †med) Name of Owner Name of Dam Purpose Capacity . . l,000,000 gal. Westmorelani Go-Toontº). Citizens Water Co. of Scottdale Upper Bridgeport WS lºz Westmoreland Water Company. Ethel Springs ºs 156 Westmoreland Water Company. Imal ºS 177 Westmoreland later Company Unity WS 486 Jamison Coal and Coke Company. Lower D Iws ll O Keystone Coal, Company Salem • Iws 221 Latrobe Water Company Trout Run. W. S. 360 Wyoming Coe - John M. Stark - .Lake Carey .WP ls 350 York Coe - - York Water Company Dunkard WS’ 900 York Haven Water Power Company York Haven WP 860 Hanover Municipal later Works. Wººs 185 215 PROPOSED DAMS AND RESERVOIRS IN FENNSYLVANIA, OR ON DELAWARE RIVER, INCLUDED IN U. S. ARMY ENGINEERS REPORT 1938 FOR COMBINED WATER SUPPLY AND POWER DEVELOPMENT OF DELAWARE RIVEN AND TRIBUTARIES TO 1980. CAPACITY OF RESERVOIR PROJECT * LOCATION__ . . PºpCSE Bºrgºt gº nºt In laboo,000,000 Gaºlors Cochecton - Delaware River Power 32 feet 8.4 º Narrowsburg Delaware River Power 60 * .” 4.e3 Prompton W. Branch Lackawaxen River Storage 90 W 6, Homesdale Dyberry Creek Storage 100 * 10, Barryville Delaware River Power 90 tº lle Shohola Falls Shohola Creek Storage 64 ºf 9e Cold Springs shohola Creek POWer 80 ° le6 Tooks Island. Delaware River Power and Storage 145 " 8l4, Belvidere Delaware River Power 68 tº 13s Chestnut Hill Delaware River above Easton Power - 53 tº 4. Bear Creek Lehigh River Power. 75 m O,7 Tobyhanna Lehigh River Power and Storage 160 m 28, No. 1 Mud Run Mud Run (Tributary of Lehigh) Conduit lº's n 9e No. 8 Stony Creek º Stony Creek (Tributary of Lehigh) Conduit l40 * 2e No. 3 Bear Creek Bear Creek (Tributary of Lehigh) Conduit 160 tº 4s : PUBLIC WATER SUPPLIES* One of the outstanding triumphs of sanitary engineer- ing in public health work is the dramatic reduction in typhoid fever attained by serving pure water supplies and providing communities with sewerage facilities • As Pennsylvania became urbanized and dwelling houses in towns were built closer together, many armans “ter waii. became contaminated by filth from nearby privies or cesspools. With the sewering of towns without adequate sewage treatment, streams were polluted and in the past, public water supplies were derived from them and the water served without adequate purification. Under these conditions typhoid fever, with its toll of suffering and death, stalked the state. Up to the early years of the 20th Century there was no State control over public Water supplies or over municipal sewerages Disease epidemics so aroused the Legislature in 1905 that it. created the Pennsylvania Department of Health and gave it sanitary control over water supplies and sewerage. During 1906, about 24,500 cases of typhoid and almost 4000 deaths were reported in Pennsylvania. The number of deaths per year has dropped, in the 27 years the State Health Department has been in existence, to 125 in a population of about lu.000,000 persons • * Prepared by W. L. Stevenson, Chief Engineer, Department of Health, and Chief Engineer and Secretary, Sanitary Water Board. - . 217 Before water can be served to the public, application - must be made to the Department of Health for the issuance of a permit approving the source of supply and stipulating the conditions under which the water may be served, that is to say, as to its purification. Field examinations are made of the proposed source and the plans of the proposed water works are examined to see that the processes of purification are adequate to produce, at all times, a safe and pure water supply. Thereafter, inspections are made of the water works • The dominant sources of public water supplies in Penn- sylvania are surface streams. Water of clean streams in the sparsely settled country is impounded and in most cases chlorinated before delivery to the consumer. Water derived from the larger streams in nearly all cases is filtered and chlorinated. Seven hundred water works now serve purified Water to 8,000,000 people in Pennsylvania • Comprehensive Plane In the past it was common for water works to be developed and extended in a haphazard fashion. The trend today is for the adoption of comprehensive water supply plans, looking reasonably far into the tºurs. ‘Such plans should anticipate a future, superior source of supply of adequate quantity if the present source is from a river draining a substantially developed valley. They should include future water purifi- cation works and future extensions of the distributing. system to meet the needs of growth in the territory to be 218. TYPHO |D DEATH RAT tº EA PER | O 1906 O 7 O 8 O9 IO l l 12 l 3 14 15 16 | 7 || 8 19 20 2 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 3 O PENNA. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH - P GU RE NO. 56 served. Comprehensive plans reasonably insure that as funds are made aveilable and construction work done, each step is a forward one toward an ulitmate goal. Water Supply Districts: Contiguous or neighboring communities generally can be served best and cheapest by a single water works and distri- buting systems This avoids duplication of source of supply, purification works and pumpting stations, it centralizes technical control and also, as purified water is a manufactured product, cost is lessened by mass production. This will take care of communities in such districts that are too small to finance their own water supplies. Service of water by die- tricts can be attained either by agreements between the munici- palities involved or through the chartered area of a water company • Artificial Purification Years ago when public water supplies were first intro- duced into Pennsylvania, most streams were cleaner than at pre- sent. Under these conditions the source of supply generally chosen was the nearest available water and many of these sources are still in use, notwithstanding the increase in pol- lution of the raw water. In the interim, processes of water purification have been developed to remove or modify nearly all of the different kinds of organic and inorganic impurities present in raw waters Most of these processes have been sufficiently well established 2.19 that, when operated with skill and fidelity, it is possible to produce a bacteriologically safe water and generally a palat- able supply even though the raw water is too polluted to be used wiselye Obviously, however, this is repugnant . Sources of Water Supply So there is a rapidly growing demand on the part of the public for the use of relatively clean ºrater as the source of supply with minimum artificial purification rather than the serving of purified polluted raw water. This principle should be reckoned with in the preparation of comprehensive water supply plans. The public demands and is entitled to receive a water supply not only bacteriologically safe but also one that is palatable; that is to say, free from offensive tastes, odors and color. It should be clear and sparkling, also reasonably soft and not corrosive to plumbing fixtures. Quantity of Water Severe droughts since 1930 forcibly showed the inadequate storage facilities of many water works whose source of supply is not a major river or lake. Minor streams during drought often shrink below the daily needs of the water works. Gen- erally this danger can be avoided by providing impounding reservoirs wherein, during years of normal rainfalls sufficient water can be stored to adequately serve reasonable water needs through drought periods. 220 （19 °ON 3 ， ſlº) ! ：|H.LTV73 H & O LN 3 W._L\!\/e） ºg Q * \）/ N N £ € \!:|AO º ºſe Oººſe 6'6）, • O9ºſe 6°69 • Oſººſe 6'6 € • O2 |||||||||||| \）]）}_L\//\\ Q3 | -} | }} (Deſ ºù NI SO NO | _L\/T (nel Oeſ Storage Where a water supply can be safely provided by storage of relatively clean water and its chlorination (but filtra- tion is not needed) then, (a) assured long time storage should be provided in as quiescent a state as practicable for the self-purification of the stored water; (b) recreational use of the reservoir and its margins should be prohibited to re- duce danger of contamination; (c) reservoir capacity should be adequate to furnish water through drought periods; and (d) where practicable and in the public interests, reser- voir capacity should also be sufficient to provide water for releases to augment the otherwise low flows of the stream be- low the dam. When raw water is stored and afterwards also filtered, then; (a) if practicable, the storage should be sufficient to better the quality of the water so as to reduce the load upon the filters; (b) the reservoir should be "zoned" as to re- creational use to prohibit such use in dangerous proximity to the water outlet and allow reasonable use at parts more remote from the outlet; (c) reservoir capacity should be adequate to furnish water through drought periods; and (d) where practicable and in the public interests, reservoir capacity should be sufficient to provide water for releases to augment, the other- wise low flows of the stream below the dam. Importance of good operation All water works operators should be trained, skillful and 221 faithful. A study of water-borne typhoid fever outbreaks in the United States from 1920 to 1929 shows clearly the im- portance of vigilance in the operation of water works to pre- vent disease outbreaks. It can be done. Witness the typhoid record of this State. PRIVATE WATER SUPPLIES Approximately 2,000,000 of the State's population do not receive public water su.splies but depend upon wells and springs. They are the dwellers in the rural districts and smaller towns. In the interests of public health, every community should have a pure public water supply. Lack of financial ability is the commonest deterrent to attaining this goal. There is not, and probably cannot be, State control over private water supplies because such control does not lie with- in the police power of the State. However, the rural typhoid rate is higher than the urban rate and its reduction is a real health problem. To meet this need, the Department of Health s for several years has been examining, upon request, such Water supplies, advising the householder concerning defects in the structures needed to safeguard the water against surface contamination and making bacteriological analyses of the Water. The rural dwellers should be encouraged to request this service and to safeguard their drinking water, provided that funds can be made available to'the Department to do the in- vestigatory worke £a. y 222 RELATION OF INSANITARY FACTORS TO WATERBORNE TYPHOID OUTE REAKS UNITED STATES e 1920 - 1929 CONTAMINATION OF RESERVOIR O.7°/o MISC ELLAN E OUS 2.9°/o SURFACE © SOURCES 16 °/o UNTREATED ©/. WATER 33.3°/o U ROUN N DERGROUND 17.3°/o SOURCES CONTAM IN AT |ON OF 2O.l.º/o. COLLECTION SYSTEM INA DE QUATE CONTROL OVER 21. I ºſo PURIFICATIon METHo Ds jº TA |N CONTAMINATION 2 1.9 °/o DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM BASED UPON “THE SIGNIFICANCE OF WATER BORNE TYPHOID FEVER OUT BREAKs” BY WOLMAN AND GORMAN, 1931. F1 GURE NO. 58 SEWERAGE Before the middle of the 19th Century, human filth ac- cumulated near dwelling houses in privies and cesspools, a serious menace to health. The introduction of public water supplies was a step toward ending this danger, for it led to the common use of the indoor water closet and the production of sewage, which is the once clean Water supply made dirty by use in homes and factories and collected by sewers. There was no State control over municipal sewerage or the discharge of sewage until 1905. Since then application must be made for approval of sevrer plans before construction and for permission to discharge sewage into the waters of the State. The statutes provide for the issuance of permits stipulating conditions. The State has not power, nor should it have, to require a municipality to build main and branch sewers, as that is wholly a local matter. But under the statutes, the State does have power to order the interception of sewage and its treatment so as to prevent harmful stream pollution • Severage Districts As sewage normally flows in sewers by gravity, public sewer systems should be laid out , where practicable, for natural drainage areas upon which contiguous or neighboring municipalities are located. In such a district continuous intercepting sewers are laid in the main valleys and collect the sewage of the sewered 223 towns along their line and convey it to suitably located sites for treatment. The economy of this is self-evident when com- pared with each sewered community in the district constructing and maintaining its own treatment works. District works lo- cated farther down stream, where river discharge is larger, can often use a lesser degree of treatrient. Public sewerage by natural drainage districts for con- tiguous or neighboring municipalities can be provided by agreements between them as authorized by State laws. Comprehensive Plans. The preparation and adoption of comprehensive sewerage plans looking well into the reasoneble future is economical of public funds. Through it, practically all new construction may become part of a complete ultimate project. Especial reference should be made to the design of the main inter- cepting sewers, pumping stations and sewage treatment works. Sewage Treatment The discharge of untreated sewage or inadequately treated sewage within prejudicial influence upon a water works intake Or into insufficient diluting water, is the most dangerous kind of stream pollution. Through years of experience processes for the treatment of sewage have been developed and are in success- ful use whereby practically any prescribed degree of removal of impurities can be attained. The degree of treatment is determin- able by the use and condition of the body of water into which the effulent is discharged. But from a practical point of view 224 a less degree than the ideal is sometimes the only one attain. able, because of limitation of the financial ability of the municipality • In most cases, construction of the main parts of a sewer system, its pumping stations and treatment works and the B.C.- quirement of needed land, is financed by bond issues which create municipal debt. But the Constitution limits municipal debt to 7 per cent of assessed valuation. Also, debt over 2 per cent cannot be incurred without an affirmative vote of a majority of the electors. These are serious handicaps to the abatement of sewage pollution of streams. Sewer Rental There is an increasing use in many States of sewer rental; which is an annual, equitable fee charged against properties connected to a public sewer. Sewer rentals can make public sewer systems and sewege treatment works self-supporting, as is the case with most water works. All Towns Should Be Severed In the interest of the public health and for comfort and convenience, the built-up part of every municipality should. be provided with public sewers. Where attainable, the sewage so collected should be treated to that degree needed to protect public interests in the stream below the point of discharge • SANITARY WATER BOARD In 1923, the Sanitary Water Board was created and ém- powered with the authority over sewerage and sewage disposal 225 formerly exercised by the Department of Health and with the authority of the Department of Fisheries and of the Water Supply Commission with regard to the prevention of stream pollution, and also empowered to study and investigate methods of preventing stream pollution. The Pennsylvania Plan After careful study the Board evolved fundamental policies • Having been put in practice, they became known in a number of States as the "Pennsylvania Plan", which included (a) The classification of streams; which means the pre- servation of clean streams and the reduction or abatement of pollution of other streams by determining the required degree of treatment, of pollution after a study of the present and probable future use and condition of the receiving stréam. (b) The scientific sanitary surveys of rivers to de- termine their use and condition, including the degree of pol- lution and the causes thereof. (c) Cooperation, under agreements, with groups of major industries for the finding of reasonable and practicable ways and means for the treatment of industrial wastes. (d) The making of inter-state stream agreements with de- partments of health of states adjoining Pennsylvania. Sanitary Survey of Rivers These surveys included the use of mobile laboratories for analyzing in the field samples of water of the river and of industrial wastes discharged into it, and also, the use of 226 stream gauges to determine river discharge. Studies are made during normal and low flows of summer which is the critical time to evaluate stream pollution. After the data collected has been correlated and studied, they are used to make diagrams which show the amount of bene- ficent oxygen present in the water (a measure of good condi- tions) and also the oxygen demand of the water (a measure of the pollution). The difference between these is known as "oxygen balance”, that is to say, the amount of beneficent oxygen which would remain in the water after the pollution load has been assimilated. Evaluating the pollution load from municipal sewage and or organic industrial west. loads converted into equivalent human sewage, made possible a beginning of work with the major sources of pollution. Often a 70 per cent reduction of a large sewage or industrial waste load will bring about more improvement in the condition of a river. than the complete elimination of a relatively large number of small pollution loads, which at a later date are taken up in the order of, their importance. One of the best features of this procedure is its equity and justice. When an approach is made to those responsible for the major pollution they can not pass on to other parties the responsibility for abatement by saying that they are not major causes of the river pollution. It works. 227 Industrial Waste Agreements In 1924, an agreement was made with the leather tanners Of Pennsylvania which created a technical committee provided with funds from the industry to study tannery waste treat- ment. Two full scale experimental plants were constructed and operated and a report submitted setting forth reasonable and practicable processes of treatment laid out in progressive steps. It was accepted by the Board and the industry and con- struction work has been carried on fairly well. In 1926, an agreement was made with the pulp and paper manufacturers which also created a technical committee to study the problem of waste disposal. As a result, material improvements have been made in the condition of streams be- low paper mills by the installation of "save-alls" and in many cases, re-circulating systems, which have materially lightened the paper mill loads upon streams. The Board has recently undertaken an experimental study of the unsolved problem of sulphite waste disposal. In 1928, an agreement was made with the companies operating by-product coke ovens. Formerly the waste waters discharged from these plants contained phenolic bodies which created offensive tastes and odors in public water supplies derived at points below. As a result of this agreement, means for complete elimination or substantial treatment have been installed and the trouble is practically ended. The same year, a practically similar agreement was made with 228 manufactured gas plants and it has had the same good result, so In 1929, an agreement was made with the bituminous coal operators. No method of treatment was then known for the acid drainage flowing from the mines. As the result of cooperative studies and of work done by the coal operators and under Federal and State relief projects, there has been brought about re- duction of acid in some streams. Inter-State stream conservation Agreements In 1922, the Departments of Health of Pennsylvania and New Jersey inaugurated the first agreement of this nature in the United States. It applied to the Delaware River. In 1924, an agreement was made between the Departments of Health of Pennsylvania, Chio and West Virginia, relative to the Ohio River. This was subsequently extended to include the health departments of all of the eleven states in that great river basin. Under the agreement, the State Health Commission- ers constitute an Executive Board and the Chief Engineers, a Board of Engineers, charged with carrying out of the technical provisions of the agreement, which are primarily the safeguard- ing of water supplies in one state from harmful pollution originating in another state. This agreement has brought about a cooperation between the officials of these states and ite benefit has gone far beyond the original purpose - In 1929, practically an identical agreement and set-up were made applying to the drainage basin of the Great Lakes • Other agreements were made applying to the inter-state - - 229 streams common to Pennsylvania and Maryland and to Pennsyl- vania and New York and to the waters of the Pymatuning Reservoir, inter-state to Pennsylvania and Ohio. Innumerable problems have been solved under these agree- ments in an amicable fashion without even consideration of litigation in the Federal Courts, which is the only means of redress where there is not such cooperation between the author- ities of adjoining states • Control of pollution of interstate streams can best be had by compacts between states but this is not easy to bring about. In the interim, agreements between State Health De- partments, as referred to above, is reasonably effective. SANITARY CONSERVATION OF WATER RESOURCES The waters of our streams and lakes belong to the Common- wealth. Only use thereof, but not ownership, is obtainable by State permission or as a riparian right. The Supreme Court or the United States has declared that the use of water for drinking purposes is its highest use . The order of use for stock watering, for recreation, such as fishing, bathing and boating, and for manufacturing purposes, vary for different streams and in different parts of the state. Water taken from streams, used and converted into sewage and industrial wastes, must of necessity be returned whence it came; but should be treated to prevent harmful pollution. Every practicable effort should be made to maintain all clean streams in that wholesome state and to reduce the pollu- // - 23O tion of other streams as much as possible, compatible with the general public interests and in so doing to reasonably reckon with the financial ability of our municipalities and industries. In an urbanized and industrial state, the streams drain- ing developed areas cannot be returned to their pristine purity. The ideal should be to attain an economic balance be- tween the value of stream cleanliness in different places, the cost of water purification and the cost of treatment of munici- pal sewage and of industrial wastes. The sanitary conservation of water resources is, there- fore, a complex, scientific and economic problem of profound importance to the well being of the Commonwealth and its people. Ground Water i Investigations of ground water and its re- lation to water supply have been undertaken during past years only to a very limited extent. This information is becoming. increasingly important and it would appear desirable to inten- Sify such investigations in conjunction with the surface water studies conducted by the Department of Forests and Waters. Rainfall and Runoffi With the increasing need for informa- tion governing the successful design and operation of water sup- ply and water power plants, flood control systems and other hy- draulic Works, the activities of the Department of Forests and Waters with respect to stream gaging and the collection of pre- cipitation data should be expanded by the installation of 25 .automatic recording stations, principally on the smaller streams, and the addition of 40 rain gages at carefully selected locations. 231 MINERALS IN PENNSYLVANIA The importance of its mineral resources, especially coal, to the well-being and future of the citizens of * Common- wealth, cannot be over-estimated. In the discussion of move- ments of populations the fact of the decreased production is evident in the part of the report dealing with housing. This subject, the future housing of the population, due to the stranding of whole communities in the coal fields, becomes clear. Its effect on retail trade, on banking, and on the re- lief problems facing the State is overwhelming. Any planning body that may be created must of necessity consider the social problems surrounding the production and use of coal as one of its prime responsibilities. The section on coal in this report as originally prepared, emphasized the problems of the coal operators. It is presented here, not because of this point of view, but because of the mass of the essential factual data that is herein contained, These data are of fundamental importance in the development of any State or National Plan, and of State and National policies in relation to National resourcese Q & \/Oſ/69 ° ON 3 & fnº) | } © N | N N V” e QNO|JLOĎOO?-ſe} T \/ *|?|N|WN\/|N\//\TT Å S N N E GH -IO T V_LO_L S E.LV/_LS Q E_L | N [] -}O º/ae, O | = \-] \/ O H O W/ESE |\-|. LS f\ Q N | TV H E N | W. E. H. L. sº！sº2sºgO OgºgO O§3O O∞！O CD O OO O O OO O£ € 6 || O Oºggººg&&g∞O O O O29OO O O OO O O OO O O OO O O OO O| £ 6 || O O O OO O O OO O QQO O O OO O O O• 4 O OO O O OgºO OſüO O O OO O6 2 6 | # O O！O OO O O O'O O O OO O O OO O O OO O O OO O O OO O O OO O O OO O = = = = = = =æ • • szel \7 | N \7/\"] Å S N ÎN E CH \; | H eſ ? 3| G \? Ti | H &S 3 1 \/ _L S Cl º L | N n SO|Hc]\/\）] ©OIOOS PENNSYLVANIA'S EXTRACTIVE MINERAL INDUSTRIES(*) Industry Investment 1930 Employment 1929 Walue of products 1929 Bituminous Coal $475,000,000 l30,000 $258,607,000 Anthracite 445,000,000 158,000 385,643,000 Common Rocks 50,000,000 (c) 65,000,000 (b) Petroleum (c) (c) 44,800,000 (*) Natural Gas l'71,000,000 8,600 28,189,000 (*) Iron Ore 9,500,000 450 2,383,000 (*) Investment figures are from the 1930 report on Productive Industries, Pennsylvania Department of Internal Affairs; employe figures are from the State and other sources; value of products figures are based on United States Bureau of Mines data. (b)Partly estimated by the author *Data not available (d) at wells 233 M I N E R A L R E S O U R C E S Pennsylvania's mineral industries, the very heart of her economic development, have been losing ground at a rate which indicates that sound planning is necessary if the Commonwealth is to retain its leadership. In l919, the value created by the principal mineral in- dustries of the state represented 32% per cent of the nation's total; in 1929 it dropped to 25 per cent. The decline affects almost every one of the group so vital to the State's well- being. Much of the readily accessible wealth has been used up and, at the same time, increasing competition has developed. Research is indispensible to combat the growing difficulties with which those inaustries are faced. More diligent search for new mineral deposits, development cf better means of utilizing minerals, perfection of new uses, studies of under- lying economic problems, --all these are necessary if Pennsyl- vania is to continue to profit from this essential group. >k-k-k-k-k (A condensation of a survey by Raymond E. Murphy, Ph.D., Ass- istant Professor of Economic Geography, School of Mineral In- dustries, Pennsylvania State College. This important work, unfortunately out of print, was published by the Greater Penn- sylvania Council. A. W. Gauger, Director of Mineral Research, Pennsylvania State College, says in a preface to Dr. Murphy's study that it furnishes the facts necessary for intelligent planning, -- a program of education and research.) 254 O9 "O N E \! ºn © I ºS3 | \! LS n Q N | T \/\! 3 N | W * \）/ N N 3d : AH dvi n ^ ^ 3 ^ \! ŒS| 862ALZ§ 2€2| 26 | 6 || S3 | 8 LSTYG NI T\/83 N|| WN -JO E OT\//\ N | * Sºn ? *\/e} -JO NO I L\/TTE?-! ºxouane eųą ſą pozwurasº, ºsto q）\the eųą. Ką peļņu;q seAtasº）, ºsngue o seqeņspeaſun uos; egº? seqąo ºsztºrzy tºureșu I. 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Taoo Zggºț09°3Gºtº #86 ºg93 tºegaº TO64,OOOºgta,ºtººsteeųM, §AȚsaxqa xeųqo pue AreuſȘI 92gºw,GOºșgagºo66 ºg6ºoºogººtgegºtOOOº,909°9• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •ętuțit 220°406‘og360° OgoºT9gºgº2gtºsa géoſogoooºoooºgg • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • esato wae, yºººººººgºoºoașºeg °992 ºgT† 29°9OOOºOOOºoº© C O 0 0 0 o 0 e ^ ^ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 e o © o • e• • queue o 6OºººOººey46gºșº9º&9#99º6gTºgg9gyº T2Oooºoooºge • • • • • • • • • • • • • • seţaroņo arge， Reto •uou pua Are4ąođ º sąomposrđ Kato gaț¢4 sapu I opuſereo 4089329:49Oºgº 006°OOT4000:900:ſtOoOºOT40o0º0o0ºgº• • • • • • • • • • • • Kºrn TT eqen emostreguoN TZ3º63Õºgogºgggººaegºàță ºſtOOºººOºº^ 8229°6gtsTIȚſ ºuţTTOH pue syſºroſſ Toº?!S ºOººººººgºș83.gºTT^ºO£2$ T98 ºoooººt; 906 ºgoooºoooºogaš • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • sebeurtų ſąsatge Tee4S puſe uoȚI eețJĄ stapu I. Teoț?O mining communities? Will the present coal-mining valleys re- vert to wilderness? The suggestion has been made that the housing, labor supply, and other facilities might well attract new industries -- that the mining communities might thus gradually change to manufacturing towns. These communities should be carefully studied, and eventually, assisted in re- adjusting themselves to their changed environment. Pennsylvania's production of bituminous coal has shown a fairly steady, though gentle decline since 1918. More is known about the supply than demand, and more about production than consumption. The producer knows his coal output. Avail- able data suggest the iron and steel industry (including the manufacture of coke used in the industry) is the principal consumer; that the railroads are second and that household use is third. A host of other uses - electric utilities, steam- ship fuel, exportation, gas manufacture and . certain general manufactures (stone, clay and glass products; metals and metal products other than steel; food products; chemicals and fer- tilizers) also account for important amounts. Competition from other sources of power has been an import- ant factor in the decreased use of bituminous coal, which con- tributed 70 per cent of the total energy derived from mimeral fuels and water power in the United States in 1909 and only 48% per cent in 1931. Liuch of the relative increases of other sources of power represents, directly or indirectly, re- placement of coal; but of equal importance in slowing down 25l. the use of coal have been advances in fuel •rtistems. Domestic oil has shown the greatest gain as competitor. Water power and natural gas also have made gains, while im- ported oil is not to be ignored. Tariffs were imposed upon foreign coal and oils in 1932 in efforts to lessen the compet- .ition. The seasonal character of soft coal consumption provides a serious problem for the industry for which storage seems the only cures The producer rarely has facilities for storage, which is left to the wholesaler, the retailer end the consumer. For instance, householders are encouraged to get winter supp- lies in the summer months. Large quantities of lake-cargo coal are stored each summer along the Great Lakes for distrie bution throughout the Northwest. Many large industrial con- sumers, such as utilities, and nearly all wholesale and retail coal dealers have storage facilities • Storage for the slack season keeps the miner at work, insures the consumer of a supply when he needs it and spreads the burden of transporta- tion over a longer period, Distribution is accomplished by rail and waterways and to a lesser degree, over the highways. "The coal problem is a railroad problem" is an often heard saying that is still es- sentially true, although 17% per cent of the coal loaded for shipment in 1930 was loaded directly upon river barges or other river vesselse. Use of high-pressure pipe lines for transporting pulverized coal from the mines to consuming 252 | | : :g : (i. (t ( : | (t |. ; . : Q : || | | : (, (i. (t |. i : ID : : 3$ i . centers is under consideration. A crying need of the present is a thorough revision and simplification of freight rates so that they will be based pri- marily upon actual cost of service. The freight rate struct- ure affecting bituminous coal is exceedingly complicated, Preferential rates have been given to newer and outlying fields, making the consumer of "short haul" coal bear part of the cost of transporting "long haul" coal and making the average freight rate on all coal higher than need be by favoring "long haul" coale Stream pollution by means of escaping mine water forms a vexatious problemſ in both the anthracite and bituminous coal industries • Underground water coming in contact with air and iron pyrites is rendered more or less acid and is popularly known as "sulphur water". Many miles of streams draining the bituminous coal fields, have been rendered acid by this "sul- phur water". No feasible method has been found to render the polluted waters more alkaline but certain operators have found that by concentrating drainage at specified points many streams may be left unpolluted and suitable for public water supply and fish life. In the anthracite fields pollution is caused by dumping silt and rock, the waste products of the industry, into streams, Thus fine coal is was ted and deposits so clog the channels that floods are common, sometimes causing much dam- 253 age. Some operators are using sludge ponds, thus avoiding stream pollution and accumulating a product which has or will have value. Others are using silt as mine fillings, with rock and boiler ashes added. In a few months the silt solidifies enough to , allow robbing the solid pillars without danger of surface subsidence. The net result is a larger coal recovery and a market reduction of waste accumulations at the surface, Processing Methods. Coal processing produces coke, gas, tar, coal tar dyes and many other chemicals. Coal may be heated in retorts, thereby driving off the volatile matter and leaving light, porous, smokeless fuel called coke. If this process is carried on in a special kind of device called a by-product oven, tar, gas and various other substances are obtained. Or the bitum- inous coal may be treated particularly for its gases, with coke as a secondary products Beehive ovens, devoted to the production of coke and ig- noring the by-products, reigned supreme until 1918 but a grow- th in knowledge regarding the recovery and use of valuable by- products has led to rapid replacement of this type of oven, which is now regarded as having served its purpose and des- tined to pass out of existence. This fact colors the whole future of the industry in Pennsylvania, for although Fayette, Greene and Washington counties have their larger reserves, it is unlikely that these counties ever will be important coke 254 ş9 ° ON 3 \} (nº) 13S3 | \d. LS nOºN | T \783 N | W. *\/ N N 3d : AH dù nýN · 3 · 8 | COtS62021292-§2�2€222| 2O26|| O 21 O 2 producers. Instead their coal will be sent to by-products plants conveniently located with respect to markets, The major interest of the coke industry is in obtaining a product strong enough to be suitable for blast furnace and foundry use. Nevertheless, a continued increase in the use of coke for household purposes is the most striking feature on the industry's horizon, Pennsylvania's principal part in the development of this trend probably will be the shipment of coal for use in by-products plants situated in New England, New York and elsewhere in the areas of maximum demand for household coke, * Related closely to the coke industry is manufactured gas, first among the uses of which must be listed "domestic pur- poses" —- cooking, water heating, house heating and other uses in the homes Once of great importance as an illuminant, it has been succeeded in this field by electricity. In the field of industry gas, which has the great ad- vantage Of adaptability to accurate temperature and furnace atmosphere control, is gaining in favor rapidly, Types used include ccke-oven gas; coal gas, made by dis- tilling bituminous coal in an air-tight retort; blue water gas, made by passing steam through a large chamber filled with glow- ing hot coke, or anthracite; cerburetted water gas, which is blue water gas enriched with gasified oil; producer gas, gen- erated by blowing a mixture of air and steam up through a thick hot bed of coal or coke; blast-furnace gas, a by-product 255 of the smelting of iron ore, and mainly used to supply power at the smelter; and oil gas, made by the thermal decomposition or "cracking" of hydro-carbon oils into lighter, fixed hydro- carbon eases. The average manufactured gas delivered to consumers in the eastern United States is a mixture of coal gas and water gas, and of by-product coke oven gas where it is available. The production and consumption of manufactured gas has been in- creasing steadily and is expected to continue to do so, since appreciation of it as a fuel is growing. Petroleum and Natural Gas As an extractive mineral industry, petroleum is exceeded in Pennsylvania only by the anthracite and bituminous coal in- dustries in the value of the products. All three of its branches, production, transportation and refining, are repre- sented in this state, which produced ll,892,000 barrels of crude petroleum in 1931 with an estimated value, at the wells of $23,550,000. Pennsylvania ranked eighth in bulk of pro- duction, with 1.4 per cent of the United States total. The high grade of lubricants made from Pennsylvania petroleum and the nearness to markets accounts for the State's higher rank in terms of value than in volume- Pennsylvania crude oil not only makes the highest quality lubricant, but also has a lubricating oil content of approx- imately 23 per cent as compared with a 3 per cent average for the United States. 256 99 "ON ? Mnº 14Așa a uns ºnvoi so onoa so ‘ s ’n Woud W1YQ. No disvº \---- | SO-13 | - T | O O Nv SV™O TV8 n_L\/N Pipe lines form an important part of the petroleum in- dustry, and although transportation cannot be definitely eval- uated, it is an integral part of the State's petroleum indus- try, linking as it does, production and refining. The value added by manufacture for Pennsylvania's petro- leum refining industry in 1929, was $48,215,658, nine per cent of the United States total. In petroleum refining, Pennsylvania with a rank fourth among the states, is of greater relative im- portance than in crude oil production. This is accounted for by the importation of crude oil by southeastern and western Pennsyl- vania refineries. Petroleum production employs a large number of persons in Pennsylvania --more than 4,000 in McKean County alone, al- though exact data on this point is not available. About 9,500 persons were employed in the petroleum refining industry of the state in 1929, according to the United States census. The State has played an important part in the industry. The first oil well drilled in the United States was that of Colonel E. L. Drake, near Titusville, which was completed August 28, 1859. This produced about 25 barrels a day, the oil commanding about $16.00 a barrel. Methods and tools developed in the early Pennsylvania fields are in use wherever the industry has spread. Men trained in Pennsylvania have drilled many of the wells in other fields. Improved Methods for Secondary Recovery Pennsylvania's petroleum is a premium, product from which 257 lubricants of the highest grade are made. It must be conserved and recovered with maximum efficiency, since without lubrica- tion the wheels of industry would stop turning. The days of flush production are gone and the genius of man is challenged in order to insure a more complete recovery of our reserve. It has been estimated that only lº per cent of the original petroleum is recovered by natural flooding methods. In the Bradford District of Pennsylvania a flooding method has been devised which increases the ultimate yield by an additional lº to 20 per cent. Even by this method, however, 50 to 60 per cent of the original oil still remains in the ground and may be lost forever unless new methods of recovery are devised. The effect of this may be realized when one con- siders that the Bradford District is only 5 per cent of the Pennsylvania petroleum area and yet is responsible for 85 per cent of the State's production. It is estimated that the Bradford area will be worked out in 20 years by the existing methods of production. At this time we do not know how to re- cover the remaining 4,500,000,000 barrels of petroleum still in Pennsylvania sandstones. This is a challenge to our initiative and genius. Overproduction Overproduction, fostered by unrestricted competition, is of world-wide scope and of course finds its echoes in Pennsyl- vania. The demand for "Pennsylvania grade" crude has been kept up, in part through advertising, but low prices and the nec- 258 THE RECOVERY OF PETROLEUM PE N N SYLVANIA e 1930 \ 15°/o WAS RECOVERED BY ORIGINAL MATURAL M ETHODS 21 * 5O°/o MUST REMAIN IN THE G ROUND UNTIL NEW METHODS OF RECOVERY ARE DEVELOPED 30°/o Is . THE MAxiMum. WHICH CAN YET B E RECOVER ED BY SECON DARY METHODS NOW KNOWN 3°/o TO 5°/o HAS BEEN RECOVER ED – BY SECONDARY METHODS — — — — Wºj R. E. M U R PHY : PENNA. M IN ERAL INDUSTRIES FIGURE NO. 57 * \ essity for proration have affected the Pennisylvania fields. Proration was lifted in the fall of 1931, with the understand- ing that producers would maintain a balance between production and consumption. In 1932, however, the Eureka Pipe Line Company out runs 10 per cent o indicating a resumption of a certain amount of proration. - A tariff on "cheap foreign oil" has been demanded by the producers in Pennsylvania and other states, who blame many of the recent troubles of the industry upon such imports. Under present conditions and methode of production, it is thought that an average annual production of 10,000,000 to 12,000,000 barrels may be maintained for 50 or 60 years. If demand increases and prices rise, this production may be great- ly increased by water-flooding methods. But such speeding of production would shorten the life of the industry in Pennsyl- vania • - Petroleum is the sole commercial source of gasoline, which has made possible the spectacular development of the motor- driven vehicle, and gasoline accounted for 43.8 per cent of the value of products from Pennsylvania's refineries in 1929, being valued at $106,371,694. Lubricating oils came next, with 29.1 per cent or $70,776,547. Fuel oils accounted for 12 per cent Or" $29,352,168. Other products included kerosene, naptha, ben- zine and tops; greases; and a variety of minor products. With the constant plague of over-production hampering the petroleum industry, we are likely to lose sight of the fact 259 that the petroleum supply of the world is being used up at a very rapid rate. Advancement of the cracking process will in- crease more and more the gasoline production from a given a- mount of crude. But this and other methods will simply defer the inevitable • Ultimately, motor fuel must be obtained from other sources than petroleum, or at least other sources must supplement the supplye As petroleum production declines, prices will rise un- til oil-shale treating plants can work at a profit. Bituminous coal and liaite, through low-temperature carbonization or liquefaction, may become sources of substitutes for petroleum products. Natural gasoline, of which l8,713,000 gallons were recovered from natural gas in l930, is too volatile for a motor fuel unless blended. By-product coking produces light dis- tillates, such as benzol, usable as a substitute for gasoline, and the heavier distillate, or tar, as a substitute for fuel oil. Finally, several agricultural products (such as alcohol and vegetable oils) have been employed or proposed as substit- utes for gasoline in the operation of motors, Thus, though prices for motor fuel and other petroleum products may rise, it seems probable that new technology and substitution will solve the problem of the future, - Natural Gas The natural gas industry was an offshot of the petroleum industry. Until 1883, the gas was considered a nusiance and 260 R. E. M U R PHY : USES OF NATURAL GAS PEN NSYLVANIA TOTAL CONSUMPTION |O 8, 218, OOO,OOO CUBIC FEET DO M ESTIC OR HOME USE 4 i. 3°/o 45. Je/o (consumption BY STEEL PLANTS, GLAss works, Ice PLANTS, BR!CK & TERRA- cotta Establishments, ETc) — ELECTRIC PUBLIC UTILITY POWER PLANT'S O 6eſe —— PETROLEUM REFI NERIES 1.04°/e PENNA. M I NERAL INDUSTR JES FIGURE NO. 68 *ų， sae eş 0， x ou ©0 ^ON £8. nº) I.，•S3181€nONI Tvų3N1 w ºwNN34 : AH dwnw "3 *w ±20°QeQ292ºz22oz. 91© |�» |2:1O |00©O�O2Oºgº, O O2 o» Oę OQ OO|| O2|| ITTIG Oſº | $N O| 9 § few attempts were made to utilize it. In that year, it was piped to Pittsburgh for use in industries. For 25 years, many of the steel mills, iron foundries and glass factories relied solely upon natural gas for fuel. Then supplies began to fail, partly because of waste and partly because of normal ex- haustion. Despite temporary spurts in production due to new fields, a steady decrease accompanied by a steadily growing appreci- ation of the value of natural gas has been observed in Penn- sylvania in the last few years. In 1931, the State produced 74,797,000,000 cubic feet of natural gas with an estimated val- ue at the wells of $21,092,754, just a little less than the value of petroleum produced in the State in the same year. The gas came from approximately 20,000 producing wells. Two areas of particularly large production stand out. One includes Armstrong, clarion, and Jefferson Counties; the other, Greene and Washington counties. A third region, the Tioga coun- ty field, although not comparable to the other two in present production, is of especial interest because of its newness and possible future importance. In the first quarter of 1932 production had risen to 500,000,000 cubic root asny. A pipe line has been completed to Williamsport and another to Syracuse, New York. Possibility of sending the gas to New York City and New England is under consideration. Predictions regarding the future of the industry are diff- icult to make. New drilling is going on. Deeper drilling, the 26l. Mining and Quarrying (other than coal) 1929 Limestone Sand and Gravel Iron Ore Slate Basalt Sandstone; Clay Granite Silica Stones misce Sand, Molding Other Industries Total Number of En- terprises l2 465 Wage Earners 6,048 l, 208 68O ls 95.l 566 595 555 263 327 l68 146 l84 12,691 Horse Power 103,188 43,717 16,448 15,334 lº, 188 7,167 2,199 2,850 l,784 2,llé 1,673 laº;4 210,596 Wolume of Production. 19,124,040 ll,002,656 4,515,586 4,330,00l 2,236,438 l,615,444 l, 215,882 731,484 689,886 568,783 44l,648 11193,841– 84,564,189 263 testing, that is, of deeper sands has developed two important gas areas. A partial vacuum method is used to obtain gas in SOrde depleted fields. Pennsylvania's annual production has been declining and with the deeper phase of exploration com- pleted, its future as a natural gas producing state will be put a matter of a few years, in all probability. The Portland Cement Industry For 40 years Pennsylvania has been the leading producer of Portland cement in the United States, at one time manufacturing more than 85 per cent of the total volume, and despite the great expansion in other states, it still produced 23 per cent of the total in l93l, when it produced 28,510,231 barrels, val- ued at $30,952,302. The value added by manufacture was about $20,000,000. Approximately 7,900 persons were employed in the industry in this State in 1930. Natural cement is a product made by burning a clayey limestone ti incipient fusion and grinding the product to a fine size. Portland cement, which is stronger and more depend- able, is more carefully prepared, the material which is burned - being in artificial mixture containing lime, silica, alumina and some iron oxide in definite proportions. Three-fourths of the Pennsylvania product is made in the Lehigh cement district, where a clayey limestone, called "ce- ment rock" furnishes a material ideally suited to the manu- facture of Portland cement, requiring only a small amount of pure limestone or a little shale to give proportion of lime 263 . carbonate to the clayey substances. The large consuming markets are in New York, New Jersey, and New England. At least 40 per cent is used for public and commercial buildings, houses, and sidewalks in urban com- munities. A large quantity, too, is used in highways, which increase in number and width as urban centers are approached, and for paving city streets. In the last few years a change in the marketing of cement has come about which may affect the cement plants profoundly. Formerly cement was sold direct to the consumer. The cement companies made the contacts necessary to introduce goods, gave advice as to the mixing of concrete, and generally superintend- ed its use. Much of this duty has now been taken over by the ready-mix companies which are springing up in every city. Their function is to buy the cement cheaply in large quantities, mix it with sand and gravel aggregate or crushed stone, and sell it ready-mixed to the building contractor or other users . The Portland Cement Association has done much for the in- dustry. It is one of the largest engineering, educational and scientific research organizations in the world, and aims to in- crease the knowledge, utility and use of Portland cement through scientific investigations and public education. Al- though it has no function in connection with individual manu- facture or sales, it has promoted general sales and extended the demand for cement by its publications, information to newspapers and periodicals, instructions to users, and by mak- # 264 |N PORTLAND CEMENT INDUSTRY LEGE N D : U NITED STATES PRODUCT PENNsylvania P Robuction O O R. E. M U R PHY : PEN NA. M. N E RAL INDUSTRIES FIGURE NO. 70 ing staff assistants available for advice on job problems • Common Rock Industries Common rock material produced in Pennsylvania in 1929 are estimated to have totalled about 50,000,000 short tons and to have had a value of nearly $65,000,000, Limestone made up a- bout half of each of these totals, while sand and gravel and clay were next in order. A number of other rocks or rock mat- erials contributed to the totals in smaller amounts. Rock materials are used chiefly for concrete, plaster and road materialse Cement manufacturing ranks second both in ton- nage and value of rock materials consumed, while the iron and steel industry, because of its deriand for fluxing stone, and the clay-products industries are other large consumer. The lime manu- facturing industry, the railroads (through demands for ballast) and a great number of other users account for smaller amounts. Pennsylvania does not lead in the production of any of the building stones except roofing slate, but nevertheless, building stone other than slate produced in l929 had a value of $594,372, placed upon it by the United States Bureau of Mines. This figure undoubtedly is too small, Probably a considerable amount of building stone for local use is quarried when needed. The Lime Industry When finely . ground limestone (calcium carbonate) is heated in kilns carbon dioxide is driven off, leaving calcium oxide, which is known as "quick-lime" or "lime." It has a high affin- ity for water, and when water is added it "slakes", forming a 265 hydrate of lime. When slaked lime is exposed to the air, it sets or becomes hard, due to evaporation of the excess water and the reversion of the calcium hydrate to calcium carbonate by absorption of carbon dioxide from the air. • The total value of lime sold by Pennsylvania producers in 1930 was $4,661,670 and its bulk, 633,520 tons. Pennsylvania ranked second among the states as a lime producer. Recently, mechanical means have been introduced to hydrate the lime, producing a fine white powder much easier to handle than quick-lime, and the product is an ever increasing per- centage of the lime sold. Lime for building purposes made up l8 per cent by weight of the Pennsylvania product in 1930. The chief use in building is in plaster. The building lime industry has been affected adversely by the recent enormous increase in the use of Port- land cement and the increased use of gypsum wall plaster. Although only 26 per cent of the lime produced in Penn- sylvania in 1930 was used for agricultural purposes, the State produced 47 per cent of the Nation's total agricultural lime. Pennsylvania was the leading state in chemical lime pro- duction in 1930 with 19 per cent of the United states totals both by weight and value. Chemical uses of lime are widely distributed throughout the industrial field. Metallurgical uses account for 14.5 per cent of the product; paper mills 6 per cent; tanneries 3.2 per cent ; glass works and sugar re- fineries •5 per cent, while other chemical uses, each relative- 266 ly small, total 29.5 per cent • Clay Products Industries Pennsylvania has abundant supplies of most of the lower grades of clay. Much of the best pottery clay in the State has long been brought in from other states or even from abroad, and although enormous quantities of fire clay occur associated with the coal beds of Pennsylvania, the quantity of high grade fire clays in the State appears to be quite limited . The clay-products industries of the Commonwealth had a product value of $67,000,000 in 1929, and for the same year, 20,000 persons were employed by these industries. Clay pro- ducts consist of common brick, paving brick, face brick, hollow tile, terra cotta, sewer pipe, roofing tile, refractories (heat resisting products, ) etc. In 1929, Pennsylvania produced 37 per cent of the clay refractories manufactured in the United States and the combined production capacity of the refracto- ries plants of Pennsylvania is said to be equivalent to 49 per cent of that of the whole country. The raw materials used in the manufacture of many of the clay products are not required to pass rigid specifications as to properties. Other products, such as refractories, Pennsyl- vania's particular specialty, must be made from clays of high purity, which Imakes it necessary in practice to discard, or not to mine at all, large proportions of the available deposits. Preliminary study has convinced us that if processes could be developed that would make possible the removal of some of 267 •lzo"eT 23 *6ST *g #T 3.T.2°g 93t 28 923 Alſº Olſº 950*T 09: "I TO9** see&otdui sseto Arau -EJ& TTV TWT *TG2°g g? 3 2T T TT */24, y T tº e C & © © C & O60"I 3 T © tº C C tº © O. T © tº tº e Q tº Q 2 O23 T 22 O2T TT 4, 1911 * T © O e º Q O © 9 Q8T 8 3. © C C C C, C O T © O © tº O. © O 2 . 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O92 © Q • e • © tº © Q © tº Ö & T & Q Q • Q e © O 98 3 T T69 seeſotduſH d seeſotdulºſ ssuTO § siteſ º ano g seta40g to 3– .# gº lº TWI,0ſ, • * * * * * * * * *xrox **pueTerouſ! seſa • * * * * * * * *eukem • * * *uoq3upuses, • * * * * * * *uerreh • * * * * * * oxueueñ. • * * * * * * * *exorſ, • *epudtepetrud • ***Axemosquom • * * * * * * *eoruow • * * * * * * *uesyon • * * * * * *eurezni • * * * * * * *uºrueT • * * * * reqGeoue'ſ • ***wutremexoe"I • * * * *uoszegyeſ • * * * * **wueppuſ • * * * * * * * 4 seroi: • * * * * * *eq4e Red •e • * * * * * * * *xtg • * * * * * *uTudneq • * * * * *uoprato • * * * * * * * retang • * * * * * * * *rpetg • * * * * * * * *sjreg • * * * * * * * reaeeg • * * * **uorºsurry • * * * * Sueuzet TV § the objectionable impurities in clays, not only could the properties of the finished products be improved, but, in add- ition, large quantities of raw material now discarded or nes- lected could be used to manufacture valuable products. This is especially true of refractories or heat-resisting brick and other shapes that are absolutely essential in furnace construct- ion in the iron and steel and other metallurgical industries, in by-product coking and glass making. Research to develop such benefication processes is essential if Pennsylvria is to main- tain its high standing in the clay-products industries. Non-Clay Refractories Refractories may be divideo conveniently into the follow- ing groups: Fire-clay, silica, Magnesite, chrome and high- temperature cements. The most important of Pennsylvania's non- clay refractories in terms of value is silica brick. The State's output in 1929 was valued at $10,452,622. Silica brick has an extensive use in metallurgy. Magnesite and chrome refractories are also used chiefly in metallurgy. The combined value of Pennsylvania's output in l929 was about $4,000,000 while that of high-temperature ce- ments was $2,685, 183. For convenience, abrasives and grinding wheels may be grouped with refractories. The industry is based largely upon the use of silicon carbide and electrically fused aluminum ox- ide. Rottenstone, and earthy siliceous material, is the only natural abrasive originating in Pennsylvania, but an abrasive 269 and grinding wheel manufacturing indus;ry has plants in Phila- delphia, Beaver and Chester counties with reported product value in 1928 of $3,000,000. The Glass Industry Pennsylvania was the leading glass-producing state in the Union in l929 with a value of products amounting to $81,050,092 and a value added by manufacture of $50,907,037. It produced 26 per cent of the nation's glass in terms of pro- ducts. Plate glass and bottles and jars make up more than half of the total value of glass products. Cut and decorative glass, table-ware and Window glasses are other mportant divisions Cf the industry • A total of 14l glass making establishments with 18,630 em- ployes were in operation in the State in 1930. The trend has been toward specialization and large-scale production. Machinery has been introduced steadily in the industry since 1900, automatic devices displacing skilled labor. As a result , the industry finds itself in something of a transition stage, changing from hand to machine processes with about half of the establishments taking advantage of existing machinery. Iron and Steel The United States is by far the leading producer of iron and steel, and within the United States, Pennsylvania leads that industry. Within Pennsylvania, Pittsburgh dominates the 270 picture. While Pennsylvania produced only one per cerit of the nation's iron ore in 1931, it easily led other phases of the industry with . 28 per cent of the total pig iron tonnage and 32 per cent of the total tonnage of steel ingots and castings. The making of iron and steel (with a total product value in 1929 of $1,493,586,364 and a value added by manufacture of $546,697,674) is by far the State's leading manufacturing in- dustry, accounting for 16 per cent of all value added by manu- facture in 1929. In the same year the average number of per- sons employed in the industry in remºvania, according to the United States cenas, was 168,500. The l930 Productive Indust- ries report Of the Pennsylvania Department of internal Affairs estimated the capital invested in the iron and steel industry to be between $700,000,000 and $800,000,000. But such figures d'O not fully describe the value of the industry to the Common- wealth. Account must also be taken of the way in which it has attracted or made possible the development of a great many other manufacturing industries. Pig iron, result of the blast furnace or electric smelting of iron ores, may be made into cast iron in a foundry, into wrought iron in a puddling taill, or converted into steel, that is iron with carbon added. Production of 1,000 tons of pig iron requires about 1,800 tons of ore, 700 tons of limestone as a flux, 1,000 tons of Coke, and 4,500 tons of heated air. Moulten iron is drawn off 271 every four hours. A second product, slag, is still largely waste, but has a widening field of uses, among which are rail- road ballast, road surfacing, the manufacture of cement in some localities, and fertilizer. Increase in the carbon content increases the hardness and brittleness of steel, but weakens it by a decrease in toughness, malleability, and ductility • Numerous alloy steels exist to which various metals are added to impart special qualities • Steel is made by any of four types of processes, the Bessemer, the open hearth, the electric furnace or the cruci- ble process. The open hearth processes are slower than Bess- emer but result in a higher, more uniform grade of steel and 89.5 per cent of Pennsylvania's steel was made this way in 1931. Coincident with the phenomenal rise in the production of iron and steel has come the integration of the industry. Eighty-nine per cent of the ingot capacity of the United States was controlled by ten companies in 1931, with the United States Steel Corporation controlling 43.3 per cent of the ore shipped from all mines in the United States, 20.9 per cent of the coke produced, 38.1 per cent of the pig iron and ferro- alloys, 38.9 per cent of the steel ingots and castings and 34.2 per cent of all kinds of finished rolled products. The Bethlehem Steel Corporation has about one-third as large a capacity as the United States Steel Corporation. The United States Steel Corporation and the Jones and 272 Laughlin Steel Corporation are the largest iron end Steel organ- 1zations in extreme western Pennsylvania; the Bethlehem Steel Company (chief operating subsidiary of the Bethlehem Steel Cor- poration) is outstanding in eastern Pennsylvania, and both the larger companies are represented in Johnstown. Within recent years, an increasing use of scrap iron has developed and, in consequence, an excess of steel produced OVer pig iron used reached more than la ,000,000 gross tons in l929. The re-use of old steel and iron which this difference repre- sents is very desirable from the standpoint of conservation. It is, moreover, a tendency which must be taken into considera- tion in estimating the probable time of exhaustion of the iron Ore deposits. Several influences have been tending to decentralize the iron and steel industry. When the industry turned from beehive to by-product coke, development of plants some distance from the source of Caol became possible. Abolition of the "Pitts- burgh rius' system in 1924 promoted this decentralization still further so far as western Pennsylvania is concerned. (For many years quoted by steel products manufactured at , and shipped from, points outside of Pittsburgh were the regular F. O. B. Pittsburgh prices plus amounts equivalent to the railroad freight charges on such products if shipped from Pittsburgh.) The curves showing proportions of the United States total production of iron and steel products contributed by the various districts of Pennsylvania as a whole and by competing 273 districts and states, bring out only too clearly that some shift in the industry is going on. Pennsylvania is steadily declining in relative importance as a producer, whilé the Chic- ago-Gary district and some others are increasing in importance. Exhaustion of the Lake Superior deposits, which produce inore than 85 per cent of the country's iron ore, is not to be expected for forty or fifty years. When this tonnage does de- cline, the industry probably will obtain more and more of its ore from abroad and from the great reserves of low-grade ore in southeastern United States. Increasing dependence on foreign ore is likely to result in a gradual migration of the iron and steel industry in the United States to the Atlantic Coast, -- a movement in which the Bethlehem Steel Company, with its plant at Sparrow's Point, Md. , may be considered a pioneer. Studies of Pennsylvania's Iron Ore and Chronite Reserves —and of Possible Methods for their Beneficiation. Pennsylvania became the center of the iron and steel in- dustry in the United States primarily because of her abundant deposits of iron ore, plentiful supplies of fuel and of line- stone for fluxes, and favorable location with respect to con- suming markets. When high grade iron ores were discovered in the Lake Superior region with accompanying cheap large scale mining and handling methods, Pennsylvania ores were driven out of the markets. The crude and inefficient methods used in the days of Pennsylvania iron ore mining may have had something to 274 | L ' ON 3 H (nº) | } ∞ N \ N N \， ºn eſ|- | }GT314 LSBM-QIWN OL ĐNISOT SI /\\-|_LSTYGINI TIE E_I_S \/|N\//\TÅSNNEd W\OH (kºlkº (kºkº (kºtkºlkºľkº kºkº (kºtkºlº@lºlº@lººk@lºlº lº : e 6 : Uºtº (kºlkºľkºľkºľkºľkºľkºk@lººk@lººk@lººk@lººk@lºlºq ezer uºlº (kºtkºlkºľkº kºſkę (kºkº (kºlº@lººk@lººk@lººk@lº@lº szer tºtºdºk@lººk@lººk@lººk@lººk@lººk@lººk@lººk@lºlº zzei ∞∞∞∞∞∞∞∞∞∞∞∞∞∞∞∞∞kºlºlºkº kºlºvº e i el 0，6×6×6×6×6×6×6×6×6×××××××××××× 9 | 6 | (kºlk@kºlk@lººk@lººk@lº@l«QU� l� l� l� l� l� l� l� l� l� el 6 O|HO S | O N |T17|| \/ N \/|C|N|\/ | N \//\TT Å S`N N 3 c} d SO] Hc] \/89 O|OOS do with this shift, which left, it is generally agreed, large unmined low grade reserves in Pennsylvania • The early exhaustion of high grade ores in the Lake dis- trict has been predicted by experts. It is probable that sari- ous decrease in the flow of ore from the rich lake Shore de- posits will begin long before their exhaustion forty or fifty years hence. Then attention will focus on the lower grade de- posits of the country and Pennsylvania may again become import- ant as an iron ore producer. Two lines of study seem to be promising. (1) Careful prospecting, especially by the use of the newer geophysical methods, may well locate important unknown iron ore bodies in the 3tate, especially in the regions where ores are magnetic . (2) Studies leading to the improvement of beneficiation methods such as crushing, screening, drying, Washing, jigging, electro- magnetic separation, smelting, nodulizing, desulfurization, etc., should make possible the use of our lower grade iron ores. Such methods are already in extensive use in the Lake Superior district. In that region they are making possible the use of lower grade ores as the better ores are being exhausted. Re- cognizing this fact, the State of Minnesota has for some years been engaged actively in a study of beneficiation methods of Minnesota ores. During the last twenty years chromium and its compounds have become of paramount importance in metallurgical and chemi- cal uses. Chromium imparts valuable properties to steels and 275 and other alloys, which chromium compounds are exceeding im- portant in refractory, tanning, dyeing and other uses. At pre- sent most of the chromium used in the United States must be im- ported, Pennsylvania has produced chromium in the past but pro- duces none at present, Chromite is magnetic and it is possible that the same magnetic prospecting referred to above as appli- cable to iron ore finding might reveal some valuable chromite deposits. Other Metal Industries The non-ferrous metal industries of Pennsylvania had a total product value of about $78,000,000 and a value added by manufacture of about $29,000,000 in 1929. No mines are opera- ted primarily for the ores of any of this group, although some copper, gold and silver are obtained as by-products in mining iron ore at Cornwall. Zinc was formerly mined extensively in Lehigh County and some zinc deposits are known elsewhere in the State • Lead has been mined in central Pennsylvania and in Chester County. Some de- posits of copper minerals occur in the southeastern part of the State and mines have been operated for short periods, but with little success • The smelting and refining of zinc from ores or concen- trates had a product value of $34,843,205 in Pennsylvania in 1929 and a value added by manufacture of $17,854,327. The in- dustry gave employment to 3,845 persons. Pennsylvania has risen in relative importance in the zinc 276 AUTOMOTIVE Building AND CONSTRUCTION CONTAINERS OIL - GAS –WAT ER AND MI N NG AGRICULTURE MACH | NERY ExPORTS ALL OTHERS 4. (3 12 16 24. ześ R. E. MURPHY : PENNA. M IN ERAL INDUSTRIES F i G U R E NO. 7 || A industry and the addition of a plant near Monaca should still further add to the State's relative importance. A number of plants in the State are engaged in making brass and bronze and other non-ferrous alloys from scrap; or in some type of recovery of metals from waste materials. On the basis of available data the total value of the State's sec- ondary metal industries was about $43,000,000 in 1929 and the value added by manufacture about $11,000,000. 