THE
LONDON ENCYCLOPEDIA.
VOL. XIII.
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J. Haddon, Priuter, Castle Street, London.
THE


LONDON ENCYCLOPEDIA,
OR
UNIVERSAL DICTIONARY
SCIENCE, ART, LITERATURE, AND PRACTICAL MECHANICS,
COMPRISING A
POPULAR VIEW OF THE PRESENT STATE OF KNOWLEDGE.
I LLUSTRATED BY
NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS, A GENERAL ATLAS,
AN D APPROPRIATE DI AGRAMS.
Sic oportet ad librum, presertim miscellamei generis, legendum accedere lectorem, ut solet ad convivium conviva
civilis. Convivator annititur omnibus satisfacere; et tamen si quid apponitur, quod hujus aut illius palato non
respondeat, ethic et ille urbane dissimulant, et alia fercula probant, me quid contristent convivatorem.
Erasmius,
A reader should sit down to a book, especially of the miscellaneous kind, as a well-behaved visitor does to a ban-
quet. The master of the feast exerts himself to satisfy his guests ; but if, after all his care and pains, something should
appear on the table that does not suit this or that person’s taste, they politely pass it over without notice, and commend
other dishes, that they may not distress a kind host. Translation.
BY THE ORIGINAL EDITOR OF THE ENCYCLOPAEDIA METROPOLITANA,
ASSISTED BY EMIN ENT PROFESSIONAL AND OTHER GENTLEMEN.
IN Twenty-Two volumEs.
VOL. XIII.
LONDON :
PRINTED FOR THOMASTEGG, 73, CHEAPSIDE;
sold BY N. HAILES, PICCADILLY : E. WILSON, ROYAL EXCHANGE ; J. MASON, CITY ROAD ;
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1829.
Aº.
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ca
//-7-3-2-
THE
LONDON ENCYCLOPEDIA.
LINE, n.s. Fr. line; Lat. linea. The
LIN'EAGE, lº of a mathematical
LIN'EAL, adj
point: extension longi-
* *indinally ; limit : hence
LIN'EAR, adj. sketch; outline; marks or
LINEATION, n.s. J features of the hand or
face; contour; an extended thread or string;
family, ascending or descending; and, particu-
larly, the equinoctial circle; a rank, or disposition,
of soldiers; a trench, or work, in fortification;
as much as is written, or printed, from margin
to margin in a book or manuscript; a verse; a
measure of extension, containing one-tenth of an
inch : lineage is race; progeny; family: lineal,
containing or composed of lines; in direct de-
scent; hereditary: lineally, in a direct line: lineal,
composed of lines: lineation, lineal form; draught
of a line, or lines.
And it hadde a wall greet and high hauynge
twelue ghatis, and in the ghatis of it twelue aungelis
and names writen yn that ben the names of twelue
lymagis of thesones of Israel. Wiclif. Apoc. xxi.
Their line is gone out through all the earth; and
LIN'EALLY, adv.
their words to the end of the world. Psalm xix. 4.
Joseph was of the house and lineage of Dºjº,
2% 8,
O Conqueror of Brut'is Albion
Whiche that by lyne and fre eleccion
Ben very kinge. Chaucer. Unto the Kinge.
Let calle thyn trewe frendes alle, and thy linage,
which that ben wise, and telleth to hem your cas,
and herkeneth what they saye in counseilling, and
governe you aftir hir sentence. Id. Cant. Tales.
Both the lineage and the certain sire
From which I sprung, from me are hidden yet.
Spenser.
I shall have good fortune; go to, here's a simple
line of life; here's a small trifle of wives.
Shakspeare.
Long is it since I saw him,
But time hath nothing blurred those lines of favour
Which then he wore. Id.
He chid the sisters
When first they put the name of king upon me,
And bade them speak to him; then, prophet-like,
They hailed him father to a line of kings. Id.
Queen Isabel, his grandmother,
Was lineal of the lady Ermengere. Id.
Peace be to France, if France in peace permit
Our just and lineal entrance to our own. Id.
(knº) A climbing height it is, without a
ead, -
1)epth without bottom, way without an end;
A circle with no line environed,
Not comprehended, all it comprehends,
Worth infinite, yet satisfies no mind
Till it that infinite of the Godhead find.
Sir Fulk Greville.
The Tirsan cometh forth with all his generation or
lineage, the males before him, and the females follow-
ing him; and, if there be a mother from whose body
Vol. XIII.-PART 1.
the whole lineage is descended, there is a traverse
where she sitteth. Bacon.
Here, while his canting drone-pipe scanned
The mystic figures of her hand,
He tipples palmestry, and dines
On all her fortune-telling lines. Cleaveland.
When the sun below the line descends,
Then one long night continued darkness joins.
Creech.
If he had been the person upon whom the crown
had lineally and rightfully descended, it was good
law. 4 Clarendon.
Eden stretched her line
From Auran eastward to the royal towers
Of great Seleucia. Milton's Paradise Lost.
His empire, courage, and his boasted line,
Were all proved mortal. Roscommon.
Well sung the Roman bard; all human things,
Of dearest value, hang on slender strings;
O see the then sole hope, and in design
Of heaven our joy, supported by a line.
Victorious with their lines and eyes,
They make the fishes and the men their prize. Id.
You have generous thoughts turned to such specu-
lations; but this is not enough towards the raising
such buildings as I have drawn you here the lines of,
unless the direction of all affairs here were wholly in
your hands. Temple.
We as by line upon the ocean go,
Whose paths shall be familiar as the land.
Dryden.
Now snatch an hour that favours thy designs,
Unite thy forces, and attack their lines. Id.
A golden bowl
The queen commanded to be crowned with wine,
The bowl that Belus used, and all the Tyrian *:
Waller.
O that your brows my laurel had sustained!
Well had I been deposed if you had reigned:
The father had descended for the son;
For only you are lineal to the throne.
t Men of mighty fame,
And from the immortal gods their lineage came.
Id.
To re-establish, de facto, the right of lineal suc-
cession to paternal government, is to put a man in
possession of that government which his fathers did
enjoy, and he by lineal succession had a right to.
Locke.
A line seldom holds to strain, or draws streight
in length, above fifty or sixty feet. Moron.
* The years
Ran smoothly on, productive of a line
Of wise heroick kings.
In moving lines these few epistles tell
What fate attends the nymph who loves too well.
Garth.
The real lineage and succession of wit is plainly
founded in näture. Shaftesbury.
No longer shall the widowed land bemoan
A broken lineage, and a doubtful throne,
But boast her royal progeny's increase,
And count the pledges of her future peace.
Addison.
- B
Philips.
LIN
2 LIN
They pierce the broken foe's remotest lines. Id.
The soul, considered with its Creator, is like one
of those mathematical lines that may draw nearer to
another for all eternity without a possibility of touch-
ing it; and can there be a thought so transporting,
as to consider ourselves in these perpetual approaches
to him, who is not only the standard of perfection,
but of happiness! Addison.
When any thing is mathematically demonstrated
weak, it is much more mechanically weak; errors
ever occurring more easily in the management of
gross materials than lineal designs. Wotton.
Where-ever it is freed from the sand stone, it is .
covered with linear striae, tending towards several
centers, so as to compose flat stellar figures.
Woodward on Fossils.
There are in the horney ground two white linea-
tions, with two of a pale red. Woodward.
Even the planets, upon this principle, must gravi-
tate no more towards the sun ; so that they would
not revolve in the curve lines, but fly away in direct
tangents, till they struck against other planets.
Bentley.
Oh lasting as those colours may they shine,
Free as thy stroke, yet faultless as thy line! Pope.
In the preceding line, Ulysses speaks of Nausicaa,
yet immediately changes the words into the mascu-
line gender. Broome.
There is a sort of masonry in poetry, wherein the
pause represents the joints of building, which ought
in every line and course to have their disposition
varied. Shenstome.
To dote on aught may leave us, or be left,
Is that ambition ? then let flames descend,
Point to the centre their inverted spires,
And learn humiliation from a soul
Which boasts her lineage from celestial fire.
Young.
A poet does not work by square or line,
As Smiths and joiners perfect a design;
At least we moderns, our attention less,
Beyond the’ example of our sires digress,
And claim a right to scamper and run wide,
Wherever chance, caprice, or fancy guide.
Cowper.
Nor less amazed, that such a blot
His noble 'scutcheon should have got,
While he was highest of his line. Byron.
LINE, v. a. } From LINEN, which see; or
LIN'ING, n. S. $ Lat. linum. To cover inside;
to guard or protect within; place within ; double;
impregnate: a lining is an inward covering or
guard.
Her women are about her: what if I do line one
of their hands ! Shakspeare. Cymbeline.
Line and new repair our towns of war
With men of courage, and with means defendant.
Shakspeare.
. Son of sixteen,
Pluck the lined crutch from thy old limping sire.
&
Who lined himself with hope,
Eating the air on promise of supply. Id.
The lining of his coffers shall make coats
To deck our soldiers for these:Irish wars. Id.
The two armies were assigned to the leading of
two generals, both of them rather courtiers, and as-
sured to the state, than martial men; yet lined and
assisted with subordinate commanders of great expe-
rience and valour. - Bacon.
The charge amounteth very high for any one man's
purse, except lined beyond ordinary, to reach unto.
. . - Carew.
sought.
Let no man tell me now of that just wonde of
the world, the Jewish temple; white marble with-
out, lined with gold within. Bp. Hall.
Thus from the Tyrian pastures lined with Jove,
He bore Europa, and still keeps his love. Creech.
Notwithstanding they had lined some hedges
with musqueteers, they were totally dispersed.
Clarendon.
Was I deceived, or did a sable cloud
Turn forth her silver lining on the night ! .
- Milton.
A box lined with paper to receive the mercury that
might be spilt. Boyle.
The fold in the gristle of the nose is covered with
a lining, which differs from the facing of the tongue.
Grew's Cosmologia.
The gown with stiff embroidery shining,
Looks charming with a slighter lining. Prior.
He, by a gentle bow, divined
How well a cully's purse was lined. Swift.
Nor name nor title, stamped behind,
Adorns its outer part;
But all within 'tis richly lined,
A magazine of art.
LINE, EQUINoctIAL. See ASTRONOMY.
LINE, GUNTER's, a logarithmic line, usually
graduated upon scales, sectors, &c. It is also
called the line of lines, and line of numbers;
being only the logarithms graduated upon a ruler,
which therefore serves to solve problems instru-
mentally in the same manner as logarithms do
arithmetically. It is usually divided into 100
parts, every tenth of which is numbered, begin-
ning with 1 and ending with 10: so that if the
first great division, marked 1, stand for one-tenth
of an integer, the next division, marked 2, will
stand for two-tenths, 3 for three-tenths, and so
on; and the intermediate divisions will in like
manner represent 100th parts of the same inte-
ger. If each of the great divisions represent ten
integers, then will the less divisions stand for in-
tegers; and, if the greater divisions be supposed
each 100, the subdivisions will be each ten, 1.
To find the product of two numbers. From 1
extend the compasses to the multiplier; and the
same extent, applied the same way from the mul-
tiplicand, will reach to the product. Thus, if
the product of 4 and 8 be required, extend the
compasses from 1 to 4, and that extent laid from
8 the same way will reach to 32, their product.
2. To divide one number by another. The ex-
tent from the divisor to unity will reach from the
dividend to the quotient: thus, to divide 36 by
4, extend the compasses from 4 to 1, and the
same extent will reach from 36 to 9, the quotient
3. To three given numbers to find a
fourth proportional. Suppose the numbers 6, 8,
9 : extend the compasses from 6 to 8; and this
extent, laid from 9 the same way, will reach to
12, the fourth proportional required. 4. To find
a mean proportional between any two given
numbers. Suppose 8 and 32: extend the com—
passes from 8, in the left-hand part of the line,
to 32 in the right; then, bisecting this distance,
its half will reach from 8 forward, or from
32 backward, to 16, the mean proportional
sought. 5. To extract the square root of any
number. Suppose 25: bisect the distance be-
tween 1 on the scale and the point representing
25; then the half of this distance, set off from 1,
will give the point representing the root 5. In
Cowper.
*
L I N E N. 3
the same manner the cube root, or that of any
higher power, may be found by dividing the dis-
tance on the line between 1 and the given num-
ber into as many equal parts as the index of the
power expresses; then one of those parts, set
from 1, will find the point representing the root
required.
LINE, MERIDIAN. See GEOGRAPHY. -
LINE OF BATTLE is the disposition of the
fleet in the day of engagement, on which occa-
sion the vessels are usually drawn up as much as
possible in a straight line, to gain and keep the
advantage of the wind and to run the same board.
See NAVAL TACTIcs.
LINE, SHIP OF THE, a vessel large enough to be
drawn up in the line, and to have a place in a
sea-fight. - -
LINEA ALBA, in anatomy, the concourse of
the tendons of the oblique and transverse muscles
of the abdomen; dividing the abdomen in two
in the middle.
straight; and alba, from its color, which is
white.
LIN’EAMENT, n. s. Fr., lineament ; Lat.
lineamentum. From LINE, which see. Feature;
discriminating mark.
Noble York
Found that the issue was not his begot:
Which well appeared in his lineaments,
Being nothing like the noble duke, my father.
- 1 Shakspeare.
Man he seems -
In all his lineaments, though in his face
The glimpses of his father's glory shine.
- . Milton.
God our parent hath stamped on our nature some
lineaments of himself, whereby we resemble him.
* Barrow.
There are not more differences in men's faces, and
the outward lineaments of their bodies, than there
are in the makes and tempers of their minds; only
there is this difference, that the distinguishing cha-
racters of the face, and the lineaments of the body,
grow more plain with time, but the peculiar phy-
siognomy of the mind is most discernible in children.
- - Locke.
The utmost force of boiling water is not able to
destroy the structure of the tenderest plant: the
lineaments of a white lily will remain after the strong-
est decoction. Arbuthnot.
I may advance religion and morals, by tracing
some few lineaments in the character of a lady, who
hath spent all her life in the practice of both. Swift.
These are the moral attributes of the Divine Being,
in which he requires us to imitate him ; the express
lineaments of the divine nature, in which all good men
bear a resemblance to him ; and for the sake of which
only they are the objects of his delight. Mason.
LIN’EN, n. S. & º Sax. linen; Goth.
LIN'ENER. lin; Teut. lein, flax;
Lat. linum; Gr. Awov. Cloth of hemp or flax.
And thei tooken the bodi of Jhesus and bounden
it in lynnwn clothis with swete smellynge oynementis,
as it is the custom to iewis for to byrie. -
Wiclif. Jon. xx.
Here is a basket, he may creep in ; throw foul
Winen upon him, as if going to bucking. Shakspeare.
A linen stock on one leg, and a kersey boot hose
on the other, gartered with a red and blue list. Id.
Death of thy soul! those linen cheeks of thine
Are counsellors to fear. What soldiers, whey-face?
- - - Id.
It is called linea, line, as being
Where is my fashioner ? my feather-man? -
My linemer, perfumer, barber Ben Jonson.
Unseen, unfelt, the fiery serpent skims
Between her linem and her naked limbs.
Dryden.
A pampered spendthrift, whose fantastic air,
Well fashioned figure, and cockaded brow,
He took in charge, and underneath the pride
Of costly linen tucked his filthy shroud. Young.
A drawer, it chanced, at bottom lined
With linen of the softest kind,
With such as merchants introduce
From India, for the ladies' use.
LINEN. The fabrication of linen is a most
important branch of the staple manufactures of
Great Britain. On this account we have already
fully examined the agricultural processes con-
nected with the cultivation of flax; the dressing
of hemp has also been briefly considered, and
we must now proceed to the operation of
Spinning. -
The most ancient mode of spinning is by the
spindle and distaff, and this method is the
simplest of all others. The spindle is nothing
more than a piece of hard wood, made round,
and sharp pointed at one end, so that it can be
made to whirl upon its point in the same manner
as a child's top: the upper part is reduced to a
pin or peg, and it is this part which has the
fibres united to it, the lower or enlarged part
being only to give sufficient weight to make it
revolve. The spinner must be seated upon the
ground, and after having put the distaff in
motion upon its point, by twirling it between
the hands, get it up to a rapid motion by striking
it occasionally with the hand, with a motion very
similar to that by which a child keeps up the
motion of his whipping-top, when he draws the
lash of a whip round it. `
The flax, after having been properly prepared,
is lapped round the end of the distaff, which is
nothing more than a stick that the spinner
holds in his left hand, so as to be conveniently
situated to draw off from it a few fibres at a
time with the finger and thumb of the right
hand, to form the thread. The upper part of the
spindle, which is made smaller like a pin, has
the ends of the fibres which are to form the
thread attached to it before it is put in motion.
These fibres are drawn out of the bunch which
is wound upon the distaff, and held between the
finger and thumb, so as to be in the direction of
the length of the spindle; therefore, when the
spindle is once made to revolve, it twists these
fibres together, to form a thread, and, as fast as
the thread forms, the spinner draws off more flax
from the distaff, and guides the fibres between
the finger and thumb, so that they shall be regu-
larly delivered out, and make an even thread.
The motion of the spindle is constantly kept up,
by striking it as often as the hand can be spared
from the operation of guiding the thread.
When by these means as great a length of thread
is formed as is convenient to reach from the end
of it to the spindle, the thread is wound upon
the outside of the small part or pin of the
spindle, for which purpose the spinner applies
the fore-finger against the thread, close to the
end of the spindle, and bends the thread at that
Cowper.
- B 2.
4 L I N E N.
• **-* ****
part, so that it will be at right angles with the
direction of the spindle, instead of being nearly
in the direction of its length; and also, that it
will be guided opposite to the middle of the
pin, or small part of the spindle, instead of
being at the extreme end thereof. In this situa-
tion the motion of the spindle, which is continu-
ally kept up, occasions the thread to wind up,
or lap upon the pin of the spindle, instead of
twisting round upon itself, as in the former case;
but, when nearly all the length of thread is thus
disposed of, the finger is removed from the
thread, and it immediately assumes its original
direction, by slipping to the extreme end of the
spindle, so as to be twisted round itself by the
motion of the spindle, and mere fibres are now
supplied to it from the bunch upon the distaff,
to form a fresh length of thread. In this manner
the spinning proceeds, until as much thread is
spun and wound upon the pin of the spindle as
will make a moderately sized ball.
This simple and inconvenient method of spin-
ning becomes very efficient, when the spindle,
instead of being spun upon the ground, is
mounted in a proper frame, and turned by a
wheel and band ; this forms a machine which is
called the one-thread wheel, and is still used in
some parts of the country for spinning wool:
the spindle is made of iron, and placed horizon-
tally, so that it can revolve freely; and the ex-
tremity of the spindle, to which the thread is
applied, projects beyond the support.
The wheel which turns it is placed at one
side, the pivots of both being supported in
upright pieces, rising up from a sort of stool.
The spinner puts the wheel in rapid motion by
its handle, and its weight is sufficient to con-
tinue the motion for some seconds; then walk-
ing backwards from the spindle, in the direction
of its length, she supplies the fibres regularly,
and the motion twists them into a thread ; but,
when a convenient length is spun, the spinner
steps on one side, and reaches out that arm
which holds the end of the thread, so as to alter
the direction of the thread, and bring it nearly
perpendicular to the length of the spindle, which
motion gathers or winds up the thread upon the
middle of the projecting part of the spindle.
This being done, she holds the thread in the direc-
tion of the spindle, so that it will receive twist,
and retreats again to spin a fresh length of thread.
A spinning-machine more perfect than this is
the one-thread flax-wheel, with spindle and flyer;
it has the property of constantly drawing up the
thread as fast as it is spun, instead of spinning a
length, and then winding it upon the spindle.
For this purpose the spindle is made longer than
the other, and is turned by a band and wheel;
but the wheel receives motion from the foot by a
small treadle, because the spinner sits before the
wheel to work the spindle, which is supported
upon its two extreme ends, and near one end the
flyer is fixed; this is a piece of wood curved to
an arc, the vertex of which is fixed on the spin-
dle, and from the extremities of the arc two
arms proceed, so as to be parallel to the spin-
dle, and at such a distance from it as to admit a
wooden bobbin to be fitted loosely upon the
spindle; and at the same time the arms of the
flyer cin revolve round the bobbin without
touching it. The end of the thread is fastened
to the bobbin, and conducted through a hook
fixed in the flyer, so that it proceeds from the
circumference of the bobbin to this hook, in a
direction perpendicular to the bobbin, but turns
round the hook so as to come into the direction
of the spindle.
The thread is then conducted through a per-
foration made in the centre of the end of the
spindle or pivot, upon which it revolves, and to
this end of the thread the fibres are supplied.
The twisting motion given by the revolution of
the spindle forms them into a continuation of the
thread, which is gathered up upon the bobbin as
fast as the spinner lets it go through her fingers,
by a tendency which the bobbin has to turn
slowly, at the same time that the flyer to which
the thread is hooked is revolving rapidly round
the bobbin. For this purpose a string is passed
round a small neck upon the bobbin, and, one
end of the string being fastened to the frame, the
other has a small weight to draw it tight round
the neck of the bobbin, and occasion friction.
In other spinning wheels a second band from
the great wheel is made to turn the bobbin more
slowly than the spindle. The thread which
passes over the hook of the flyer is rapidly car-
ried round the circumference of the bobbin; but,
as the bobbin follows the motion of the flyer, it
only winds up as much thread upon the bobbin
as the difference of the two motions; and this
tendency to wind up can be increased or dimi-
nished at pleasure, by the friction which is oc-
casioned by the , string or band which passes
round the neck of the bobbin. When the wind-
ing-up of the thread upon the bobbin has accu-
mulated a ridge of thread, upon it opposite, to the
hook in the flyer, the thread must be shifted to
another hook opposite to a different part of the
bobbin, for which purpose the arms of the flyer
are furnished with different hooks, and this
must be repeated several times, until the whole
length of the bobbin is filled ; it is then taken off
to be reeled, and replaced by another empty
bobbin.
An improvement was made in the spinning-
wheel by Mr. Antis some years ago, which was
an application of what Sir Richard Arkwright
had before invented. The object is to obviate
the necessity of stopping the wheel to remove
the thread from one hook to another, in the
manner just described. For this purpose, the
bobbin is made to move regularly backwards and
forwards upon the spindle a space equal to its
length, so that every part will, in succession, be
presented opposite the hook over which the
thread passes, and thus receive the thread regu-
larly upon the whole length >f the bobbin. The
additional parts necessary for producing this
movement are as follow: a pinion of only a sin-
gle leaf is made to project from the extremity of
the pivot of the great wheel, or a worm or end-
less screw formed on the end pivot will answer
the same purpose, which is to actuate a wheel of
seven inches diameter, and ninety-seven teeth;
therefore ninety-seven revolutions of the great
wheel will produce one revolution of this smaller
wheel; upon the face of which a circular ring of
wire is fixed, and supported from the wheel by
six legs, so as to be oblique to the plane of the
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L I N
E. N. " Ö.
wheel, as it touches it at one part, and at the op-
posite side of the ring projects nearly three-quar-
ters of an inch. This ring of wire gives motion
to an upright lever, about fifteen inches long and
moving on a centre at three inches from its lower
extremity, where it has a pin fixed in it and rest.
ing against the oblique ring of wire ; therefore,
when the wheel turns round, it communicates
a small motion to the lever in consequence of its
obliquity to the plane in which it revolves. The
upper end of the lever is connected to an hori-
zontal sliding-bar situated beneath the spindle,
and having an upright piece of brass, which
works in the notch of a pully formed in the ends
of the bobbin, and drives the bobbin backwards
and forwards upon the spindle, according as the
oblique ring of wire forces the pin at the lower
end of the lever in or out, when the wheel moves
round. To regulate and return this alternate
motion, a small weight hangs by a line to the
sliding-bar, and, passing over a pulley, rises and
falls as the bobbin recedes and advances, and
tends constantly to keep the pin at the lower end
of the lever in contact with the wire. It is evi-
dent from this description, that one staple only
is wanted to the arms of the flyer, which being
placed near the extremity, the thread passes
through it, and by the motion of the bobbin is
laid regularly upon it from one end to the other.
The invention has also another advantage over
the old method, which always winds the thread
in ridges upon the bobbin; and, if the thread
breaks in reeling the yarn, the whole bobbin may
as well be thrown away, because the thread can-
not easily be found again; but this improved
wheel always winds the threads across upon one
* by which means the end can never be
OSt.
In order to regulate the friction on the bobbin,
and retard its motion in a greater or less degree
at , pleasure, there is a neck of brass or steel
fastened to one end of it, and embraced by a
kind of small vice, or pincers, fixed to the slid-
ing-bar. This vice must be made either with
two elastic springs with wooden tops, or of wood
wholly, and faced with leather; but, if made of
wood only, then a spring must be made beneath
the shoulder of the screw, to answer the same
purpose. By tightening this screw, more or less,
the friction on the bobbin may be regulated to
the greatest nicety, provided the springs are of a
strength rightly proportioned to their functions.
It will readily appear, that all this may be done
without the least effect on the velocity of the
whole machine, as thereby nothing is added to
the general friction so as to obstruct it. *
We shall now proceed to give a description of
a patent, obtained in 1806, by Messrs. Clarke
and Bugby, for effecting certain improvements
in a machine, intended to be worked by hand-
labor, for the spinning of hemp, flax, &c.:—
Plate LINEN MANUFACTURE, fig. 1, represents
an oblique view of the front of a frame con-
taining ten spindles (but the frames may contain
an indefinite number of spindles). A, the spin-
dle or a bow passing through the whole frame,
having ten bosses of brass or cast-iron thereon,
each about four inches diameter, each boss sup-
plying one spindle; B, a pinion of twelve leaves
upon the end of the spindle A, connected with
the wheel C, of eighty teeth, fixed upon the end
of a small iron spindle F, covered with wood,
and extending through the whole frame; D, a.
slack or intermediate pinion of any size at dis-
cretion, connected with another similar pinion,
the latter connected with a wheel of 120 teeth,
which is fixed upon an iron spindle G, of about
an inch and a half in diameter, and extending
through the whole frame; but the wheels B, C, D,
and E, may be varied in their numbers, to in-
crease or diminish the draught of the substance
operated upon, as may best suit its quality or
the ideas of the workman. The pinion B is so
contrived as to slip off the end of the spindle A,
to make room for a smaller or larger one; by
means whereof a larger or shorter thread may be
spun from the same sized rovings; a a a a a a a
a a a represent ten roved slivers of hemp, flax,
tow, or wool, passing between the iron spindle
G and rollers in pairs pressed against them by
springs or weights; these springs or weights
must operate with sufficient force to hold back the
slivers or rovings so securely, that they may only
pass on with the movement of the spindle; these :
pairs of pressing rollers are placed behind the
spindle. The use of the small iron spindle F,
covered with wood, and left rather larger than
the spindle G, is, with pressure of the small
wood-roller, made up in pairs b b b b b, and so
contrived that each pair may roll upon two
slivers, to bring them down straight, and preserve
the twist which they receive in the roving-ma-
chine till the slivers leave them. The bosses on the
spindle A, have likewise wooden rollers in pairs
pressed against them by springs or weights, be-
tween which the drawn, lengthened, or extended
slivers pass to the spindle, the rollers having
each a tin conductor, c c c c c c c c c c, to bring
the material under operation as centrically as
possible between the wood-rollers and the bosses;
but all the above-mentioned parts of the machine
are so similar to the common upright frames,
that a person conversant with them will not be
at a loss to understand its arrangement. H, is a
wheel of wood four feet in diameter, having its
rim about two inches thick, with a groove in its
periphery for a small cord or band. In its centre
is a rule or stock of wood, through which the spin-
dle I passes, and extends into its frame about
one-fourth of its length. To enable the person
that turns the winch to reach all the spindles at
work, with the hand that is not engaged in turn-
ing, to remove any obstacle that may arise to the
spindles, the arbor or spindle of the wheel I has
its bearing on the sides of the frame that contains
it, marked LL L. L.; this frame, with the wheel
H, the arbor I, and the winch K, is similar to
that part of a machine called a mule-jenny, used
for spinning cotton ; this frame is supported in
a horizontal position at the outer end by two
legs marked M. M., and a screw-pin which passes
through K, the front upright a A, fig. 2, and
made tight with the thumb-screw a ; the screw
passes through a groove or mortise at the end of
the wheel frame, to enable the workman to ad-
just the wheels N and O, as it will be found
necessary to change the wheel N, to make such
alteration in the twist as the size of the yarn may
*.
6 L I N E N.
require, or as the workman may think proper.