277 TENTATIVE STUDY Of The Economic Geographic Regions of Pennsylvania% On the adjoining map Pennsylvania is divided into twenty- five geographic Regions, a reas which are essentially uniform throughout both in their natural environmental conditions and in dominant human use forms. These divisions are purely tenta- tive and are by no means complete; they are designed only as working units in studying the economic geography of the State. Any one of these regions or a part of any region may form a unit for detailed investigation. Unlike agricultural regions geographic regions are based upon all forms of utilization a s well as upon the appearance of the regions. In some parts of the . State, agriculture is dominant and types of agricultural use serve to set off one region from another; in other parts mining or manufacturing predominates and forms the basis for regional divisions. DESCRIPTION I. Philadelphia Urban District. As its name implies this region consists of the City of Philadelphia, a great urban center, in which manufacturing and commerce are the dominant activities. Chester is included as being essentially a part of urban Philadelphia. *By Raymond E. Murphy, Ph.D., Assistant Professor of Economic Geography, School of Mineral Industries, Pennsylvania State College. 278 21 ° ON E \! ſhº \ s)‘AHeae (nt^' *= *\! • gºººg??）;ºffſ rae0ae^^）• ، ºs sae**** s√≠√∞: S√≠√∞º •• • • • • • '- → ، ، ، ، ، ، ، ، ، ، ،-， ， º †» C6|| SNO|$)）?\-] O|Hc] \/ *|$) OººO O|WNO NO O? II. Philadelphia Suburban Area. A suburban and part-time farming region borders the urban district. III. Southeastern Dairy Region. This is a region dominated by agriculture in the form of a dairy industry but dotted with small semi-industrial cities. IV. Lancaster County Tobacco Region. An agricultural region dominated by one crop, tobacco, and with one important industrial center, Lancaster. V. Southeastern Diversified Farming Region. . This region, consisting of York County and a strip extend- ing on toward the northeast, is predominantly an agricultural region in which poultry raising, dairying and several other types of farming vie with one another for leadership. York is an important industrial city, and a number of smaller urban centers, too, show a high degree of industrialization. Metal products, cigars and furniture are outstanding manufactures. WI. South Mountain Fruit and Resort Region. A region dominated by a topographic feature, South Moun- tain. Much of the land is left in forest and locally supports a resort industry; but the edges of South Mountain are in thany places used for agriculture with apple production dominant . VII. Great Valley Agricultural and, Industrial Region. This long strip of the great Appalachian Valley is a region of diversified farming but is dotted with a number of important industrial centers, among which are Harrisburg, 279 Reading, Lebanon and Carlisle. Textiles, iron and steel, metal goods and food products are important manufactures. VIII. Lower Lehigh Valley Industrial Region. The lower Lehigh Valley is dominantly industrial, with Allent own, Bethlehem and East on as important urban centerse The cement industry, iron and steel manufacture, slate quarry- ing and the making of textiles and textile products are among the outstanding activities. IX. Appalachian Ridge and Valley Region. Forested ridges alternate with agricultural valleys in this region, the forested ridges being slightly more char- acteristic. Diversified farming is the predominant type of agriculture. X. Broadtop Coal Field. A small plateau-like bituminous coal producing area surrounded by the ridges and valleys of central Pennsylvania. XI. Appalachian Limestone Walleys Region. Though this region consists of alternating ridges and valleys like Region 9, the valleys are more extensive than the ridges and support an agriculture in which dairying is dominant. Altoona, Lewist own and Huntingdon are some of the industrial towns that are scattered over this region. In these urban centers textile mills, refractory plants and railroad shops employ many of the industrial wage earners. XII. Susquehanna Valley Agricultural Region. Lowlands along the Susquehanna with diversified 280 farming dominant, but with some industrial development in the Small urban centers. XIII. Southern Anthracite Fields. The three southermost anthracite fields, the Southern Western Middle and Eastern, are here considered as a group because they are essentially continuous. Anthracite min- ing is the dominant activity, but the urban centers have also developed. manufacturing, textiles and textile products being particularly important. XIV. Wyoming Valley. This is another anthracite region, separated from and north of the three just mentioned. Settlement is slight- ly more concentrated here than in the southern anthracite fields. Again, anthracite mining is dominant, with textile and metal pro- ducts manufacturing as important sidelines. XV. Pocono Resort Region, The rugged, glaciated country of the Poconos is the site of an important resort industry, while agriculture is restricted to serving in part of the needs of the resorts. XVI. Northeasterm Dairy Region. This is a highly specialized dairy section with few urban centers and little industrial development. XVII. Allegheny Mountains Forest Region. A rugged region of many state forests and little cleared land. XVIII. North Central Gas and Farming Region. 28l. With a larger percentage of forest land than the Northeastern Dairy Region, this region has as its agricul- tural specialities, dairying and potato growing, but natural gas production has attracted increasing attention with recent years. XIX. Upper Allegheny Oil and Gas Region. Forests occupy much of the surface of this re- gion. Petroleum production and refining dominate, with McKean County leading the state in crude oil production, and Oil City, Franklin, Titusville and Bradford standing out as refining cen- ters. XX. Northwestern Dairy Region. An agricultural section devoted principally to dairying, with Meadville as the largest industrial town. XXI. Erie Urban and Fruit Region. This region includes Erie, a manufacturing and commercial city in which metal products are the outstanding man- ufacture. It includes also the lake shore belt with its impor- tant grape industry. XXII. . Allegheny Mountains Coal-Mining Region. * This high portion of the Plateau, frequently called the Allegheny Mountains, is dominated by the soft coal mining industry, while some of the larger urban centers manu- facture clay products. The forest cover is widespread and agri- culture is not of great importance. 282 XXIII. Middle Allegheny Agricultural and Mining region. In this region general farming, coal mining and the oil and gas industry are all of considerable importance • XXIV. Southwestern Sheep Region. - This hilly section is best adapted to its prin- cipal form of utilization, sheep raising. The presence of large bituminous coal reserves, however, suggests that coal mining my some day be the dominant utilization form of this region. XXV. Western Pennsylvania Industrial and Mining Region. A coal mining industry characterizes all of this region, while industrial development is important in the cities, the iron and steel industry being particularly outstand- ing- Pittsburgh, Johnstown, New Castle, Connelsville and Union- town are some of the industrial centers of this region, their industries depending particularly upon coal. Agriculture in so far as it is present is designed to serve the mining and indus- trial centers. The Shenango Valley, the Uniontown-Connellsville area and the city of Pittsburgh are some of the important sub- regions into which this major might well be divided. 283 PLANNING FOR "REASONABLE COMFORT"+ Approximately nine in every ten of Pennsylvania's families had incomes, even in 1929, that were inadequate for the com- plete attainment of reasonable comfort. In fact, many did not have enough for their basic needs. The average income was suf- ficient to buy only three-fourths of the things regarded as virtual necessities for an American standard of living. Moreover, the standard of living of these and other fami- lies today is lower than in 1929. Pennsylvania's income in 1929 was between $7,500,000,000 and $8,000,000,000, according to estimates based on totals for the United States, which were prepared by various agencies. A study of expenditures by the people of the State for clothing, food, rent, transportation, recreation, amusements, health and , other things led to the conclusion that the State's income was, in round figures, $7,500,000,000. In the following pages a budget for the reasonable human needs of the population has been fixed at $9,910,000,000 or $4375 for each "statistical private family" of 4.23 persons * . Ultimately, if we are to plan a sound civilization, we must think, essentially, in terms of the needs of citizens. This section is submitted as an attempt to face this problem. We appreciate, of course, that prices mentioned are based on an economy of scarcity while the outline of goods is based on one of abundance. The prices allow for existing returns to cap- ital. The approach and attitude are more important than are any of the detailed estimates submitted. Sources and methods used are appended. 284 (see appendix) in 1929 dollare. Adjusted to the purchasing power of the 1954 dollar, the minimum income for each family in the commonwealth should be $3500 or, for a single indivis- dual, $829 a year. But in was only 'læ per cent of the pop- ulation received such incomes. Consequently 88 per cent re- ceived less than enough for reasonable requirements. In the United States the words "human needs" connote more than the bare necessities to sustain a miserable ex- istence. So, in classifying them for Pennsylvanians, a reasonable standard of living has been kept in mind. "Human needs, then, are such essentials as food, shelter, clothing, health protection and at least that minimum of recreation and amusement requisite for well-being and comfort. They in- clude the means for education, transportation, and other ser- vices and goods in adequate quantity to satisfy the reasonable desires of the average individual and the average family. They stop far short of extravagances. In other words, they constitute an "American standard" of living. National inventories of income, rounding out into bil- lions of dollars in consumers goods and services, all provide an auspicious asset side of the balance sheet. But liabil- ities also must be considered. Do they exceed the assets? Any national inventory becomes the asset side of the balance sheet, and the human needs or demands, the liabilities. National income was variously estimated for 1929, but with a general agreement that it was in the neighborhood of ninety 285 billion dollars. The National Survey of Potential Product - Capacity placed it at $95,400,000,000 while the Brookings Institute calculated it at $91,385,000,000. This was for an America operatins, according to the findings of the same institute, at approximately 80 per cent of capacity e Yet, with this 80 per cent capacity, millions of people in the United States lacked a sufficiency of goods and ser- vices in 1929. For example, the 29,000,000 men and boys' suits produced in that year was at a rate which would allow about one suit every two years for each individual. A pro- duction of a trifle more than 9,250,000 overcoats would al- low these same men and boys a new overcoat only once in six years • A striking short age also was shown in housing unite available and in the health and comfort of the homes • Most of the figures upon which estimates can be based are national statistics for l929, In order to arrive at an estimate for Pennsylvania, its share must be computed on the basis of its population and the number in each age groups. At the end of this section of the report , the figures are reduced to a l?34 basise In the present survey, several of the principal human needs have been "budgeted". Others have been roughly estimated to round out the picture • Food The food budget becomes a problem of diversification of foods rather than a question of quantity e One adequate for 286 * Pennsylvania's 9,631,000 people, on the basis of 1929 price levels, would require an average outlay of $15 a week for each family, according to a bulletin published by the United States Department of Agriculture • Food supplies in 1929 were found ample in quantity but not in variety. If we round out the diet by a decrease in the production of foods containing starch, sugar and protein, and an increase in mineral and vitamin foods such as milk, fresh vegetables and fruits, the acreage necessary to supply the re- quirements would be less than that under cultivation from 1928 to 1932. The number of cattle, hogs and sheep and the quantity of poultry would likewise decrease, although the number of milch cows would have to be increased to supply the larger consump- tion of milk called for in the diet. If beverages and spices are added, the bill for the State would be $2,040,000,000 a year, or about $20,000,000 less than was spent in 1929. Wearing Apparel The wearing apparel budget, in greater part, has been adapted to the needs of the Commonwealth's population from the findings of the National Survey of Potential Product Capacity. Men and boys formerly limited to one suit every other year are alloted one a years or even two, depending upon occupation and age. Likewise, the number of overcoats has been increased from one every six years to one every two years. Women and girls receive thirteen dresses and frocks every two years, almost double the 1929 allotment, thirteen pairs of stockings 287 a year instead of ten, and ten pieces of underwear compared with four and a half in 1929. Pennsylvania's dress bill for 1929 could not have ex- ceeded $800,000,000 but the actual needs as expressed in the new budget increases this amount by about 75 per cent to $1,377,000,000 or from less than $80 a year for each person, at 1929 prices, to slightly more than $140. Housing Agreed minimum standards of housins allot one room to each individual, exclusive of bath facilities • The total cost of a four to five room unit including the cost of land, under any large scale program, is $5,000. When modern methods are utilized, the cost is approximately the same whether the unit is contained in a large apartment structure or single dwelling. With the life of these properties set at forty years, an annual replacement of 298,000 rooms is needed, at a cost of approximately $200,000,000. Ten per cent of the value of the property or about $992,000,000, is the rental budget for Pennsylvania, amount- ing to a little more than $435 a year for the "statistical family" of 4.23 persons----roughly $3.50 wer Inonth per rooms Health The health bill of the people of Pennsylvania in 1929 exceeded $250,000,000 and vesses $26 to $30 per capita • Medical facilities and personnel during a reasonably compar- able period were inadequate in all but the number of nurses. 288 For each loo,000 persons, the State had l?4 physicians, 57 dentists, 266 nurses, le public health nurses and 886 hospital beds • Careful studies by the Committee on the Gost of Medical Care have rized the lowest numbers for ade- quate care of the people at 142 physicians, 179 dentists,. 99 dental hygienists and laboratory technicians, l?6 hospital and home nurses, 44 public health nurses and l, 158 hospital beds • f Opinion varies upon the cost of health service for each individual if purchased yearly upon a group basis. The Milbank Memorial Fund computed the figure at $42, while the Committee on the Cost of Medical Care gave an estimate of $36, or #25.30 for medical expenses and $10.70 for dental expenditures. On the latter basis, Pennsylvania's annual health bill would be slightly more than $345,000,000. Recreation and Amusement Reasonable estimates place the expenditures of the people of the Commonwealth in 1929 at approximately $470,000,000 for public and private sports, theatres, music, vacations, (excepting automobile travel), foreign travel and other mis- cellaneous amusements and private social activities. How- ever, the people's capacity for recreation, travel and amusement is such that this "play bill could be doubled with - beneficial effect upon the population as a whole. It would then be roughly $2 per week per person which does not seem extravagant e 289 Transportation - A transportation budget should include passenger trans- portation by automobile, bus, electric railway and railroad, and in some instances by Waters If we were to provide an automobile for each of the statistical families in the State, more than 2,275,000 cars would be needed. The life of an automobile averages about six and three-quarters years, which means an annual replacement of 337,000 cars, costing roughly $214,000,000 • Cost of gasoline, lubricants, tires and tubes and main- tenance would be $378,000,000 provided that the average mile- age operated each year did not exceed ll,000 miles per care Garage rental would amount to approximately $136,000,000. Common and contract passenger transportation, exclusive of commercial passenger trertie, if increased 25 per cent over the 1929 expenditures, would amount to $250,000,000. All totalled, including miscellaneous expenditures, Penn- sylvania's transportation bill would amount to $1,582,000,000 a year. SUMMARY Expenditures in 1929 for clothing, food, rent , trans- portation, recreation, amusements an. health amounted to ap- proximately $5,305,000,000. Education was not listed sep- arately, nor were savings and insurance, but were placed in a group with "all other expenditures." This also included house furnishings and services, personal needs and various 290 other things, totalling another $2,195,000,000. Thus, in round numbers, the expenditures in 1929 of the people of the Commonwealth totalled $7,500,000,000, Or virtually the same. amount as the estimated income for that year. A rough esti- mate of other needs has been reached arbitrarily by increasing by 20 per cent the unallocated expenditures. Pennsylvania's budget for the achievement of "reasonable comfort" will then look as follows: - Amount in Millions of Dollars Food. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2040 Wearing appare]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1377 Rent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 992 Health - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 345 Amusements and Recreation . . . 940 Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1582 All other. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2634 Total - 99.10 l929 income 8000 to 7500 Deficit 1910 2410 This budget of $9,910,000,000 represents a minimum for each of the State's 2,276,915 families or for each of its 9,631,000 individuals, if goods and services are expressed in 1929 dollars. Therefore, each statistical family of 4. 23 persons, as already statea, needs $4375, in 1929 dollars or $3506 when adjusted to the purchasing power of the dollar. of 1934 as its minimum annual income. But while the income is set forth as a minimum requirement, this discussion is of the average, not the minimum family. Those smaller than the average of 4.23 would require less. The requirements Of a - single individual cannot be completely met by less than $829 291 FENNSYLVANIA FOOD BUDGET (Pounds per year except milk and eggs) , Last three ciphere omitted Jitem Amount Flour, Cereals. • - - - - - - - - l, 544,473 Wheat flour. . . . . . . . . . 1,173,800 Corn Meal . . . . . . . . . . . . l64,447 Prepared Flour. . . . . . . 46,334 Oat Breakfast food • . . 46,334 Rice • - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 30,889 Macaroni, Noodles . . . . 30,889 Wheat breakfast foods l5,445 Rye flour. . . . . . . . . . . . 15,445 Corn Breakfast foods, 15,445 Cornstarch. • * * * * * * * * * 15,445 Potatoes, Sweet- Potatoes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l. 559,960 Potatoes. . . . . . . . . . . . , l, 294,767 Sweet Potatoes. . . . . . . 265,193 Dried Beans, Peas & Nuts • - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 197,003 Dried beans - - - - - - - - - - 88,65l Peanuts • - - - - - - - - - - - - - 65,011 Dried peas . . . . . . . . . . . 9,850 Nuts (in shell) . . . . . . 33,491 Tomatoes, Citrus Fruit. . 882,147 Tomatoes, fresh . . . . . . l32,322 Tomatoes, canned . . . . . 308, 75l. Oranges • - - - - - - - - - - - - - 282,287 Grapefruit. . . . . . . . . . . 88,215. - Lemons • - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 70,572 Dried Fruits - - - - - - - - - - - - 257,668 Raisins. - - - - - - - - - - - - - 103,067 Prunes - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 103,067 Others • - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 51,554 292 **. FOOD BUDGET (Pounds per year except milk and eggs) (Continued) - Last three ciphers omitted Item Amount Leafy Green or ~ Yellow Vegetables. ... . . . . . . . 947,026 Cabbage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476,516 Lettuce • - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - l?0,465 Peas - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 104,173 Snap beans. - - - - - - - - - - - - - 56,822 Carrots. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47,35l Spinach, Kale, - collards, etc - - - - - - - - - 47,35l Asparagus • - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 28,4ll Peppers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l8,941 Other Wegetables & e Fruits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,963,432 Apples. • - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 667,567 Bananas - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 215,977 Grapes • * - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 215,977 Peaches • - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 176,709 Corn- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - l67,074 Onions, turnips, beets, etc . . . . . . . . . . . . ll 7,806 Watermelons. . . . . . . . . . . . . 98,172 Cantúloups • , . . . . . . . . . . . . 78,537 Pears. - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 78,537 Cucumbers • - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 39,269 Celery • - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 39,269 Strawberries • . . . . . . . . . . . 39,269 Pineapples • . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39,269 Fats - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 491,675 Butter. • - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 245,838 Lºrd - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 98,335 Wegetable Oils & Shortenings. . . . . . . . . . . 98,335 Bacon, salt pork. . . . . . . . 34,417 Margarine • - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 14,750 Sugar, Molasses. . . . . . . . . . . . . 565,4ll Sugar- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 424,058 Molasses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90,466 Other. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50,887 293 ..FOOD BUDGET (Pounds per year except milk and eggs) {Continued) Item Last three . ciphers omitted Lean Meat, Poultry Amount & Fish - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 909,302 Beer................... 309, l05 Pork- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 354,628 Veal - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 45,465 Lamb & Mutton. . . . . . . . . 27,279 Poultry • - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 100,023 Fish. - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 72,744 Eggs. *l............ 156,453 Milk. Quºtel........... 2,879,905 Fresh whole milk. © º O C. • 2, 793,506 Condensed & * Evaporated . . . . . . . . . . 86,397 Coffee - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 91,498 Spices - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - l,849 294 WEARING APPAREL BUDGET item Shirts Skirts Slips Diapers Socks (Pairs) Sacques Cloaks Mittens (Pairs) Caps WEARING APPAREL BUDGET -Male 255,906 255,906 34l,208 3,070,872 170,604 l?0,604 85,302 85,302 85,302 BABIES UNDER ONE YEAR Sex Female 246,657 246,657 328,876 2,959,884 164,438 l64,438 82,219 82,219 82,219 CHILDREN ONE AND UNDER FIVE YEARS Item Coat Suit Dress Underwear Sleeping Suits Hose Shoes Caps & Hats Gloves & Mittens Sweaters Male 368,770 2, 212,620 2,212,620 737,540 2,950, 160 l, l06,310 737,540 737,540 737,540 Sex Female 360,024 2,160,144 2, 160,144 720,048 2,880,192 l,080,072 720,048 720,048 295 ANNUAL BUDGET FOR INDIVIDUALs MALE 5-14 65 yrs years years & over *Work Gloves lsº Ties 3 5.2 3 Handkerchiefs. 4.5 8.5 8,6 Garters , l 1. l gloves l lel •6 Suspenders .5 25 Collars 2-5. . 2.5 Work Shirts 2.3 Corduroys •8. . Overalls le5 Mackinaws •3 Sweaters l ‘eS •5 Hats .# 2.5 i . Shoes (Pairs) 4. 3.8 l.6 Sleeping y Apparel & Bathrobes 2.5 2.5 2 Underwear. 4. . 6.5 4. Shirts 4.7 7 5. Hosiery - (Pairs) 10.5 l4e5 9.6 Knickers & Extra Pants l,6 lel •5 Overcoats & Topcoats - •5 •5 •3 Suits l . le2 l FEMALE 5–l4 15–64. 65 yrs years. years & Over Handkerchiefs—526–1028– l:0.9 Garters ... 2 2 2 Gloves - - l, 6 3.4 . 2.4 Sweaters lsº -8. •5 Hats' 2 3 l - Shoes (Pairs) 3.3 3.4 l,7 Sleeping Apparel, Kimo- nos, Bathrobes 2-l 3 2 Corsets, Girdlesz-Etc. lº.8 • 7 Brassiers l.5 l Underwear 6.6 8.2 3.9 Hosiery (Pairaſig-3 lº- 7.4 suits •4 •7. •3 Dresses & Frocks333 5.6 2.2 Coats •5 • 7 •5 Amounts shown in these two tables are in fractions bécause the needs of physical and mental workers were computed, separately and the totals added and then divided by the total individuals of the given age groups. annually in 1934 dollars. Yet, in 1929, only 12 per cent of the population had comparable incomes • Consequently 88 per cent received less than enough to assure them of reasonable COmfort e ANNUAL BUDCET FOR INDIVIDUALS Babies under One Year Children One to Five Male Female Male Female Caps +–4. SWeaters 2 2 Cloves & Miſſiens (Pairs) —l l Mittens 2 2 • Caps & - Cloaks l l Hats 2 2 Sacques - 2 2 Shoes (Pairs) 3 35 Socks (Pairs) 2 2 Hose (Pairs) 8 8 Di apers 36 36 - Sleeping Suits 2 2 Slips 4. 4. Underwear 6 6 Skirts 3 5 Dresses 6 Shirts 3 —é Suits 6 Coats - l l Population from United States Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census • This table and other's following in this section are based chiefly on information furnished by Walter M. Polakov, con- sulting Engineer to National Survey of Potential Products cap- acity • 297 Item Suits Overcoats & Topcoats Extra Pants & Knickers Hosiery (Pairs) Shirts Underwear Sleeping Apparel & Bathrobes Hats Shoes (Pairs) Sweaters Mackinsws Overalls Corduroys Work Shirts Collars Cloves Suspenders Carters Handkerchiefs Ties Work Gloves WEARING APPAREL BUDCET MALE Men l5-64 3,913,470 l,573,065 3,529,800 45,657,253 22,022,903 20,488,221 7,865,323 7,865,323 ll,817,175 l,573,065 792,929 4,757,576 2,378,788 7,136,364 7,826,940 3,529,800 l,573,065 3, l'é6, 129 26,703,714 16,497,986 4,757,576 Men Boys 65 & Over 5-14 243,140 81,047 l21,57l 2,527,190 l, 215,700 972,560 486,280 245, la C 399,443 l21, 57l 555,745 lă6,303 l21,57l 243, l40 2,084,050 729,420 l,00l.,976 500,988 l,623, 201 10,500,708 4,729,326 4,007,904 2,504,940 2,003,952 4,007,904 l,00l.,976 l,00l.,976 l,00l.,976 4,488,852 3,005,928 Total 5,158,586 2, lä5,100 5,274,572 58,485, läl 27,967,929 25,468,685 lC);856,545 10, llº,415 l6, 324,522 2,696,612 792,929 4,757,576 2,378,788 7, lºº, 364 8,382,685 4,688,079 l,694,636 4, 39.l., 245 33,276,616 20,233,334 4,757,576 298 Item Coats Dresses & frocks Suits Hosiery (Pairs) Underwear Brassieres Corsets, Cirdles, etc - Sleeping Apparel, Kimonos & Bath- robes Shoes (Pairs) Hats §s SWeaters Gloves Carters Handkerchiefs WEARINC APPAREL BUDCET Women L5-64 2,155,500 l?,281,849 2,155,500 40,171,300 25,293,397 4,6353151 5,569,75l 9,270,300 lo, 491, l99 9,270,300 l,545,051 10,491,199 6,180, 200 33,342,798 FEMALE Women 65 & Over l, l32,704 587,689 88,469 971,595 Cirls 5-14 494,142 375,548 lo, 159,560 l,023,724 6,483,144 3, 265,406 189,580 530,812 454,986 265,406 132,704 eases 530,812 88l,566 2,114,928 3,241,572 l, 976,568 l, 265,004 l,620,786 l,976,568 5,494,860 Total 2,782,346 2l, lll,110 2,619,517 52,302,455 32,800,265 4,900,557 5,759,331 ll,916,040 14,187,757 ll, 512, 274 2,942,759 12,756,550 8,687,580 41,719,224 299 SOURCES AND METHODS statistical Family - The "private statistical family" in Pennsylvania is cam- puted as 4, 23 persons. It is the average number of individuals in priyate families, that is, excluding those in hospitals, - institutions, etc. It includes one person "families" con- sisting or individuals living alone. The figure 4.23 is the United States Census Bureau average for the State. Di- vided into the total population, it gives the number of statis- tical families, 2,276,915. The age distribution, as shown in the United States Census for 1930, was used to calculate the budgets for food and wearing apparele |Food The food budget, in reference to quantity, was based up- on, Circular No. 296, United States Department of Agriculture, "Diets at Four Levels of Nutritive Content and Cost," by Hazel K. Stiebeling and Medora M. Wará. The "adequate" diet considered was neither a maximum nor a minimum but one Which would furnish enough of the different nutriticnal elements to cover adequate requirements and provide a reasonable margin of safety • In marking calculations 40 per cent of the eaults were considered as active, requiring a higher diet. The basis of cost of diet was founded upon "Your Money and Your Meals" by Cove Hambridge • - Apparel A budget furnished by Walter M. Polakov, eonsulting en- 300 gineer to the National Survey of Potential Products Capacity, was adopted and applied to the age groups of Pennsylvania as snown by the United States Census of 1930. Items which were not listed in the Polakov budget were alloted in much the same pro- portion as done by the Survey to coincide with its computations. The Pennsylvania Baby Book was used for the infanta' wear budget. Housing In arriving at the replacement cost estimate, $4000 was - considered as the cost of . construction of a housing unit and $1000 the cost of the land upon which it stood. One bathroom was allowed for each statistical family of 4.23 persons. Health The figures on health personnel and medical facilities were taken from "The Cost of Medical Care," by I. S. Falk, C. Rufus Rorem and Martha - D. Ring, and also from the Am— erican Medical Association Directory. The cost of medical care was taken from the quarterly bulletin (April, 1933) of the Milbank Memorial Fund and the Committee on the Cost of Medical Care. The lºg29 figure was estimated upon the basis of per capita cost for the whole United States and adjusted for the difference of facilities of Pennsylvania and the av- erage for the United States. Recreation and Amusements The cost was estimated upon the basis of the National Survey figure for lºg2 and this figure was increased by 100 per cent to equal the human need budget. 3OI Transportation One automobile was given to each of the 2,276,915 statistical private families. This figure is not unduly high as is indicated by the fact that registration of passenger cars, not including were, in Pennsylvania in 1929 was l,515,875 or .67 car per each 4.23 persons. The cost of operation and maintenance of automobiles was estimated at 3.89 cents per mile per car travelling an average of ll,000 miles a year. The figures were obtained from the National Automobile Chamber of Commerce "Automobile Facts and Figures," for 1930. The garage estimate was reached by alloting. $5 per month per car. The automobile price is the average wholesale price of all cars in 1929. since the cost of freight transportation is passed along to the consumer, and much the same is true of commercial passenger travel, both should be omitted from the budget to prevent duplication. Income - The findings of the Brookings Institute in "America's Capacity to Consume,” prepared by Maurice Leven, Harold G. Moulton and Clark Warburton, coupled with "Statistics of Income," published by the United States Department of In- ternal Revenue, furnished important sources of information upon incomes of individuals and families. See following section. - Capacity to Produce The source for discussion of this subject was "Am- erica's Capacity to Produce," by E. G. Nourse & Associates 302 published by the Brookings Institute. adjustment Of Income Dollars In adjusting l929 income dollars to the purchasing power of 1934, the index of cost of living for wage earners and low salaried workers in the United States, prepared by the United States Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, and published in the Monthly Labor Review of August, l934, was used. Supporting the assertion in this section of the report. that incomes are less adequate today than in 1929, are fig- ures just released in a survey made by the Bureau of Bus- iness Research, University of Pittsburgh, which showed that 62 per cent of the families in Allegheny county in 1933 re- ceived less than $1000. This statement was made on the basis of a house to house canvass of every ninth block. Production Figures Wherever used, were taken from the United States Census Of Manufactures. 303 INCOME OF PENNSYLVANIANS Pennsylvania, in 1929, had a spendable income of $7,818,000,000 derived from wages, salaries, interest, di- vidends, rents, profits withdrawn from business, etc.” The services of housewives, the tasks persons perform for themselves and their families and various other things upon which no money value can be placed have not been included. Because of the dearth of information regarding the income received by individuals in the State, except such as appear in income tax returns, all totals are necessarily estimates, and should be regarded at best as only close approximations. The incorporation of varying items by dif- ferent students result in slight variations in the amounts Of the total income. Distribution of this income was such that three or every five families in the State had less than $2,000 upon which to live in that year. And while the greatest concentration of these groups was between the $1,000 and $2,000 level, One in every five had an income of less than $1,000. - The State had 2,089,612 families of more than one per- son at the end of 1929, according to estimates based upon the 1930 census, and l39,905 persons classified as families because of their occupancy of individual living quarters. In addition, 497,954 income receiving individuals lived out- 2k The imputed value of owned homes is included in this in- come figure but various items are excluded. For details as definition of income used and methods and sources of material, see appendix. 304 siae family groups---in hotels, institutions, lodging houses and as roomers in private families. The number of income spending units was thus 2,727,471. A. great many families had more than one income recip- ient. As a matter of fact, 3,851,337 individuals received income and of these, 3,693,857 are estimated to have been gainfully employed. The 2,089,612 families of two or more persons received an aggregate income of about $6,597,000,000 or approximately $3,157 per family. The average number of persons per family was just a fraction more than four. The 637,859 unattached individuals, including one-person families, received, in 1929, $1,355,000,000 or about $2,124 per capita. The following facts will aid in showing the range and concentration of income. Nearly 399,000 families, or slightly more than 19 per cent of the total, had incomes less than $1,000. About 1,300,000 families, or more than 62 per cent, had incomes less than $2,000. Nearly 1,670,000 families, or more than 79 per cent, had, incomes less than $3,000. Slightly more than l,846,000 families, or more than 88 per cent had incomes less than $4,000. Only a trifle more than 157,000 families, or 7.5 per cent, had incomes in excess of $5,000. About 47,400 families, or 2.3 per cent, had incomes in excess of $10,000. - The 2.3 per cent last named received an aggregate of approximately $2,000,000,000, or slightly more than the ag- 305 gregate of all those who received incomes less than $2,000. On the other hand, the 19 per cent in the first group mamed received only 3.6 per cent of the total in- COfflee At 1929 prices, a family income of $2,000 may have been regarded, perhaps, as suf ’icient to supply only basic necessities. Yet more than 1,300,000 families, or 62 per cent of all those in the State, were below this standard of expenditure • In connection with this analysis, attention should be called to the fact that in 1929 speculative profits from the sale of securities and other properties served to increase materially the amount of monetary income re- alizede Since those who had incomes in excess of $4,000 formed the group most able to participate in . speculative activities, the disparity in the incomes of the lower and higher income classifications was some- what greater in that year than normally. The distribution of income among unattached in- dividuals and one-person families is similarly diverse —and similarly, concentrated a While the focus of our attention is the family as the spending unit, the importance of the distribution of income among INDIVIDUAL recipients was not over- looked in the general analysis. In compiling estimates of the division of income 306 among spending units study was made of the manner in which income is distributed among individual recip- ients. The accompanying tables which follow show the estimates in terms of simple distributions and the com- putation of the amount of inson, in each income class. The estimates indicate that about 35 per cent of the income recipients, or close to 1,362,000 persons, received less than $1,000 in 1929. The class between $1,000 and $2,000 comprised 47 per cent of the income recipients and somewhat less than 35 per cent of the aggregate income. Only 18 per cent of the income re- cipients had incomes exceeding $2,000 and only 5 per cent acquired more than $4,000. - Those having incomes greater than $5,000 con- stituted about 3 per cent of the total number of in- come recipients and accounted for 36 per cent of the aggregate income • Those with incomes greater than $10,000 comprised only le3 per cent of the total number but they controlled 27 per cent of the income. Pennsylvania's Standing * the States The income of $7,818,000,000 received by the people of Pennsylvania in 1929 placed this Commonwealth second among the states in total income received. New York was first with $17,003,000,000. But while Pennsylvania ranked second in total income, it stood thirteenth in per capita totals for 1929, with $815 going to each 307 * individual. Individuals on farms fell far short of the income received by the non-farm population. The rormer received only $305 per person while the latter acquired $865. Pennsylvania ranked twenty-fifth in the list of states in the per capita income of its farm population, with California taking first place with a per capita income of $1246. In regard to the non-farm population, Pennsylvania ranked fifteenth, Delaware leading with a per capita income of $1550. Total income from non-farm occupations amounted to $5,481,000,000. Approximately one-fifth of this sum represented returns from property and approximately one-ninth profits from the sale of property. In the first and third groups, Pennsylvania ranked second to New York. In the second, it was exceeded by New York and Illinois. This State ranked twentieth, twelfth and tenth respectively in per capita income from occupat- ion, returns from property and profits from the sale of property, with New York again leading in all but the last named, in which class Delaware headed the list. Did Pennsylvania become more prosperous between l916 and 1929? Has our real per capita income been in- creasing over a period of years? In making a study of income received by individuals, 308 consideration must be taken of the changes in the pur- chasing power of money and in the number of people who are to receive it. An increase in the total income from year to year may be apparent , rather than real. The total income expressed in current dollars, has increased enormously, but ense. in the per capita real income are not so discernible although it has in- creased . In 1916 the spendable income of Pennsylvania in current money value amounted to about #4,200,000,000 or $504 per capita. In 1929 the total income amounted to about $7,500,000,000 or $793 per capita. The high point was reached in 1926 when the total income amounted to slightly more than $7,700,000,000 with the per capita figure standing at $853. These figures show an in- crease in total income of 80 per cent over a period of 14 years and an increase of 57 per cent for the amount per Capita. When the above totals are expressed in terms of constant money value, that is corrected for changes in the purchasing power of money, the increase in total income amounted to only 25 per cent for the la year period. With the per capita income increasing only 8 per cent with 1926 still the high year • 309 COMPARISON OF PENNSYLVANIA'S INCOME WITH THAT OF OTHER STATES BY CLASSIFICATION FOR 1929 Amount Rank of Top State Income Classification (Millions of Pennsylvania State Amount dollars) (Millions of º dollars) Income of the Entire Population (a) 7.818 2 N.Y. l?,003 Income of the Non-Farm Population (a) 7,558 2 N.Y. l6,652 Income of the Farm Population § 26O 8 Cale - 714 Per Capita Personal Income of the - Entire Population (a) 815* l3 N.Y. l,365* Per Capita Personal Income Non-Farm - Population (a) 865* lă Dele - l,550* Per capita Personal Income Farm (a) Population - (b) 305* 25 Cal. l, 246* †: Expressed in dollars (a) Includes income from profits from the sale of property and imputed rent on owned homes. Excludes income from durable consumption goods other than homes. (b) Includes incomes from non-agricultural sources. source: America's Capacity to Consume -- The Brooking's Institution -- pp. 172-173 § COMPARISON OF PENNSYLVANIA'S NON-FARM INCOME WITH THAT OF OTHER STATES BY SOURCES FOR 1929 Income Classification Rank of Top State (Millions of Pennsylvania State Amount dollars) (Millions of dollars) Income from Occupation Non-Farm Population (a) 5,48l. 2. N.Y. 9,906 Returns from Property n tº tº (b) le474 3 N.Y. 4,792 Profits from sale of " " º 603 2 N.Y. l,954 property Per Capita Income n n n (a) 627* 20 N.Y. 845* from occupation Per Capita Income Re- " " " (b) l69* l? N.Y. 408* turns from property Per Capita Income Pro- " " º 69* lC) Dele 529* (a) Wages, salaries, and business profits in regular occupations. Does not include income from odd jobs of otherwise employed persons or income from roomers or boarders in pri- (b) Chiefly investment income, including imputed rent on owned homes, also includes income from odd jobs of otherwise employed individuals, from roomers and boardsrs in private Amount fits from sale of property ;: Expressed in dollars. wate families. families, and from gardens, cows, chickens, etc. durable consumption goods other than homes • Does not include imputed income from Source: America's Gapacity To Consume —The Brooking's Institution — pp. 175—176e # ESTIMATED INGOME or FAMILIES AND UNATTACHED INDIVIDUALs BY INCOME CLASSES - PENNSYLVANIA - 1929 (In millions of dollars) Total income of - Unattached Total income Total income Individuals of all of families (Including Income class” spending of twe or - one-person (In dollars) units Per Cent more persons Per Cent families) Per Cent O to l,000 4.18 5e 257 24l 3,662 l” l3.05.l 1,000 to 2,000 l, 984 249949 l,531 23.2Ol 453 33,403 2,000 to 3,000 l, 185 l4.e.902 l,025 l5.534 l6O ll,843 3,000 to 4,000 776 9,759 705 lſ), 69.l 7l 5,206 4,000 to 5,000 216 2,716 198 3. l8 le350 5,000 to 10,000 944 ll.87l 846 12.826. 98 7 e226 10,000 and over 2,429 30,546 2,05l. 3l,086 378 27,921 All classes 7,952 100, 6,597 100. l,355 100, 1– * Includes income from occupation, investments and sale Of property; also includes im- puted income on owned homes, but does not include imputed incóme on durable consumption goods other thah homese 312 ESTIMATED NUMBER OF FAMILIES AND UNATTACHED INDIVIDUALs BY INCOME CLASSE8 -- PENNSYLVANIA - 1929 A. Number of Unattached - Number of Individuals Total number • Families of: (Including Income Class” of spending two or more one-person (In dollars) units Per Cent persons Per Cent families) Per Cent: 0 to l,000 66l,ll.9 24.239 398,238 19.058 262,881 4le 215 l,000 to 2,000 l, 175,957 43.lls. 904,530 45,287 271,427 42,555 2,000 to 3,000 424,573 lf.567 366,706 17,549 57,867 9.072 3,000 to 4,000 194,378 7.127 176,907 8,466 l'7,471 .2e 739 4,000 to 5,000 93,646 3,453 85,883 4ell.0 7,763 l. 217 5,000 to lo,000 122,055 4.475 lo9,85l. 5,257 12,202 le.913 10,000 and over 55,745 2,044 47,497 2,273 8,248 le293 ..All classes 2,727,471 L00,000 2,089,612 100,000 637,859 loC),000 * Includes income from occupation, investments, and sale. of property; also includes imputed income on owned homes, but does not include imputed income on durable consumption goods other than homese 313 •semou usuº aeuqo spoo? uopºdmauoo etae.mp wo emooup peºndurf epntout 4ou seop 4ma “semouſ peutmo uo eulooup peºndurº sepntout osTV R4-1e dord Jo eTas pura “squeuqseau'ſ "uorqūdnooo mozg. euloout sepmtour(a) *OOOO"OOT zgé*L OOOO"OOT Leg"Igg“e sesseTo TTV T222* L2 g3I*z #028°T £g8*Og read pura 000°OT 6T.92* I, 8L9 I,890°2 G60°61. 000°ot o'. 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Otg"+, 964, 4.87° 4. 4,36T TOg 299"; 228 era", 926T. 24,7 2g2** TBA, O6T * Z. g26T. 96? 0&g"t, *64, Twa “4. #261 4.8% 962** 8&d, 820° E, 226T. gtº gé9°g tº G9 678°g 326t Tég *9%"g 299 g38°g TaéT TA2 Oga"g fº, gº"g O26t &&.2 tº “g 2.99 *a*g etet 69% T9t"+ :*E, °9 9tet 97% get"g 94.9 898°t, AT&T 29? 99.9°g #Og 4.02** 9Têt (s.1et Top uT) (sret Top Jo (sret Top tiſ) (sarettop Jo Jeej. B+1:deo red suopttput uſ.) uqtdeo zed suopTITm uI) eurootſ.I. GUIOOUT (seopra gret) senteſ queqstroQ tit 626T-9TET *ROONI S.WINVATISNNºa GGTTETFSTENTISETE 'g'Ig, SOURCES AND METHODS Definitions While in the mind of the average person the work "income" is associated only as revenue in terms of money, it is, fundamentally, the flow of goods and services over a given period of time • "Income received" or the amount available for spending purposes by the people of the Com- monwealth consists in the main of the amounts received by individuals in the form of wages, salaries, pensions, compensations for injuries, annuities, interest, dividends, rents, royalties, profits withdrawn from business, profits from the sale of properties and the imputed value of owned homes • The person residing in a dwelling owned by himself receives an income from it just as truly as if he were paid rent by someone else. He is receiving use of the structure in return for the investment he made in it. The net value of the services rendered by other durable consumers goods, such as landed estates, automobiles and the like, can, at best, be approximated only roughly and for that reason they have been excluded from all estimates herein. In addition to the exclusion of the value of the services persons perform for themselves and their families (as in the case of housewives) invertº wins. excluded from the totals presented are expense allowances to em- ployes, earnings from "odd jobs" and charity. 316 Sources Wherever possible the State figures in "America's Capacity to Consume" published by the Brookings Insti- tution have been used. Statistics of Income of the Bur- eau of Internal Revenue lºlò-l929 and the study by the Department of Commerce report, 73rd. Congress, "National Income, lºß9 to l932" Senate Document la4, were utilized. The method employed throughout the study was similar to that used by the Brookings Institution in arriving at the estimate for the United States. The estimates for incomes in the various years be- tween l916 and 1929 were obtained by applying to the other years in the series the proportions of Pennsylvania's income to National income for the years l919, 1920 and 192l, prepared by Maurice Leven in his work "Income in the Various States" (National Bureau of Economic Research), necessary corrections were made. The distribution of income classes was obtained by applying the proportion in these groups in the United States as shown by the "Statistics of Income” to the figures shown by the Brookings Institution study. 317 COPING WITH PENNSYLVANIA'S CHANGING WORKING CONDITIONS* Four out of ten of Pennsylvania's inhabitants are workers --if they can find work. Altogether, they number between 3,500,000 and 4,000,000. Of vital importance to them are the conditions under which they spend the Working part of their waking hours; nothing is more important to them or to their families than the monetary return received for their labor. Upon their earnings depend the livelihood, health and re- creation of themselves and their families. Approximately nine out of every ten of these workers are persons employed by others who direct their labor and de- termine the wage or salary that they shall receive for the work performed. The balancing of work and pay involves many problems. On one side of the ledger is what they worker will give for his hire, what hours he shall labor and at what physical risk. There also is the question of whether children shall be employed. On the other, side there is the question of how much pay the work- er shall receive and whether he shall organize to bargain with his employer and whether he shall be assured of work and compen- sation. When he merits theme The Jobs The question as to whether there is a job for every worker * Prepared by Elizabeth S. Johnson, Department of Labor and Industry. 318 was one of increasing insistence even through the past decade when the State considered itself prosperous. More jobs are de- manded and will be demanded by our increasing proportion of job seekers in the population. The problem is to find those job 8. - The manufacturing industries of Pennsylvania barely kept a constant number of wage earners during the 15-year period ending in the peak year of 1929, despite the increasing population of the State. In fact, in 1931 fewer wage earners were employed in Pennsylvania manufacturing industries than at any time for which the Census of Manufactures was taken since 1904. From 1929 to 1931, the number of wage earners in manufacturing industries dropped from slightly more than l,000,000 to 775,000, a decline of nearly 25 per cent which occurred before the depression had spent its force in dis- rupting economic life in the State.” Whether resulting in part from the rapid shift in the capacity of mechanical industry to use the labor of men and women or merely coincident with it, the depression forced more than 1,000,000 Pennsylvania workers into the ranks of the unemployed. At the beginning of 1932, when statistics of unemploy- ment were first prepared by this State, the number out of work was approximately l,000,000. The total mounted to one and one- * See sections on Manufacturing Industries. 319 third ſaillion by the spring of l933. In spite of the drive for re-employment under the NRA in September, 1934, the total number of Pennsylvania workers out of jobs or temporarily OYl government of relief work, was within a few thousand of the allion mark. Problem of Reabsorbing Unemployed In the light of a statement by Dr. Isador Lubin, United States Commissioner of Labor Statistics, in May 1934, Pennsylvania's problem of reabsorbing the unemployed into gainful occupations presents a serious challenge. Assuming the situation in this State parallels that of the nation, only about 350,000 of the State's jobless ſmāy be expected to be reabsorbed into the manu- facturing, mining, communication and transportation industries and in retail and wholesale trade in the State if industrial activity returns to the level of 1929. A return to the l929 levels of employment in the fields of agriculture and domestic service cannot logically be expected . and a return in buildirg construction can be expected only if extensive government- financed housing projects are carried out. "The only one of these fields in which we can logically look for an expansion in employment is in the professions," Dr. Lubin said. "The lack of adequate health, educational and re- creational facilities. is a crying need in the United States. Here again, however, expansion cannot be expected without greatly, increased expenditures on the part of government. These 320 services do not lend themselves to the regime of private pro- fit. Assuming that American industry as a whole Will revive to the point where it employs as large a number as in 1929, and despite increases in efficiency I see no reason to be- lieve that this is outside the realm of probability, pro- vision will have to be made in the field of social services for the employment of something approaching three million* additional workers. A beginning has already been made in the Civilian Conservation Corps. ontinually increasing income will have to be taken from the profits of industry and through inheritance taxes for employment in fields where we are today greatly undermanned. With a modernized system of education and with recreation facilities adequate to our needs, and with a public health system which will maintain the *rican people in a condition in keeping with modern scienti- fic knowledge, there will be no difficulty in reabsorbing those who cannot during this generation find employment in private industry." 4. In the following pages are traced some trends in working conditions, accidents, child labor, hours, earnings and labor organization through the decade of the 1920's up to the pre- sent. The significance of the NRA, particularly its appli- cation of the minimum wage principle and its assertion of the right of collective bargaining, in serving as pegs for labor * Equivalent to 250,000 for Pennsylvania 321 standards is notable. Measures which challenge the state to use its intelligence to develop constructive control over † working conditions without shifting the entire responsients to the Federal government, are indicated. Accidents. * Employment in modern industry has not been and is not safe. The risk of accident for manuſ acturing workers has been but slightly reduced during the past decade and a half, de- Spite aggressive safety campaigns and the incentive for safety brought by the Workmen's Compensation Act. An accompanying chart shows that the trend of accidents has followed quite closely the trend in anoment and Peyroll totals. Approximately 170,000 accidents to employes were report- ed in 1929 to the Pennsylvania Department of Labor and In- dustry, 3, 600 of them resulting in permanent disability, and l,800 resulting in death. The most hazardous industry in the State, anthracite mining, has, on the other hand, become increasingly hazardous. in the last ten years. This is shown in the second accompany- ing chart. The ground lost in safety for anthracite miners dates chiefly from the beginning of the depression, and probably may be explained by the greater mechanization of the industry and the attempted economy in equipment, maintenance and supervision in a depressed industry, The safety work of the Department of Labor and Industry and the Department of Mines needs to be reinforced and legis- €/. “ ON 3 \! nº) | AA\! IL STYC， N Į （3 \!. O 0\/T! -JO 1 N 3 W._1\}\/d3 C1 * \）/ N N 3 eſ |-6 || OO PE 8 O 6O O [926 27 28 29 PENNA. DEPARTMENT OF LABOR l l NDUSTRY 3O 3 | YMENT & WA 32 33 34 O FIGURE NO. 74 NT lation for additional safeguarding for mine workers should be given thorough consideration.” The values and limitations of the present workmens' com- pensation system -- the meager benefits, defects in administra- tive provisions and the need for providing compensation for workers incurring occupational diseases --- are discussed under the heading "Workmens' Compensation" in the Social Security Section • - Child Labor In no one aspect of Working conditions has so rapid and spectacular achievement been made as in the field of child labore The question now before Pennsylvania is not so much of a choice of eliminating child labor as it is a matter of holding gains already made under the NRA and patching up a few leaks • A consistent decline in the number of 14- and 15-year old children out of school and working for their living, is shown in the appended table. From 25,000 children at work aurºns the period from 1925 to 1927, the number dropped with the depression to 7,000 in 1932, and approached the vanish- ing point in 1934 when only 216 children were at work on general employment certificates at the close of the first * See discussion of Workmen's Compensation Act in sociºi Securities Sections 323 school year after the enactment of the NRA, These figures for general employment certificates exclude children at domestic service and farm work who are not touched by the NRA and it also excludes children at work outside of school hours • CHILDREN la AND lº YEARS OF ACE AT WORK CN CENERAL EMPLOYMENT CERTIFICATES* AT close OF SCHOOL YEAR Number School Year - Of Children 1923-24 18,656 1924-25 25,045** 1925-26 25,947 1926-27 26,015 1927-28 25,535 1928-29 - 16,648 1929–30 21,593 1930-31 13,310 lS31-32 - 7,025 1932-33 4,702 1933-34 216 Source: School Census, Pennsylvania Department of Public In- struction • An additional 1000 children were certificated at sometime during the school year ending in l934 for employment outside of school hours. This is the lowest number certified for vacation work for any year on record, and is half of the number for the preceding year. The number of permits for children l4 and 15 years of age to leave school for domestic service or farm Work, occupations not covered by the Child Labor Paw and not requir- ing employment certificates, likewise have been materially re- * Excludes domestic service, farm work, and employment only outside of school hourse ** For three quarters ending March, 1925 - Data for last quarter not available • 324 duced during the last few years. Twenty-five hundred children were excused from school attendance for these occupations in 1934, compared to 6,500 so excused in the peak year of 1928. These achievements in reducing the number of child workers were not the only depression effects on child labor. The number of children (7,000) employed on general employ- ment certificates at the end of the school year in 1932 fails to reveal the really significant thing that had been happening : that certain industries were using children as cheap and defenseless labor to reduce labor costs. In some sections of Pennsylvania, shirt factories depended on the labor of children, many under 16 years of age and others under 18, to the extent of half their work force. Wages to those under 16 were approximately $3 a week and often less. Child labor tended to be driven to this and other fields such as domestic service and street trading where conditions were poorest and least supervised. With the whole-hearted acceptance of the NRA prohibitions of the labor of children under 16 years of age, the immediate effectiveness of this provision was remarkable. In the cotton garment industry, one of the largest child-employing industries during the depression, one out of every 25 workers was a child under 16 years of age in October, 1932, while in February, 1934, only two minors under 16 were found in a study of 12,000 3.25 workers in this industry.* Child labor thus has been recognized as a wholly incon- gruous thing when the supply of adult labor far exceeded the available jobs. Were Federal regulation removed, the return of child labor would be an untenably backward step. State legislation prohibiting the employment of children under lò years of age and regulating the employment of those under l8 is needed. This regulation to extend to children at farm work and domestic service as well as to secure the gains already made under the NRA. Hours of Work The hours of work which an employee has been asked to de- vote to his job in return for the wage he has received showed a slow though decidedly downward trend during, the two decades preceding the NRA. Not until the situation of unregulated hours--some employes working 70 hours a week while others worked seven, and a million working none at all--was checked by the NRA, did any appreciable reduction come in the standard length of the work week in Pennsylvania • The year 1913 marked the passage of the present 54-hour a week law for women, superseding a 60-hour a week law. Fifty- four hours was the prevailing length of the work week ac- cording to the 1914 United States Census of Manufactures, both * Cotton garment Workers in Pennsylvania under the NRA, Bureau of Women and Children, Pennsylvania Department of Labor and Industry, Monthly Bulletin September, 1934. 326 in Pennsylvania and in the United States as a whole. In the 15-year period between 1914 and 1929 the standard work . week was reduced in Pennsylvania by four hours, from a median average of 54 hours to one of 50 hours a week. * Penn- sylvania moved more slowly toward shorter hours than the United States as a whole. The median average in 1929 for the United States was 49 hours, five hours less per week than in 1914. The proportion of employes with a 48-hour or shorter standard week was correspondingly smaller for Pennsylvania in 1929; only 37 per cent of the wage earners in manufacturing working these shorter hours in this Commonwealth while the nation as a whole showed 46 per cent. No figures on the average length of the standard work week can convey a real picture of actual conditions since work- ers have had greatly varied working hours in airferent indus- tries, in various establishments in one industry and among in- dividual workers in a single establishment. Among a group of 16,000 silk workers in Pennsylvania whose hours were studied in 1928, **just one-third were actually working the scheduled number of hours established in the various plants as the length of the working week. One-third of the Workers put in overtime hours, and despite the fact that it was a busy season another one-third of the employes * United States Census of Manufactures, l'914, 1929. ** Bureau of Women and Children, Pennsylvania Department of Labor and Industry, Hours and Earnings of Men and Women in the Silk 1ndustry, Special Bulletin No. 29, 1929. 327 worked less than the regular weekly schedule. This irregu- larity in weekly hours means added exertion and fatigue in the case of overtime; in the case of under time, it means a pay envelope thinner than the worker has anticipated. The economic depression has affected the length of the work week in ways other than bringing an increase in part-time work. While some employes worked all too short hours, others worked longer hours than in periods of normal business a cit vity. On the one hand, the average number of hours actually worked by employes in Pennsylvania manufacturing industries, in con- trast to scheduled full time, fell from an average of 49 a week in l929 to an average of 32 a week in 1932. AVERAGE NUMBER OF HOURS ACTUALLY WORKED PER WEEK IN PENNSYLVANIA MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES 1927–1934 Year Actual Weekly Hours (Average) –4– l927 46.6 l928 46.9 l929 48.8 l93G 44.5 l93l 38.2 l932 31.9. 1933 33.l 1934 (lst lo months) 32.3 Source: Pennsylvania Department of Labor and Industry in co- operation with Federal Reserve Bank of Philadelphia. On the other hand, additional figures from the Pennsylvania Department of Labor and Industry bear out the increasing pre- valence of very long hours of work. A study of the silk in- 328. dustry in 1932 revealed a marked increase in the proportion of workers employed for approximately the 54-hour week maximum permitted under the Woman's Law. Twenty-five per cent of the women worked 53 or more hours a week in cetober, 1932, con- pared to the 16 per cent who worked such long hours in Septem- ber, 1928, one of the busiest months in the record of the in- dustry during the period preceding the depression." In 1932, five per cent of the men silk employes worked 70 hours or longer in one week. A further indication of the breakdown of hour standards under the force of the job competition from the unemployed dur- ing the depression is revealed in the record of prosecutions for violation of the Woman's Law. Between 1927 and 1933 such prosecutions had multiplied nearly tenfold, from sº to 422 a. yearãº. This same proportion of increase in violations of the Woman's Law was shown among silk workers whose hours of work in 1928 and 1932 were referred to above. Although in certain in- stances the workers readily accepted these excessive hours be- cause of their urgent need for the increased earnin s, they pro- bably endured the long hours more frequently because they feared they would lose their jobs if they did not work the time their employers requested. The employers, on the other hand, often , required excessive hours of work only because of the pressure * Bureau of Women and Children, Pennsylvania Department of Labor and Industry, Hours and Earnings in the Textile and Clothing Industries of Pennsylvania, Cctober, 1932. ** Pênnsylvania Labor and Industry in the Depression, Penn- sylvania Department of Labor and Industry, Special Bulletin No. 39 e 329 for lower overhead costs or because of rush orders which sharply competitive conditions had brought. Second only to the reduction in child labor is the re- duction in the hour standards the NRA brought within a few months. After lê years, during which four hours were sub- tracted from the standard work week in Pennsylvania, the NRA produced almost overnight a lo-hour decrease in the standard work week for the mass of the manufacturing industries of the State. Manufacturing industry's general acceptance of the 40-hour week as standard, however, has not eliminated the problem of irregularity in the number of working hours with its attendant irregularity in weekly earnings. A study of the cotton garment industry in Pennsylvania in February, 1934, showed that only one-fourth of the employes worked exactly 40 hours, ºne sha maximum 7l per cent were recorded as working fewer hours.” A third of the total group were reported as working even less than 30 hours a week in a period of average activity. - The gains of the NRA in shortening hours have been con- fined largely to the manufacturing industries. Hour standards in the service industries have for the most part been set by NRA codes at 48 and 54 hours a week, and actual hours of work - are longer than for manufacturing industries and for mining. * Gºian Garment Workers under the NRA, Bureau of Women and Children, Pennsylvania Department of Labor and Industry, Quarterly Bulletin, September, 1934. - - 330 . - AVERAGE ACTUAL WEEKLY HOURS IN NON-MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES IN FENNSYLVANIA Average for the first 10 months of 1934 Industry Average actual weekly hours Longer than for manufacturing industries Hotels 47.5 Street railways, bus and taxi 44 •l Wholesale trade 4l .3 Dyeing and cleaning 4l. 1 Laundries 40.0 Light, heat and power 39, 6 Retail trade 38, 6 Telephone, telegraph and broadcasting 37.3 Crude petroleum 34 • 8 Quarrying and non-metallic mining 32.4 Manufacturing industries 32.3 Shorter than manufacturing industries Anthracite 32.0 Bituminous 25.6 Source: Pennsylvania Department of Labor and Industry in cooperation with the Federal Reserve Bank of Philadelphia and the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, 331 Barnings - Work done, measured chiefly by hours on the job, appears on the outgoing side of the worker's ledger. Earnings appear on the incoming side. - Information on the earnings trend in Pennsylvania is available since 1923 for wage earners in manufacturing in- dustries. An accompanying chart shows a fairly even trend in the amount of average weekly earnings up to 1928, with a slight increase in 1929, just prior to the depression slump. The average weekly earnings in this period of prosperity varied around $26 a week for Pennsylvania. The collapse in earnings, beginning in 1930 and continuing until the middle of 1933, resulted in a net drop of almost 50 per cent. In March, 1933, the average earnings were $13.70 a week. In terms of living costs this decrease was approximately 33 per cent since March 1929. The rise in average earnings, ac- cºins the NRA and the New Deal program, has resulted in an increase to about $18.50 a week, the average for 1934. In terms of living costs in Pennsylvania average. weekly earnings of those employed in manufacturing industries in 1934 were approximately 15 per cent below the 1929 level. In the basic metal manufacturing industries of the state earnings have fluctuated more than in the textile and clothing industries. From March, 1929, to March, 1933, the drop in average weekly earnings was 60 per cent for metal industry em- ployes compared to 46 per cent for textile and clothing workers. 332 , g/. “ON 3 \d nº) 13 £ € O O | 9 | § 2 †yº 2€. O€ 62 92 ÅèJ.LS TO O N | 53 \} Oº]\/T JO JLN ºg W.L.Y.. Veſ 30 * \）/N Nºd 1292§ 2�26 || O Q | The rally from the low point of March, 1935, when earnings for each industry group averaged little more than $12 & week, brought average earnings in the metal industry to $18.50 a week and in the textile and clothing industries to $16.60 a week in March, 1934. Information on average weekly earnings in non-manufac- turing industries is available for Pennsylvania beginning with 1932, with an average of $22.43 a week. Workers in these in- dustries have lost l per cent in terms of living costs between 1932 and 1934. * These average figures for all non-manufacturing industries conceal a wide variation in earnings of workers in the differ- ent industries of the state. In insurance and real estate estab- lishments average weekly earnings were $35 a week in 1934, while in hotels employes averaged little over $13 a week and hired farm labor averaged $1.76 a day, without board. The effect of the depression and the recovery period on earnings of workers in Pennsylvania is, however, not fully told in terms of averages. In October, 1932, 15 per cent of the men and 24 per cent of the women in the silk industry earned less than $10 a week, compared to but 2 per cent of the men and 5 per cent of the women whose earnings fell in this classification in * Index of Cost of Living in Pennsylvania. (Compiled from United States Bureau of Labor Statistics figures for Philadelphia, Pittsburgh and Scranton) December 1917-100 June 1928-122.3 June 1932-96.7 June 1929-121.4 June 1933-90.7 June 1930-118.4 June 1934-97.5 June 1931-108.3 333 AVERACE WEEKLY EARNINGS OF EMPLOYES IN NON- MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES, 1934 Industry - Average weekly earnings (first 10 months of 1934) Higher average weekly earnings than in manufacturing industries Insurance and real estate $33.13 Light , heat and power 29 e 90 Banking and brokerage 29 e 64 Steam railways (class l} 28,82° Anthracite mining $27.57 Telephone, telegraph, & broadcasting 27, 27 Wholesale trade 27 sol Street railways, bus and taxi 24 e65 Crude petroleum producing 23,63 Retail trade 19 e 75 Construction and contracting l9 = 7l Average Weekly earnings of manufacturing industries l3 e53 Lower average weekly earnings than in manufacturing industries Dyeing and cleaning #18.52 Bituminous coal mining 2 L7 e 72 Quarrying and non-metallic mining l6 •46 Laundries l5 •43 Motor-freight, docks and warehouses l5 eO2 Hotels 13 ell" * Farm labor (6-day week basis) - lO •56 * Figure for United States for first seven IGonths, l934, from Interstate Commerce Commission, ** Excludes value of room, board and tips received by some em- ployes in the industry • Source: Pennsylvania Department of Labor and Industry: in co- operation with the Federal Reserve Bank of Phila- delphia and the United States Bureau of Labor Statis- tics, except for farm labore The figure for farm labor is six times the average daily wage for employ- ment without board ($1,76) as reported by the United States Department of Agriculture • 334 February, 1928, for full time work.” While the silk workers surfered greatly in reduced earnings, with a drop of approxi- mately 35 per cent in the median weekly earnings for full time work for both men and women over this four-year period, ex- ceedingly low wages were more prevalent in the garment factories of the State. The $7.50 median average weekly earnings of work- ers in this industry in October, lº, were approximately half the average Weekly earnings of workers in all manufacturing in- dustries at this period of the depression. In this industry, where the employes were chiefly women, ſtages had fallen to so low a level that one-fourth of all workers earned less than $5 a week in October, 1932, and only lo per cent earned as much B S sis. An investigation of wages in establishments on which testimony was given at hearings held by the Joint Legislative Committee to investigate women's wages and child labor in the Commonwealth showed that in May, 1933, half of the 5000 women workers in 6l establishments covering a large variety of in- dustries besides clothing earned $8.75 a week or less. The application of the minimum wage principle under the NRA in Pennsylvania has had unquestionably a very great influence in the upward movement of earnings in manufacturing industries during the last year and a half. An accompanying chart shows that Pennsylvania not only has gained in the amount of average weekly earnings, but has gained proportionately more than other. *TBureau of Women and Children, Pennsylvania Department of Labor and Industry, Hours and Earnings of Men and Women in the Silk Industry, lº29, Special Bulletin No. 29. Hours and Earnings in the Textile and Clothing Industries of Pennsylvania October, l932. 335 States in the northeastern section of the United States. Be- 'fore the upturn of lºº, the average weekly earnings in Penn- sylvania were lowest among the 15 states east of the Mississ- ippi River and North of the Mason-Dixon line, its industrially competitive area.” Pennsylvania's relative position for the first nine months of lø34 is fourth from the bottom. This im- provement in Pennsylvania has coincided with an increase of a half-hour in average number of hours actually worked per week. The increase in earnings since the NRA has raised average Weekly earnings in Pennsylvania to 80 per cent of the figure for the state with the highest weekly earnings in 1934, while in l952 average weekly earnings in manufacturing in Penn- sylvania were only 68 per cent of those reported for the high- -est ranking state. * As Pennsylvania, a low earnings state; has increased in average weekly earnings in its manufacturing industries under #he influence of minimum wage regulation, so the lower-paid wºrkers within the State seem to be gaining more than the high- er-paid workers. An illustration of the distribution of earnings among the workers in a given industry is available from studies * Northeastern industrial states included in this statement and in Chart are: - Connecticut Massachusetts. Ohio Delaware Michigan Pennsylvania Illinois New Hampshire Rhode Island Indiana New Jersey Vermont Maine' New York Wisconsin From computations based on employment and payroll data pub- lished by the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics' and on data from the Pennsylvania Department of Labor and In- dustry. * > 336 - 9.1 ° ON ERJ 05) | 3'A& JLS TÀC] N1 º 8 OG \77] &O LN 3 WN L\! \’eſ? Q * \）/NN Eeſ made in 1932 and 1934 for the cotton garment industry in Pennsylvania • * The NRA established a minimum wage of $13 for this in- dustry and the earnings of individual workers grouped sharply at the $13 point in February, 1934. Previously in 1932, a wide range in earnings with no sharp grouping at one point existed, but with 35 per cent earning less than #13 a week. Half of the workers in February, l934, received no more than the minimum wage for the hours worked, even though this is an industry where piece work payment prevails . The proportion of workers receiving earnings above $13 was increased in 1934 over that for 1932, although the pro- portion of workers in the higher-paid catagories was not large • Earnings of #15 a week or more were found for only lă per cent of the total working force in February, 1934. In October, 1932, 10 per cent earned $15 or more a week. The minimum wage principle, while dramatically aiding the majority of the workers in this low-wage industry thus has failed to produce corresponding increases for the more high- ly paid 3roups • There is great need for more analysis of the results of the present NRA minimum wage regulations to show the effect upon the earnings on the more highly were workers • The effectiveness of the NRA minimum wage provisions de- * Cotton Carment Workers under the NRA, . Bureau of Women and Children, Pennsylvania Department of Labor and Industry • Quarterly Bulletin, September, 1934. 337 pends greatly on the efficiency and thoroughness of their enforcement machinery. Two regional offices of the NRA, charged with labor compliance have been established in Penn- sylvania, one in Philadelphia and one in Pittsburgh, except as other provision for compliance with code labor provisions is made for specific industries. These offices handle only cases of complaints; they do not assume responsibility for discovering code violations where specific complaints have not been filed. This situation is in contrast to the policy of complete coverage followed in the enforcement of State labor laws • The limitations of the NRA method of enforcement are in- dicated by the findings of the study of cotton garment workers, that at least 12 per cent of the employes were being paid less than the wage required by the code, and that the majority of the plants were involved in these violations. -The activities of the two NRA compliance offices in Penn- sylvania during the first 10 months of 1934 have, however, re- sulted in some real accomplishment. Within that period, they have collected more than $200,000 in back wages for workers who had been paid less than the required minimum wage. While wage earners were experiencing moderate gains in earnings during the first year of the NRA, 250 corporations in the United States, having a net worth of approximately $10,000,000,000 enjoyed far greater benefits. As reported by the National City Bank Bulletin for August, 1934, the net 338 profits of these corporations increased $190,000,000 Or 220 per cent—from $86,000,000 for the first half of 1933 to $876,000,000 for the corresponding period of 1934. The future trend of workers' earnings in Pennsylvania is hardly predictable. Much depends on whether the minimum wage principle is continued to offset the downward pull on wages exerted by a great number of unemployed workers seek- ing jobs. The future of workers' earnings in Pennsylvania depends indeed not only upon the continuation of the minimum wage principle through state legislation and the required payment of wages earned, tout also upon the power of organized labor to bargain for higher wage standards. This bargaining power will determine the figure at which minimum wage rates may be set and also will determine to what extent Pennsylvania workers will be employed under agreements, guaranteeing certain wage standards, that have been made between organized employers and employes outside the authority of governmental regulations. Labor Relations & Planning for progressive improvement in the working con- ditions and in the income of wage earners is crucial in any planning for the welfare of the citizenry of Pennsylvania. The underlying forces for such improvement are not only the increase in the productive capacities and wealth of the State but also the power of workers to secure for themselves a fair share of the product. Such power can be exerted effectively 339 only through organizations by which they can voice their claims and bargain for what they shall receive • The organization of workers into unions went through various vicissitudes during the 1920's, with a serious set- back in the Pennsylvania bituminous coal industry after the strike of 1927, w The depression was marked by a spontaneous revolt among Workers against the collapse in labor standards. Then began a renewed struggle on the part of labor to express its rights and to force employes to recognize its organizations and in- terests. The enactment of the National Industrial Recovery Act, with its now famous Section 7 giving labor the right to organize without interference from employers and encouraging collective bargaining, ushered in a new era in the organization of labor. The trend in the membership of Pennsylvania workers in labor organizations is indicated by the gain in dues-paying members affiliated with the American Federation of Labor for the total United States. This increase was 33 per cent be- tween August , 1933, and August 1934. Probably the growth in Pennsylvania has been even greater, counting the re-union- ization in the first few months of the NRA of the bituminous coal industry with its 120,000 wage earners. It is estimated that about 400,000 workers in Pennsylvania are dues-paying members of trade unions. This figure does not include unem- ployed members exempted from the payment of dues and many 340 workers voting for representation by trade unions in elections held under government auspices. The growth of company unions immediately following the enactment of the NIRA characterized Pennsylvania as it did the United States. The National Industrial Conference Board re- ports a growth in employe representation plans of 61 per cent" for the United States in the first five months following the passage of the Recovery Act. Fifty per cent of the employes in 3000 manufacturing and mining companies were reported to be under employe representation plans in May, 1934.” Such membership, howeyer, is to these workers often merely a con- dition of keeping a job and may not represent a free choice as to the organizations through which they wish to bargain collectively with their employers. Statistics of labor disputes show the readiness of work- ers to risk friction with the employers who control their jobs. These figures are available for the period since 1925 from the state Department of Labor and Industry as follows: FTNETTEFETERFEFºss Era, TRIFTETTEST- lective Bargaining in May, 1934. 341 Year Number of Persons Disputes Involved Reported l925 36 l64, 158 *1926 94 54,933 ** 1927 87 19,466 * 1928 70 5,097 1929 158 23, 169 1930 'll0 29,921 195] 159. 59,198. 1952 179 37,703 1955 629 370,384 l934 (6 months) 198 95,292 Source: Pennsylvania Department of Labor and industry, Penn- sylvania Labor and Industry in the Depression, 1934. That the preponderance of disputes were based on. alleged discrimination against union workers, on refusal to recognize labor organizations for collective bargaining or on other questions of the application of Section 7a of the National industrial Recovery Act is shown from an analysis of the 604 cases before .the Philadelphia Regional Labor Board between October, 1935, and December, 1934. Three-fourths of this number, 447, involved the application of Section 7a, and 128 other cases involved alleged violation of wage and hour provisions of NRA codes. *** The dispute stage of labor relations is normally super- seded , in case the employer recognizes the workers' organi- - * zation, by the mutual acceptance of a formal agreement wherein * Does not include bituminous coal industry. S *º- ** Does not include general strike in bituminous industry, in- volving about 100 operators and 100,000 miners. * - ***Harry Hoyle, Labor. Disputes under the New Deal, Manuscript and suppleTETWREFECTSCHOOTOFFTREGE EnTcommerce, * - University of Pennsylvania. º 342 .* each party makes certain guarantees to the other. Labor for instance, may agree not to strike so long as the em- ployer observes certain hour, Wage or other standards of employment. A further achievement in collective bargaining be- tween workers and employers is the mutual acceptance of machinery to settle grievances and disputes arising under the collective agreement. An increasing number of such agreements resulting from genuine collective bargaining are greatly to be encouraged as the surest, soundest way to industrial peace. When mutuef agreement between employer and employe on machinery for the settlement of disputes is lacking or fails, the mediation services of the State and Federal governments are available. Up to 1933, such assistance for settling labor disputes was the service of state mediators, or Federal mediators if the dispute extends beyond State lines, who have gone as individual government officials to the scene of the dispute to use their office to conciliate the disputing parties. With the rapid increase in the number of disputes under the National Recovery Act, particularly because a great many of these arose over the application of Section 7a of the Act, the President of the United States created in August, 1933, a National Labor Board which in turm established two of its regional labor boards in Pennsylvania, one in Pittsburgh and 343 one in Philadelphia. The labor board system may be illustrated by reference to the Philadelphia Regional Labor Board. It is composed of an impartial chairman and eight representatives each of em- ployers and of labor and handles its cases chiefly by means of informal hearings at which both parties to the dispute are present. The purpose of the Board is to assist the dis- puting parties in reaching an agreement in order to avert or to end a strike. Failing an agreement, the Board makes a decision on the issues in the case. Decisions may be appeal- ed to the National Labor Board. The Regional Board reports that it has effected satisfactory settlements in about 95 per cent of the cases handled. The board method has some advantage over mediation by a single official in that it has greater prestige and has the power to render decisions even though it has no authority to enforce them. The individual mediator retains, however, peculiar usefulness with his greater freedom of movement and his greater opportunity for informal contacts on the scene of an impending dispute. Cooperative relations between Federal mediators, State mediators and government labor boards, whether reacna or 'in- dustrial, should be part of any planning in this field of mediation of labor disputes. In Pennsylvania the peaceful exercise of labor organi- zations' legitimate activities has been handicapped by the use 344 of police officers paid by the employer who is a party to the labor dispute. Strikers in the past, have been killed in Pennsylvania and many have been injured by coal and iron police arid company-paid deputy sheriffs. Too often, in time of strikes, employer-paid police officers have incited violence rather than curbed it. Recent experience in Pennsylvania has shown that the State Police and the National Guard, when acting under in- structions to maintain peace and order without prejudice either to the right of strikers to picket peacefully or to the right of workers to enter a plant without molestation, have been able to preserve peace and order without violence to any party or damage to employers' property. Conclusions Planning for the greater economic and social welfare of the people of Pennsylvania means giving particular atten- tion to the physical conditions under which the 3,500,000 workers or the State are employed and to the amount of wages they shall receive for their labor. The entire economic and social welfare of the Commonwealth must rest on such a foundation. The present insecurity and instability among the work- ing population is due, to a large extent, to the fact that Pennsylvania labor legislation is not adequate to cope with existing conditions. Many of these laws require amendments or additions; some need extension revision; practically all of them should be re-read, and reconsidered in the light of 345 conditions with which the Commonwealth must deal during and after the current depression. Changes in the laws, which would contribute materially to the progress Pennsylvania must make for the greater economic welfare of its working population, have been dis- cussed in this section of the report. They may be summar- ized as follows: l, 3. 4. 5. Further means of preventing accidents, particularly in the anthracite mining industry. Prohibition of the employment of children under 16 years of age and the regulation of conditions of employment for all minors under 18 years of age • Establishment of a shorter work week. Greation of minimum wage standards. Compulsory regular payment of wages earned and authorization of the Department of Labor and Industry to assist workers in the collection of back wages due. Encouragement of genuine collective bargaining on terms of employment between organizations of em- ployers and organizations of employes • Elimination of the use of privately paid or company- controlled police officers, particularly in connection. with labor disputes--as recommended by the Commission on Special Policing in Industry. More crucial for effectuating sound labor conditions and policies than any of these specific recommendations are the 346 adequate financing of labor law administration and the securing of a highly qualified personnel for this administration on a civil service basise 347 HOUSING The possibility, and sooner or later the probable necess- ity, of large-scale public action in low-cost housing puts a new responsibility on the shoulders of State and local govern- ments. As long as residential construction was entirely a matter of private enterprise, subject only to the rough checks of profit and loss, effective demand and a minimum of govern- mental restrictive measures, little or no planning was possible. But when any part of the business of house-production and ad- ministration becomes, in effect, a public utility enterprise, there must be comprehensive planning, backed by clear purposes and a complete understanding of the facts e Housing of the wrong kind, or in the wrong place, or at the wrong rentals, or constructed and administered inefficiently, may be, in the end, worse than no housing measures at all. The immediate task confronting the Gommonwealth may be sum- marized as follows: l. To understand the housing needs of the State as to quality, quantity, location, price–range and method of production and administrations 2. To investigate the various Federal facilities and agencies in the housing field, either already avail- able or proposed. 3. To promote and cooperate with those present or pro- posed Federal agencies which appear to offer the most fruitful possibilities for improving housing conditions and stimulating the construction industry in Pennsyl- vania • 4. To develop the necessary State and local agencies to 348 cooperate with the Federal authorities in housing matters, initiate action on their own accounts and in general assume responsibility for the eventual. . ºr successful solution of Pennsylvania's housing pro- blems PENNSYLVANIA DWELLINGS le Census Distribution : Rural and Urban A family, by the 1930 Census, is a group of more or less related people who live and usually eat together. A home is the place they occupy. The number of dwellings and homes is always the same, since vacant dwellings are not enumerated and all extra family is counted either as part of the occupying fam- ily or merely as separate lodgers • Both terms, for the purpose of housing research, mean an "occupied dwelling unit." In Pennsylvania, Census families are distributed as follows: Number Percentage of Median - Total Families Family size” Rural-farm families 184,151 8 % 4.01 Rural non-farm families 514, 2ll 23 - 3 • ‘7 O Urban families l,537,258 69 3.54 The State : families 2,235,620 100 3.6l Of the urban families, 30 per cent live in Philadelphia, 46 per cent in the five cities of over 100,000 population, and 57 per cent in the 15 cities of over 50,000. The total number of dwellings probably has decreased, since 1930, on account of demolitions. From 1930 through 1933, according to records of the Philadelphia Housing Association, * Lodgers, sefvants and guests excluded." 349 19,763 persons were permanently dehoused by demolition in that city, or about 5000 families. During this period only 3,788 new dwellings were erected, The section on Population shows that the State as a whole has gained very slightly, but most of the larger cities show a decrease of approximately 3 per cent. The situation is un- doubtedly abnormal, but gives warning that planning for a stable population in the near future and the re-vamping of many of our building and finance practices are needed e 2. C. 9mpany. One -Industry, and Stranded Towns Rural housing is one problem. Urban is another. But Penn- sylvania has another condition neither urban nor rural which Warrants further classificatione There are more then l,000 towns and villages and isolated groups of houses in this State which are wholly or largely own- ed by single mining or manufacturing companies. In 1928, ac- cording to a field survey conducted by the State Department of Health, there were 853 bituminous coal mining villages alone, with 49,760 families and 251,313 population. About lé0 addi- tional company towns were disclosed in rather uneven responses to a questionnaire recently sent out to Area Supervisors of the State Emergency Relief Board. A large number of these were anthracite or iron mining villages, but communities owned by the steel manufacturing, cement, leather, glass, clay and brick, chemical, railroad, power and other industries were included. They are located in 49 counties. Unincorporated, 350 14. ‘O N 3 & n Đ | ►Å&j. LS f\ QN | CJN w èJ O 8\/T 3JO JLN 3 W J. &]\/d3C] * \）/NN Eed - -S? S T O H| S3 Sºno H NAO& SlN3 WN|-1\}\/&VANTI WWJ 2S30 nTON I Ni sº NunnanwoNJ S €) N | TºT? NAQS3 SQQH 3T5) N19 92�2 o " º Oţ» 09 été， oor JL N33) \! ºeſ ooi!!！ „Nº Oſſºleſ- '2C61 - tvæ6] • VINVATAS NN3 & ©NIGT In£ JO 3d,\ L AÐ Sº NITT3MO JO 39 w LN3283d 1930 CENSUS | 93 O CEN SUS [8 CITIES PER cenroop- J-s ºr, S." -. Nº... . . . . .''. -looper cent & & PERCENTAGE OF DWELLINGS BY TYPE OF BUILDING PENNSYLVANIA e 1924 - 1932. * TOTAL TOTAL URBAN TOTAL DWELLINGS DWELLINGS DW ELLINGS CONSTRUCTED IN STATE [N 18 CIT | ES 1924-32 2.2.2 ºz. 2O 2O SINGLE HOUSES DWELLINGS DW E LLINGS ! N CLU DES ROW H OUSES 2 FAM | LY HOUSES |N APARTMENTS U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE - BUREAU OF THE CENSUS FIGURE NO. 78 for the most part, they would come under the classification of rural nonfarm communities in the Census. In the same group, because there is no clear line of de- marcation, belong the one-industry towns classification in general, whether or not the houses are owned by the companies. Responses to the questionnaire listed between 250 and 300, in 55 counties. There are probably many more. Finally, there are stranded populations living in former company or one-industry towns where the plants have been per- manently, shut down and the inhabitants have no regular means of support. The State Emergency Relief Board survey mentions a- bout 150 of these. There are certainly more of them, and a large proportion of the company and one-industry communities probably could be placed in this category. At a conservative estimate, there are probably 100,000 families and 400,000 to 500,000 people living in company- owned houses, in villages dependent on a single industry, or in former industrial communities where all activity has been aban- doned. (One of the semi-stranded villages is called Little Hope •) 3. Dwelling-Types The single-family housé is still the dominant dwelling- form. 82.9 per cent of all the dwelling units in the State are one-family houses, detached or in rows, as compared with 76 •4 per cent for the United States as a whole. 35l OCCUPIED FAMILY UNITS 1939, BY TAFE OF STRUCTURE l–Family 2-Family 5-Or more Houses Houses Family Houses The State l,852,48l. 82.9% 250,102 ll.2% i33,037 6.0% Rural 647,806 92.8 43,196 6.2 7,360 l.l Urban l, 204,675 78.4 206,906 lºs. 5 lz5,677 8.2 Philadelphia 364,457 79.5, 48,784 10.6 45,386 9.9 Pittsburgh 90,708 58.5 42,278 27.3 22,093 l4.2 Scranton 21,099 64-l 7,974 24.2 3,854 ll.7 Reading 2l,878 79.l 3, 220 ll,6 2,561 9.3 The proportion of multiple dwellings is somewhat higher among structures put up since the war, but not greatly so. This is shown on the accompanying charts According to Real Property Inventory surveys in 1934, the proportion of detached and row houses to total dwelling units is as follows: Detached l—Family Row Houses Houses Allegheny County 55 % (est.) 7 % Erie (City) - 55 % 2. ſ. Williamsport 47 % 3 % Philadelphia.” 4 % 69 % Age of Homes Probably at least half of the residential structures in Pennsylvania are more than 30 years old. Adequate information * From the Occupancy and Vacancy Survey made by the Phila- delphia Real Estate Board in 1932, 352 not available for the whole State, but recent surveys in four cities with varying conditions give a general indication. Proportion of Williamsport Erie Pittsburgh Philadelphia” Structures - One-quarter Gver 50 yrs. Over 40 yrs. Over 46 yrs. Over 44 yrs. One-half Over 38 yrs. Over 22 yrs. Over 33 yrs. Over 29 yrs, Three-quarters 9xer 12 yrs, over 13 yrs, over is wra, over lº-Ire: * Excluding three central districts not yet surveyed, which include . the oldest sections of the city. Thirty-five years was set by the Public Works Administra- tion as a reasonable amortization period for its low-cost housing construction. It is worth noting that 54 per cent of the residential structures in Williamsport, 30 per cent in Erie, 43 per cent in Pittsburgh and 38 per cent in the dis- tricts of Philadelphia which have been surveyed, are more. than 35 years old. Most of these old dwellings without doubt have paid for themselves many times over since their construction. Nevertheless many of them are located in sub-standard slum areas which cannot be economically rehabilitated today because of the persisting high scale of property prices. Forty years, according to Bernard J. Newman, is about the limit of useful life for the average dwelling erected under present conditions. Approximately 25 per cent of all the re- sidential structures in the above areas are more than 40 years old. This proportion would probably not be far out for the State as a whole. The newer suburban areas would show a lower share of old dwellings, but in rural districts and the older small towns many more than one quarter of the structures would 353 be more than 40 years old, In the anthracite region 38 per cent of the company houses surveyed by the Bureau of Labor statistics in 1930, were built before 1881 and 57 per cent before 1890. 5. Condition and Equipment. ~ as Urban Housing Conditions - The following tables are from the Real Property Inventory. State of Repair Allegher Erie Williams- Phila- (in 74 total Structures) my gos port delphia’ Structures needing: Minor Repairs 4l % 42 % 4l % 22 % Structural Repairs 13 * ll # 20 % 2 % Structures unfit for use 3 % l £ l 4, 2 % State of Int; (in ſtotel dwelling units)* Dwelling units with: No running water in building 5 % 3 % l?% 1 % No hot, water facilities 23 % 14 %, 23 % 8 % No bath tubs or showers 27 % 16 % 21 % 7 % No central heat 44 % 35 % 28 % 8 % No inside toilet l6 % 5 % 9 % 6 % To fill out the incomplete picture of conditions in Phila- delphia, a paragraph is quoted from a survey of several thousand samples in eight industrial districts, made in 1932 by the *TReport on Ehiladelphia so far omits two central districts with high proportion of sub-standard dwellings. Phila- delphia figures on Equipment are on structures in relation to total structures not dwelling units, . 354 Philadelphia Housing Association: "In 45 per cent of the properties studies, the water closets are located in the yards; one house in every 25 has to rely on the yard hydrant for water supply; about two out of every five lack a bath tub; in one-half the houses the only heating equipment is a kitchen stove; 3 per cent still use ker- osene lamps for illumination. "only a few years ago," says Dr. Edith Elmer Wood in her latest book on housing, "Philadelphia had 60,000 privy vaults." Benjamin Ritter of the Pennsylvania Bousing and Town Plan- ning Association made a housing survey in Scranton in 1950s *The housing standards established in the early days of the anthracite industrys" he says, "are still represented in Scran- ton's housing problem of today....while most of the "company houses" have been replaced with better houses, settlements of this kind have left an indelible stamp on the city....Minimum standards of living were established in communities that pro- duced more wealth per capita possibly than any other section of Pennsylvania in a given lengun of time," In a survey of 500 buildings in slum areas, he found that 22 per cent covered their entire lot area, and 40 per cent were rear buildings or faced only on alleys. Sanitary conditions were comparable • The housing problem is not entirely a matter of houses. "Scranton," says the report on that survey, "has no sewage disposal plant, but continues to discharge its raw sewage into 355 the Lackawanna River at some 60 different points. This gives rise to serious stream pollution, and renders the river virtu- ally an open sewer running through the central section or the city. Residents in these areas are annoyed with foul air the year round." There are hundreds of other communities in Penn- sylvania who are thus violating their natural amenities • *Over a million Pennsylvania people," says Mr. Ritter in the last report of the Association, "live in "city' homes with- out sewer connections or plumbing facilities." Many large Penn- sylvania eities, including Lancaster, have no building ordin- ances and as many as half of their dwellings are without sewer connections. In 1925 Easton, with 40,000 population, had less than 200 houses connected with sewers; Conshohocken had no Sºº- age system at alle be Rural Areas - Little comprehensive data are available on rural housing conditions, although all evidence indicates that a large number of old run-down houses, many vacant for years, have been occupied during the past five years by former city-dwellers. - The proportionate number of farms having certain facilities in 1933, as collected for the Pennsylvania Crop and Livestock Report is shown on the accompanying chart, by regions. Likewise the rate of change since 1926. ce Rural-Industrial Housing - A good picture of living conditions in mining villages, can be found in a study by Eliza- beth Johnson of the Pennsylvania Department of Labor and Indus- 356 Q] © W O £■ oģiſºſha6/, “ O N 3'-| fnº) ] + O £6 | | }º%, O | = （B\！! Thº) 13 HOW/ESE SO OH WN?-|\/|-] \/|N\//\TÅSNIN EIGH EXH\/ N\！]=|G|OWN WOH TJ JTJ JTJ JTJ JT5] [5] ---- J \J \J \J \J \J \J \J TĘ TĘ]……… TJ JTJ JTJ JIJ TË TË TJ ………. TJ JTJ JTJ JTJ JTQJ TQ) ……. w w.www.wºººº ---- \/ | H eſ ºſ º Q) \， T | H & SO|He}\/8%DOI OOS HOW MODERN ARE PENSYLVANIA FARMS2 The proportion of farm-houses having certain equipment in 1933, as reported in the Pennsylvania Crop and Livestock Bulletin for l933. roads from U. S. Regions Total Farms on Census 1930. Figures on total farms and Olºl Per Cent of Far-Rouses which in 1933 had and Farms Unimproved Running Bath Heating Elec-. Tele- Radio Counties 1930 Dirt Roads Water Rooms Systems tricity phones % lo3O * NORTHWESTERN Crawford Mercer Wenango Erie. 18,482 56 33 l4 l9 54 34 33 Forest Warrén NORTH CENTRAL 3radford McKean - Cameron Potter 15,800 68 43 l6 l8 24 31 31 M Clinton Sullivan Tioga Elk Lycoming NORTHEASTERN Lackawanna Hayne 8,987 65 46 l9 3O 33 42 39 Susquehanna Wyoming. WEST CBNTRAL Armstrong Beaver * * Läwrence Clarion 18,234 66 45 l3 27 l9 39 35 Indiana Butler Jefferson CENTRAL Montour Blair Cambria Centre Clearfield Perry - Columbia Snyder 24,642 55 33 ll l? 25 27 27 Huntingdon Juniata s' Mifflin Union Northumberland Dauphin - EAST CENTRAL Carbon Pike Lehigh Luzerne 12,553 56 36 l8 26 40 24 4l Schuylkill Monroe Nort ton SOUTHWESTERN Allegheny Fayette Greene Somerset 21,426 51 46 2O 31 29 38 37 Washington Westmoreland & SOUTHEASTERN Montgomery Berks Chester Bucks 30,466 30 42 25 5l. 49 38 39 'Lancaster Delaware Lebanoni Philadelphia. SOUTH CENTRAL Franklin Adams Bedford Fulton 21,829 . 5l. 26 lO l4 30 27 24 Cumberland York THE. STATE sº- 172,419 " ;2 39 l6 25 32 33 : 33. . †Change,TFGT733 200,413 +45 +26 –5 +ll2 -42 +l66 (1925) * This proportion probabl y has been considerably decreased since that time • 357 try, in the departmental publication for November, 1931. Also in the recent book, "I went to Pit college," by Lauren Gilfillan. A thorough sanitary survey of 853 company-owned bituminous coal-mining villages was made in 1928 by the State Department of Health. .. The report was prepared by Howard Bronson, Housing Engineer, and in his opinion conditions in these communities are worse now than they were at that times The villages were owned by 448 companies and located in 27 counties. The population was 251,313 and the number of houses 62,038. Of the 853 villages, only 136, or lò per sent, had satisfactory sanitary conditions on the second inspection, recommendations having been made after the first visit • conditions in the 853 villages: may be summarized as follows: Water Supply - 531, or 62%, supplied by wells or springs only 32l, or 38%, had unprotected sources Excreta Disposal 45, or 5, had any sort of sewage system 817, or 96%, had privies 492, or 58%, were definitely insanitary Waste Disposal. (Kitchen and laundry water) 693, or 81%, used the surface of the ground Almost all had insanitary conditions Milk supply 495, or 58%, used canned milk Leifur Magnussen, in his "Housing by Employers in the United States” describes the soft-coal towns of Pennsylvania: #TBurean of Tabor Statistics, 1920 358 O 9 * O N E \！ nº) | 8 H.LTV 3 H. AO LN 3 W._L\!\/& EQ '\/N N 3 eſ ）;�*ær--------- »= ~= ~=Ag A2A\! nºs A\!\/L! N\/S WO\!3 ds}{、、 |;~~^JC)O（Q） ●( alwwixowddw s No! LvooT)<！?`s）eº\ ^,� ?AwolovasııwsNn sNo : Liq. No o Nollwill NVS-O~）º_/~~~~\•) \><0 \uolovasııvs snoıııd Noo Noluvlı Nvs Tīw-o, qnaºanNye `` º · //\ \\ |//\O|O �„^<）f \, ： ， ? %O \,O„^~~~~„/\\�O OO�Osººſ \Lº^\/§§O OÀ.---**O ^^^\^,ș• • • ►O �\,/~~）O\,O©/ (\/^,O\~~O/OO A/NOČ»，/ ©O /Lº^\-{O`--O /~\\O � ſaeOLº^----) o\ºoſ \oºs /<„^ſº oèº><__ º O---- �` ~）-------r^\© ,OO-|__f \•■ ■\`S）OO~~KeĢ Ģº, e * »`~ _ O/\/.`--º-º a ºſ� /^,r~~~*~~~~） \O//~\，\O «.O NJ|SS, \ 9}<） ;ſae/！\， ~~）.|O| \•，^<）//*~~_/� ••—•）,O`~,VY-1<）. /}~\o) \O/`yº|（~~~{• ！ �O/\� N •// \• )\•_) \ ~~.,’O(,/O N__^_{2^\~' +į © i <, -/----|N \，/~_ºf_N ~~. ^）* * W.LNȚnOO £) NINIWN "TVO O T\/O|c}/JL V NI NO I.LV/LI N\/S JO LNB WNC， OT12/\）]C; *The towns of the region have dirt roads, generally no sidewalks, and gutters only rarely. A piped-water system and sanitary sewers are infrequently encountered. . . Trees, lawns, and flowers are conspicuously lacking. . In the coke region of Pennsylvania the large majority of towns are practically de- stitute of all such growth; the neighboring hillsides have been burnt bare by the noxious fumes of the coke ovens. In the lo- cation of dwellings and ovens with respect to each other no re- gard has been had for the direction of the prevailing winds." Only 2.4 per cent of the 10,000 dwellings surveyed in his study had inside baths and toilets. Only 48 per cent had either gas or electricity for lighting. - In the anthracite towns, Mr. Magnussen found that 45 per cent of the company houses surveyed had no modern conveniences at all. Conditions in the steel towns were somewhat better, but even so had no modern conveniences. d. Housing and Public Health - A definite relation exists between bad housing and many kinds of disease and debility. It is often forgotten, however, that probably most of the ab- normal conditions usually prevailing in slum areas are the direct result of poverty, and only indirectly of bad housinge It should not be assumed that eliminating slums without raising the purchasing power of slum-dwellers, would automatically re- move most of those extra expenses incurred by all cities in their slum distriets. The following study was compiled recently by Mr. Ritter 359 for the Philadelphia City Planning Commission. The slum areas surveyed contain l3.5 per cent of the population, but cover only 4.9 per cent of the area of the city. Rate per 1000 Population Entire City l3 Slum Areas Tuberculosis T.68 l2.25 Communicable diseases 11.94 l6.36 (ex. venereal and pneu- monia cases) Family Relief 54.58 252.48 Housing Complaints l2.82 37.78 Adult delinquency 3.86 8.58 (12 classifications) A survey was made by the Pittsburgh Housing Association of housing conditions of tuberculosis cases coming under the super- vision of the Public Health Nursing Association. 33 per cent of the new cases coming were from the "Hill District" where the survey was made. Out of 400 cases living in that district, it was found that : One-third have cellar or basement living rooms, half of them used for sleeping; 30 per cent of all living rooms with- out adequate light or air; 30 per cent have defective plumbing; more than 50 per cent have no baths; 81 families, more than 2 per room; 71 families, doubled up with at least one other family. º - - REPLACEMENT +- Siums and Blighted Districts Any estimate of housing needs arising from inadequate 360 present physical conditions must depend entirely on the level picked as a minimum housing standard. If it is proposed to eliminate only those dwellings which are structurally unsafe or in bad sanitary condition at least 2 per cent of the dwellings in the State, or about 45,000, would come within this category.* But such a classification provides no sound basis for re- construction. Even if the 45,000 were demolished and a new mod- ern dwelling built in place of each, little would be contribut- ed to the rehabilitation of our cities. The new houses probably. surrounded by half-decayed structures and located within an ob- solete street-pattern, soon would deteriorate to the level of its neighbors. If, on the other hand, every dwelling should have direct sun, clean air, relative quiet, a reasonably decent outlook, modern sanitary facilities, central heat, and an adjacent open space suitable and safe for children's recreation, it would be found that whole districts, almost whole cities, would have to be demolished and built over. Thousands of dwellings put up since 1920 would not conform to such a standard without complete reconstruction and a different street-plan. - The City Planning Commission of Philadelphia has just com- pleted a survey of thirteen distinct slum areas. All of these districts are definitely "sub-standard", all contain unsanitary conditions, dilapidation, vandalism, and more or less chaotic land-sweating. All, likewise, are believed to be large enough —r- * Based on Real Froperty Inventory figures. 36l for efficient reconstruction. Together they house at present about 13% per cent of the population of the city. It is estimated that 10 per cent of the families in the State live in similar districts under corresponding conditions, with a higher proportion in certain heavy-industry areas, min- ing towns and run-down rural areas. On this basis, approximately 225,000 families need to be rehoused immediately. A large share of these families need not, and probably should not, be rehoused on their present sites. Many congested districts should be transformed event- ually into parks, safeguarding such neighboring areas as are not already blighted. A large number of the mining and one- industry towns probably should be abandoned and their inhab- itants rehoused wherever work opportunities may be found. The replacement problem, however, is complicated by the fact that the real estate and municipal financial structures are still geared to limitless expansion. Slum properties are still being held and taxed as if they could soon be put to some more intensive use. This means, usually, that they are far too expensive for economical reconstruction as low-cost housing developments. Dwellings have been financed without adequate allowance for depreciation and obsolescence, on the tacit principle, 8.8 Mr. Newman pointed out,” that appreciation of land-values would make up for depreciation of structure in the long run. The FT355 Report of the Philadelphia Housing Association 362 Evolution of BLIGHTED AREAs. § Ø & * 26&SCŞ Øº & & ſ" º FIG. 3 - ARRESTED GRowTH of center BY VERTICAL EXPANSION . ZZ2 Fig. 4- central AREA SHRINKING DUE to FURTHER VERTICAL - GROWTH AND LESSENED SPACE NEEDS. KEY. COMMERCE AND LIGHT INDUSTRY. ACTIVE RESIDENTIAL AREA . EXTENSION COMMERCIAL AND LIGHT INDUSTRY. | NACTIVE RESIDENTIAL AND BLIGHT. ZZZ 6& actual slum areas. • E inactive commerce and Light industry. verticAL ExPANSION IN HIGH Buildings: SURVEY GRAPHIC 1933 Fi{su RE No. 81 same principle of endless rise in land-values, and thereby in assessments, has guided the extension of costly municipal serv- ices far out into the suburbs, while larger and larger central areas succumbed to blight and decay. increased urban land-values are dependent on two other factors; increase of population as a whole, and continuing ad- vantage of centralization. The rate of increase in population of the State is rapidly slowing down, and will reach a point of stability not so many years hence. Furthermore, there are in- .dications of an even more pronounced downward trend in the fu- ture population of the biggest cities.* "The task," as Henry Wright said in the Survey Graphic for August, l033, is "to set about a reorganization of the purpose of our city development, adjusted to a stabilized population rather than anticipated growth, and directed to a gradual though complete renovation of our dilapidated housing facili- ties." 2. Future Replacement needs There is no way scientifically or statistically to deter- mine a fair rate of replacement to meet the needs of deprecia- tion and obsolescence in dwellings. Age is by no means the - only consideration. The proportion of flimsy jerry-built houses probably has been greater since the war than before, and there are today many dwellings only 10 or 15 years old which need replacement more than some of the more solid structures * See Section on Population. - 363. standing for more than a century. However, the dwelling over 40 years old which is habitable and modern in plan and struc- ture and relation to surroundings is the exception. If the Real Property Inventory figures are an indication for the State as a whole, approximately 25 per cent of exist- ing dwellings are more than 40 years old. Another 20 per cent will become 40 years old during the next ten years. Assuming a replacement rate of 1 per cent annually, ap- proximately 22,500 dwellings would require replacement each year after the estimated 225,000 dwellings requiring immediate clearance are all replaced. QUANTITATIVE SHORTAGE There are two kinds of space deficiency - one of rooms in relation to individuals, and the other of dwelling units in re- lation to families. l: Room overcrowding The dwellings in the State as a whole contain enough rooms to provide decent minimum privacy for a single family without lodgers. When overcrowding occurs it is usually the result either of extreme poverty or of high rents, a lack of available living quarters in that vicinity and subsequent doubling up. The Real Property Inventory, in common with most accepted standards, called dwellings with one to two persons per room "crowded", two. to three persons per room "overcrowded" and three or more greatly overcrowded. (The kitchen and living room are counted as rooms.) In localities covered by the In- 364 ventory in the State so far, conditions were found to be as follows: Dwellings housing Percentage more than l person of total per room dwelling Units' Allegheny County 78,724 25.2 Erie 3,534 10, 65° Williamsport, l, Olo 8.32 Philadelphia (15 outlying wards, with 272,816 dwellings) 31,020 11 e 37 Twenty "urban-like" townships in Allegheny County 8,355 33.2 A survey of the 6309 families represented by recipients of the Mothers Assistance Fund since 1929, showed that 70 per cent were living in dwellings containing one or more persons per room. Moreover, 874 families, or 14% per cent were living in homes containing two or more persons per room. Last year a survey of overcrowding and rental conditions among relief families in Philadelphia was made by the Joint Committee on Research of the Community Council of Philadelphia School of Social Work. The following summary may be quoted: "Over half were living in houses averaging less than one room per person. Among the rent-free group of families the situation was even worse - an average of 4.0 persons per house- hold in 2.4 rooms. Individual instances are much worse even than this . . . ." Housing programs must be based on dwelling units and dis- tricts rather than rooms. Nevertheless, a rough calculation of 365 . quantitative room shortage may be worthwhile here. Using the Real Property Inventory figures as a basis, and assuming that these families need an average of lº rooms more per household for a decent standard of occupancy, it is esti- mated that more than 400,000 new rooms are needed. This would mean 100,000 new dwellings of four rooms each. 2. Vacancies and Doubling Up If it were not for the sharing of dwellings by a large number of families, the housing shortage at present would be extremely acute. This is true despite the number of vacancies that exist and without allowing for the fact that much of the population loss of the larger cities during the past four years should be temporary. Doubling up is due to poverty and to the fact that rents, much as they have declined, have by no means come down in pro - portion to incomes. An Occupancy and Vacancy Survey covering the entire city was made by the Philadelphia Real Estate Board in 1932. This brought out the following facts : Total dwellings 474,348 lodž Total vacancies 42,250 8.9 % Vacant dwellings unfit for habitation 3,457 .7 % Total net vacancies 38,793 8.2 % Total extra families 28, 143 5.9 % This leaves a net surplus of only 10,650 dwelling units, or 2.3 per cent. The figures on vacancies of dwellings unfit for habitation is probably rather low. In March, 1932, the 366 Philadelphia Housing Association surveyed a cross-section of the city containing 88,619 one-family dwellings. They found a vacancy rate of 5.5 per cent, but they also found that, eliminating dwellings not suitable for occupancy in their state of disrepair, those held for sale, and those not in the market, the vacancy rate of available houses was 3.6 per cent, without counting extra families, which were not included in the survey . Five per cent vacancies are usually held to be necessary in order to allow for adequate selection on the part of prospec- tive tenants. Wacancies fit for habitation in row houses, according to the Real Estate Association Survey, were only 21,390, while there were 24, 230 extra families living in row houses. If occupied dwellings unfit for habitation were sub- tracted, the situation would have been even more acute. Roy Wenzlick of St. Louis, editor of the Real Estate Annal- ist, estimates that vacancies throughout the country, about lo per cent a few years ago, have now been halved. The Real Property Inventory, taken in 1934, has so far been tabulated for Pittsburgh, Erie, Williamsport, and about 82 per cent of Philadelphia. The accompanying chart summarizes the results. It shows that if an adequate allowance is made for choice, if dweilings definitely unfit for habitation are subtracted, and if families abnormally doubled up were able to seek quarters of their own, there would be a deficiency per 1000 families ranging from 2.2 dwellings in Erie to 146.8 in Pittsburgh. This is despite the fact that these cities have 367 ºßņķo ºrț\ue Jog eºsque0&0&ae, º sermºſomrąs teț4uepţse， Teqoſ, Jo et qnoqa ºuţuțeņuoo ºkąț o jo 4-reď Tºrqueo repto u; sąoțxasyp omą 4đeexºr ,…, •uoſ:4;4eđuſoo pua uo;goetes e4 onbepe woj se ſouboeaºg ºuţwoTTſ） • ºgąțum ºuţTTemp teņoſą, o q e qete， geºeſqueoxeđ tty ***9°'yº9º6296 tºgt„ºff2*36°36°A,ș##ºog209°282 ， eſqđTepetȚqĀ &ºe=Ǻ6ºA9%gºgº tºtgºº9°/ſ,926Tytºgt4-rođgumeșttſ; m. gºe-3°3993 ºggº dºgAºOT8ggºº.6øTºgº0ț¢1 6ºgºgºgºt ſºta ºſºoºgt9°2Tºgtºeg»'at ' otsºggtųºsnąs：4;& ſº6T=O2&TsețTTſuſeg sºuȚttemp seſt ſuae sºuţTTewqque o reaſ tºņoſ, gosºļļuſ). seºu eqoOOOT ±eđugo eº e0，\！！!4$JuſſàÆoureou A que o xeºſ ºuţTrewqeſą ſum ºu! uoſ:40Țndoaſ 4€eue ſoțJeG -4-roqs 4e N ºueorea. Jo que orea „entdºrns qe N º que oaaſą unaoea • Item(I Teqoſ, »çõt ºnIOJNYANI ZIRHAOBH Twał sæſoBs xarīvīIJNymº go roNCIAx 368 * lost from 3.9 per cent population (Pittsburgh) to 8.8 per cent (Erie) in four years, according to the Unemployment Census. In the Philadelphia study of unemployment relief families, 32.3 per cent of the families renting dwellings in March, 1933, shared their dwellings with at least one extra family. Among the rent free households, this proportion was 57.9 per cent. It is estimated that fewer vacancies and more cases of doubling up occur in the smaller communities and rural areas. which have gained population during the past four years. In the Allegheny County inventory, vacancies for the Whole county were 7.0 per cent, with 8.1 per cent in Pittsburgh and 5.8 per cent in 20 fairly populous unincorporated townships. The Unemployment Census of lºš4 shows that in a few small towns, selected at random, the proportion of extra families to total families varied from 5 to 10 per cent with an average of 8.4 per cent . . By a preliminary hand count, Carbon County was found to have 7 per cent extra families and Lycoming 8 per cent. In the seme census, it was found that vacancies amounted to only 3 to 4 per cent of total dwellings. In Delaware County they were 5.7 per cent with a higher rate in boroughs and Chester City and a lower rate in townships. 3. New Dwellings Needed A minimum housing standard should allow one dwelling per family, with enough vacancies to permit adequate selection, flex- ible movements, and a check on exploitive rental schedules. There is at present practically no demand for dwellings within 369 the price-range of new construction between l920 and l929. But there is nevertheless a deficiency of separate dwellings in proportion to the total number of families, and one major func- tion of any State or Federal planning must be to devise means whereby this demand, more or less hidden at present, can be satisfied, whether by more and higher wages, or lower rentals for new dwellings, or both. Based on a liberal estimate of 7 per cent vacancies throughout the State, and a conservative estimate of 6 per cent of total dwellings which could be occupied by families now with- out separate accommodations, there is a surplus of l per cent. Allowing 5 per cent (the figure used by both the Philadelphia Housing Association and the New York State Housing Board) for adequate choice, there is a met deficiency of 4 per cent. There are approximately 2,250,000 dwelling units in the Commonwealth. The state, therefore, is more than 90,000 dwell- ings short. Population TRENDS AND HOUSING* According to estimates of the population of Pennsylvania, more than 13,000 dwellings per year will be needed throughout the next decade merely to house additional population. Families and Marriages. - As the population grows older, the relative number of children and the size of the family decrease and, for a time, the number of families increases faster than the population as a *See section on Fopulation. 370 whole. At the same time various social and economic forces tend to decrease the size of the family unit seeking separate accomodation. That all these factors must be studied in re- lation to the housing problem whenever fresh information is available is proved by the experience of England. There, after 10 years of constant governmental effort to relieve a housing shortage, and the construction of approximately 1,250,000 state- aided houses, it was found that the deficiency in relation to family units was almost as great at the end as at the beginning. This was because families had increased faster than population. A factor of importance in 8. housing program is a sudden jump in the marriage rate. Last year, after declining steadily in 1930, 1931 and 1932, the number of marriages in Pennsylvania. increased from 56,085 in 1932 to 63,459. With any signs of real economic recovery a further large increase may be expected with a corresponding direct rise in the demand for housing. Location Trends The movement of population from rural areas to urban has been halted temporarily at least. That part of the population of the larger cities which migrated to smaller towns may possi- bly stay there, but the thousands of families who moved out to sub-marginal farm territory probably will return to industrial centers as soon as there is any real opportunity for employment. For a few years the estimated average drift of 5000 persons per year may be sharply increased. It is estimated 1500 new non- farm dwellings per year would take care of this movement. In 371 several of the smaller Pennsylvania centers, those with diver- sifiéd'industrieś; ºthere is already"añ acute housing shortage. In Meadville, county seat of Crawford County, bankers, indus- trialists, realtors and trade unions have joined in petitioning the Federal Government for aid in the construction of badly needed dwellings. Even if the large cities grow proportionally with the small ones, the effects of slowing down must be felt in the house-production field. The administration of our cities and . . our methods of financing residential construction have alike been geared to rapid growth. The new subway or rapid transit line could always be paid for later on out of increased assess- ments. People could, with a relative degree of safety, buy property or construct houses on a shoe-string, just as they bought stocks on slender margins. The opposite is true at present . Some cities have already rezoned central districts at a lower degree of density. Speculative financing, short- term mortgages with high discounts and bonuses, high rates of interest, were all part of a scheme of house-production which, even if there were no depression, would find itself unable to meet a revolutionary new situation. Stranded populations, particularly in the coal regions, form a special problem which Pennsylvania housing and planning authorities will be called upon to face. Any Federal or State- aided large-scale housing program would of necessity be one of 372 29 °ON 3 \} f^º) | A.ț»C6|| A8 O.L.N 3AN I A Lſj 2 & O & & TV3 ſł O £ 6 || SnS N 3 O ' S ' n the strongest factors in such a movement. As a basis it is estimated that 10,000 dwelling units are a minimum first need in long-time planning for the rehabili- tation of stranded workers. needs FOR THE NEXT 10 YEARS Immediate needs: Number of dwelling units To replace accumulated sub-standard - areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225,000 To meet the quentitative shortage. . . . . . . . . .100,000 To re-locate stranded populations. . . . . . . . . . 10,000 ~335,505 Annual needs per year for rext ten years: To balance population increase . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13,000 Farm to nonfarm drift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l; 500 TT, EC6 If the immediate needs were to be met in the first five years, in addition to annual needs, it would mean 81,000 new dwellings per year for five years and 14,500 thereafter. The 1 per cent replacement rate might then go into effect, adding 22,500 and making a total of 37,000 per year, for the last five years. The total for 10 years ºrould be just under 600,000, or an increase of approximately one-fourth over the total present e number of dwellings. At the same time, 362,000 dwellings unfit for habitation would have been demolished . 373 CAPACITY TO PAY 1. Rent Levels a 1930 and Now In 1930, median rentals on non-farm homes in Pennsylvania were: In the state as a whole $26.9l; urban, $31.29; rural non- farm, $13.26. * serving chart shows median rentals by counties. They ranged from less than $10.00 in four counties to $31.55 in Montgomery, $33.03 in Allegheny, $36.8l in Philadelphia, and $38.75 in Delaware. - How 'rent-levels have fallen since 1930 is shown by the following from the Real Property Inventory : Median Rentals % 1930 (Census) 1934 (RPI) Decrease Allegheny County $33.03 $23.60 29 Pittsburgh 36.81 25.70 3O Erie (City) 30,55 21.00 31 Williamsport 29,71 19.05 36 Philadelphia (14 41.00 29. OO . 29 wards with 960,000 population, central slum districts not included) Advance reports from a recent intensive survey of the fam- ilies in every tenth block in Allegheny County, show the follow- ing with regard to tenant families : Median nominal rentals per annum 1929 - 1933 decrease $353 $284 20% The median ratio of nominal rental to total family income 374 € 9. * O N ≥ ≡ (nº) | -!SnSN EO E H.L. 3. O n\/3 \} (nº ·- -3 D^; E. W. WOO JO JLN 3 WJL\!\/d3 Q 'S ' ^ szŞ* G2$-|OºO2$'Oz'$-țO’G|$ºg1$ - IO’OI ȘI'ous waqNn E[IIIII|| .Ķ│ │ ‘o e $ 83AO“O C$-10° ģ O £6|| STV_LNIE – N \/| Q 3 VN in 1933 was, however, about 43 per cent, with the obvious re- sult. Thirty-nine per cent of the families reported that they Were behind in rent payments. The annual rent bill of these families was $4,905,100 in 1933. But their total unpaid rent amounted to #1,318,460. The same 16,000 Allegheny County tenant families reported that the following facilities were in- cluded in their rents in 1929 and 1933. Facilities included in rent Percentage of families reporting - 1929 1933. Furnishings - l.02 1 - 12 Electricity 3.52 5 e O8 Gas 3.84 5.63 Water 66.97 80s 83 Heat 6, 67 10, 69 Refrigeration l. 31 3. C4 Garage 3.02 4.8l From a survey of application blanks, from 1929 to date, of recipients of Mothers Assistance Fund aid, it is shown that the median rental for this income-group was $16.20. Seventy per cent of these families were overcrowded as to rooms. 2. Family Incomes A better gauge of the market which must be met, if new hous- ing is to be both produced and consumed, can be derived from the following tables, which show advance tabulations from an in- tensive housing survey recently completed by the Bureau of Busi- ness Research of the University of Pittsburgh. This survey covered about every tenth block in Allegheny County and is one of the primary sources of data on family-income groups. Family-income groups of present tenants in Allegheny County for 1929, 1932 and 1933, by quartiles, were as follows: 375 Famir Income Gägues, airrºr gourº Familms, 1933° INCOME GROUPS O W N E R S f E N A N T S T O T A L. Number of cases and cumulative percentages) $l -- 249 l303 lºs4 2261 25el 3564 2 le5 25O -- 499 l756 33,6 sea so.” acco w." 500 -- 749 1642 46.9 2239 54.8 zeal 51.4 750 -- 999 l245 57e O 1731 ce.8 2976 6le.9 lOOO -- la Q9 l94l 72.7 243.l 80s,8 4372 77.3 l500 -- l999 1357 85.7 lºS8. 90el 2845 87.5 2000 -- 2999 ll38 93.l lC64 96,7 2252 95.2 3OOO -- 4499 556 97.6 407 99.5 263 ge.” 4500 - 7499 lº& 99.2 32 99e 8 280 99.5 7500 lCl 100.0 36 loC),0 137 looe,0 All Families lz,370 l6,030 º 28,400 From advance tabulations of a survey covering about every “tenth block in Allegheny County, conducted by the Bureau of Business Research of The University of Pittsburgh, 376 **uTTTeap red uquouſ zed II+ anoqe "etaaked quer ugppew O2°8OT 69*T659 %2° Jeño-ºº-ooglº Gg”99 2O°26TC %g: 667&#-OOgúš OT”99 9ty" Z,922 %g°2 66774-0002% G2°82 AA"TO23 %9°9 66633-00033; GT"92 97°689T %2°6 666th-oogt; OZ," 8T 2O"T8TT %2°gT 66VT$-0001; O6*5T 28° 268 %3°OT 666%-Oga; Gº"OT Tº" ºf 9 %0°WI 67/.3-OOg; gº”9 3?” T32 %.” AT 66%-og2+ O9°2 $ 2g" L9T# %I**I 652:- Tº 6-ºº º ºs ºº e ***** %0° 6 euoM dinost;) euloou I Uſobºſ sepTTule I Jo e?83 ueored (emoouſ Tenuuv. Jo 09/I 40) eTaused 3uełł ATHºuoyſ 226T - GUIOou I dinoJº) euroou I RTTurbº exe-Leay - 226T. *Söſſlſ)}{k} iſº(OONI Rºi (THORIFIW MWO SPMWNºHº AIM000 KNEBR): TTW HOIHA SAINK:IEI （Eºſ, * Jil,8 1929 1932 1933 25% families, under $775 $355 F275 50% of families, under $1236 $726 $649 75% of families, under $1964 #1385 #1225 The table on Allegheny County incomes shows median incomes for 1933 as follows: Owners, #827; tenants, $663; average, $726. More than 80 per cent of the families who are now tenants cannot afford to pay more than $20.00 a month rent. There is no reason to suppose that these figures would be greatly different for the whole State. Mordecai Ezekiel, economic adviser for the Agricultural Departinent, recently stated that a moderately full life for a family under American conditions would cost $2500 a year. The median income of families in the State, if the Allegheny County survey is a fair index, is $726 from all SOURI" C6 S • THE BUILDING INDUSTRY l. Building Trades Workers In 1920, according to the Bureau of the Census, 213,743 workers in Pennsylvania were directly dependent on the building trades for employment. This was the seventh largest occupa- tional group in the State. In 1930 the building trades group showed the second highest rate of unemployment, and in 1934, according to a survey by the State Department of Labor and Industry, almost three-fourths of all construction workers were totally without employment. This was a proportion almost double that of the next highest, the coal miners. 378 -- Percentage of Unemployment Seven largest occupations Number of Aug. 1930 Oct. 1934 Pennsylvania 1930 (Census) workers (U. S. Census) Dept. Labor - and Industry l. Trade 562, 940 4.l 8.4 2. Transportation and Communication 323,982 6.0 32.9 3. Coal mining 296,694 22.l 4.l.. O 4. Textile and clothing 266,981 19.6 27.9 5. Metal 266,978 10.2 38.5 6. Transportation equipment 235,541 8.3 35.3 7. Building construction 213,743 18.4 74.2 Many other industries, however, depended indirectly, to a greater or less degree, on activity in the building trades. "Hourly wage rates for union labor in the building trades," says the Department of Labor and Industry, "were cut sharply during the year ending May 15, 1932. Analysis of union agree- ments shows wage decreases in 1932 for 27 out of 30 building trade occupations, the reductions in many instances dropping to the wage level of 1924. The average union rate for all build- ing trade occupations on May 15, 1932, was $1.129 an hour as compared with $1.217 an hour on May 15, 1931, a decrease of #.088 an hour, or 7.2 per cent." Approximately 40 per cent of the net building dollar, ac- cording to a study made in 1932 by the Bureau of Labor Statis- tics in Washington, goes for construction labor on the site. This excludes all overhead, profits, land and finance costs, 379 fees, etc. None of the cities surveyed were in Pennsylvania, - but the proportions were constant throughout. For residential construction the proportion was somewhat higher in 1928, approxi- mately 46 per cent, and slightly lower in 1932(37 per cent). - The proportion of construction labor cost in the selling price of a typical small house put up by an operative builder in the 1920's rarely would have amounted to more than 25 per cent. Other things remaining the same, a reduction of 20 per cent in building wages would result in a price-saving of only about 5 per cent. 2. Productive Capacity An analysis based on actual operations at the hosiery work- ers' apartments, now nearing completion in Philadelphia, esti- mates that one construction man, working an average of 24 hours per week, can produce about three rooms per year. º The 214,000 Pennsylvania building trades workers, if work- ing steadily and entirely engaged in residential construction, therefore could erect about 642,000 rooms in a year, or approxi- mately lé0,000 small arouins. averaging four rooms each. Since the maximum annual output envisaged in a quantitative program of needs is around el,000, this would engage only about half of the total available building trades workers and would by no means absorb all the men at present unemployed. Figures on dwelling units constructed since 1920 are avail- able for the 15 cities of more than 50,000 population, contain- ing 38 per cent of the people of the State.