P and Q are bevel wheels of equalsize, the former
fixed upon the rule or stock of the wheel H, and
connected with Qupon thespindle R, taking round
with it the wheel N, which is connected with the
wheel O. Upon the embossed spindle or arbor
A, a a a a a a a a a a, are spindles standing on
a carriage with four wheels, similar to the car-
riages used in mule-jennies for spinning cotton,
having at each of them, at d did d d d d d d d,
a convex seat of wood of any convenient size,
not less than the bottom of the bobbins or quills
e e e e e c e e e e ; these bobbins or quills are
about six inches long and one inch and a quar-
ter diameter at the bottom, and three quarters of
an inch diameter at the top; but the sizes must
be varied according to the size of the yarn.
Perhaps four or five variations will be sufficient
to spin yarn for tarpaulins or sail-cloth, up to
fine yarn fit for good dowlas and fine stockings.
T, a pulley, over which a band, from S, runs and
returns, to draw out the carriage upon the four
wheels described; W, the cylinder which drives
the spindles.
Fig. 2 exhibits a side view. A, the wheel
mentioned above. in fig. 1, and there marked
H; B, the winch by which it is turned by hand;
C C C C, the framewherein it works; D and E
are blocks of wood on each side of the said
frame to raise the wheel, so that the winch may
be clear of the carriage FF, and apparatus G. G.;
the two end wheels upon the carriage containing
the spindles having two more corresponding
on the opposite side thereof. H, a groove upon
the end of a cylinder, which drives the spindles,
and stretches through the carriage-frame, for the
diameter of which no certain rule can be laid
down, as it depends upon the length or size of
the yarn, taken into account with the other parts
of the machinery. N N N N N N N, a small
band passing over the wheels A K, H I L, and
M, by which the groove-wheel H and its cylin-
der are moved, and the spindles driven. O,
a treadle shaft, represented by SS, fig. 1, passing
through the frame or part thereof at the option
of the workman, connected with a tumbler at
the end of the embossed spindle or arbor A, in
fig. 1, by a small band, wound five or six times
round each of them, and passing over the wood
groove-wheel Q, and made fast to the back of the
carriage F F; this tumbler, by the motion of A,
is, at the return of the carriage, locked to the
wheel R. ; and unlocked when the carriage is
not in its proper situation.
The carriage is drawn on by the weight of S
fastened to a cord, which passes over the groove-
wheel T, and is connected with the front of the
carriage; U, the wheel on the arbor containing
the holder shown in fig. 1; V, the cylindrical
roller on a stirt fixed therein, and rolling at
every return of the carriage on the plane W and
X, which raises and falls the fallers and holders, so
as to distribute the yarn upon the bobbins from
the top to bottom ; the wheels Y Z, A 2,and B 2,
are the same wheels shown by B, C, D, and E, in
fig. 1 ; 1, 2, &c., spools containing the rovings.
This machinery is calculated to save the heavy
expense of currents of water, erecting spacious
buildings, water-works, steam engines, &c., and ,
to spin hemp, flax, &c., at such an easy expense
as to bring it within the reach of small manu-
factories. This machinery is also constructed
upon such safe and simple principles, that no
length of experience is necessary to enable even
children to work it; and the use of water, steam,
&c., being rendered unnecessary, it occupies so
little space, that it may be placed in small rooms,
out-buildings, or other cheap places. To effect
the above purpose, it was necessary to get rid of
the lanier or flyer, upon the spindle used in the
old machinery for spinning hemp and flax, which
requires a power in proportion of five to one,
and to surmount the difficulty that arose from the
want of elasticity in these substances. This
want of elasticity, in the substance to be operated
upon, is compensated and provided for in this
machinery; and upon this composition and
provision, effected by the various means hereafter
mentioned, the return of the carriage without
any assistance from the work-person, and the
traverse for distributing the yarn upon the bob-
bins or quills, lay the stress upon the patent.
The most simple mode of compensating the
want of elasticity, and which is recommended in
preference to the other, is that of having a holder
of large wire for every spindle, fixed in an arbor
or shaft extending from one end of the carriage
to the other. *
This arbor or shaft, with the holders, may be
considered as a large and improved substitute
for what is called a faller in the mule-jennies for
spinning cotton, fig. 3. Let A represent the
arbor or shaft, b b b b b b b b b b the holders
fixed therein with the elliptical eyes, through
each of which a thread passes from the bosses om
the arbor A, in fig. 1, to its spindle. B, a spin-
dle, which may be from ten to thirteen inches
long; C, the whirl, wherein a small worsted band
from the cylinder H, fig. 2, works D, a convex
seat upon the spindle, whereon the concave bot-
tom of the bobbin or quill E rests.
F, a piece of buffalo skin, or metal, screwed
or nailed to the rail I, having a hole in it, through
which the spindle passes, and by which it is kept
steady; G, a wire bent at right angles at a, and
the bent part driven into the rail A, so that it may
be removed to or from the whirl C, and, by the
other crook b, prevent the spindle from running
out of its step H, which is a screw of brass or
other metal passing through the rail K. The
wire of which the holder is made, after forming
the elliptical eye, is left or extended beyond the
uppermost part at e, that the yarn may be conve-
niently slipped in when occasion may require it;
these holders for each thread are for the pur-
poses of keeping the yarn in a state nearly ver-
tical over the tops of the spindles when the
carriage which contains them is coming out, and
being released from that situation at the begin-
ning of the carriage's return, and thrown into
nearly a horizontal position, so as to bring the
yarn below the top of the bobbins or quills
upon the spindles; and then being curved and
raised again by the wheel U, and its cylindrical
roller moving upon the plane W and X, fig. 2,
distributes the yarn upon the bobbins or quills,
and prevents it from cockling, hinkling, or im-
properly doubling or twisting together. The
L I N E N. 7
seats upon the spindles described by D, are
turned convex, and the bottoms of the bobbins
and the bottoms of the quills concave, to keep
the bobbins or quills in a more central state upon
the seats. The concavity of the bobbins or quills,
exceeding the convexity, throws the weight of
the bobbins or quills upon the peripheries or ex-
tremities of the seats, and ensures the rotatory
motions of the bobbins or quills with that of
their spindles. We prefer the convex and con-
cave surfaces before described; but other sur-
faces will have nearly the same effect, if so con-
trived (as they easily may be) to bear upon the
peripheries or extremities of the seats, as well as
of the bobbins or quills. The hole through the
bobbin or quill, fig. 4, is rather larger than the
spindle, that it may not be obstructed in its mo-
tion round the spindle, which motion takes place
at every return of the carriage, and as often as
any thing obstructs the coming forward of the
sliver of which the yarn is formed. At one end
of the arbor whereon the holders are fixed is a
counterpoise L, fig. 3, having a socket, and made
fast; the arbor by a thumb-screw m, the round
ball at the top being led to counterbalance the
holders. This counterpoise, when the holders
are in a vertical state, declines about 10° or 15°
towards the horizon; but when the holders are
thrown down, and under the government of the
cylindrical roller V, upon the wheel U, is in a
different situation ; but the roller V, arriving at
B 3, fig. 2, on the return of the carriage, the
holders are precipitated to a height where the
counterpoise overbalances them, and locks the
wheel M fig. 3, or U in fig. 2, in the ratchet n,
where it remains until the carriage has reached
its destined place, where the tail of the catch O
strikes against the pin in a frame C C C C, fig.
2, and releases it, the said roller then resting
upon the frame U X. A second method of com-
pensating and providing for the want of elas-
ticity in hemp and flax, which is a part of the
discovery, is, to fix a round bar of wood, about an
inch and a half in diameter, the whole length of
the carriage, about three or four inches above the
tops of the spindles, so that the outer surface, or
that next the work-person, may be perpendicu-
larly, or nearly so, over the tops of the spindles,
the inner side having pieces of wood or metal
nailed or otherwise fixed thereto, leaving only
small spaces between each for the yarn to pass
through; the use of these pieces is to prevent
the threads getting together and entangling, see
fig. 5. A A AA represents a common faller
used in the mule-jennies for spinning cotton with
counterpoise B, wheel C, with its cylindrical
roller D, with the plane W and X, before de-
scribed by figs. 1, 2, and 3; E E, spindles with
their whirls, convex seats, bobbins or quills, with
their concave bottoms; F FFFFFFFFF the
pieces of wood or metal, nailed or otherwise
fastened to the round piece of wood, to prevent
the thread getting together. In this case every
thing applied to or used with the arbor, contain-
ing the holders above mentioned, may be applied
or used. *
The bleaching of linen being a purely chemi-
cal art, it might be expected that the knowledge
of the instruments it employs would keep pace
with the progress and improvements of that
science to which it is subordinate, and so much
the more as the nature of alkaline substances in
general, which are its proper instruments, has
been in a great measure explained by the cele-
brated Dr. Black. Yet it has so happened,
when a scarcity of these saline substances un-
happily prevailed in this kingdom, it was seriously
questioned whether their place could be supplied
by materials manufactured at home. Mr. Kir-
wan very minutely examined the various pro-
cesses that had previously been resorted to, and
the result of his labors is given in a very valuable
paper in the Transactions of the Royal Irish
Academy. He commences with barilla. Of
this substance there are several sorts, made of
different plants; but the best is that formed near
Alicant, at a distance from the sea, by the com-
bustion of a plant called by the inhabitants ba-
rilha, and described by Jussieu, in the memoirs
of the Academy of Paris for 1717, under the
name of kali hispanicum, supinum, annuum, sedi
foliis brevibus. It seems to be classed by Lin-
naeus under the pentandria digynia, by the name of
sal sola vermiculata frutescens foliis ovatis acutis
carnosis, and should carefully be distinguished
from the various kinds of salicornia which he
ranges under the title of monandria monogynia;
and also from other plants which he calls choeno-
podia, which yield an alkali, but less pure than
the Salsola. These plants, being dried to the
same degree as hay, are burned in pits nearly as
kelp is with us, the ashes and salt run into a
grayish blue mass, which is the barilla. The
best sort is here called sweet barilla.
The sweet barilla examined by Mr. Kirwan
was of a bluish color, covered over with a saline
powder exceedingly hard, and had a smart alka-
line taste. When broken, it looked black in the
fractured part, and visibly contained pretty large
pieces of charcoal. To find the proportion of
fixed air in this substance, having reduced a
quantity of it to fine powder, he poured on an
ounce of it a sufficient quantity of marine acid,
and found it to lose by the action of this acid
eighty grains of its weight; consequently one
pound troy of this substance contains 960 grains
of fixed air (mixed with a little that had an he-
patic smell), that is exactly one-sixth of its
weight. Other parcels contained somewhat more,
and others somewhat less.
As this substance evidently contained some
parts that were soluble in water, and some that
were insoluble therein, to discover the weight of
each, Mr. Kirwan poured on one pound of it, re-
duced to fine powder, thirteen pounds of water,
moderately hot, successively; this water had
previously been boiled and filtered, and 'con-
tained no other impurity than a slight trace of
common salt. This quantity of water was neces-
Sary to exhaust all the soluble matter in the ba-
rilla. The solutions were taken in six different
portions: noue of them betrayed the smallest
trace of sulphur, nor did the Prussian alkali dis-
cover any vestige of iron. By eighteen succes-
sive evaporations and crystallisations, he obtained
4881 grains of saline matter, and 2903 of inso-
luble matter.
It may at first sight appear extraordinary that
8 - L I N E N.

the saline matter and the insoluble part should
weigh more than the pound of barilla that
seemed to afford them; for this amounts only to
5760 grains, and the two former weigh 7784
grains; but it should be considered that these
products were obtained not from the barilla
alone, but from the barilla and the water in
which the salts were dissolved, whose crystals
retained a great quantity of it, and also from the
air to which the solutions were exposed, and
which they absorbed in large proportion. As
the quantity of the insoluble matter was subject
to no such deceptive appearance, Mr. Kirwan
began by examining the weight of that; for this,
being subtracted from 57.60 grains, necessarily
determined the true weight of the saline part;
as the state in which the saline part exists in
barilla depends in some measure on the earths
and charcoal with which it is united, as well as
the most advantageous method of using it.
Having therefore dried the insoluble matter
for a considerable time, in a low heat, until it
appeared as, dry as the barilla itself, and found
its weight in that state to amount to 2903 grains,
or 6'04791 ounces, Mr. Kirwan took one ounce
of it, and, drying it in a heat little below redness,
found it to lose thirty-eight grains of moisture.
Another ounce of the same residuum, being
treated with dilute marine acid, lost 125'5 grains
of its weight, and this loss expresses the quantity
of fixed air contained in it. Another ounce,
being calcined in a white heat for about one
hour, lost 200 grains of its weight; and, on re-
peating this experiment, he found the loss amount
to 199 grains. Lastly, on the 281 grains which
remained after this experiment, he poured dilute
marine acid, and found the quantity of fixed air
to be 106 grains.
Mr. Kirwan next examined the fixed incom-
bustible part that remained after the above cal-
cination. On the 279 grains of this, which
remained after the calcination of an ounce of
the insoluble part, he poured a quantity of dis-
tilled vinegar, whose specific gravity in the tem-
perature of 62° was 1:008, and digested that
residuum therein for sixteen hours in a heat
little more than 100°. After edulcoration, and
desiccation, the weight of what remained un-
dissolved was found to amount to sixty-three
grains. Upon this experiment he reasoned thus:
281 grains of a residuum of this sort contained
106 grains of fixed air, therefore the 279 grains
subjected to the vinegar in this experiment must
have contained 105:24, which were dissipated by
the action of the acid; there remained, therefore,
of mere earth only 173.76; but of these sixty-
three escaped the action of the acid, therefore
there were dissolved 11076. And as distilled
vinegar can act only on calcareous and muriatic
earth (the barytic not being excepted), the 110-76
that were dissolved must have consisted of either
or both of these, and the undissolved sixty-three
grains must have been argillaceous or siliceous.
The sixty-three grains, being digested in spirit of
salt, left a residuum of 41.3 grains, which, there-
fore, were siliceous; the remainder, not being
precipitable by the vitriolic acid, was conse-
quently argillaceous earth: hence the quantities
of these ingredients in 480 grains of the insolu-
ble part of barilla were found to be :—
In the whole soluble -
part.
* * * - grains. grains.
Fixed air . 125'5 7.59
Water . . . 38 229-82
Charcoal . . 142°5 861-82.
Calcareous earth | 89.76 542.86
| Muriatic . 21 127
Argillaceous . 21-7 | 131°23.
Siliceous . 41-3 249' 58
479-76 2901-31
Error 24l Error 1.69
480-00 2903-00
We may now return to the soluble part of the
barilla, which necessarily amounted to 2857
grains. In the first place, Mr. Kirwan obtained
4213 grains of pure crystallised mineral alkali:
but these crystals are known to contain but one-
fifth of real alkaline substance, the remainder
being fixed air and water of crystallisation;
therefore, one pound of barilla contains but 842
grains of pure real alkali. Besides this, he also
obtained 127 grains of a mixture of vegetable
and mineral alkali, with a small proportion of
extractive matter, and some digestive salt; this
mass constantly attracted moisture. These solu-
tions afforded also 125 grains of Glauber's salt,
and seventy of common salt; but the Glauber's
salt, at least, did not exist in a crystallised form
in the barilla; and, as 100 grains of it are re-
duced to forty-two by expelling the water of
crystallisation, no more than fifty-three grains of
it can be deemed to have pre-existed in the ba-
rilla. Hence the weight of the different ingre-
dients contained in one pound of sweet barilla
is as follows:— .
|
Fixed air 960
Charcoal 861-82
Calcareous earth 542'86
Muriatic earth & 127 s
Argillaceous 1.1.23 1050-67
Siliceous º © 249'58
Mineral alkali pure 842 N. '
Mineral alkali impure 250 W, 1219
Mineral alkali mixed
with common salt 127
Glauber's salt 125
Common salt . . . 70
Earth deposited 20
- 4306:49
Water 1453-51
Total 5760-00
Hence we see that the alkaline part of barilla
is nearly in a caustic state; for the entire pound
of barilla contained but 960 grains of fixed air,
and of this quantity 759 were contained in the
earthy part. Therefore only 201 grains were
contained in the saline part. Now 960 grains of
this require for their saturation at least 700 of
fixed air, therefore they wanted at least two-thirds
I, I N E N. - - 9
of the quantity requisite to saturate them. Hence.
bleachers should not use boiling water to extract
the saline substance of barilla, for the alkaline
part being in a caustic state dissolves part of the
coaly matter with which it is united, which sul-
lies the solution, gives it a dark hue, and after-
wards is deposited on the linen, and cannot be
separated by acids. *
Dantzic pearl-ash.-The quantity of fixed
air and earth contained in different parcels of
this substance is variable; in some ounces the
quantity of fixed air was found to amount to
100 grains, in others to 115; and therefore at a
medium it may be rated at 107.5 grains, or
1290 grains in one pound troy. The earth re-
maining after the solution of one pound amounted
to twenty grains. After ten evaporations, Mr.
Kirwan procured from one pound of this sub-
stance 505 grains of tartar vitriolate, the last
portions of which contained some digestive salt,
and also thirty-six grains of this last containing a
portion of tartar vitriolate; about eighteen grains
of earth were deposited during the evaporations.
The remainder of the pound consisted of the pure
alkali. Hence the ingredients in a pound must
have been nearly in the following quantities:—
Fixed air . tº e ſe . 1290 .
Moisture . e & te 414
Digestive salt and ditto . º 36
Tartar vitriolate • • . 505
Earth tº tº 38
n 2283 57.60
Mere alkali 3477 2.283
576O 3477
Mr. Kirwan considers the following method
much more practicable and easy than the preceding,
for discovering the alkaline principle in all sub-
stances in which it exists. 1st. Procure a quantity
of alum, suppose one pound; reduce it to powder,
wash it with cold water, and then put it into a
tea-pot; pour on it three or four times its weight
of boiling water. 2dly. Weigh an ounce of the
alkaline substance to be tried, powder it and
put it into a Florence flask with one pound of
pure water; if the substance to be examined be
of the nature of barilla or potash; or half a
pound of water if it contain but little earthy
matter as pearl-ash; let them boil for a quarter
of an hour; and when cool let; the solution be
filtered into another Florence flask. 3dly. This
being done, gradually pour the solution of alum
hot into the alkaline solution also heated, a pre-
cipitation will immediately appear; shake them
well together, and let the effervescence, if any,
cease before more of the aluminous solution be
added ; continue the addition of the alum until
the mixed liquor, when clear, turns syrup of
violets red; then pour the liquor, and precipitate
on a paper filter placed in a glass funnel, the
precipitated earth will remain on the filter; pour
on this a pound or more of hot water until it
passes tasteless; take up the filter and let the .
earth dry in it, until they separate easily, then
put the earth into a cup of Staffordshire ware,
place it on hot sand and dry the earth until it
ceases to stick to glass or iron, then pound it and
reduce it to powder in the cup with a glass pes-
tle, and keep it a quarter of an hour in a heat of
from 470° to 500°. 4thly. The earth being thus
dried, throw it into a Florence flask and weigh
it, then put about one ounce of spirit of salt into
another flask, and place this in the same scale as
the earth, and counterbalance both in the oppo-
site scale; this being done, gradually pour the
spirit of salt into the flask that contains the earth,
and, when all effervescence is over, blow into the
flask, and observe what weight must be added to
the scale containing the flasks to restore the equi-
librium; subtract this weight from that of the
earth, the remainder is a weight exactly propor-
tioned to the weight of mere alkali of that par-
ticular species which is contained in one ounce
of the substance examined; all beside is super-
fluous matter. t
Crystallised soda.-Though it contains only
one-fifth of its weight of real alkali, the remainder
being water and fixed air, but the proportion of
alkali being invariably the same, it is the fittest
for a standard with which other substances con-
taining the same sort of alkali may be compared.
Mr. Kirwan found that as much of this substance
as would contain 480 grains of mere alkali
would precipitate 725 grains of earth of alum
dried, and consequently that 480 grains of mere
mineral alkali precipitate 725 of earth of alum.
Cunnamara kelp.–This is a hard porous black
substance, mixed with white and gray spots, its
smell sulphureous, and its taste mixed, being that
of common salt and alkali. One ounce of it
dissolved in marine acid lost twenty-four grains
of its weight, which escaped in an aerial form.
This air was hepatic. Another ounce dissolved
in boiling water left an insoluble residue, which,
being heated in a crucible to redness, weighed
165 grains; this residue effervesced with acids,
and seemed for the most part calcareous. This
solution precipitated twenty-five grains of earth
of alum, and therefore contained 16.5 grains of
mere alkali. During the precipitation of the
earth of alum much hepatic air was emitted, and
the earth was sullied by the sulphur, though
only a few grains of this can be presumed to be
mixed with it.
Strangford kelp.–This substance was much
denser, less porous, and in appearance approached
more to that of a vitrified mass than Cunnamara
kelp; it was at least equally sulphureous. The
solution of one ounce of it precipitated only
nine grains of earth of alum, and this earth was
much more discolored than that precipitated by .
the preceding kehp. The insoluble residuum of
an ounce amounted to 174 grains.
Vegetable alkali.-Mr. Kirwan found that
480 grains of the purest and driest salt of tartar
(making allowance for the quantity of fixed air
it contained) precipitated 331.5 grains of earth
of alum. - -
Cashup.–The best sort, namely, that marked
with the cross arrows, is of a bluish-gray color,
exceedingly hard, and of a semivitrified appear-
ance, its smell sulphureous, its taste scarcely al-
kaline, and does not attract the moisture of the
air. With marine acid, one ounce of it afforded
thirty-one grains of hepatic air. When dissolved
in water the residuum of an ounce was 357
grains of a gray earth, that appeared to be calca-
10 L H N E N.
reous for the most part. The solution itself was
of a yellow color and strongly sulphureous.
With the solution of alum it did not effervesce
strongly, until a good deal was added. The pre-
cipitate was of a dirty white, and amounted to
sixty-six grains, of which two appeared to be
sulphur. Hence its quantity of vegetable alkali
is nearly ninety-three grains per ounce.
Common Irish weed ashes.—This was of a loose
téxture, dark gray color, and salt taste, mixed
with charcoal, brick—dust, and other impurities.
One ounce of it lost by gentle drying forty-seven
grains, and in a red heat seventy-two grains
more. Twelve ounces of the undried ashes, being
lixiviated, left a residuum, which when dried
weighed 4214 grains; the solution was reddish,
replete with extractive matter; it afforded a
large quantity of digestive salt, and some tartar
vitriolate, and very little alkali. Two ounces of
the same ashes being gently heated to a slight
degree of redness lost 186 grains of their weight.
One ounce of this calcined ash being boiled in
six ounces of water left a residuum of 344
grains, and consequently contained 136 grains of
saline matter; but of this saline matter only
22:4 grains were pure alkali, for the solution
precipitated 15.5 grains of earth of alum; an
hepatic smell was perceived during the precipi-
tation, of the alum, and the earth was of a dirty
color. -
The following table contains the quantity of
mere alkali, in 100 avoirdupois pounds of the
substances below-mentioned, by the aluminous
test :-
- Mineral alkali.
Crystallised soda e º - 20 lbs.
Sweet barilla . tº - . 24
Cunnamara kelp º - . 3° 437
Do, desulphurated by fixed air . 4.457
Strangford kelp . e º . 1:25
Vegetable alkali.
Dantzic pearl-ash © - . 63-33
Clarke's refined ash . . . 26.875
Cashup . . . . . 19:376
Common raw Irish weed ash . 1.666
Do, slightly calcined & . 4'666
Mr. Kirwan furnishes in his paper a section
on the coloring matter of linen yarn and its sol-
vents. Having procured a sufficient quantity of
alkaline lie Saturated with this coloring matter,
or, as the workmen call it, killed, and which they
are in the habit of throwing away, he found it
to be a turbid liquor, of a reddish-brown color,
a peculiar taste, and strong smell, affording no
sign of either acidity or alkalescence. On five
quarts of this liquor he poured two ounces of
weak marine acid; there was no effervescence,
but a copious deposition instantly took place of
a grayish-green color, and the liquor freed from
this deposit was of the color of red amber. The
next day he drew off the liquor with a syphon,
and poured two quarts of pure water on the de-
posited matter; and, having agitated the whole,
suffered this matter again to subside, drew off
the water, and added two quarts more; this
liquor gave manifest signs of acidity, and con-
tinued somewhat reddish. Presuming, that after
the addition of so much water, this acidity could
not proceed from the small quantity of marine
acid he had used, more especially as the liquor
originally contained an alkali, in the saturation
of which the greater part of the acid must have
been employed, he began to suspect that this lie
contained an acid of its own, which was disen-
gaged and separated from the alkali by the ma-
rine acid as the more powerful of the two; and
hence he reserved the two quarts of liquor, last :
added, for subsequent experiments. After re-
peated effusions of cold water, when the charac-
ters of acidity were scarcely any longer percep-
tible, he threw the deposited matter on a filter
and suffered it to dry for some time; it was then
of a dark greenish color, somewhat clammy like
moist clay. He took a small portion of it, and
added to it sixty times its weight of boiling water,
but not a particle of it was dissolved. The re-
mainder was dried in a sand heat; it then as-
sumed a shining black color, became more
brittle, but internally remained of a greenish
yellow, and weighed an ounce and a half.
By treating eight quarts more of the saturated
lie in the same manner, Mr. K. obtained a fur-
ther quantity of the greenish deposit, on which
he made the following experiments: 1st. Having
digested a portion of it in rectified spirit of wine,
it communicated to it a reddish hue, and was in a
great measure dissolved; but by the effusion of
distilled water the solution became milky, and a
white deposit was gradually formed; the black
matter dissolved in the same manner. 2ndly.
Neither the green nor the black matter was
soluble in oil of turpentine or linseed oil by a
long continued digestion. 3dly. The black
matter being placed on a red-hot iron, burned
with a yellow flame and a black smoke, leaving
a coally residuum. 4thly. The green matter
being put into the vitriolic, marine, and nitrous
acids, communicated a brownish tinge to the two
former, and a greenish to the latter, but did not
seem in the least diminished.
Hence it appears that the matter extracted by
alkalies from linen yarn is a peculiar sort of
resin, different from pure resins only by its inso-
lubility in essential oils, and in this respect re-
sembling lacs. He now proceeded to examine
the power of the different alkalies on this sub-
stance; eight grains of it being digested in a
solution of crystallised mineral alkali, saturated
in the temperature of 60°, instantly communi-
cated to the solution a dark brown color; two
measures (each of which would contain eleven
pennyweights of water) did not entirely dissolve
this substance. Two measures of the mild vege-
table alkali dissolved the whole. One measure
of caustic mineral alkali, whose specific gravity
was 1.053, dissolved nearly the whole, leaving
only a white residuum. One measuré of caustic
vegetable alkali, whose specific gravity was 1-039,
dissolved the whole. One measure of liver of
sulphur, whose specific gravity was 1-170, dis-
solved the whole. One measure of caustic
volatile alkali dissolved also a portion of the
matter. - -
M. Hermbstaedt has furnished the following
method of preparing colors for dyeing linet,
goods, which may easily be washed out or
bleached and replaced by others. Thev are
•
L I N
E N. | 1
much used in Germany, where they are called
waschfarben or washing colors. The base is a
good white starch, which may be combined with
any color whatever, in such a manner as to form
a compound, that can be dissolved in warm
water without being decomposed. But although
starch forms the base of all these colors, a par-
ticular process is necessary to prepare each of
the different coloring matters that are to be com-
bined with it, which we shall give as follows:–
1. Blue.—Grind some indigo of Guatimala to
an impalpable powder; then pour four ounces of
burning oil of vitriol into an earthen pan, and
put to it an ounce of the pulverised indigo, by
degrees, and always in small quantities; while
the indigo is being thus incorporated with the
oil of vitriol, the mixture must be well stirred at
each fresh addition of the powder with a stone
pestle, until the whole liquid mass becomes of
a uniform blackish blue color. By thus mix-
ing indigo with oil of vitriol the mixture heats
itself, exhales a sulphurous smell, and a slight
fermentation will be perceived. As soon as the
fermentation ceases, the vessel must be closely
covered, and placed for twenty-four hours in a
situation moderately warm, in order to give time
for the acid to dissolve the indigo entirely.
When the dissolution is effected, the liquid
must be diluted with ten times its weight of pure
water; after which it is exposed to the fire in a
copper vessel, until it is nearly as hot as boiling
water. Then soak it in some flocks of wool
well bleached, or pieces of white wool, in the
proportion of eight ounces of wool to half an
ounce of the dissolved indigo; expose the whole
for twenty-four hours to a moderate fire of about
150° of Fahrenheit's thermometer. The wool
acquires a very deep blue dye, almost black;
and the remainder of the liquid is almost entirely
deprived of the blue coloring matter, and appears
of a dirty green color. In this manner the wool
absorbs the blue coloring matter of the indigo,
by separating it from the heterogeneous particles
that were combined with it.