* In the decade 1920 * Bureau of Labor Statistics, U. S. Department of Labor, and Pennsylvania Department of Labor and Industry. 380 HOSIERY WORKERS' HOUSING: One of the few limited div- idend projects receiving a loan from the PWA, the Carl Mackley Houses in Philadelphia consist of 295 apartments on a 4% acre block planned with no interior traffic streets- COAL-MINERS' HOUSING: A company-owned town typical of the 853 villages in the soft-coal region surveyed by the State Department of Health in 1928- Photograph by courtesey of Mr. Howard Bronson, Housing Engineers F1 GURE NO. 34. to 1930, 153,459 mew family accomodations were erected in these cities, and in 1930 approximately 17 per cent of all the fam- ilies lived in dwellings put up after 1920. The number of families increased by about 139,255 during the same period. Since the population increase for the State as a whole was pro- portionally similar, it is fair to assume that the rate of new construction for the State must have been similar. The 15-city rate would, if applied to the State as a whole, have produced about 395,000 new dwellings in Pennsylvania from 1920 through l929. At this rate the present number of families could be entirely rehoused in about 57 years. The past four years, l030-1933, show a different picture. Only 8,484 new units have been put up in the lă cities, a rate which would produce about 21,800 for the State as a whole. Average annual increase Rate per 1000 in dwelling units, lä families lārgest cities w 1920-1929 15,346 • 17.64 1930-1933 2, 121 2.44 The annual value of building permits (a rough gauge of net construction costs) in the 10-year period for the 15 largest * cities was $80,129,990. At the same rate, the State as a whole would have spent about $206, 201,740 per year for construction. The value per year in the 1930-1933 period declined to about one-eight of this. Allowing 40 per cent of cost for wages, it is apparent that the money available from residential construc- tion for the annual wages of Pennsylvania's 214,000 construc- 38l tion workers dropped from an average of about $82,500,000 in the 1920's to a little more than $10,000,000 in the 1930's. Actual productive capacity can be estimated a little more closely. Each of these là cities had a peak production year. for new dwellings, ranging from 1922 to 1927. Presumably, if Allentown was able to build 814 new homes in 1926, it could be done again. Adding together the dwellings produced in the peak years of all the cities, a total of 25,870 units is the known productive capacity of the 15 communities. Applied to the State as a whole, this rate of dwelling production would result in 66,570 dwellings per year and would rehouse the present number of families in about 34 years. The amortization rate currently in use by the Housing Division of the Public works Administra- tion is 35 years, and 40 years is estimated by Mr. Newman as the average useful life of a dwelling put up under present con- ditions. Large-scale Methods. " Any effective large-scale program of low-cost housing, whether achieved with government intervention or without, would have to take advantage of all possible economics to be derived from large-scale operations and mass-production methods. The interjection of large-scale methods perhaps would constitute a complete revolution. However, it has been many decades since any sizable proportion of new dwellings has been produced in- dividually, or tailor-made for the family intending to occupy them. Ten per cent has been given as a high estimate for the 382 sº'on av nº 13* N S SV º) N | SnOH \/\ Heſ"№ Qw"1 || Heſ QCQC ' ,2C| QO £62*2ș33', O]O | /VAC, WT1|| WN\/5|\-]eſ] º N | - - --~~~ - CHATHAM WILLAGE: a neighborhood of row houses put up in 1932 for rent on a limited dividend basis to white collar workers of Pittsburgh, by the Buhl Foundations i - - - - - Typical row-houses in Philadelphia, put up by an operative builder for sale. The original cost was probably about the same as for the Chatham Willage houses shown above- FIGURE NO. 36 number of houses in Philadelphia constructed directly to the order of the occupants. Elsewhere the proportion might be slightly higher, but in any case it would constitute only the houses of the upper-income group. Of the 12,370 home-owners covered in the Internsive Survey of Allegheny County, less than 25 per cent reported that their houses had been built for them. In Philadelphia operations have been large, usually cover- ing a block at least. have tended to be somewhat smaller l, Normal costs and Present Needs PRIVATE ENTERPRISE In the western section of the State they Despite various governmental measures intended to prime. building business, almost no new dwellings are being construct- ed. The average value of residential building permits per dwelling unit in the 15 largest cities since 1920, was as follows: Year 1920 1921 1922 1923. 1924 1925 1926 Average Construction Cost per Dwelling Unit $6447 52.7l 4694 5448 56.68 5954 4988 Average Construction Year Cost per Dwelling Unit 1927 $48ll 1928. 4707 1929 4801 1930 4991 1931 4551 1932 4046 . 1933 3812. An accompanying chart indicates the usual spread between cost as indicated by building permits and selling pricein Phila- delphia . . The increase over cost ranges from 64 per cent in 1925 383 to 43 per cent in 1933. The spread in certain other cities, notably in Pittsburgh, probably would be relatively greater, due to higher land costs. and more bonuses and commissions on second mortgages. These are only average figures, and a certain number of dwellings were put up which cost substantially less . . The dis- tribution is indicated in a study made by the Philadelphia Housing Association. The proportionate number of new one-fam- ily houses selling below $5000 in Philadelphia has been as follows: 1924 to 1927, 4.0 per cent; 1928, 5.3 per cent; 1929, l3.2 per cent; 1930, 18.9 per cent; 1931, 30.8 per cent; lºS2, 65.7 per cent; 1933, 46.1 per cent. The share of new construction selling under $5000 would have been considerably less in Pittsburgh and several other cities. Warious authorities, including the Bureau of Standards, say that a $5000 house, even when financed by the most econical means available, cannot legitimately be paid for except by fam- ilies with regular annual incomes of between $2000 and $3000, the former only in highly exceptional circumstances. And, ac- cording to estimates by Dr. Edith Elmer Wood and the authors of "America's Capacity to Consume," only one-third to one-half of American non-farm families had incomes of over $2000 in 1929. Results of the Allegheny County Survey if applied to the entire State indicate only one out of eight families has an income of $2000, or over. That the cost of an average house has more than doubled 384. NEW BUILDING IN THE WRONG PRICE RANGE PHILADELPHIA AROUND 1930. S 15.0 OO AND ovek. S 12.500 TC S 15.O.O.O. }ºo §§ °ſo OF FAM ILIES BY Hº- ! N COME RANGES. *o OF NEW COMSTRUCTION S |O.OOO [T] º sº PRICE . S 5,000 Tö 7| Gºo OO TO ul S 6.00 § 3.34% > º O O z s4.o.o.o S e.goo Tols loopo 19.2°ſo S 3.OOO S 6,000 TO S 8.G.O.O. - slowl i TO S 4.OO S 2.000 || S 4 OCO TO 5 6.O.O.C. 16.6}ºo TO s 3.000; .48 º'e BELOW S 2.00 wº PERCENT-To IO 2O 30 40 SO GO PHILADELPHIA HOUSING ASS N. F GUR E N O. 87 since before the war is partly the result of increased util- ities and equipment - bathroom, garages, pipelines, etc. , but speculative land prices, expensive construction loans, mort- gages, bonuses, fees, commissions, sales and promotion costs and numerous other more or less intengible factors all tended to keep original costs high . The cost of housing cannot be measured by original price alone. Few people buy houses outright for cash, and they must pay taxes and upkeep. Monthly payments or rents may be high or loºſ in relation to original cost, depending largely on methods of financing. Annual costs to occupants excluding amortization in the case of owners in relation to the original cost range from 6 to 8 per cent on various contemplated govern- mental projects, to 15 per cent or more for the more speculative type of apartments. The Committee on Large Scale Operations in President Hoover's Conference on Home suilding estimated that a decline of l per cent in the interest rate alone would reduce rentals by 8 per cent. 1, Home-Ownership and the Financial Interests The greater part of the energies of private home-building enterprise during the past 15 years has been devoted to the pro- motion of individual home-ownership. In 1930, 53.6 per cent of Pennsylvania Census families owned their own homes. The rate for the United States as a whole was 46.8 per cent. Pennsyl- vania, New York, New Jersey, Massachusetts and Rhode Island were the only states which in 1930 showed more than 20 per cent 395 increase in home-ownership. At the end of December, 1933, according to G. W. Cliffe, Secretary of the Pennsylvania League of Building and Loan Associations, there were in this State 2,948 building and loan associations with outstanding loans of $957,800,000. A large share of this investment is in individually owned small houses. The picture is not complete, however, without mention of the rate of foreclosures, particularly in Philadelphia. Houses on sheriff's sale listings, of which more than 90 per cent were actually sold, increased from 5,298 in 1926 to a high mark of 20,823 in 1932, dropping to 19,571 in 1933. The total for eight years was ll4,898, or about one-fourth of the residential structures in the city.” Few of these foreclosures were due to tax delinquencies because of a local law which makes the city assume mortgage obligations in tax foreclosures. "The 3,437 Building and Loan Associations which were operative in Philadelphia in 1925, " - says the 1933 report of the Philadelphia Housing Association, "had dropped by March, 1934, to 2,256. Of these, 342 were be- ing liquidated, 470 were being operated under restrictions and only l, 444 were active." The mediam value of owner-occupied non-farm homes in 1930 was as follows tº state, #5206; Urban, 5830; Rural non-farm, * Figures From Harry Moul of the Philadelphia Housing Association. *Figures from U. S. Census. 386 The range by counties extended from $1702 in. Potter to ;7674 in Delaware. Median values, as estimated by owners in $ 9 1930 and 1934, were as follows:* - Percent 1930 Census 1934 (RPI) Decrease Allegheny County $6658 $5724 l4 Pittsburgh 7058 5725 19 McKeesport 598O 4295 28 Erie 6514 4530 31 The fact that tax assessments have not been greatly reduced and that their monthly payments have not suffered any general - reduction, probably has tended to keep home-owners a trifle over-optimistic. Median rentals came down more than 30 per cent in the same areas from 1930 to l934. On the intensive sur- vey in Allegheny County it was found that the median income of owner-occupant families in 1933 was $827, but the median esti- mated value of their homes was $5,20l. Obviously such a sit- uation could not continue indefinitely. These same home-owners, whose median year of home purchase was l923, estimated the com- bined market value of their 12,000 homes was now only about 8% per cent lower than the price paid originally. Money for new construction by private enterprise must come from the same agencies, practically, which financed construce tion in the 1920's and which now hold such a large share of that construction in foreclosure. The influence of this fect on the present attitude toward efforts to stimulate new con- struction cannot be overestimated. The 1933 Report of the * Figures from U. S. Census. 387 Philadelphia Housing Association says: "The need for more low cost, low renting houses is gen- erally recognised. There is, nevertheless, an effective opposition to their construction. Many corporate owners of dwellinge, largely those who acquired title through fore- closure for nonpayment of amortization, interest or taxes, are adversely influencing building programs and this attitude is sustained by mortage lending agencies who seek a wider margin between the market value of dwellings and the face value of the mortgages they hold thereon." "Underlying this argument is the belief that corporate own- ſers and mortages investors are entitled to a monopoly in hous- ing until residential real estate may be sold or rented without a loss on the original investment, and until losses suffered by non-rent payments can be recouped." - "It this policy and the arguments which support it were un- debatable, society might well apply the same reasoning to all fields..... and say that "rio more automobiles shall be built un- til all the existing ones are again worth their original pur- chase price.” "Business recovery will not result from compulsory price raising (i.e. by creating a tale, searcity) when opportunities for work are withhold." . The remainder of that report shows how the present impasse is the logical result, not of overproduction or of the depression itself, but of risky loan practices, failure to allow for de- 388 preciation and obsolescence, the encouragement of "over- building in the wrong price range and overbuying by families of limited resources, " and similar conditions • FEDERAL HOUSING AGENCIES OPERATING IN PENNSYLVANIA A complete summary of policies and achievements of Federal Housing agencies operating in this State is being prepared. A brief outline follows. 1. Housing Division of the Public Works Administration One Federal loan to a limited dividend project of 295 apart- ments for the American Federation of Hosiery Workers - now nearing completion in Philadelphia. * Public Works Emergency Housing Corporation An "allocation" of $4,000,000 for slum clearance in Phila- delphia has been announced, but no site has been selected and no organization set up. 3. Home Owners Loan Corporation About 30,000 loans amounting to about $60,000,000. Purely a re-financing agency. - 4. Subsistance Homesteads Division One project nearing completion of 250 homesteads costing $625,000, nine miles from Greensburg, Westmoreland County, for "stranded" soft-coal miners. ** Federal Housing Administration Federal guarantee for an indeterminate but probably not very large number of loans for "modernization and repair" of miccle-class homes. No new constructions. CONCLUSION A great need in housing is the organization of consumer demand. The experience of all foreign countries has been that low cost housing is not provided in sufficient volume until demand is mobilized by consumer organization and pressure developed to obtain needed action by governmental bodies. 389 Every encouragement should be given to the formation of groups that will work toward the construction of new housing suited to the needs of those who are now living under sub-standard conditions. There is at present no legal authority or other public agency in Pennsylvania, either State-wide or local, empowered to cooperate with the Federal Government in housing matters or to initiate low-cost housing projects of its own. It is re- commended that legislation be enacted creating a State Housing Authority. 390 SOCIAL SECURITY” Among the great challenges to our generation are the con- tingencies menacing the security of individuals and consequent- ly the social security of the Nation, The problem of how best to meet them is being given profound study by the Federal gov- ernmente But we, in Pennsylvania, must reach decisions inde- pendently on these problems as they touch us. The need for unemployment insurance and old age pensions in Pennsylvania has frequently been emphasized. This State has 'adopted certain forms of social insurance, such as Workmen's Compensation legislation, provision for assistance to mothers and pensions for the blind. Do we want further social insur- ance? Its advocates maintain that its benefits in the preser- vation of life, reduction of suffering and increase of human welfare far outweigh acturial difficulties and other object- ions. Its opponents assert that the present tax burden is as high as can be borne; that no comprehensive plan can meet grave National crises out of the reserves of the past, and, that therefore, in times of stress, we would be forced to draw upon the resources of the future, precisely as the city, county, state and nation have been forced to do in the present emergen- cy. They point out such troublesome questions as the lack of FIn part based on an unpublished report, "Suggestions for a Program of Social Relief and Economic Security in Pennsyl- vania," by We C. Plummer, Ph.D., , Professor of Economics, University of Pennsylvania, for the State Emergency. Relief Boarde 391 . . . . . data with which to determine the cost of such service with mathematical accuracy and upon which to base rates, and con- tend that private enterprise is better fitted than governmental agencies to administer such activities. But to these and other objections, the proponents reply: "They are insignificant in comparison with the positive function of social insurance, the certain relief of human suffering." Assuming that we do decide that further social insurance in Pennsylvania is desirable, should we consider a complete protection program against the loss of a right to earn a liv- ing? Should we place our chief emphasis upon unemployment insurance, as President Roosevelt did in his recent address before, the Committee on Economic Security? Should we consider sickness and health insurance, old age insurance, maternity benefits, survivors" insurance at this time or wait until the matter of unemployment insurance is settled? Should we have a separate type of insurance for each risk, or consider the pos- sibility of complete coverage? Should we devote our energies to improvement of types of insurance we already have, such as Workmen's Compensation? Secretary of Labor Perkins, in an introduction to Mr. Abraham Epstein's work, "Insecurity--A Challenge to America," says: “Unemployment, sickness, accident, death and old age manifest themselves in terrible individual experiences, and create social conditions which call for immediate solution. Most European countries have Nation-wide unemployment insur- 393 ance, medical care provisions and other forms of social insur- ance. We in America are yet too involved in discussions, in comparisons of different methods, in speculation on possible outcomes, while reality calls for actions" Insurance under private mangement has sought to provide against some of these contingencies, the State has sought to help individuals face others. Legislative requirements for Workmen's compensation, compel insurance to be carried by the State, private companies or authorized self insurers • The financial situation forced upon many a family by the death of a breadwinner, including dependency of a widow, orphans or others, can be met to a certain extent • The blow can be softened. Similarly we can offer hope to those facing the pro- blems of old age, with its attendant infirmities and lessened capacity for self-care. The same is true in cases of accident, special conditions such as blindness, unemployment, physical and mental sickness, each of which may be regarded as reasonably inevitable for a definite proportion of the population. The precise time at which any one of these blons may fall is unpredictable. But, by spreading the risk, we can try, to protect ourselves • Direct relief measures, pensions and social insurance have been the tools devised to act as cushions to soften the shocks which, experience has shown, will come in numbers that may be estimated with a fair degree of accuracy e However, we must face the fact that none of these methods pro- vides, in itself, a complete cure • Human ingenuity has done 393 little, except in such fields as accident reduction and pre- ventive medicine, to evolve anything but palliatives. Unemployment Insurance. Unemployment insurance, with an attendant payroll tax, is predicted as a part of the Federal Administration program for the coming Congress. President Roosevelt's economic security experts have regarded insurance as the first line of defense a- gainst recurring periods of unemployment • But wide diversity of opinion exists on the various details of such insurance, the method of anning it, the length of time that benefits should be paid, the amount of benefits, how funds should be raised. The President, in his address already referred to, said : "For the administration of insurance benefits, the States are the most logical units. . . Not only will there have to be a Federal law on unemployment insurance but State laws will also be needed." In view of this statement, the most eareful study possible should be given by Pennsylvania to the drafting of an unemploy- ment bill which will not only meet the needs of the State but fit into the National program adequately. A number of National social insurance schemes of different types have been put into operation in Europe, with varying degrees of success. Some have bogged down because they have been inadequately or inex- pertly financed. Experience by the British has tended to prove that governmental operation rather than private adminis- tration results in great economy. Investigating committees in 394 various States have studied the subject and adequate data is available for drafting an immediate plan for Pennsylvania. Despite the general interest in the subject and the number of bills relating to it which have been introduced in the var- ious state legislatures, Wisconsin alone has enacted an unem- ployment insurance law so far. The beneficiaries under this plan ere industrial workers only. All others and part time workers are excluded. The employes of employers of less than ten persons are excluded, as are workers earning more than $1,500 a year. Two preceding years residence or forty weeks work in the State is specified, with two weeks work for the specific employer. A worker may be disqualified, for "miscon- duct," quitting "without cause," or not applying for work at prevailing rates. Unicrl standards are not protected. Much controversy has developed over how long an insured worker should have to wait before participating in benefits. The Wisconsin act specifies two weeks, while others vary from no period of waiting to eight weeks. The length of benefit in Tisconsin is limited to not inore than ten weeks in any one year arid not more tiºn one Week to every four weeks of employment in the previous year. It specifies that benefits shall not be more than $10 per week or 50 per cent of wages. The minimum is $5, or less for part time workers. Contributicms are made by the earloyer only ; never more than 2 per cent of the pay- roll and less when the reserve is considered adequate. Indiv- idual plant reserves are specified but are held by the State. 395 Administration is by the State Industrial Commission • The worker must file a claim which the employer may dispute. The employer may set up and sºmeter a private plan if the Con- mission approves • A measure similar to the Wagner-Lewis bill, sidetracked at the last session of Congress, may be introduced at the coming session. The bill met that requirement specified by President Roosevelt when he said: "I am still of the opinion that this part of social insurance should be a cooperative Federal-State undertaking." (November lºth address) The income limit was set at $3,000. Otherwise the provisions concerning beneficiaries were, in general, like those of the Wisconsin act, "approved standards" for State laws having been provided . A 5 per cent tax on employers was suggested as the source of funds, with payments under "approved" State unemployment insurance laws credited. To quote again from the same address by President Roosevelt: "It (unemployment insurance) must be financed by contributions, not taxes." While the contributions" of the employer in this instance would be compulsory, experts hold they would not bar the way for a similar measure, as the amount paid by the employer for unemployment insurance under any state plan might be deducted from this tax. The questions before Pennsylvania, then if the Legisla- ture deems passage of an unemployment measure wise, are: Does the proposed bill provi e adequately for cooperation with the Federal measure which seems likely of enactment? Should bene- 396 ficiaries include all occupations, whether industrial, agri- cultural, domestic or professional?. Should benefits cover all time lost, and if not, how much? What previous residence and employment requirements should be specified? What provisions should be considered for protection against discriminations, for union membership, etce? Should part time workers be cov- ered? Should trade union wage standards be protected? Should a waiting period be established, or should the insured become eligible to benefits upon loss of employment? What should be the amount of benefit? Shóuld private plans be permitted? How should the administration be cared for? How soon should the benefits begin after passage of the law? Her men of the cost of involuntary unemployment should the individual worker and his family bear, either through contributions, Waiting periods, limits of amount of benefit (either by proportion of or length of benefit period) security of the fund? Two of the most controversial points in unemployment in- surance discussions have been the period of waiting before re- ceiving benefits and the amount of benefit. In the former, the various plans under consideration in the United States have shown a variation from no waiting period at all to eight weeks. The most liberal proposal suggested that the amount of. benefit should be equal to the average local wages, in no case less than $10 a week, plus $3 for each dependent. This was in- corporated in a bill also introduced in the last Congress. The Wagner-Lewis bill, of especial interest as a possible groundworx 397 for future measures, specified $7 a week or twenty hours pay, with liability of the fund at all times to be limited to its resources • The Ohio plan, introduced in the Legislature of that state after long study by an Unemployment Commission, specifies not over $15 or 50 per cent of wages. The Minne- sota plan suggests 40 per cent of Wages • The Massachusetts King bill provides not over $10 a week, or 50 per cent of wages, with rates lowered or stopped when the plant reserve is insufficient • New York's Byrne bill provides for $5 to #15 a week, not over 75 per cent of wages. The American Association for Labor Legislation "standard" bill provides for not over $15 a week or 50 per cent of wages and the Ameri- can Association for Social Security "standard" bill for not over $10 or 40 per cent of wages, with a $2.50 maximum allow- ance for a wife and $l.25 for a child, provided the total is not more than $5. Two points can be noted in practically all of these plans --the individual worker rather than industry bears the largest share of the burden and in every major crisis, the plans sug- gested are in essentials only a supplement, not a substitute, for a relief program. Among the objections raised to social insurance in gener- al and unemployment insurance in particular is the lack of statistics on Which to base a rate • Experts have answered that unemployment is a definite economic hazard resulting in measur- able economic losses and measurable economic distress s. 398 Another objection has been the "catastrophe hazard" common to all insurance and typified in this instance by the recurrence of depressions which would tend to wipe out reserves. Advo- cates of unemployment insurance hold that such recurrences may be reckoned with and reserves provided to meet them, whereas in other types periodicity of the catastrophe is not even remotely predictable. For instance, an epidemic might wipe out a great number of lives, a fire or tornado or earth- quake might destroy a city. In each case a tremendous load would be thrown unexpectedly on the insurance covering that particular contingency. But the companies have no way of telling whether the next epidemic or fire or tornado or earth- quake will follow immediately or many years elapse before the next similar catastrophee As for the argument that fraud and malingering would prove an insurmountable handicap, it is pointed out that while these things form dangers present in every kind of risk under- written, no one advances this as an argument for the abolition of all insurance • Obviously, the most important immediate step is to reach some measure of agreement among proponents of unemployment in- surance. The types advocated may be divided into three main groups, differing chiefly in the manner each attempts to deal with these points: Should legislation impose contributions upon the worker as upon the employer? should a separate re- serve be established for each employer in the State fund or 599 should all of the reserves be thrown into one single pool? Should the government contribute to the unemployment reserves? Should the law be used to prevent unemployment by stabilizing industry or should it be used primarily as a relief measure? Of the three main proposals, the one that seems to have met with the greatest approval up to the present time is the in- dividual reserve plan for insurance. This proposed method of establishing an adequate fund for unemployment insurance has the endorsement of the American Federation of Labor, the Gover- nor's Interstate Commission appointed by Executives of seven eastern states and the American Association for Labor Legisla- tion. It has been recommendéd by legislative committees in Massachusetts, California, and other states. Its distinguishing features are : (1) Contributions are made by employers only. (2) Employers' accounts are kept separate, except that two or more employers in the same industry or locality may merge their ac- counts in a joint account, or Inay be required to do so by the proper administrative authority if such action is desirable in order to safeguard the reserves or carry out the purposes of the plan. (3) The government does not contribute to the support of the system. (4) The law may be drafted making unemployment reserves or insurance primarily a relief measure, or it may go further and attempt to stabilize industry or regulate employ- ment, as in the case of the Wisconsin law. The second of the three main plans is that proposed by 400 the Ohio Commission on Unemployment insurance. Highlights are: (l) Contributions are made by both employers and employes. (2) Reserves go into a state-wide pool. Since benefits are paid from this central pool, a sharing and distribution of risk, characteristic of insurance, results. A merit system providing for the payment of higher premiums by those whose records show a high rate of unemployment, was recommended by the Commission. (3) The government does not contribute to the support of the system. (4) The plan does not purport to abolish unemployment or to regulate employment; it is primarily a relief measure • In Philadelphia, the Permanent Committee on Unemployment of the Châmber of Commerce has submitted a report in wriich, with some variations, it advocates a system of the same gener- al type as that proposed by the Ohio Commission. The salient features of the third plan, which is found in Great Britain and other wropean countries, are : (1) Contribu- tions are made by both employers and employes. 2) funds are kept in a general pool. i. 3) Government contributes to the funds. (4) Attempts are made to insure against the hazards of unemployment, but the plan does not pretend to care uneing loy- ment nor to stabilize production. While this scheme--the only one of the three providing for governmental contributions to. the reserves--has been advocated by a number of writers and students of the subject, it has received little practical sup- port so far as the best or most expedient plan for enactment. 40l. into legislation in this Country • A critical analysis of unemployment insurance which is most illuſaināting and Worthy of attention is that prepared by Kenneth L. M. Pray and published in Survey '69: 195—44, March, 1933. It represents the composite view cf an enlightened group of Philadelphians, but is altogether too long for incor- peration or even condensation in this report. Health insurance. Two types of sickness insurance have been suggested in the United States. During the period immediately following l915, bills to provide a substitute for wages lost as a re- sult of sickness were introduced in a number of Legislatures, &nd semittees were appointed in several states to study the project. After the Report of the Cornmittee on the Cost of Medical Care (1932) had been presented, a second campaign was launched, this time urging passage of an insurance law that would cover the cost of medical care. Thus far no action has been taken by any of the States in regard to either proposal. The Board feels that in planning for social security this sub- ject should be considered, and this will be incorporated in the study on Health. Other Forms of Social Security. ln view of the fact . that the trend seems definitely in the direction of categorical insurance, that is, a separate system of insurance for each type of risk, these questions must be answered for the Commonwealth. 402 What, if anything, should be done about old age pensions?” Whāt, if anything, should be dome about survivors' insur- - 8 nGe? What other subjects should be considered under the head- ing of shortcomings from the standpoint of complete coverage, such as maternity benefits? What, if anything, should be done toward the improvement of Pennsylvania's Workmen's Compensation Act? Tsee section on TFublic social Welfare" for discussion of Sið Age Pensions & Mothers' Assistance. 403 workMen's CowPENSATION") Pennsylvania ranks lowest of all the leading industrial states in liberality of its Workmen's Compensation Act.(?) It is twenty-ninth among all the states in maximum amounts paid for total disability; thirty-first in maximum weeks and percentage of wages for total disability and fortieth in maxi- mum amounts paid to widows in fatal cases. * The system has shortcomings from the standpoint of cover- age and defects of administration. Passed originally to trans- fer the cost of industrial accidents in wages lost and in medi- cal care from the worker to industry, it has resulted in the injured worker bearing a very large share of the cost. For partial disability, he received 65 per cent of his wages, pro- vided that does not amount to more than $15 a week. A minimum of $7 a week is specified, unless the weekly wage of the work- er is less than that sum, in which case full pay is magnani- mously provided. But in any event, the injured worker must wait seven days before compensation becomes effective. The report of the Governor's Committee on Workmen's Compensation contains a severe arraignment of Pennsylvania's workmen's compensation law. Recommendations of the Committee for legislation to strengthen the Act should be given serious consideration. (l) Based on Workmen's Compensation supplement to November, 1934, Bulletin of Pennsylvania Department of Labor and Industry, prepared under supervision of Governor's Com- mittee on Workmen's Compensation. (2) Ibid. Graphic section prepared under direction of Ad- visory Committee on Workmen's Compensation Administration. 404 Under the provisions of the Act, benefits payable because of permärient disability and death are limited either in the length of time in which they are paid, or in the total amount paid or both. Thus the Worker permanently and totally dis- abled has the benefits of 65 per cent of his wages stopped after 500 weeks, or even before that time if the total ex- ceeds $6,500. The widow of a worker accidentally killed while on the job loses here benefits after 300 weeks. In view of this, one is justified in asking why permanently disabled work- ers and their dependents should be thrown upon general relief - rather than upon insurance when the State has a workmen's com- pensation insurance system that might continue to take care of them, at least for a longer period than at present. The present law likewise ſnakes no provisions for medical treatment beyond the first thirty days of disability and thus works a hardship upon the worker who suffers a serious injury. in some cases employers or insurance companies assume respon- sibility for treatment after the trirty-day period, hoping thereby to reduce the period or the amount of disability. in others, the victim must assume the burden and pay for medical treatment out of his compensation allowance. This is particu- larly true in cases involving the loss of a foot, a hand Olºf 3... finger, for which the employer or his insurance company is re- quired to pay compensation for a definite mutaber of weeks. The thirty-day limitation also works an injustice to hos- pitals, doctor 8 and others . . State-owned hospitals are among 405 those penalized. For instance, in the Ashland State Hospital the cost of services beyond the thirty-day limit for 279 ease. was $51,821. In addition, the Pennsylvania act places a $100 limit on surgical and medical services, medicines and supplies. In twenty-three of the states and in Federal com- pensation jurisdictions no such limit has been established, either in time or money. Since its original enactment twenty years ago, various liberalizing amendments have been added to the Pennsylvania measure and attempts have been made to liberalize it further. Bills of this sort were introduced in the extra session of 1933, but failed of enactment. The Act lacks provision for occupational disease compen- sation, In future legislation seeking to rectify this pal- pable injustice to the worker, consideration should be given to a report to Governor Pinchot on "Occupational Disease Com- pensation" made in 1933 by the Pennsylvania Commission on Compensation for Occupational Disease. Consideration also should be given to the forthcoming report of the United States Health Service on Silicosis in Pennsylvania Anthracite Mines. PUBLIC WORKS* Long Range Planning Paralleling closely other activities looking toward a greater social security are the planned programs for public works • Possibly these could be made, if properly-timed, an effective pump-priming device to start private industry on its way out of a cyclical depressione Although some economists have cast doubt upon its value as a business stabilizer, all available evidence points to the conclusion that long-range planning could be made a strong and significant, although not major, device for the alleviation of periodical unemployment, For Pennsylvania, the probable result of successful long- range planning of both State and local public projects would be an additional public works payroll of approximately $30,000,000 per year for a four-year depression period. The accompanying table contains available data on public construc- tion expenditures by the State and most of its political sub- divisions during recent yearse Unfortunately these data are only roughly accurate and include neither all subdivisions nor all work done by the State or any one subdivision. But allowing for a reasonable correc- tion for omissions, it is roughly accurate to estimate that the normal total construction expenditures of the State and local FGronºlensation of a report of W. N. Loucks, Phebe, Assistant Professor of Economics, University of Pennsylvania, to Mr. Eric H. Biddle, Executive Director, State Emergency Relief Boarde - - 4O7 governments prior to the depression were approximately $100,000,000 annually. Probably about one-half of this sum represents expenditures which raust be made at a time dictated by factors wholly unrelated to the state of private business activity. For instance, if a sewer caves in it must be re- built immediately, or if a hard winter does extensive damage to roads they must be repaired during the following spring and 8URIſlgºëIº e However, the assumption that, from the standpoint of the physical necessity of the work, about one-half of these total expenditures could be shifted to other years than those in which they actually are undertaken seems reasonable in view of the extent to which the present lack of funds has retarded con- struction projects. If the shiftable projects (about one-half of the total) were actually postponed over a seven-year period it would mean the accumulation of projects totaling $350,000,000. Were the prosecution of these projects to be spread evenly over a four- year depression period the result would be an annual program of $87,000,000, of which roughly one-third would go for wages. Pennsylvania's past experience with public works expendi- tures closely Paranºi, that of all other States. State and local public construction activity, far from being stabilized, has followed closely the swing of private business activity. Prodigious spending during years of prosperity has been follow- ed by drastic curtailments during depressions. 408 Expenditures by the Department of Property and Supplies fell from $8,000,000 in 1929 to one-twentieth of that sum in l934. On the other hand expenditures by the Department of Highways were kept on a somewhat even keel by the increasing liberality of the Federal government which gradually increased its contributions from $4,000,000 in 1929 to $13,000,000 in l934. In Philadelphia expenditures declined even before the depression began, while they were cut more than half from l930 to l932. In Pittsburgh expenditures were cut by one- half from l929 to l93l, and by more than three-quarters from l929 to 1933. Other political subdivisions have reduced their expenditures by approximately two-thirds since the industrial slump began • With the deepening of the depression in 1930–1932 govern- ments were put under pressure to create employment by reversing the downward trend of their public works expenditures. But it was only in l933 after the National administration opened its purse strings to State and Local governments that any expansion of public works and related expenditures occurred. Pennsyl- vania shared with other states the promotion of CWA and LWD programs. These programs were hastily concocted and have come to be closely tied in with the granting of relief. But care must be used not to confuse them with long range planning of public works for employment stabilization, for the two have practically nothing in common • Following the lead of the Federal government, a few 409 States, including Pennsylvania, have considered long-range planning legislation. These proposed state laws and the wide- spread endorsement they have received forecast important legis- lative developments in this field when many of the state legis- latures convene in 1935. Two bills (the first Sterling Bill and the Harmth ºil) were introduced in the Legislature during the l853 regular session. A third bill (the second Sterling Bill) was intro- duced during the 1933 extra session. The first measure passed the House and Senate without a dissenting vote, but was vetoed by Governor Pinchot on the grounds that it carried no appro- priation and that sufficient State revenue was not available to: meet this liability. The Harmuth Bill, which passed both houses, was also vetoed by the Governor on the same grounds. The second Sterling Bill was not reported out of Committee to which it was referred. Both Sterling bills provided for the appointment of a State Public Works Planning Board. The first bill proposed a board of nine, five members to be appointed by the Governor for six years, with the Secretary of Property and Supplies, the Secretary of Highways, the Secretary of Internal Affairs and the Budget Secretary as ex-officio members. The second bill provided for a board of eight members, six to be appointed, with the Secretary of Property and Supplies 3.S eX* officio member. Both measures authorized the Board to formulate a six-year public works program, to be extended each year. The Board 410 also would serve in an advisory capacity to governmental &gencies • The second Sterling Bill eliminated some of the discretionary powers granted under the first measure. Both bills provided for full cooperation with the Federal Govern- ment. These measures probably will be used as the basis for. any State Public Works Planning legislation that may be enact- ed. However, neither of the sterling Bills nor the Harmºuth Bill have touched upon a question that often has been posed by students and advocates of long-range planning: Does the fact that the State finances its construction work from revenues obviate the possibility of building up reserves of public works projects? If a solution is to be found to this problem it probably will have to be through a constitutional amendment authorizing a large loan to be issued when the Governor, the General Asserably, a Public Works. Planning Board, some Federal agency, or some combination of two or more of these, declares an un- employment emergency to exist. The amount of such a bond issue would be dictated by the probable size of the reserve of projects, and sinking fund payments would have to be so planned as to repay the loan within a relatively short period of years. This would mean that some of the revenues now going into year- by-year State construction work would, after this system is in operation, go into a sinking fund to pay off a bond issue, the proceeds of which had been spent in a concentrated manner on a 4ll depression program of public works. Obviously, this sugges- . tion does not solve all the problems involved, and is merely presented here as suggestive of the general direction in which solutions probably Will have to go. Another important question must be considered: jill the departments of the State government, the General Assembly and the Governor be willing, to yield certain powers of timing State construction to a planning board? The timing of projects obviously is the essence of the long-range public works planning idea, as all preparatory work becomes useless unless those agencies now dictating the timing forfeit. at least a portion of that power to some technical agency established specifically for that purpose and success- fully isolated from political pressure. If the agency established to administer long-range planning machinery is merely given advisory powers, then it becomes a question of whether those agencies which retain the actual power to time projects will make their own decisions coincide with the advisory opinions. Snould proposed legislation create detailed machinery and procedure for long-range planning, or should it merely commit the State to the principle and create a commission to recommend further legislation? It may be argued that if the machinery and modus operandi are not created during the present emergency they will not be established later; that the need which is obvious now will be 412. speedily forgotten with the return to normal conditions. On the other hand, it may be contended that machinery now estab- lished could not begin to function until the depression has passed and that the intervening time should be used to study the basic problems involved so that the best possible legis- lation will result. Important problems also arise from the issue of "home rule" is the planning of local government projects. If local governments are given broad powers to do their own long-range planning it is probable that on the whole it will be done less efficiently than if it were done by a State board. Although a good case can be made out for State control on the basis of relative efficiency, the strength of the "home rule" movement creates a practical political question that is not easy to overcome. Moreover, through its representatives in the Legis- lature, local governments can exercise great power to resist State encroachment on their authority. The two Sterling Bills touch upon this issue, although neither offers a concrete Sclution • In vetoing the first Sterling Bill Governor Pinchot called. attention to the difficulties involved in laying out a six-year plan for roads and highways; but it seems clear that recent attempts in city and regional planning have been on the whole successful, proving the possibility of doing this sort of work. The "Ten-year Building Program for State Institutions," formulated by the Department of Welfare in 1927 may be cited as 413 BUILDINGS NEEDED AT STATE WELFARE INSTITUTIONS Applications by Commonwealth of Pennsylvania for Loans from the Federal Tºmergency Relief Administration of lic Works Beds Location Project Iri- Attend- mates ants Amount MENTAl H03PITALS Allentown, Lehigh County Dining Hall & imployees". Building . . . 10. $80,500 Convale scent Building. . . . . . . . . . . . 56 tº e. 142,000 Danville, Montour County Wing Addition & Roof Garden, Clinic Diagnostic Building. . . . . . . . . . . . -- 14 2. 50,000 Pathological Building Addition tº Q e & 50,000 Water Filtration Plant. . . . . . . . . . . e - © e. 60,000 Farview, Waymart, Wayne County. . . . . . . . . . Hospital for convict & criminal in- same, Guard's Dormitory. . . . . . . . . . tº º 58 150,000 Harrisburg, Dauphin County. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Laundry Building- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - º Q. - * 150,000 - Two Tuberculosis Pavilions....... 100 © Cº 177,749 - Cottage for Contagious Diseases. . 12 e & 30,544 Norristown, Hontgomery, - - . County. - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Reconstruction-Buildings l; 8,13,14. 966 tº º 842,708 Construction-turo buildings for dis- turbed patients male & female T20 © C 1,221,120 Improverents, new floors, heating, lighting, wiring, water, refrigera- tion. • - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - © º tº º 402,205 Torrence, Westmoreland County. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dining Hall & Kitchen. . . . . . . . . . . . º Co e G 208,618 Infirmary Patients' Ward . . . . . . . . . 362 9 419,677 Additions to Dibert Cottages. . . . . 124 tº 9 330,038 Warren, Warren County. Building for Disturbed Women & - . Laundry • - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 250 tº º 321,672 Wernersville, Berks County-Ward Building for Infirm Female - Patients. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 e e 143,734 Kitchen for main Dining Room & a Bakery • - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - tº O. e G 100,000 4.14 Location Project INSTITUTIONS FOR. MºMTAL DEFECTIVES AND EFILEFFICTGOLONY Camp Hill, R.D.s.l., Cumberland County • * * * * Cumberland Valley, Insitution for Mental Defectives - to begin con- struction • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Willage for feeble - minded women Two Cottages • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Administration Buildings • - - - - - - - - - Pennhurst, Chester County School for mental defectives Boiler Plant - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Two Ward Buildings • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * School for mental defectives Cirls Infirmary • * * * * - - - - - - - - - - - - - Sewage Disposal Plant & Improve- ments • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *. Selinsgrove, Snyder County Admission. Building. - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Service Buildings • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Water Systems • e • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Laurelton, Union County Polk, Venango County e s e ere MEDICAL AND SURCICAL, HOSPITALS Blossburé, Tioga County, e - State Hospital, Géntral Unit. . . . . . Connellsville, Fayette County • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * State Hospital, Carage & Laundrye e Nanticoke, Luzerne County State Hospital, New Wing. . . . . . . . . . Thillipsburg, Centre County • * * * - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - State Hospital Additions • * * * * * * * * * Scranten, Lackawanna - County • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * State Hospital, Extension & Altera- tions •,• * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * PENAL AND CORRECTIONAL INSTITUTIONS Rockview, Centre County. . . Western State Penitentiary, Comple- tion of Cell Blocks • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Morganza, Washington County • - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - School for Delinquents, Two Cottages 66 Muncy, Lycoming County. ... • Industrial Home for Women, Canning Building-... • * * * * * * - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - TOTAL • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 4,593 Beds . - In- Attend- Amount mates ants. 300 2O l,559,500 172 26 153,200 & C º l6 144,000 tº e G e > 100,000 352 C e 535,500 240 27 . 450,000 © º C tº º 70,000 104 28 371,205 © C º to º 175,615 © C & © º 50,000 12 4 96,000 tº º te 45,000 36 © C. 150,000 46 © tº 120,000 325 26 588,000 254 tº e 237,600 6 145,000 236 $9,905,185 an example of long-range planning. It has since been modified to meet changing conditions and demonstrates the possibility of getting flexibility into a long-range plan. THE RELATION OF HOUSING TO ECONOMIC SECURITY” The particular place of housing in a program for economic security may be discussed from many viewpoints. In many respects a large-scale program of planned public works construc- tion centering around low-cost housing would provide a logical, 6V611 necessary, corollary to any program of social insurance. This is a case where a certain amount of positive, constructive prevention may well in the long run not only make the cure less expensive and surer, but even limit the extent of the disease. Some of the main points of contact between a housing pro- gram and the problem of economic security are listed below: l, Planned construction of housing facilities offers a valuable means of stabilizing employment. By tempering ex- tremes of depression ahd unemployment in the building industry it provides a particularly constructive form of insurance or guarantee of any measure designed to give cash insurance to the unemployed. 2. ft offers a means of raising the material standards of the lower income groups, by the establishment of a "national minimum" below which no family's shelter should be allowed to fall. Whether by outright subsidy or merely by setting up methods of construction, finance and administration whereby the * Prepared by Catherine K. Bauer, author of "Modern Housing.T 416 rent dollar pays for actual value received in labor and materials (and not, as at present, largely for speculative financing and land costs), an effective low-cost housing program provides the means of raising average consuming power and average real wages • 3. Economic security for an individual family should cer- tainly include reasonable security of tenure in a decent dwell- ing. This can be achieved-only if there is careful coordina- tion of a long-time housing program with social insurance and With other measures such as minimum wage legislation, etc. An extreme example of what happens when these matters are not co- ordinated is visible in the present situation with regard to "rent relief." In many localities cash rents are paid to families on relief lists. Relief families have in many cases been forced back into slum areas which were formerly half- empty. Therefore, rent relief, often a very large sum in toto, acts as an outright subsidy to the worst slum real estate properties, artificially keeping their value up beyond any possibility of economical slum-clearance • This discussion of the essential relationship which ex- ists between housing and the general problem of economic security is based on the following assumptions: A. That present housing conditions in this country and State are, particularly for the lower income groups, well below any acceptable standard of decency or adequacy, and are not compatible with the resources and knowledge of this country. 417 B. That ordinary private enterprise has not in the past, and is not likely in the future, to be able to solve the prob- - lem of housing the lower income groups. C. That public or semi-public measures must be devised for the effective solution of the housing problem • The foregoing is treated in detail in the section of this report which deals with housing. • sexſº? pſēdum 4 supeº e ao Iroq og stroſs ſaſpons og Jºwođ. Jo querº que oor eqą Âq peouantguļ Ķī£uoras seu em@yg syu）, • Tç ken .cąY &renuer (4) ·•Tç Áºw 03 I Krönuer (9) • sa ſeJJy. Tauręgu I. 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ȚTOČITeoț4țTOGI40ț¢148 TQ TooqoS (2) eſtąd te petſuaee3e3S(2) s^aatſºțHpure 4，4 rođo， ºpuſ3.JĘ9[º39）, JIQUIĄOpug ſąț¢)Jo A4ț0 .. Ta4OJ,Jo queurſ-leõeq Jo queurą rođeq• SNOISIAICISIOS TĘTOIREITORIXIHOM NOIJOTHISNOSŤÕTīīī£ĪTĒRĪõīF5īāīāīāīīī5 MANUFACTURING AND TRADE * Pennsylvania ranks as the second manufacturing state. It employs more wage earners than Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island, and New Hampshire combined, according to the Census of Manufactures in 1931. In the 14,774 establishments reported in that year, more than 778,700 men and women were on the pay- rolls. The value of its manufactured products totaled $4,105,387,000 or almost 10 per cent of the aggregate value produced in the nation in 1931. Production reached its peak in 1929, with a value of $7,443,861,000, or more than 80 per cent greater than the 1931 total. Manufactured pro- ducts amounted to $780 per capita in 1929 compared with $580 for the mole of the country. These values dropped in 1931 to $423 per capita in Pennsylvania, and to $333 for the United States; a decrease for the State of nearly 46 per cent, and for the country of almost 43 per cent.” Wagés paid by manufacturing industries in Pennsylvania in 1931 totaled $845,607,000, nearly 12 per cent of the total manufacturing wage payment of the country in that year, but a * See Section on Mineral Resources * While current figures are available, it was felt that undue emphasis on depression years would present a distorted. picture of conditions. Hence the Census of Manufactures for 1929 and advance sheets for 1931 have been useds 419 decrease from the State's 1929 peak of nearly 39 per cent. The average wage paid in 1929 was $1,360, and in 1931, $1,089. GROWTH OF MANUFACTURING The population of Pennsylvania increased from 1910 to l920 approximately lá per cent; from 1910 to 1930 nearly 26 per cent, Compared with this growth the value of manufactured pro- ducts, gained 178 per cent in the first decade, and from the be- ginning to the close of the twenty-year period, 183 per cent. It must be noted that the State enjoys a constant but relative- ly low rate of population increase, whereas the value of its products had almost a two-fold gain in the first ten years. and an increase of less than two per cent in the latter decade. Undoubtedly the phenomenal gain in the first period was a re- sult of the stimulation of war activity, yet the productivity . provoked by that stimulation was maintained and slightly in- creased in the closing period • The growth of manufacturing in Pennsylvania has not kept pace with the United States as a whole. The indices of Penn- sylvania's Real Value of Products” were consistently greater than those for the Nation up to 1929, when those of the country forged ahead. The index of production for the State reached its peak in 1929 at 110 (1923–25 equals 100), while in the same year the index for the country stood at 12l. A comparison of *TRSRTVETS OFFFSãuºs Täster-In-Tby TRIGINEERETIEEE of value of products in dollars by the index of wholesale prices • 420 © RowitH (2O O O 19 O 9 1974 | 9 |9 1923 -25 1929 193 | ADAPTED FROM CE NSUS OF MANUFACTURERS FIGURE NO. 88 the trends of both state and Nation shows that the latter's rate of increase is slightly in excess of that for Pennsylvania. agruai. AND REAL VALUE OF MANuragruits 1909 - l?3l Index of Change - 1923–25=100 * Walue of Products Current Dollars Common Dollars Year Pennae Ue Se Penna Ue Se 1909 36e 8 33, 2 54,9 49e 5 1914 39.6 38.9 58e 6 57 e5. 1919 lC2•4 lCOe 7 74 e5 73e 2 l923–5 lCOe O lCO, 0 100.0 lCO. O 1929 lC4e O ll4.1 lC)9.e.9 l2Os 9 1931 57e5 67.1 59e 6 92.e.7 A further indication of this is revealed by the State's constantly decreasing percentage of the Nation's total value of products, The Census of Manufactures in 1909 credits Penn- sylvania with almost 13 per cent of the United States total. In each census since, the percentage has declined slightly, urie til in 1931 it was scarcely 10 per cent. Manufacturing in Pennsylvania may be summed up briefly as follows: The number of establishments is steadily declining, indicating a tendency toward centralization in larger plants. The number of wage earners shows a tendency to stabilize. The * Current Dollars are those in actual use; Common Dollars are those so adjusted that they will buy the same amount of goods at any periode 42l number of primary horse-power, was gaining rapidly up until l929, although the real value of products per horsepower from 1923-25 to 1929 decreased; the value of products was rising consistently up to 1929. These tendencies are shown in the accompanying charts. To assume that the trends indicated will continue at the rate shown in the charts might not be considered entirely un- reasonable. Yet to believe that such prodigious gains will be made within the next ten years, as the projection of these trends would indicate, is unlikely. To qualify these with a bit of conservatism, the trends of the real value of products from 1909 to 1929 and from 1909 to the estimated point for 1934 were compared. The average of their spread when extended to l844 was considered to approximate the real value of products in Pennsylvania in that year. With this figure placed at nine billion, there is an in- crease over the 1929 peak of 14 per cent. Since the real value of products is a measure of production in dollars of the same buying power, it may be assumed that production in 1944 will be approximately 14 per cent greater than the lº29 volume. However, it is well to bear in mind that these figures are only estimates, based on the broad assumption that there will be no radical changes in our economy in the intervening period, that there will be gradual increases in manufacturing productivity as human needs develop a greater demand for con- sumer goods. At the same time there may occura revolutionary 422 PE A F P RODUCTS NITED STATES — PE N N SYLVANIA e 1909 - 193 | 80 O 1909 1914 1919 I92 | 3 1925 ADAPTED FROM census of MANUFACTURERS 1927 12O |OO 1929 193 | F IGURE NO. 89 O 6 *O N B è, ſnº) | 3* SE& n_LOw ºn NV W BO S n SN2“D WNObj 3 03.J. d\/CV/ ț» || 6 ||| change in mechanization or in the development of mechanical processes of manufacture, sufficient to disjoint the whole picture, War or other international complications may have a similar effect. The number of wage earners required to attain this in- creased volume of production will be approximately 1,050,000, or less than 4. per cent more than were employed in 1929. This number is derived by using the real value of products per wage earner as a guide. This factor closely paralleled the real value of products from 1919 to l929. In anticipation of an in- crease in mechanization, this was increased over the 1929 amount by slightly more than 10 per cent, fixing the l844 figure (real value of products per wage earner) at $8,600. A similar analysis of the number of primary horse power required shows that there will be but a slight increase over the l929 figure. The real value of products per horse power de- clined from 1923-25 almost 4 per cent, indicative of a tendency to stabilize at the present level. This means only that the primary installations of the present, or their equivalent, have reached a limit; motors running on wreased electric current will supplant the prime mover to a larger degree. These esti- mates, compared with the 1929 data, are shown in the following table: 423 ESTIMATED GROWTH OF MANUFACTURING COMPARED WITH 1929 1929 1944 Real Value of Products $7,860,000,000 9,000,000,000 Number of Wage Earners 1,014,000 1,050,000 Primary horse power 5,991,000 6,000,000 WAGE EARNERS AND PRODUCTIVITY IN MANUFACTURING Pennsylvania has consistently employed more than one-ninth of the wage earners engaged in manufacturing in the United States. In 1909, industry reported 877,543 wage earners, la .5 per cent of the U. S. total. The peak was reached in 1919 with a total of l;135,837 wage earners, 12.6 per cent of the U. Se total. Since 1919, the decline in the percentage of the U. S. total has been constant except for the years 1923 and 1931 : in 1921 Pennsylvania reported l3.4 per cent of the country's wage earners, and in 1923, 12.5 per cent; in 1929 the percentage was ll-5, and in 1931, ll.9. The decrease in the number reported in 1931 compared with 1929 amounted to 235,311 wage earners. The number of wage earners for the several years is shown on the ac- companying chart. Admittedly the decrease in the number of wage earners re- quired in 1931 as against 1929 was the result of business re- cession, yet the fluctuations in the number of wage earners have in no other way been spectacular. They have instead shown a tendency, up to 1929, to increase at a very moderate rate • 424 16 "ON ！! !! ſhºt，* •S 38 f， LOV/s）, n NV VN AJO Sſ^ ºS N E O WN O & & Q 3.1 € VO V | €8||628||§ 2 - € 2.6 l6 | 6 ||º || 6 ||6O63|| QO zºſ S83 .35)\/AW & O "ON \}\）/3 39v.NA JO ‘ON The reason for this relatively slight change is that improvements in mechanical processes have increased the productivity of the industry without requiring any great change in the wage earning body. An indication of the advance in mechanization is given in a comparison of the data on primary horse power in 1909 and in 1929, the last year for which it was reported. In the former year there was a total of 2,903,413 primary horse power avail- able to industry in Pennsylvania, an average of 3.3 horse power per wage earner. During the succeeding twenty years the total of primary horse power increased to 5,991,493, and an average of 5.9 horse power for each wage earner. The mechanical assist- ance available to each wage earner therefore increased almost 80 per cent during that period. The number of horse rever, how- ever, is not to be considered other than as an indication of mechanical advance. The greatest advances have been made in the secondary apparatus, operated either by the prime mover or by purchased electric current • Advancing mechanization had its desired result ; increased productivity. The average real value of products per wage earner, i.e. coriverted to the common dollars of 1923-25, amounted to $4,460 in 1909 and increased steadily to $7,740 in 1929, and fell to $7,300 in 1931. The gain up to 1929 was equivalent to more than 73 per cent. The real value of products per horse power showed an increase of little more than 5 per cent over this period, and, in fact, suffered a decline from 1923-25 to 425 1929 of almost 4 per cent. A measurement of the degree of technologic advancement, or the movement toward intensified mechanization and its resultant displacement of the wage earner, cannot be made because of the lack of pertinent data on the number of man-hours required to produce the many products of industry at present compared with some period in the past. In the accompanying table, however, - some suggestion of this advance is given. The tabulation shows the number of men required to produce a given quantity of goods in 1920, as against the number required for the production of the same quantity in 1929 when production was at peak. The data on relatively few products of manufacture were suitable for this analysis, and the picture is therefore limited. 426 ADAPTED FROM census of MANUFACTURERs F IG U R E NO. 92 DISPLACEMENT OF WAGE EARNERS Relative number required in 1920 as compared with 1929* Industry Number of sage earners 1920 1929 Boots and shoes 100 78 Boxes, cigar 100 98 Brick, building - lCO 104 Cement 100 56 Cigars 100 65 Coal, anthracite 100 l29 Coal, bituminous - 100 89 Cokes bee-hive IOO 81 Coke, by-product 100 64 Gasoline 100 82 Ice cream loo 8l. Iron , pig lCO 29 Plates, iron and steel 100 50 Sheets, iron and steel 100 wº 56 Bars, iron and steel 100 107 Sugar, refined 100 53 Winegar 100 46 Wire rods 100 63 º Adapted from "Froductive Industries." state Department of Internal Affairs. 427 As the table shows there were eighteen classes, only three of which showed, an upward tendency. In each case conditions peculiar to that particular industry were responsible. In the case of building bricks a recession had already been noted in the construction business, so that peak production was not required. The increase in anthracite coal was caused by a re- duction in the number of days worked by the miners. In 1931 the figure was 181, compared with 225 days in 1927. The re- cession during the four year period was constant. The manu- facture of bars, iron and steel had reached a point of effi- ciency in 1925 at which only 60 men were required. Production thereafter fell, reaching a low in 1928. Recovery was almost complete in 1929 when it was interrupted by the general decline of business. - Advancing technology is one of the factors responsible for the movement toward concentration of manufacturing activity in larger establishments. From 1909 to 1931 manufacturing estab- lishments fell in number from 27,563 to 14,774, or less than 54 per cent of the 1909 total. The average establishment in Pennsylvania in 1909 employed 32 wage earners, and had 106 primary horse power; in 1929 it engaged 60 wage earners and had 354 horse powere - LEADING MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES An analysis of nineteen of Pennsylvania's leading manu- facturing industries, representing almost 60 per cent of the total value of products manufactured in 1929, shows that 428 twelve of them are in relatively good condition; four are just holding on, and three are distinetly declining. In the first class are: Bread and other bakery products; car and steam railway repair shops; clay products; electrical machinery, apparatus and supplies; steel works and rolling mills; engraving; oniº and boat building; silk and rayon manufacture; and cigars and cigarettes. In the second class are: Clothing, men's ; coke, not in- cluding gas-house; foundry and machine shop products; and blast furnaces. In the third class are : Leather, tanned, curried, and finished; *: refining; and worsted goods. The following tabulation shows the number of establish- ments, number of wage earners, and the value of products in these industries for the year 1929, which year may be consider- ed to represent the peak of production. There is also shown for all three items the slope or trend, in positive or negative per- centages according as the item rises or falls. The quantity indicates the movement of the item in five-year intervals over a period of twenty years. For instance, take the baking industry. It is to be noted that the number of establishments is decreasing at the rate of 3.6 per cent every five years, the number of wage earn- ers is increasing at the rate of 2.8 per cent while the value of products is rising 4.0 per cent. These values are signifi- 429 cant as indications of what is happening within the industry rather than as absolute measures of growth or decline • Reference to the table will show that Pennsylvania's establishments are decreasing at the rate of 3.4 per cent every five years while those of the United States are in- creasing at a rate of approximately one per cent. The number of wage earners in the State is increasing oe & per cent every five years, while those of the country at large are gaining le5 per cent. Pennsylvania's value of products rises 3.0 per cent while that of the U. S. gains 3.7 per cent • It is scarcely necessary to say that these trends will inevita- bly reach an unpredictable point at which they will tend to flatten out or become stable, rather, than to pursue these courses and ultimately lose all reasonable proportion. 430 PENNSYLVANIA Trends 1909-1929 (l) Constant (2) Less than 0.1 per cent, but downward trend. INDUSTRY 1929 Average for five year - Intervals Number of Number of Value of Estab. Wage Earners Products #Est. #Wage E. R.V. of P. M.5% * - Bread & Other Bakery Products le.929 25,960 170,609 -5, 6 +2.8 44.0 Car & Steam Hwy. Repeir Shop 194 55,591 205,363 ‘ºle 5 -00, 7 *2.6 Clay Products 245 16,933 59,491 -l,7 el.9 +3.9 Clothing, Men's 584 18,475 98,547 -5.4 •le 6 *2.4 Coke, not including Gas House 69 5,856 ll 5,545 -le 7 -4.5 *2.4 Electrical Machy, Appe & Supplies 157 47,375 547,141 e2•0 •5, 2 •7, 2 Foundry & Machine Shop Products 879 55,364 374,041 -5.2 -3.2 •l. 2 Iron & Steel, Blast Fur. 30 8,188 280,712 -3.5 -2.8 ele 5 Iron & Steel, Steel Works & 158 145,684. 1,212,877 •0, 7 •0.8 e2•l Rolling Mills Knit Goods 482 62,141 294,325 +0.4 *2.5 *7, 2 Leather, Tanned, Curried 62 8,876 95,959 -6.5 -2, 7 •l e4 & Finished * - .Meat Packing 132 5,252 132,783 •l.l •2, 2 *2e 5 Petroleum Refining 48 7,895 . 245,259 •0e 7 *3.2 *5, 2 Photo. Engraving 44 959 6,077 el.8 42.8 •5.4 Ship & Boat Building 17 5,356 I5,488 . -4 •4 40, l eleb Silk & Rayon Rifre 497 61,544 320,956 43.1 ‘92, 2 *4 •4 Sugar Refining 5 l,715 73,989 O(l) -6.5 -l.6 Tobacco, cigars & cigarette 530 25,221 108,061 -19.5 -l.4 e2•0 Worsted Goods 61 10,692 81,205 -2.9 -3, 2 -0 (2) All Others tº sº sº ººº- tºº-ºº-º-º: Total (Penna.) 16,947 l.014,046 7,443,861 -3.4 40.8 •5e0 Ue Se 210,959 8,838,745 70,434,865 40,9 *le 5 •5, 7 . 431 WAGES IN MANUFACTURING The total of wages paid in manufacturing plants reached its highest volume in 1919 as a result of the war stimulation, Up to that time the total had been relatively . low, but during the post-war period the wage level, speaking broadly, was main- tained. & The Census of Mianufactures shows that the average wage in Pennsylvania in 1909 amounted to $520 per year. This rose to $571 in 1914 and to $1,239 in 1919. The highest average wage was paid in 1929, $1,360. These averages, however, are not efficient indicators of wage payments because of the changes in the cost of living. If the average wage is converted into dollars having the same buy- ing power as the dollars of the 1923-25 period, then the average wage of 1914 amounted to $961; 1919, $1,139; 1923-25, $1,316; 1929, $1,381; and 1931, $1,293. Real wages, therefore, have shown consistent increases throughout the period, suffering a decline only in the period 1929-31. The average wage in actual dollars, the average wage in the common dollars of i923-25, and their indexes of change from 1909 to 1931 are shown in the following table • 432 REAL WAGES IN MANUFACTURING - Fl E No. ADAPTED FRo M census of MANUFACTURERS GURE NO. 93 • pequodex +ou stam Jeek 4 and Jog 3urpaſt Jo 3soo eu + sa peºnduloo eq 3 outreo 606T ºroz exam Teen eu.I. (2) •Tenppappur tra Jo s?urpuree eq+ treq+ Jeuqez “queuiſed e3an Taqoq. eu: up uqao.13 enq mous oº pepueºuſ; sº esam éâureau eul, (t) **86 8°28 **T3 6**OT 2°80T 6*66 O°OOT - 0°OOT o'oot 9° 99 3 ° tº 6 O°2OT T*EL, tº gº £299 (e) -- sº - I* 88 •OOT=g2-gz6T - 93tratio go xepuſ £62*T 690*T OOO" L09°gtº T98°T 0.98°T 000° tº 64,8°T 9TE" T 9TE*T OOO‘zzl,“64,8°T 68T*T 682°T 000°990*90+"T T96 TL9 000°ggé* Lzg (2) -- Ozgé 000° L29°ggy: Teeu Tanqoy sežem (T) e3ea e2e reay Jo qunomy •e3treq9 go xepup pure sežen e3ereas Tanqoe pure Tee.1 °s Tºqol, T£6T • 606T 9:HºWTA ENIHD.I.OWIſln'ſ M T£6T 626T. 93-826T. 6T6T #T6T 606T. T86T 626T. G3-826T. 6T6T #I6T 606T gey DIVERSIFICATION OF MANUFACTURING Approximately 70 per cent of all the classifications of manufacturing industries in the country are represented in Pennsylvania----technically a "diversification ratio" of that amount. Analysis of the number of types of manufacture re- ported in the Census of Manufactures shows that Pennsylvania had 226 classes of manufacturing industries in 1929 out of 326 for the country. This was a large increase over the figures for 1909, in which year Pennsylvania had only 94 classes, and the country 259. The degree of diversification in manufacturing industries is an indication of the relative stability of a community with respect to employment, production and general economic well- being. It is obvious that any community dependent on one, or few, industries, is in distress when those industries experience difficulty. In the same manner a community having a larger variety of manufacturing plants will not feel, to as great an extent, the difficulties of one plant or industry while the others follow their normal courses of productions Compared with the state total, the Industrial Area of Philadelphia has the largest ratio of diversification, 70.8 per cent with 160 classes. The Industrial Area of Pittsburgh ranks second with 36.7 per cent and 83 classes. The Scranton- Wilkes-Barre, Reading, and Allentown-Bethlehem Areas have approximately the same ratiose. 434 Diversification Ratios by Industrial Areas, 1929 Industrial Area No. of Classes Percent of State total Philadelphia 160 70, 8 Pittsburgh 83 36.7 Scranton-Wilkes-Barre 36 15,9 Reading 34 15.0 Allentown-Bethlehem 32 l4 = 2 LOCATION OF MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES More than 70 per cent of the value of manufactured pro- ducts is produced in the five industrial areas as set up in the Census of Manufactures of 1929. The Philadelphia In- dustrial Area, * which includes five counties in the south- eastern portion of the state, and three counties in New Jersey (these have been eliminated in this analysis), ac- counted for 35.1 per cent of the State's total; the Pitts- burgh Area, 27.1 per cent; the Allentown-Bethlehem Area, 5.3 per cent; the Reading Area, 3.1 per cent; and the Scranton- Wilkes-Barre Area, 2.5 per cent. In order to probe the economic soundness of the several counties with respect to their manufacturing activity, an analysis of the trends of number of wage earners and the value of products in relation to the state totals from 1916 to 1929 and from 1929 to 1931, was made. The results * * there Were nineteen counties in which the gain had been consistent * The Philadelphia Area includes. Bucks, Chester, Delaware, Montgomery and Philadelphia Counties in Penna. ; the Pittsburgh Area includes Allegheny, Beaver, Washington and Westmoreland Counties; the Allentown-Bethlehem Area, Lehigh and Northampton Counties; the Reading Area, Berks County; and the Scranton- Wilkes-Barre Area, Lackawanna and Luzerne Counties. 435 throughout the whole period; ten counties that experienced nothing but decline; and thirty-eight counties in which the trºna, were mixed, in most cases the result of latter day influences. These trends are shown in the following table. Counties Showing. Upward Trends in Number of Wage Earners. and in Value of Products - 1916 to 1929 and to 1931 Adams Clinton Lancaster Berks Crawford Lebanon Blair Cumberland Montgomery Bradford Fulton Northumberland Bucks . Huntingdon Somerset Centre Juniata Susquehanna. Wyoming Counties Showing Downward Trends in Number of Wage Earners and in Value of Products - 1916 to 1929 and to 1931 Allegheny Indiana Perry Coliumbia Montour Potter. Fayette Northampton Sullivan * Wenango' Counties. Showing Upward Trends in Number of Wage Earners and in Walue of Products - 1916 to 1929 (varying trends since 1929) Armstrong Greene Mifflin Beaver Lackawanna Monroe Delaware Lehigh Snyder Erie Luzerne Union Franklin Lycoming Warreri Counties Showing Downward Trends in Number of Wage Earners and in Value of Products - 1916 to 1929 (varying trends since 1929) - Cambria Dauphin Jefferson Cameron Elk McKean Clearfield Tºorest Mercer º - Tioga Westmoreland 436 Counties Showing Gains in Number of Wage Earners; Losses in Value of Products - 1916 to 1929 (varying trends since 1929) Bedford Carbon Butler Lawrence York Counties Showing Loss in Number of Wage Earners; Gains in Value of Products - 1916 to 1929 (varying trends since 1929) Chester Philadelphia Washington Clarion Schuylkill Wayne Note: Pike County is not included in this table as its manufacturing industry is extremely small, Based on the data of the Penna. Dept. of Internal Affairs. 437 The twenty leading counties, ranked according to their value of products in 1931, are tabulated as follows: * Rank County Walue of Products l, - Philadelphia $1,202,426,500 2. Allegheny 819,542,000 3. Luzerne 194,578,700 4. Delaware 172,285,400 5. Beaver l4l, Oló,500 6e Berks 135,328,000 7s Montgomery l26,906,500 8, Lackawanna Lll,492,700 9, Westmoreland 104,408,300 10. York 99,704,900 ll. Lehigh 98,682,100 12. Lancaster 94,882,800 13. Schuylkill 94,752,000 14. Northampton 93,687,300 lje Washington 92,819, 200 16. Dauphin 87,576,100 l?e Erie 87,224,300 18. Mercer 67,279,500 l9. Cambria 61,562,900 20, Blair 59,268,100 #- State Depart ºf TRECRETRFFEIFE. 438 MIGRATION AND DECENTRALIZATION OF INDUSTRY A. tendens, on the part of industry to migrate from in- dustrial centers to small outlying towns or to states where adequate labor, power and distribution facilities are avail- able, and where it may find a more or less temporary escape from urban taxation, has been noted in the past. But in the absence of any specific data, little more, can be said that such a movement exists. However, in any industrial planning program the basic reasons for this drift should be studied and calculated. RETAIL TRADE Pennsylvania, with 7.9 per cent of the population of the United States, reported 7.7 per cent of the total re- tail sales in 1929, amounting to $3,803,941,000, according to the first Census of Distribution made by the Census authorities. The reports show that there were 135,275 stores, employing £l 7,099 full-time workers, and 56,045 part-time workers. Since this information was first collected in 1929, the trend of retail sales must be basad on the tax information collected by the State's Mercantile Appraisers. As only the sales within the State are taxable, i.e., interstate deliveries are not taxable, these totals amount to approximately 75 per cent of the actual sales total. With this qualification in mind, the following index may be considered to represent the movement of retail sales in Pennsylvania. 439 INDEX OF MOVEMENT IN. RETAIL SALES, PENNA., 1920 - 1932 (1923-25-100) 1920 T9e O 1923-2s 100,0 l229 ll4.e3 1931 90e2 1932 - 76.3 WHOLESALE TRADE. The State is credited with almost 7 per cent of the wholesale trade of the country in 1929. According to the Census of Distribution for that year there were 10,542 e S- tablishments, with ll3,655 employes, and sales amounting to $4,777,292,000. The trend of wholesale sales from 1920 to 1932, based on the tax information of the Mercantile Appraisers, is shown in the following index : INDEX OF MOVEMENT l920 - 1932 (1923-25mloo) l920 104.7 1923-25 100.0 1929 100.4 l931 71e 5 l932 - 62 e5 The leading counties, with their percentages of the total retail sales of the State in 1929, before the general decline * + r. Frº set in, are shown below: ** RETAIL SALES, LEADING COUNTIES IN PENNA. PER CENT OF STATE TOTAL, 1929 County Percentage Philadelphia w 27.0 Allegheny 18.6 Luzerne 5, 2 'Montgomery 2,9 Berks e 2, 7 vestmorland 2-4 Lackawanna - 2, 2 Dauphin - 2.2 Lancaster 2-l Washington . . . 2.0 Delaware * l.9 Cambria le 7 Northampton * l. 7. Erie - le 6 Blair 1. Schuylkill l, 6 Fayette * l. 5 All others (50 Counties) 25.1 Total t 100.0 44l WHOLESALE SALES, LEADING COUNTIES IN PENN. PER CENT OF STATE TOTAL, 1929 County * -f . Philadelphia Allegheny Berks Dauphin Luzerne Lackawanna Lancaster Blair Cambria Erie Montgomery Schuylkill Westmoreland Northampton washington e Fayette Delaware All others. Total - Percentage 43.6 22.8 2.7 2s 5 2.4 2.5 1.6 l,5 l,5 l. 2 l.0 0.9 0.8 0.8 0.8 O, 7 0, 6. 12,5 100,0 4:42 UTILITIES Railroads employ the greatest number of workers of in- dustries in the utility group, reporting a total of 453,022 employes in 1931. This is five times as many as all other utilities combined. Telephone companies ranked second, and electric companies third e A summary of the number of employes, wages, average wage, and gross receipts for l93l follows: UTILITIES IN PENNA. 1931, EMPLOYES, WAGES AND GROSS RECEIPTS & Type of Company Number of Wages Average Gross Receipts Employes Wage Telephone 26,640 #41,586,477 #1,560 $371,292,084 Telegraph 3,794 4,204,931 1,110 112,784,805 Steam Railroads 453,022 765,329,615 1,690 1,459,499,145 Street Railways 19,737 34,468,516 l,740 80,768,889 Electric 23,453 41,862,091 l,780 194,305,008 Gas, natural 6,548 9,915,066 l,520 46,491,237 Gas, mſd 6,604 lo,376,895 l,570 36,383,455 Water 7,343 9,255,387 1,270 : 40,610,413 Indexes of change in number of employes, wages and gross receipts for the various industries of the utility group are shown in the following: 443 6°T6 6°88 2*58 T26T 2*52T 2*96 g*5OT 636T t-trt O*15TI O*#/, 426T O*OOT O*OOT O*OOT 92-226T 2* h8 O*4,OI #*T6 T26T enueAebi se3eM Te4oI, seeAoTduSI Jo *oN (ooT=g2-226T e3ueuo Jo xepuI) veTueATAsuued up sepueduoo udelt3eTeI, 2*OAT g*T2T 9*T6 T26T g*g9T 9° 4,3T 6° MOTI 636T 4°gGTI T*2TT T*96 *36T O*OOI O*OOT ooot g2-236T - iſy*TA S:*tyt, T"64, teet ee3eM Te4oI, eeeAoTduISI Jo *oN enueAeH (OOT=g2-226T e3ueuo Jo xepuI) epueATAsuued up sepuedmop euoudeTeJ, Steam Railroads and Street Railways in Pennsylvania {Index of Change 1923–25-100) Revenue 84.2 100,0 96 e5 98.l. 7l-l Street Railways. No e Of, Employes lC)2.9 lC0.0 87 sl 78.4 66 e6 Total Wages 97 e 6 loo.0 95 e 6 85.5 68s 8 Gas Companies in Pennsylvania (Index of Change 1923-25-100) Railraods - No. of Total Employes Wages 90s 8 88.3 lCOsO. lC0.0 95.0 91.3 90el 88,6 77.6 76.1 Natural No e of Total Employes Wages 93 e 7 86.9 100.0 lC0.0 lC6.9 ll3.6 121.2 lls.6 92 e4 94.9 Manufactured No e of Total Employes Wages ll? •8 lils? 100.0 100.0 106.l ll.6,6 100.1 ill-2 I06.2 ll? • O. Revenue 97.60 lCO20 96.3 90.1 68.9 Revenue 89.7 100.0 ilā-l il? •l Revenue 74e 7 lò0.0 98 e6 lC4, 2 84 el: il? •S 445 2° 22T T• T2T T* 2TT O*OOT 9*99 6*TOT 3 • TTT 9°g II O* OOI 2°88 T*96 8°96 2* GOT O*OOT 2*68 enueAeg se3ell seeÁoTdurSI T94OT, Jo * oN sepueduloo reaela (oot-ga-gzet esueuo Jo xepu1) Z 6* Gij'T 9° Bij T T*O2T O*OOT 9* E9 enueAeBI T* ZgT O*T2T 6° L2T O*OOT O*99 se3egd T03OJE 9*TOT g* GOT O* LTT T26T 626T A26T O°OOI gg-g26T i7° 59 geeÁoTdurf Jo * ON se gueduIoo op 14oeTEI eTueATAsuued ut seTuedmoo reaem pue oTraoetg T26T 9ijf, OCCUPATIONAL TRENDS During the twenty years from 1910 to 1930 a shift in occupation from the productive * to the service industries was noted throughout the country. The shift in Pennsylvania, which reported a total of 3,722,103 gainful workers more than ten years of age in 1930, 2 was not so pronounced as that of the United States as a whole. As will be acted on the accompanying chart, a regular in- crease has taken place in the number of gainful workers re- ported in Pennsylvania from 1910 to 1930, while the number of gainful workers in the whole of the United States moved a re- latively greater increase from 1920 to 1930 than from 1910 to 1920. The productive group of the United States has shown an increase over the 1910 figure of 6.5 per cent, while Pennsyl- vania's productive group has increased only . l. 6 per cent • The country's service group increased from 1910 to 1930 sixty-five per cent; Pennsylvania's forty-seven per cent • l. The productive group includest manufacturing, mining, forestry, fishing, agricultural and mechanical industries; ser- vice includes transportation and communication, trade, public service, professional service, domestic and personal service and clerical occupations • 2- Gainful workers lo to 16 years of age are little more than two per cent of the total gainful workers. The totals of ten years of age and over follow the regular government set-up and are used here without regard to the restrictions placed on the employment of this groupe 447 The shirt in the State may be attributed largely to the changing status of the state's productive industries. Wage earners required in manufacturing are approaching the point where no further increases in number will be necessary. The mining industry requires fewer workers because of a number of difficulties which the industry is now experiencing. In the absence of increasing opportunity of employment in these in- dustries, the gainful worker must turn to the service enter- prises • The number of gainful workers in Pennsylvania has been de- creasing in relation to the total number in the United States and to the population of the Commonwealth. In 1910, the 3tate reported 8.2 per cent of the country's gainful workers , , and in t l930, 7.6 per cent • In 1910 gainful workers, in Pennsylvania were equivalent to almost 41 per cent of the state's popula- tion; in l930 the ratio had fallen to 38.7 per cent. In the following tables it will be noted that the per- cent ages shown for the productive group (the first three items) have tendencies to remain static or to decrease slightly e All the other classes, which constitute the service group, have in- creased in relation to the totale 448 ADAPTED FRom CENsus of MANUFACTURERs figure No. 34 GAINFUL WORKERS OVER TEN YEARS OF AGE IN PENNSYLVANIA (Per cent distribution by classes) - - lº:30 1920 1910 Agriculture, Forestry & Fishing 6.8 8,3 il. 6 Extraction of Minerals 8.1 9,7 10.5 Mfg. & Mechanical Ind. 38 el 4.l.. 6 40.0 Trans. & Communications 8, 6 8,3 Te 6 Trade l2.3 9.e.9 9, 8 Public Service le 8 l,6 i-l Professional Service 6.4 4.8 4 e2 Domestic & Personal Service 9. O 7.5 9.8 Clerical - 8.9 8.3 5.4 Total loo.0 lOO.0 100.0 449 GAINFUL workers over TEN YEARS OF AGE IN UNITED STATES IPer cent Distribution by Classes) Agriculture Extraction of Minerals Mfg. & Mechnical Ind. Transportation & communication Trade Public Service Professional Service Domestie & Personal Service Clerical 1950 21.9 2.0 28.9 7.9 l,8 6, 7 10.1 8, 2 1920 26.5 2.6 50.9 10.2 1.8 5.2 8-l 7 e5 1910 35.2 2.5 27.9 6.9 9, 5 l. 2 4.4 9,9. 4.5 Total 100.0 100.0 -100.0 450 SOCIOGRAPHICS |9|O 193O P H L A D E L PH A O O O O | AGRICULTURAL - FORESTRY - FISHING - EXTRACTION OF MINERALS {} iſſ iſſ *—f MANUFACTURING AND MECHANICAL INDUSTRY TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATION O O O iſſ O O O ^ ProFEssionAL service TRADE =# PUBLIC SERVICE i O İ DOMESTIC AND PERSONAL SERVICE O O GAINFUL WORKERS EACH Figure-ooooopersons BY OCCUPATIONAL GROUPS ū cLErical FIGURE NO. 95 3OARD RETAIL DISTRIBUTIONº. Retail distribution is the process of selling goods for use or consumption; together with services incidental to their sale. The position of the retailer in society is to supply the wants of the people and to make available at the right time and at a convenient place a reasonable selection of goods to supply those wants. The retail business is carried on directly with the people without intermediaries and is the one business whose contacts reach them in all the walks of life. The retailer obvi- ously is the point of contact between the manufacturer and the public, for through him the manufacturer determines what goods to produce in order to meet actual and potential requirements, what alterations to make in existing products, what new styles to provide for, what products to abandon, and what manufactur- ing schedules to set up. Pennsylvania in 1929 carried on in its 135,275 stores, a retail business of $3,803,941,000, representing a per capita expenditure of $395.00. The transaction of this business en- gaged the attention of 506,075 persons or 5.25 per cent of the State's entire population and l3.59 per cent of the 3,722,103 people ten years or over in the State who were gainfully em- ployed. Preliminary figures of the 1933 Census of Distribution * The data examined was to a large extent that found in the 1929 Census of Retail Distribution which is the last and only complete census now available in detail, and statistics obtain- ed by the United States Department of . Commerce. 451 PENNSYLVANIA SUMMARY - RETAIL DISTRIBUTION Per Cent 1929 1933 Changes Number of Stores 135,275 115,421* -15 Sales $3,803,941,000 $2,014,402,000 —47 Employment (Average number throughout year) Full time employees 317,099 218,999 -31 Part time employees 49,309 59,029 +20 Proprietors (active) 132,931 118,149 -ll Payroll - Total 411,938,500 228,743,800 -44 (Not including compensation of Proprietors) Full time. (Amount) 398,442,100 209,507,000 -47 Part time (Amount) 13,496,400 19,236,800 e43 Average annual earnings per full time employee l, 257 957 -24 Foving to field conditions over which the Bureau had no control, there is reason to believe that reports retail stores in Pennsylvania were not collected. from some of the smaller It would appear the number of stores should be about 132,400 and net sales about $2,070,000,000. These are preliminary figures sub- ject to revision. 452 T2°22 4.91" W.92*T Đg°I Geo'z wºrst 3 ooo-oo: Tº "at, ecz'21.9°t 20°6t 824, “g2 666*66T - OOO"O2 2A"G4, 9%g “O88°3 A.G"O2 228° 22 JeżJo I pue OOO"Og 82°52 #62°226 9:5 °64, agº.” ZOT OOO"O2$ ugu: sseT 9T *gT glg'929 OT” 62T J.e3 TEI 23 OOO"OOO"T 2g"G 2g2*OT2 g3° TT2 666*666 - OOO"OOg g2°9 G4,9*Tºg G# * #59 666°665 - OOO"OOg 42°9 g9Q ‘822 24,” T66. 666°662 - OOO"OO2 Té"gT T#T*T6% 99°2 #63°g 666*66T - OOO"OOI 2g".9T 229°829 G8°9 892°6 666°66 - OOO"Og 86°2T 969 °26% 2g"6 94.8°2'I 666"ew - oooºog O6°4, 999 "OO2 A.T." 6 6Oly"2T 666"63 - OOO"O2 92°6 6T6*gg2 GA,”8T 99.2°ga 666*6T - OOO"OT Of"? #6T * Z.91 #5°/T 969°22 666°6 - OOOg 29°2 22*.*66 A.O."#2 680°95 000°gš usua sseT OO*OOT Twe “goe"2+ OO"OOT g/.2°gçT TW.I.O.I., Sº IWS SłIWTIOCI SºHOIS SºłOIS - SSINISng TwnNNy TWIOI, HO JIO &IO Hºſſln *IO Jºſ() ºf S JNº) Bºſaſ S(INVSnOHL TV.I.O.I. Jo. Hºſhi (626T) J.Nº) SEſºſ SEITWS Jºſhi HO JNſ|ONY SSSINISDE TO GIZIS Ka ‘NOILOGISISIGITIVISIH - WINVAIRSNN.I.I. indicate the extent of the changes wrought by the depression. Since 1929 there was a net decrease of 24 per cent of all those on the payroll; full time employees decreased 31 per cent, part timers increased 20 per cent. Stores decreased 15 per cent, sales 47 per cent and payrolls 44 per cent. From the fact that there is reason to believe that the number of stores should be about 132,400 in 1933 (see accompanying table), the actual number of stores had a decrease of only 2875, or 2 per cent from 1929. Sizes of Stores The $3,803,941,000 business handled by Pennsylvania's 135,275 stores represents an average of about $28,000 per store. A large portion of the stores, however, averaged far less than this amount. 107,452 stores or 79 per cent of the total did an annual business of $923,394,000 or 24 per cent of the aggregate sales. This, volume represents an annual average of about $8,600 per store. The group comprising the remaining 27,823 stores, 21 per cent of the total number, did a business of $2,880,546,000 or 76 per cent of the total sales. This group represents an average of about $103,500 annually. 46,089 stores or 34 per cent of the total number, did an annual business of $99,723,000, or less than 3 per cent of the total sales and an annual average of only $2,170 per store. As an extreme comparison it is interesting to note that 2,085 stores or one and a half per cent of the total .454 SOCIOGRAPH | CS P H | L A D E L PH | A SALEs over $50 ooo PER YEAR SALEs UNDER $so ooo PER YEAR TWENTY PER CENT OF STORES DO ɺgº sº. 29% ºf ޺s SEVENTY-SIX PER CENT OF BUSINESS EACH FIGURE 4 9/o OF SALES P L A N N | N G F | GURE NO. 96 BOA R D. number had $1,267,187,000 or one-third of the total sales. These are all large stores with an annual business greater than $200,000. It is evident in this field as in many others, a relatively small number of stores account for a large proportion of the businesse Kinds of Business In general, the retail business is carried on in storea handling more or less distinct lines of goods, dictated and con- trolled by the buying habits and preferences served in any par- ticular community, but most commodities may be purchased in a number of types of stores. These vary, naturally, in different communities, so that no rigid classification can be made as to- specific commodities sold in any one kind of store. Controll- ing factors inelude price, credit, delivery, quality, location of store, business hours, and the demand that comes to certain stores which are exclusive distributors of lines aggressively advertised nationally. Obviously some overlapping occurs in the classification of stores • Country stores in some places may sell more food than strictly grocery stores. Department stores are increasing their sales of furniture in some cities. Appliances, music, drugs, tires and so forth, are in some cities sold by department stores and stores of other types in greater volume than in specialized stores. In the Census, all stores are classified according to the principal commodities they sell or according to their popular designation- For our analysis, we are using groups of related activities 455 to avoid clouding the picture with too much detaile These groups do the bulk of the business in their commodities and are representatives Fundamentally they are made up as follows:- Food Group Candy and confectionery stores Dairy products, eggs and poultry stores Fruit and vegetable stores Grocery stores Meat markets Bakery goods stores Other stores specializing in food products Ceneral Stores Country general stores, generally located in places of less than 10,000 population • Ceneral Merchandise Department Stores Dry goods stores, piece goods stores General merchandise stores Wariety, 5 and 10 to a dollar stores Mail order houses, general merchandise by mail Automotive Group Motor vehicle dealers Automobile dealers, including farm implements and machinery Accessories, tires and batteries .# Filling stations Motorcycles, bicycles and supplies Carages and repair shops Other automotive establishments Apparel Group Men's and boys' clothing and furnishings Family clothing stores, men's, women's and children's Women's ready to wear specialty stores. Other apparel stores furniture and Household Stores Furniture stores - Floor coverings, draperies, curtains and upholstery stores Household appliance stores Other home furnishings and appliance stores Radio and music stores * . 456 Restaurants. Cafeterias and Eating Places Restaurants, cafeterias and lunch rooms Lunch counters, refreshment stands, etc. (Meals served in hotel dining rooms not included.) Lumber and Building Group Lumber and building material dealers Electrical shops (without radio) Heating and plumbing shops Paint and glass stores Other Retail Stores Second-Hand Stores Pertinent facts of the retail business of the State, se- gregated to these groups is brought out in the accompanying table. One is immediately impressed with the amount of money the people have spent in the past for food, automobilee and accessories, general merchandise, apparel and household equip- ment. This expenditure amounts to 73 per cent of the total or an average of $289.00 for every man, woman and child in the State • 25 per cent of the merchandising dollar was spent in the food group alone. Counting also restaurants, cafeterias and other eating places, the total for food amounts to 28 per cent or an average per capita of $112.00. Since sales according to the 1933 census dropped 47 per cent, partially accounted for by the drop in the price level, it is reasonable to assume that semi-luxury purchases have been very greatly decreased, due to lack of income and that the percentage of the dollar spent for food is much greater. It will be of interest to analyze these percentages when- ever the detailed figures of the 1933 census become available 457 #gº GOOº662.T2T6T#Tº|TgºoºT seroas pueH puoo.es 2.2.ºſt9&OºO9gTegº OT2,8T ºg ý6æſººga�29**8 se roņS TĘe4eg Jeų40 Ogºſ;9çOºTZT2,69°T222° ATșţţºş29T ºșđnoro ºu! -pTĘng Que : ：-（==） = ∞ *«，§§§ºffſ§§§）， （~~~~assºu，v ∈§* ， ， ，ſaeº ：:&，&ÄÄ *********brzzraevaextraeaeºffſ ſaevaeraeruaenaeĶ ſººſ={（ſ∞ ſae~ owoływa sº №wraeaeaeaeae aeſtºſºſ，|$№vaezaeaeaeaeae { Yį （）. O ÅNA 3 N Svī£ Xj v §) N I dd OH S T | \/ LIB \} ?nu svo NAJN RETAIL SHOPPING AREAS, STORES AND SALES - PER CAPITA EXPENDITURES TOTAL AMOUNT NET SALES (1929) RETAIL SHCPPING AREA NUMBER OF STORES THOUSANDS OF OF TOTAL P3H CAPITA NUMBERTY OFTOTAL DOLLARS SALES SALES TOTAL FOR STATE l:55,275 lC)0.00 $3,803,941 100.00 395 Philadelphia(Pennae only) 42,358 31.31 l,328,822 34,93 488 Pittsburgh 27,825 2O.e57 595,974 25, 24 384 Wilkes-Barre 7,186 5.31 145,779 3.e.83 523 Allentown, Easton, - Bethlehem, Pennae only 4,935 3e 65 l44,863 3.8l 423 Scranton. 5,556 4ell l24,985 3e39 345 Reading 3,087 2e28 loo,327 2,64 435 Harrisburg 4,101 3.03 92,566 2,45 3590 Johnstown 3,158 2e33 83,684 .2e2O 295 Lancaster 2,8l4 2,08 77,220 2,03 392 Erie 2,682 le.98 75 2 O93 le.97 428 Pottsville 5,405 4e CO 65,709 le.75 279 York 2,607 le.93 65,254 l,72 390 Altoona 2,378 le.76 60,026 le58 339 Shamokin ls 840 ls 36 38,219 leOO 267 New Castle 1,365 leOl 36,380 •96 374 Williamsport 1,378 leO2 35,580 •94 379 Dubois l,573 lel6 34, 139 .90 246 Sharon l, 274 •94 33,602 •88 359 Oil City 1,289 •95 33,512 * •88 343 Bradford 953 •7O 28,961 e76 399 Tioga and Bradford Co., l's 259 •93 25,429 e67 314 Meadville l,00l •74 23,452 •62 372 Lebanon 878 • 65 22,035 •58 329 Lock Haven l, 135 •84. 21,775 e57 277 Lewistown l, 108 •82 21,756 e5? 274 Chambersburg 991 e.75 21,568 • 57 291 Carlisle l,014 • 75 20,915 •55 307 Warrent 55 •4l l'7,561 •46 377 Lehighton 919, •68 l4,641 •38 23.l. Berwick 584. •43 13,279 •35 272 Stroudsburg 421. •3l lo,335 e27 365 Gettysburg 717 •53 9,934 •26 268 St. Mary's 363 e27 8,359 •22 216 Susquehanna County (served by Binghampton, N.Y.) 566 •42 3,157 •2l 24l ure we have and develop this point. The areas chosen are: Philadelphia area Erie area Pittsburgh area York area Allentown-Easton-Bethlehem area New Castle area Reading area Williamsport area Lancaster area Gettysburg area These form, we believe, a representative cross section of the retail merchandise business of the State • Referring again to the table and considering only the major kinds of business classification, we find that 25 per cent of the merchandising dollar of the State is spent for food, 17 per cent for the automotive group, lê per cent for general merchandise and ló per cent for apparel. With these figures in mind, let us exam— ine the conditions in the Pittsburgh area whose population is 65 per cent urban and 35 per cent rural.” This area is the largest physically and contains the cities of Pittsburgh and McKeesport, thirty-one towns over 10,000 population and llo towns above l,000 population and under 10,000. It is possible from the data at hand to isolate the sales made in Pittsburgh and McKeesport and so get the sales made in the balance of the area. It is possible also to segregate these sales in this case to three of the major kinds of business classifications cited above, food, automotive and general merchandise. One is immediately impressed with the change in the percentage of the general merchandise group, in the area excluding Pittsburgh and McKeesport as well as in these two cities themselves. *TCORETTEFIRETEETCFT3500 BCEIREICTERTOVEFESTECTRESF the urban classification. 470 For the State as a whole, the percentage spent in the food group is 25 per cent, in the automotive group 17 per cent, and in the general merchandise group le per cent. In the Pittsburgh area as a whole, these percentages are 27 per cent, 17 per cent and 17 per cent respectively. In the area excluding Pittsburgh and McKeesport, the percentage spent in the general merchandise group drops from 16 per cent to 8 per cent. In the city of Mc- Keesport it is only 9 per cent. Note, however, that in the city of Pittsburgh the percentage jumps from 16 per cent to 27 per cent, which we interpret as meaning that the general merchandise business flows from outside the city to the city of Pittsburgh itself but that the bulk of the purchases in the food and auto- motive groups are made locally. Obviously, some increase will be shown in the food and automotive group percentage in the area outside of Pittsburgh and McKeesport due to the purchases of gen- eral merchandise being made in the city of Pittsburgh. However, the percentages decrease for the city of Pittsburgh proper in these two groups. The accompanying table shows a similar ana- lysis in a number of representative areas in which detailed in- formation is available. Some of these areas can be considered às urban, rural, and some pretty well divided as to urban and rural populations. An examination of these figures shows that the same condition obtains in all the areas to a greater or less extent, which strengthens the interpretation that the major por- tion of the business that flows to the shopping centers consists of general merchandise and apparel lines. 471 DISTRIEUTION BY KINDS OR BUSINESS NET SALES (1929) IN PER CENT OF TOTAL SALES FOOD TIVE MERCHANDISE APPAREL AREA OR CITY GROUP GROUP GROUP GHROUP *Philadelphia Area Total 24e 65 lze47 20e,72 lle33 Philadelphia City 23, 25 10.39 25.67 l2.45 Chester City 29, lº 18.66 l().6l lC),68 Norristown City - 27,74 2le 52 12,50 10,31 Balance of Area 32.40 23,65 4.6l 4.e42 *Pittsburgh Area Total 26.80 lée 54 17,05 Pittsburgh City 22,89 lze.75 26.e32 McKeesport City 32e20 14e?8 8.97 Balance of Area 30.21 20.26 8,20 Allentowns Easton, - Bethlehem Area Total 23s29 19.94 l2,69 lſ). 20 Allentown City 2Oe?7 19,95 17,46 l2.36 Easton City 2le.9l 15,02 l9.62 l2.72 Bethlehem City 27 e69 19,0l 8.21 lle.83 Balance of Area 26e 63 24 e44 2,00 3,38 Reading Area Total 21.66 20-55 10,72 9.e50 Balance of Area 23,88 23,96 l,62 leOO Lancaster Area. Total l? •39 21.29 lle29 6.e.87 Lancaster City 16s.72 21,22 19,97 lCe45 Balance of Area l3e09 2le37 2.ll 3,09 Erie Area. Total 24.56 22.83 lo.49 lO,59 Erie City 23,98 22e29 l2.25 l2.26 Balance of Area 26,64 24,78 4,02 4.45 York Area. Total 20.45 21.40 lle.87 7.67 Balance of Area 2le48 22.45 4.90 3el9 New Castle Area Total 25,51 22 el2 9,91 10.4l New Castle City 23,83 22e27 lle 60 lle 78 Balance of Area 29.e.87 2le.75 5,52 6.e.86 Williamsport Area Total 24e51. 21.00 10,40 lls 35 Williamsport City 23,88 20-ll l3,66 l3e 65 Balance of Area 25e 50 25.45 l.49 5e00 Gettysburg Area Total 19e 28 22elb 4.68 Gettysburg City 18,72 22.52 8.01 Balance of Area 19,69 21,92 2e24 *With exception of Bucks Co. Due to lack of detailed information *With exception of Armstrong & Greene Counties. Due to lack of detailed information a 472 In other words, the family food basket is filled in the home markets. Automobiles which are sold at fixed prices are bought at agencies convenient to home. Miscellaneous purchases are bought locally or in the suburbs where there is convenient parking space. National advertising and our contacts with the cities, have made us style conscious and we prefer to do our shopping in the city for clothes, curtains, furniture, rugs, pianos and such other finer inerchandise, purchases are made only after mature deliberation. Influences Working Toward Changes We have attempted to outline the extent of the merchan- dising business of the State as well as show a break down to the various natural territories in which it is conducted. It is of interest to mention the influences that have been at work in shaping up the changes that can be expected to take place in the future and to visualize, if possible, their extent • Certain basic changes in the various retail shopping areas that have been going on are due to population changes in the last 30 years, both as to total population and the differ- ences in rate of growth of urban and rural populations • In the decade from 1900, the total population or the State gain.” ed 21.62 per cent, the urban population gained 34.28 per cent and the rural gained 6.34 per cent.* From 1910 to 1920, the # of total population was lº, 26 per cent, that of urban All incorporated places having 2500 or more inhabitants are classed as urban arease 473 21.10 per cent and rural 2.56 per cent. From 1920 to 1930 the gain in the total population was 10.45 per cent, that for urban l2.83 per cent and for rural population 6.15 per cent. A de- cided growth in the urban population has been at the expense of the rural population. However, in the past depression years some changes have taken place in these trends. According to the 1933 Census, populations in both Philadelphia and Pitts- burgh have decreased somewhat. This condition also has ob- tained in many of the cities of the second class. Cities of the third class, 30,000 down to 5,000 population, have about held their own while in districts of 5,000 and unders there has been some increase . Trends in population obviously are based on data covering many years, so it is difficult to determine the degree of permanency of these deviations just cited or what effect they will have on the trend. We have seen in the analysis of specific retail shopping areas the large portion of the generel merchandise and apparel business which flows to the shopping center city from the rural dis- tricts. From the viewpoint of population changes alone, as time goes on, the business placed by rural purchasers will con- tinue to grow but will be a less share of the total and de- pendent on other factors than population growth. Changes in the general makeup of populations affect the markets in the areas as a whole. Different groups of the pop- ulations have different wants and changes in their size and con- dition affect the purchasing poiler in their area.” The effect * See Greater. Pennsylvania Council Soft Coal bulletins. 474 of the changes in the Pennsylvania bituminous coal mining indus- try may be cited, The State has been losing her market stead- 4. ily. From 1923 to 1930, 65,000 Pennsylvania miners lost their jobs with a corresponding loss of purchasing power in such areas as Pittsburgh, DuBois and Johnstown. A similar situation exists, not to as great an extent, in the anthracite fields where competition is being severly felt from other fuels. Unemployment resulting from the mechanization of industry in the past years will be an important factor in the manufac- turing and mining areas. This is especially true if these workers are not assimilated into other occupations and relief must be carried on on a wide scale in the future. Changes in styles affect whole manufacturing districts with resulting shifts in occupations and population.* Frederick F. Stephan, Director, Bureau of Social Research, has made an interesting analysis of the effect of population changes in the Pittsburgh market. The retail shopping areas are territories in which large portions of certain types of the merchandising business flow to the shopping center city. The shaping up of these definite areas has been due to influences that long have been at work. The shifting of trade in certain lines of merchandise away from the country stores and small town stores to the country seats and cities has been going on for many years but it has TºPopulation Trends Predict the Future of Pittsburgh and the Pittsburgh Market by Frederick F. Stephan, Director, Bureau of Social Research. Federation of . Social Agencies, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania • 475 been particularly marked since 1920. Some of the shopping center cities have been losing trade to the large stores in the metropolitan districts but this shift has been less marked than the changes in the areas *ives. During this period some shifts have been taking place in the opposite direction but in a less marked degree, Limitation of parking facilities led some stores to establish suburban branches. Mail order houses may have sensed a falling off in catalog sales in opening up their chain retail stores. Suburban department stores, road- side stands, gasoline filling stations with their increasing lines of merchandise, can be mentioned as some of these. When the detailed figures of the l833 Census of Distribution are available, some definite figures on the changes can be worked up for the years intervening since the l929 Census. Enough lo- cal investigations throughout the country have been made, how- ever, to convince us definitely that a continuous shift to the cities is being made in general merchandise and apparel lines or in general what might be termed fashion goods. The basic cause of the shifting of purchasing and the form- ation of well defined shopping areas has been the increased use of automobiles (including trucks) and the development of good road Bystems • Supplementary to these causes was the growth in popularity of motion pictures and radio advertising. The people have become style conscious, generally Rural folks now go to the larger towns to shop and visit the motion picture houses and to see the displays of good merchandise. Consequently the lag in 476 the spread of styles from the city to the country is lessened. Instead of drawing their rural trade from é radius of five or six miles, the urban stores now get business from distances Of thirty miles and more and the change is still going on. Auto- mobile speeds have been increasing with a corresponding in- crease in distances traveled. This applies, too, to the radius of urban store truck delivery. The tendency of retail trade to concentrate in a smaller number of centers has contributed to the growth of the chain store system and we believe this growth will be continued. This growth has been more rapid in some areas than in others as shown in the following tabulation:- Per cent of Total Sales by Sectional and National Chains in Selected Areas % of Sales by Sectional Area and National Chains Pittsburgh l9.17 Scranton 16.85 Altoona 15.14 Philadelphia l3.20 York 10.44 Lock Haven 9,65 Gettysburg 3.81 Future Tendencies The Sales tax, as adopted by various states and suggested for the Commonwealth, may have a marked effect on retailing. Such a tax has a tendency to bear more heavily on the smaller incomes proportionately, if the retailer passes on the tax. If he is unsuccessful in doing so, his profits are affected notice- 477 ably. The street on retailers near states having no such tax would be felt even more • Another factor that may have an effect on retail merchan- dising is the Federal policy of farm crop control. It is too early as yet to determine any possible tendencies but they may be far-reaching. The recent general decline in the price level and increase in operating expenses caused by added customer services without increased volume makes maintenance of an adequate profit by the retailer extremely difficult. He is now confronted with the problem of increasing prices or reducing expenses in a highly competitive field, and at present it does not seem probable that the public Will be very Willing to absorb higher prices. General advertising is another problem which may receive some overhauling in the future. Higher competitive business conditions have colored the advertising of some retailers to such an extent that many customers are beginning to feel some one is lying. One of the tasks of retailers is to re-establish confidence in their advertising. In such a time as the present forecasts of coming develop- ments or the course the volume of merchandising sales will take in the future are extremely hazardous. We are fairly sure that in the coming decade the present types of retailing will be maintained, but the possibility that new kinds may come into being always exists. This obviously is problematical. Neighborhood community shopping centers with 478. specialized stores are likely to increase. Chain stores, such as grocery and combination grocery and meat stores, may add de- livery and credit • There appears to be some tendency along this line at present. "Serve yourself" chain stores may increase in numbers. One thing likely to take place is that retailers will more and more absorb college graduates in their personnel, parallel- ing the practice of engineering companies. The turnover in per- sonnel now is very high. In attempting to visualize the volume of retail sales over the past years, we are confronted with the situation of having no official and comparative data, so that results we obtain must necessarily be considered approximate. We have as definite fig- ures the results obtained in the 1929 and 1933 Censuses of Dis- tribution. Figures for other periods we must estimate from such other sources, such as reports of retail mercantile bus- iness in connection with mercantile licences •+ These figures indicate a retail business by 1944 of approx- imately $5,000,000,000, on the basis of the 1923-25 price level, an average annual increase of 4.5 per cent from the present level. Such a conclusion is subjects of course, to a return of prosperity, an increase in real wages and a resumption of the rising trend in real income characteristic of the period from †Productive Industries tº Fublic Utilities -- ſis: cellaneous Statistics • Pennsylvania Department of Internal Affairs -- Bureau of Statistics. 479 1922 to 1929. If, however, estimates of future population appearing in other parts of this report are taken into consideration, then possibly the estimate for 1944 will be considerably lower, per- haps as much as 20 per cent. The outstanding accomplishment of American industry in the post-war period has been the remarkable development of pro- duction facilities. During these boom years of consumer de- mand no necessity appeared for a high degree of scientific dis- tribution so that costs and methods did not keep pace with the development in production. We have now entered a period in which constructive merchandising ability only can survive • Human desires know no limit and the years of depression have developed a pent up demand that craves to be satisfied. To reach the greatest number of consumers, distribution costs must be lowered. American ingenuity has solved the production pro- blem, and that it will solve the many problems confronting re- tailers, we are quite sure • TRANSPORTATION IN PENNSYLVANIA* This survey of the transportation facilities of the Common- wealth aims to serve three purposes: To sketch briefly exist- ing transportation facilities in Pennsylvania; to indicate the need for coordinating them into a more harmonious and effective system of transportation; and to indicate the need for further quantitative and qualitative study of these facilities, their coordination and their adequate constructive and comprehensive regulation. These matters should not be left to fortuitous development, but should be studied in the interests of the public and the development planned so as to conserve investments already made. and those to be made in the future, to guard against ruthless and destructive competition among these public service enterprises, and to conserve employment for citizens of the State who earn their livelihoods in these enterprises. The conservation, coordination and regulation of trans- portation facilities is a pressing problem in economic, govern- mental and social planning in which the states and Federal gov- ernment should cooperate. RAILROADS OF PENNSYLVANIA Pennsylvania is served by ll, l06** miles of railroad *TDeveloped in cooperation with G. Lloyd Wilson, Fh.D., Pro- fessor of Commerce and Transportation, University of Penn- sylvania. ** 1932 mileage 48l. operated by 18 systems, controlling 109 subsidiary lines. Four and one-half per cent of the country's railway mileage lies within the State and there is e245 mile of railroad per square mile in Pennsylvania compared with eO66 for the United States as a Whole • Figures are not available as to freight or passengers car- ried by railroads in Pennsylvania. The population of the State, however, was 7.8 per cent of the total for the Nation in 1930, its income approximately 8% per cent, and its value of manufac- tured and mineral products about 10.6 per cent of the Nation's total. It is the "Keystone" railroad State, for passengers and freight pass through from the North, South and West. Exports and imports also move through the ports of Erie and Philadelphia in considerable quantities. It would be reasonably safe to estimate that 70,000,000 tons of originating freight or 150,000,000 tons of revenue traffic were carried by the railroads of the State in 1933. In addition, 44,000,000 passengers traveled within the State or passed over its borders in the same year. These figures show a sharp decrease from the peak in 1929. HIGHWAY TRANSPORTATION Practically 7 per cent of all motor vehicles in the United States were registered and operated over the highways of Penn- sylvania in 1933. On November 30, 1934, there were 1,475,524 private passenger cars, 5,704 buses and 258,220 commercial trucks and tractors, or a total of l,738,948 vehicles. The 482 November, 1934, registration showed the first increase since the peak registration of lºo, Pennsylvania has approximately lº motor vehicles to every mile of highway, while the country as a whole has but half that number. It must be realized, however, that urban centers such as Philadelphia, Pittsburgh and Scranton have much greater den- sity than the mean of the State. Likewise, certain routes of travel are more highly congested, Between 6,000 and 7,500 truck operators hold certificates of public convenience and necessity in Pennsylvania and it is estimated that they operate between 7 and 8% per cent of all the registered commercial freight vehicles. Eighty per cent of all passenger vehicles, exclusive of private automobiles, 8Jºe COTºnoºl carriers. Early Pennsylvania Highways. The early highways of Pennsylvania had their origin in the post roads end the local roads of colon- ial days, whose locations were controlled by the ridges, moun- tains and valleys that run from the south to the northeast sec- tion of the State. The industry of its people also has directly affected, from the earliest days, the location and the density of roads • Late in the Eighteenth Century and far into the Nineteenth toll roads and turnpikes were built and operated by private companies. The first turnpike in Pennsylvania and one of the first in America was built from Philadelphia to Lancaster, a distance of €23 miles. It was the Lancaster Turnpike, built 485 and operated by the Philadelphia and Lancaster Turnpike Road Company. This road was completed in l’94 at a cost of $465,000, or approximately $7,516 per mile. By 1831 there were 2,500 miles of such roads in the State, including the Downingtown, Ephrata and Harrisburg Turnpike, otherwise known as the "Horseshoe Pike," the Little Conestoga, York Road, the Strasburg Road and the National Pike. The decade of the l840's and the period after the Civil War saw large increases in the mileage of turnpikes and toll roads. The early toll roads were of corduroy, plank or broken stone construction and later of macadam. Lack of maintenance caused many to be abandoned. Most of the roads did not pay and almost without exception eventually proved to be unprofitable Ventures • The decline of toll roads was due to the expansion of steam railroads and electric railways which diverted long- distance travel from the highways to the rails, and partly be- cause of the unpopularity of highways which were not tree to the public •. Another period of road development came with the advent of the bicycle and later the automobile. Highway growth was both the cause and effect of the development of the motor vehicle. Pennsylvania was the eleventh state to take up highway improvement. In 1903, the Pennsylvania Department of Highways was organized but it did not have the supervision of the State highway system until 1912. 484 !O! ” O N ºg 8 nº) | 3 eſ \/[^| G\/O}} TVI OIJ-JO Present Highways. Pennsylvania in 1933 had an average of 2.29 miles of high- ways for every square mile of its area, compared to approx- imately .87 miles for the United States as a whole. There were lo3,591 miles of improved and unimproved State Highways, rural roads and city streets on May 15, 1933, as shown by the following table: 5urfaced Construct and - tion of Type of Road Improved Unimproved base only Total ‘State Highway l2,130 l, 335 l3,466 Rural Roads 8,343 10,452 l, 375 20,170 State & City Sts. 65 65 Connecting 306 2 308 Highways All other 15,342% 54,239* 69,581* Highways * Total 36, 186 66,028 1,375 lo3,590% FETEEEEEFTTy I.TIS35. A more recent inventory showed 35,414 miles of State High- ways, State aid highways and rural roads, of which 10,532 miles were unimproved and 24,882 surfaced and improved. Use of Highways Highways of Pennsylvania have generally been constructed to accommodate passenger vehicles and moderate weight trucks. sº -The problem of providing highways f' or heavily loaded vehicles must be considered in the light of the interest of the entire 485 public. Vehicles of weights in excess of the limits for which our present roads were constructed should be denied the right to operate upon Pennsylvania highways. The Flaming or future highways, however, should consider the limits of weight, to- gether with the size of vehicles. Planning, too, should be combined with the fact in mind that Pennsylvania's highway sys- tem and the vehicles operating over it are part of a National system and that it would be preferable to have uniform regula- tion of size, weight and speed. Roadside Improvements Accomplishments of the Forestry Unit established in the Highway Department in 1928 have shown that roadside improvement pays for itself in lowered maintenance costs and that considera- tion should be given to betterment of rights-of-way. Roadside improvement is becoming recognized as an essen- tial element of highway construction. Today the emphasis is upon utility, elimination of traffic hazards and cutting of upkeep costs, but at the same time beautification has been by no means forgotten. Planting of trees, shrubs and vines, together with sodding and seeding, check erosion of steep slopes and in many instances prevent it. Thus maintenance costs are reduced. Traffic hazards have been eliminated by trimming and pruning trees on the sides of curves for clear vision. Dead and dangerous trees have been removed to promote safety but in every in- 486 stance effºrt has been made to spare the existiag desirable growth, The last report of the Highway Forestry Section showed that more than 2,000,000 trees, shrubs, and vines had been planted, nearly 8,000,000 square feet seeded and sodded, 31,827 dead trees removed, 103,801 trees pruned and trimmed, lé5,642 caterpillar nests destroyed, ll4 scenic views opened, ll, 354 Stumps and snags removed and a vast amount of other work accomplished, such as spraying and transplanting in, the past five years. Erosion has been controlled on many slopes, and in some specific cases maintenance charges have been reduced from $600 to slo a year. An unusual feature has been the trimming of trees to obtain circulation of air, so that the roadway may dry quickly, thus aiding the elimination of ice and slippery roads • Permanent live evergreens have been set out as "snowſ fences" at points along the highways where snow drifts fre- quently occur. These snowbreaks have replaced the wood and wire fences ordinarily used and should greatly reduce mainten- ance costs. The Forestry Unit estimates that if they were substituted for all of the state's present mileage of wooden fence, the saving would approximate $500,000 a year. The first allocation of National Highway Recovery Funds to Pennsylvania's roads amounted this year to approximately $18,000,000 and the second to about $9,500,000. Of the first 437 amount, $94,500 was set aside for roadside development proj- ects, and of the second, $98,798. The program provided for work on virtually every major route in the State. Exclusive of these funds, the Commonwealth has averaged $125,000 per year for the past five years for roadside development. The Forestry Unit points out that some revision of the laws governing removal of trees, signs and other obstructions at dangerous points along the highways is desirable in the interests of traffic safety. Rights-of-way previously ob- tained for the main highways have been too narrow, in general. Future traffic needs on each route should be considered, par- ticularly with regard to the probability of future surface width and a landscaped area safely beyond the space required for any future widening. Narrow rights-of-way have been responsible for high costs of surface videning and often have made landscaping impossible • Rights-of-way can be purchased now at lower prices than will be possible in the future, according to indications. On main highways, a right-of-way not less than 150 feet wide seems desirable to meet probable future requirements. Obtaining so great a width may not always be practicable because of build- ings or other improvements, however. In some places con- siderably greater width my be needed, especially where oppor- tunity exists For a particularly streetwo landscape develop- ment, such as the preservation of a natural grove or where. screening material should be planted to hide an unsightly, area. 488 SOCIOGRAPH | CS P H | L. A D E L P H 1A ºf, tº ºf ºf vºcle to Venicle Z Z V E H ICLE TO PE DESTRAN VEHICLE TO FIXED OBJECT TYPES OF AUTOMOBILE EACH FIGURE - 4 ooo AccIDENTS ACC DENTS C FIRST 9 MONTHS OF 1934 PLA N N i N. G FIGURE NO. IO2 BOARD The Forestry Unit has drawn up a pian for planting work in all counties. The program is designed to protect the enormous investment the State has in its highways. The immediate plan shows a total of 4,660 sites for trees, shrubs, etc. , and 1,889 soddings and seedings proposed. The number of square feet needing treatment is placed at 2,208 sll 8 and the total cost “siºn. Motor Vehicle Accidents Motor vehicle accidents, ranging from 40,000 to 48,000 each year since 1929 on the highways, roads and streets of Pennsylvania, resulted in l;900 deaths and 35,000 to 47,000. injuries and millions of dollars in property damage. They provide a major reason for highway planning and control by the Commonwealth and local governments. Collisions with motor vehicles, pedestrians and fixed objects are the three most important types of accidents and cause the greatest number of deaths and injuries. Approximate- ly 55 per cent of the accidents result from operator viola- tions, of which driving too fast under prevailing conditions of weather, traffic and roadway; driving or parking upon the Wrong side of road; forcing vehicles from highway; failure to stop at "through streets," and "cutting in" are the major in- fringements. A surprising proportion of these accidents occur upon dry, roads in clear weather, when the vehicle is going straight • Street intersections, straight stretches of rural road, 489 sections between street intersections, and curves are the most dangerous parts of the State's street and highway system. But one of the greatest hazarás is a human one. Imattention of both operator and pedestrian account for a large percentage of the fatalities and injuries. - Operator violations, mechanical defects of vehicles, and actions of pedestrians, among others, can be corrected in some part by strict enforcement of motor laws and regulations, education of the driving public and the pedestrian, and the construction of highways which will reduce to the greate st degree the human element or "moral hazard." Accident statistics hold the key to accident prevention. These statistics, however, should be improved and be made in greater detail than at present to provide a real means of attack upon the problem. Inaccuracies in information resulting from reports filled out by persons involved in accidents should be corrected by having the reports prepared by local authorities and forwarded by them to a central government agency. Discrepancies would then be less likely to appear. It is also possible that more detail and complete analyses of these reports would point out other Éleans of attacking the accident problem. During the first ten months of 1934, for example, there were 5,025 accidents on curves resulting in death to 195 persons and injuries to 2,729. Only 246 of the accidents on curves, causing three deaths and 126 injuries, 490 q \!\/00£O! ’ON E 8 Thº)|...} ©N \ N N V”) eſ ·ſzºc{6! -JO SH.LNOWN 6 LS8||-|| | }_L N E O | O O\/ E T |{E} O WN O _L^\/ -JO singopºvOOO | = E\{ſnºD|…} HO\/3E d \_L Å € SH_L\/E Q Q N\/ SE|||}||[\[^N | &||&„L'Or, ſºſ: O CI º X | El O_1, º “T O || H. EA © C O O O §©®©&®©Nv 181s3d 3d ol 3-121H3^ ĻĻĻūſī X， ſºº ļļļļļļļļļļļļļļļļļļķț¢ £º^ ^^" \/ | H & T & O \/ *T + H & SO|He}\/?-19O|OOS resulted from operator violations, however. What were the causes of the other 192 deaths and 2,483 injuries? Statistics for the same period show that approximately 45 per cent of the accidents cause five-eighths of all motor deaths and one-third of all injuries. How many of these accidents were caused by the condition of vehicles, the weather, the condition of road surface, actions of pedestrians, sleep- ing drivers, obstructed view, excessive light, possible faulty road construction such as unbanked curves, narrow lanes and the like, and avoidable and removable hazards, along the rights- of-way? Analyses such as these should further facilitate accident prevention upon existing highways and permit road engineers and designers to construct and design future highways with greater understanding of the types necessary for the safety of the driving public. OCEAN TRANSPORTATION Pennsylvania, although not directly on the ocean, has one major ocean port where ocean-going vessels may load and dis- charge cargoes and passengers. Philadelphia is situated on the Delaware River, a navigable waterway that empties into the Delaware Bay and thence to the Atlantic Ocean - a distance of lol.7 miles by water. The northwest boundary of the State borders on Lake Erie, one of the Great Lakes, where the City of Erie is a port for foreign and coastwise commerces There are 71 steamship companies, with lines serving the 491 entire world, that dock their vessels at Philadelphia. The - total commerce entering and leaving Philadelphia in 1933 was 21,140,221 long tons, an increase of more than 2,000,000 tons since 1929. Erie, with a total of 3,326,174 long tons in 1933, also increased its 1929 figures by almost 1,000,000 tons, Of the four types of shipping service in Philadelphia (foreign, intercoastal, coastwise, and noncontiguous), coast- wise shipping had the greatest amount of tonnage, with 15,396,969 long tons in 1933. The trade of Erie, divided be- tween coastwise and foreign, was almost 70 per cent coastwise in 1933, Passenger service also was rendered by the steamship . carriers in both Philadelphia and ºrie. Although entire figures are not available for all passenger services, the ports of Philadelphia and Erie had a total of 567 persons in 1932 either departing for Qr arriving from foreign ports. This was a considerable decline from 1929, when 9,143 persons entered or left the State by the two ports. Steamship lines also provide tourist cruises to foreign, intercoastal and noncontiguous points from Philadelphia and Erie. INLAND WATERWAYS Pennsylvania has an inland waterway system which totals approximately 622.7 miles in length. Five rivers and two canals comprise the navigable water routes and touch only the East and dest portions of the State. The waterways and their individual navigable lengths are : ,492 Miles. Lehigh and Delaware Division Canals .68.00 Schuylkill Canal 90,00 Delaware River (Philadelphia to Trenton) 33,7 Chester River • * * * * Allegheny River 255.00. Monongahela River l31,00 Youghiogeny River 9.00 Ohio River (Pittsburgh to border of Penna.) 