The wool that has been thus dyed is put into
a sieve over a tub, and some pure river water
poured on, being kneaded at the same time, until
the water comes off quite clear and colorless;
thus the heterogeneous and dirty parts are separ-
ated from the indigo, and the pure blue coloring
matter remains with the wool. When this opera-
tion is terminated, a quantity of river or rain
water, equal to forty times the weight of the
indigo and oil of vitriol, is boiled in a boiler;
in this water is dissolved as much crystallised
matron as equals the quantity of indigo em-
ployed; the dyed wool is then plunged into it,
and boiled until it has nearly lost all its color.
The wool when it comes out of the boiler is a ,
blue gray; the liquid remains of a fine deep blue,
and contains the coloring matter of the indigo
pure and dissolved.
If, for instance, an ounce of indigo is dissolved
in oil of vitriol, and the liquid evaporated until
the weight is reduced to four pounds and a half,
then strained through a linen cloth, in order to
separate the foreign particles that may be mixed
with it, after which, if this blue dye be left to
cool, it is then in a proper state to be em-
ployed as a coloring matter to give a blue color
to starch.
If a deep blue is . esired, the proportions
must be half an ounce of indigo to a pound of
starch ; for a middling color, a pound and a half
of starch to the same quantity of indigo ; and,
for a light blue, two pounds of starch to the
Šame. The starch must be put into a bowl, the
blue dye poured on it, and the whole well rub-
bed together until the starch be completely
divided, and uniformly combined with the dye.
Lastly, the mixture must be left at rest, until it
acquires the consistency of a fine thin jelly; it is
then dried in a warm air, and put away for use.
2. To prepare a blue color with prussiate of
iron.—A blue color, similar to the preceding,
may be prepared by employing, instead of
indigo, prussiate of iron, or Berlin blue. The
last mentioned must be of the best quality, and
it is rubbed with water in a mortar until it is so
far combined with it that it will not easily sepa-
rate; afterwards the blue matter is left to de-
posit, the water is decanted off, and the matter is
triturated with the quantity of wet starch that
is necessary to make the shade of blue desired.
This color, which is very fine, is dried, and bears
the action of the sun and air better than the
preceding. It must be observed, however, that
when the cottons that have been dyed with this
color are washed with this soap, it always leaves
a yellowish tint in the water.
3. Citron-yellow.—Weld, saw-wort, and tur-
meric, are employed in preparing this color.
One pound of the two first substances, or half a
pound of the turmeric, if that root is preferred,
are boiled with twelve pounds of water, in a
copper boiler, until the liquid is reduced to a
pound, which is then strained through a linen
cloth. In this clear liquid two ounces of alum
are dissolved, the solution is suffered to cool,
and two pounds of white starch are mixed with
it, and rubbed until all its particles are well
combined with those of the color. This com-
pound is then dried in the air.
4. Orange color.—Bixa orellana is preferred
for this color: an ounce of it is pulverised with
half an ounce of pure potash; some river water
is poured on it, and this mixture is digested in
an earthen vessel, closely covered, for four hours,
at a temperature of 185° of Fahrenheit, and
occasionally shaken.
The liquid obtained by this process is of an
orange color, which is drained through linen,
suffered to cool, and then incorporated with two
pounds of starch. The whole is afterwards dried
in a warm or temperate air.
5. Green.—This color is composed of blue
and yellow : in order to obtain it, a part of the
indigo dye, described at No. 1, and as much of
the yellow dye of No. 3, are mixed together until
the desired color is produced, which may be
known by trying it on paper. A pound of this
mixed dye is dissolved with an ounce of alum;
when the solution is cold two pounds of white
starch are mixed, and well incorporated with it,
after which it is dried.
In this manner different shades of green can
be obtained, according to the proportions in
which the blue and yellow dyes are mixed.
12
L I N E N.
6. Olive.—This color is prepared by mixing
the indigo dye No. 1, with the bixa orellana, No.
4, until the desired shade is obtained; the ne—
cessary quantity of starch is then added, and the
mixture dried.
7. Red.—This is prepared from Brasil wood
or cochineal; if the first be preferred, a pound
of scrapings of this wood must be boiled in a
tin copper cauldron, with twelve pounds of rain
or river water, until the whole is reduced to two
pounds. It is then strained through linen. Af-
terwards two ounces of alum are dissolved in
three ounces of boiling water, to which are added
six ounces of the decoction of Brasil wood, and
the whole is left to cool. To this mixture three
pounds of white starch are added, and well in-
corporated; then the remainder of the decoction
of Brasil wood is poured on, and the mixture is
stirred until it acquires the consistency of a thin
jelly, when it is dried in the air.
8. Crimson.—Half an ounce of pulverised co-
chineal is tempered with water, and put into a
tin vessel, containing two pounds of boiling
water. When the whole is well mixed, it must
continue gently boiling until the quantity of li-
quid is reduced to a pound: it is afterwards
strained through linen or a paper filter. In
this colored liquid half an ounce of alum is dis-
solved; and when it is cold two pounds of starch
are well incorporated with it; it is then left to
dry in the air at a mild temperature.
Besides these two colors, other shades of red
may be obtained:—
(1.) By adding, instead of the alum, half an
ounce of tin dissolved in aqua regia, to a pound
of the cochineal or fernambouc dye.
(2.) By mixing either of these dyes with a
decoction of weld or turmeric, by which means
yellow reds and coquelicot may be produced.
(3.) By mixing them in different proportions
with the blue dye, this mixture will produce
different shades of violet and purple.
9, Violet.—Half a pound of scrapings of log-
wood must be boiled with six pounds of water
in a tin vessel, until the liquid is reduced to a
pound and a half. This decoction is strained
through linen, or filtered through paper. An
ounce of tin dissolved in aqua regia is then
added to it, two pounds of starch incorporated
with it, and left to dry in mild air. In this
manner the colors and shades may be multiplied
and diversified in a thousand ways by mixing the
above decoction in different proportions, or by
adding to it other coloring substances, in order
to obtain dyes that may be combined with the
starch. - -
When any of these colors are used to dye
wearing apparel, furniture, &c., any quantity
may be taken and tempered with fresh water,
and afterwards dissolved in boiling water: into
this the stuff must be plunged; which, with well
rubbing, takes the desired color, and acquires
also additional body or solidity.
Mr. Shotwell obtained a patent, in 1807, for a
machine for bleaching, washing, and cleansing
linen. . It consists of an oblong wooden box of
about three feet and a half in length, fourteen
inches wide, and about fourteen inches deep,
made perfectly water-tight, excepting a small
ment approaches them.
hole through the bottom near to one end, to draw
off the water when done with, which hole is at
other times stopped up by a bung or any other
contrivance. To this box legs are affixed, so as
to raise it about three feet from the ground; it is
covered over with boards laid cross-ways about
four inches and a half at each end, and which
may be made to project outwards to any extent,
as also over each side so as to form a table.
The remaining open space is covered with two
flaps, excepting a portion of about nine-eighths
of an inch; one of these flaps is hung with
hinges to the outward or back side, so as to form
a door to lift up; the other is simply laid in
grooves, and fastened down by wooden bolts.
Into the open space between the boards, the
washing implement, represented in figs. 6 and
7, is introduced; and to the top of this a lever
is attached in the manner shown at B in figs. 8
and 9; though it is evident, the patentee states,
that any other mode of propelling the washing
implement may be employed, or the lever may
be attached in any other way.
Instead of having the washing-implement on
the above plan, the box may be entirely covered
over with boards, flaps, or doors, as before men-
tioned; and pieces of wood may be nailed to the
inside, so as to form ridges about an inch and a
half from the top, on which the washing-imple-
Inent may be suspended and made to slide; the
whole of the upper part will in this case be
needless, and the lower part, which will be in
the box, is to be affixed to a lengthened piece of
wood C, fig. 8, which is to be brought through
a hole made in the end of the machine, opposite
to that at which the lever B is placed. This
lengthened piece of wood is connected with the
lever in the manner shown by the dotted lines C
D in fig. 8.
The foul linen to be washed by this machine
is evidently to be placed on each side of the
implement, which is to be forced backwards and
forwards by the lever, as before described.
If it be convenient to admit steam into the
machine, the water therein will be kept at a pro
per heat, and the linen will be whiter than in the
usual way of washing. The steam may be in-
troduced into the washing-machine by means of
a pipe communicating with a boiler. -
Fig. 6 exhibits a side view of the washing-
implement.
Fig. 7 a front view of the same, or that part
which faces the end of the machine.
Fig. 8 is a side view of the apparatus com-
plete. A, the oblong box, with small inclinations
at each end, as shown by the dotted lines a a,
which cause the linen to turn more about than
they otherwise would, when the washing-imple-
B shows one way of
connecting the lever with the implement, and the
dotted lines C D another. E is a mortise to
support a tenant board, on which the lever B
works; it is more clearly shown in fig. 9 which
is an end view. .
Mr. Shotwell has constructed another appa-
ratus for the same purpose, which it may be
advisable briefly to examine. Instead of making
an oblong box, a barrel is formed, which is
placed horizontally on axes at each end, which
L I N E N.
13
for the weft.
are made to turn in friction-boxes. The barrel
is placed on a convenient framing, as may be
seen in figs. 10 and 11, to which is generally at-
tached a vessel, immediately under the washing-
barrel A, to receive the dirty water from the
barrel, in which there is a hole B to permit its
escape into the vessel D. In this barrel a hole
C is made sufficiently large to put in and take
out the linen, &c., and which is stopped up
with a bung when in use. On the inside of this
barrel one or more ribs is affixed, as in the com-
mon horizontal barrel-churn; and when steam is to
be employed, as in the apparatus described, it must
be introduced through one of the axes, which
must be perfolated for that purpose: the other
axis should also be perforated to permit the es—
cape of any superabundance.
Mr. Weise, of Tooley Street, has taken out
a patent for making cloth waterproof. Among
the materials enumerated by the patentee are,
fur, flax or hemp, carded silk, and feathers.
The proportions of these are to be five pounds
of the finer furs, two pounds and a half of the
wool, two pounds of the flax, one pound of the
carded silk, and three-quarters of a pound of
the feathers. These materials are to be divided
into portions of about two ounces each, and to
be passed through a fine carding engine by one
portion at a time, the fine fur being first laid or
bowed on the roller cloth of the engine, which
will cause it to lie on the outside of the carded
flake. After being thus carded, the materials
are to be drawn, roved, and spun, like cotton,
the management directed for them being the same
:as is used for that substance.
The yarn spun is to be of two sorts, one fine,
for the warp, and the other coarser and softer,
It is then to be woven in a loom
of from eight to twelve lambs, and a proportional
number of treadles. The fine yarn forming
the warp is to be kept at the back of the cloth,
and the soft weft in the front, by the means well
known to weavers, and similar to those used in
weaving diapers and velvets.
When the cloth is wanted to be made water-
proof, a composition is to be prepared of equal
portions of shell-lac, caoutchouc, mastic, gum
animi, and sandarac; by cutting the caoutchouc
into very small shreds, and pounding the gums and
lac very fine, and then dissolving them in ether
and spirits of wine, or spirits of turpentine. Into
this composition the fine skeins for the warp are
to be dipped, and then to be gently pressed or
left to drain, and to be hung up to dry; and,
when dry, are to be stretched in the loom, where,
instead of the common sizing, the composition
above stated is to be used.
After the cloth is woven, the fur or nap is to
be drawn forward on its front by teazles or cards,
and a hot smoothing iron is to be passed over
its back, to cause the composition to sink into
it, and close the interstices. f
This cloth, when intended for hats, is to be
laid over linings or moulds, on hat blocks, of
the same materials usual for those of silk hats,
and to be managed in the same manner. For
wearing apparel the cloth is to be chiefly made
of Saxon wool and flax, managed as before
mentioned; and when cloth with a pile, like
plush or velvet, is wanted, it is to be woven in a
velveteen loom, and then to be cut in the usual
Iſlan Ile I’.
A few facts connected with the history of
weaving may now be introduced.
The combined arts of spinning and weaving
are among the first essentials of civilised society,
and we find both to be of very ancient origin.
The fabulous story of Penelope's web, and still
more the frequent allusions to this art in the
sacred writings, tend to show, that the fabrica-
tion of cloth from threads, hair, &c., is a very
ancient invention. It has, however, like other
useful arts, undergone a vast succession of im–
provements, both as to the preparation of the
materials of which cloth is made, and the appa-
ratus necessary in its construction, as well as in
the particular modes of operation by the artists.
Weaving, when reduced to its original princi-
ple, is nothing more than the interlacing of the
weft or cross threads into the parallel threads of
the warp, so as to tie them together, and form a
web or piece of cloth. This art is doubtless
more ancient than that of spinning, and the first
cloth was what we now call matting, viz. made
by weaving together the shreds of the bark, or
fibrous parts of plants, or the stalks, such as
rushes and straws. s
This is still the substitute for cloth amongst
most rude and savage nations. When they have
advanced a step farther in civilisation than the
state of hunters, the skins of animals become
scarce, and they require some more artificial
substance for clothing, and which they can pro-
cure in greater quantities. Nevertheless, some
people are still ignorant of the art of weaving;
for the cloth made in the islands of the South
Sea appears to be made by cementing or glue-
ing the shreds together, rather than by weaving.
From the description given by captain Cook,
and other circumnavigators, and from the speci-
mens which have been brought to Europe, their
cloth, or rather matting, is in general produced
by cohesion of the parts, rather than texture.
This assimilates it more to the ideas which we
attach to paper or paste-board, than those which
we form of cloth.
When it was discovered that the delicate and
short fibres, which animals and vegetables afford,
could be so firmly united together by twisting
as to form threads of any required length or
strength, the weaving art was placed on a per-
manent foundation. By the process of spinning,
which was very simple in its origin, the weaver
is furnished with threads far superior to any na-
tural vegetable fibres in lightness, strength, and
flexibility; and he has only to combine them
together in the most advantageous manner.
The art of weaving cloth has been so exten-
sively applied in almost every civilised country,
and the knowledge of its various branches has
been derived from such a variety of sources,
that no one person can ever be practically em-
ployed in all its branches; and, though every
part bears a strong analogy to the rest, yet a mi-
nute knowledge of each of these parts can only
be acquired by experience and reflection.
We may now briefly examine the origin of
the linen manufactory in Ireland. In the year
14
L I N E N.
1633, lord Wentworth, an austere, imperious,
but active and sagacious nobleman, entered into
office as chief governor. He was a tyrant,
but his tyranny was tempered with wisdom.
Sensible how much the power and glory of a .
monarch depend on the prosperity of his people,
he was so assiduously attentive to the peace, in-
tellectual improvement, and industry of the
Irish, that, though individuals often felt the arro-
gānce of his temper, the nation in general had
reason to be grateful for the benefits arising
from the vigor of his administration. Pro-
tected by a strictness before unknown in the ex-
ecution of English law, unusual numbers, and
with unusual attention, applied their thoughts
to pursuits of industry; the consequences of
which appeared in the rising value of land, the
augmented quantity of products for exportation,
and such an increase of commerce, that the
shipping of Ireland was multiplied a hundred
fold. For the encouragement of traffic, this de-
puty, so zealous for the promotion of the power
and revenue of his master, used his influence
for the abolition of oppressive duties on the im-
portation of coals and horses into Ireland, and
on the exportation of live cattle.
By Wentworth's endeavours, a manufacture
of linen cloth was established in Ulster; a ré-
cent fabrication of woollen drapery was dis-
couraged, lest it should come in competition with
that of England, for the purpose that Ireland
should be dependent on that country for the
clothing of its inhabitants, and consequently less
prone to a political separation; to make amends
for this injustice, the deputy exerted himself so
strenuously for the encouragement of linen, that
he took a share in the enterprize, at the expense,
according to his own statement, of £30,000,
from his private fortune; as flax had long been
known to thrive in this country, and many of
the women being spinners, hopes of success
were early conceived. Flax-seed was brought
from Holland; weavers from several parts of
the Low Countries, and from France; looms were
fabricated, and regulations formed for the pre-
vention of defects in the cloth by fraud or neg-
ligence: experience has proved the propriety of
the plan, since this manufacture, notwithstand-
ing its interruption in its infancy, by a desolating
civil war, became in time the principal support
of the wealth of Ireland.
In Ireland, every bleacher must stamp his own
name on the end of every web; hence it can al-
ways be ascertained, by mere inspection, where
the bleaching has been performed. Again, should
any goods be improperly bleached, so that the
texture is injured, the bleacher is liable to be
compelled to take back the whole of them, and
pay every expense of carriage, however far they
may have been conveyed from the spot where
they were finished. In this case, the bleacher
is also subjected to a considerable fine. So cer-
tain is the infliction of this penalty, in case of a
complaint being properly lodged against a delin-
quent, that some years ago, when the bleaching
process was not conducted with that care with
which it is at present, several persons actually
travelled through many of the counties of Eng-
land and Scotland for the purpose of collecting
from the mercers all such damaged Irish linens,
and for which they paid good prices, in order to
be entitled to receive the fines. -
The best regulation may, however, be super-
seded and often evaded. Accordingly it is well
known that many hundred thousands of pieces
of calicoes are made and finished in Lancashire,
and stiffened in a peculiar way, to imitate the
Irish linens, particularly those made at Colerain,
and that they have the name of this place stamp-
ed upon them. -
It is notorious that a kind of linen thread made
at Paisley, in Scotland, and known by the name
of nuns’ thread, has the preference, and is the
best for use. In consequence of the character
which this thread has acquired, the Irish have
begun a similar manufacture, and scruple not
to usher theirs into the market under the sanc-
tion of a stamp bearing the name of Paisley.
In like manner, an article called Inkle, and
some species of thread resembling that which is
made in Holland, are now manufactured in large
quantities in Scotland, and sold under a Dutch
stamp; the method of making these articles hav–
ing been stolen from Holland, and brought into
Scotland half a century ago. Thus, self-interest
is apt to be the leading motive with mankind in
all nations.
The linen trade of this country is regulated by
several statutes.
No person shall put to sale any piece of dowlas
linen, &c., unless the just length be expressed
thereon, on pain of forfeiting the same, 28 Hen.
VIII. cap. 4. Using means whereby linen-cloth
shall be made deceitfully incurs a forfeiture of
the linen, and a month's imprisonment. Stat. 1
Eliz. cap. 12. Any persons may set up trades
for dressing hemp or flax, and making thread for
linen-cloth, &c. 15 Car. II. cap. 15.
By 43 Geo. III., c. 69, all former duties on
linen-cloth, silks, cottons, and calicoes are re-
pealed; and in lieu thereof other duties are im-
posed upon all goods which shall be printed,
stained, painted, or dyed in Great Britain, ac-
cording to a schedule annexed to the act: and,
by 50 Geo. III. c. 26, certain export duties are
imposed; the said duties to be paid by the prin-
ter, stainer, painter, or dyer. By 49 Geo. III.,
c. 98, certain duties and customs are imposed
upon French linens (or lawns). By 43 Geo.III.,
c. 69, every calico printer, and every printer,
painter, or stainer of linens, cottons, or stuffs shall
pay annually for a license £10. . The printing or
staining of calicoes must be for exportation;
because by 7 Geo. I., stat. 1, c. 7, the use of
printed, painted, stained, or dyed calico for
wearing apparel is prohibited, on pain of £5 to
the informer, on conviction: and a person offer-
ing such for sale, unless for exportation, forfeits
f20, half to the informer and half to "the poor.
This prohibition, however, does not extend to
calicoes dyed wholly blue: and it shall be law-
ful to use stuff made of linen yarn and cotton
wool manufactured, and printed or painted in
Great Britain, provided the warp thereof be
wholly linen yarn. 9 Geo. II., c. 4. By 14
Geo. III., c. 72, it is enacted that no greater duty
shall be paid for stuffs made of raw cotton wool
within this kingdom than 3}d. a yard, 43 Geo.
L I N E N.
15
III., c. 69, and that any person may use the
same in apparel or otherwise: and every piece
is to have three blue stripes in both selvedges,
and to be stamped at each end with a stamp pro-
vided by the officers of excise ; and, instead of
the word calico, used for foreign calicoes, each
piece shall be marked with the words British
Manufactory. If stuffs made wholly of cotton,
and printed, painted, stained, or dyed stuffs
(muslins, neck-cloths, and fustians excepted),
without such mark shall be exposed to sale, they
shall be forfeited, and £50 for each piece.
any person shall counterfeit such stamp, or know-
ingly sell such stuffs with a counterfeit stamp,
he shall be guilty of felony without benefit of
clergy. If any person shall import any calicoes,
muslims, or other stuffs made of linen yarn only,
or of linen yarn and cotton wool mixed, or
wholly of cotton wool, in which shall be woven in
the selvedge any such blue stripe, he shall for-
feit the same and £10 for each piece. Every
such printer, painter, stainer, or dyer, shall give
notice in writing, at the next office, of his name
and place of abode, and where he intends to
work, on pain of £50. 10 Anne c. 19 ; 25 Geo.
III., c. 72. By 1 Geo. II., stat. 2, c. 34, any
person undertaking to print, paint, &c., any
silks, linens, or stuffs, at any other place than
the place of his usual residence or exercise of
his trade, shall first make entry of the place, and
pay the duties, on pain of £50, and forfeiture of
the goods. Officers may enter at all times, by
day or night, to take account, &c., and the pe-
nalty of obstructing the officer in the execution
of his duty is £200. 10 Anne c. 19; 25 Geo.
III., c. 72. Goods shall be entered once in six
weeks on oath before the collector or supervisor,
on pain of £50. 10 Anne c. 19. No person
shall begin to print, stain, paint, or dye any
goods before they have been measured and mark-
ed, on pain of forfeiting the same, and also £20
for every piece. 25 Geo. III., c. 72. If any
printer shall wilfully cut out or deface such
frame-mark, he shall forfeit £50. Concealing
goods, or avoiding duty, incurs a forfeiture of
£50; and all goods found in a place of which
no notice has been given, or the value thereof,
shall be forfeited. 10 Anne c. 19 ; 25 Geo. III.
c. 72. Nor shall goods be kept in unentered
places on pain of forfeiting £50, and the goods.
20 Geo. III., c. 72. Within six weeks the du-
ties shall be cleared, on pain of forfeiting double.
10 Anne c. 19. Nor shall they be removed be-
fore the officer has taken account of them and
stamped them, on pain of £50, and seizure.
10 Anne c. 19 ; 25 Geo. III., c. 72. Goods sur-
veyed shall be kept separate from those unsur-
veyed, on pain of £50; and goods unstamped
may be searched for and seized. 10 Anne c. 19:
25 Geo. III., c. 72. The person in whose cus-
tody such goods are found shall forfeit £100.
5 Geo. III., c. 11; 27 Geo. III., c. 31.
Calicoes, &c., that shall not have three blue
threads in the selvedge, shall be deemed foreign
calicoes; and, on being printed or dyed, shall
be marked at each end with the words ‘foreign
calicoes for exportation;' and every dealer who
shall have any such goods in his custody (except
dyed throughout of one color), or any stuffs
If
made wholly of cotton wool woven in Great Bri
tain, commonly called ‘British manufactory,’
(muslins, neckcloths, and fustians, excepted),
not having such blue threads, shall forfeit £200,
and every such piece found in his custody.
25 Geo. III. c. 72. The owner or printer of
any piece or remnant of cossac, or foreign mus-
lins and calicoes, shall, before they be presented
to the officer, mark the same at both ends with
a frame-mark, containing his name and place of
abode, and also the name by which such goods
are commonly known (except such as are dyed
throughout of one color), on pain of forfeiting
£10 for every piece or remnant. The owner or
printer of any linens or stuffs made of cotton
mixed, or wholly of cotton wool woven in Great
Britain, called “ British manufactory or muslins,”
shall mark the same at both ends (fustians, velvets,
velverets, dimities, and other figured stuffs, except-
ed) with a mark, containing his name and place of
abode, and the name and quality of such goods,
with the ready-money price thereof, before the
same are presented to the officer in order to be
printed or dyed, on pain of forfeiture, and seizure,
and £20; and, if any such piece be marked at a
less price than the real value, the same may be
seized and forfeited, and the owner shall forfeit
£20. If the frame-mark be defaced, the same
shall be renewed, on notice; but if any person
shall counterfeit or forge any frame-mark, he
shall forfeit £100; and, if any person counterfeit
the stamp, it is felony without benefit of clergy.
25 Geo. III. c. 72; 27 Geo. III. c. 31. If any
person shall knowingly sell any of the goods
with a counterfeit stamp, he shall forfeit £100,
and stand two hours in the pillory. 10 Anne,
c. 19 ; 13 Geo. III. c. 56; 25 Geo. III. c. 72.
By 27 Geo. III. c. 31, if any person shall know-
ingly sell any such goods with counterfeit stamp,
thus intending to defraud his majesty, he shall
be guilty of felony without benefit of clergy.
Every person who has paid the duties, or bought
the goods of any person who has paid the
duties, may export the same, and shall be al-
lowed all the duties in drawback, as set forth in
43 Geo. III. c. 69, Sched. C., on conforming to
certain prescribed conditions. 25 Geo. III. c.
72; 25 Geo. III. c. 74. By the 4 Geo. III. c.
37, which establishes the corporation of the En-
glish Linen Company for making cambrics and
lawns, it is enacted that the commissioners of
excise, where there shall be a manufactory of
cambrics or lawns, or of goods known under that
denomination, shall appoint the supervisor or
other officer to seal the same, for which they
shall have such fee as the commissioners shall
appoint; the manufacturer to give notice in
writing to the officer of the finishing of every
piece, before it is taken out of the loom, who
shall seal the same at both ends; on pain that
such manufacturer, taking the same out of the
loom without having given such notice, and hav-
ing the same sealed as aforesaid, shall forfeit
f5; and every such piece shall be forfeited, and
may be seized by any officer of the customs or
excise; and the officer, with convenient speed
after notice, shall mark and also number each
piece; and make entry in writing, in books to
be provided at the expense of the manufacturer,
16
L 1 N E N.
of the number set to each piece, the length
thereof, and the number of threads in the warp,
on pain of £10. If the officer shall mark any
the same shall be exported, and not relanded.
To counterfeit the seal appointed by this act, or
import any foreign cambrics or lawns having
not made in England, or after the same is taken g such counterfeit mark thereon, or expose the
out of the looms, he shall forfeit £50 for each
piece to him who shall sue, and forfeit his
office, and be incapacitated to hold any other
office of trust under the crown. If any person
shall offer to the officer any bribe, he shall forfeit
£50; and if he shall by bribery, or otherwise,
prevail upon the officer to commit such offence,
he shall forfeit £100, and stand in the pillory
two hours. And the officer shall yearly, in the
month of June, transmit to the commissioners an
account of all goods which he shall have stamped,
and a copy of the entries made, on pain of dis-
mission; and he, or his executors, shall deliver
up the seals, on demand from the commissioners,
on pain of £200. Cambrics and lawns made
in England, found unstamped, shall be forfeited,
and may be seized by any officer of the customs
or excise, and, after condemnation, shall be sold;
and every person who shall sell, or expose to
sale, or have in his custody for that purpose, any
Cambrics or lawns made in England, unmarked,
shall forfeit. £200 : such goods not to be sold,
or worn in this kingdom, but to be exported,
and to be sold only on condition of exportation.
Nor shall they be delivered out of the warehouse
until bond be given, to the satisfaction of the
collector, in double penalty of the goods, that
same to sale, knowing the stamp thereon to be
counterfeited, is felony withput benefit of clergy.
All goods condemned in pursuance of this act,
and all pecuniary forfeitures (not otherwise di-
rected), shall be sued for and recovered in any
of his majesty's courts, in the name of the
attorney-general, or of such officer as aforesaid;
and applied, after deduction of charges, half to
the king, and half to the officer seizing, inform-
ing, or suing, according to the directions of this
act. The penalties may be sued for, levied, and
mitigated, as by the laws of excise, or in the
courts at Westminster; and employed half to
the king, and half to him that shall discover, in-
form, or sue. 10 Anne, c. 19; 24 Geo. II. c. 40;
25 Geo. III. c. 72. All utensils and instru-
ments for printing, painting, staining, or dyeing
such goods, in custody of the said person, or
any other, shall be liable to all arrears of the
duty, and to all penalties concerning the same,
in like manner as if such person was the lawful
owner, 10 Anne, c. 19; 25 Geo. III. c. 72;
28 Geo. III. c. 37.
A few statistical tables, illustrative of this
branch of our manufacture, must conclude our
article. We shall commence with an enumera-
tion of
The species and quantities of Foreign LINENs imported and exported from GREAT BRITAIN and IRELAND, in the year ending 5th of January, 1826.