36.00 4 Total 622.7 The great majority of the tonnage transported consisted of bulk products, such as coal and other mineral or low grade products which did not require expedited services and were shipped in such large quantities that low cost was the primary consideration. g From 1929 to 1931, there was a steady decline of inland waterway traffic, dropping from a total of 38,628,065 short tons in 1929 to 23,124,264 short tons in 1931. This was a loss of 15,503,801 tons over a three-year period. Package and merchandise freight also experienced a similar drop, from l,842,601 short tons in 1929 to 117,955 short tons in 1931, a loss of l,724,646 short tons in three years. The following table gives statistics in short tons for all inland waterways of the State : YEAR Buir fieldſ: PAC&AGE FREIGHT TOTAL 1929 36,785,464 l,842;60l. 38,628,065 1930 34,981,175 lo2,912 35,084,087 1931. 23,006,309 ll'7,955. 23,124,264 493 The central portion of the State, though served by the Susquehanna River, has not had its facilities developed On a navigable basis by canals or simple river improvements. There- fore, at present water transportation is completely denied the central section of the State. The decline in package freight undoubtedly is due to the inroads of swifter forms of transportation, arising out of the increase in hand-to-mouth buying and the need for rapid move- ment of that class of freight. However, bulk freight does not come under that category and should be shipped, when not perishable, over the most economical route that is available. Inland waterway development should be considered with a view to providing a transportation facility that is economical when all costs are considered. The Allegheny River is now being improved so that it shall be navigable to the New York State line. PETROLEUM PIPE LINE TRANSPORTATION Pennsylvania is the Keystone State in the pipe line struc- ture of the United States. As a producer of petroleum of al- most 12,000,000 barrels per year, Pennsylvania necessarily has an intricate system of intrastate lines from its oil fields to its refineries. However, every trunk line of the country which moves from the western fields to the eastern seaboard, enters the State. Thirteen major pipe line companies, which operated lines either through or within the State in 1933, had a total mileage 494 of 9,514 in Pennsylvania. This figure does not include the mileage of numerous other small intrastate pipe lines, average length of which was less than five miles • Of the lº companies, only five reported an interstate business, although the majority of the remaining eight lines reported that much of their traffic was gathered from or for other lines doing an interstate business. The majority of the liness therefore, may be con- sidered parts of through interstate systems. During 1931, the 13 companies carried a total of 44,518,107 barrels of oil and 4,545,140 barrels of gasoline. These, figures do not allow, however, for overlapping in totals, for in some instances intrastate carriers emptied their lines into those of interstate carriers or larger intrastate carriers, and in this manner the total would show the same shipment in the figures of two or more companies • A table of the major companies, their mileage and their service follows: 495 BARRELS CARRIED COMPANY MILEAGE l931 0II: National Transit Co., 3,800.84 959,840 South West Penna. Pipe Lines l,925.74 l2,194,267 Walvoline Oil Coe 956,80 '959,840 Bradford Transit Co. 630, 00 3,958,559 Tide Water. Pipe Co., Ltd. 592.00 5,459,771 Tuscarora Oil Co., , Ltd • 13.33 4,905,15l Southern Pipe Line Co. 261.00 9,536,520 Pure Oil Pipe Line Co. 56.66 676,185 Vacuum Oil Co. 40.33 2,254,488 Elk Oil Co., 20,00 32,050 Franklin Pipe Co., Ltd. 5.00 (app.) — 27,973 TOTALS 8,301.70 44,518, l07 GASOLINE Susquehanna Pipe Line Co. 546,60 2,422,288 Tuscarora Oil Co., Ltd • 440,50 2,017,837 Keystone Pipe Line Co., 225,90 105-105 Pipe line transportation, when studied for either regula- tion or planning, presents two characteristics unusual to agencies of transportation. First, pipe iines are restricted to the transportation of a single commodity - petroleum. Seconds pipe lines usually are integrated portions of a large industry - oil refining - and as such can be entirely regulated only through regulation and supervision of the other related portions of the industry. COMMERCIAL AFRONAUTICS Air transportation in Pennsylvania has been developed to a considerable extent on a planned basis. There are six main som unvNodºv 30 QY3\} ſºº • an Na Aa » Jo LN 3 W levd 30* VN Nºeſ e= om）， mae-çanın ulv -1\/\13034 sig N 1-1 \! I w 3 LV1S . º Oson:a lº qasſN30 Iºn H3 HlO ºXN· @)'sq-n a 14 nvwaqa * * 3.lv.is �oſ • ON 3\} nº 14 .-) • • • • • • + ! 5FöÈ№s）. { | © \ º o|● |\\ſaeJ* \O !● * • • • •| � ---- - - - - - - - -●• ± ©|----- - - `|`--+--------|---------i-º--º !||Q}! OO ||•;|||» Ģ! }}, !} •--------+-----Ło? « » （ ）=^：= = =•■ ■ |-©2 |O>~~ „−”y sa-13, 4 Aoną983 w3 a Nv Q3sN3OIT – S3NT ſº'º airways that directly cover the State and also one airway that indirectly serves the area through the medium of the Central Airport of Camden, N. J. All are lighted for day or night service and are traversed by five of the major air transport companies of the United States, namely, the Pennsylvania Air Lines, Inc., Transcontinental and Western Air, Inc., American Airlines, Inc., United Air Lines, Inc., and Eastern Air Trans- port, Ince These airways are maintained either solely by the State or Federal governments, or, jointly by , both agencies. Beacon lights spaced at ten to 15 mile intervals and intermediate landing fields from 30 to 50 miles apart are among the aids to air navigation established on the Federal airways system by the Aeronautics Branch of the Department of Commerce. In es- tablishing intermediate fields, the Aeronautics Branch so arranges them that they serve in conjunction with airports and other landing fields lying along the airway.” The State Aero- nautics Division is proceeding in the same manner with the air- ways under its supervision. At present, plans are under way for the building of seven emergency landing fields, one of which is now under construction. - The number of licensed aircraft in the State increased, except in 1934, and the number of unlicensed declined. Be- tween June 30, 1929, and July 1, 1934, the total number of WGEEETRIRºyTººHºº FTIRºy EITSETNS.T.I., United States Departinent of Commerce, Aeronautics Branch, Washington, T). C - 2 Septem € I’ l, 1932, - 497 aircraft in the State increased from 361 to 490, with 144 being licensed in the latter year. The number of pilots also in- creased, during the same period, from 265 to 719. The peak year of 1932 saw 1,037 licensed pilots in the State. From July 1, 1930, to July 1, 1933, the number of airports and landing fields in Pennsylvania increased from 85 to lll. Of these, 38 were partially lighted or fully lighted on the latter date • Commercial airports and landing fields are inspected and licensed by the State Department of Revenue, Division of Aero- nautics. This body also supervises the requirement of Federal licenses for aircraft and pilots, a rule that is part of the Aeronautical Code of Pennsylvania, enacted in 1933. Pennsylvania is served by the commercial air transport companies with every available air service. The five large. transport lines all give passenger and express service While four have United States air mail contracts. Coordinated air- motor express service is given by one air line and the Railway Express Agency. They make overnight delivery from Phila- aelphia to the Pacific Coast. Although air transportation is potentially for long distance or interstate travel, there is little provision for intrastate movement. Because of the few scheduled, commiercial air stops in the State, direct air travel to or from any point within the State to or from points else- where is limited e - Gommercial aviation is being regulated and controlled to 498 a great degree by uniform State and Federal legislation. Thirty-three states have laws similar to Pennsylvania and practically all states follow either identically or closely to Federal regulation. Due to the large overhead expense, most states also leave licensing to the Federal government.* ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 4. The electric and street railways of the State, with 56 separate operating companies listed as of the calendar year 1931, showed a total of 3,227.42 miles of trackage in opera- tion. This was an average of ..ons miles per square mile, as compared with an average of .0089 for the country as a whole • - The large cities of Pennsylvania are served by urban street-car lines, with elevated lines, subways, surface Cars 3 and, in some instances, trolley buses. The interurban railway lines, many of the high-speed type, make cross-country runs between some of the larger towns. The state's electric rail- ways operated 7,382 cars and employed 19,737 persons in 1931. As was the case with many industries from 1929 to l231, the patronage of the electric railways declined. In 1931, l, 247,308;128 passengers were carried on the electric lines as compared with l,568,313,847 in 1929. This passenger traffic raid approximately va,000,000 in fares; or 88 per cent of the total income of the railways for l931. *Higon, G. Lloyd, The Transportation Crisis, TSears, New York, l033. - 499 Thirty-seven of the 56 railways carried some freight, milk or express, but the total revenue from such operations was only $582,202.00, or .72 per ent of the total income for 1931, Motor buses have either replaced or supplemented many of the electric railways. This change has occurred either from the inability of the railway to adapt itself to new conditions such as population shifts and the flexibility of the bus, or from the ability of the bus to offer more adequate service under certain circumstances and conditions. The decline of the interurban electric railway, however, is not a new trend. It was generally well under way long before lº29. Several of the lines, however, have held their places in recent years by improving their service. These improvements in service may have a direct bearing on the future of electric railways. 500, COMPARATIVE TRANSPORTATION FACILITIES IN PENNSYLVANIA - Estimated TEstimated Hºrrºmir IHTrººper innºn: Type of Mileage in mileage in In In In I n the Facilities Penna, the U.S.: . Penna, the Uzès—Pennae- U. S.: Railroad ii,106.43 247,595.00 0.245 0.0662 0.0012 0.0020 Electric Rwy. 3,227.42 31,547.82 0.0715 0.0089 0.00033 O. O.0025 \Waterway 622.70 27,366,00 0.0139 0.0092 Oe 00006 O.00022 Highway 103,590.58 3,040,000.00 2.29 O's 866 O. Olo'7 .0.025 Airway 1,266.00 24,878.00 0.028 0.0066 O.00013 O. O002O2 Pipe Line 9,514.70 ll.0,695.00 0.21 O's O29 O.00098 0.00090 50l. GOORDINATION OF TRANSPORTATION FACILITIES The orderly development of transportation in the interests of all forms of transportation and in the paramount public interest requires that attention be given by the carriers and by the public through the State administrative authorities to the coordination of the various instrumentalities of transportation. The coordination of transportation, therefore, is the bring- ing of the agencies of transportation into the same order, the regulation and combination of all transportation facilities into harmonious action or relationship. The coordination of transportation facilities implies the inclusion of rail, water, highway and air transportation agencies into a general system in which each type of carrier is on an equal basis with all other carriers, so that, by united action, they may render more efficient service. the goal for all -- the operators of the railroads, the electric railways, the steamship lines, the motor carriers, the shippers and receivers of freight, and the public -- is the same. All are interested in adequate transportation service at rates that are fair to the producers and consumers of trans- portation. The place of each transportation facility in a coordinated service should be determined by the relative efficiency with which each does its particular service. If it be definitely established that motor trucks haul freight and that motor buses transport passengers for short aistances more economical- 502 ly than steam railroads, electric railways, steamship lines, or other carriers, then the development of motor transportation in short haul traffic should be encouraged and railroad, electric railway and steamship facilities should be devoted to hauling the steadily increasing volume of long haul freight and passenger traffic. The coordination of transportation does not imply that the motor carriers will be relegated to a position of minor im- portance in the transportation system, or that motor truck and bus lines will all be controlled by railroads or by other carriers • Coordination, which implies only the union of various classes of carriers to improve the efficiency of transportation, may be achieved through independent ownership and operation of motor vehicles as well as through ownership and operation by railroads and steamship lines or by subsidiaries controlled by these companies. Any uneconomical division of the field of transportation being brought about through the coordination of motor facilities with other transportation facilities should be avoided. The motor vehicle has become a permanent part of the transport system of this and other countries. The coordination of the agencies of transportation may be achieved in a variety of ways: l. By the direct ownership and operation of equipment for performing various types of transportation services by carriers already engaged in operating other types of transportation, 503. as, for example, the ownership and operation of motor trucks or motor buses by railroads or steamship companies. 2. By the organization of wholly-owned and controlled sub- sidiary companies to own and operate other kinds of transporta- tion facilities such as the organization of subsidiary com- panies by railroads or steamship lines to perform highway trans- port services • 3. By the acquisition of financial interest in companies performing other types of transportation services, as typified by the purchase of the securities of motor truck or bus com- panies, steamship lines, express companies or air transport companies, by rail or other transportation companies. 4. By the establishment of agency arrangements between carriers of different types under the terms of which one carrier performs services which it can perform more efficient- ly as agent for the other contracting carriers, such as the transportation of freight by contract motor carriers as agents for the principals, the railroad or steamship companies, in cases where the goods can be transported more economically by motor vehicle than by rail or water. 5. By establishing joint routes, through rates and ser- vice and divisions of the single-sum rates among independent carriers of various types, as illustrated by joint rail-and- Inotor, or joint water-and-motor, or joint rail-water-motor ser- vices at through rates and joint billing arrangements, 6. By the organization of transportation companies 504 equipped to perform several or all forms of transportation services; rail, water, express, highway, air and pipe-line • The Need for Coordinations. - The need for the coordination of transportation facilities is urgent. The Federal Govern- ment has recognized the need and created the office of Federal Coordinator of Transportation through the enactment of the Railroad Emergency Transportation Act of 1933. The Federal Coordinator has created Sections of Transportation Service, Research, Purchasing, Gar Pooling, Labor and Gost Finding, and regional coordinating committees and regional traffic assistants. The aim is to study the problems of co- ordinating transportation with the aid and cooperation of the carriers, in order to recommend to the carriers improvements in transportat ion services, facilities and practices and to recommend to the Congress legislation required in order to meet emergency conditions in the field of transportation and in order to improve the condition of transportation carriers and their usefulness, efficiency and economy to the industries and the public which they serve • Reports of the Coordinator so far released have recommend- ed the consolidation and coordination of railroad, express and freight forwarders' merchandise traffic; the pooling of rail- road box freight cars into a national car pool, arrangements for the combined purchasing of certain types of railroad materials and supplies, and numerous other phases of trans- portation services and practices, 505 Goordination and Regulations. - The policy of the Public Service Commission of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania with respect to. the coordination and regulation of facilities of transportation has been stated in its decision in re Bingaman Motor Express Company, Docket A-9092, decided February 19, 1924. (P.U.R. 1924–G, 389) : "It has been the policy of the Commission to refuse to per- mit compétition with existing utilities which have large invest- ments and are necessary for public convenience, if their service is or can be made reasonably adequate. No transportation agency can render perfect service at all times to all persons. The Commission must consider the benefit to the general public • The. use of motor trucks for transporting property has reduced con- siderably the receipts of railroad and electric railway compan- ies. Although such motor service may be more convenient to some shippers than service by electric railway or railroad, consider- ation of public convenience will not permit the Commission to take action which will endanger, the continued financial stability of such established roads." Types of Coordination: The principal types of coordinated trans- portation service are to be found in the following arrangements: railroad-steamship, railroad-highway, railroad-steamship-highway, steamship-highway, railroad-electric railway, electric railway- highway, railroad-airway, airway-highway, railway-airway-highway, railroad-pipe line, railroad-pipe line-highway, steamship-pipe line-railroad-highway, steamship-pipe line, and pipe line-high- Ways 506 The use of motor vehicles in transportation services in- cludes the following types of coordinated operations: branch- line, reader, extension and connecting line services, supple- mental services in periods of peak traffic, substitute ser- vices in times of off-peak traffic, alternating services with other forms of transportation, cross-country, terminal exten- sion and terminal interchange services. - Motor vehicles also are used in substitute service for freight cars in intra-terminal industry-to-industry switching movements which are unduly slow and expensive when performed º by railroad cars; as substitutes for freight cars in concen— tration and distribution services between major freight stations and sub-stations; as substitutes for railroad trap Or ferry car services between railroad freight stations and - industries' private aidings in terminal districts, and in substitute service for lighters, barges or car-floats at port terminals • - Motor vehicles finally are used as collection and delivery resulties for performing store-door freight services in Con*. nection with traffic moving via railroad, electric railway, ex- press, parcel-post, freight forwarder, steam-ship or airway * transportation • * * Wilson, G. Lloyd "Coordinated Motor-Rail-steamship-Trans- portation" Appleton, New York, 1930s 507 Legal, RESTRIorions upon cognomation” Pennsylvania's transportation facilities are directly or indirectly affected by the provisions of the Interstate Com- merce Act. The Act applies to common carriers engaged in the interstate transportation of passengers and property wholly by railroad, or partly by water when both facilities are used under a common control, management or arrangement for a con- tinuous carriage or shipment. Likewise it applies to the transportation of oil by pipe line, or partly by pipe line and partly by railroad or by water. • , Motor and air carriers are excluded from the Act, except - where the motor is classified as a terminal facility,” and, therefore, are not properly parties to arous routes and joint rates, covered by a joint tariff's It is questionable also whether a railroad C811 legally transport property of its shippers by motor ror a portion or all of the line-haul under the terms of a tariff and bill of lading providing for rail service. : The interpretation of the Act is doubtful upon this point and arrieulty might arise where the tariff' does not indicate that the service is performed by motor or where the shipper does not desire his goods to move by highway. *TIGEFEREITGGEFäTREETOTITThe FFSTERE SERVICETWTDTGRITS- way, Jr., M. B. A. Thesis, Graduate School, University of . Pennsylvania, l932. - ºr . Tariffs Embracing Motor Truck or Wagon Transfer Service, 91 I. C. C., 539. 508 All-highway service in lieu of all-rail movement likewise involves a serious problem of interpretation when the service is given at less than the rail rate. Should this be considered 8. "device" by which preference may be given to some shippers and a discrimination practiced against those availing them- selves of the all-rail service, the railroads would be subject to severe finese Although this may be stretching the point , doubt is well founded e Another legal obstacle to coordination is provided by Section 7 of the Clayton Anti-trust Act, which declares that no corporation engaged in interstate or foreign commerce may ac- quire, directly or indirectly, all or any part of the capital stock of another corporation which is engaged in the same commerce where the effect of the acquisition would be to sub- stantially lessen the competition, to restrain commerce in any section of the community or tend to create a monopoly in any line of commerce • Similarly, the acquisition of voting proxies of the Stock issued by competitors is prohibited. The Clayton Act does permit, however, the organization of subsidiary com- panies by which the parent corporation may continue its immed- iately lawful business or branches of it when the effect is not to lessen competition substantially. Very often these sub- sidiaries result in savings to the parent carriers but do not affect true, coordination in that they further duplicate equip- ment and service • 509 POWERS AND DUTIES OF THE PENNSYLVANIA PUBLIC SERVICE COMMISSION The Public. Service Commission of Pennsylvania has the general administrative power and authority to supervise and regulate all public service transportation agencies, whether b they be corporations or persons engaged for profit in the conveyance of passengers or property, or both, between points within the Commonwealth, by, through, over, above or under land or water, or both The authority and power of the Commission includes the right to inquire into and regulate the following: le 2 * 4 e 5 * 7 e 8 * 9. The services, rates, fares, tolls or charges, including individual and joint rates, but exclusive of the power to establish through routes and joint rates for the transportation of passengers over street railways, elevated railways and subways. The repairs, alterations and improvements in and to such service as would be reasonably necessary for the accommodation or safety of patrons, employes and the pub- lic • The grant of transfers upon the system of one carrier. "The routing of street railway lines • The just and equitable distribution of trains, cars, vehicles and motive power or other facilities of all Common carriers • • The grant, construction, operation or discontinuance of SWitches, sidings and crossings • The construction, operation or discontinuance of switches or other connections with or between lines of railroads or street railways. The location or abolition of freight and passenger stations, wharves, docks or piers • Use and compensation for cars owned or controlled by persons other than cârrier, 510 10. Safety, adequacy and sufficiency of its facilities, plant and equipment used to provide service. ll. Forms, methods and systems of accounts and records, with express provision that no charges be made to oper- ating account that should properly be charged to capital account, and that depreciation accounts should be handled in a reasonable manner. - The Commission, in addition, may investigate interstate rates, facilities and services of common carriers operating within Pennsylvania. If these rates, facilities or services appear to the Commission unreasonable, discriminatory or pre- - ferential, or in violation of the Interstate Commerce law, or the rules, regulations or orders of the Interstate Com- merce Commission, it may apply by petition to the Interstate Commerce commission for relief. It may, otherwise, supply the Interstate Commerce Commission with all facts in its posses- sion concerning the violations. Much the same difficulties rest with the Pennsylvania Public Service Company Act as with the laws of many other states. The Act seeks to regulate the State's transportation agencies, but nowhere does it provide a means to obtain a well-integrated system of transportation. The commission is so burdened with detail that the formulation of a com- prehensive transportation policy by it, including the plan- ning of coordination of transportation facilities is dif- ricult. Regulation based upon the concept of transportation of. two decades ago, when the public found it necessary to be protected against the actions of the public service companies 5ll. and the companies against •een other, can not meet the needs of the present • The Commission should have more time for research and planning in order to integrate the vast paralled, competitive and unintegrates transportation facilities of the State. Consolidation of the carriers and the coordination of the various instrumentalities should be considered to provide the State of Pennsylvania, its industries and people, with a requisite system of travel and transport. 512 CONCLJSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS A detailed survey comprising the transportation system of Pennsylvania should be prepared e It is possible here only to sketch from available data the outlines and to suggest what should be done by State authority to improve the situation in the interests of the public, for the betterment of the conditions of all forms of carriers and the improvement of the services offered the public • - It is recommended that a descriptive and qualitative survey of the transportation facilities and services be made by a properly qualified commission appointed by the Covernor, the Legislature or a Planning Board if created. Such a com- mission should recommend necessary legislation. Public service company regulation in this State should be: l. Comprehensive so as to include all of the activities of all types of public service companies • 2- Constructive so as to protect the interest of the public and conserve in good conditions all necessary public service enterprises serving the public • 3. Enforceable so as to afford adequate protection to the public and to the enterprises embraced in order that destructive practices and unfair charges may be effectively prohibited. 4, . Adequately administered by a well organized adminis- trative tribunal selected for the qualification of the members and free from undue influence from any group outside the body • 5. Properly related to the regulation of transportation by the United States Covernment. - 513 ELECTRIC POWER AND ITS DEVELOPMENT POWER RESOURCES. mostrical power and its development are essentially a part of Pennsylvania. Gonsiderable electric power is gener- ated within the State for industrial, commercial and acºsae ll S6 3.e. In 1987, almost 12,000,000,000 kilowatt hours or enough électricity to light 34,000,000 forty-watt lamps con- tinuously day and night for one year were generated. The position of the Commonwealth in relation to four of the leading industrial states and to the united States as a whole is snown in the following table : installed capacity and Current Generated in Electrical Industry, Manufacturing Industry and Isolated Plants - 1927. (Census, of Electrical Industries)* Rated Current State Capacity Per cent Generated Per cent (kw) U. S. (kw. hrs.) U. S. New York 4,966,609 is .7 l3,852,904,969 13.5 Pennsylvania 3,958,822 lC).9 ll,870,182,911 'll, 5 Illinois 2,613,631 7s 2 - 7,596,283,632 7.4 Ohio 2,579,717 7.1 7,244,404,198 7.0. United 36,275,00l 100.0 102,759,753,811 100.0 States *On the basis of the United States Geological Survey figures for 1933 for central station capacity and figures for manufac- turing and isolated plants as given in the 1927 °Census of Electrical Industries, a 1933 Rated Capacity (kilowatts) of approximately 4,175,000 is estimated. 514 Power GENERATED IN INDUSTRY |PA. ( ſ. 5 °/o ALL OTHER STATES 60.6°/o POWER GENERATED IN ELECTRICAL INDUSTRY, MANUFACTUR ING INDUSTRY, AND ISOLATED PLANT.S. Divided To show PERCENTAGEs GENERATED |N FOU R OF THE LEADING INDUSTR IAL states. * * CEN SUS OF E LECTRICAL INDUSTR i ES - 1927 . - FIGURE NO. 105 GENERATOR CAPACITY OF UTILITIES RATED GENERATOR CAPACITY OF CENTRAL STATIONS DIVIDED TO SHOW PERCENTAGES BY TYPE OF PRIME MOVER. | 932 .46°/o INTERNAL COM BUSTION ENGINES J2.52°/o HYDRO 87.O2°/o ST EAM S- *s CEN SUS OF ELECTR CAL INDUSTR i ES - FIGURE NO. 106 Four of the leading industrial states have approximately 40 per cent of the total rated capacity, or have enough genera- tors installed to produce 40 per cent of all the power generated in the United States. Twenty-five per cent of the total power generated in the Nation was in New York and Penn- sylvania, 13.5 per cent in New York and ll.5 per cent in this State • of the 12,000,000,000 kilowatt hours generated within the State 7,500,000,000, * or approximately 63 per cent was gener- ated by central stations owned by public utility companies or municipalities, and the remainder, or approximately 37 per cent Wa. S generated within the plant where it was consumed. There- fore, the present study of electric power resources naturally centers around central station installations. The rated generator capacity of public utility and municipal plants together for 1932 is given in the following table from Census of Electrical Industries : Kind of Prime Mover K. W. Generator Capacity Per Cent Steam 2,289,828 87.02 Hydro 329,779 12. 52 Internal Combustion ll 2645 .46 Total 2,631,252 lò0, 00 * 7,50l.,974,521 in 1927; 6,373,552,248 in 1932. 5. l 5 The United States Geological Survey as of December 31, 1933, gives the following: r— Kind of Prime Mover K. W. Generator Capacity Per Cent −w-w Steam 2,371,585 86.59 Hydro 356,405 l3.02 Internal Combustion lo,80l • 39 Total - 2,738,791 100.00 –A– Eighty-seven per cent of the generating capacity was driven by steam, with coal used as fuel, 12# per cent by water and the remaining one-half of one per cent by internal combus- tion engines using oil or gas as a fuel. HYDRO PLANT LOCATIONS. + On January l, 1934, there were 62 hydro plants of 100 horsepower or more with a head ranging from six feet to 500 feet. Of these only 41 were operating. A plan accompanies this report showing the location and relative size of these plants. ** Five of these plants have approximately 95 per cent of the total installed horsepower. The Safe Harbor plant on the Susquehanna River is the largest, having an installed cap- acity of 212,500 horsepower and a head of 53 feet. Just below this plant is the Holtwood plant, next in size, with an install- ed capacity of 158,000 horsepower and a head of 48 to 63 feet. The Hawley plant, located on Wallenpaupack Creek in Wayne *Information from Pennsylvania Department of Forests and &laters. *Figure No. 55, page 192. 516 County, has an installed capacity of 57,000 horsepower With a head of 330 feet. The Piney plant on the clarion River, in the western part of the State, has an installed capacity of 34,000 horsepower and a head of 75 feet. The York Haven plant on the Susquehanna, above Safe Harbor, has an installed ca- pacity of 29, 213 horsepower with a head of 22 feet e Miost of the hydro development has been in the eastern part of the State, principally along the Susquehanna, the only important development in the Western part being Piney Dam along the Clarion River. The total installed capacity of all the de- veloped hydro sites in the State is 520,000 horsepower. The potential water power sites with their proposed in- stalled capacities and possibilities are given as follows:* Delaware River f Studies which are based on the entire existing flow except for the diversion of 440,000,000 gallons daily, the future di- version of which is part of the water supply system of New York City, indicate a large number of water-power sites on the Del- aware and its tributaries • Proposed projects envisaging an aggregate installation of 326,000 kilowatts and designed for a 25 per cent load factor, would develop 608,000,000 kilowatt- hours of primary power annually and 540,000,000 kilowatt-hours of secondary power in the year of average run-offs. The es- timated construction cost is $46,750,000, or $143 per installed *Development of the Rivers of U. S., June 4, 1334. House of Representatives Document Noe 395e 517 kilowatt of production capacity. The power thus generated could be distributed to load centers in New York City, north- eastern New Jersey, the Lehigh Walléy and the upper Susquehanna Walley. This area is now dependent on steam power, and in 1930 consumed nearly seven billion kilowatt hours. As the market grows, the addition of a substantial amount of hydro- power which can be used to carry peak loads would be very valuable. In addition, the tributaries of this river afford four sites, two on the Lehigh River and two on the Shohola Creek, which developed to a capacity of 30,000 kilowatts worth about $8,400,000. - Susquehanna River* Recent studies by the War Department indicate that there are 47 potential sites for the development of power and storage of water. Twenty of these sites are considered for storage only . The remaining 27 have an ultimate aggregate installation of 2,567,070 kilowatts. The total estimated cost of construc- tion for all sites is $459,260,000. Power generated in the Susquehanna Walley has a very favorable industrial market , but to quote the report from which this data is taken, "Due to the wide variation between the low-water and high-water flows the extremely low volume of flow during low-water periods and the scarcity of reservoir sites, the Susquehanna Basin is not well *Conowingo Dam, on the Lower Susquehanna, is located in Mary- land; much of the power generated there, however, is dis- tributed over southeastern Pennsylvania. - 518 adapted to the development of primary base load energy. By utilizing a comination of steam and hydro-electric plants in which the hydro plants furnish peak load power when the river is low and base load power when it is high, certain profitable developments along the river can be found. - The studies indicate that ten sites having an aggregate installed capacity of 2,00l., 100 kilowatts and estimated to cost $247,650,000 for their development are worthy of study." alsº use: Potential water-power sites in the Allegheny Valley are confined entirely to its tributaries, the clarion River having 8. potential aggregate capacity of 318,000 kilowatts; Broken- straw and French Creeks, 64,800 alertº Reasºn: Creek, - 19, 300 kilowatts; and Mahoning Creek, 49,650 kilowatts. The report states these sites are not particularly attractive under present conditions and their development on a large scale should await more favorable circumstances. Monongahela River. Recent studies have disclosed many possibilities for hydro- development along this river. Most of these, however, are be- yond the state boundaries and undoubtedly have been retarded by the availability of coal resulting in the production of energy at a low cost in steam generating plants. The sites are located favorably in respect to power markets and te large inter-connected transmission systems • 5ig Ohio River There is one developed site and one potential site along the Ohio River, both of which are down river far beyond the State line. Beaver River Recent studies have disclosed the water-power possibili- ties in this valley are along Slippery Rock Creek and Conno- quenessing Creek with a potential capacity of 44,850 kilowatts. There is seemingly large source of water-power in Pennsylvania, but because of the intermittent supply it can never be used as a source of base power, so that coal will con- tinue to be the important factor in our power supply. Many of these proposed sites may be developed with power as a by- product, and in combination with improvements for navigation, flood control or city water supply may be very profitable. The power thus generated could be used in combination with steam- generated power to great advantage. At the present time, approximately 8 per cent of the power generated within the State is sold in neighboring states, and nearly the same percentage sold in Pennsylvania is generated outside of the Commonwealth. For full development of our pówer resourges in the eastern part of the State we may have to look for markets across the border, while surrounding states, in developing their resources and ferreting out markets may un- doubtedly cross into Pennsylvania. These conditions make power development a regional problem rather than a State one. 52O 1 0 1 ' ON 3 M nº 14 • – — • • • • • • • •! { | } | � ! � ： •* • Allowavo o Nilwał3 N35 3^.] LVT3 d9 N | NÀO HS sa !?!） S^Q N |- v oſ u Loſaºl 3 Jo Sns N33 le= • • • • • • • º» - - - - - - - - -r * - - - - - - - - * * * ^ .• . \ ,^●,-- •\, r^ •~^-~ ~ ~ ~ ~ - - - J | /} || /�� � ∞ * |�|- - - - - - - • • • • • • • •*�į |• º� !... „ “ r ~^ *,* ,� |-> ºº • !، �! ,� !! ,,， \, ●* • • • • • !º. - - - - - /-， }, •! }, !| ！?Q ,,...* --';• •”{ {�• • Å! *… uº|----|••�! ș , • • **** *= • → → • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • ,f ● * O� ،O ^ • • ø º• ���）.• ,~v_, * ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ！ / � � • .* • ^• ” ’ ,• is sº º sº ºr • t | ●{ |-[] le •• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • ∞， ∞----O„~~^ į_^ çNol Lw Ls Twº LN30 CJ3LVH3dOww3.LS JO NO I.LV/DOT By referring to the accompanying map,” the location and relative size as to installed capacity of the various steam generating centers can be asures. Philadelphia and Allegheny Counties are by far the largest producing centers which com- bined have approximately 40 per cent of the installed steam generating capacity of the State, Philadelphia leading with about one and one-half the instaura sweeity of Allegheny County. - The eastern part of the State, again as in the CE. SG of hydro development, has much more generating capacity than the western part. The plants in Allegheny County are example, of mine-mouth stations, being either located right at the mine or within a short haul by rail or water from the source of fuel. The availability of coal, however, was not the only factor in location of these plants. For economic operation an ample supply of Water is as essential as the supply of coal, In Allegheny County and some of the adjoining counties the rivers flow through large deposits of coal. Recent river im- provements, which were mainly for flood control and an aid to navigation, have created a more even flow, making this part of the State ideal for steam power development. The Hiladelphia plants have been located with an eye to the availability of water, the coal being shipped from the nearest coal risiae. A thorough study should be made of the vast coal resources *Prepared from a map of transmission lines furnished by the Public Service Commission. * 52l of Pennsylvania -- estimated to be enough at the present rate of consumption to last for 200 years. This may be undertaken by the industry itself, the regulating bodies, the public or a combination of all. It should seek to insure benefits to all, comparable with those being derived elsewhere in the Nation through developments in the industry. f The production of electric power by central stations in Pennsylvania in the five-year period from 1927 to 1932 has de- creased from 7,501,974,52l kilowatt hours to 6,373,522,248* kilowatt hours, or a decrease of 15 per cent, while in New York and the country as a whole there was an increase of 10.7 per cent and 6.7 per cent, respectively. The decrease in Pennsyl- vania may be accounted for by the depressed condition of the steel industry which under normal conditions uses approximately 60 per cent of the power used in all the industries. The load factor, which is a comparison of the generator capacity nec- essary- to produce the 6,373,552,248 kilowatt hours generated with the actual installed generator capacity, was 27.6 per cent for 1932. For 1927, as given by the Bureau of Engineering, Public Service Commission, the load factor was 35.74 per cent. In both these comparisons there was no allowance for stand-by equipment or equipment out of operation for repairs. The dis- tribution of power generated by type of prime mover for 1932 is shown in the following table : * 6,787,229 in 1933 522 © OI "ON ºg nº 14-ºs31 wis no NI Twoiwloºna so sns N ao 2261·læ61. . •2261 ||A116||2161A100|| 2061 O O | £SNO (From Census of Electrical Industries, 1932) -E- - w TOTAL K.W. HRS. INTERNAL COM- . GENERATED STEAM (kw. hrs.) WATER (kw. hrs.) BUSTION ENGINE e- (kw. hrs.) Pennsyl- 6,373,552,248 5,184, 145,263 l,181,143,826 8,263,159 vania. - e g Per cent 100.0 81.4 l8.5 •12 United 79,657,466,651 45,374,873,980 33,567,449,749 715,142,922 States - - Per cent lC)0,0' 57.9 42.0 •l The output per unit capacity for hydro is shown to be greater than for steam. This is explained in a report for 1927 by the Bureau of Engineering, P. S. G., as follows: "The fact that hydro makes a comparatively better showing in this particular than steam, may be due to the fact that much of the reserve equipment is steam operated. Considered alone the energy produced by water power is a large amount, but when it is compared with the tremendous production by coal fired steam, it is seen to be a small factor in the total production." Of the total 6,373,552,248 kilowatt hours generated, 5,184,145,263 kilowatt hours were generated by steam. In generating this amount of energy 7,955,786,720 pounds of coal were consumed, an average of 1.53 pounds per kilowatt hour. Records of the Bureau of Engineering show the average consump- tion per kilowatt hour for the years l922 and 1927 was 2.58 and l,78, respectively. This marked increase in efficiency in- volves the saving of approximately 2,500,000 tons of coal in 1932 over 1922 and is largely due to vast developments in boiler room operation and to installation of much larger units, of the turbine type, in new plants taking the place of smaller inefficient steam installations now being discarded. In large plants consumption of coal per kilowatt hour is already under - one pound and a still further decrease can be expected within the next ten-year period. There seems to be no need for imme- diate concern over conservation of coal reserves, because of their vastness. However, it should be noted that the more 524 Power GENERATED BY UTILITIES PEN NSYLVAN IA • 1932 - ... i*/o INTERNAL COM BUSTION ENGINES 81.4°/o STEAM Power GENERATED IN centraL stations OF PENNSYLVANIA Di VIDED TO SHOW PERCENTAGES BY TYPE OF PR M. E MOVER . - C EN SUS OF ELECTRICAL INDUSTR ES F1GURE NO. 109 accessible veins are being mined first and that the cost of mining will increase as the more inaccessible veins are mined. TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION Transmission and distribution of electrical energy may be understood more clearly if it is pictured as some other trans- portation facility, for example, air transportation; the net- work of the airlines being the high voltage transmission lines, the people traveling being the units of energy, the airports being the substations and the bus lines being the distribution systems. The airlines discharge passengers at the airport, the buses distribute them to factory, office or home. Like- wise the high voltage transmission lines transmit the energy from the central station to the sub-station, where it is stepped down to lower voltage. and then distributed to the ultimate consumer. Just as it is impossible to discharge passengers between airports, it is also impossible to serve small communities from high voltage lines between sub-stations. In the 19th entury, the days of the steam engine, power was not distributable, and in the early years of the 20th century when electric power was generated as direct current and at low voltages, it could only be distributed within the com- munity where generated. Industry was forced to develop around power, and power became one of the big factors in centralization of industry. Streets became congested, slums became crowded and the rural population largely shifted to cities. With the development of alternating current and high-voltage generation 525 the transmission of electrical energy for long distance became possible. Before 1912 the standard high voltage transmission was 66,000 volts. Then it was increased to 110,000 and 132,000 volts, and now there are transmission lines of 220,000 volts capable of transmitting energy over three hundred miles. This development was a great factor in the progress of the electrical industry. Plants could be located at the source of fuel supply and water, resulting in abandonment of small in- efficient stations and construction of large stations which have been interconnected by transmission lines. The maps* of transmission lines show the network covering Pennsylvania. In the western part of the state, centrel sta- tions are interconnected by la2,000 volt lines from the Lake Lynn hydro plant on the Cheat River in West Virginia north across the State, with plants in Pittsburgh, then north with the Piney hydro plant on the Clarion River, north to Erie and then east to New York State. This system also is connected by 132,000 volt lines west of the Windsor Plant in West Virginia. The eastern part of the State is interconnected with 222,000 volt lines from the Conowingo hydro plant, north along the eastern boundary to the Wallenpaupack hydro plant, and then by lesser voltage north into New York State. There are also 220,000 volt lines connecting this system with New Jersey and New York on the east. There are also llo,000 volt lines con- *Prepared from a map of Transmission Lines furnished by Bureau of Erfgineering, Public Service Commission. 526 “OH， “ON ERJ nºlae |-Noıssıw.woo aouawas oriend S.LTOA OOO'O I I � +-�.-.■ & №!;------7----Z>—?） –---- ��） * •}0•,’//%} �`,|//· ，|/}\ 1/� * •{J! //|/•• ? �Y/* \,�}* • \,• w：!{/••* •- • * * \^ • „• • *\•|42•• •º ^ • • • • • ^ • • •>\��}.}••• *��• •●//„.^*• * ）.• ��• • „±،\„•* • • • •'>---"Y�~«,●K•±|× asº��●�/→ • • •=� -- 22-º^v •... •^\�\/<|-----\•…“ >}• • •·œ ••∞*∞~ >~~<- !,\_ - - - ~~~~）.“}， X ~ ~~~~）;*- Ayº}^* * · · \, \, ，� ~ ,/§ 5 X º• „| *W* •�\~~^-"�*… *●�;- • •A, ~}}<ºº»| •*|------\|●} ●~ „ /aº*• • •\•^• J|\�ę A！ ！！»!* ... • • •}�~~ ~ !& \,●º „º\,&|! \~~~^« ' ■� *4 ^&!،}，\， ,• •{K”ș•●^~• ! \?|• Lº • • •* •č�!• K § 1�\,* •|}�º,; ; \-\-?\,�•+！ 8* （ - - - - ！„“- – A „ • •∞'--.rº įJ|º. - - -/---- \4（~~|„ “}-, • r^!... •！'ſ � |•º.º_y،-,-！№.* • • • • „n•!|∞\, !| -ţ-!|---~~~�•|^ ）; „•*\º� *ae•* !\�`s,'~/* ,^ · · -çºeſ• ~^! |`-y_ - > • • •ı�\,|&;---.*;）• • ſ\� �|} • •f\~,į} • •*** • æ 汕 • • • • • • �\!\ _||！}**<<.æº • ● \\ \ SITOA O OO‘O2? "8 OOO‘2€I – OOO‘O II • SIĘ NIT NO I S S | WNS N \/\）]_L noussiw.woo aolawas ornand ſuſ on 3 dºnº i 4 su noa oooºgº ---- ş ı-noa ooo'99 = - - y = + • •=ſæ •■ ■ ，•■ ■● ● ·*·-ș-- � Å•، •� /* ， } \ s. � * tº \ , \,--** • •• • • • º 0 � } !|- {!-- ---• • • • • eº} • • **& •* *● *: < !• *ae 0} •„“\ � ！�«* √∞ √∞ √æ ~ -1,，„*!º. - -•/• • • \, • „“± -9„º ſº}•* ºi „º\* * • ~ ~ ~ „“ ;- → 7）|. ^! *?rº /••~ « …..！--.*--* *} }• • • • ºsae|●----*！ → ~,4{\ `---– ~ ~ ~ !--}2In- aº|----\;!! ، !�! T●•– → * * * • �șVOE† • • • •\,------------+• ſ!#• ¶|„”---! *** • • → .aſſº！ſię�●„” - |�•şæ æ* ！± # - - - ~ !• • • • • ~ -3+●}-*-----\r|- - - - - - - - - - - - - ~~ ! |\ !|VÝT:！ |!\ #N●Q Ť|!\!}�●{ （~~!!?！}!- Q |-!\} !● 3- → • • • • • • • • • • • • • • \,A\\è !● | {\\→|{� –----*- • ş ı-noa ooo'99 º OOO'stº s3 NIT NOI SS I WN SNV dl necting the eastern and central part of the State. In ad- dition to the lines shown there are lower voltage lines making electrical energy. available to parts of every county within the State. - Just as power in the early stages of development was a factor in centralization, it now has become a factor in de- centralization • Power is becoming available at most places and at Imost times, provided the demand is sufficient to extend distribution lines. Rural distribution has not developed in step with the progress made in the industry as a whole . How- ever, data prepared by the Pennsylvania Joint Committee on Rural Electrification* shows considerable progress from 1927 to January 1, 1934. At the beginning of 1927 there were 4,990 miles of rural lines and on January l, 1934, there were 13,458 miles, an increase of 8,463 miles, or an addition of 4 miles per work day over the seven-year period. It is estimated by the above committee, assuming three farms per mile, that 29,028 miles of new line would be necessary to serve 75 per cent of the farms now without service. At the present rate of con- struction, this would take 24 years • *The Pennsylvania Joint Committee on Rural Electrification is a strictly voluntary and cooperative committee, composed of two groups, one made up of representatives of leading farm or- ganizations named by the State Council of Agricultural Asso- ciations, and the other of representatives of the Electric Light and Power Companies of Pennsylvania, named by the Pennsylvania Electric Association. 527 OWNERSHIP The tendency of utility ownership has been toward incor- poration. In 1927, from Public Service Commission Report, 97.71 per cent of the generating capacity of all privately owned plants was reported by holding companies, 1.63 per sent by independent groups and .66 per cent by manufacturing, mining and other interests. There were 41 municipal plants, 14 of which purchased all the power distributed by them from the utilities and 7 purchased part of their power from utilities. With this report there is a map showing the territories served by the various companies. It shows an overlapping of ter- ritories, sometimes parts of one territory being isolated by another. This necessitates one company crossing territories of the other with transmission lines. For this purpose strip charters are granted just wide enough for transmission purposes for through lines. The result has been duplication of trans- mission lines which for the State as a whole. has increased the costs of transmission. CONSUMPTION The extent to which industry has become electrified can be seen by the comparison of data given in the Census of Manu- factures for 1914 with that given for 1929. In 1914, 43.5 per cent of the aggregate installed horsepower in the manu- facturing industries was motors driven by electricity. By 1929 the horsepower of motors driven by electricity had in- creased to 83.5 per cent of the aggregate installed horsepower. - 528 noissinnoo aolawas ºrnand 2 | | “ON 3 \dºnº) i 3 oſu. Lo3n3 SA3X8vº^， ºsual svw}{3^ ººaenºs 830.83% w3wodºwn Naa Nwa Hunos gz (93Mod º lHºt 1 NOSICI?\!3^AOd N N Beł ſłJL£YOS -） § © ® °.*， ***:）*）（ ）→3.*¿¿.*-§ 1}| . . . -.• • •’ſ-->asae ！！！!！!！！！ ∞ ، +%Mod v LHºrn- , , ， ） » º avul Na3NN34 ** -7 || || ~{ / ..: tº ºf ¿&&§ ！, º·*s،<！'„ ~ ~ ~º} - º,„ ”2-$ NOS 103* „º•º~ -«！» ae«- &ºs ：-ae|-G - N\/Ll"!eº∞• • • • • JL.H™)!?!syarſáodºwNNºeſaae，&&&&• ** ** * · · · · · · · ·�!§ :B l-Oae, §•�£∞∞∞ √«№∞»|%%！};（） ∞ ،a º∞ . ': .L •∞ ſº .*$ $!| 1 ·owl3wºg„ŠĶ-º 2%àrozlıH Đī£13 wy'n sk3 Awwiſſ__--3^^Q3f●§§*Ře， }، ، ، ،'…*}'r*ſººlºº“,<！-- ***N N ºdWA！}●} :§§± • • • • * , \，% >~~ „^ qm ! 'NĶº ） ,^№ 5 ***$�§§§ §§ } --~~~~--~* • • • • ? £&§ 9 omae LO3T3 *v'NİN 3d }} __ _ _ _ _ . '§§ oių„3ána v §wº : `J.; ſaei *�ſi . . ~ ~ ~ ~~~~, ,È $ } \， | }{ g *T E O V T | H eſ SO|Hc]\/89Oſ „JS after three years of research, submitted to the President * November 10, 1934, disclose that the cost of distribution only of electrical energy, averaged 2% cents per kilowatt hour for the users of 50 kilowatt hours per, month, approximately the average household use. The report emphasized that the costs upon which these conclusions rest are for private operation of electric system, including a 6 per cent return on all useful fixed capital, and an additional 5.5 per cent to cover depre- ciation, taxes and insurance. The survey was extended to include the determination of reasonable distribution costs in 29 representative municipalities in New York, Pennsylvania, Indiana, Virginia, California and Washington. For 26 of these cities the analysis was based on engineering field studies. Costs of generation and transmission given here are large enough to allow for the difference between the 6 per cent return included in the New York report and the 7 per cent re- turn allowed by the Pennsylvania Public Service commission.” It would then seem that the average return per kilowatt hour for domestic consumption should be between 3% and 4 cents in- stead of the 5.9 cents given by the l932 Census of Electrical Industries. A drop from 5.9 sents to 3.5 or 4 cents would mean a saving to domestic customers of $ll to $14 annually. *The Pennsylvania Public Service Commission has asked the companies to go on a 6 per cent basis. 539 CONCLUSIONS Domestic consumers are paying a disproportionate share of the electrical power bill in Pennsylvania. There is need of a comprehensive study of power distribution and the cost to con- sumers in the State. Such a survey should be similar to that recently completed by the Power Authority of the State of New York. Any such study should be made with a view to the possi- bility of lowering the cost of power to the domestic consumer and an extension of rural electrification. It also should in- clude development of the State's coal resources as a source of base power, as well as development of water power sites. The possibility of coordinating both sources and their interconnec- tion with present supplies also should be considered. Any sound State plan for the development of Pennsylvania's power resources to est the needs of consumers should fit in with long range regional plans. 540 STATE GOVERNMENT The organization of State Government has been touched upon in various parts as incidental to its functions. To have considered organization in detail would have been mere- ly to duplicate the thorough and comprehensive report, "A Survey of the Government of Pennsylvania," just issued by the Joint Legislative Committee on Finances. (The Sterling Com- mittee Report) - Since publication of the storians report, however, de- velopments at Washington have indicated the value of the Federal Government's Central Statistical Board. The Sterling committee recommended that a state statistical Board be es- tablished to attempt to bring about general unity in statis- tical efforts e It is suggested the American Statistical Association be invited to cooperate in Pennsylvania in making a study and in setting up machinery as it did in Washington. Functions of local government taken over by the State governments elsewhere in the United States may well receive further consideration to see if anything has been developed which might be applied usefully in Pennsylvaniae 541 LOCAL UNITS OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT* BEGINNINGS OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT - The commonwealth of Pennsylvania began subdividing itself soon after the first colonists arrived in 1623, until it Y1OW contains 5.636 separate local taxing units. The township seems to have appeared first. Under whe Duke of York's laws, in effect some years before Penn's arrival in 1682, each settle- ment or towi had some degree of self-government. The most numerous and important local officials were peace officers. Each town chose eight overseers who had limited ordinance- making power and authority to levy taxes. The overseers also assessed persons and property, while the duty of collecting taxes devolved upon the constables. The formation of three counties was one of Penn's first acts. These were Chester, Bucks and Philadelphia. Greation Of the first boroughs and cities followed shortly. Upland, now the city of Chester, was the first borough and Philadelphia, chartered in 1701, the first city. *Prepared by Bradford W. West, Ph.D., Wharton School of Finance and Commerce, University of Pennsylvania, except for the "Accounting Suggestions", which were prepared , by Charles J. Rowland, Ph.D., of The Pennsylvania State College. Valuable suggestions were made by members of the staff of the Pennsylvania Economic Council, , especially Mr. Robert D. Dripps, and by Blake E. Nicholson, Ph.D., - and Edward W. Carter, Ph.D., of the University of Penn- sylvania, and Harold F. Alderfer, Ph.D., of The Penn- sylvania State College. General conclusions added by State Planning Board. - . - 542 Sº W/ / realization gi. Bºi. Mºſgin 3 Réât's COUAT ºf QF JCAAY DOYLE AND P SP FIGURE NO. 115 PRESENT system of Local governmºſt The organization of the taxing units into a system of local government is comparatively simple • First, because there are only seven kinds of political subdivisions having power to levy taxes • These are the county, city, town, borough, township, school district and poor district. Secondly, cities, towns, boroughs and townships, are mutually exclusive • Cities, boroughs and towns are incorporated. When territory is incorporated it is withdrawn from the township of which it was previously a part e There is no overlapping of these units. No part of the Common- wealth can be subject to the jurisdiction of more than four units of local governmerit. Except in Philadelphia, every part of the Commonwealth is subject to at least three e The primary sub- divisions of the Commonwealth are the 67 counties • The counties are further subdivided into 47 cities, one town, 936 boroughs and l,577 townships, or a total of 2,561 secondary governmental subdivisions • Superimposed upon these are the 2,584 school districts which are usually, but not always, coextensive with the secondary subdivisions. The poor districts constitute the fourth layere POLITICAL SUBDIVISIONS Section 34 of Article III of the Constitution of Pennsylvania ‘provides: "The legislature shall have the power to classify counties, cities, boroughs, school districts and townships according to population, and all laws passed relating to each class, and all laws passed relating to, and regulating procedure and proceedings in court with reference to any class, shall be deemed general '543 legislation within the meaning of this Constitution; but counties shall not be divided into more than eight classes, cities into not more than seven classes, school districts into not more than five classes, and boroughs into not more than three classes." (Amendment of November 6, 1923) This permits classification on a population basis only. The legislature has made partial use of this authority. Counties are classified as follows: Class Basis of Classification Number of Counties First 1,500,000 or more l (Philadelphia) Second 800,000 to 1,500,000 l (Allegheny) Third 250,000 to 800,000 5 Fourth 150,000 to 250,000 ll Fifth 100,000 to 150,000 4. Sixth 50,000 to 100,000 17 Seventh 20,000 to 50,000 l? Eighth Less than 20,000 ll There are four classes of cities, but no classification of boroughs has been made. The population of boroughs ranged from 17 to 35,853 in 1930. Forty-nine boroughs are large enough to become third-class cities if their inhabitants so desire, but 420 are small villages of less than l,000. Townships have been divided into two classes, the first class consisting of those having an average population density of 300 persons per square mile. Because of this basis of - classification, * have less than one thousand inhabitants, whereas sixty-two second-class townships have more than 5,000 inhabitants each. A majority of the first class townships. have more than 5,000 inhabitants, Upper Darby having 46,626 in 1930. School districts have been divided into four classes. Those 544 § $ 3 © (U 2 c; i i § : % ; Rºž §%ZZ i RNNN NNN % : : º KXXXSºx XXX 23& i # i 3 § 3 R 9 G. dº (ſ) à : § § §# : à § having more than 500,000 inhabitants constitute the first class, 30,000 to 500,000 the second class, 5,000 to 30,000 the third class, and less than 5,000 the fourth class. In January, 1934, there were two districts of the first class, 20 second, 257 third, and 2,306 fourth. There is no legal classification of poor districts. In 50 counties the poor district is coextensive with the county. Most of the other 374 poor districts are coextensive with cities, boroughs, or townships. A few are smaller in area than the municipalities within which they lie while several include two or more municipalities. Two districts extend across county lines. 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Aºi local Subdivisions by Glasses, and Percentage of State Population in Each Class. 1930s 1920s and 1910. 1930 1920 1910 Number Per- Number Perse Number Pergent of sub- cent of sub- cent of sub- of State divisions of State divisions of State divis- Popula- Popula- Popula- ions tion tion tion CITIES 45 44 •8 38 43,6 29 40.4 Class l l 20.3 l 20,9 l 20, 2 Class 2 l We O 2 8,3 2 8.7 Class 2A l le5 tº tº ... • sº Slass 3 42 l6.0 35 14.4 26 ll-5 BOROUGHS 940 26.6 934 27.2 90l. 27.5 TOWNSHIPS 1574 28.5 1565. 29, O 1555 32.0 2nd-Glass l,512 23.6 L508 35-5 1512 29, O T O T A L s 2560 100.0 2538 100-0– 2486 100.0 Philadelphia County with only nine subdivisions and Allegheny with 245 are the extremes of consolidation and decentralization • POPULATION TRENDS The number of cities, boroughs, towns and townships, by classes, in 1910, 1920 and l930 is shown in an accompanying table. It also shows what proportion of the total population was govern- ed under the laws relating to each type. This is shown also in an accompanying chart. (The population of the single town is included with that of the boroughs in this chart.) Philadelphia, held its place consistently, with slightly more than one-fifth of the population. Pittsburgh and Scranton likewise maintained their relative importance. ‘The number of third-class cities increased 61.5 per cent, or from 26 in 1910 to 42 in 1930. Whereas only ll.5 per cent of the population resided in third-class cities in 1910, 16 per cent lived there in 1930. In the latter year 44.8 per cent of the total popu- lation resided in cities. This gain for the cities was at the expense of the boroughs. The percentage of the population living in boroughs dropped from 27.5 per cent in 1910 to 26.6 per cent in 1930, although the number of boroughs increased by 39. The creation of 16 new cities would have resulted in a much greater drop in the number of people under the borough form of government had not more than 55 new boroughs been formed from townships or parts of townships. The creation of new boroughs has slowed down materially since 1920. There are four less in 1934 than there were in 1930. 549 Bloomsburg, the only town in the State grew at about the average rate, maintaining its relative importance. It is possible that this form of government may disappear entirely in the near future. The borough code provides that any town may adopt the borough form of government. Moreover, if Bloomsburg maintains its present rate of growth, it soon will be eligible for a third- class city charter. There has been a natural increase in the number of first- class townships and in the percentage of population there • These townships are for the most part suburban adjuncts of large cities. Thus 28 are in Allegheny and Beaver counties, 18 in Delaware and Montgomery counties, five in Lackawanna and Lu- zerne counties, and only ten throughout the remainder of the Commonwealth. The shift of population to suburban areas tends to make this type of government more common but this is partially checked by the tendency to create new incorporated places or to axtend the boundaries of those already in existence. The number of second-class townships remained the same in 1930 as in 1910. They gained 86,000 inhabitants. But due to the continual tendency to incorporate their more populous parts, the portion of the total population living. in a second-class townships dropped from 29 per cent in 1910 to 23.6 per cent in 1930s In twenty years 74 cities, boroughs and townships were created in excess of the number lost by consolidations. Since the creation of one of these subdivisions usually incurs the 550 formation of a new school district, approximately 150 new separate taxing subdivisions were added to Pennsylvania's local government system. Twenty-eight counties had less than 75 in- habitants per square mile in 1930, 14 from 75 to 150, 16 from 150 to 300, seven from 300 to 600, and two, Philadelphia and Allegheny, more than 600. Cities are in only thirty-one counties, of which only mine had population densities of less than 150 persons per square mile. The first class townships are concentrated in fifteen counties, of which all but two have more than 150 inhabitants per square mile. In 32 counties a majority of the people lived in second-class townships. This group in- cluded all but two of the ll eighth-class counties and all but three of the 17 seventh-class counties. The average number of incorporated places per county in these 32 counties is only 10.1 whereas in the other counties (except Philadelphia), the average is 19.5 woxtony AND OPTIONAL FUNCTIONS Functions delegated by the Commonwealth to any of its sub- divisions are optional with the local unit or made mandatory by 8tate law or the State Constitution. If mandatory, the expendi- ture required also may be fixed by the commonwealth. In other. cases the State law fixes minimum or maximum expenditures or leaves to local authorities a large range of choice as to how elaborately and expensively they will perform the function. Thus the payment of county commissioners and provision for the support of county prisoners are both made mandatory by State 55l law, but the law fixes the exact amount of the commissioners' salaries, whereas the cost of maintaining prisoners depends upon the number of prisoners and other factors. . The extent to which the expenditures of local subdivisions are controlled by State law rather than by local opinion is of fundamental importance to understanding the problems in planning for local government. Two recent studies have made a valuable beginning in determining the extent to which the cost of local government is fixed by State law. These are "County Government Costs in Pennsylvania" by F. P. Weaver and H. F. Alderfer and "Mandatory Expenditures of Local Government in Pennsylvania" by Edward W. Carter, COUNTY FUNCTIONS Most of the important functions performed by the counties, . and their expenditures are mandatory in nature or in amount, or both. The mandatory expenses include: - le 2. 3 • 6. The items for administration of justice. The conduct of primaries and elections. Recording deeds and registering wills, births and deaths. Paying for road damages. . Maintenance of county highways and bridges. Paying for burial of veterans and their widows and for markers for veterans' graves. 7. Compiling war records, paying the G.A.R. for Memorial Day observance, and providing flags to decorate soldiers' graves. 552 COUNTY OFFICERS - C H | EF C. L. R. K. E N G | N E E R . SOL I CITOR COUNTY ROADS CARE TAKERS |NSPECTOR'S OF WE GHTS & MEASURES CERTAIN TA X ASSESSORS AN D COLLECTORS INTER PRETERS FOR ASSESSORS SU PT. AND ASST . FOR OR P HANS H O M E STAFF FOR HOS P (TAL FOR TU B ERCULOSIS STAFF FOR WORKH OUSE SPEC I AL D ETECT IV ES FOREST FIRE DETECT IV ES 9 COUNTY PLAN N | NG comM ISS toNERS (2ND) 5 REC REAT |ON AND fe A R K & OARD 7 BoARD of Ass EssM ENT AND REV (SION OF TAXES 2 N D AND 3 RD 5-7 BOARD OF LI B R A RY Dſ RECTORS OARD OF OFFICE OF HEALTH 2ND TO 8TH PEN NSYLVAN | A CLASS VOTERS (n - O 8 3 F | } s o, = |* 3 O w (ſ) # , 22 || 3: ; 2 || | | 3 || 3 || 3 || 4 || || |*2 : N | * * º ; : | 3 | | | || 3 || 3 || - § | > t. (A Q | < 2 | o : m F | 6 < on S. 20 C- o O 2 20 O O * E|##| = | 73 | * | 3 || 3 || 3 || 3 || 5 ||22 9 2 ºn 9 || - ſº | Q ol Q a | 3 > | }. O : 3 F 2 < | 2 m v. 3 || 2 || 9 >| | < *; 20 20 * | 9 in ſm (ſº 20 Cº. C > || || -- 2 25 20 20 20 20 ºn -& (ſ) (/) * *| < • DEPUT (Es, Assistants, secretaRI Es, STENo GRAPHERS, AND OFF ( C E E M P LOYE ES SALARY BOARD COMM ISSION ERS S|N|KING FUND CO M M I SS |ON CONTROLLER CO M M ISS I ONERS TREASU RER BOARD OF REVISION CONTROLLER OR COMM (SSION ERS AUD ITORS ASSOC IATE JUDGES PRISON BOARD PENS | ON BOARD CO M M (SSION ERS CO M M I SS ON ERS SH E R FF TREASUR ER CONTROLLE R CONTROLLER COUNTIES 3 - 9 B OARD OF V | EWERS A DV ISORY BOARD FOR HO SP (TAL FOR TU BERCULOSIS 5 LAW LIBRARY CO M M ITTEE BOARD OF TRUSTEES FOR COUNTY INDUSTRIAL FARM, WORKHOUSE OR REFORMATORY cERtain vacancies COURT OFF | CERS BOARD OF A SS ESSM ENT AND REVISION OF TAXES IN count ES WITH 3OO,OOO TO 500,000 PO PULAT ( ON | | ASSESSO RS S Fe Fl GURE NO. Il 7 8. Inspecting Weights and Measures. 9. Collecting returned taxes on seated and unseated lands. 10. Paying assessors and costs of registering voters. ll. Paying salaries and certain expenses of the county commissioners and other officials provided for by State law • 12. Paying the office expenses, etc., of the County Superin- tendent of Schools and for the annual convention of school direct- ors in the county. -- Counties may, at their option, engage in a large number of other activities. The more important include aiding in provid- ing recreational facilities, libraries, hospitals, public audi- toriums and airports• Counties also may provide canals and waterways and aid in the control and prevention of floods. By appropriations they may aid agricultural societies, various historical and educational associations, veterans and National Guard units. They may provide and maintain memorials, drill gas Wells, provide ornamental street lights about the county build- ing; and exercise various other minor powers. Authority for county planning is granted second-class counties • The organization chart for counties, adapted from a chart prepared by F. P. Weaver and H. F. Alderfer, illustrates the typical organization for governing all counties except Phila- delphia. There is no other type of local subdivision in Penn- sylvania where authority is as decentralized as in the counties • The county organization is the result of the gradual accretion of new agencies as the powers of the county expande Fourteen 553 sets of officials are elected, many specifically provided for in the State Constitution. A large number of other offices are filled by appointment by the county commissioners. Additional appointing power is vested in the judges of the district court. Nearly all elected officers may appoint some subordinates. Ex- cept in the seventh and eighth class counties, a county salary - board decides the number and compensation of such employes. The ex-officio boards for the revision of taxes, prison board and sinking fund commission complete the usual county organ- ization. Uounties Öf the second class may have a pension board • FUNCPIONS OF TOWNSHIPS AND BOROUGHS There is a large degree of similarity between the mandatory functions of townships, boroughs and cities, but there are two differences. First, the optional functions vary and some option- al functions for sparsely populated units are mandatory. Second, the governmental organization is more complex for cities • Townships of both classes have the same mandatory functions. These are : l, Maintenarice of the minimum governmental organization specified in the township code. 2. Collection of township taxes. 3. Maintenance of township highways and bridges. In addition, the following mandatory functions are performed at county expense By officials elected in each township. Adminis- tration of justice by justices of the peace, maintenance of law 554 and order by constables, and assessment of taxes except in counties of the second and third classes. Optional functions of second class townships include: Providing fire protection. Providing watering troughs , Providing for garbage and trash removal and prevention of nuisances • Providing for insurance - workmen's compensation, fire, public liability or group policies for the benefit of township eſºployes • Erecting and maintaining public buildings. Providing water and sewer systems. Providing parks, playgrounds, etc., and appropriating money for forest conservation. Regulating traffice Assisting by appropriations for Memorial Day services, the Armory Board and National Guard units. Maintaining memorials and providing burial plots for ex- service men. In addition, the supervisors, on petition of residents of any part of the township, may light specified streets, provide water for fire protection and other uses, and provide sidewalks. Beneficiaries of these special services pay for them. Lockups. may be built and fire equipment costing more than a specified amount may be purchased only after the projects are approved at an election. The court of quarter sessions may direct the 555 appointment of policemen for any part of the township whose residents petition for such protections The governmental set-up for performance of these functions is shown in the accompanying organization chart for townships - of the second class. The voters elect three supervisors, an assessor, three auditors and a tax collector. A secretary and treasurer are appointed by the supervisors. The minimum- or- ganization required by law is completed when the supervisors appoint a road superintendent if the township is not divided into road districts, or a road master for each district if it is divided. Appointment of township solicitors and engineers is optional with the supervisors who also may appoint unpaid park and recreation boards and a waterworks commission • First class townships may Perror- any of the functions of second class townships, but the commissioners may act more fre- quently than second class township supervisors upon their own initiative. Moreovers first class townships are authorized to perform many additional municipal functions. These include: Regulation and inspection of buildings, inspecticn of the milk supply, regulation of the use of inflammable and explosive articles, smoke regulations, providing motor ambulances, regu- lation of amusements, registration of real estate, regulations for the public safety, creation of fire, water and sewer dis- tricts, fire prevention regulations, regulation of the running at large of animals, provision of comfort and waiting stations and drinking fountains, health protection, sewage disposal, and * 556 organization chart – Townships of THE FIRST CLASS PENNSYLVANIA VOTERS COMMISSIONERS H TREASURER | ONE PER WARD AND EN - OUGH AT LARGE SO THAT THERE SHA AT LEA FIVE . SHALL BE LEAST ONE ASSESS OR ONE ASST. ASSESSOR TWO ASST. TR 1 ENNIAL ASSESSORS FRESIDENT AND V | CE - |PRESIDENT CHOSEN - FROM M E M BERS OF THREE ELECTED OR COUNC1L. on E APPoint ED AUDITOR OR ONE CONTROLLE R | | SECRETARY | O PT IONAL - T - - | - I - T] - | SOL I C I TOR | E N G | N E E R | | POLICE | | MAN AG ER | I - - | - | - - | BOARD *ealth | LK BUILD ING WATER HEALTH OFFICERS |N SPECTORS |NSPECTORS COM M I SS ION - ſ – | - I I ZON | NG * BOARD OF PLAN N ING SHA D G T REE CO M M S S I ON A DJ USTM ENT CO M M I SS I ON CO M M I SS | ON - Sp F't GURE NO. 118 ORGANIZATION CHART – TOWNSHIPS OF THE SECOND CLASS PEN NSYLVAN | A º SUPER INT END ENT | DEPUTY 3 SUPERV I SORS A S S E S SO R 3 AU D IT ORS TA X COLLECTOR * POSITIONS NOT IN.com PATIBLE WITH POST OF SUPERVISOR, AND F REQUENTLY HELD BY SUPERV I SORS Wºj FIGURE NO. Il Q ORGANIZATION CHART – CITIES OF THE THIRD CLASS PEN NSYLVANIA −F=- MAYOR AND UN AN | COUNCILMAN | Council-MAN | Gouncil-MAN TREASURE R CONTRO LLER PRES | D ENT tºº-ººººººººººººººººººº. OF CO UN Cº L DE PARTM ENT DEPARTMENT | DEPARTMENT | D EPARTMENTIDE PARTMENT F OF OF OF OF O PU B L | C ACCOUNTS PUBLIC | STREETS AND| PARKS AND AFFAIRS A ND SAFETY PU B L | C PU B L | C FINANCE IMPROVEMENTS PROPERTY L C V | L S E RV I C E CO M M I SS (ON HEALTH OF F 1 C ERS H. F I RE & H EALTH - L F I REM EN H POL |C E H C V L S E R V C E CO M M I SS iON POLIC E | / Assistant ENGINEERs H BoARD of , HEALTH M N IN G ENG IN E E R (ANTHRAcIT fºr EG | ON E L E C T R C A L H C IV L SERV I C E CO M M I SS (ON LECT R ENG IN E E R IN G, E.T. C. i BU | LD ING INSPECTORS H [F] WATER & -- SP FIGURE NO. I2O ORGAN |ZATION CHART - BOROUGH S PENNSYLVANIA VOTERS COUNCIL B U R G ESS H | GH | ASSESS OR TAX COLLECTOR CONSTABLE | TO 3 F ROM EACH WA R D OR OR ! [.N EACH WARD 7 IF BORO HAS NO WARDS EXCEPT IN 3RD- | CLASS COUNTIES – OR W H E RE - PRES I DENT OF COUNCIL APP O INTED, 3 AUDITORS SEC RETARY TREASUR ER ELECTED BY COUNCIL O R F ROM ITS MEMBERS | CONTROLLER optiqnal ST RE ET FIRE eºne O H E ALTH E U R EAU OF §§§": - PLANN | NG ZON ING Mine inspection L BU LD 1 NG | If it, to PERForm T1 com Miss I on B OA R D. bºsºm º- | NSPECTORS T OPT I ONAL - - ANTHRAC IT E . BO ROUGH R EG | ON DUT | ES HEALTH OFF | CER F IGURE NO. 12 | creation of shade tree commissions and zoning and planning boards. In addition the commissioners have broad powers to enact ordinances and resolutions and enforce theme Elasticity in the government of first class townships is shown in the organization chart. The voters elect one commiss- ioner from each ward (of which there may not be more than 15) or enough at large so that there shall be at least five commissionerse A treasurer, assessors and three auditors or a controller also are elected. It is optional for the commissioners to appoint one qualified accountant as auditor. A secretary appointed by the commissioners completes the minimum organization. The first class township code, Act of June 24, 1931 P. L. 1206, section 150l., authorizes the commissioners "To create any office, position or department which may be deemed necessary for the good government and interests of the township . . . . ." Other sections specifically mention various offices or boards which the commissioners may create. Some of the optional offices which have been created in many first class townships are shown at the bottom of the organization chart. A provision of the first class township code utilized by only one township, allows the commissioners to adopt the mana- ger system of government by ordinance, but not by direct vote of the electorate • The commissioners may create the office of manager; and define his powers, auties, term and compensa- tion. They may delegate "any of their respective non-legis- lative and non-judicial powers and duties to the township 557 manager." The mandatory functions of boroughs are the same as those of the townships. Some small boroughs confine their customary activities closely to their mandatory functions, especially in years when the tax burden is unusually onerouse Boroughs may perform any optional functions of townships of either class, and the following in addition: Provide for putting electric wires underground. Manufacture and supply electricity. Operate gas wells for municipal purposes. Establish airports. Regulate weights and measures. Make annual appropriations up to $1,000 for municipal music, and up to $500 for municipal burial ground maintenance. Widen and deepen watercourses. Erect and maintain wharves and docks, Contract with street railways for the removal of tracks. Inspect mines as to surface support in the anthracite region • In the organization chart for boroughs the upper half of the chart shows the minimum legal organizations The lower half lists the optional offices and boards most frequently created. The borough council has a broad grant of power to create such addi- tional offices and departments as it sees fit. A majority of the boroughs have populations as small as the majority of second class townships. Ordinarily, howevers 558 the borough population is concentrated in a smaller area than that of the townships. Hence most small boroughs have been created to render governmental services which their residents could not so easily obtain under township government. Such boroughs commonly set up only the minimum legal organization plus a board of health, a fire company equipped or supported at least partially at borough expense, a borough water or sewer system, or a public markete The minimum borough organization does not differ great- ly from that of a first class township. Both have elected assessors and auditors or a controller and an appointed secre- tary. The elected township treasurer has the combined duties of the elected borough tax collector and the appointed borough treasurer. The high constable of the borough might well be dispensed Withe The borough council corresponds to the township board of commissioners. If a borough has no wards it elects seven councilmen; if there are wards, from one to three councilmen are elected in each. New wards may be created upon petition at the discretion of the Court of Quarter Sessions. The burgess, who has no counterpart in the township, may veto ordinances or resoluticns of council, although his veto may be overruled by two-thirds of council. He has the powers of a justice of the peace in enforcing borough ordinances and and in respect to riots, tumults, disorderly meetings, va- grants and disorderly persons within the borough. His princi- 559 pal auty is to preserve order, enforce ordianances and regu- lations, hear complaints, remove nuisances and exact a faith- ful performance of the duties of the officers appointede He also has charge of the police, and may suspend policemen with- out pay until the succeeding regular meeting of council. Council, however, has the sole power of appointment and re- moval o This division of authority frequently leads to friction between the burgess and council. The larger borouse, 49 of which are as large as the majority of third class cities, perform many more of their op- tional functions and have created a wide variety of offices. The borough law, permits appointment of a borough manager, to whom the council and burgess may delegate, subject to recall, any of their respective non-legislative and non-judicial powers and duties • Approximately 20 boroughs, most of which have 5,000 or more inhabitants, have exercised this option • In other boroughs another official, usually the engineer or secretary exercises approximately the same powers • ADMINISTRATIVE METHops. The administrative methods of local sub-divisions may be treated under five headings, namely, the supervision of ad- ministration, personnel methods, purchasing, accountine, and budgetary control • •. 1. Supervision - County commissions fix the tax levy for the county, and draw warrants for all payments of county funds • They share 560 their financial authority, however, with several other elective officers. They are required by law to pay prescribed salaries for many of the chief county officers and to appropriate money for many purposes over which they have no control • Professors Weaver and Alderfer found, for example, that in 1931 mandatory - expenditures of sixty-four counties ranged from 18.7 per cent of all expenditures in McKean County to 86.3 per cent in Mifflin County. In thirty five counties mandatory expenditures accounted for more than 40 per cent of all expenditures. Pro- fessor Carter arrived at similar findins, in his study of the expenditures of twenty-nine counties in 1930. Weaver and Alderfer list twenty-three varieties of public works projects where the commissioners share authority with some other agenicy. This may be a group of petitioning citizens, board of viewers, grand jury, judge or judges of the Court of Common Pleas or of Quarter Sessions, electorate, poor directors, controller, or such State departments as those of Health, Wel- fare, or Highways. Each elected officer is virtually supreme so far as control by any other county authority, except * Salary Board, is concerned. Supervision over some activities is exercised by administrative agencies of the Commonwealth, how- 6W 81° e The county controllers are largely responsible for seeing that expenditures are made legally. In the other countiés, the auditors annually examine the accounts of the county fiscal officers and of the directors of the poor where the poor dis- 56l trict is on a county-wide basis. Supervision of administration is much more centralized in townships, boroughs and cities, although in none of these units is there any single officer who is solely responsible for the conduct of municipal affairs. In townships of the first class and boroughs the administration of public affairs is ordinarily supervised by committees of the legislative body. Sometimes an appointed official, such as the secretary, engineer, street commissioner, or manager is allowed or dir- ected to exercise supervisory authority over all or most of the other appointed employes, and to supervise construction and maintenance of public works, subject to the direction of the legislative body. Where this situation exists the most efficient administration usually is found. Occasionally the president of council or chairman of the finance committee per- forms more or less the same duties. . In second class townships the three Supervisors are not over-burdened with administrative duties. Some confusion arises in third class cities because the council has administrative powers which are allotted to the individual members, while the mayor is authorized to supervice the work of all city officials. 2. Personnel Problems. The chief personnel problems have to do with selection and payment of officials and their tenure in office. There is no general provision for the selection of public officials on a merit basis except for some employes of the third class cities. 562 The worst situation exists in counties where the decentrali- zation of authority leads to over-staffing of many offices. Appointive positions in second class townships frequently are filled by the supervisors themselves. In first class town- ships and boroughs, officials originally chosen for political reasons often have a surprisingly long tenure in office. This depends to a great extent upon the ability of the party or faction in power to maintain its position. Even the civil ser- Vice commissions in third class cities usually are ineffective in securing the most competent persons for public office. Many exãminations given are so simple that nearly any candidate can qualify, and the provision whereby the appointing officer may nominate to council any one of four persons whose names are submitted by the civil service cômmission permits the appoint- ment of politically desirable candidates. The statutes sometimes provide minimum qualifications for specified officials. Thus the borough code provides that the controller shall be a "competent accountant". Unfortunately such terms as "competent" are subject to many interpretations. The fact that so many administrative officials are elected is another weakness of local government, especially in the counties. Voters are poorly equipped to judge qualifications of candidates for technical administrative positions. Persons so selected are prone to do their work poorly unless competent assistants are hired to do it for them. There is no uniformity in salaries for similar services. 565 Thus commissioners and supervisors of first and second class town- ships are paid on different per diem bases, while councilmen -in third class cities receive alaries within a range prescribed by law and members of borough councils are paid nothing. Borough treasurers, even in large boroughs, often are unpaid whereas in other boroughs they receive relatively substantial ~iaries. This situation is complicated by the fact that salaries of many local officials, including most county officers, are fixed by State law. Another factor is the fee system, which re- Sults in over-payment of some officials and under-payment of others. 3- Purchasing. There is great diversity in the purchasing methods in use in the various local government units. The wº- in each community is almost entirely optional with its legislative body. In counties, each department head purchases many of his own supplies with little or no centralized supervision. In amaller sub-divisions purchasing is commonly left to the committee of the legislative body in charge of a particular function. In cities purchasing bureaus are authorized by law but few, at least of the smaller cities, have them. Ordinarily each depart- ment head purchases his own supplies • Occasionally a city, borough or township empowers one officer to make or negotiate all purchases. Regardless of how purchases are made they must be approved and authorized by the legislative body. Competitive bidding is required, by law in the case of purchases involving 564 the expenditure of $500 or more. ** Accounting - Except in the case of townships, which are required to sub- mit uniform reports to the Department of Highways, there is Y1O unifornity in the accounting systems of any of the kinds of local governments. There are some units in each class which have excellent bookkeeping systems, which clearly reflect the financial situation of the unit • More commonly the only ac- counts kept are on a singie entry cash basis with practically no classification of expenditures. 5. Budgetary Control No satisfactory budgetary system is required by law for any of these kinds of local sub-divisions. Decentralization of the counties and diffusion of powers among the various officers make proper was and airtient. In the other kinds of units no person is made responsible for the preparation of a budget. In no class of units are public hearings required in advance of the adoption of a budget. In the case of the boroughs the code does not even mention budget making. Where the law provides that a budget be adopted or a tax rate fixed there is no uni- formity as to the date. Furthermore, only in the county and third class city laws is there any reference to budgetary con- trol of expenditures after adoption of a budget. Hence practices vary greatly. In many small units, most expenditures recur so regularly that it is satisfactory to fix the same tax rate with slight variations from year to year. This leads 565 Governmental-Cost Payments of Counties, Cities, Boroughs; and Towns, School Districts, Townships, and Poor Districts. 1932 |Totals expressed in thousands of dollars) Protec- Chari- tion to Health ties, COUNTY AND OTHER General person and High- hospi- CIVIL DIVISIONS Total govern- and sani- ways tais, ment prop- tation and erty COrrec- tions GRAND TOTAL 681,925 47,534 47,392 19,802 66,084 53,080 State government lé5,691 10,023 8,762 3,749 20,872 22,957 Counties (b) 80,418 18,763 2,476 307 9,539 ll,900 Cities, boroughs 219,705 l8,049 36,154 14,980 22,708 10,768 ańd towns (a) - School districts 167,046 699 766 Townships 19,845 12,965 Poor districts 8,315 7,455 Opera- tion and e :mainte- nance of public Schools service COUNTY AND OTHER Libraries 3ecre- Miscel- enter- Interest Out- CIVIL DIVISIONS ation laneous prises lays FERED FORI-Iggloſs—Egg- lo, 337 TEOS 55:005—IEETET- State Government 45,636 317 4, 270 2,810 4l,609 Counties (b) ' ll.0 737 l,917 _37 8,971 25,661 Cities, boroughs 3,524 5,744 5,622 9,556 32,222 60,398 and towns (a) School districts 149,806 l6l l,528 12,586 21,500 Townships l4 l,491 5,375 Poor districts 257 603 a. b Includes for cities, boroughs, and towns not reporting a distribution by departments an estimate based on the average for cities, boroughs, and towns of the same group. Exclusive of Philadelphia County - (Statistics from Financial Statistics of State and local Governments; 1932. Pennsylvania U. S. Dept. of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. 1934) 566 Revenue Receipts of Counties, Cities, Boroughs, and Towns, School Districts, Townships, and Poor Districts. 1932 (Revenue receipts expressed in thousands of dollars) COUNTY AND OTHER º TAXES CIVIL DIVISIONS Total Total General Licenses Special Property and Assessments Permits GRAND TOTAL 626,564 a481,255 b340,372 81,752 5,750 State Government 169,84l als2,639 - 73,508 Counties (c) 63,542 56,422 50,395 6,027 Cities, boroughs, 181,189 129,424 127,228 2,196 5,442 and towns School districts 182,452 139,353 139,353 - Townships 21,014 17,525 17,504 21 3O8 Poor districts 6,980 5,892 5,892 -- Fº Fines, for- Subven- Dona- Highway Earnings Earmings feits, & tions & tions, privi- of general of public escheats grants gifts, & leges, depart- service pension rents,& ments enter- assess- interest prises ments COUNTY AND OTHER CIVIL DIVISIONS GRAND TOTAL l,758 50,315 4,668 29,006 33,181 20,631. State Government 367 13,927 3,843 6,166 12,899 Counties (c) 432 90 53 1,634 4,904 7 Cities, boroughs, 887 2,120 755 18,852 4,635 19,074 and towns School districts 6 31,971 14. 2,231 8,877 Townships 66 l,842 2 71 1,187 13 Poor districts 365 l 43 ; 679 includes inheritance taxes and other special taxes for state purposes only. includes poll and occupation taxes exclusive of Philadelphia County (Statistics from Financial Statistics of State and Local Governments: Pennsylvania U. S. Dept. of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. 1934) 1932. 567 to serious difficulties, though it is frequently followed in the more populous and active communities. SOURCES OF REVENUE No State department publishes or even collects complete financial statistics of all the various sub-divisions of the Commonwealth. The Department of Public Instruction collects uniform statistics concerning finances of school districts, sufficiently detailed to be of great value. Townships are re- quired to submit similar reports to the Department of Highways. But while these reports must be made on uniform blanks, there is no required uniformity in bookkeeping methods. Cities and boroughs submit their annual financial statements to the De- partment of Internal Affairs. Few of these reports are com- parable at all and some are valueless. The most complete attempt to compile statistics concerning revenues and expenditures of local governments in Pennsylvania has been made by the Bureau of the Census of the U. S. Depart- ment of Commerce for the fiscal year, 1932. Unfortunately poll and occupational taxes are grouped with taxes upon real property in the table of revenue receipts. This group, of which the tax on real property constitutes by far the major part, supplied 79.3 per cent of all the revenue receipts of counties; 70.2 per cent of those of incorporated cities, boroughs and towns; 76.4 per cent of those of school districts; 83.3 per cent or revenue receipts of townships; and *.* per cent of those of poor districts, or 74.8 per cent of the total 568 revenue receipts of all the sub-divisions of the Commonwealth. Subventions and grants, mostly to school districts, account for 8.0 per cant of the revenue receipts of all the sub-divisions; highway privileges, mostly to incorporated placés, account for 5.0 per cent; earnings of general departments for 4.4 per cent; those of public service enterprises for 4.1 per cent and minor items for 3.2 per cent. Practically all earnings of public ser- vice enterprises accrued to incorporated places. Licenses and permits, which yielded only 1.8 per cent of the total receipts in 1932, have become of increasing importance since the repeal of the 18th a mendment. At the same time the yield from the general property tax is dropping sharply. LOCAL GOVERNMENT EXPENDITURES Expenditures of local units in Pennsylvania for govern- mental purposes in 1932 were 29.8. per cent for schools, in- cluding a small amount for libraries; 22.0 per cent for per- manent improvements; lo-8 per cent for interest; 8.8 per cent for highways; 7.5 per cent for protection to person and property; 7.3 per cent for general government; 5.8 per cent for charities, hospitals and corrections; 3.1 per cent for health and sanitation; l.9 per cent for operation and main- tenance of public service enterprises; 1.3 per cent for re- creation, and 1.7 per cent for miscellaneous purposes. Ex- penditures for outlays were not subdivided by the Bureau of the Census but ordinarily such expenditures are incurred chiefly for highways, schools, and charities, hospitals and 569 corrections • Outlays, general government, charities, hospitals and correcº- tions, highways and interest account for nearly all county ex- penditures, - in this order. In incorporated places, outlays for protection to person and property, interest, highways and general government were most important. Township expenditures ar. almost wholly for highways, while those of school districts and poor districts are self-explanatory • PROPOSALS FOR DEVELOPMENT Future development of local government in Pennsylvania concerns the proper size of administrative districts, the proper agency to perform certain functions, the proper degree of centralization of authority, the proper allocation and de- velopment of revenue resources, and proper accounting procedure. An administrative district should be of the size most suitable for efficient performance of its functions. This is not always easy to detertaine, but certain glaring cases of mal- adjustment are evident and should be corrected. There is no reason for the creation of a new separate school district whenever a new borough or township is created, nor for the continued existence of many small school districts. There is no more reason why a poor district should have the geographical boundaries of a township or borough. In view of modern means of transportation and methods of balloting, a survey should be made to determine which election districts are uneconomically small. Further steps might then 570, be taken to redistrict the State on a more scientific basis for election purposes • This would require the cooperation of the county judges, who under the present Constitution, have final authority in fixing the boundaries of such districts. It might also be advisable to c jamge te constitutional provision for the election of justices of the peace and con- stables in every township, ward and borough e Larger dis- tricts also are suggested for the minor judiciary together with a requirement that justices be trained in the law. An alternative to changing the size of existing govern- mental districts is to transfer functions • Suggested changes follow: - To transfer the construction and maintenance of high- ways from the townships to the Commonwealth, Since highway maintenance is now the chief function of the second class townships, such a step might easily lead to abolition of this type of unit • A less drastic step has been taken in Maine, where the state has assumed full responsibility for all local government activities in certain extensive but sparsely populated regions, abolishing the usual agencies of local government • A broader plan is the Wisconsin statutes which provides for county zoning. Typical zoning ordinances enacted under this law go so far as to prohibit family dwell- ings in forest regions • This makes maintenance of schools and, some roads unnecessary in such regions and reduces the unit cost of providing these facilities in other regions • 57.1 survey might be made of conditions in those counties of Pennsylvania which are steadily losing in population to de- termine whether either plan is adaptable here • Modern policing problems indicate the need for further ex- pansion of the State police system and, perhaps, even for the eventual relinquishment of this entire function to the CogInon- wealthe In "The Collection of Local Taxes in Pennsylvania, " . Pro- fessor Nicholson has shown that the present system of collect - ing taxes through locally 'elegted collectors paid on a fee basis costs the taxpayers of Pennsylvania from four to five times as Iuch as the taxpayers of Ohio w for the collection of approximately the same amount by a single official in each county who is paid a straight salary. This situation could be improved by authorizing the county treasurer or some other county officer to collect taxes levied by all subdivisions of the county. Similarly, the present decentralized system of assessing property, with its variations in rates, could be im- proved by more centralized control along the lines already provided for in counties of the second and third classes. Also, present procedure whereby property in cities of the third class is assessed separately by city and county assessors should be Changed a Substantial savings and increased efficiency in the con- duct of county affairs would result from a thorough reoremas- tion of county government, eliminating many elective officers 572 and vesting far-reaching administrative authority in the hanas of a strong executive. This, however, would require con- stitutional changes • Nevertheless, a number of county offices, particularly in the field of welfare have been created by the Legislature and may be abolished by the General Assembly. A survey should be undertaken to determine whether these welfare agencies, such as the Mothers' Assistance and poor boards, could not be merged into a single county-wide agency to prevent, duplication of effort and cut expenses.” • Neither the counties, cities, boroughs nor townships. have any real executive head, It would be aesirable to make one officer more definitely responsible for preparation of the budget, routine purchasing and personnel management. Civil service systems for the selection and promotion of em- ployes on a merit basis should be provided for the larger units and definite professional qualifications should be re- quired of all technical employee in all units. A complete investigation should be made to determine which mandatory laws are desirable and likely to continue to be sc, and which impose undue hardships. Such a study should determine what justification there is for the salary scales and fee bases now prescribed by law and should assertain whether such matters should not be left to local determination. #TFor fuller discussion see section on this subject. 573 The recent great increase in the scope of governmental activities, supported almost 75 per cent by taxes on real pro- perty, has placed such a tremendous burden upon property owners that increasing numbers are unable to meet their obligations. Hence current debts of the local government units are increas- ing rapidly and many units are in default on their bonded in- debtedness. As of June 25, 1934, thirty units were in default as to either bonds or interest, and the Bureau of Municipalities in the Department of Internal Affairs listed 97 other units waen had recently been in default but which had adjusted their obligations. - The situation has led local governments to demand more sources of revenue. Liquor and other licenses have helped some- what but have been inninetent. There are not many taxes capable of yielding substantial revenue which are suitable for local administration except the general property tax. Hence it probably will be necessary to levy either a State income tax or sales tax, or both. If this is done, there should be a careful investigation to determine whether it is better to leave the administration of the functions now performed by local units in their hands or to transfer some of them to the Commonwealth. A malar situation in North Carolina has led to a re-allo- cation of the functions of government whereby highways and schools are supported by the state from the proceeds of in- creased gasoline and income taxes. At the same time the state 574 created a Local Government Commission and a Director of Local Government. They have wide powers to supervise local finances, install uniform accounting systems, pass upon and market all bond issues, and pass upon the qualifications of municipal accountants • Their efforts have resulted in tre- mendous savings, improvement in the bond market for North Carolina local government bonds, and reduced interest rates. A Strong agency to pass upon the necessity for bond issues is a desirable institution, for one of the most burden- some expenses of local governments is the fixed charges upon the debts they incurred in more prosperous years when they should have been reducing their debts. PERSONNEL SUCCESTIONS "Accounting systems do not run themselves and adequate training and experience are essential to the proper handling of accounts and finances of local governmental units . In order to obtain the right kind of personnel, it is recommended that : "(l) Colleges and universities establish courses of study for training employes for local governmental units , "(2) Local government employes charged with handling ac- counts and finances be selected on a merit basis under some sort of civil service plane. "(3) Local government employes receive adequate salaries and be given a reasonable tenure of office. " (4) No financial or accounting employes be elected or be subjected to politics. - 575 ACCOUNTING SUCCESTIONS "It is recommended that some agency in the State govern- ment be given authority to prescribe the essential features for the proper system of accounts and procedure to be adopted by local governmental units. The writer believes the following essential features are uniºn resurants: "(1) Uniform System and Classification of Accounts . A reasonably uniform but flexible classification of accounts and system of records should be worked out by experts thoroughly familiar with the general requirements of govern- mental accounting and with the conditions present in this State • It woula, of course, we necessary to have somewhat airferent systems in different units. For example, a system of accounts suitable for a county could not be used for a borough. All systems and classifications should be made flexible enough to be readily adapted to local needs and conditions • "(2) Double Entry System of Books under Supervision of a Responsible Officials. The use of double entry principles of bookkeeping by competent employes gives some degree of assurance that all business transactions will be analysed in a complete manner, that coordination of all financial activi- ties in the records will be brought about and that proper financial statements can be prepared from the books • "(3) Fund Accounting. In governmental accounting it is important that funds be kept separate in the records and in - 576 fact. For example, if special assessments are being col- lected for local improvements or taxes are levied to provide interest and principal to retire bonds, it is important that such funds be kept intest and used only for the purposes for which such funds were created. Illegal transfers and bor- rowings as between funds have produced disastrous results in many communities • - "(4) Accrual Basis of Accounting. The essence of this basis is to account for income or revenue in the period in which it is earned and to account for expenses in the period in which the liability is incurred. This principle is to be followed regardless of when the actual receipt or disburse- ment in cash may occur. In other words each accounting period must stand by itself and reflects only the income earned and expense incurred in the period under review. Professor Lloyd Morey, an authority on Municipal Accounting, in an address to the Municipal Finance Officers Association, referred to the accrual basis as follows: "Its importance and its correct solution have been re- cognized, yet governmental accounting in general is still carried out on the cash receipt and disbursement basis. It is high time that governmental officers and public accountants took the matter in hand and settled it once and for all. No one would think of accepting cash receipts and disbursements as representing an adequate accounting basis for private business • No more should it be considered acceptable in 577 in public than in private business. Only by this method can an accurate exhibit be made of the operations of a given period and the resources and liabilities at the end of the period. "(5) Budgetary Control. A proper system of budgets and budgetary control should be worked out in conjunction with the general accounting system. This will provide an effective plan for estimating revenue and keeping expenditures within the revenue. It will provide for checking actual performance with the budgeted items of revenue and expense. "(6) Periodic Financial Reports. Accounting is not an end in itself but exists only because of the aid which it can render to messent, creditors, investors, public officials and taxpayers. It is essential, therefore, that periodic financial statemerits be issued at regular intervals. These statements should set forth in as simple and as clear a manner as possible the essential facts regarding the financial condition and operating results of the governmental units. The reports should be made monthly or at least quarterly for the guidance of adminstrative officials, creditors, bond- holders, citizens and taxpayers. The reports should include as a minimum requirement the following: "(a) Balance sheet showing a summary of all assests, lia- bilities and proprietory accounts for each fund, such as general fund, special assessment funds, sinking funds, etc. "(b) Statement of révenue and expense items in the various funds, together with supporting schedules of the de- 578 tails by departments and budget classifications • "(c) A summary of Cash Receipts and Disbursements by Funds, showing opening balances and closing balances recon- ciled with bank accounts. - "(7) Cost Accounting Systems. The local governmental units can profit much by establishing proper systems for cost analysis. The study of unit costs of various services and departments of governmental units will promote efficiency and economy. These costs can be compared with costs of prior periods, with costs of other governmental units and with pre- determined standards set in the budget for the year under re- view. Such systems to be of the greatest value must be co- ordinated with the general accounting system. "(8) government owned and Operated Institutions and Utilities • Where local governments operate colleges, li- braries, hospitals or public utilities, the accounting pro- cedure and standards for such enterprises should follow the best standards and practices in use by similar private in- stitutions or enterprises. "It is realized that certain -u school districts and townships may be too small to adopt all of the foregoing but the counties and most of the boroughs and small cities surely need these minimum requirements. AUDITING SUGGESTIONS "The present policy of electing auditors and paying them five dollars a day does not produce satisfactory results for 579 borough, township, schools, school districts and counties in Pennsylvania • The essential requirements are : "(1) to secure competent auditors. "(2) To prepare audits and audit reports in accordance with some standard specifications, "One way of obtaining competent men is to have the municipal auditing work performed by Certified Public Ac- countants. The work should be awarded on the basis of professional skill and reputation but not on the basis of competitive bidding, "Another plan is to have a staff of auditors trained and working under some office or bureau of the State. Un- less these jobs are held by trained men who are not sub- ject to politics the work will not be performed very satis- factorily. In New Jersey, only those who are registered and licensed as Municipal Accountants may make audits of governmental units. Licensee are issued annually by the New Jersey State Board of Public Accountants. Such a pro- cedure is in marked contrast with conditions in Pennsyl- vania. When the State staff is not large enough to do the job all at once, either the work must be spread over the year or temporary help must be obtained for the peak load. "Oné of the reasons for the wide differences in fees when bias are called for in connection with municipal audits is the character and amount of work which will be done by the various auditors. The only way to insure a 580 satisfactory audit is to establish some standards or speci- fications as to the scope and character of the investigation. to be made. It is understood that the National Committee on Municipal Accounting proposes to develop a standard program for Municipal Audits, REVISION OF LAWS "It will be appreciated that many of the foregoing suggestions cannot be adopted without legislation. I+, would seem, therefore, that a study of the legal sit- uation should be made by a committee of accountants with the aid of legal counsel. In the opinion of the writer the following are the major tasks of such a committee : "(l) Codification of such existing laws as seems desirable. "(2) Framing of legislation to require properly trained employes, proper accounting procedure and audits by Certified Public Accountants." GENERAL CONCLUSIONS The conclusion seems obvious that local governmental units in Pennsylvania need to be reorganized in terms of the functions to be performed. This reorgenization would involve a decrease in the number of existing units and layers of government, with increase in the quality of the leadership and personnel and re- duction in relative cost of administration. Many of the counties of Pennsylvania are now too small to perform with efficiency or economy the functions of county, gov- 581 ernment • Relatively few of the school districts of Pennsyl- vania are large enough either to provide or to administer ef- ficiently a modern program of educatione The number of school. districts could be substantially reduced with resultant large savings in the cost of education and large gains in the quality of the educational program, particularly in rural areas and small towns • In general, the problem of local government in Pennsylvania resolves itself into the organization and inte- gration of the subdivisions of government into fewer but more competent functional units, so that a re-distribution of powers as between the State and its subdivisions may be made on a basis which will at once insure efficiency and economy and at the same time, preserve the advantages of local participation and initiative • 582 A PLANNED Pacºus OF PUBLIC EDUCATION FOR PENNSYLVANIA* Foreward Any attempt to form a precise picture of our State program of public education ten years hence is unwise. Rapidly chang- ing social and economic conditions make uncertain both our future educational needs and our future educational possibilities, Our present wide-spread unemployment would normally tend to increase the demand for educational service, but such growth is opposed by the economic stress which restricts severely the educational service possible to maintain. The gradual mechanization of industry resulting in a grow- ing leisure for everyone, would, other things being ecual, tend to increase enrollments in schools and colleges. Whether such results will follow, however, will be determined largely by the degree to which educational opportunities offered succeed in meeting the every-day practical and cultural needs of the public. Moreover, the point of diminishing returns in public edu- cation remains to be determined. We have yet to ascertain just what per cent of our total population can be educated by soci- ety with profit to itself. We are divided as to what should constitute a foundation program of public education to #FFEEEFEGTSyTWTCESTTE, ETFECTOFTEEERSISTEucation Division, Department of Public Instruction, from material gathered by Committees of the Commission to Study the Ed- ucational problems of Pennsylvania, James N. Rule, Super- intendent of Public Instruction, Director. Mr. Castle was the Executive Secretary of this Commission. 585 be required for all. We are not agreed as to the minimum pro- gram of free public education to which everyone should have a right. Neither are we clear as to the extent to which the State should assume responsibility for higher education in a program of training for leadership. However, of some changes we may be reasonably certain. The projection of present trends will reflect, with some degree of accuracy, the direction of developments in the immediate future. Educational needs now apparent will tend to determine the organization, administration, and substance of public edu- cation in l945. Inequities now known will be partially or wholly corrected in the then current practice. During the past century since, the birth of free public education in Penn- sylvania, our changing philosophy of life has tended constantly to enlarge rather than to restrict the responsibility of public education for individual and social Well-being. Regardless of the many variable factors involved and the unanticipated educational demande and problems of the future, the adequate meeting of educational needs now apparent, and the correction of inequities now known, ºna constitute the ab- solute minimum of progress in the development of our education- al program which will be discernible ten years hence. Recognition is given to the members of the various study committees of the Commission for the Study of Educational Prob- ..lems in Pennsylvania, to the officials of the several bureaus of the State Department of Public Instruction, and to other 584 authorities, from the contributions of whom the conclusions and factual data of this report have been drawn without reserve. A TEN-YEAR PROGRAM OF EDUCATION FOR PENNSYLVANIA In education, as in any other public service, planning is essential to progress. We cannot very well arrive until we have decided upon our destination. We should know definitely where we want to go and quite as derinitely why we wish to go there. Prompted by these convictions, the State Superintendent of Public Instruction moved, in 1931, to develop for Pennsylvania, a ten-year program of public education. To this end, in June of that year, the Superintendent of Public Instruction appointed, with the approval of Governor Pinchot, a Commission for the Study of Educational Problems in Pennsylvania, as a first step in the formulation of such a program. This Commission consists of twenty-nine outstanding edu- cational leaders representing the various levels and depart- ments of education. The purpose of this study of educational problems, now continuing, is to secure accurately-determined facts as to our present and projected educational needs, as a basis for formulating a sound ten-year program of educational policy and procedure for the Commonwealth. 585 Under the direction of the Commission, major study com- mittees have attacked the problems of educational objectives and principles; of school administration; of school finance ; of teacher preparation; of school legislation; and of instruction- al programs and procedures in the fields of elementary educa- tion, secondary education, higher education, and extension education • As a means of directing the attention of the members of scores of committees and sub-committees now engaged in this study, the administrative objectives in education which are mandated for Pennsylvania by constitutional and legislative provisions were summarized as follows : Pennsylvania's Educational Charter For every child in Pennsylvania protection ºf his constitutional right to an education. For every child an understanding, competent teacher. For every child an adaptable educational program -- instruction and practice in how to become a com- ~, petent citizen -- training and guidance to do some part of the world's work well -- activities for the development of worthy home membership, wise use of leisure time, health, culture, and character • For every child a school term sufficient in length to enable him to profit to the full extent of his capacities from opportunities offered by education. For every child safe, sanitary, hygienic, and properly equipped school buildings and grounds. For every citizen of the Commonwealth provision for a continuing education -- to make up for oppor- tunities lost in earlier years and to provide means whereby the individual may adjust himself to new civic, social, and economic responsibilities • 586 These intended outcomes of the study of educational prob- lems now being prosecuted, supplemented by successive inventor- ies of a like nature, should establish a common philosophy with clearly-defined objectives, and insure to Pennsylvania the per- manent benefits of a planned program of public education for the Commonwealth. Chronological Development of Education in Pennsylvania It is of interest that Pennsylvania, celebrating at this time the conclusion of its first one hundred years of free public education, should inaugurate its second century of public instruction, by an inventory of the problems, policies, and achievements of its past as a basis for greater progress in the future. From the prevailine convictions of former genera- tions which found expression in constitutional and legislative provision, can be learned the policies and purposes which have brought our Commonwealth to its present greatness. The growth of a definite philosophy of education can be traced through successive years in a chronological chart to be found in an appendix to this section. In the legislative high spots in the development of public education in Pennsylvania, one finds the Source and basis of State responsibility for - l. A thorough and efficient system of public education for all children. 2. Protection of children in their right to attend school continuously until at least sixteen years. of age e 58? 3.” Universal secondary educational opportunities for all youth. 4. Teacher preparation and certification. 5. Equalized educational opportunity for all regardless of age, economic circumstance, physical handicaps, or geographical location- • * 6. Estáblishment and maintenance of minimum standards in public education. 7. Local organization and administration of public education. 8. State aid in accordance with ability to pay. 9. Special aid to financially-distressed school districts. 10. Higher education in training for leadership. ENROLLMENT IN FENNSYLVANIA * following paragraphs treat of enrollment trends in public schools and colleges within the commonwealth. Total School Enrollment - The public schools of Pennsylvania, for the school year l933-1934, enrolled 1,881,000 pupils dis- tributed by grades as follows, - Grade l - 196,000, Grade 2 - 180,000, Grade 3 - 183,000, Grade 4 - 184,000, Grade 5 - 183,000, Grade 6 - 179,000, Grade 7 - 182,000, Grade 8 - l69,000, Grade 9 l43,000, Grade lo - ll6,000, Grade ll - 91 9 O00 9 Grade l2 74,000. The curves submitted herewith show actual trends over the past ten years, and probable estimates, for the next ten years. With the uncertainty of population and economic conditions, any such estimate is liable to great error. In preparing these. curves predicting school enrollment for the next ten years, the following assumptions were made - 22! "O N Q \! ſhº \ ， •�� ov ALG GC € £ Nòımı onu LsNi olnand Jo LN-awlww.dagº vnnad (324.2 %© 2© 263|| €. 3O l. Mortality prior to school enrollment, promotion rates, and elimination are assumed to continue for the next ten years at the same rate as at present. 2. Inter-state migration of families is assumed to balance each other in the numbers of children of public school age. 3. It is assumed that there will be the same number of births per year during the next four-year period as there were in 1933 as indicated by the regularly recurring plateaus of the birth-rate curve for the Commonwealth. The projected curve in one figure indicates that if the birth rate and other factors are constant during the period 1935–1938, the total public school enrollment in 1944 will be approximately l,730,000. On the other hand, if the birth rate declines during this coming period at the same rate of decrease occurring in the period 1930–1933, and other factors remain constant, the total public school enrollment in 1944 will be approximately l,366,000. The second shows the actual public school enrollment trends from 1924 to 1934 by the following grade brackets, - l to 3 inclusive, 4 to 6 inclusive, 7 and 8, and 9 to 12 in- clusive. The actual and projected curves show the following trends: 589. Total Total Total Grade Enrollment Enrollment Enrollment Brecket, 1924 L934 l944. Grades l-5 644,000 558,000 330,000 Grades 4-6 533,000 547,000 380,000 Grades 7–8 255,000 351,000 269,000 Grades 9–12 214,000 326,000 387,000 It will be noted that during the last ten years Grades l-3 have experienced a marked decrease in number, this decrease tending to continue to about 1940, at which time it reaches its plateau of stability. Grades 4-6 have maintained, during the past ten years, an approximate uniformity in enrollment, showing a decided drop from 1936 to 1944 under the influence of resent decreases in birth rate. Grades 7-8 have shown a definite in- crease during the past decade, semina, having arrived at their peak in l933, which is maintained until 1937, followed by a corresponding decrease in enrollment. Grades 9–12, represent- ing the high school bracket, show a marked increase during the past ten years of approximately 52 per cent . approaching stab- ilization about 1936, Recognizing the many variable factors involved and their tendency to alter projected enrollments, trends shown by the actual curves should have an important bearing in future policies in sehool-buildings programs and teacher preparation. For the Commonwealth at large, the actual curves of enrollment during the past decade show a diminishing demand for elementary 590 €3] 'ON E \! nº) |8· ° N Q !. L'Oſſèſ. LSN | O ||Tºſheſ ºſo ¿Nº W.J.\?\/e）， O "N/NNſ ſeſ �O →|-�2��28|| OO OO ! ILNE WITT OM NE "JOOH^) S O I”. № ºne'; school accommodations and a rapidly increasing demand in the field of secondary education, while the projected curves in- dicate a continued decrease in demand for the former and the present peak as approaching the point of maximum demand for the latter. These trends suggest conservatism and a careful study of local conditions in school-buildings programs • These curves are not to be considered as a finished product, Corrections should and are being made for subsequent use in the final report. Total enrollment in colleges and universities - (Exclusive of State Teachers Colleges) – The actual curve of the figure show- ing total enrollment in colleges and universities, indicates a steady increase in enrollment from 55,000 in 1924 to 93,000 in 1930, arowing to ze,000 in lºca, rising to loa,000 in 1933, and falling to 93,000 in 1934. The projected curve shows a relatively small but rather steady increase in total enrollment of colleges and universi- ties from 1934 to 1940, at which time it is likely to reach its point of stabilization and thereafter, barring abrupt changes in social and economic conditions, will hover around 100,000. Total Enrollment in state Teachers Colleges - (Being studied - to be reported later). Total Enrollment in Extension Education - (Being studied - to be reported later). Emrollment in Special glasses for Handicapped Children - Data on special education classes for physically-handicapped 591 children are not available for the State at large over the period 1924-1934. In view of this fact, recourse has been made to the records of Philadelphia, representing at this time over 30 per cent of the total State enrollment in this type of public education. One of the accompanying charts indicates a rather constant increase in enrollment of handicapped children in these classes from 6,000 in 1924 to ll,000 in 1934. In view of the relatively recent attention to this aspect of the Commonwealth's effort to equalize educational oppor- tunity, few inferences can be drawn from the facts now avail- able other than that for the Commonwealth at large enrollment of physically-handicapped children in special education classes will continue to increase during the next decade in direct proportion to the provision of such facilities. Enrollment in Kindergarten Classes - Records as to kindergarten enrollment are not available for the entire Commonwealth. As indicative of state-wide demand, data as to this type of public education have been drawn from Philadelphia and Pittsburgh ex- clusively, which cities now enroll over 50 per cent of the total State registration in kindergartens. The curve of kindergarten enrollment shows a rather grad- ual increase from 16,000 in 1924 to 19,000 in 1930, followed by a decrease during the following year suggesting the influence ! of our falling birth rate. - Total Enrollment in Continuation Schools - Total enrollment in 592 �2| * O N ≥ ± fnº) 14 Noi LonelsNi ornand jo u Nawisvaag vnnad €$»2ţ»|?A1ºGº ſººCC - 202|COC629，2cz ºz§2 ſº 09 Sºlieſſneſ 3O SONwsnoHum §§§§Êoſ?I. LI?O O N | LNIE WNTTO}} N E g2I “ON Œ œ nº) | 8No 1.Londis Ni ornand go LN? WIL&vdao º vnnad ��CC20>|QOº62º?413292© 2 ||O\! Nº V1S TV lol do º Oe 83 AO JO SLS is Noo vì Heinzovni Heº Ni sº KINDER GARTEN EN Roll_MENT IN PHILADELPHIA AND P ITT's BURGH cons ISTs of over 50 °b of º - TOTAL STATE Kl N DERG ARTEN ENROLLM ENT O 1924 25 26 27 28 29 30 3| 32 33 34 PENNA. DE PARTMENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION F i GURE NO. 126 O continuation schools for the period 1924-1934 is shown in another chart. Continuation school pupils are those of that group of employed minors between fourteen and sixteen years of age, who, under the provisions of the Child Labor Act, are given work permits but required to attend school for eight hours each week, constituting an exception to the State com— pulsory attendance laws. The actual curve of continuation school enrollment shows a total continuation school enrollment for the Commonwealth of 49,000 in 1924 and a relatively constant enrollment to 1930, followed by a rapid and steady decrease to 6,000 in l934. In view of prevailing unemployment and the economic stress of the past five years, this rapid decrease in continuation school enrollment is a natural result. Pupils constituting the larger enrollment prior to 1930 have reached the upper age limit of the compulsory school attendance law and they have not been replaced because of continued attendance of this class of pupil due probably to inability to secure employment. Total ºnrollment in Horkers' ſºlucation - (Being studied - to be reported later). The Youth Problem in Pennsylvania - Outstanding among the edu- cational problems of Pennsylvania is that of our youth. Public school records for 1934 show that during that year, in Grades 9-12, 326,000 pupils were enrolled. The total enrollment in public secondary education for the school year l929–1930 was 296,372. The Federal Census of 1930 reported a total of 593 663,221 children of teen age in Pennsylvania who were not in any school whatever. The total number of high school graduates in 1933 was 64,533, while the number of college entrants for that year was 16,558. Including 1930, we have since graduated a total of 288,000 girls and boys from our high schools, and during the same period fewer than 20,000 have entered institutions of higher learning. The public schools have made an effort to provide occupa- tion for our army of idle youth by means of post-graduate courses, but the maximum number of these at any given time, slightly exceeding 6,000, was enrolled in 1933. Confronted by prevailing unemployment and a severe economic depression, the youth of Pennsylvania, for the greater part, can neither go oil to college nor find jobs. The influence of rapidly growſing leisure on this large group of the young manhood and vromanhood of Pennsylvania, with the social and economic significance of continued enforced idleness, during formative years, is a problem which should challenge the interest and aggressive attention of parents and citizens. CURRICULA AND METHODS OF TEACHING Definite and constant trends in curriculum making and in methods of teaching during recent years, promise a continued development along rather well established lines. 594 121°ON 3ùno13NO I L'Oſſèſ. LSN | O lººſheſ 4.O 1-N3 WN1\}Veſ 30 * \）/NN £ € ��| || №OC$'）;2 O º =IO SONV/S^OH.）. SONV/SnOH. 1N\-] N E TOO H OS NO |_L\/[^| N | NO I Lon №.1s N | O | T € nd 3O LN 3 WLM ve 30 * \）/NN 3ed 92|| ‘ON 28 nº) 1.48318 v no H.Lt» （J31.8\/nO Q \! E & 2.1× v no G NaJ3L&vno LSI (ºſo sº º 83 AO) Cºſo t’º Olºe O’9) Cºyo 6，9 O Lºot»， º) Cºx, cº w awon3.gbº ºdę&&&& D.CXX） ~~`---------|- - - - - - - - - - - - 0 • • • • • • • → • • •——• • • • • • • • • • • • º 26，6|| • \/|N\//\TlÅS N N ≥ c | A O\/\-] E_LITT I JO E ſ)\/LNIE O №. 3 c} Curricula - Curriculum making for three decades past has been characterized by a differentiation of courses in an effort to meet - individual needs. During this period the junior high school, offering a wide choice of subjects and exploring the interests and aptitudes of pupils, has shown a rapid growth. commercial education, industrial education, home economics, agricultural education, and the fine arts have been given a large and significant place in the program of public school offerings. - - So, also, the integration of subject matter under general- ized themes, in elementary and secondary grades, is effecting 8. consciousness in shildren of the interdependence of all mankind. Progressive-education schools now dispense with readings writing, spelling, arithmetic, grammar, drawing, and construc- tion classes as such , but in one general theme such as "the ship" will employ in a well-coordinated theme all of these fields of subject matter in a practical and effective use of life situations. In high school work general history, general science, general mathematics, and unified English have sprung directly from the integration movement. 