-- & Damask! ~.
* * * Can- Dril- Damask Cam-
- Plain of Plain Can- inder-l li e and * -
COUNTRIES FROM WHICH |Germa- || Plain of of the vas, Fº H. * Sail * Diaper º Silesia Sails cº 'º'
- e tº . - sº - g 5 y
IMPORTED. ny s: Russia. Y. Hes- ing, or Brown. Pack Cloth. Silesia, Nº. French|Lawns. Striped, &c. Striped, &c,
Sla, &C. ands. sen. Spruce. Duck. &c. ** Lawns. -
lands.
t | Declared Declared Declared
Ells. Ells. Ells. | Ells. Ells. | Ells. | Ells. | Ells. Yards. Yards. Pieces. | Pieces. Value. Value. Value.
* £ s. d. £ s. d. | f s. d.
ſRussia . 186,841% º, I ºf 750 | . . .2848#| 166 . e tº & & . 102 11 7 . . . 16 1 O
Sweden * tº * 4 4 • * º, * * * * e . & º tº e * g 130 13 O ‘. {e © ge tº *
3 || Denmark g gº e gº 830 | . . de • | *. tº e . . 42 5 11 . . . 49 2 O
§ Prussia 35 iº . . 637 . . . . . e W & © º 6 . 80 8 O| . . . 202 2 1
|33 || Germany 37,310 20 | . . . 67 2,021; 92 51 . 45,494; . . 70% 51 18 10 . . . 185 9 4
|..., | Holland 451.4% & 275 109 2,234}} . . • I & tº 15 . . © 75 36 1 10 1 5 O 3 O O
§ | Flanders 3445 tº tº tº tº 75 & g & º . . .2% | . . . . . 165 0 0| 415 11 6 15 9 0
Ö 2 France . 1495 . 9824% 33.9% g 42 | . . 89}| 142 |40,2973 g e & ºf 19 16 O 634 5 7
3 || Jersey * § gº 10% 88 . e ſº p 67 * I e is • . tº I dº * * tº º tº 0 5 O| . . .
.5 Other countries in Europe | 1851; 24% 17| . . • | * * tº 1903] . . 94 17 O 219 3 9 68 1 1 0
# | East Indies ſº I gº { } e • * • * e e i º † 325 5 O| . . . & G tº
㺠America, &c. . º 640 wº • 179 8 8 O 5 O} 8 15 10
* - . -
Total into Great Britain 48,661}| 186,974 |10,0993, 193| 7,594}| 92 |29414, 166 |45,7903] 144; 40,303}| 145; 1208 9 10) 656 6 3|1182 15 10
l - *sº = 1 ==-
re; Russia . * * • b e º * 32 0 0 . . . tº 4
5 Prussia . & & & & & tº tº 50 0 O * tº sº
# Germany e g & & tº § te o * • 8 O O
* | Holland * 55 & tº º * & sº & 58 7 8
É France tº e & * * & ſº 50% & g º ſº. te tº º
= | America & * tº 17; i.e. # . 123 2 10 &
5 •ºssºsºmsº
a Total into Ireland . 55 ( ; 17| . 50% 205 2 10 66 7 8
- U -
- Total quantities of Fo-
reign Linen imported ( , --- l - -
into the United King- y 48,661+|186,974 10,099%| 248 7,5943| 92 |29414, 183}|45,7903] 1443 |40,354%. 1453 |1413 12 8 656 6 3|1249 3 6
dom º
:

's e •. Damask/Damask!
..". Plain | Plain Qanyas, Hinder- º: º and and º: * * * Unrated, Unrated, not
Countries To which ExpoRTED. many of of the Canvas, Packing . . . Sail |Diaper |Diaper | “... Silesia Sails. Chequered, Chequered,
silesia Russia. |Nether-Hessen.] or Brown. | Pack Cloth. , or . of the French Lawns. Striped, Striped,
&c." lands. Spruce. Duck. Silesia, Nether-f. &c. &c.
&c. lands.
Declared Declared Declared
Ells. Ells. Ells. | Ells. Ells. Ells. | Ells. Ells. |Yards. |Yards. |Pieces. Pieces. Value. Value. Value.
• £. s. d. £. s. d. 4. s. d.
^Germany º * u, I - a ſº © tº º • e . * : * ~ * 217 13 9| . . .
Holland º 16,800 . º e as tº * I e o e - e. * @ e
3 || France . © •. g tº º || “… g tº w ſº * | * e & 168 O O
3 |Madeira and Canaries º e º & 5 | . e º e . . ."
‘p: Asia tº º º e º º 7 º o & e & © *
§ Africa - • • ,” ſº º º g w e G 3 48 O O
§ America, British North
CŞ < American Colonies e 74% 241 * º 16 15 4
E. British West
O Indies 251 ; 1 0 0
º Foreign West -
5 Indies . . 9,000 . º s e e G º • Q &
§ Mexico 925 | . . & 37% 88 & 1 4 0
Total from Great Britain 925 25,800 . * 1 12 592 217 13 9| 234 19 4ſ
5 . (America, British North
st: T. American Colonies e Q 9 e tº e 102 4 7 º º
# # United States tº º º 11 * * * : Q
Q4 & - - x-
à }- Total from Ireland © 11 102 4 7 º º
Total Quantities of Fo-
:*:: *ś| 925 |25,800 . . . . 112 603 102 4 7 217 13 9| 234 19 4
Kingdom e º
3
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An Account of the quantity of LINEN CLoTH of all sorts exported from GREAT BRITAIN to IRELAND, and to foreign countries, in the
- year ending 5th of January, 1826; distinguishing British, Irish, and foreign linens. 9
British Linens
Irish Linens
Foreign Linens .
- Total .
To Ireland. To Foreign Countries. Total Export.
Pieces, Yards. Pieces. | Ells. Yards. f, s. d. 1 Pieces. Ells. Yards. £. S. d.
132,671 . . . . . 35,991,753 | . . . . . ; 36,124,424 . . .
. . . 270,350 . . . • * 13,534,843 º e . . & © 13,805,193 º º
478 e • 592 26,725 112 |452 13 1 || 1,070 26,725 112 |452 13 1 .
478 403,021 || 592 26,725 || 49,526,708 |452 13 1 || 1,070 26,725 || 49,929,729 452 13 1
The value of the Irish linens will be best seen by an account of the number of yards, with their real and official value, exported
from Great Britain and Ireland respectively, in the year ending 5th January, 1826, upon which no bounty was claimed.
Great Britain. Ireland. The United Kingdom.
Quantity. Official value. Real * Quantity. Official value. | Real * Quantity. Official value. Real *
Yards. £. s. £. s. d. Yards. £. s. d. 36. s. d. Yards. £ s. d. £. s. d.
1,935,319 100,634 13 0 194,687 9 8 433,825 26,696 18 6 50,612 18 4 2,419,144. 127,331 11 6 245,480 8 0.
:
º



|#g
|
LIN
LIN
20
but especially our deepest and thickest ling, which
are therefore called island lings. Abbot.
LING. See GADUs.
LINGELBACH, or LINGELBAck (John), an
excellent painter, born at Franckfort on the
Maine, in 1625. He learned the art in Holland,
but perfected himself at Rome; where he stu-
died till 1650, when he settled at Amsterdam.
His usual subjects are fairs, mountebanks, sea-
pieces, and landscapes, which he executed well,
and enriched with antiquities. His sea-fights are
full of expression. He had also great readiness
in painting figures and animals, and was employ-
ed by other artists to adorn their landscapes with
such objects. He died in 1687. -
LINGEN ISLE, an island in the Eastern Seas,
of irregular figure and situated off the north-east
coast of Sumatra. It is fifty miles in length, and
thirty in breadth, and is remarkable for a moun-
tain in its centre, terminating in a fork, which
the seamen have distinguished by the name of
Ass's Ears. It is much frequented, and indeed
possessed by Malay pirates. The equinoctial
line passes through it. -
LIN’GER, v. m. & v. a. Y Sax. ling, leng, long.
LIN’GERINGLY, adv. }T. remain (i.e. stay
long); particularly to remain in pain, languor,
idleness, or suspense. Generally used respecting
a culpable or painful delay: barbarously used by
Shakspeare as an active verb, or in the sense of
to protract; draw out : lingeringly is tediously;
in a delaying manner.
And while he lingered, the men laid hold upon his
hand; and they brought him forth. Gen. xix. 16.
Let order die,
And let this world no longer be a stage
To feed contention in a lingering act. Shakspeare.
We have lingered about a match between Anne
Page and my cousin Slender, and this day we shall
have our answer. Id.
She doth think, she has strange lingering poisons.
Id.
I can get no remedy against this consumption of
the purse. Borrowing only lingers and lingers it out,
but the disease is incurable. Id.
Perhaps thou lingerest, in deep thoughts detained
Of the enterprise so hazardous and high. Milton.
Of poisons, some kill more gently and lingeringly,
others more violently and speedily, yet both kill.
- t - Hale.
Not accompanied with so acute torments, nor with
so lingering pains, nor with so utter a ruin as might
have been inflicted. Barrow.
Should not a lingering fever be removed,
Because it long has raged within my blood?
Dryden.
Ye brethren of the lyre, and tuneful voice,
Lament his lot; but at your own rejoice.
Now live secure, and linger out your days;
The gods are pleased alone with Purcel’s lays.
Id.
Like wretches, that have lingered long,
We'll snatch the strongest cordial of our love.
Id.
... Your very fear of death shall make ye try
To catch the shade of immortality;
Wishing on earth' to linger, and to save
Part of its prey from the devouring grave.
- Prior.
Better to rush at once to shades below,
Than linger life away, and nourish woe.
Pope's Odyssey.
Sir, For some months past I have been rambling
over the country; but I am now confined with some
lingering complaints, originating, as I take it, in the
stomach. Burns.
Straight be thy course: nor tempt the maze that leads
Where fell Remorse his shapeless strength conceals,
And oft Ambition's dizzy cliff he treads,
And slumbers oft in Pleasure's flowery vales.
Nor linger unresolved. Beattie.
LIN'GET, or R Fr. linget, iron; Span. ingot.
LIN’GUET, n.s. {A small piece of metal.
Other matter hath been used for money, as, among
the Lacedemonians, iron linguets quenched with vine-
gar, that they may serve to no other use. Camden.
LIN'GO, m. s. Port. lingoa, from
LINGUA’CIOUs, adj. the Lat. lingua, the
LINGUADENTAL, adj. (tongue, the origin of
LIN'GUIST. the other words. Lin-
guacious is full of tongue; loguacious; talkative:
linguadental, Lat. lingua and dens, uttered by the
joint action of the tongue and teeth : linguist,
a professor of languages, or one skilled in various
languages. -
Though a linguist sbould pride himself to have all
the tongues that Babel cleft the world into, yet, if
he had not studied the solid things in them, as well
as the words and lexicons, he were nothing so much
to be esteemed a learned man, as any yeoman or
tradesman competently wise in his mother dialect
only. Milton.
The linguadentals, f, v, as also the linguadentals,
th, dh, he will soon learn.
Holder's Elements of Speech.
Our linguist received extraordinary rudiments
towards a good education. Addison's Spectator.
I have thoughts to learn somewhat of your lingo,
before I cross the seas. Congreve.
This then, if fostered by the hand of a skilful lin-
guist, this science might perhaps, in time, come
nearer than any other to realize the extravagant idea
of the ingenious but romantic Bishop Wilkins, of an
universal language. Canning.
LINGONES, an ancient people of Gallia Bel-
gica, who inhabited part of Champagne, now in
the department of the Upper Marne. They
were conquered by Julius Caesar, and made tri-
butaries to Rome. They afterwards emigrated
into Italy, and settled on the Adriatic, near the
Alps.
fing.TAo, a city of China of the first rank,
in the province of Chen-si, in a fertile territory,
abounding with gold, corn, fruits, cattle, tigers,
wild bulls, &c.: 672 miles W. S. W. of Peking.
Long. 121° 20' E. of Ferro, lat. 35° 22' N.
LIN’IMENT, n. s. Fr. liniment; Lat. lini-
mentum. Ointment; balsam ; unguent. -
The nostrils, and the jugular arteries, ought to be
anointed every morning with this limiment or balsam.
Harvey.
The wise author of nature hath provided on the
rump two glandules, which the bird catches hold
upon with her bill, and squeezes out an oily pap or
liniment, fit for the inunction of the feathers. Ray.
A LINIMENT, in pharmacy, is somewhat thin-
ner than an unguent, and thicker than an oil,
used for anointing different parts of the body.
The materials proper for composing liniments
are, fats, oil, balsams, and whatever enters the
composition of unguents and plasters.
LINK, n. s. & v. a. Teut.gelenke; Dan. and
Isl. laenke; Swed. lank. A part or ring of a
LIN
LIN
21
chain; a loop; any thing connected in its parts
by loops or rings, and any single part of such
thing : to connect together; enchain; unite; or
Concatenate.
But fair Clarissa to a lovely frere
Was linked, and by him had many pledges dear.
r Faerie Queene.
They make an offer of themselves into the service
of that enemy, with whose servants they link them-
selves in so near a bond. Hooker.
These things are linked, and, as it were, chained
one to another : we labour to eat, and we eat to live,
and we live to do good; and the good which we do
is as seed sown, with reference unto a future harvest.
ld.
The Roman state, whose course will yet go on
The way it takes, cracking ten thousand curbs
Of more strong links asunder, than can ever
Appear in your impediment.
... • Shakspeare. Coriolanus.
They’re so linked in friendship,
That young prince Edward marries Warwick’s daugh-
ter. Shakspeare.
Blood in princes linked not in such sort,
As that it is of any power to tye.
Daniel’s Civil War.
God has linkt our hopes and our duty together.
Decay of Piety.
I feel
The link of nature draw me ; flesh of flesh,
Bone of my bone thou art.
Milton’s Paradise Lost.
. . Descending tread us down,
Thus drooping; or with linked thunderbolts
Transfix us to the bottom of this gulph. Milton.
Married to immortal verse,
Such as the meeting soul may pierce
In notes, with many a winding bout
Of linked sweetness long drawn out. Id.
The thread and train of consequences in intellective
ratiocination is often long, and chained together by
divers links, which cannot be done in imaginative
ratiocination, by some attributed to brutes.
Judge Hale.
Truths hang together in a chain of mutual depen-
dence; you cannot draw one link without attracting
others. - Glanville.
So gracious hath God been to us, as to link to-
gether our duty and our interest, and to make those
very things the instances of our obedience, which are
the natural means and causes of our happiness.
Tallotson.
Fire, flood, and earth, and air, by this were bound,
And love, the common link, the new creation crowned.
Dryden's Knight's Tale.
By which chain of ideas thus visibly linked to-
gether in train, i. e. each intermediate idea agreeing
on each side with those two it is immediately placed
between, the ideas of men and self-determination ap-
pear to be connected. Locke.
Make a link of horse hair very strong, and fasten
it to the end of the stick that springs. Mortimer.
Though I have here only chosen this single link of
martyrs, I might find out others among those names
which are still extant, that delivered down this ac-
count of our Saviour in a successive tradition.
Addison on the Christian Religion.
While she does her upward flight sustain,
Touching each link of the continued chain,
At length she is obliged and forced to see
A first, a source, a life, a deity.
So from the first eternal order ran,
And creature Zinked to creature, man to man.
Pope.
Prior.
which has been peculiarly magnificent.
The three principal links in this chatn are sympa-
thy, imitation, and ambition. -
Burke on the Sublime,
Ask not the boy, who, when the breeze of morn
First shakes the glittering drops from every thorn,
Unfolds his flock, then under bank or bush
Sits linking cherry stones, or platting rush,
How fair is Freedom? Cowper.
Steel were the knots, and steel the twisted thong,
Ring linked in ring, indissolubly strong;
On viewless hooks along the fretted roof
He hung, unseen, the inextricable woof.
'Tis something, in the dearth of fame,
Though linked among a fettered race,
To feel at least a patriot's shame,
Even as I sing, suffuse my face.
Darwin.
Byron.
LINK, n, s. Goth. lugn; Gr. AvXvog. A
LINKBOY, {: of pitch: link boy or
LINKMAN, man, the bearer of this useful
invention.
O, thou art an everlasting bonefire light ; thou
hast saved me a thousand marks in links and torches,
walking with thee in the night betwixt tavern and
tavern. Shakspeare. Henry IV.
There was no link to colour Peter's hat.
Shakspeare.
Whereas history should be the torch of truth, he
makes her in divers places a fuliginous link of lies.
- Howel.
One that bore a link
On a sudden clapped his flaming cudgel,
Like linstock to the horse’s touch-hole. -
& Hudibras.
What a ridiculous thing it was, that the con-
tinued shadow of the earth should be broken by
sudden miraculous disclusions of light, to prevent
the officiousness of the linkboy ' More.
Round as a globe, and liquored every chink,
Goodly and great he sails behind his link.
Dryden.
Though thou art tempted by the linkman’s call,
Yet trust him not along the lonely wall. Gay.
In the black form of cinder-wench she came,
O may no linkboy interrupt their love! Id.
LINLITHGOW (from Lin, Gael. i.e. a lake,
lith, a twig, and gow, a dog), a royal borough in
Scotland, capital of the county. The name is
said to allude to a black bitch, which, according
to tradition, was found tied to a tree in a small
island, on the east side of the lake, near which
the town stands. This etymology seems con-
firmed from the figure of the black bitch making
part of the town's armorial bearing, on its public
seal. Others, however, derive the name from
lin, a lake, lith, snug or close, and gow, a vale,
which seems confirmed from its situation. It
was a royal borough in the time of David I.
On the accession of the house of Stuart it became
a royal residence. James IV. was much attach-
ed to it, and built the east part of the palace,
Several
queens of Scotland held it as their jointure. It
is built of polished stone, and covers an acre of
ground forming a square with towers at the cor-
mers, and standing on a gentle eminence, with the
lake behind it on the west. It was greatly orna-
mented by James V. and VI. Within it is a
handsome square; one side of which was built
by James VI., and kept in repair till 1746, when
it was accidentally damaged by the king's troops
22
L 1 N N E.
making fires on the hearths, by which the joists
were burnt. A stone ornamental fountain in the
middle of the court was destroyed at the same
time. The other sides of the square are more
ancient. Narrow galleries run quite round the
old part, to preserve communications with the
rooms; in one of which the unfortunate Mary
queen of Scots was born. The town consists of
one open street of stone houses, three-quarters
of a mile long, with lanes on each side, and gar-
dens on the north and on the south. On the
north side of the High Street, on an eminence
east of the palace, stands St. Michael's church.
In the market place is another fountain of two .
stories with eight spouts, and surmounted like
the former with an imperial crown. The gallery,
whence the regent Murray was shot, is still to be
seen. The house of Carmelites, founded in 1290,
was destroyed by the reformers in 1559. This
borough is governed by a provost, four bailies,
dean of guild, treasurer, twelve merchant-coun-
cillors, and eight deacons of incorporations. The
market is on Friday, and there are six fairs. A
considerable trade is carried on in leather, flax,
wool, stockings, linen, porter, ale, &c. Linlith-
gow is two miles south of Borrowstownness, its
port, and sixteen west of Edinburgh.
LINLITHGow. See LOTHIAN WEST.
LINNE (Sir Charles), the celebrated reformer
of botany and natural history, was born on May
24th, 1707, in a village called Roeshult in Sma-
land, where his father, Nicholas Linné was them
vicar. The name assumed by this great man,
even in his Latin works, is neither Lindelius, nor
Linnaeus, but Linné, which seems to be the real
Swedish name of the family. In his Latin works,
printed in Sweden, he styles himself Carolus à
Linné. How he came to be styled Linnaeus by
foreigners is therefore not easily accounted for.
His taste for botany seems to have been im-
bibed from his father; who cultivated a garden
plentifully stored with plants, by way of amuse-
ment. Young Linné soon became acquainted
with these, as well as with the indigenous ones of
his neighbourhood. In 1717 he was sent to
school at Wexio; where, as his opportunities
were enlarged, his progress in all his favorite
pursuits was proportionably extended; and even
at this early period he began to study the natural
history of insects. Professor Stobaeus, under
whom he received the first part of his academical
education at Lund, in Scania, favored his incli-
nation to natural history. He removed in 1728
to Upsal, where he contracted a close friendship
with Artedi, a native of Angermania, who had
been four years a student in that university, and
had a strong bent to natural history, particularly
ichthyology. Soon after his arrival at Upsal, he
obtained the favor of several gentlemen of esta-
blished character in literature. He was particu-
larly encouraged in the pursuit of his studies by
Dr. Olaus Celsius, then professor of divinity,
and the restorer of natural history, in Sweden;
who, being struck with the accuracy of Linné in
describing the plants of the garden at Upsal, ad-
mitted him to his house, his table, and his library.
Under his patronage Linné made such a rapid
progress, that in two years he was thought qua-
lified to give lectures in the botanic chair, in the
room of professor Rudbeck. In 1731 the Roya
Academy of Sciences at Upsal, with a view to
improve the natural history of Sweden, at the in-
stance of professors Celsius and Rudbeck, de-
puted Linné to make the tour of Lapland, and
explore the natural history of that arctic region,
He left Upsal the 13th of May, by the route of
Gevalia, the capital of Gestricia, forty-five miles
from Upsal, and travelled through Helsingland
into Medalpadia. Thence he went through
Angermanland to Hernosand, a sea-port on the
Bothnic Gulf; where he visited the remarkable
caverns on the summit of mount Skula, though
at the hazard of his life. Arriving at Uma, in
West Bothnia, he quitted the public road, and
took his course through the woods westward, to
the most southern parts of Lapland. Though a
stranger to the language and manners of the peo
ple, and without any associate, he trusted to the
hospitality of the inhabitants, and mentions, with
peculiar satisfaction, the innocence and simpli-
city of their lives. He now arrived at the
mountains of Norwäy, and, after encountering
great hardships, returned to West Bothnia; visit-
ed Pitha and Lula, on the gulf of that name;
from which last place he took a western route,
proceeding up the river Lula, and visited the
ruins of the temple of Jockmock in Lappmark:
thence he traversed the Lapland desert, destitute
of all villages, cultivation, roads, or any conve-
niences, and inhabited only by a few straggling
people, originally descended from the Finlanders.
Hence he crossed the Lapland Alps into Fin-
mark, and traversed the shores of the North Sea
as far as Sallero. These journeys were made on
foot, attended by two Laplanders, as his inter-
preter and guide. In descending a river, he
narrowly escaped perishing by the oversetting of
the boat, and lost many of the natural produc-
tions he had collected. He now spent the greater
part of the summer in examining this arctic re-
gion, and those mountains on which, four years
afterwards, the French philosophers secured im-
mortal fame to Sir Isaac Newton. At length,
after having suffered incredible fatigues and hard-
ships, he returned in September to Tornoa. Hav-
ing next resolved to visit and examine the coun-
try on the east side of the gulf, his first stage was
to Ula in East Bothnia; thence to Old and New
Carleby, eighty-four miles south of Ula. He
continued his route through Wasa, Christianstadt,
and Biorneburgh, to Abo, a small university in
Finland. As winter was at this time setting in,
he crossed the gulf by the island of Aland, and
arrived at Upsal in November, after having per-
formed, mostly on foot, a journey of 10° of lat.
in extent, exclusively of numberless deviations.
In 1733 he visited and examined the mines in
Sweden. The outlines of his system of miner-
alogy appeared in the early editions of the Sys-
tema Naturae; but he did not exemplify the
whole until 1768. In 1734 he was sent by baron
Reuterholm, governor of Dalecarlia, with several
other naturalists in that province, to investigate
the productions of that part of the Swedish do-
minions; and published the result under the
title of Pan Suecus, in the second volume of the
Amaenitates Academicae. After this expedition,
Linné resided some time at Fahlun, the chief
L 1 N N E.
23
town in Dalecarlia; where he taught mineralogy,
and practised physic. He contracted at this time
an intimacy with a daughter of Dr. More, the
physician of the place, whom he married about
five years afterwards. In 1735 he travelled over
many parts of Sweden, Denmark, and Germany,
and fixed in Holland, where he chiefly resided
until his return to Stockholm, about 1739. In
1735 he took his degree of M.D., and published
the first sketch of his Systema Naturae, in the
form of tables, in twelve pages folio. By this it
appears that he had, before he was twenty-four
years old, laid the basis of that structure which
he afterwards erected to the increase of his own
fame, as well as of natural science.
came to England, and visited Dr. Dillenius, of
Oxford, whom he justly considered as one of the
first botanists in Europe. He mentions the pri-
vilege he gave him of inspecting his own and the
Sherardian collection of plants. He also became
acquainted with Dr. Martyn, Mr. Rand, Mr.
Miller, and Dr. Isaac Lawson, and Mr. Peter
Collinson.
Early in 1738 Linné had a long and danger-
ous fit of sickness; and upon his recovery went
to Paris, where he was entertained by the Jussieus,
then the first botanists in France. The oppor-
tunity this gave him of inspecting their Herbaria,
as well as those of Surian and Tournefort, afford-
ed him great satisfaction. He did not fail to
avail himself of every advantage which access to
the several museums of that country afforded
him in every branch of natural history; and the
number and importance of his publications, dur-
ing his absence from Sweden, demonstrate the
fund of knowledge which he had accumulated
before, as well as his extraordinary application.
These were, Systema Naturae, Fundamenta Bo-
tanica, Bibliotheca Botanica, and Genera Plan-
tarum; the last of which is justly considered as
the most valuable of all his works. . Before the
publication of the first edition, the author had
examined the characters of 8000 flowers. The
last book he published, during his stay in Hol-
land, was the Classes Plantarum, which is a co-
pious illustration of the second part of the Fun-
damenta. About the end of 1738, or beginning
of 1739, he settled as a physician at Stockholm.
By the interest of count Tessin, his patron, he
obtained the rank of physician to the fleet, and a
salary for giving lectures on botany. The esta-
blishment of the Royal Academy of Sciences at
Stockholm, was highly favorable to the advance-
ment of his character and fame; he was consti-
tuted the first president, . By the rules of the
academy, this officer held his place but three
months. At the expiration of that term, Linné
made his Oratio de memorabilibus in Insectis,
October 3d, 1739; in which he endeavours to
excite an attention to entomology. In 1741,
upon the resignation of Dr. Roberg, he was con-
stituted professor of physic and physician to the
king of Sweden. During the interval of his re-
moval from Stockholm to Upsal, in consequence
of this appointment, he was deputed by the
states to make a tour to the islands of Oeland
and Gothland in the Baltic, attended by six
pupils. On his return he pronounced before the
university his Oratio de Peregrinationum intra
In 1736 he
Patriam necessitate, October 17th, 1741. Linné
was now fixed in the situation best adapted to
his character, taste, and abilities; but, when he
was appointed professor, the garden did not con-
tain above fifty exotic plants. His correspon-
dence with the first botanists in Europe soon
supplied him with great variety. He received
Indian plants from .Jussieu of Paris, and Van
Royen of Leyden; European plants from Haller
and Ludwig; American plants from the late Mr.
Collinson, Mr. Catesby, and others; and many
annuals from Dillenius. How much the garden
owed to his diligence and care, in a few years,
may be seen by the catalogue entitled Hortus
Upsaliensis, exibens Plantas exoticas horto Up-
saliensis Academiae a sese (Linnaeo) illatas ab
anno 1742, in annum 1748; additis differentiis,
synonymis, habitationibus, hospitiis, rariorumque
descriptionibus, in gratiam studiosº juventutis ;
Holm. 1748, 8vo. pp. 306, tab. 3. By this it
appears, that he had introduced 1100 species,
exclusively of all the Swedish plants and of va-
rieties; which last, in ordinary gardens, often
amount to one-third of the whole. The fame
which Linné had now acquired by his Systema
Naturae, of which a sixth edition, much enlarged,
had been published at Stockholm in 1748, in
8vo., with plates and eight tables explanatory
of the classes and orders, had brought him a
conflux of every thing rare and valuable in every
branch of nature and from all parts of the globe.
The king and queen of Sweden had their sepa-
rate collections of rarities; the former at Ulrick-
sdahl; the latter, very rich in exotic insects and
shells, procured at great expense, at the palace
of Drottningholm ; both of which our author
was employed in arranging and describing. The
museum of the royal academy of Upsal had also
been augmented by a considerable donation
from the king, whilst hereditary prince, in 1746;
by another from count Gyllenborg in 1745; by
a third from M. Grill, an opulent citizen of
Stockholm.
Linné from this time sustained a more ele-
vated rank. His reputation had procured him
honors from almost all the royal Societies in
Europe; and Adolphus Frederick created him in
1753 a knight of the polar star, and in 1757 a
noble of Sweden. His successor Gustavus III.
doubled his pension in 1776, and settled a
liberal donation of landed property on his
family. In reply to an invitation to Madrid from
the king of Spain, with the offer of a pension
for life of 2000 pistoles, letters of nobility, and
the free exercise of his own religion, he returned
for answer, “that if he had any merits they
were due to his own country.’ Soon after this
Linné obtained the praemium centum aureorum,
proposed by the imperial academy of sciences at
Petersburgh, for the best paper written to es-
tablish or disprove by new arguments the doc-
trine of the sexes of plants.
Linné, on the whole, enjoyed a good consti-
tution, but was sometimes severely afflicted with
a hemicrania, as well as with the gout. In the
close of 1776 he was seized with an apoplexy,
which left him paralytic; and at the beginning
of 1777 suffered another stroke, which much im-
paired his powers. But the disease supposed to
LIN
LIN
24
have been the immediate cause of his death, was
an ulceration of the urinary bladder; of which,
after a tedious indisposition, he died, January
11th, 1778, aged seventy-one. His other prin-
cipal works are, Iter Oelandicum et Gotlandi-
cum : Iter Scanicum: Flora Suecica: Materia
Medica: Philosophia Botanica: Genera Morbo-
rum: different papers in the Acta Upsaliensia,
and the Amoenitates Académicae. The last of
his treatises was the Mantissa Altera, published
in 1771 ; but before his death he had finished
the greatest part of the Mantissa Tertia, after-
wards completed and published by his son. On
his death a general mourning took place at
Upsal, and his funeral was attended by the whole
university, and the pall supported by sixteen
doctors of physic, all of whom had been his
pupils. The king lamented his death in his
speech to the states, and ordered a medal to be
struck in his memory. Nor was Linné honored
only in his own country. The professor of
botany at Edinburgh, Dr. Hope, pronounced an
eulogium in honor of him before his students,
at the opening of his lectures in spring 1778,
and erected a monument to his memory in the
botanic garden there. He possessed a lively
imagination, a strong judgment, the most re-
tentive memory, unremitting industry, and the
greatest perseverance in all his pursuits. Per-
haps there is no circumstance of his life, how-
ever, which shows him in a more dignified light
than his conduct towards his opponents. Dis-
avowing controversy he replied to no one of
them. He had a happy command of the Latin
language; and has altogether, perhaps, advanced
the literary honor of his country more than any
other of her sons. Natural history arose in
Sweden, under his culture, to a state of perfec-
tion unknown elsewhere ; and was thence dis-
seminated through all Europe.
LI'NNET, n.s. Fr. linot ; Lat, linaria. A
small singing bird.
The swellows make use of celandine, the linnet
of euphragia, for the repairing of their sight.
More’s Antidote.
's it for thee the linnet pours his throat? Pope.
Congregated thrushes, linnets, sit
On the dead tree, a dull despondent flock.
Thomson.
Far dearer to me are yon humble broom bowers,
Where the blue-bell and gowan lurk lowly un-
See Il .
For there, ightly tripping amang the wild flowers,
A listening the linnet, aft wanders my Jean.
- Burns.
LINNET, in ornithology. See FRINGILLA. These
birds build in hedges, as well as in furze bushes
on heaths, but with very different materials. In
hedges they use the slender filaments of the
roots of trees, and the down of feathers and
thistles; but on heaths they use moss, princi-
pally for the outer part, finishing it within with
such things as the place affords. They have
young ones three or four times a year, especially
if they are taken away before they are able to
leave the nests. When linnets are to be taught
to whistle tunes, or to imitate the notes of any
other bird, they must be taken from the old one
when they are not above four days old ; for at
this time they have no idea of the note of the
old ones, and will be readily taught to modulate
their voice like any thing that is most familiar to
their ears, and within the compass of their
throats. More care is required in feeding them
when taken thus young, than wher they are left
in the nest till nearly fledged; but they will be
reared very well upon a food half bread and
half rape-seed boiled and bruised: this must be
given them several times a day. It must be
made fresh every day, and given sufficiently
moist, but not in the extreme. If it be in the
least sour, it gripes and kills them; and if too
stiff it is as mischievous by binding them up.
They must be hung up as soon as taken from
the nest under the bird whose note they are
intended to learn; or, if they are taught to
whistle tunes, it must be done by giving them
lessons at the time of feeding; for they will
profit more while young in a few days than in a
long time afterwards, and will take in the whole
method of their notes before they are able to
crack hard seeds. Some have attempted to teach
them to speak, and they often arrive at some
perfection in that art 1 -
LIN'SEED, m. s. Lat. semen lini. The seed
of flax, which is much used in medicine.
The joints may be closed with a cement of lime,
linseed oil, and cotton. Mortimer's Husbandry.
Linseed cakes, in agriculture, is the name of such
cakes as remain after the expression of the oil from
flax seed. They are at present much used in the
fattening of cattle, sheep, and other sorts of live
stock, and of course of great value and importance
to the farmer. Dr. A. Rees. .
LINSEED, or more properly LINT-SEED, is the
seed of the plant linum. Lint-seed steeped and
bruised in water gives it very soon a thick muci-
laginous nature, and communicates much of its
emollient virtue to it. See LINUM.
LINSEYWOOLSEY, adj. From linen and
wool. Linen and wool mixed : hence of dif-
ferent and unsuitable parts; vile; mean.
A lawless linseywoolsie brother,
Half of one order, half another. Hudibras.
Peeled, patched, and pyebald, linseywoolsey bro-
thers,
Grave mummers! sleeveless some, and shirtless
others. Pope.
LINSTOCK, n. s. Teut. lunte or lente, (a
match cord), and stock. A staff of wood with a
match at the end of it, used by gunners.
The nimble gunner
With lymstock now the devilish cannon touches,
And down goes all before him. Shakspeare.
The distance judged for shot of every size,
The linstocks touch, the pond’rous ball *}. I
- ryden.
A LINSTOCK, or LINTSTOCK, in military affairs,
is about three feet long, and has a sharp point on
one end, and a fork or crotch on the other; the
latter serves to contain a lighted match, and by
the former the linstock is Gccasionally stuck in
the ground, or in the deck of a ship during an
engagement. It is used in small vessels, where
one is fixed between every two guns, by which
the match is always kept dry, and ready for
firing.
LINT. Sax. linet; Lat. linteum.
substance; linen scraped.
A flaxer:
LIN ,
LIN
25
I dressed them up with unguentum basilici cum
vitello ovi, upon pledgets of lint.
Wiseman's Surgery.
Lint made up in an oval, or orbicular form, is
called a pledget; if in a cylindrical form, or in the
shape of a date olive-stone, it is called a dossil.
Dr. A. Rees.
LINT, in surgery, is made into various forms,
which acquire different names according to the
difference of their figures. Made up in an
oval or orbicular form, it is called a pledget;
in the shape of a date or olive-stone, as
we have seen, a dossil. These different forms
are required for many purposes; as 1. To stop
blood in fresh wounds, by filling them up with
dry lint before the application of a bandage:
though, if scraped lint be not at hand, a piece of
fine linen may be torn into small rags, and
applied in the same manner. In very large
haemorrhages the lint or rags should be first
dipped in some styptic liquor, as alcohol, or oil
of turpentine; or sprinkled with some styptic
powder. 2. To agglutinate or heal wounds; to
which end lint is very serviceable, if spread with
some digestive ointment, balsam, or vulnerary
liquor. 3. In drying up wounds and ulcers, and
forwarding the formation of a cicatrix. 4. In
keeping the lips of wounds at a proper distance,
that they may not hastily unite before the bottom
is well digested and healed. 5. They are highly
necessary to preserve wounds from the injuries
of the air. Surgeons of former ages formed
compresses of sponge, wool, feathers, or cotton;
linen being scarce: but lint is far preferable to
all these, and is at present universally used.
LINTEL, n.s. Fr. linteau. The head piece
of a door frame.
Take a bunch of hyssop, and dip it in the blood
that is in the bason, and strike the lintel and the two
side-posts. 4. Exod.
Smite the lintel that the posts may shake.
Amos ix. 1.
The Israelites' doors, whose lintels were besprinkled
with blood, were passed over by the destroying angel.
Bp. Hall.
When you lay any timber or brick work, as lintels
over windows, Jay them in loam, which is a great
preserver of timber. Moxon.
Silver the lintels deep projecting o'er,
And gold the ringlets that command the door.
Pope's Odyssey.
LINTERNUM, or LITERNUM, in ancient
geography, a city of Campania, situated at the
mouth of the Clanius, or Liturnus, between
Cumae and Vulturnum. It received a Roman
colony at the same time with Puteoli and Vul-
turnum; was improved and enlarged by Augus-
tus ; afterwards forfeited its right of colonyship,
and became a prefecture. Hither Scipio Africa-
nus the elder retired from the envy of his
ungrateful countrymen; and here he died. No
vestige of the place now remains.
LINTZ, the capital of Upper Austria, is situ-
ated at the confluence of the Danube and Traun.
It is a bishop's see; has a hall in which the
states meet; a wooden bridge over the Danube;
and several manufactories. The houses are in
general respectable, but roofed with shingle.
The church of St. Ignatius is worth notice, and
the remaining castle, for in 1800 one was de-
stroyed by fire. Here a lyceum, two public
schools, a public library, an institution for the
deaf and dumb, and a large theatre. The manu-
factures are of linen (in which 30,000 hands are
said to be employed), looking-glasses, gunpow-
der, and bottles. The town has two good an-
nual fairs, at Easter and the Assumption: the
environs are very fertile and picturesque. It
was burnt in 1542. It was taken by the French
in 1741, but retaken by the Austrians in 1742.
Lintz is forty-two miles E. S. E. of Passau, and
ninety-four west of Vienne.
LINUM, flax; a genus of the pentagynia
order, and pentandria class of plants: CAL.
pentaphyllous; petals five : CAPS. quinquevalved
and decemlocular: SEEDS, solitary. There are
thirty species.
1. L. catharticum, the purging flax, has leaves
opposite and lanceolate; the stem bifurcated,
and the corolla acute. This plant is not above
four or five inches high, and is found wild upon
chalky hills, and in dry pleasure grounds. Its
virtue is expressed in its title; an infusion in
water or whey of a handful of the fresh leaves,
or a drachm of them in substance when dried,
may be used as a cathartic without inconve-
In 162nce.
2. L. perenne, the perennial Siberian flax,
has a fibrous perennial root, sending up several
upright, strong, annual stalks, branching four or
five feet high; garnished with small, narrow,
spear-shaped, alternate leaves, of a dark-green
color; and terminated by umbellate clusters of
large blue flowers in June, succeeded by seeds
in autumn. This species is raised: from seed in
a bed or border of common garden earth, in
shallow drills six inches asunder ; when the
plants are two or three inches high, thin them to
the same distance; and in autumn plant them
out where they are wanted.
3. L. usitatissimum, the common annual
flax, has a taper fibrous root; upright, slen-
der, unbranched stalks, two feet and a half
high; garnished with narrow, spear-shaped,
alternate, gray-colored leaves; and the stalks
divided into foot-stalks at top, terminated by
small blue crenated flowers in June and July;
succeeded by large round capsules of ten cells,
containing each one seed. This species may
justly be looked upon as one of the most valua-
ble of the whole vegetable kingdom ; as from
the bark of its stalks is manufactured the lint or
flax for making all sorts of linen cloth; from
the rags of the linen is made paper; and from
the seeds is expressed the linseed oil, so useful
in painting and other trades. The seeds are an
excellent emollient and anodyne; they are used
externally in cataplasms, to assuage the pain of
inflamed tumors; internally a slight infusion of
them by way of tea, in coughs, is an excellent
pectoral, and of great service in pleurisies,
nephritic complaints, and suppressions of urine.
For the cultivation, dressing, &c., of this species,
See FLAx.
LINUS, in classical history, a native of Col-
chis, contemporary with Orpheus, and one of the
most ancient poets and musicians of Greece.
According to archbishop Usher, he flourished
about 1280 B. C., and he is mentioned by
26
L I O N.
Eusebius among the poets who wrote before the
time of Moses. Diodorus Siculus tells us, from
Dionysius of Mitylene the historian, who was
contemporary with Cicero, that Linus was the
first among the Greeks who invented verses and
music, as Cadmus first taught them letters. He
likewise attributes to him an account of the
exploits of the first Bacchus, and a treatise upon
Greek mythology, written in Pelasgian charac-
ters, which were also those used by Orpheus,
and by Pranopidas the preceptor of Homer.
Diodorus says that he added the string lichanos.
to the Mercurian lyre, and ascribes to him the
invention of rhyme and melody; which Sui-
das, who regards him as the most ancient of
lyric poets, confirms. Mr. Marpurg tells us,
that Linus invented cat-gut strings for the use of
the lyre which, before his time was only strung
with thongs of leather, or with different threads
of flax strung together. He had several disciples
of great fame; among whom were Hercules,
Thamyris, and, some add, Orpheus. Hercules,
says 1)iodorus, in learning from Linus to play
upon the lyre, being extremely dulland obstinate,
provoked his master to strike him; which so en-
raged him that instantly seizing the lyre of the
musician, he beat out his brains with his own
instrument.
LI'ON, n. s. R. Fr. lion ; Span. leon; : Ital.
LI'on Ess. . } leone, lione: Lat. leo. A spe-
cies of FELIS. See below.
So a lioun of the lynage of iuda, the roote of
dauide, hath ouercomen to opene the book, and to
undo the sevene seelis of it. Wiclif. Apoc. 5.
The lion did tear in pieces enough for his whelps,
and strangled for his lionesses, and filled his holes
with prey, and his dens with ravin. Nahum ii. 12.
Be lion mettled ; proud, and take no care
Who chafes, who frets, or where conspirers are;
Macbeth shall never vanquished be.
Shakspeare. Macbeth.
Under which bush’s shade, a lioness
Lay couching head on ground, with catlike watch,
When that the sleeping man should stir.
- Shakspeare.
King Richard's surname was Coeur-de-Lion, for
his lion-like courage. Camden’s Remains.
The sphinx, a famous monster in Egypt, had the
face of a virgin, and the body of a lion.
Peacham on Drawing.
The furious lioness,
Forgetting young ones, through the fields doth roar.
a3/.
It hath ever been the fashion of God, to exercise
his champions with some initiatory encounters: both
Sampson and David must first fight with lions, then
with Philistines; and he, whose type they bore,
meets with that roaring lion of the wilderness, in the
very threshold of his public charge. . . Bp. Hall.
The lion for the honours of his skin, -
The squeezing crab, and stinging scorpion shine
For aiding heaven, when giants dared to brave
The threatened stars. Creech's Manilius.
They rejoice
Each with their kind, lion with lioness;
So fitly them in pairs thou hast combined. Milton.
The greedy lioness the wolf pursues,
The wolf the kid, the wanton kid the browze.
Dryden.
See lion-hearted Richard,
Piously valiant, like a torrent swelled -
With wintry tempests, that disdains all mounds,
Breaking away impetuous, and involves
Within its sweep trees, houses, men, he pressed,
Amidst the thickest battle. Phillips.
If we may believe Pliny, lions do, in a very se-
vere manner, punish the adulteries of the lioness.
Ayliffe.
LION, in zoology. See FELIS. The lion is
frequently hunted for the sake of the flesh, which,
though possessing a strong and disagreeable
flavor, is eaten by the negroes, and also for the
skin. In the day time, and on the open plain,
from ten to sixteen dogs will easily overcome one
of the largest lions. Nor is there any necessity
that the dogs with which the lionis hunted should
be trained up for the sport: the common farm-
house dogs will serve. As the lion is less swift
than the dogs, the latter easily approach him,
when, with sullen magnanimity, the lion turns
round, and waits for the attack, shaking his
mane, and roaring with a short and sharp tone.
The hounds then surround him, and, all rushing
upon him at once, are able, by their united
efforts, to subdue, or tear him in pieces; he has
seldom time to give more than two or three
slight strokes with his paws, each of which,
however, is attended with the death of one of his
assailants.
The lion is sometimes hunted by parties of
horsemen, in which case the horses should be
trained to the purpose, or at least accustomed to
the pursuit of beasts of prey, and the perils at-
tendant on their chase; and it is only on the
plains that the hunters ever venture to go out on
horseback in this chase. If the lion remains in
the jungle, or on a rising ground, they endeavour
to tease him with the dogs till.he comes into the
#. If the lion sees the hunters at a great
istance, he flies from them with all possible
speed; but, if they chance to discover him at a
small distance only from them, he retires with
sullen dignity, and at a slow pace, as though he
were above showing any symptom of apprehen-
sion. If pursued, he soon slackens his pace, and
at length only slides slowly off, step by step, at
the same time watching his pursuers obliquely,
till he finally makes a full pause, and, turning
round upon them, shakes his mane, roars, and
appears ready to seize upon them, and tear them
in pieces. The foremost huntsman, or he who
has the best mark at that part of the lion's body
nearest his heart or lungs, is now the first to
jump off his horse, and, securing the bridle by
putting it round his arm, discharges his piece;
then, in an instant recovering his seat, rides ob-
liquely athwart his companions; and, giving his
horse the reins, depends entirely on the speed
and fear of the latter to convey him beyond the
reach of the lion, should he have only wounded
him. A fair opportunity now presents itself for
some one of the other hunters to jump off his
horse immediately, as he may then discharge his
piece with effect, and save his companion. If
this shot should miss likewise, a third sports-
man rides after the lion, which is in pursuit of
the first or second, and, springing off his horse,
fires his piece as soon as he arrives within a
proper distance. In the event of the lion turning
again and attacking this pursuer, the other hunt-
ers return to his rescue with their pieces ready
L I P A R I I s L E S.
27
charged, having loaded them while flying. No
instance, it is said, has ever been known of any
misfortune happening the hunters in chasing the
lion on horseback. The remote parts of Africa
are most exposed to the ravages of wild beasts,
and the colonists in those districts, from the habit
of hunting them, become excellent marksmen.
Mr. Wombwell's late attempt to bring a cer-
tain number of trained dogs upon one or two
lions, we consider, on the whole, not worthy
of detail in a work of science. It terminated
only in the partial worrying of the lions selected,
and established no new facts with regard to their
habits, or matural history. * *
The LION MoUNTAIN of the Cape of Good
Hope, Africa, rises, immediately behind Cape
Town. ... The summit is a mass of stone, much
resembling from some points of view the dome
of St. Paul's. It is 2160 feet in height, and is
surmounted by a single post. It is properly
part of the Table Mountain.
LIONCELLES, in heraldry, a term used for
several lions borne in the same coat of arms.
LIOTARD, an eminent painter, born at Ge-
neva, in 1702, and by his father designed for a
merchant; but his genius inelined him to paint-
ing. He went to Paris in 1725, and in 1738
accompanied the marquis de Puisieux to Rome,
where he was taken notice of by lords Sandwich
and Duncannon, who engaged him to go with
them to Constantinople. There he became ac-
quainted with lord Edgecombe, and Sir Everard
Fawkemer, who brought him to England, where
he staid two years. In his journey to the Levant
he adopted the eastern habit, and wore it in
Britain with a very long beard, whence he was
called the Turk. After his return to the conti-
nent he married a young wife, and sacrificed his
beard to Hymen. He came again to England
in 1772, and brought a collection of pictures of
different masters, which he sold by auction, and
some pieces of glass painted by himself, with
Surprising effect of light and shade, but mere
curiosities, as it was necessary to darken the
room before they could be seen to advantage.
He engraved some Turkish portraits, one of the
empress queen and the eldest arch-duchess in
Turkish habits, and the heads of the emperor and
empress. He painted admirably well in minia-
ture, and finely in enamel, though he seldom
practised it. But he is best known by his works
in crayons. His likenesses were as exact as
possible, and too like to please those who sat to
him: thus he had great business the first year,
and very little the second. Devoid of imagina-
tion, and one would think of memory, he could
render nothing but what he saw before his eyes.
Freckles, marks of the small-pox, every thing
found its place; not so much from fidelity, as
because he could not conceive the absence of any
thing that appeared to him. Truth prevailed in
all his works, grace in few or none.
LIP, n.s. &v. a. D. Sax. libbe; Fr. lippe ;
LIP'-LABOR, n. º Belg, and Swed. lip;
LIP'-wiSDOM. Lat. labia. The edge or
outer part of the mouth; hence the edges of a
wound or any aperture: to lip is to hiss: lip-
labor is well defined below by bishop Taylor:
\ip-wisdom, verbiage. -
By hym offre we a sacrifice of heriynge euermore
to god, that is to seie, the fruyt of lippes know-
lechyuge to his name. Wiclif. Ebrewis xiii.
No falsehood shall defile my lips with lies
Or with a veil of truth disguise. Sandys on Job.
Then in the midst a tearing groan did break
The name of Antony: it was divided
Between her heart and lips. . . Shakspeare.
- Those happiest smiles .
That played on her ripe lip, seemed not to know
What guests were in her eyes. ld.
O ! 'tis the fiend’s arch mock,
To lip a wanton and suppose her chaste. Id.
A letter for me ! It gives me an estate of seven
years health; in which time I will make a lip at the
physician. Id.
And if some have fetched new noses, and lips, and
ears from Italy, by the help of Tagliacotius and his
scholars, never any brought a new tongue from
thence. • . - - Bp. Hall.
Methinks to kiss ladies’ hands after their lips, as
some do, is like little boys, who, after they eat the
apple, fall to the paring, out of love they have to
. apple. º Selden.
Fasting, when prayer is not directed to its own
purposes, is but liplabour. Taylor's Rule of Living.
I find that all is but lipwisdom, which wants expe-
rience; I now, woe is me, do try what love can do.
Sidney.
In many places is a ridge of mountains some dis-
tance from the sea, and a plain from their roots to
the shore; which plain was formerly covered by the
sea, which bounded against those hills as its first
ramparts, or as the ledges or lips of its vessel.
Burmet.
In wounds, the lips sink and are flaccid; a gleet
followeth, and the flesh within withers. Wiseman.
Her lips blush deeper sweets. Thomson's Spring.
Oh that those lips had language life has passed
With me but roughly since I heard thee last.
Those lips are thine—thy own sweet Smiles I see,
The same that oft in childhood solaced me.
* * Cowper.
Or touch the shrill reed, as they trip,
With finger light and ruby lip. Darwin.
LIPARA, in ancient geography, the principal
of the islands called HEoliae, situated between
Sicily and Italy, with a cognominal town, so
powerful as to have a fleet, and other islands in
subjection to it. Diodorus Siculus says, it was
famous for excellent harbours and medicinal
waters; and that it suddenly emerged from the
sea about the time of Hannibal's death. The
name is Punic, according to Bochart; and given
it, because, being a volcano, it shone in the
night. It is now called Lipari, and gives name
to nine others in its neighbourhood.
LIPARI IsIES.—The Lipari islands, twelve
in number, are situated at the south-east ex-
tremity of the Tuscan Sea, off the north coast of
Sicily. They received from the ancients the
names of Æolian and Vulcanian islands, it being
supposed that Æolus kept the winds imprisoned
in their caverns, and that they contained the
forges of Vulcan. The first volcanic eruption in
the Lipari islands, recorded in history, is that
which "Callius mentions in his History of the
Wars in Sicily. Callius was contemporary with
Agathocles. That eruption continued without in-
terval for several days and nights; and threw out
great stones, which fell above a mile distant. The
Sea boiled all round the island of Lipari, we are
28
L I P A R I I S L E S.
toid. During the consulship of Æmilius Lepi-
dus and L. Aurelius Orestes, A. A. C. 126, these
islands were affected with a dreadful earthquake.
The burning of Ætna was the first cause of it.
“Around Lipari and the adjacent islands the air
was all on fire.’ Vegetables were burnt up,
animals died, and fusible bodies, such as wax
and resin, became liquid. If the inhabitants of
Lipari, from whom Callius received these facts,
and the writers who have handed them down to
us, have not exaggerated matters, the sea boiled
around the island; the earth became so hot as to
burn the cables by which vessels were fixed to
the shore, and consumed the planks, the oars,
and even the small boats. Pliny speaks of a
similar event, which happened thirty or forty
years afterwards, in the time of the war of the
allied states of Italy against Rome. One of the
Hºolian islands, says he, was on fire as well as
the sea; and that prodigy continued to appear
till the senate appeased by a deputation the
wrath of the gods. From the time of that war,
which happened A. A. C. 86, till A. D. 144, we
have no account of an eruption of these volca-
noes; and from that period again till 1444, we
hear of no explosion from them for 1300 years.
But at that time both Sicily and these isles were
agitated by dreadful shocks of earthquakes; the
Volcano isle poured forth streams of flame and
smoke, which rose to an amazing height. After
that it discharged enormous stones, which fell
above six miles distant. In 1550 the ashes and
stones discharged from its crater filled up the
strait between Volcano and Volcanello. In 1739
there was a sixth eruption. The burstings of the
volcanic fire were attended with a noise so
dreadful, that it was heard as far as Melazzo in
Sicily. In 1775 the whole island was shaken;
subterraneous thunder was heard, and consider-
able streams of flame, with smoke, stones, and
vitreous lava, issued from the crater. Lipari
were covered over with ashes, and part of these
was conveyed by the winds all the way into
Sicily. In April 1780 there issued a new explo-
sion from Volcano; the smoke was thick, the
shocks constant, and the subterraneous noise very
frequent. In 1783 the isles of Lipari were agi-
tated anew by that fatal earthquake which
ravaged Calabria, and part of Sicily, on the 5th
of February. They are almost entirely com-
posed of volcanised substances, and afford sul-
phur, nitre, alum, cinnabar, pumice stone, &c.,
in abundance. We enumerate the chief of
them :—
1. The largest, most fertile, and best inhabited
is Lipari (Lipara), five leagues in circuit; more
than half of its surface is cultivated, the remain-
der being either covered with wood, or entirely
barren. The vegetable productions are rye,
nearly enough for its consumption, some cotton,
and olives; but its chief riches are its vines,
which give wines of various qualities, particu-
larly a kind of malmsey. It also exports a con-
siderable quantity of raisins. The prickly pear
is indigenous in this island. It has many hot
springs. On the south is a little town at the foot
of a hill, rising abruptly from the sea; the houses,
except those of the bishop and governor, are
Wiean. It is defended by a castle on a naked
rock of lava, rising perpendicularly from the
water. Close to its west side is a rock, called
Pietro del Bagno. - -
2. Salini (Didime), is nearly as large as Li-
pari, and consists of two mountains united at
the base. It has its name from the salt, which
is formed by the sun in a lagoon, communicating
with the sea. On the north side is a fine spring
of water, gushing from a rock close to the shore.
Off its south end are three rocks, called the
Three Stones.
3. Volcano (Hieri and Therasia), is four leagues
in circuit, and has the shape of a cone with the
top broken off. It continually throws out vo-
lumes of smoke. It is uninhabited, and only
occasionally visited by the other islanders, to cut
brush-wood for fuel, which grows in the crater
of an old volcano. Volcanello, anciently a dis-
tinct island, has been joined to Volcano by a
narrow neck, formed by an eruption. On each
side of the neck is a good road.
4. Stromboli (Strongyle) is one immense
volcano, whose continual eruptions of flame have
gained it the name of the Light-house of the
Mediterranean. It is three leagues in circuit,
and very barren, having only a few poor vine-
yards on the north side. There is no anchorage
round it, and the small vessels that belong to or
visit it are hauled on the beach. The number of
inhabitants is about 1000, who live in scattered
huts on the shore, and are principally employed
in fishing for congers, which are abundant round
the island. They chiefly depend on the rains
for fresh water, the island having but two small
springs. A mile from the north end is a great
rock called the Stone of Stromboli, one-fourth
of a mile in circuit, and sixty feet high.
5. Panaria (Hyeesia) is nearly three leagues
in circuit, moderately elevated, and composed of
volcanised granite, generally barren, but pro-
ducing some olives. North of it are several lesser
volcanic islands and rocks, viz. the Formiculas,
or Ants, a group of rocks nearly level with the
water, Dattolo, Lisca Nera (Black Lisca), Lisca
Bianca (White Lisca), and Bottero, Tilanavi,
and Panarelli.
6. Baziluzzo is only two miles in circuit, ele-
vated but a few feet above the sea, and inhabited
by half a dozen persons, who cultivate a small
spot near its centre. It abounds with rabbits, and
on the south-east coast is a little cove for boats.