'Methods of Teaching - The traditional group-recitation plan based upon a crude classification of pupils as to their ages and abilities, and at its worst consisting of its much-deplored "pouring-in" process, is rapidly giving way to a policy of direction of learning. The socialized recitation, in which a member of the class 595 takes charge, with the teacher in the background, and as chair- man conducts a general informal group discussion of the lesson assignment, has been found to eliminate the gestrictions and inhibitions of the formal recitation. This plan stimulates in- dependent thought, increases participation, develops the ability to compare facts, to discriminate, and to come to con- clusions. Its outstanding disadvantage, however, is that all members of the class, regardless of ability, must proceed over identical course content regardless of their interests and needs, and at a rate of speed uniform for all. Individualized directed study as a general method con- stitutes the other major line of divergence in methods and provides organized subject matter in units of work outlined in thé form of master sheets for the general direction of pupils in their study. This plan has the advantage of throwing each pupil on his own resources except as he seeks help from his instructor. It trains him in finding the information he needs and in utilizing it to the desired ends. It permits each pupil to Work at maximum capacity developing application and industry and enables him to progress as rapidly as possible. It , too, develops initiative, independence of thought and judg- ment, but it does not provide the wealth of social relation- ships nor the free exchange of thought and judgment possible in group Work. Mention should be made of the rapidly growing use of sensory aids as a basis for learning. Recent realization 596 © & \/ O £& Đ N | N N V”） eſ62] ^ ON 38 nº) ] + [\TO O H OS X, NV NI. LON SI | (6|| O.L. 171) H. LO O Å HO HT\/H V 1 H & T 3 Q \/ *| | H & SOIHg\/85DOIOOS experience has rized the fact that in this age of books neither spoken nor printed word can have meaning except as the in- dividual possesses some previous experience which will serve as a basis for understanding its meaning. This has led to the setting up of experience as one of the fundamental objectives of education. The major objectives of elementary education are 1CW recognized as being a reasonable mastery of the tools of - learning plus a broad experiential foundation. Consequently a greatly enlarged use of objects, specimens, models, graphs, the school journey, and pictorial and musical reproductions will characterize the future methods and techniques of teach- ing. Generally speaking, great strides will be made during the next decade in socializing both curriculum content and methods of teaching. More and more they will tend to draw from imme- diate environment the subject matter of course content, and increasingly they will duplicate natural living conditions as learning situations, developing in individuals qualities which will equip them for successful participation in community life and for making intelligent contributions to society. 597 TEACHER PREPARATION The function of preparing teachers for the public schools of Pennsylvania is now served primarily by thirteen state-owned Teachers Colleges and the Cheyney Training School for Teachers and fifty other approved institutions of higher learning within the Commonwealth. In 1934, the Teacher Colleges graduated 2,636 well-trained prospective teachers from a total enrollment of 8,549 students. Current Administrative Policies and Practices - Recent trends in teacher preparation are characterized by steadily rising stand- ards in the qualifications for faculty membership, in course con- tent, and in achievement required of students. Practically all teacher-preparation institutions require of faculty members a minimum training represented by the master's degree and at least three years of teaching experience in the public schools, Advanced entrance requirements, recently adopted, have in- sured in new teachers college entrants both proper personality and character,traits and a requisite educational background which have improved perceptably the quality of the student body. The adoption of a graduated four-year, preparation-level program for all teachers will eventually bring minimum require- ments for elementary school teachers abreast of those now re- quired for high school certification. It is significant that even in fourth class districts, em- ploying approximately 28,000 teachers, 28 per cent of these are 598 COLLEGE AND OTH E R H | GH ER INSTITUTIONS SOCIOGRAPHICS P H | L.A. D. E. L. P. H 1 A POST GRADUATE H IGH SCHOOL SPECIAL TRAIN IN G TEACH ING-STORE - O FF 1 C E FACTORY TRADES AND OTHER EMPLOYMENT AT HOME AND OTHERS - LARGELY UNEM PLOYED WHAT HAPPENS TO H | GH SCHOOL GRADUATES f PLAN N | NG FIGURE NO. 3O B O A R D now college graduates and 98 per cent have had two years or more of special training, whereas in 1930 but 92 per cent had two years or more of such training. in recent years a general distribution among state teachers colleges of responsibility for teacher preparation in special subjects and fields, has been supplanted by specialization in certain institutions, of training for teaching in such fields, At this time we have three state teachers colleges maintaining specialized courses of teacher training in art, three institutions do likewise in music, two in commercial education, three in health education, two in library, two in home economics, and one in kin- dergarten education. In-service training of teachers is carried on by meafhs of summer schools, extension courses, , institutes, and Saturday- afternoon classes • Future developments in teacher preparation will be influ- enced by the trend away from specialization and toward general- ization in keeping with the modern conception of learning. For the same reason, equally broad training will be required for ele- mentary end secondary certification. Higher standards of mental, spiritual, and physical fitness willfbe required of those regis- tering for teacher training and, in keeping with the integration movement and trends in our changing concept of education, our present narrowed specialization will probably give way gradually to a broader and more diversified educational background as a * fundamental requirement for certification. 599 Teacher supply and Demand - In a report made in 1932 by the Com- mittee on Teacher Preparation of the Commission for the Study of Educational Problems, evidence was submitted showing that the an- nual turn-over of teaching personnel required annually the certi- fication of 5,500 to 7,000 new teachers. While some excess of supply of trained teachers over demand was at that time apparent, it was shown that this excess was due largely to a preponderance of secondary school teachers. While making no specific recommendations as to the number of required teachers, it pointed out that the current enroll- ment of students in state teachers colleges was generally in harmony with the determined annual demand for new teachers, and that whatever excess of teachers existed over the demand, this represented a wholesome condition allowing for selective pro- cesses in the appointment of teachers, which should be constantly operative. Becommendations of the Committee on Teacher Preparation - The following constitute in brief the recommendations of the com— mittee on teacher preparation of the Commission for the study of educational problems in Pennsylvania: I. Recommendations as to qualifications of teachers and the salary schedule • l. The minimum standards for admission of students to approved teacher-preparation curriculums in approved teacher-preparation institutions should be the same for all such curriculums. 600 2. Required qualifications for certification should be uniform for all teachers irrespective of the age levels or children taught, of the different subjects taught, and of the different classes of school districts in which teaching is done. 3. The minimum salary schedule should be uniform for all teachers irrespective of the age levels of chil- dren taught, and of the different subjects taught, and of the different classes of school districts in which teaching is done, 4. That the present minimum salary schedule of teachers be changed to provide smaller annual increments over a longer period of service tending to stimulate self-im- provement of teachers after appointment, and providing a suitable reward for faithful service • - II. Further recommendations regarding minimum standards for the approval of teacher preparation institutions were submitted cow- ering the following items: Demonstration of need for additional facilities for the preparation of teachers, uniform admission requirements for all teacher preparation institutions, adequate cur- ricula, a minimum faculty personnel, adequate training school facilities, appropriate dormitory faeilities, a sufficient budget, and minimum library, laboratory, and gymnasium facilities. 6Ol LOCAL SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION Pennsylvania's present school district system may be shown somewhat in detail by the following tables: Classification of School Districts by Po ation and * Number of School Districts, lº2-35° Class of Number of School District, Total Population Districts First, 500,000 or more 2 Second 30,000 but less than 500,000 2O Third 5,000 but less than 30,000 259 Fourth less than 5,000 2,304 * Statistical Research Studies, number 9, Department of Public Instruction, - Number of Teachers and Pupils Per Director by Class of District, 1932–1933* Class Number Number Number of Number of Of Of . Of Teachers Per Number of Pupils Per District Directors Teachers Director—Pupils Director First 30 ll,805 3594 422,407 14,080 Second L8O 8,681 48 265,094 l, 473 Third l,813 18,918 LO 618,056 541 Fourth ll,520 33,481– 3—788.884 63 * Statistical Research Studies, number 9, Department of Public Instruction. From the first of the two foregoing tables it is apparent that of a total of 2,585 school districts within the Common- wealth 2,304 have a total population of less than 5,000 people each. Of the latter, 34 school districts maintained no schools and employed no teachers, transporting resident children to ad- joining school districts. The smallest school district in Pennsylvania that conducted schools had an average daily attend- ance of 10 pupils during the school year 1932-1933 and a total population according to the United States census of 1930 of 33 persons. One-half of all the school districts in the Commonwealth had an average daily attendance of less than 245 pupils per dis- trict. The census shows that 1,200 school districts had a popula- tion of less than 1,000 per district. The second table shows that in all fourt-class districts the average number of pupils per director was 63; and the average number of teachers per director was 2. During this year (1932– 1933) there were 631 school districts each of which employed fewer teachers than they had school directors. A compilation of areas of the school district, of the Commonwealth shows the average school district of the Common- wealth to be a theoretical square only slightly in excess of four miles on each side. tº Records for the school year 1932-1933 show a total of 6,105 one-room schools within the Commonwealth. 798 consolida- tion schools, tending toward elimination of one-room schools and the creation of larger local units of school administratic y G@3 enrolled last year approximately loo,000 pupils. Teachers and Average Daily Attendance by School Districts - The following tables indicate the inadequacy for school purposes of the present school district wet- of the Commonwealth: Teachers by School Districts, l932-1933. Number of Teachers Number of Districts Per Cent Total 2,585 O 34 le3 l ll.8 4.6 .2 l63 6.5 3 l4l 5.4 4 l'75 6.8 5 18O 7 - O 6 183 7. l 7 l52 5.9 8 156 6.0 9 l32 5 el lO lC2 3.9 Over lo l,049 40.6 The above table shows that 34 school districts maintained no school's and l,536 school districts have lC teachers or less. l, 424 school districts, or 55 per cent, have no high schools. Number of School Districts by Average Daily Attendance Average Daily Attendance. Number of Districts - Total . . 2,383 O-24 95 25-49 l51 * 50-99 296 lCO-l99. 6O7 200–299 4l6 500–399 218 400-499 l47 500-999 354 lC)00–l499 - ll.9 604 Q & W O £| C | ‘ON E 8 (nº) ] + © N | N N \/ *leſ !\E HOWN L-EºD LOOE. · TOO HOS O L \HE H_L\-|\/- Oº) N.E.|\-|G|T|HO †79，6|| || V | H & "Tº Q. Vºn | H & SO|He}\/\.jſ)OİOOS This table shows that 542 school districts have an average daily attendance of less than 100 pupils and that 2,383 school districts have an average daily attendance of less than l,500 pupils, l0 high school teachers represent an approximate mini- mum as a faculty for offering a program of high school educa- tion with a reasonable choice of courses in accordance with pupils' interests and needs, but such a high school of 275 pu- pils is representative of a school district having a population of at least 5,000 and an elementary school enrollment of at least 800 pupils, and a total school enrollment of over 1,000. From the above table it is obvious that of our 2,585 school dis- tricts, 2,264, or more than 87 per cent are too small to maintain a high school program with reasonably fair offerings with some degree of economy • Of the 2,031,441 pupils reported as enrolled in the school year 1932–1933 only 70,734 were classified as non-resident or tuition pupils. For the school year l929–1930 the total second- ary school enrollment was 296,372. The Federal census reporting for that year a total of 663,221 children of teen age in Penn- sylvania who were not in any school whatever suggesting the in- fluence of our present small local school district upon high school enrollment and presenting an apparent lack of equalizes educational opportunities. Unequal Educational opportunities - Due largely to the smallness of local units of school administration there is a prevailing lack of educational opportunities for our girls and boys through— 605 out the greater part of the Commonwealth. To recognize this one needs only to compare our total number of school districts, (2,585) with the number of school districts actually offering a choice of educational opportunities as indicated in the follow- ing: Four-Year High School - 948 School districts Commercial Education - 430 school districts Wocational Education - 291 school districts Agricultural Education - ll 5 school districts Home Economics Education - L72 school districts Industrial Education - lºC school districts Industrial Arts Education - 347 school districts Special Education Classes - 87 school districts Evening Schools - 65 school districts Evening High Schools - 24 school districts The present school district system is for the greater part a continuation of the original political districting plan cre- ated for the Commonwealth more than 100 years ago. Despite the rapid imporvement during the past three decades of transporta- tion facilities, Pennsylvania continues to ignore these advan- tages and the growing educational demands of this day and age • The automobile and the improved roads with transportation of pupils have reduced distance to at least one-fourth, Today children can go farther in the same length of time and get IIICIfe e - General Recommendations as to School Administration - The following summarizes briefly the proposals as to school admin- istration arising from the recommendations and deliberations of the Committee on Local Unit of School Administration, the Executive Committee of the Commission for the Study of Educa- 606 -º-º-º-º- -- PROPOSED consol-IDATION of school Districts PERRY COUNTY 9 - Schools closed or TO BE CLOSED UNDER NEw consolidation PLAN. Dº! PRoPostd consolidation — No Buildſ NG or Pos ITIVE Location PROVIDED FOR . . |_ PRoPostd consolidation — where: PRESENT BUILDING, or Buildings, - CAN BE USED . D euilding To BE REPLACED on PREs ENT Location. tº Building To BE RETAIN ED. PENNA. DEPARTMENT of Pue Lic instruction F IGURE NO. I 32 .. tional Problems, and otherse le 2 * 3. 4 • 5. 6. 7 e There should be a re-organization of local school districts to provide administrative units suffi- ciently large to make available in an economical manner to all resident youth, educational facilities offering a complete educetional opportunity through- out the elementary and secondary school levels. In the creation of larger local units of school administration generally, transportation facilities and social, economic, and topographic aspects of contemplated areas should constitute the deter- mining factors. The creation of larger local units of school administration should be attended by a re-organiza- tion of all attendance areas involved in order to eliminate, as largely as possible, the duplication of effort and overhead within the unit, The larger local unit of school administration should be of sufficient size and strength to provide adequately for all administrative, supervisory, and teaching functions, and should result in trained leadership, increased local initiative and re- sponsibility, and further decentralization of authority, Convenience in the administration of larger local school districts will be enhanced by adherence to civic boundary lines or election precinct lines, but such units, if necessary in order to provide a desired school population and adequate strength or to define a natural community area, should include an entire county, or all or parts of two or more counties, Economies and advantages obtained by the creation of larger local units of school administration will be furthered by the employment of the four-quarter plane The greater equalization of educational opportunity made possible by the larger local unit of school administration will be furthered by an extension in length of the day, secondary-school program with staggered assignment of teachers and pupils making the extension evening secondary school a true ex- tension of the day secondary school. 6O7 8. The economies and advantages of the larger local unit in equalizing educational opportunity should be furthered by cooperative development, as needed, of joint projects in commercial education, industrial education, special education, parent education, post-graduate study and like public education services • 9, State responsibility for public education and State provision for financial aid, as needed, to supºort a minimum program of public education warrants the mandatory creation of larger school districts and required annexations necessary to an economical and effective equalization of educational opportunity for alle lo. The creation of larger local units of school ad- ministration with resulting problems of transpor- tation of pupils, bonded indebtedness, disparity in local ability and effort, and like issues should be attended by simultaneous inauguration of the fiscal policies recommended by the committee on school finance • SCHOOL FINANCE * An accompanying figure shows the actual curve of public school expenditures in Pennsylvania, exclusive of capital out- lay and debt service, from 1919 to 1933 inclusive. These ex- penditures increased steadily from approximately $65,000,000 in 1919 to $149,000,000 in 1932, followed by a rather sharp decrease to $137,000,000 in 1933. The expenditures for the year ending 1932 do not include accounts payable, which totaled more than $5,600,000. At the close of the year ending lº33 accounts payable amounted to more than $9,000,000. Many of the accounts payable include current expense items. To avoid duplication tuition for non-resident pupils is not included in the expenditures for the years 1932 and 1933. The average costs per pupil in average daily attendance for each year from 1919 to 1933 are presented in the following table, which shows that costs per pupil rose steadily from 1919 to l829. From 1929 to 1932 these costs show a slight drop. The costs in 1933 compared with those of 1932 show a drop of approximately 10 per cent. * School Finance Report prepared by D. E. Crosley, deputy superintendent in charge of the administration of finance, Department of Public Instruction. 609 AVERAGE COST PER PUPIL IN THE STATE's PUBLIC SCHOOLS Total current Average expenses cost Total Average cost. (excludes per School Expenditures per pupil capital out- pupil year for all (Total lay and (current ending purposes expense) debt service) - expense) 1919 $75,343, l00 $57.4l $65,555,008 $49.95 1922 129,344,699 89,29 90,889,655 62.74 1926. 181,392,646% ll7.00% 121,640,870* 78.46% 1929 206,652,321* 128,47% 140,256,285* 87.19% 1931 208,901,253” 122., 30% 148,337,459% 86.84% 1932 204,494,512* 117.83% 148,792,253* 85.73% 1933 181,609,097* 137,039,068% 77.lok 102.17% #TEEE tuition In 1921 the Edmonds Act, providing for specific State appropriation to school districts maintaining salary schedules which meet minimum legal requirements, became operative. The net enrollment in the public schools increased from 1,583,187 in 1929 to 2,028,441 in 1933. The total enrollment of high schools, grades 9-12, increased from 148,240 in 1920 to 408,051 in 1933, an increase of approximately 175 per cent. The enrollment in, the high schools, grades 9-12, in 1920 was 9.3 per cent of the total net enrollment and increased to 20.1 per cent of the total met enrollment in 1933. The increase of approximately 260,000 high school pupils required the addition of approximately 10,000 high school teachers, and otherwise increased the cost of maintaining schools. Growth 6:10 OF CAPITAL OUTLAY AND DEBT SERVICE 1919 20 2 I 22 23 . . 24. 25 26 . 27 . 28 29 30 3| 32 33 JPENNA. DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION - F! GURE NO. 133 of the junior high schools, increased cost of living, better qualified teachers, enriched curricula, and improved super- vision also were factors in the steady rise of expenditures. Small School District Operating Costs The cost of operating schools in the smaller districts has been a matter of concern for a number of years. The next table shows the median cost per pupil in average daily attend- ance for current expenses and instruction in districts organ- ized as boroughs, operating elementary schools only, having elementary school terms of lé0-170 days and having less than 100 pupils, in average daily attendance. These costs are dis- tributed on the basis of the number of pupils per teacher in the various school districts, 6ll MEDIAN COST FER PUPIL IN AWERAGE DAILY ATTENDANCE FOR GURRENT EXPENSES BASED ON AWERAGE DAILY ATTENDANCE GROUPS FOR SCHOOL, DISTRICTS MAINTAINING A TWELVE YEAR SCHOOL PROGRAM, 1932 i E-E-E Average daily atterſdance group Districts ** Median Cost Under loC) 15 $lll,67 ICO-l99 77 77.8l 200-299 - - 117 66el? 300–599 78 64.31 400-499 - 67 65.9l 500-999 198 67e.8l 1000-1999 l6l 72,50 2000e–2999 48 75,00 3000-3999 - 28 80,00 4000-4999 l4 76,00 The cost per pupil tends to decrease as the number of pupils per teacher increases. The median cost for current expenses in districts having 10-19 pupils per teacher is approximately twice that of districts having 35 or more pupils per teacher. The cost of instruction in the districts having 10-19 pupils per teacher 1. 220 per cent higher than the median cost per pupil for districts having 35 and more pupils per teachere 612 ț» € | “ON © \} nº)]:9Noſ Lonwisnı örnend go LN a w Laevdad · v NN3e |- O ÇAL• Qę2 -OĢ2•'O O |OO! NAO”Tºº O. | Tºnnº go w wau. Awg oºr�Nulyº 3 do$T OOH OS AT NO MEDIAN COST PER PUPIL IN AVERAGE DAILY ATTENDANCE FOR CURRENT EXPENSES AND INSTRUCTION IN SCHOOL, DISTRICTS, ORGANIZED AS BOROUGHS, HAVING ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS ONLY, AN ELEMENTARY SCHOOL TERM OF leo-l'70 DAYS, AND AN AWERAGE DAILY ATTENDANCE OF UNDER 100 PUPILS, DISTRIBUTED ON THE BASIS OF PUPIL-TEACHER RATIO, 1932 Pupil-Teacher Median Cost Ratio Districts Current Expenses. Instruction 10-19 2l - $65.83 $51.67 2O-29 52 47.50 38.28 30-34. 2O 40.00 30.00 35 and over 26 33,00 23,53 The foregoing table presents the median cost per pupil in average daily attendance for current expenses for districts maintaining a twelve-year school program. This table in- dicates that under conditions as they were in 1932, current expenses in districts having an average daily attendance less than l90 had a higher per pupil cost than did districts having an enrollment of 10,000 to 10,999. A comparison of median costs in districts having less than 400 pupils in average daily attendance shows that costs are higher in the smaller districts. In districts having more than 400 pupils costs tend to increase because the larger districts generally provide a longer term, a more elaborate curriculum, better paid teach- ers and other advantages that are usually not found in the smaller districts. Gºlò Sources of State Revenue Appropriations to the public schools are was from the State "General Fund," source of maintenance appropriations for various governmental activities and institutions, The General Fund was accumulated during the two years be- ginning June 1, 1931 from taxes assessed on such items as in- heritances, capital stock, insurance premiums, sales, corporate loans, mercantile and other licenses, times and penalties, institutional revenue, and gross receipts of those engaged in transportation, generation and transmission of power, private banking, and promotion of boxing and wrestling exhibitions. Nearly one-third comes from taxes on inheritances, while the levy on capital stock raises more than one quarter. The per- centage contributed by other items is relatively small in each instances - The following table contains a record of the major appro- priations by the General Assembly for the l933-35 biennium for the operation of the public schools and the education of the deaf and the blinde (In determining the amount available for a given year, divide the appropriation by two.). 614 Appropriations for Public Schools 1935–1955 biennium Item Reimbursement to school districts on basis of teachers' salaries, etc. Emergency appropriation for financially distressed school districts Transportation Education of deaf and blind Salaries and expenses of county and assistant county superintendents Vocational education Miscellaneous subsidies Training vocational teachers Amount $53,000,000 5,000,000 2,500,000. l,060,000 l,046,000 700,000. 217,000 90,000 The following table specifies appropriations for other educational activities: - Appropriations for Warious Educational Activities 1933-1935 biennium State aided colleges and universities $7,317,000 Public school employes retirement system 7,195,000 State teachers colleges - 3,000,000* Administration, salaries and expenses including examining boards l,l:30,000 State-owned institutions - 482,000 State-aided institutions - 375,000 State Library and Museum 210,000 Former teachers - lă5,000 Board of Censors - 130,000 Historical Commission - - 20,000 #TTEIHOTESTERET3,000,000,TEREFSGSIES OFTthe ESECREFs colleges from student fees will be used in the colleges for operating expenses. Distribution of State Appropriations State appropriations go to the various school districts on the basis of teachers' salaries. The amount is based upon population, the true value of taxable real estate, as deter- mined by law, and the minimum teachers' salaries as prescribed by law. Nothing in the law prohibits paying salaries greater than the minimums prescribed. In addition to the reimbursement on the basis of minimum teachers' salaries, the State also compensates school districts for part of the cost of transportation. To promote consolida- tion of schools, it pays to districts of the fourth class $200 a year for each elementary school that is closed permanently. 616 Thus, paradoxically, it actually pays $900,000 a year to keep the doors of 4500 schools closed while it grants addition- al. sums to keep schools open in financially distressed dis- tricts. In the latter instance the money is allotted during the 1933–35 biennium from a fund of $5,000,000 appropriated by the General Assembly. A part of the high school tuition in certain districts comes from this same sources The State also pays tuition for non-resident pupils placed in a district by order of court or by some other duly author- ized child-placing agency. When deaf or blind children are placed in a State-owned school or a school approved by the Department of Public In- struction, the State pays 75 per cent of the cost of tuition and maintenance while the local district pays 25 per cent of the cost of these items. Minimum salaries required for county werintenant. and assistant county superintendents are likewise paid by the State. They also are allowed necessary expenses for travel- ing. If the County School Directors' Association, which elects a county superintendent, should vote to pay him a salary greater than the minimum salary, the portion of his salary in excess of the minimum is paid out of the school fund apportion- ed to the school districts over which he has supervision, before the fund is distributed. Determining the Amount of State Aid Among the 2305 school districts of Pennsylvania with a 617 population of less than 5,000, the assessed valuation of real estate per teacher in One district is more tiºn leo times that of another district. The State subsidy for public schools to the poorest dis- trict is only one and one-half times more than that to the wealthiest district. The wealthiest of these school districts receives from the State 50 per cent of the minimum salaries prescribed for its teachers; the poorest district receives 75 per cent. One school district during 1933 levied no property tax but another school district had to levy a 53 mill tax. The range of difference in the amount of State aid paid to school districts is not comparable to the range of difference in their relative abilities to support public schools. Whether the "so called true valuation" per teacher is $5,000 or $50,000, in all school districts where such valuation is $50,000 or less, the State pays 75 per cent of the teachers' minimum salaries. A five mill property tax levy in the poorest district will produce $20 per teacher. The same tax levy in the other dis- tricts will produce #250 per teacher. In determining the amount of State aid due a school dis- trict under the present plan of distribution, the following three variable factors appear: l. The assessed valuation of real estate 2. The reported rate of assessment 3. The number of teachers employed 618 SOCIOGRAPHICS P H | L A D E L P H ! A EMEI) III WEALTH | EST 4TH CLASS SCHOOL DISTRICT STATE AID TO SCHOOLS EMEMEI) III Ö POO REST 4TH CLASS SCHOOL DISTR CT WITH 433 T. M. ES T H E A E, I Li T Y TO SUPPORT | TS SCHOOLS THE WEALTH | EST RECEIVES FROM THE STATE Two THIRDS As MUCH AS THE Poor Est INEQUALITY OF STATE AID PLAN N | NG FIGURE NO. 135 3 O A R D. Inequalities or inequities in real estate assessments are reflected in the amount of State aid paid to school districts. No responsibility has been placed on the Commonwealth relative to real estate assessments because the State levies no real estate taxes. With the increase in state subsidies to school districts and assessed valuation of real estate a factor in determining the amount of such subsidies, increasing need has developed that the State require real estate assessments on a scientific basis. The school board secretary, although required to report the rate of assessment, usually has no accurate information upon which to base his estimate. His report is largely a matter of guess-work. The higher the guess, the more State aid for the district. A statement from officials who have authority in connec- tion with making esseement, Would have more weight than from parties who have no connection with matters of this kind. The School Law gives the local board of school directors full authority to employ teachers. The greater the number of . - teachers, the greater the amount of State reimbursement for the district • - One hundred school districts qualified for a higher rate or state reimbursement for the two years beginning June 1, 1933 than for the two years beginning June 1, 1931 because of an increase in the number of teachers. In at least one-third of these districts there was no increase in the number of pupils. 619 In one school district the average number of pupils per teacher is nine while in another district the average is fifty-two. Weaknessess in the plan of determining the "so called true valuation" per teacher have developed so the number of dis- tricts getting the highest rate of reimbursement has increased rapidly as indicated in the following table: School Districts with Population of less than 5000 Rate of State Reimbursement 50% 60% 75% Number of - Number of Number of Biennium Districts Districts Districts L927-29 llā2 876 323 1929-31 lové 873 379 1931–33 990 880 46l 1935-35 854 - 845 593 School Districts with Population ſº º º of 5,000 but less than 30,000 35% 60% 75% 1927–29 177 36 2 L929–31 165 47 3 L931-35 l62 5l. 2 ll 1933-35 l&l 66 FINANCIAL DISTRESS AND SPECIAL STATE AID Owing to the excessive load carried by real estate under our tax system, a financial crisis has arisen in hundreds of our school districts. Anticipating this emergency, the General Assembly of 1931 appropriated a special aid fund of $1,250,000 for financially distressed school districts. The General 620 Q\!\/089€| ‘ON TEY） (DºD|...}* © N | N N V”） eſ [\ C| \/OT TOO HOS E HUL SE |\-|\！|\/O E L\/ _LSE T \/E|\-| HITV3 M VINwATASNN3d w | H & n g d wºn | H & ŞOIHdWºłłº)O1OOS ETTE Eā E. H） TV， ANA FT € 150 N V 1 NI«»: （.I.V.Lºr | *（\/?！!?!！! |ſ=} Assembly in special session in 1933-1934 appropriated an ad- ditional special aid fund of $5,000,000 for this purpose. For the last half of the school year 1933–34 after this $5,000,000 fund was made available for financially distressed school districts, 720 school boards made application for re- lief. Five hundred and twenty-six of the applicat ions Were approved and $2,430,000 was allotted for the payment of overdue teachers' salaries, high school tuition and other current ex- penses • A New Plan for Distributing State Appropriations A recommendation has been made that the state 8. SSUIſºlò responsibility for financing a "foundation program" of educa- tion---a guarantee of a specified length of school term and adequate standards. In order te assure this, no school dis- trict should be so impoverished that it is unable to offer something in addition to that provided by the State. To illustrate, the cost of the plan might be fixed at $1200 for each elementary unit. If a school district were unable to meet the expense with the proceeds of a five mill tax, the State would make up the difference. If a district raised $400 per teaching unit with a five mill tax, the State would pay such district $800 for each teaching unit. - A teaching unit would represent a group of thirty-two elementary or twenty-eight high school pupils. Each one-room school and each special class Would be considered a teach- ing unit. The number of pupils required for a teaching unit (321 GENERAL CONCLUSIONS AS TO CURRENT TRENDS l. In view of the certain continued mechanization of indus- try, with resulting unemployment and leisure, and anticipating economic recovery, enrollment in schools and colleges will very probably continue to rise during the next decade above the points indicated by the projected curves submitted in this report. 2. The eventual istribution of required labor, resulting in greater leisure and a longer period of parental care for chil- dren, will tend to increase the period of school attendance for the average child. 3. The enrichment of curricula with broad differentiation of C Oll].” S6 S of study to meet individual needs will be expanded, and will be achieved, particularly in the interest of smaller high schools, by means of individualized directed study, effecting marked economies in the instructional costs of such schools. 4. The integration movement in curriculum building and directed-study trends will tend to influence teacher-prepara- tion policies in a definite swing from recent narrowed special- ization toward a broader generalization of both general and specialized training, 5. Trends in curriculum building and methods of teaching will tend to effect equivalent required preparation and a uniform minimum salary schedule for all teachers irrespective of fields of 'instruction, of grades or subjects taught, and of . class of sehool district in which teaching is done, 622 6. A growing appreciation of the vital importance of attract- ing to the teaching profession the finest. character and per- sonality, the broadest culture and training, and the deepest human sympathy and understanding, will tend to increase rather than diminish the rewards given for efficient teaching service, and will tend to provide in the interest of Pennsylvania's children a constructive continuity of teaching service through suitable guarantees of tenure for those serving successfully in the capacity of teacher. - 7. The principle of an equitable distribution of free public service will demand increasingly greater equalization of adu- cational opportunity. This will come through provision for a wide differentiation and enrichment of courses and curricula of public day schools, and through the development of school exten- sion, university extension, and library extension facilities. 8. The demand for a greater equalization of educational opportunity and the pressure for stringent economy in public school administration will tend to establish within the Comon- wealth local school units sufficiently large to encompass and maintain within each of such communities the complete twelve- year program of public education. 9. The urgent new for greater efficiency in school ad- ministration will effect greater emphasis on educational counselling and vocational guidance, tending to develop a scientific analysis of common elements in individual trait.s and skills, and the creation of appropriate prognosis tests as a basis for intelligently directing the pupil's choice of studies and a vocation, 10. The principle of the water good to the greatest number will tend to emphasize mass or integrating education for social competency rather than preparation for college en- trance and leadership training, as the major objective of public schools. ll. Prevailing unrest incident to all periods of rapid social and economic change will direct attention to the vital necessity of adequate training for the intelligent and construc- tive participation of the individual in community, state, and national life, and will tend to e-maize the importance of a more effective assimilation of foreign-born residents, of the eradication of illiteracy, and of citizenship training as fundamental safe-guards, of democracy. 12. The threat of increasing leisure to dissipate and neutralize the efforts of formal pºlic education to develop constructively the youth of Pennsylvania, will tend more and more to impose upon educational agencies responsibility for the planning, supervision, and control of community environment and of safe recreational programs. 15. The problem of Pennsylvania's growing army of idle high school graduates and the selective–admission policy of colleges and universities, demands the development of post- high school educational facilities for high school graduates who are under-privileged or of the lower quartile brackets 624 by an extension of the public school program beyond the present twelve-year range, by the creation of a system Of readily accessible junior colleges, or by other means. l4. The growing appreciation of the loss to society due to lack of higher educational opportunities for talented but, under-privileged girls and boys, will tend to establish a system of state scholarships which will, by subsidy, provide for this group the training necessary to secure for society the contributions which they are equipped to make. 15. The gradual shift of wealth from the form of real and personal property to that of stocks, bonds, and other intan– gibles, remune in a preponderance of the latter, demands 8. revision of the taxation system of the Commonwealth which will distribute equitably the cost of public education and establish adequate and stable sources of revenue. - - 16. The continued concentration of wealth in certain areas and the principle of arl equitable distribution of the cost of. free public service will necessitate the assumption by the commonwealth of a much larger share of the cost of public education. 17. An equitable distribution of the local cost of public education will necessitate a state—wide system of uniform tax- assessment rates, a uniform maximum school law if and as re- sured to maintain the mandated foundation program of education in an school districts, supplemented by state aid if and as needed to maintain that program. # 625 19. Financial stringency and over-crowding in public schools will tend to introduce the four-quarter plan of public education with controlled vacations of pupils, automatically increasing our present school—building capacity approximately 30 per cent. 19. Current economic stress and increasing demands for greater efficiency in administration will tend to stimulate the study of educational needs and planning, and will tend to effect the enlistment of all public educational agencies and facilities in a coordinated and more efficient program of public education for the Commonwealth. l- 2. 7. 8. MAJOR OBJECTIVES - CONSTITUTING A TEN YEAR PROGRAM OF EDUCATION A larger local unit of school administration. Greater differentiation and enrichment of high school courses and curricula. Individualized directed study and integration as the bases of teaching methods and technique. Uniform required qualifications and minimum salary schedules for all public school teachers. Tenure of office for public school teachers. Greater equalization of educational opportunity within the limits of a mandated foundation program, for all regardless of age, economic circumstance, physical handicaps, or geographical location. A scientific and enlarged program of educational counselling and vocational guidance. The utilization of the four-quarter plan, with con- trolled vacations, to increase the capacity of School buildings. G25 9. Increased educational opportunities for high school graduates. - lo. A more effective assimilation of foreign-born residents. ll. The eradication of illiteracy. 12. State subsidy of higher educational opportunities for talented but under-privileged high school graduates. 13. Social control through a planned program of directed recreation for Pennsylvania's youth. 14. An equitable distribution of the local cost of public schools. 15. Tax revision with uniform assessment rates and uniform maximum required school tax levies, and providing adequate and stable sources of school re'Wellulee - 16. State aid of public schools, if and as needed, based on ability to pay. 17. A more effective coordination of existing educa- tional agencies and facilities • Gonclusion In the foregoing, an effort has been made to indicate as briefly as possible the more urgent problems only which now confront public education in Pennsylvania, and to summarize those major objectives only upon which there is now, for the greater part, general agreement. Many related aspects of local and State school administration and finance are now in the process of being studied for inclusion in the final report. The increased cost of transportation of pupils involved in the proposed larger local unit of school administration; the present demand for teachers in the various fields and subjects as indicated by the actual current employment of such teachers; 627 ways and means of effecting an equitable adjustment of the present bonded indebtedness of the different school districts which would form a larger school district; what number of pupils should constitute the proposed teaching-unit, what unit sum of State aid should constitute the proposed teaching-unit quota, and what differentiation, if any, should be made to apply to varying population and school enrollment, - these, and many other issues having a direct bearing upon the policies and provisions of State planning and development, should have careful study. In some respects, however, present evidence is unmistak- able. For the greater part, our smaller school district represents poorer school building facilities, imsevate equip- ment, ineffective supervision, and inefficient organizati n due to small school and class enrollments. Paralleling these de- ficiencies are higher instructional cost per pupil and corres- ponding losses, for which an increased State aid is allowed. It seems obvious that the reorganization of our present system into larger local units of school administration, and a complete revision of our State aid policies are imperative. other proposals submitted in this report are largely dependent upon these adjustments as first and basic steps. Through them Pennsylvania can secure for itself a better educational service at the same cost, or an equivalent educational service at a lower cost. It is doubtful whether the Commonwealth can justify a continuance of its smaller local units of school administration and the consequent excessive price paid for a relatively inferior public education service. 629 should be sufficiently small to assure a district's having credit for supervisors and teachers of special subjects such as music, art, and vocational education. The desire to reduce the tax load on real estate is growings- Demands for additional State appropriations for education are increasing. If our children are not to be denied their constitutional right to an education, there must be a revision of our system and sources of school support. 630 APPENDIX Chronological Development, of Education in Pennsylvania l681 – Penn's Charter provided for a committee on education "that youth may be successively trained up in virtue and useful knowledge and arts," — Permanent universal education. 1685 – Seeond Colonial Assembly provided for universal compulsory education in elementary subjects. – Compulsory education. - 1776 – New State Constitution stated that "a school or schools shall be established in each county by the Legislature." — State responsibility for creation of educational opportunities. 1786 – Appropriation for Dickinson College and a provision for a fund for the endowment of public schools. – State support of public education and state aid of leadership training. 1802 – 1804 – 1809 – "Pauper school acts" provided a limited amount of free education for children officially labeled as paupers. — The inauguration of free public instruction for under—privileged classes. 1824 – First free public school act. Repealed in 1826 before being put into effect. - 1854 – A second free public school act establishing a free public school system with the Secretary of the Commonwealth as Superintendent of Common Schools. – Inauguration of free public education for all. 1856 – Authority granted Philadelphia to establish a high school. — The beginning of free public high schools in Pennsylvania. 1858 — Law providing definite state aid to academies and colleges. – Crystallization of principle of state aid of education. 631 l849 – 1854 1857 1873 1887 - 1893 – 1895 – 1901 – Teachers certificates first required; age limit of children raised from 4 to 5 years; and minimum school térm increased from 3 months to 4 months. – State control of public education. Act of 1854. Established school district, system and county superintendencies; specified duties of school directors; and repealed provision of state aid to denominational common schools. - Further development of policies as to state responsibility and state prerogatives. Provision for the establishment of state—aided Normal Schools. – Inauguration of state responsibility for teacher training. Constitution of 1875. Legislative stipulation that "the General Assembly shall provide for the maintenance and support of a thorough and efficient system of public schools, wherein all the children of this Commonwealth above the age of six years, may be educated and shall, appropriate at least one million dollars each year for that purpose." – Recognition of state responsibility for maintenance and support of an efficient public education system for all children. Legislation regarding high schools. - Further recognition of high schools as integral part of State Program of Free Public Instruction. Extension of privilege of maintaining high schools to all boroughs of five thousand or more population. — Further development of free public high school education. First compulsory attendance law. - Definite inauguration of policy of required foundation program of education for all. Compulsory attendance required for children from eight to sixteen years of age, with certain exceptions for thirteen to sixteen-year age group. - Increase in compulsory school age. 632 1903 – First minimum salary law. Further state control of 1905 1911 1911 l91l l92l 1925 educational interests of its children. High School Act requiring districts not maintaining a high school to pay high school tuition of its pupils in another district. - Equalization of high school educational opportunity. Code of 1911. Legislation regarding district organization, certification and salaries of teachers, length of school term, high school education, taxation, and other related matters. — Aggressive exercise of established state responsibilities and prerogatives. - Provision for the purchase of Normal Schools by the State. — Transition from partial state responsibility in teacher training to complete control of teacher- training functions and institutions. Legislation exempting children having completed six grades of public school work and from fourteen to sixteen years by work permits only. - Established exception to blanket compulsory school attendance. The Edmonds Act. Provided state aid for all school districts on bases of population and ability to pay contingent upon maintenance of certain minimum standards. - Further recognition of state - responsibility for a mandated foundation program of education for all of its children, and acceptance of the principle of ability—to-pay. Legislation regarding extension schools and the education of handicapped children making such schools and classes an integral part of the state program of free public instruction. – Established the right of all residents to the current foundation program of free public education, regardless of age, economic circumstance, physical handicaps, or geographical location, and made instruction of foreign-born , residents in English and citizenship an integral part of state program of free public education. 633 1927 – Legislation permitting the use of public school buildings for the maintenance of junior colleges. – Recognized growing need for expansion of public education program. 1931 — Permissive legislation regarding the maintenance of kindergartens as a part of the public education program. – Recognized the interest of communities in the well-being of children below the school entrance age of six years. 1935 – Legislation appropriating special aid to financially distressed school districts. - Further recognition of the responsibility of the State for the maintenance of a mandated foundation program. 634 A PLAN FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF PENNSYLVANIA LIBRARIES* Even at the peak of prosperity, one-third of the citizens of Pennsylvania were without local library service. The Keystone State ranks, second in population, second in wealth, second in in- dustrial output, but occupies a much lower rank in its provision of public libraries for its people • Careful surveys showed that 3,500,000 Pennsylvanians had no access to a public library. Twenty-three communities out of sixty-seven with 10,000 to 25,000 inhabitants, and fifty-four towns out of lo3 of 5,000 to lo,000 inhabitants were without lib- raries. The rural districts had almost no service, and five Small counties were found without a single library. In many others the only existing agencies were so small and their funds so inadequate that they were libraries in name only. When millions of Pennsylvanians were deprived of their daily occupations by the depression, nearly a million of them turned to these struggling libraries. Some came for books which Would help them prepare for a different type of work, some to ad- Vance their education, while the compelling need of diversion he material for this report and the points of view expressed are those of the State Planning Committee of the Pennsylvania State Library Association. This Committee consists of Miss Gert- rude MacKinney, director of the State Library, Harrisburg, chair- man, and the following eminent librarians: C. Seymour Thompson, University of Pennsylvania; Herbert B. Anstaett, Franklin & Marshall College; Miss M.E. Crocker, Annie Halenbake Ross Library; Professor William W. Dennis, the Pennsylvania State College; Miss Susan Himmelwright, B.F. Jones Memorial Library; Carl W. Hull, Dubois Public Library; Alfred D. Keator, Reading Public Library; Willard P. Lewis, The Pennsylvania State College; Dr. Ralph Munn, Carnegie Library of Pittsburgh; Miss Isabel McC. Turner, Allentown Free Library; Miss Florence A. Watts, Osterhout Free Library; Miss Susanne Young, Pennsylvania State Library. - - 635 brought others. During the period between l929 and l933 the number of library borrowers increased 20 per cent, and the number of books borrowed grew by 24 per cent. In the face of this enormous growth in demand, library funds were cut an average of 23 per cente Salaries, heat and light took most of the funds, and expenditures for books dropped to an average of six cents per year per inhabitant--the price of two or three newspapers. Unable to purchase new books, or to replace old ones as they wore out, librarians watched their collections dwindle under excessive use. Besides the depletion of book stocks, the placing of many libraries on a part-time basis of opening, and the entire closing of others, featured the depress- ion years. Increased demand and decreased funds tell the whole story of libraries during this period. With the present trend toward shortening hours of labor and spreading work, a greater margin of leisure is assured. Thus a continued and even increased demand for library service seems certaine. Other trends which will enhance the need of the edu- cational services of libraries are becoming known. With reduced birth rates, adults will comprise a much larger proportion of the population; with an over supply of labor, young men and women will probably enter industry at an older age and thus have more time for study and readings - The trend of the times thus demands the diffusion of know- ledge among adults and the wholesome recreational reading which 636 GROWTH IN HOME USE EAC H F |G U R E = | M | LLION OF PUBLIC LIBRARIES Ü PEN NSYLVAN IA 9 №.1 ° Q N B \} nº) 13A\]\/\ſ] º JT 3 LV JLS * \）/ N N º cº &£ €«»€ 26 ] §§īööāſ šīÖJTÖNWWËöſöÑīWööſöſöİŞİööĪŠ ŠīÖÖā'īÖ"Nöj can best be supplied by public libraries • sconomy demands that library service be developed with the least possible burden upon the taxpayer. With a view to planning the future expension of Pennsylvania's library facilities in a way which will bring both economy and efficiency, the following questions must be considered. Practically all of our public libraries are organized for service to town units, and almost all of our larger public li- braries are now controlled and financed by cities or towns. Some of the disadvantages of this system are: (a) small cities and towns have low assessed valuations and cannot raise a sufficient fund from a reasonable tax levy, (b) suburban areas are likely to use the city library without contributing to its support, and (c) the small towns and rural areas are left without service. The organization of libraries on a county-wide basis was the first answer to these problems, but it has not been widely adopted. Although we have had a county library law since 1917, only six counties have organized libraries and none of them is given adequate support. The trend now appears to be against county governments; their elimination or the combining of counties to make larger units is advocated. Terms of endow- ments, charters, and local preference will probably always re- strict some libraries as to their present forms of organization. Wherever possible, however, the libraries of the future should certainly be planned to serve an area which is at least larger than the city or town. Whether it be a newly designated region, 637 a combination of counties, or the single county, is a question which IIeeds close study. The effort must be to find a unit of administration which is large enough to yield adequate support from a reasonable levy, yet small enough to permit localized supervision and service. Finances are of course the crux of the whole problem. In Pennsylvania the public library's revenue comes from the general property tax as levied by municipal councils or boards of edu- cation. It is no secret that taxes upon real estate have about reached the point of diminishing returns - higher levies might result only in greater delinquency. In 1931, Pennsylvania recognized its obligations to help in the support of public libraries when the Legislature enacted a bill giving State aid to county libraries in the less populous counties • This wise principle must be extended to give much more generous aid to all public libraries • The basis upon which State aid is given to schools, that is, in inverse ratio to the community's own ability to raise funds, is perhaps the fairest method upon which State aid can be apportioned. Any scheme of State aid should preserve to the community such freedom of action in controlling the library as will incite local interest, initiative and pride. The Federal government's interest and support is now being extended to many activities which were formerly thought to be out- side its scope. The American Library Association has asked the Federal government to recognize the inevitable inequalities in 638 Q\, \’Oº.6€ | ° ON E 8 (nº) | -} ºÐ N ! N N V ºrieſ w Jl. În O H 1 I NA \ w | Hd ºn 3 Q y n | H & SO|He} \789O|OOS VI Nw^TAS NN 3d 3.TdOBc} T \/\]|[^\-] CJN \/* NVGB n ×JOJ 301A83 S A&vwgIT O Ing na !\SNOS83d OOO OO€ = 38 nº I.J Hovy? T1 \/ *|^ ^{ N \/ E \! (n. Oţ» | * ON 38 nº) 13 £ € 920 | € 263 || Å\!\/\）] © IT 3.LV/19 *\/N N.3e3 3&d THE LIBRARY COMES HOME TO THE PEOPLE HAS DOUBLED TS VAt UE TO THE COMMUNITY BY ACCEPT - .# County BRANCH is lºw G TH E A D OF COUNTYW 1 DE OF TEN Low IN cost, AND SERV CE. SMALL IN SL2[E YET STRONG & IN SERV ICE AND GREAT IN IN FLU & N.C.E. 5,573.2°ºs Su_j - B t; - [T] To the UN ion School. As A BRANCH * % */ LibRARY IN A County Library SYSTEM 3:35 2%|2% COME EAGER ºo R ROW ERS OF BOOK3 , , | * * FROM M | L:S AROUND , &- º *** , , ºf SU - ". & ... .2 s sw.ºr sº: - -*. --> sº º <-- T --w *. ** -ºš y &’ º --- ** - t THE County Librari AN comes an INolno witH HER FRESH Sū PPLIES OF GOOO ... OokS FOR T & E - * * * BRANCH Lis RARY AND THE SCHoou, AND of PER1NG |*|†: ſh QX PERT Aſſºv IC& AN ID A$$ ISTANCE TO TH J LOGAL. Room School is =-zººlººl.c Ltº RARIANS on H &R Route . FoRTuin Art: THAT º • * * *- HAs A Count Y . ~ *. *-ºs. - |-- - *N-. = -\lu- * -- - — — ſº- - V/~ • * WHY 5Houllo THE FARM House ––– a 3 B& OEN i EO THE GOOD BOOKS W H CH ==>|<ºpagal- ºf- ARE FREE ro ALL in the city 7 : - Sº, --- X: .2 § Sº, --~~ x-rvi v ------" - TH is VI LLAGE Liara RY THE STORE ON THE MAN STREET MAY ALSO BE A LIBRARY STATION. THE RURAL Post Offic E |MAY ALSO SERVE THE PURPOSE of A D STR tº UT't NiG STAT ON FOR LIBRARY Books. 3 *n_- =C. C ~ THE Town HALL, some - TIMES PROVIDING, S PACE FOR A BRANCH LIBRARY, SOME - Tim LS THE HEADQUARTERS of A Country L-1BRARY SYSTEM . Lic RARY TO DE PEN ID ON FOR Constra NT SUPPLIES OF GOOD READING . FIGURE NO. 4 | # library facilities in the several states, due to inequalities of taxable resources, and provide financial aid for libraries. From all sources, local, State, and Federal, Pennsylvania libraries must be assured of an income of not less than $l per year per inhabitant. This amount, determined after a careful study by the American Library Association, is based upon the purchasing power of a lºC dollar and is to be considered as a reasonable minimum. With this income, Pennsylvania could cover the bare spots on its library map, ana wins real life to the existing libraries which are unable to meet the heavy demands for service now being made. No system of public libraries can operate successfully with- out a strong State Library to supplement and coordinate its Services. In addition to its function as a great reference and repository library, the State Library must be prepared to aid in organizing and counselling local libraries, and acting as a clear- ing house for inter-library loans • Satisfactory library service can be attained only through a Well-trained professional personnel. To insure this high calibre of personal service, certification of librarians, based on edu- cation and experience, must be provided. The libraries of our educational institutions must be includ- ed in any study of the book facilities of Pennsylvania. Provision of public school libraries is the direct responsibility of local boards of education, and for their guidance the Department of 639 Public Instruction has devised certain standards of operation. Ef- ficiency and economy demand, the closest cooperation between public and school libraries • Public authorities are not responsible for the development of most of our university and college libraries, but their importance as centers of research and study should be recognized. 640 6\! O & & & 2 e s a g º e s a ||f|| | i. | | | | s—º-2, u, § & R & e s & e o o s " o & PER CAPITA RECEI PTS - 200 LIBRARIES - PEN NSYLVANIA STATISTICs TAKEN FROM REPORTs of 200 PUBLIC LIBRARIES. 19 °ſo $ too PER CAP (TA \ AND OVER. 62 °ſo o to 50¢ PER capita *Q | 9 °/o 5o Ç To $1.oo P E R C A P ITA W.] PEN NA. STATE L J B RARY F1GURE NO. 43 PUBLIC SOCIAL WELFARE Many grave problems facing the Commonwealth must be solved by the Department of Welfare. The care of mental defectives, in and out of the State's mental hospitals; child welfare, with its problems of the development of family service and study of the needs of a child away from the home; and the seemingly end- less questions concerning social security - the care of the aged, the blind, the deaf, the chronically ill, as well as correctional matters, poor relief and mothers' assistance, are among the most importante In the field of social service activities, population changes are vital in affecting policies of administration in coping with existing needs and in planning for the future, Many of them have been anticipated by the Pennsylvania Depart- ment of Welfare, as is evidenced by old age and blind pensions • mothers' assistance, improved institutional and clinical ser- vice, new methods of poor relief, community service for better- ing family life, and intelligent planning for decreasing the tendency to follow crime which accompanies mass-livings The slowing up of population growth will not mean, for some time, a lessening of social welfare activities • Rather * Material from the Department of Welfare, with population in- formation prepared by F. Herbert Cooper; mental health section by William C. Sandy, M.D., director, Bureau of Mental Health; child welfare section by Mary S. Labaree, assistant director, Bureau of Community Work; social services by Helen Glenn Tyson, director, Bureau of Community Work; correctional by Dr. B. L. Scott, director of the Bureau of Corrections and probation by Mrse Gertrude Marvin Williams, Secretary, Probation Committee e 64l it is an opportunity to méet existing needs and to formulate a plan for a more thorough treatment of state-wide welfare problems, such as is here suggested by assembling reports made to the Secretary of Welfare by the experts in that Department. MENTAL, HEALTH PROGRAM (Some Special Factors and Features in a Long-time Plan.) A long-range plan for meeting the problems presented by mental patients in Pennsylvania involves a number of special considerations. Included are population trends, already dealt with in this report, and the resultant need for modifying hospital districts from time to time; the effect of certain policies, such as the State's attitude on complete State care for the mentally ill; and the ever present but increasingly difficult budgetary situation. Mental niness In the field of the mentally ill, a distinct trend toward complete State care has developed. This is largely the result. Of high standards of treatment and care afforded by the State mental hospitals as contrasted with the more limited facilities of the county institutions, which are mora or less inadequate and are becoming an insupportable burden to the counties. The ten-year building program of 1927 now requires a re- study based upon factors and trends which were not wholly anticipated. Certain districts of the State show remarkable diminution in population, others unexpected increases. Are 642 ș»ț» | * O N B \} nº 18a svºnaw so LN=wl&vdao ºwn Nad †»C6||CC6||· 1926||€26|| O èH 3 eſ these changes due to temporary shifts in population, because of economic stress, or to more or less permanent movements which will necessitate a modification of hospital districts? With the probable gradual adoption of complete State care and the designation of suitable County institutions as new State cen- ters, the hospital districts will then have to be changed. Overcrowding in the State hospitals is again becoming a serious problem. It was largely being eliminated by the com- prehensive building program of 1927, which has been discon- tinued in recent years. No district is wholly free from overcrowding, but the Southeast, complicated by the deplorable conditions at the Philadelphia Hospital for Mental Diseases at Byberry, the Torrance district serving the West and the Warren district serving the Northwest, are especially serious. The needed expansion of hospital facilities if delayed too long, will force the abandonment of the creditable policy of re- ceiving all mental patients needing hospital treatment and care. It may also restrict admissions to those who are troublesome in the community. In the interests of all mental patients, such a backward step must not be considered. Long-time Planning to Relieve Hospital Overcrowding Relief from overcrowding in institutions and preventing the development of such deplorable conditions can be brought. about only by long-time planning and a comprehensive con- struction program. Such a program must take into consideration not only the needs of a single institution as such, but also 643 its requirements in relation to the State as a whole. Certain trends and contemplated policies encourage op- timism as to the future. A growing adequacy in psychiatric social work has resulted in greatly increasing the number of State mental hospital patients on parole and the ultimate recoveries. The possibilities in this field are still incom- pletely utilized in a number of hospitals not having an ade- quate staff of social workers. The boarding out of suitable mental patients in carefully selected private homes is under consideration. If the necessary amendments to the mental health law, now being studied, are finally enacted, this may result ultimately in provisions for hundreds of patients in the community who Y1OW have to be maintained in hospitals. The process will be a slow one, however, with no immediate prospect of relief in this manner for the overcrowding of institutions. With the mental hospitals so crowded, general hospitals, which often have a large percentage of unoccupied beds, should realize their opportunity and responsibility in respect to mental patients. General hospitals, if provided with psychiatric consultants and nurses with mental hospital ex- perience should be prepared at least to admit for observation patients pending commitment and for the intensive study and treatment of selected cases, probably of short duration. The state mental hospitals housed on May 31, 1934, 130l patients seventy years of age or overe Those seniles who may 644 * № №va "№ AA BO LN z W. Lº Veſ? Q * \）/NN 3e4 "Oſ Leſ º "i leſ EÂ"SEA! 10:13， C, ºn V_LN E. W. W ººi * O N E Mae ſnº)! 8 º nw Nad L. ）ºsºivaelleſ sOH invols) & nºs º T \，) JG 3 W O 's LN3 nòNIT 3 G x*S*?\/]Lle. S OH “1 VJL. 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