7. Felicudi, or Filicuri (Phenicodes), is com-
posed of a group of hills, and has about 600 in-
habitants in insulated dwellings. It has a natural
cavern, called the Grotto of the Sea-Ox, in which
is a kind of apartment 200 feet long, 120 broad,
and sixty-five high. On the south and north-
east sides of the island are coves for small ves-
sels, according to the winds -
8. Alicudi, or Alicuri (Ericades), the western-
most island, has 400 inhabitants, who reside on
the east and south-east sides, all the rest of the
island being composed of volcanic barren preci-
pices. This island, as well as Felicudi, pro-
duces some wine, barley, and rye, together esti-
mated at 7000 Neapolitan crowns a year. ... Both
islands are destitute of springs, and the inhabit-
ants consequently depend on the rain-water
preserved in their cisterns, which, in dry seasons,
LIP
LIQ
29
is sometimes exhausted. Each island has four
or six barks belonging to it; those of Alicudi
are hauled on shore, there being no anchorage
round it.
LIPOTHYMOUS, adj.
LIPOTH'YMY, n.s. :
Svyaoc, the animal spirit.
fainting-fit.
If the patient be surprised with a lipothymous
langour, and great oppression about the stomach and
hypochonders, expect no relief from cordials.
Harvey on the Plague.
The senators falling into a lypothymy, or deep
swooning, make up this pageantry of death with a
representing of it unto life. Taylor.
In lypothymys or swoonings, he used the frication
of his finger with saffron and gold. Browne.
LIPPE, or LIPPE DETMOLD, a principality of
Westphalia, adjoining Hanover and the Prussian
states: the bailiwic of Lipperode is a detached
part round the town of Lippstadt. The area of
the principality has been computed at 434 square
miles: the population at 73,000, who are
mostly Calvinists. The Emma, Werra, Hamme,
and Bever traverse its hilly surface, which is also
diversified by large forests of oak and beach
timber. Its chief manufactures are wool and
cattle, which with its linen and yarn are largely
exported by the Weser. It is divided into eleven
bailiwics. - -
LIPPERT (Philip Daniel), an ingenious artist
in glass was born of poor parents, at Dresden, in
1703. Having studied drawing, and made him-
self acquainted with the Latin and Greek lan-
guages, he was appointed drawing-master to the
pages of the elector, and his situation afforded
him facilities for forming a collection of anti-
quities. He contrived a method of taking im-
pressions in glass of ancient gems, a number of
which he offered for sale, and of which he
published a catalogue with the following title :
Gemmarum anaglyphicarum et diaglyphicarum,
ex praecipuis Europae Musæis selectarum ectypha
M. ex vitro obsidiano et massa quodam, studio
P. D. Lippert fusa et afficta, Dresd. 4to. He
published an account of a second collection in
1756, and of a third in 1763; besides other
works. He died in 1785.
LIPPI (Lorenzo, or Lawrence), a painter of
history and portraits, was born in 1606, and
learned the principles of painting from Matthew
Roselli. He had an exquisite genius for music
and poetry, as well as for painting; and, in the
latter, his proficiency was so great, that some of
his compositions were taken for those of Roselli.
He afterwards adopted the manner of Santi di
Titi, who has more of simple nature and truth
in his compositions than any other artist of that
time. At Florence Lippi painted many designs
for the chapels and convents, by which he en-
larged his reputation; and produced at the court
of Inspruck a great number of portraits of the
mobility, which were deservedly admired. His
works are held in the highest esteem for the
graceful airs of their heads, the correctness of
is outline, and the elegant disposition of the
figures. He died in 1664. f -
LIP/PITUDE, m. s. Fr. lippitude; Lat. lip-
pitudo. Blearedness of eyes.
Greek Astºrø, to
faint or fail, and
Swooning; fainting:
whom are Protestants.
Diseases that are infectious, are such as are in
the spirits and not so much in the humours, and
therefore pass easily from body to body: such are
pestilences and lippitudes. Bacon.
I flatter myself I shall soon get rid of this in-
firmity; nay, that I shall ere long be in the way of
becoming a great man. For have I not head-aches,
like Pope 2 vertigo, like Swift 2 grey hairs, like Ho-
mer? Do I not wear large shoes (for fear of corns),
like Virgil 2 and sometimes complain of sore eyes
(though not of lippitude), like Horace 3 Beattie.
LIPSIUS (Justus), a learned critic, born at
Isch, a village near Brussels, in 1547. After
having distinguished himself in literature, he
became secretary to cardinal de Granveilan at
Rome, where the best libraries were open to
him; and he collated the MSS. of ancient
authors. He lived twelve years at Leyden;
during which he composed änd published what he
esteemed his best works; but settled at Louvain,
where he taught polite literature with great repu-
tation. He was remarkable for unsteadiness
in religion, fluctuating often between the Pro-
testants and Papists; but he became finally
a bigotted Catholic. He died at Louvain in
1606; and his works are collected in 6 vols. folio.
LIPTAU, a mountainous and bleak palatinate
of Hungary, traversed by the Carpathian Moun-
tains: it has gold, silver, and iron mines, some
precious stones; and is abundant in antimony.
Its forests are also considerable; but there is
much good pasturage, and the flocks of sheep
are large. Population 64,000, about half of
Szent-Miklos is the chief
town.
LIQUABLE, adj.
LIQUATION, n. S.
LI'QUATE, v. n.
LIQUEFACTION, m. s.
LIQUEFIABLE, adj.
LIQ'UEFY, v. a.
LIQUES'CENCY, n.s.
LIQUESCENT, adj.
LIQUID, adj. & n.s
LIQUIDATE, v. a.
O All these words
seein to have their ori-
gin in the Lat. liqueo .
(à lia, water,) to melt
or dissolve. Cognate
words are, in Fr. li-
>quefaction ; liquefier ;
liquide, liqueur; Ital.
Span. and Port. li-
quido; Span, and Port.
LIQUID'ITY, m. s. licor ; Ital. liquore.
LIQUIDNESS, n. s. Liquable and lique-
LIQUOR, n. S. & v. a. J fiable mean, that may
be melted or made into liquid : liquation, the
act or capacity of being made so: to liquate
and to liquefy, to melt, sink into liquidity:
liquefaction, the act of melting or making liquid,
or state of being melted : to liquefy is, to dis-
solve; melt; make liquid : liquescency, aptness
or tendency to melt: liquescent, melting: li-
quid, fluid; not solid; dissolved; hence it means
invalid, in law; soft; clear; gentle; flowing : a
liquid and a liquor, as substantives, mean a fluid ;
a body in a liquid state; and the latter has a par-
ticular application to impregnated or strong
fluids or drinks: to liquor is to drink or mois-
ten with liquid : to liquidate is synonymous
with to liquefy, but is more generally applied in
the figurative sense of lessening or paying off
debts: liquidity and liquidness are subtilty;
thinness; quality of being liquid. These words
seem to have been multiplied in our language
from the different cognate sources specified, un-
til many of them have become redundant.
LIQ 30
LIQ
Thou shalt not delay to offer the first of thy ripe
fruits, and of thy liquors. Erod. xxii. 29.
Neither shall he drink any liquor of grapes.
- - Numbers vi. 3.
Heat dissolveth and melteth bodies that keep in
their spirits, as in divers liquefactions; and so doth
time in honey, which by age waxeth more liquid.
Bacon’s Natural History.
There are three causes of fixation, the even
spreading of the spirits and tangible parts, the close-
ness of the tangible parts, and the jejuneness or
extreme comminution of spirits; the two first may
be joined with a nature liquefiable, the last not.
That degree of heat which is in lime and ashes,
being a smothering heat, is the most proper, for it
doth neither liquefy nor rarefy; and that is true ma-
turation. Id.
Cart wheels squeak not when they are liquored.
-- - - Bacon.
Her breast, the sug’red nest
Of her delicious soul, that there does lie,
Bathing in streams of liquid melody. Crashaw.
Return your superfluous liquors into tears of re-
pentance, which only can quench that fire.
- Bp. Hall.
Gently rolls the liquid glass. Dr. Daniel.
Nor envied them the grape
Whose heads that turbulent liquor fills with fumes.
- Milton.
The spirits, for their liquidity, are more incapable
than the fluid medium, which is the conveyor of
sounds, to persevere in the continued repetition of
vocal airs. Glanville.
The common opinion hath been, that chrystal is
nothing but ice and snow concreted, and, by dura-
tion of time, congealed beyond liquation.
Browne's Vulgar Errours.
Oil of anniseeds, in a cool place, thickened into
the consistence of white butter, which, with the least
heat, resumed its former liquidness. JBoyle.
The many liquid consonants give a pleasing sound
to the words, though they are all of one syllable.
- - Dryden’s AEmeid.
Be it thy choice, when summer heats annoy,
To sit beneath the leafy canopy,
Quaffing rich liquids. Phillips.
The burning of the earth will be a true liquefac-
tion or dissolution of it, as to the exterior region.
- Burmet.
Sin taken into the soul is like a liquor poured into
a vessel; so much of it as it fills, it also seasons.
- - South's Sermons.
The blood of St. Januarius liquefied at the ap-
proach of the saint's head. Addison on Italy.
If a creditor should appeal to hinder the burial of
his debtor's corpse, his appeal ought not to be re-
ceived, since the business of burial requires a quick
dispatch, though the debt be entirely liquid.
Ayliffe's Parergon.
Why does she wake the correspondent moon,
And fill her willing lamp with liquid light.
Prior.
If the salts be not drawn forth before the clay is
baked, they are apt to liquate. -
Woodward on Fossils.
_ Let Carolina smooth the tuneful lay,
Lull with Amelia's liquid name the nine,
And sweetly flow through all the royal line.
- Pope's Horace.
When amatory poets sing their loves
In liquid lines melliflously bland,
And praise their rhymes as Venus yokes her doves,
They little think what mischief is in hand.
- Ryron.
In this state, being exposed in an earthen vessel
to the naked fire, it readily becomes soft, but did not
liquefy without considerable difficulty, rather frying
as a piece of soap would do, and disengaging at the
same time ammoniacal vapours. Dr. A. Rees.
LIQUEFACTION is an operation by which a
solid body is reduced into a liquid; or the ac-
tion of fire or heat on fat and other fusible bodies,
which puts their parts into a mutual intestine
motion. The liquefaction of wax, &c., is per-
formed by a moderate heat; that of sal tartari,
by the mere moisture of the air. All salts
liquefy; sand, mixed with alkalies, becomes
liquefied by a reverberatory fire, in the making
of glass. In speaking of metals, instead of
liquefaction, we ordinarily use the word fusion.
LIQUIDAMBAR, sweetgum tree, in botany,
a genus of the polyandria order, and monoecia
class of plants. Male, CAL. common, triphyllous:
CoR. none, but numerous filaments. Female, CAL.
collected into a spherical form, and tetraphyllous:
CoR. none, but seven styles; and many bivalved
and monospermous CAPSULES collected into a
sphere. There are only two species, both de-
ciduous, viz. –
1. L. peregrinum, Canada liquidambar, or
spleenwort-leaved gale, is a native of Canada and
Pennsylvania. The young branches are slender,
tough, and hardy. The leaves are oblong, of a
deep green color, hairy underneath, and have in-
dentures on their edges alternately very deep.
The flowers come out from the sides of the
branches, and they are succeeded by small
roundish fruit, which seldom ripens in England.
2. L. styraciflua, the Virginia or maple-leaved
liquidambar; a native of the rich moist parts of
Virginia and Mexico. It shoots in a regular
manner to thirty or forty feet high, having its
young twigs covered with a smooth, light-brown
bark, while those of the older are of a darker
color. The leaves are of a lucid green, and grow
irregularly on the young branches, on long foot-
stalks: they resemble those of the common maple
in figure; the lobes are all serrated; and from the
base of the leaf a strong mid-rib runs to the ex-
tremity of each lobe that belongs to it. The
flowers are of a kind of saffron color: they are
produced at the ends of the branches in the be-
ginning of April, sometimes sooner; and are
succeeded by large round brown fruit, which
looks singular. Both species may be propagated
either by seeds or layers; but the first method
is the best. 1. The seeds arrive from America
in spring. A fine bed, in a warm well-sheltered
place, should be prepared. If the soil be sandy,
it should be wholly taken out nearly a foot deep,
and the vacancy filled up with earth taken up
a year before from a fresh pasture with the
sward, well rotted and mixed by being often
turned, and afterwards mixed with a sixth part
of drift or sea-sand. In a dry day, early in March,
let the seeds be sown, and the finest of this com-
post riddled over them a quarter of an inch deep.
When the hot weather in spring comes on, the
beds should be shaded and watered often, but in
very small quantities. The plants being come
up, shading should still be afforded them in
summer, and a watering every other night; which
will promote their growth, and render them
LIR
LIR.
31
stronger by the autumn. In autumn the beds
should be hooped, to be covered with mats in
the severe frosts. These mats, however, should
always be taken off in open weather. This is all
the management they require during the first
winter. The succeeding summer they only re-
quire weeding; though, if it should prove a dry
one, they will need a little water now and then.
By autumn they will be strong enough to resist
the cold of the following winter, without the
trouble of matting, if the situation is well shel-
tered; if not, it will be proper to have the hoops
prepared, and the mats ready, against the northern
frosts, which would endanger at least their losing
their tops. After this, weeding only will be
wanted; and in the spring following, that is,
three years from their first appearance, they
should be taken up, and planted in the nursery
a foot asunder, and two feet distant in the rows.
Hoeing the weeds in the rows in summer, and
digging them in the winter, is all the trouble
they will afterwards require until they are finally
planted out. 2. They are easily increased by
layers. The operation must be performed in au-
tumn on the young summer's shoots; and the
best way is by slitting them at a joint, as is prac-
tised for carnations. In a strong dry soil they
will be often two years or more before they take
root; though, in a fine light soil, they will be
found to take freely enough. The leaves emit
their odoriferous particles in such plenty as to
perfume the circumambient air; nay, the whole
tree exudes such a fragrant transparent resin, as
to have given occasion to its being taken for the
sweet storax. These trees, therefore, are very
proper to be planted singly in large opens, that
they may amply display their fine pyramidal
growth, or to be set in places near seats, pavilions,
&c., The resin was formerly of great use as a
perfume.
LIRIA, an old town of Valencia, Spain, (the
Carthaginian, Edera, and Roman Edeta), stands
in avalley between two small hills. Its principal
church is worth notice; it has two others; two
convents, and a flourishing brandy distillery.
Roman antiquities are frequently found. Twenty
miles N. N. W. of Valencia. * -
LIRIODENDRON, the tulip-tree, in botany,
a genus of the polygynia order, and polyandria
class of plants, natural order fifty-second, coa-
dunatae: CAL. triphyllous; there are nine petals:
SEEDS imbricated in such a manner as to form a
cone. Species four, the principal one is,
L. tulipifera, a deciduous tree, native of America.
It rises with a large upright trunk, branching
forty or fifty feet high. The trunk, which often
attains to a circumference of thirty feet, is covered
with a gray bark. The branches, which are not
very numerous, of the two-yeºrs-old wood, are
smooth and brown; while the bark of the sum-
mer's shoots is smoother and shining, and of a
bluish color. They are very pithy. Their young
wood is green, and when broken emits a strong
scent. The leaves, grow irregularly on the
branches, on long foot-stalks. They are of a
particular structure, being composed of three
lobes, the middlemost of which is shortened in
such a manner that it appears as if it had been
'cut off and hollowed at the middle ; the other
two are rounded off. They are about four or five
inches long, and as many broad. They are of
two colors; their upper surface is smooth, and
of a stronger green than the lower. They fall off
pretty early in autumn; and the buds for the
next year's shoots soon after begin to swell and
become dilated, insomuch that, by the end of
December, those at the ends of the branches will
become nearly an inch long and half an inch
broad. The outward laminae of these leaf-buds
are of an oval figure, have several longitudinal
veins, and are of a bluish color. The flowers
are produced with us in July at the ends of the
branches: they somewhat resemble the tulip,
which occasions its being called the tulip-tree.
The number of petals of which each is composed,
like those of the tulip, is six; and these are
spotted with green, red, white, and yellow, there-
by making a beautiful mixture. The flowers are
succeeded by large cones, which never ripen in
England. The propagation is very easy if the
seeds are good; for by those which we receive
from abroad, they are to be propagated. No
particular compost need be sought for; neither
is the trouble of pots, boxes, hot-beds, &c., re-
quired. They grow exceedingly well in beds
of common garden mould, and the plants will
be hardier and better than those raised with more
care. Therefore, as soon as the seeds arrive,
which is generally in February, and a few dry
days have happened, so that the mould will work
freely, sow the seeds, covering them three quar-
ters of an inch deep; and observe to lay them
lengthwise, otherwise, by being very long, one
part, perhaps that of the embryo plant, may be
out of the ground soon, and the seed be lost.
This being done, let the beds be hooped; and as
Soon as the hot weather and drying winds come
on, in spring, let them be covered from ten A. M.
till sunset. If little rain happens, they must be
duly watered every other day; and by the end
of May the plants will come up. Shade and
watering in the hottest summer must be afforded
them, and they will afterwards give very little
trouble. The next winter they will want no
other care than, at the approach of it, sticking
Some furze bushes round the bed, to break the
keen edge of the black frosts, for it is found that
the seedlings of this sort are very hardy, and
seldom suffer by any weather. After they have
been two years in the seed-bed, they should be
taken up and planted in the nursery, a foot
asunder, and two feet distant in the rows. After
this the usual nursery care of hoeing the
weeds, and digging between the rows in the
winter, will suffice till they are taken up for
planting out. The tulip-tree, in those parts
of America where it grows common, affords
excellent timber for many uses; particularly,
the trunk is frequently hollowed, and made
into a canoe sufficient to carry many people;
and for this purpose no tree is thought more
proper by the inhabitants of those parts. It
may be stationed among trees of forty feet
growth. -
LIRIS, in ancient geography, a river of Italy
in Campania, which it separated from Latium
and falling into the Mediterranean; now called
Garigliano.
32
L I S B O N.
LIRON (John), a learned Benedictine, who
published two curious works: 1. Bibliotheque
des Auteurs Chartrains. 2. Les Amenités de la
Critique. He died in 1749. - -
LIS, or LYs (John Vander), a painter of his—
tory, landscapes, and conversations, born at Ol-
denburgh in 1570. He went to Haerlem to study
under Henry Goltzius; and, as he was endowed
with great natural talents, soon distinguished
himself in that school. He adhered to the same
style till he went to Italy; where, having visited
Venice and Rome, he studied the works of
Titian, Tintorreto, Paul Veronese, and Dominic
Petti, so effectually, that he altered his manner
entirely. He soon received marks of public ap-
probation; and his compositions became univer-
Sally admired. His subjects were sacred histories,
or rural sports, marriages, balls, and villagers
dancing, dressed, in Venetian habits; all which
he painted in a small as well as a large size. An
excellent picture of his is Adam and Eve la-
menting the death of Abel. His paintings are
rare. He died in 1629.
LIs (John Vander), of Breda, an historical
painter, born at Breda about 1601. He became
a disciple of Cornelius Polenburg, whose manner
he imitated with extraordinary exactness. His
portrait painted by himself, formerly in the
possession of Horace Walpole, esq., is described
as being worked up equal to the smoothness of
enamel,
LISBON, the ancient Olisippa, and Felicitas
Julia, seems to have acquired the latter name
from the beauty and salubrity of its situation and
climate; for it is found to have 200 fine, and
but eighty rainy days in the course of the year.
The capital, and one of the most important ports
of Portugal, it is situated on seven hills, in the
province of Estremadura (Extrema Durii), and
rises from the north bank of the Tagus, three
leagues within the bar. Above Lisbon, the Tagus
is navigable sixteen leagues, and might easily be
made so ten leagues farther, to Alcantara, on the
frontiers of Spain. As it has most to dread an
attack by shipping, the banks of the river are
lined with forts on both sides. The first met
with, on entering the harbour, is Fort Lorenzo,
or the Tower of Bugio, on a sand-bank, which
serves as a prison for convicts. Fort St. Julian
is on a rock on the north shore of the entrance,
and Fort St. Antonio on the south. The quays
along the river are described as surpassing any
thing of the kind in London or Paris; and the
coup d'oeil of the city from a distant point of the
river, especially in crossing it from the south-
east, is most imposing and majestic. Its general
form is that of a half moon, four miles from point
to point, and about a mile and a quarter broad.
It is surrounded by old and useless walls,
flanked with towers, and may be divided into the
Old and New town, the latter being that part re-
built since the earthquake of 1755. This part
of the city is neat and regular, and its streets
have sewers and footways on each side. In the
Old, part of the streets are so narrow, that the
sun is said never to shine on the pavement, ex-
cept when passing the meridian. In the centre
of the, city is a small citadel. It has three
suburbs, Junqueira, Alcantara, and Campo
Grande, to which may be added Belem, a plea-
sant town immediately adjoining the city on the
west, which has long been the residence of the
COUlrt.
The public buildings of this metropolis are
numerous, but not distinguished as specimens of
architecture. In all there are forty parish
churches, ninety-nine chapels, seventy-five con-
vents or monasteries, and several distinct hos-
pitals: here are also thirteen squares, great and
small. The best edifices are the patriarchal
church, situated on an eminence at the north-east
of the city; the royal monastery of Belem, built
in 1500; the church of St. Roque, formerly be-
longing to the Jesuits; and the New Church, the
largest structure erected since the earthquake of
1755. The royal hospital, and the palace of the
inquisition, are also large and elegant buildings
Near the latter is the public walk, an oblong
garden laid out in alleys; and farther to the
north is one of the two theatres of Lisbon, with
a square for bull fights. The greatest architec-
tural curiosity, however, is the aqueduct to the
north of the city, which, though not half a mile
in length, passes in one part through a tunnel, in
another across a defile. It is partly Roman,
partly a Gothic work; the principal arch is of
the width of 107 feet, and considered one of the
finest specimens of the Gothic style in Europe.
In the great earthquake the body of it withstood
the shock unhurt, but the key-stone sunk several
inches. The Lisbon academy of sciences was
founded in 1779 by the duke of Lafoens, and
has an observatory and a good mathematical
library. The geographical academy was founded
in 1799; the college of nobles in 1761; the
royal marine academy in 1779; the academia
real das Guardas Marinhas, in 1782; and the
royal academy of fortification in 1790. Except
the geographical academy, these are all institu-
tions for education, and have sometimes had
professors of merit. There are various public
libraries, which contain all the standard Spanish
and Portuguese works; but are deficient, as
indeed is the whole city, in foreign books. The
collections of natural history, laboratories, obser-
vatories, and botanical gardens, mentioned in
the State Calendar, are of little importance. The
only newspaper of the country is the Lisbon Ga-
zette; and the insipid Almoirene de Petas was
very lately the only literary journal. The royal
or St. Joseph's hospital is an excellent institution,
in which the sick are carefully attended, irre-
spective of their nation or religion. The number
of patients admitted in a year frequently amounts
to 12,000 or 14,000. The foundling hospital is
also a noble charity.
Lisbon is one of the most commercial cities
of Europe, having 200 mercantile houses, of which
150 are English, and its trade annually employs
between 1000 and 1500 vessels. In 1790
there cleared out 967: viz. English 319; Por-
tuguese 252; North American 75; and 321 of
all other nations. In 1797 the numbers entered
and cleared out were,
L I S B O N.
33
Entered. Sailed.
English 533. 466
Portuguese 300 309
Danes 218 229
Americans 154 161
Prussians 80 86
Hamburgers 43 43
Ragusans g 22 23
Venetians . t 19 24
Bremeners 10 11
Genoese 9 13
Lubeck 9 10
Morocco * 9 2
Oldenburg 6 8
Neapolitans 4 3
Spaniards 3 4
Pappenburg 2 2
French 1 1
Imperial 1 1
Total 1423 || 1396
This includes all the colonial and three-fourths
of the foreign trade of the kingdom, which alto-
gether is very backward in manufactures, both
in the capital as well as in the provincial towns.
Lisbon has, however, manufactures of gold,
silver, and brass; silk, cotton, woollen, and
linen; thread, stockings, and lace; leather, hats,
soap, tobacco, and earthenware, on a small scale.
To England the chief exports are the wines,
known as Lisbon and Calcavella; lemons,
oranges, and fruits; cork, wood, silk and wool.
The principal imports from this country are wool-
lens, calicoes, stockings, watches, trinkets, coals,
hardware, copper, and lead. From Ireland,
corn, flour, and salted provisions. To the north
of Europe Lisbon exports wines, salt, fruits, and
colonial produce; and receives as imports corn,
hemp, flax, iron, timber, deal, stock-fish, pitch,
tar, Russian and German linens. The exchange
transactions are on a large scale.
The patriarch of Lisbon, generally a cardinal
of the Roman consistory, takes precedence of
all the ecclesiastics of Portugal, and is always
first chaplain to the king. Ignorance and su-
R. pervade all classes of its inhabitants.
umbers are seen throughout the day kneeling
and motionless before figures of the Virgin, or
of our Saviour on the cross, hung against the
walls, and furnished on festival days with lamps.
The streets, though less dirty than formerly, are
still offensive to English visitors. At night,
however, they are tolerably lighted, and the po-
lice regulations are good, but ill executed :
assassinations and robberies being frequently
committed in lonely parts of the city. Even in
the day, the appearance of Lisbon is lifeless and
cheerless, the Portuguese having little of the acti-
vity of their forefathers in business or amusement.
The Moors seem to have given the name
Lisiboa or Lisboa to this city when they conquered
it with the rest of Portugal in the year 716.
In the subsequent wars between them and the
Christians, it was alternately lost and won by
each, and continued many ages a sea-port of
consequence, but did not become the capital of
the kingdom until the beginning of the sixteenth
century, when king Emanuel first made it a
Vol. XIII.
royal residence, and the central port for the ex-
peditions to the East and West Indies.
It was unmolested by the demon of war from
this period until the late French invasion of
Portugal; but was partially shaken by the
earthquake of 1531, and almost annihilated by
that of 1755. See our article EARTHQUAKE.
Ruins of its ravages are still visible. In 1807 the
French army marched from Abrantes on this de-
voted capital, which afterwards became the scene
of various important operations both of the
British and French, until the latter abandoned
it after the convention of Cintra. Mr. Southey's
description of these events is so picturesque and
interesting, that our readers, we are sure, will
find it acceptable in this place.
“The dismay and astonishment of the Lisbon-
ians may well be conceived, when they learnt
that the French were at Abrantes, and saw the
court making ready for immediate flight. The
hurry and disorder of Junot's march was not un-
known; his artillery had been damaged, having
been dragged by oxen and peasantry over moun-
tainous roads; a great number of his horses had
died upon the way over worked, and the men
themselves had been marched so rapidly, and fed
so ill, that a large proportion of them were more
fit for the hospital than for active service. The
greater part of the Portuguese army was near the
capital, and, wretched as the state was to which
it had fallen, neither the will nor the courage of
the men was doubted. The English in the fleet,
with a right English feeling, were longing to be
let loose against the enemy: Sir Sidney offered
to bring his ships abreast of the city, and there,
seconded by the indignant populace, dispute
every inch of ground with the invader: “Surely,’
he said, ‘Lisbon is as defensible as Buenos
Ayres 1’ Well might he thus feel and express
himself who had defended Acre ; and certain it
is that Junot and all his foremost troops might
have been put to the death which they had al-
ready merited at the hands of the Portuguese, if
the prince had given the word. But such an act
of vengeance, just as it would have been, would
have been advantageous to Buonaparte, by giving
him a colorable pretext for treating Portugal as a
conquered country: this the prince knew ; and
it was in reliance upon his gentle and conscien-
tious character that Junot advanced in a manner
which would else have appeared like the rashness
of a madman.
“The Portuguese navy was ill equipped for
sea; no care had been taken to keep it victualled,
and it was now found that many of the water-
casks were rotten, and new ones were to be
made. The morning of the 27th had been fixed
for the embarkation (of the royal family),
and at an early hour numbers of both sexes and
of all ages were assembled in the streets and
upon the shore at Belem, where the wide space
between the river and the fine Jeronymite con-
vent was filled with carts and packages of every
kind. From the restlessness and well-founded
alarm of the people, it was feared that they
would proceed to some excess of violence against
those who were the objects of general suspicion.
The crowd however was not yet very great when
the prince appeared, both because of the distance
34
L I S B O N.
from Lisbon, and that the hour of embarkation was
not known. He came from Ajuda, and the Spanish
Infant D. Pedro in the carriage with him; the
troops who were to be on duty at the spot had
not yet arrived, and, when the prince alighted
upon the quay, there was a pressure round him,
so that, as he went down the steps to the water-
edge, he was obliged to make way with his hand.
He was pale and trembling, and his face was
bathed in tears. The multitude forgot for a mo-
ment their own condition in commiseration for
his; they wept also, and followed him, as the
boat pushed off, with their blessings. There may
have been some among the spectators who re-
membered that from this very spot Vasco de
Gama had embarked for that discovery which
opened the way to all their conquests in the east;
and Cabral for that expedition which gave to
Portugal an empire in the west, and prepared for
her prince an asylum now when the mother
country itself was lost.
“In the course of the day the advanced guard
(of the French) arrived in the immediate vicinity
of the city, and Junothimselfsaw the ships with that
prey on board in the hope of which he had ad-
vanced with such rapidity, conveying the family
of Braganza beyond his power, and beyond that
of his mighty master. The troops arrived without
baggage, having only their knapsacks, and a half
gourd slung from the girdle as a drinking-cup;
their muskets were rusty, and many of them out
of repair; the soldiers themselves mostly barefoot,
foundered with their march, and almost fainting
with fatigue and hunger. The very women of
Lisbon might have knocked them on the head.
Junot reached Sacavem between nine and ten at
night. The next morning the royal guard of po-
lice went on to meet him at an early hour. With-
out halting in Lisbon, he hurried on to Belem,
and, entering the battery of Bom-successo, satis-
fied himself by ocular demonstration that the
Portuguese squadron was beyond his reach; he
fired, however, upon those merchant—ships,
which, not having been ready in time, were now
endeavouring to escape. Very many were thus
detained, for the prince's order to spike the guns
had only been partially obeyed, having been
countermanded by the governors; and this was
another of their acts for which the people could
assign no adequate or excusable cause. Junot
immediately sent a battalion to garrison Fort St.
Juliens, and then returned to Lisbon, with
hardly any other guard than some Portuguese
troops whom he had met on the way and ordered
to follow him; thus accompanied he paraded, as
in triumph, through the principal streets. It
was raining heavily, yet the streets were filled
with a melancholy and wondering crowd. The
shops were shut, the windows and verandas full
of anxious spectators. The gestures of all those
who saluted him as he passed, either for former
acquaintance, or flattery, or fear, he returned
with studied courtesy and stateliness. In this
Tmanner he proceeded to the house of Barao de
Quintella, in the Rua d'Alegria, one of the most
opulent of the Portuguese merchants. The palace
of Bemposta had been prepared for him, and
the Senado da Camera assigned for his household
expenses a monthly contribution of 12,000 cru-
zados. He received the money, and compelled
Quintella to be at the whole charge of his estab-
lishment.’ • *
Our author's description of the embarkation
of the French, under Junot, is too long for inser-
tion : but it forms an important record in illus-
tration of the character of the French army at this
period, and is closely connected with the history.
of this city. Speaking of the memorable con-
vention, already alluded to, he says, “During the
negotiation Lisbon was in a dreadful state. Those
wretches who, to the reproach of Christian states
and civilised society, are bred in the corruption
of all great cities, took advantage of the tempo-
rary dissolution of government as they would
have done of a conflagration or an earthquake.
The soldiers of the police, being Portuguese, had
almost all gone to join their countrymen in arms,
and the French, while they went the rounds,
suffered robberies to be committed in their .
hearing and in their sight, either not under-
standing the cries for help, or not choosing to
interfere, now that their reign was at an end.
They indeed themselves were in such danger,
that they soon gave over patroling the streets,
and fired upon those who approached their
quarters in the night. In this manner several
Portuguese were shot; the French venturing upon
this, not so much in the confidence of their own
strength, as in full reliance upon the interference
of the English to protect them.
“The French continued that system of public
and private robbery for which they seemed to
think the convention had granted them entire
impunity. General Freire complained to Sir
Hew Dalrymple that they were plundering the
treasury, the museum, public libraries, arsenals,
churches, and the houses and stores of individu-
als. The British commissioners for carrying the
convention into effect, major-general Beresford
and lord Proby, informed him, that except the
military and naval stores there was no kind of
public property which the French intended to re-
linquish; that they meant to carry off the valuables,
of the prince, the plunder of the churches, and
much of the property of individuals; that they
had packcd up the royal library, and most of the
articles of the museum : that during the negotia-
tion they had taken a sum of about £22,000 from
the Deposito Publico, which was in fact a rob-
bery of individuals, that money being deposited
there till litigations concerning it should be de-
cided : and that even after the terms were signed
they had actually demanded the money arising
from the revenues of the country. The mer-
chants of Lisbon addressed a memorial to the
British commander, stating that Junot had ex-
acted from them a forced loan of 2,000,000 cru-
zados, promising that payment should be made
out of the enormous war-contribution which he
had imposed, they had not been paid, and it was
now his intention to depart without paying them;.
they therefore prayed for redress, and likewise
that some steps should be taken for recovering
their ships and property which had been unlaw-
fully sequestered in France. There was some-
thing absolutely comic in the impudent persuasion
of the French that they might continue to pillage
and carry off what they pleased, under protection
§
LIS
LIS
35
of the British army. They proposed to take
away the Vasco de Gama and some Portuguese
frigates: the Gama, it may be remembered, was
the ship wherein they had embarked great part
of the treasure which they had collected. The
reply was, that these vessels did not belong to
them, and they were only to carry away their in-
dividual baggage. Junot actually demanded five
ships to remove his own personal effects. Such a de-
mand was of course pronounced to beinadmissible.
“The first division of the French embarked
under protection of the second, the second and
third were protected by the British troops from
the fury of the Portuguese. Wholly to restrain
it was impossible, but no serious injury was
done. They embarked amid the curses of the
people. Nine days and nights the rejoicings
continued, not by any order from the magistracy,
but by the voluntary act of the inhabitants, whose
joy was in proportion to the misery from which
they had been delivered. It was a joy which
thousands whose fortunes had been ruined, in
the general calamity, partook; and which
brought the last earthly consolation to many a
broken heart. The enemy, while they lay in the
river, were within sight of the illuminations and
fire-works, and could hear the bells with which
that great city rang from side to side. However
brave in arms, however skilful in negotiation,
they departed under circumstances more re-
proachful than had ever before attached to any
army, or body of military men.’
Lisbon is 313 miles west by south of Madrid,
and contains a population of 240,000 inhabitants.
LISBON, NEw, a post town and the capital of
Columbiana, a county of Ohio, on a branch of
the Little Beaver. It is thirty-five miles south of
Warren, thirty-four north of Steubenville, and
fifty-six north-west of Pittsburg. It is a very flou–
rishing town, and contains a court-house, a jail,
a bank, a public library, a printing office, and
two brick meeting-houses. In the vicinity of the
town there are four merchant, and several other
mills, a paper mill, a furnace, and a woollen
manufactory. -
LISBURN, a borough of the county of An-
trim, Ireland, standing on the river Lagan, eight
miles south-west of Belfast, and seventy miles
north-east of Dublin. It has altogether a hand-
some appearance, and a considerable manufac-
ture of linens. The damask table linen manu-
facture is particularly distinguished by the quality
of the cloth, and the beauty of the patterns:
muslim and cambric are also made. It sends one
member to parliament.
1.ISIEUX, a considerable town of France, in
the department of Calvados, and late province
of Upper Normandy, seated at the confluence of
the Orbeck and Gassey. The churches and
public buildings are very handsome; but many
of the houses are of wood. The cathedral has
been much admired, and the gardens and cas-
cades of the episcopal palaces. Here are manu-
factures of linen, flannel, cotton, and cyder : but
the chief occupation of the neighbourhood is
rearing cattle for the Paris market. It is thirty
miles east of Caen, fourteen from the channel and
116 west of Paris. y
LISLE or LILLE. See LILLE.
LISLE (Claudius de), a learned historiogra-
pher, born at Vancouleurs, in 1644. He studied
among the Jesuits at Pontamousson; took his
degrees in law, and afterwards studied history
and geography; and to perfect himself in those
sciences went to Paris, where the duke of Or-
leans, afterwards regent, and the principal lords
of the court, became his scholars. He wrote,
1. An Historical Account of the kingdom of Siam.
2. A Genealogical and Historical Atlas. 3. An
Abridgement of Universal History. He died at
Paris in 1720.
LISLE (William de), son of the above, and the
most learned geographer France has produced,
was born at Paris in 1675. He became first
geographer to the king, royal censor, and mem-
ber of the academy of sciences. He died in
1726. He published a great number of excellent
maps, and wrote many pieces in the Memoirs of
the Academy of Sciences.
LISLE (Sir John), a brave loyalist in the time
of the civil wars, was the son of a bookseller in
London, and was educated in the Netherlands.
He signalised himself upon many occasions, par-
ticularly in the last battle of Newbury; where,
in the dusk of the evening, he led his men to
the charge in his shirt, that his person might be
more conspicuous. The king, who was an eye-
witness of his bravery, knighted him in the field
of battle. In 1648 he was one of the royalists
who so obstinately defended Colchester, and who
suffered for the defence of it. Having tenderly
embraced the corpse of Sir Charles Lucas, his
departed friend, he immediately presented himself
to the soldiers who stood ready for his execution.
Thinking that they stood at too great a distance,
he desired them to come nearer: one of them
said, ‘I warrant you, sir, we shall hit you !” He
replied with a smile, “Friends, I have been
nearer you when you have missed me.’ He was
executed August 28th 1648.
LISLE (Joseph, Nicholas de), a celebrated
French astronomer born at Paris in 1688. He
was the intimate friend of Newton and Halley,
and was a member of most of the learned acade-
mies in Europe. In 1726 he was invited to
Russia, and remained there till 1747. His prin-
cipal work is his Memoirs of the History of
Astronomy. Unlike many of the French philoso-
phers, he joined unaffected piety to the love of
science. He died in 1768.
LISMORE, a town of Waterford, Ireland,
formerly a considerable city, and anciently called
Dunskille; both Lis and Doone signifying a
Danish mount, of which nature is the round hill
of Lismore. It stands on the river Blackwater,
over which it has a fine bridge, the span of the
principal arch being 102 feet. The bishop's see
was founded here in the seventh century, but
united, in 1536, with the see of Waterford. The
cathedral is spacious and handsome. Lismore
castle was burned in the Irish war, in 1645; the
duke of Devonshire has rebuilt it, in its ancient
style, magnificently; an example imitated by
Richard Edward Gumbleton, esq., who rebuilt
Castle-Richard, situated upon the river's bank,
three miles from Lismore, according to an ele-
D 2
LIS 36
LIS
gant Gothic elevation, at an expense of many
thousand pounds. There is a considerable salmon
fishery here. It is thirty-one miles W. S.W. of
Waterford, and 100 S. S.W. of Dublin. -
LISMORE, one of the Hebrides, or Western
Islands of Scotland, seated at the mouth of
Loch-Linnhe, or a capacious lake in Argyllshire,
navigable for the largest ships to Fort William.
This island is ten miles long, and from one to
two miles broad. It abounds in limestone. Its
population in 1791 was 1121. It is now not
above 1350. It was anciently the residence of
the bishops of Argyle, and gives name to the
extensive parish in which it lies. It formerly
abounded with deer, and elks' horns of a large
size have been discovered in it. It was fre-
quented by Fingal and his heroes, if such there
were, of whom relics are still pointed out. Oats,
barley, and flax, are the chiefarticles of cultivation.
º church was once the chancel of its cathe-
ral. -
LISNE, n. S. Barb. Lat. licia, an enclosure.
A cavity; a hollow.
In the lisme of a rock, at Kingscote in Gloucester-
shire, I found a bushel of petrified cockles, each
near as big as my fist. Hale.
LISP, v. a. & n.s. Y Sax, &lirp; Teut. lis-
LISP'ER, n.s. 5 pen ; Belg. lespen. To
speak with imperfect appulses of the tongue to
the teeth or palate: to speak imperfectly in any
way. See the extract from Holder.
Farewel, Monsieur Traveller; look you lisp, and
wear strange suits; disable all the benefits of your
own country. Shakspeare.
Come, I cannot cog, and say, thou art this and
that, like a many of these lisping hawthorn buds,
that come like women in men's apparel, and smell
iike Bucklersbury in simpling time. Id.
Scarce had she learnt to lisp a name
Of martyr, yet she thinks it shame
Life should so long play with that breath,
Which spent can buy so brave a death.
- Crashaw.
They ramble not to learn the mode,
How to be drest, or how to lisp abroad.
- Cleaveland.
Appulse partial, giving some passage to breath,
is made to the upper teeth, and causes a lisping sound,
the breath being strained through the teeth.
- Holder's Elements of Speech.
I overheard her answer, with a very pretty lisp,
O ! Strephon you are a dangerous creature. Tatler.
. As yet a child, nor yet a fool to fame,
I lisped in numbers, for the numbers came.
Pope.
Pleased with the distant roar, with quicker tread,
Fast by his hand one lisping boy she led. Darwin.
LISSA, a large town of Prussian Poland, on
the borders of Silesia, was principally peopled
by the Protestants who fled, in the seventeenth
century, from the persecutions in Silesia, Bohe- .
mia, and Moravia. It now consists, for the
greater part, of wooden buildings; and it has ac-
cordingly suffered severely from fire. It has a
palace belonging to prince Sulkoroski, the chief
proprietor; a Catholic, and a Lutheran church,
two Calvinist churches, a gymnasium, and a sy-
nagogue. Of the inhabitants (7600) one-half
are Jews, and they have the greatest part of the
trade. The articles of commerce are woollens;
the manufactures furs, hardware, and wines.
Forty-four miles S.S.W. of Posen, and sixty-five
west of Kalisch. -
LISSA, an island on the coast of Dalmatia, in
the gulf of Venice. It is hilly, and thinly peo-
pled; but has a good fishery, and produces wine,
olives, almonds, and figs. It has also a good
harbour. Its ancient town of Issa is now a mere
village. Lissa, in 1807, was occupied by the
British; but, in 1810, it was taken by a French
flotilla from Ancona. Fifty-six miles west of
Ragusa.
LISSUS, in ancient geography, the last town
of Illyricum, towards Macedonia, situatéd on
the Drino. It had a capacious port, the work of
Dionysius the tyrant, who led the colony thither,
and enlarged and walled it round.—Diodorus
Siculus. It is now called Alessio, in Albania.
LISSUs, a river of Thrace, running into the
AEgean Sea, between Thasos and Samothracia,
which was dried up by the army of Xerxes, when
he invaded Greece.—Strabo, lib. 7.
LIST, n.s. & v. a. Fr. and Dan. liste ; Goth.
lest, leit, to speak or read. Thomson. A roll;
catalogue; enrolment; hence a limit or bound:
to enrol; register; hence to engage or retain
for military service.
He was the ablest emperor of all the list.
Bacon.
The lords would, by listing their own servants,
persuade the gentlemen in the town to do the like.
Clarendon.
Some say the loadstone is poison, and therefore
in the lists of poisons we find it in many authors.
Browne.
The king who raised this wall appointed a million
of soldiers, who were listed and paid, for the defence
of it against the Tartars. . . . Temple.
They list with women each degenerate name,
Who dares not hazard life for future fame.
Dryden.
For a man to give his name to Christianity, in those
days, was to list himself a martyr, and to bid fare-
wel not only to the pleasures, but also to the hopes
of this life. - South.
Bring next the royal list of Stuarts forth,
Undaunted minds, that ruled the rugged north.
- Prior.
He that is born is listed ; life is war;
Eternal war with woe. Young.
LIST, n. s. & v.a. Fr. lice; Ital, lizza; Span.
and Port...liza (alizar, Span., is to make even or
smooth). An enclosed and prepared field of
combat or exercise: to enclose ground for such
purposes.
But telleth me what mistere men ye ber,
That ben so hardy for to fighten here
Withouten any juge or other officere,
As though it were in listes really.
Chaucer. Cant. Tales.
The ocean, overpeering of his list,
Eats not the flats with more impetuous haste,
Then young Laertes in a riotous head,
O'er-bears your officers. Shakspeare. Hamlet.
She within lists my ranging mind hath brought,
That now beyond myself I will not go. Davies.
How dares your pride presume against my laws,
As in a listed field to fight your cause?
Unasked the royal grant. Dryden's Knight's Tales.
Paris thy son, and Sparta's king advance,
In measured lists to toss the weighty lance ;
LIS
LIS
37
And who his rival shall in arms subdue,
His be the dame, and his the treasure too. Pope.
Sax. lyrcan; Goth. lysta.
LIST, n. S. & v. n.
to choose; desire;
.*
Desire; choice; willingness:
incline. -
To fight in field, or to defend this wall,
Point what you list, Inought refuse at all.
Faerie Queene.
Let other men think of your devices as they list, in
my judgment they be mere fancies. Whitgifte.
Unto them that add to the word of God what them .
listeth, and make God’s will submit unto their will,
and break God's commandments for their own tra-
dition's sake, unto them it seemeth not good.
Hooker.
Alas, she has no speech -
—Too much ;
I find it still when I have list to sleep.
- Shakspeare.
Nothing of passion or peevishness, or list to con-
tradict, shall have any bias on my judgment.
King Charles.
I first adventure; follow me who list,
And be the second English satirist. . Bp. Hall.
Kings, lords of time, and of occasions, may
Take their advantage when, and how, they list.
Daniel.
When they list, into the womb
That bred them they return; and howl, and gnaw
My bowels, their repast. Milton. Paradise Lost.
He saw false reynard where he lay full low;
I need not swear he had no list to crow. Dryden.
They sang as blithe as finches sing,
That flutter loose on golden wing,
And frolic where they list. Cowper.
LIST, n. s. & v. a. Fr. lice; Ital, Span.
LIST'ED, adj. $ Port. and barb. Lat. lis-
ta; Swed. list; Belg. lisse. The border or limit
of a web, or piece of cloth; any border or margin;
a strip of cloth; to list is to sew together in
strips: hence listed; striped; party-colored. See
LIST, a roll.
They thought it better to let them stand as a list,
or marginal border, unto the Old Testament. Hooker.
A linen stock on one leg; and a kersy boot hose
on the other, gartered with a red and blue list.
Shakspeare.
Some may wonder at such an accumulation of
benefits, like a kind of embroidering or listing of one
favour upon another. Wotton's Life of Buckingham.
Over his head beholds
A dewy cloud, and in the cloud a bow
Conspicuous, with three listed colours gay,
Betokening peace from God, and covenant new.
- * Milton.
Instead of a list of cotton, or the like filtre, we
made use of a siphon of glass. Boyle.
As the showery arch
With listed colours gay, or, azure, gules,
Delights and puzzles the beholder's eyes. Phillips.
A list the cobler's temples ties,
To keep the hair out of his eyes. Swift.
LIST, v. a. Y LIST is an abbrevia-
LISTEN, v. a. & v. n. tion of listen. Sax.
LIST'ENER, m. s. º: Dan. lyste;
LIST'LESS, Gothic, hlaust; Greek,
LIST'LESSLY, | r\va, to listen to. To
LIST'LESSNESS. hearken; attend : lis-
ten, as a neuter verb, is to give attention; ‘give
ear:' a listener, a hearkener; generally used of
intruders and spies: listless, without attention;
rareless; heedless; languid.
To his unmastered importunity.
Listen, O isles, unto me, and hearken ye people.
Isaiah, xlix.
Who list unto this balades have inspection
Thinke that lov is lordship is excellente
Is remedy for disese and correccion
To woful herte. Chaucer’s Balades.
Then weigh, what loss your honour may sustain,
If with too credent ear you list his songs;
Or lose your heart, or your chaste treasure open
Shakspeare. Hamlet.
Lady, vouchsafe to listen what I say. Shakspeare.
One cried, God bless us ! and Amen the other:
As they had seen me with these hangman's hands,
Listening their fear. I could not say, Amen Id.
Listen to me, and if you speak me fair,
I'll tell you news. Id.
Antigonus used often to go disguised, and listen
at the tents of his soldiers; and at a time heard
some that spoke very ill of him: whereupon he said,
If you speak ill of me, you should go a little farther
off. - Bacon's Apophthegms.
I, this sound I better know :
Listl I would I could hear mo. Ben Jonson.
They are light of belief, great listeners after news.
* Howel.
It may be the palate of the soul is indisposed by .
listlessness or sorrow. Taylor.
The wonted roar was up amidst the woods,
And filled the air with barbarous dissonance,
At which I ceased and listened them a while.
- Milton.
It ſpiety] is an employment most constant, never .
allowing sloth or listlessness to creep in ; incessantly
busying all our faculties with earnest contention.
Barrow.
Intemperance and sensuality clog men's spirits,
make them gross, listless, and unactive. Tillotson.
When we have occasion to listen, and give a more
particular attention to some sound, the tympanum is
drawn to a more than ordinary tension. Holder.
If your care to wheat alone extend, .*
Let Maja with her sisters first descend,
Before you trust in earth your future hope,
Or else expect a listless, lazy crop.
Dryden's Virgil.
On the green bank I sat, and listened long;
Nor till her lay was ended could I move,
But wished to dwell for ever in the grove.
Dryden.
Listeners never hear well of themselves.
L’Estrange.
To know this perfectly, watch him at play, and see
whether he be stirring and active, or whether he
lazily and listlessly dreams away his time. Locke.
If it is dangerous to be convinced, it is dangerous
to listen; for our reason is so much of a machine,
that it will not always be able to resist when the ear
is perpetually assailed. Mackenzie.
To this humour most of our late comedies owe
their success: the audience listens after nothing else.
Addison.
Lazy lolling sort
Of ever listless loiterers, that attend
No cause, no trust. Pope.
I was listless and desponding. Gulliver's Travels.
The hush word, when spoke by any brother in a
lodge, was a warning to the rest to have a care of
listeners. Swift.
Silence how dead! and darkness how profound !
Nor eye, nor listening ear an object finds;
Creation sleeps.
At first he aims at what he hears,
And listening close with both his ears,
Just catches at the sound. Cowper,
Young.
LIT
LIT
38
List!—'tis the bugle—Juan shrilly blew—
. One kiss—one more—another—Oh! adieu!
- Byron.
Who listens once will listen twice;
Her heart, be sure, is not of ice,
And one refusal no rebuff. Id.
LIST, in commerce, the border of cloth or stuff;
serving not only to show their quality, but to
preserve them from being torn, in fulling, dye-
ing, &c. w
LIST, in gardening, a border used by garden-
ers for securing their wall-trees.
LIST, in the tournament, was so called, as be-
ing hemmed round with pales, barriers, or stakes,
as with a list. Some of these were double, one
for each cavalier; which kept them apart, so that
they could not come nearer to each other than a
spear's length. See DUEL, JUST, Tour NAMENT,
S.C. -
To LIST, or ENLIST, Soldiers. Persons listed
either as volunteers, or by any kind of compul-
sion, must be carried within four days, but not
Sooner than twenty-four hours after, before the
next justice of peace of any county, riding, city,
or place, or chief magistrate of any city or town
corporate (not being an officer in the army), and
if before such justice or magistrate they dissent
from such enlisting, and return the enlisting
money, and also 20s. in lieu of all charges ex-
pended on them, they are to be discharged. But
persons refusing or neglecting to return and pa
such money, within twenty-four hours, shall be
deemed as duly listed as if they had assented to
it before the proper magistrate; and they shall,
in that case, be obliged to take the oath, or,
upon refusal, shall be confined by the officer who
listed them till they do take it.
LISTER (Sir Matthew), M.D., physician to
queen Anne of Denmark, queen of James VI.,
and to king Charles I., was president of the
College of Physicians, and one of the greatest
practitioners of his age. He died about 1637.
LISTER (Martin), M.D. and F.R.S., nephew
to the preceding, was born in Bucks, in 1638,
and educated at Cambridge. He afterwards
travelled into France; and at his return practised
physic at York, and afterwards in London. In
1683 he was created M. D., and became fellow
of the College of Physicians in London. In
1698 he attended the earl of Portland in his em-
bassy from king William III. to France; of
which journey he published an account at his
return, and was afterwards physician to queen
Anne. He also published, 1. Historia Anima-
lium Angliae, 4to. 2. Conchiliorum Synopsis,
folio. 3. Cochlearum et Limachum Exercitatio
Anatomica, 4 vols. 8vo. 4. Many pieces in
the Philosophical Transactions, and other works.
LITANA, or LITANA SILVA, in ancient geo-
graphy, a wood of the Boii, in Gallia Togata, or
Cispadana, where the Romans, under L. Posthu-
mius Albinus, sustained a great defeat, scarcely
ten escaping of 25,000, and their general’s head
being cut off by the Boii, and carried in
triumph into their temple.—Livy. Holstenius
supposes this happened above the springs of
Scultenna, in a part of the Appennines, between
Cersinianum and Mutina; now called Selva di
Lugo. * -
LITANY, n. s. Gr. Atraveta. Pezron derives
this. Greek word from the Celtic lit, a feast or
solemnity. . A form of prayer. See below.
Supplications, with solemnity for the appeasing of
God’s wrath, were, of the Greek church, termed lita-
nies, and rogations of the Latin. . Hooker.
There was never any church-liturgy but said lita-
nies for their king and for their bishop! Bp. Taylor.
If our holy martyrs heretofore went to heaven.with
a litany in their mouth, let not an ill-advised new-
fangledness be suffered to put scorn upon that, where-
in they thought themselves happy. Bp. Hall.
LITANY is derived from Auravsval, I beseech,
the expression repeated by the people in the
service. At first litanies were not fixed to any
stated time, but were only employed as exigen-
cies required. They were observed with ardent
supplications and fastings, to avert the threaten-
ing judgments of fire, earthquakes, inundations,
or hostile invasions. About A. D. 400 litanies
began to be used in processions, the people
walking barefoot, and repeating them with great
devotion. The days on which these were used
were called rogation days; these were appointed
by the canons of different councils, till it was
decreed, by the council of Toledo, that they
should be used every month throughout the year;
and by degrees they came to be used weekly on
Wednesdays and Fridays, the ancient stationary
days for fasting. To these the rubric of the
church of England has added Sundays. Before
the last review of the Common Prayer the litany
was a distinct service by itself, and used some
time after the morning prayer was over; at pre-
sent it is made one office with the morning ser-
vice, being ordered to be read after the third

collect for grace, instead of the intermissional
prayers in the daily service. - *
LITCHFIELD, a county of Connecticut, is
bounded on the north by Massachusetts, east by
Hartford, south-east by New Haven, south-west
by Fairfield county, and west by New York.
LITCHFIELD, a post town, the capital of Litch-
field county, in Connecticut, is situated thirty-
eight miles N. N.W. of New Haven, and thirty
west of Hartford. It contains a court house, a
jail, a female academy, a law school, and two
houses of public worship, one for Congregation-
alists, and one for Episcopalians, and has some
trade. In the township there are nine houses of
public worship; four for Congregationalists, four
for Episcopalians, and one for Baptists. . In the
parish of South Farms there is another academy.
It is a good agricultural town, and contains nu-
merous mills and manufacturing establishments,
among which are four forges for iron, a slitting-
mill, nail manufactory, cotton manufactory,
paper-mill, and five large tanneries. Mount
Tom, on the western border of the town, is 700
feet high. There are four ponds in this town,
the largest of which comprises 900 acres. There
is a medicinal spring within half a mile of the
court-house. - -
The law school in this town is a private insti-
tution, established upwards of thirty years since.
It has two professors, and at present thirty-six or
thirty-seven students. The members study the
law by titles, in the order in which the lectures
are given. The mode of instruction is by lec-
L I T : E R A T U R. E.
39
turing on the several titles of the law in an
established order. The course of lectures occu-
pies about fourteen or fifteen months. One lec-
ture is given every day. There are two vacations
of four weeks each; one in May, the other in
October. The price of tuition is at the rate of
100 dollars a year, that of board from three
dollars to three and a half a week.
Also a county of Ohio, on Lake Erie.
LITERAL, adj. & m. s. Fr. literal ; Lat.
LIT'ERALLY, adv. }: See LETTER.
LITERAL'ITY, n.s. Following the lét-
ter; according to the strict or primitive mean-
ing ; consisting of letters: literal, as a substan-
tive, and literality, both signify original or primi-
tive meaning.
The fittest for public audience are such as, follow-
ing a middle course between the rigour of literal
translations and the liberty of paraphrasts, do with
greater shortness and plainness deliver the meaning.
Hooker.
No man puts out his right eye literally, or cuts off
his right hand to prevent scandal. Certain it is,
there hath been much greater inconvenience by fol-
lowing the letter of these words of institution, than
of any other in Scripture. Bp. Taylor.
How dangerous it is in sensible things to use me-
taphorical expressions unto the people, and what ab-
surd conceits they will swallow in their literals, an
example we have in our profession. Browne.
Not attaining the true deuteroscopy, and second
intention of the words, they are fain to omit their
superconsequences, coherences, figures, or tropolo-
gies, and are not sometimes persuaded beyond their
titeralities. Browne’s Vulgar Errours.
A foundation being primarily of use in architecture,
hath no other literal notation but what belongs to it
in relation to an house, or other building; nor figu-
rative, but what is founded in that, and deduced from
thence. Hammond.
Endeavouring to turn his Nisus and Euryalus as
close as I was able, I have performed that episode
too literally; that giving more scope to Mezentius
and Lausus, that version, which has more of the
majesty of Virgil, has less of his conciseness.
Dryden.
That a man and his wife are one flesh, I can com-
prehend; yet literally taken it is a thing wº
wift.
The literal notation of numbers was known to Eu-
ropeans before the cyphers. Johnson.
LITERARY, adj. R Lat. literarius. Re-
LITERATI, n. s. specting or . belonging
LIT'ERATURE, n.s. Şı, letters, learning, or
the learned : literati is a substantive of Ital.
origin, signifying the learned, or any number of
learned men taken collectively : literature,
learning; scholastic knowledge.
This kingdom hath been famous forgood literature;
and, if preferment attend deservers, there will not
want supplies. 1Bacon.
I shall consult some literati on the project sent
me for the discovery of the longitude. Spectator.
When men of learning are acted by a knowledge
of the world, they give a reputation to literature,
and convince the world of its usefulness.
Addison’s Freeholder.
All hopes of new literary institutions were quickly
suppressed by the contentious turbulence of king
James's reign. Johnson.
We, in Scotland, boast of our professors, that
they give regular lectures in all the sciences, which
the students are obliged to attend; a part of literary
economy which is but little attended to in the uni-
versities of England. - Beattie.
Hence a moderate pain, upon which the attention
may fasten and spend itself, is to many a refresh-
ment; as a literary controversy. Paley.
As boys love rows, my boyhood liked a squabble;
But at this hour I wish to part in peace,
Leaving such to the literary rabble,
Whether my verse's fame be doomed to cease
While the right hand which wrote it still is able,
Or of some centuries to take a lease. Byron.
LITERARY PROPERTY. See CoPYRIGHT.
LITERATI (letrados, lettered), an epithet given
to such persons among the Chinese as are able
to read and write their language. The literati
alone are capable of being made mandarins.
See CHINA.
LITERATI may also be considered as the name
of a particular sect in religion or philosophy,
consisting principally of the learned men of
China. It is called the jukiao, i.e. learned sect.
It had its rise A.D. 1400, when the emperor,
to awaken the attention of the people to know-
ledge, which had been quite neglected during
the civil wars, and to stir up emulation among
the mandarins, ordered forty-two of their ablest
men of learning to compose a body of doctrine
agreeable to that of the ancients. The work,
being composed by so many learned persons,
and approved by the emperor, was received
with great applause. Many were pleased with
it because it seemed to subvert all religion;
others approved it because the little religion
that it left them could not give them trouble to
regard it. The court, the mandarins, persons of
fortune and quality, &c., are generally literati.
They freely tolerate the Mahommedans, because
they adore, with them, the king of heaven, and
author of nature; they have an aversion, however,
to all sorts of idolaters, and it was once resolved
to extirpate them. See CHINA.
LITERATURE, as a branch of the fine arts, has
been chiefly regarded as embracing the consider-
ation of the effects of ELOQUENCE or ORATORY,
and of the structure and influence of PoETRY.
Both these arts are connected in their essence
and end with the sister arts of music, painting,
sculpture, and architecture; that essence being
in the whole of them expression, and the end,
pleasure. -
Beauty, again, is the object with which all
these arts are conversant; and words are admitted
by Mr. Burke to have as considerable share in
exciting the ideas of beauty and of the sublime
as any of them; but he contends that words
affect us in a very different manner to nature, or
the other fine arts. “The common motion,” he
observes, ‘is, that the power of poetry and elo-
quence, as well as that of words in ordinary
conversation, is, that they affect the mind by
raising ideas in it of those things for which cus-
tom has appointed them to stand; but their
influence on the passions may be traced to a to-
tally different source.” “Nobody, I believe,’
says this great man, “immediately on hearing
the sounds, virtue, liberty, or honor, conceives
any precise notions of the particular modes of
action and thinking, together with the mixt and
40
L I T E R A T U R E.
simple ideas, and the several relations cf them
for which these words are substituted; neither
has he any general idea, compounded of them ;
for, if he had, then some of those particular ones,
though indistinct, perhaps, and confused, might
come soon to be perceived. But this, I take it,
is hardly ever the case. For put yourself upon
analysing one of these words, and you must re-
duce it from one set of general words to another,
and then into the simple abstracts and aggregates,
in a much longer series than may be at first
imagined, before any real idea emerges to light,
before you come to discover any thing like the
first principles of such compositions; and, when
you have made such a discovery of the original
ideas, the effect of the composition is utterly lost.
A train of thinking of this sort is much too long
to be pursued in the ordinary ways of conversa-
tion, nor is it at all necessary that it should. Such
words are in reality but mere sounds; but they
are sounds, which being used on particular oc-
casions, wherein we receive some good, or suffer
some evil; or see others affected with good or
evil; or which we hear applied to other interest-
ing things or events; and being applied in such
a variety of cases, that we know readily by habit
to what things they belong, they produce in the
mind, whenever they are afterwards mentioned,
effects similar to those of their occasions. The
sounds being often used without reference to
any particular occasion, and carrying still their
first impressions, they at last utterly lose their
connexion with the particular occasions that gave
rise to them; yet the sound, without any annexed
notion, continues to operate as before.’ ‘I find
it very hard,” he adds, “to persuade several that
their passions are affected by words from whence
they have no ideas; and yet harder to convince
them, that in the ordinary course of conversa-
tion we are sufficiently understood without
raising any images of the things concerning which
we speak. It seems to be an odd subject of dis-
pute with any man, whether he has ideas in his
mind or not. Of this, at first view, every man,
in his own forum, ought to judge without appeal.
But, strange as it may appear, we are often at a
loss to know what ideas we have of things, or
whether we have any ideas at all upon some
subjects. It even requires a good deal of atten-
tion to be thoroughly satisfied on this head.
Since I wrote these papers I found two very
striking instances of the possibility there is, that
a man may hear words without having any idea
of the things which they represent, and yet after-
wards be capable of returning them to others,
combined in a new way, and with great pro-
priety, energy, and instruction. The first in-
stance is that of Mr. Blacklock, a poet blind
from his birth. Few men blessed with the most
perfect sight can describe visual objects with
more spirit and justness than this blind man;
which cannot possibly be attributed to his having
a clearer conception of the things he describes
than is common to other persons. The second
instance is of Mr. Saunderson, professor of ma-
thematics in the University of Cambridge.’ This
learned man had acquired great knowledge in
natural philosophy, in astronomy, and what-
ever sciences depend upon mathematical skill.
What was the most extraordinary, and the most
to my purpose, he gave excellent lectures upon
light and colors; and this man taught others the
theory of those ideas which they had, and which
he himself undoubtedly had not. But it is proba-
ble that the words red, blue, green, answered to
him as well as the ideas of the color themselves for
theideas of greater or less degrees of refrangibility
being applied to these words, and the blind man
being instructed in what other respects they were
found to agree or to disagree, it was as easy for
him to reason upon the words, as if he had been
fully master of the ideas. Indeed it must be
owned he could make no new discoveries in the
way of experiment. He did nothing but what
we do every day in common discourse.’
Our author then instances, in passages from
Virgil, Horace, and Milton, the manner in which
he conceives we are affected by verbal descrip-
tion:—“There is not perhaps in the whole HF neid
a more grand and labored passage than the de-
scription of Vulcan's cavern in Ftna, and the
works that are there carried on. Virgil dwells
particularly on the formation of the thunder,
which he describes unfinished under the ham-
mers of the Cyclops. But what are the principles
of this extraordinary composition ?
Tres imbris torti radios, tres nubis aquosae
Addiderant; rutili tres ignis et alitis austri;
Fulgores nunc terrificos sonitumque, metumque
Miscebant operi, flammisque sequacibus iras.
This seems to be admirably sublime; yet, if we
attend coolly to the kind of sensible images
which a combination of ideas of this sort must
form, the chimeras of madmen cannot appear
more wild and absurd than such a picture.
“Three rays of twisted showers, three of watery
clouds, three of fire, and three of the winged
south wind; then mixed they in the work terrific
lightnings, and sound, and fear, and anger, with
pursuing flames.’ This strange composition is
formed into a gross body; it is hammered by the
Cyclops, it is in part polished, and partly conti-
nues rough. The truth is, if poetry gives us a
noble assemblage of words, corresponding to
many noble ideas, which are connected by cir-
cumstances of time or place, or related to each
other as cause and effect, or associated in any
natural way, they may be moulded together in
any form, and perfectly answer their end. The
picturesque connexion is not demanded; because
no real picture is formed; nor is the effect of the
description at all the less upon this account.
“What is said of Helen by Priam and the old
men of his council, is generally thought to give
us the highest possible idea of that fatal beauty.
Ov vsplégig Tpwac kat #vkvmpuðac Axatec
Toun 6' apºpt yuvauci troXvv xpovov axyea traoxeiv
Atvoc 3’aôavarotot Seng etc wara soukiv.
They cried, no wonder such celestial charms
For nine long years have set the world in arms;
What winning graces! what majestic mien
She moves a goddess, and she looks a queen. Pope.
Here is not one word said of the particulars of
her beauty; nothing which can in the least help
us to any precise idea of her person; but yet we
are much more touched by this manner of men-
L I T E R A T U R E.
41
tioning her than by those long and labored de-
scriptions of Helen, whether handed down by
tradition, or formed by fancy, which are to be
met with in some authors. I am sure it affects
me much more than the minute description
which Spenser has given of Belphebe; though I
own that there are parts in that description, as
there are in all the descriptions of that excellent
writer, extremely fine and poetical.’
* Certain it is, that the influence of most things
on our passions is not so much from the things
themselves, as from our opinions concerning
them; and these again depend very much on the
opinions of other men, conveyable for the most
part by words only. Secondly, there are many
things of a very affecting nature, which can sel-
dom occur in the reality, but the words which
represent them often do; and thus they have an
opportunity of making a deep impression and
taking root in the mind, whilst the idea of the
reality was transient; and to some perhaps
never really occurred in any shape, to whom it
is notwithstanding very affecting, as war, death,
famine, &c. Besides many ideas have never
been at all presented to the senses of any men
but by words, as God, angels, devils, heaven,
and hell, all of which have, however, a great in-
fluence over the passions. Thirdly, by words we
have it in our power to make such combinations
as we cannot possibly do otherwise. By this
power of combining we are able, by the addition
of well-chosen circumstances, to give a new life
and force to the simple object. In painting we
may represent any fine figure we please : but we
never can give it those enlivening touches which
it may receive from words. To represent an
angel in a picture, you can only draw a beauti-
ful young man winged: but what painting can
furnish out any thing so grand as the addition of
one word, ‘the angel of the Lord 7" It is true,
I have here no clear idea: but these words affect
the mind more than the sensible image did;
which is all I contend for. A picture of Priam
dragged to the altar's foot, and there murdered,
if it were well executed, would undoubtedly be
very moving: but there are very aggravating
circumstances, which it could never represent:
Sanguine foedentem quos ipse sacraverat ignes.
As a farther instance, let us consider those lines
of Milton, where he describes the travels of the
fallen angels through their dismal habitation:
O'er many a dark and dreary vale
They passed, and many a region dolorous;
O'er many a frozen, many a fiery Alp;
Rocks, caves, lakes, fens, bogs, dens, and shades
of death.
A universe of death.
Here is displayed the force of union in
Rocks, caves, lakes, dens, bogs, fens, and shades;
which yet would lose the
effect, if they were not the
Rocks, caves, lakes, dens, bogs, fens, and shades—
——of Death. -
This idea or this affection caused by a word,
which nothing but a word could annex to the
others, raises a very great degree of the sublime;
greatest part of the
and this sublime is raised yet higher by what fol-
lows, “a universe of Death.' Here are again two
ideas not presentable but by language; and a
union of them great and amazing beyond con-
ception; if they may properly be called ideas
which present no distinct image to the mind:—
but still it will be difficult to conceive how
words can move the passions which belong to
real objects, without representing these objects
clearly. This is difficult to us, because we do
not sufficiently distinguish, in our observations
upon language, between a clear expression, and
a strong expression. These are frequently con-
founded with each other, though they are in
reality extremely different. The former regards
the understanding; the latter belongs to the pas-
sions. The one describes a thing as it is; the
other describes it as it is felt. We yield to sym-
pathy what we refuse to description. The truth
is, all verbal description, merely as naked des–
cription, though never so exact, conveys so poor
and insufficient an idea of the thing described,
that it could scarcely have the smallest effect, if
the speaker did not call in to his aid those modes
of speech that mark a strong and lively feeling
in himself. Then, by the contagion of our pas-
sions, we catch a fire already kindled in another,
which probably might never have been struck out
by the object described : and words, by strongly
conveying the passions, by those means which
we have already mentioned, fully compensate
for their weakness in other respects. It may be
observed, that very polished languages, and such
as are praised for their superior clearness and
perspicuity, are generally deficient in strength.
The French language has that perfection and that
defect. Whereas the oriental tongues, and in
general the languages of most unpolished people,
have a great force and energy of expression; and
this is but natural. Uncultivated people are but
ordinary observers of things, and not critical in
distinguishing them; but, for that reason, they
admire more, and are more affected with what
they see, and therefore express themselves in a
warmer and more passionate manner. If the
affection be well conveyed, it will work its effect
without any clear idea; often without any idea
at all of the thing which has originally given rise
to it.
These ideas suggest, at least, the basis on
which the influence of literature on the character
and manners of nations must rest. When oratory
and poetry become distinct arts, they claim, of
course, distinct discussion. See PoETRY and
ORATory.
LITHANTHRAX, or pit coal, is a black
or brown, laminated, bituminous substance; not
very easily inflammable, but, when once inflamed,
burns longer and more intensely than any other
substance. See CoAL. Of this substance three
kinds are distinguished by authors. The residuum
of the first, after combustion, is black; the re-
siduum of the second is spongy, and like pumice
stone; and the residuum of the third is whitish
ashes. Some fossil coal, by long exposure to
air, falls into a grayish powder; from which
alum may be extracted. Fossil coal by distilla-
tion yields, 1, a phlegm or water; 2, a very acid
liquor; 3, a thin oil like naphtha ; 4, a thicker
42
L I T H O G R A P H Y.
w
oil, resembling petroleum, which falls to the
bottom of the former, and which rises with a
violent fire; 5, an acid concrete salt; 6, an un-
inflammable earth remains in the retort. These
constituent parts of fossil coal are very similar
to those of amber and other bitumens. From
some sorts of it a varnish may be made by fat
oils. Fixed alkali has never been found in any
species of it; nor sulphur, unless when mixed
with pyrites. None of the species are electrics
per se. For exciting intense heats, as in fur-
naces for smelting iron ore, and for operations
where the acid and oily vapors would be detri-
mental, as in drying of malt, fossil coals are
previously charred, or reduced to cokes. See
Coke. Pit-coal affords tar, and, on that and
other accounts, is ranked by modern chemists
among vegetable substances. See CHEMISTRY.
LITH'ARGE. Fr. litharge; Lat. lithar-
gyrum. Lead vitrified with copper.
Our orpiments and sublimed mercury,
Our grounden litarge eke on the porphurie,
Of eche of thise of unces a certain,
Not helpeth us; our labour is in vain.
Chaucer. Cant. Tales.
I have seen some parcels of glass adhering to the
test or cupel as well as the gold or litharge. Boyle.
Litharge is properly lead vitrified, either alone or
with a mixture of copper. This recrement is of two
kinds, litharge of gold, and litharge of silver. It is
collected from the furnaces where silver is separated
from lead, or from those where gold and silver are
purified by means of that metal. The litharge sold
in the shops is produced in the copper works, where
lead has been used to purify that metal, or to sepa-
rate silver from it. - Hill.
Litharge of lead is often used in the analysis of
the ores of what are called the perfect metals.
- Parkes's Chemical Catechism.
LITHARGE is a preparation of lead, usually in
form of soft flakes, of a yellowish reddish color.
If calcined lead be urged with a hasty fire, it
melts into the appearance of oil; and, on cooling,
concretes into litharge. According to the degree
of fire and other circumstances, it proves of a
pale or deep color; the former called litharge of
silver, the latter litharge of gold.
LITHE, adj. ... Sax, alºe; Moeso-Goth.
LITH'ER, adj. $ litha, to bend. Flexible; lim-
ber; soft; pliant. -
When it was night, to slepe I laie,
Right as I was wont for to doen,
And fill aslepé wondir sone,
As he that was werie forgo
On pilgrimage milis two .*
To the corps of sainct Leonarde,
To makin lith that erst was harde, Chaucer.
- Thou antick death,
Two Talbots winged through the lither sky,
In thy despight shall 'scape mortality.
Shakspeare.
The unwieldy elephant,
To make them mirth, used all his might, and
wreathed
His lithe proboscis. Milton’s Paradise Lost.
LITHIATE, from Gr. Atôoc, a stone, a neu-
tral salt, formed by the combinations of the lithic
acid with various bases. See CHEMISTRY.
LITHIC ACID, an acid extracted from the
urinary calculus. See CIIEMISTRY.
LITHOGRAPHY, n. s." Gr. Auðoc, a stone.
LITH'oMANCY, Lithography is the
LITHONTRIPTIck, art of engraving or
LITHOT'omy, writing on stone:
LITHOT'om IST. lithomancy, Greek,
Atôog, a stone, and pavria, divination; predic-
tion by stones: lithontriptick, Fr. lithontriptique,
a medicine that dissolves stones in the kidneys
or bladder: lithotomy, Gr. Atôog and repºva, to
cut, the art or practice of cutting for the stone:
lithotomist, one who professes the art of extract-
ing stones from the bladder.
As strange must be the lithomancy, or divination,
from this stone, whereby Helenus the prophet fore-
told the destruction of Troy. Browne.
If it be certain that lithotomy is more likely to be
followed by the patient's recovery, when no manual
roughness is exercised, rapid operating must be con-
demned by the judicious and discerning.
- Dr. A. Rees.
LITHoGRAPHY is the art of taking impressions
from drawings made on stone. The general
process consists in drawing the design upon the
absorbent body with a soapy chalk, and in de-
composing this soapy design by an acid, which,
liberating the fatty matter present, greases the
stone where the design existed, or rather brings
it into such a state that, being wetted and then
rolled with the ink-roller, no ink will adhere
except at the parts underneath the original de-
sign. From this it will be obvious that the
process depends entirely on chemical principles,
and is thus distinct from letter-press or copper-
plate printing, which are altogether mechanical,
On this account it has in Germany been called
chemical printing; and, as metallic plates can be
prepared to be printed from in a similar manner,
lithography is considered only as a branch of
chemical printing.
Alois Senefelder may be considered as the in-
ventor of this beautiful art. His first professional
essays were executed in 1796. The difficulty
he experienced in writing backwards, led him
to the process of transfer, and the use of dry
soap, which was found to leave permanent traces,
which would give impressions, naturally led to
the mode of chalk-drawings. Having made consi-
derable improvements, Mr. Senefelder obtained,
in 1799, a patent privilege for Bavaria, when he
made known his process, and afterwards entered
into partnership with Mr. André, of Offenbach,
who proposed to establish presses, and take out
patents at London, Paris, and Vienna. For this
purpose Senefelder came to London with a
brother of André's, and the invention having
been much spoken of, under the name of poly-
autography, most of the principal English artists
made trials of it. Unfortunately, however, the
art of printing from the stones was not then fully
understood, and the difference between the ma-
terials of Germany and those of England, used
both for the purposes of drawing and printing,
caused constant failures, and the artists in suc-
cession abandoned the practice of it. To this
cause is to be attributed the unpopularity of li-
thography in England, as it was left entirely in
the hands of amateurs, whose productions, gene-
rally speaking, did no credit to the art, and
L I T H O G R A P H Y.
43
whose faults were in some degree supposed to
be those of the art itself. In August, 1800,
Senefelder, who had now separated from André,
went to Vienna, where, after much difficulty, a
patent was obtained, and extensive preparations
were made, for applying his process to print
cottons; but bad management, and some unfor-
tunate circumstances, prevented his success, and
he returned to Munich in 1806, leaving the
establishment in other hands.
Mr. Mitterer, professor of drawing at the
public school at Munich, now (1806), practised
lithography to multiply copies for the pupils,
and is said to have invented the chalk composi-
tion in its present form, or at least to have
improved it greatly. From this period the prac-
tice of the art has extended and improved rapidly,
and more particularly at Munich, where several
establishments were formed, for the purpose of
applying it to the fine arts, as well as for printing
writings and official forms, for the different de-
partments of the government.
In October, 1809, Senefelder was appointed
inspector of the Royal Lithographic Establish-
ment at Munich, for printing from stone a com—
plete map and survey of Bavaria, since which
period he has devoted his time to experiments,
and to writing the history of his invention.
Among other points of improvement, to which
his attention has been directed, is a substitute
for the stones, which are inconvenient to use on
account of their weight, and they are also liable
to break in the press, when used without due
caution, or when they contain flaws. For this
purpose he has made a composition of drying
oil, finely ground earth, and other substances,
which is thinly spread over pieces of parchment;
but it has not hitherto been found to answer.
The surface cracks after repeated wetting and
exposure to the power of the press, and the
printing ink is then taken in the cracks and
spoils the impressions. Thus a very small num-
ber only of good impressions can be obtained.
From the period of André's English patent,
till Mr. Hullmandel commenced his establish-
ment in London, but little progress was made in
this country; but that ingenious artist formed a
new era in lithography, and in many cases
English printing is now equal, if not superior, to
the continental works.
The principal operation in lithography con-
sists in impregnating astone with fatty substances,
very superficially, so that, in consequence of the
affinity which exists between these substances
and their power to repel water, the points or
lines formed with them on stone shall be capable
of retaining other such substances whenever they
are brought in contact with them; while these
substances will be repelled by the moisture
which the stone has imbibed in those parts which
they do not cover. Thus, when lines have been
made on a stone with lithographic ink, or crayons,
into the composition of which fatty bodies enter,
and afterwards a roller charged with a fat or
oily ink is passed over these stones, this ink will
be "aposited on the traces of the crayon, or of
the lithographic ink, in a thin layer, but sufficient
to produce an impression; whilst it will not ad-
here to any parts of the stone which are not
impregnated with the fatty matter; and which,
besides, are kept in a moist state. It is on this
point that all the art of lithography depends;
and it is only requisite, therefore, to discover
what substances, by a proper combination, can
be made most suitable to answer the double pur-
pose of producing a good drawing, and of re-
ceiving the ink, which is to form the impression.
It will be apparent that it is not a matter of in-
difference what kind of fatty substance is used
with which to form a drawing, or to trace a
writing, on the stone. These substances, in
their natural state, if brought into contact with a
stone, would diffuse themselves in every direc-
tion; and, consequently, would. not be capable
of forming points or lines sufficiently fine and
well defined, to give to a drawing the delicacy,
precision, and harmony, which it ought to have,
It is necessary, then, to find a liquid composition,
by which may be traced lines as clear and well
defined as those made on paper with Indian ink;
and also a solid preparation, which will produce
the same results as the common crayons used by
artists. Hitherto, it has only been possible to
effect this by forming a kind of soap, by the
combination of fatty or resinous substances
with an alkali. This soap, when liquid, does
not spread as grease and oils do; and, when in a
solid state, it has such a degree of consistency
as to enable the artist to produce upon stone all
the effects of a drawing. But as soapy bodies
are, in general, soluble in water, and as the
water with which it is necessary to moisten the
stone, and consequently the drawing, before
applying the printing-ink, would destroy the
drawing, by dissolving the soapy substance with
which it was formed, it was found necessary to
find a means of reducing this soap to the state
of a fatty body insoluble in water. This is
effected by spreading over the stone and over the
drawing an acid, which, by uniting with the alkali
of the soap, reduces the latter to the state of
grease. This operation is called the preparation.
Lithographic ink, if good, will be soluble in
distilled water, which is capable of perfectly
dissolving common soap. It ought to flow freely
from the pen, and not spread on the stone; it
must also be capable of forming extremely fine
lines, and should be very black, in order to
render the work of the artist perfectly clear and
distinct. The most essential quality, however,
is that of imbedding itself firmly in the stone, so
as to reproduce the most delicate touches of the
drawing, and to afford a great number of im-
pressions: in order to do this, it is necessary
that it should be capable of resisting the acid
which is spread over it in the preparation, so as
not to have its fatty particles either removed or
altered. A host of recipes, for making lithographic
ink and crayons, have been published, and
scattered both in Germany and France. M.
Senefelder, in his work, gives eight receipts for
making this drawing-ink; yet, assuredly, he has
not published that which he considers the best.
We think it superfluous to give these receipts,
as it would only serve to create uncertainty in
choosing from among them, and especially as
they are all considered more or less inferior to
the following:— -
44
L I T H O G R A P H Y.
Drachms.
Soap, from suet or tallow, dry 30
Mastic, in tears & º . 30
Soda of commeree . º 30
Shell-lac . * e 150.
Fine lamp-black . . .
Soap made of tallow is to be preferred to that
prepared from oil. But as soap is more or less
hard, according to its age and the dryness of
the situation in which it has been kept, it must
not be used in exactly the above proportions
with the other articles, without regard to its being
either moist or dry. To obviate this source of
error, and to obtain the exact proportions, the
soap should be cut with a knife into thin slices,
and exposed to the sun and air until it is perfectly
dry; it is then to be put into a box lined with
paper, and thus kept in a very dry place until it
is wanted for use. The best lamp-black, which
is the product of the combustion of resin,
should be used.
In order to melt these materials, a copper,
cast-metal skillet, should be used, which should
be furnished with a wooden handle; it will also
be found convenient for it to have a lip on
its edge, in order that the material may pass
more readily into the moulds, particularly when
crayons are to be made. The soap is first put
into this vessel, which is then to be placed over
a brisk fire in a chafing-dish; when this is
well melted the shell-lac is to be thrown in,
which will fuse very readily; the soda is then
to be added, a little at a time, and after this the
mastic, taking care to stir it with a spatula, fur-
nished with a wooden handle; lastly, the lamp-
black is gradually put in, stirring it between
every successive addition until the mixture is
complete. A very brisk fire is used that the
materials may be perfectly fused. The shell-lac
is apt to swell up; it is, therefore, put into the
skillet gradually that it may not boil over. When
all these materials are well incorporated, they
are poured out on a plate of cast-iron, made
very warm and rubbed over with oil, in order
that the composition may be easily detached from
it. Before the mass is poured on the plate,
ledges are formed round it with pieces of wood,
which serve to prevent the mass from running
off, and enable us to preserve it of an equal
thickness throughout ; when these pieces of
wood are removed, the composition is to be cut
into stripes by means of a knife, which should
be guided by a straight ruler; this must be done
whilst the composition is warm. Little sticks
are thus formed, similar to those of Indian ink;
it would, however, be more convenient to have
moulds in which to pour the composition.
Many who have written on the subject of li-
thography have recommended, not merely the
melting, but the partial burning of the materials
with which lithographic ink and crayons are to
be composed; but this is a bad method, since it
is impossible in this way always to obtain the
same combinations, as some portion of the ma-
terials would thus be wholly destroyed. The
means of obtaining good ink must depend on
the nature of the materials, and upon their being
duly proportioned to each other, and, to accom-
plish these ends, it is not necessary to have re-
course to combustion. t
The ink, of which we are about to give the
composition, is used either with the pen or the
camel's hair pencil, for writings, dotted, and
aquatinta drawings, those of a mixed character,
or those intended as imitations of wood or other
engravings. -
We proceed to describe, practically, the pro-
cess for preparing the autographic ink, or that
kind which is suitable for transferring to stone
the writings or drawings which have been exe-
cuted on paper, prepared for that purpose.
This ink ought to be mellow, and somewhat
thicker than that used immediately on the stone;
so that, when it is dry on the paper, it may still
be sufficiently viscous to cause it to adhere to
the stone by simple pressure. The following is
the manner of preparing the ink:—
Drachms.
Dry soap • & { } 100
White-wax, free from tallow 100
Mutton suet . º º . 50
Shell-lac - o o . 50
Mastic . e . 50
Lamp-black 30 to 35
These materials are to be melted in the way we
have described for lithographic ink.
The operation, by which a writing or drawing
is transferred from paper to stone, not only af-
fords the means of abridging labor, but also of
producing the writings or drawings in the same
direction in which they have been traced; where-
as, when they are executed immediately on stone,
they must be performed in a direction opposite
to that which they are eventually to have. Thus
it is necessary to draw those objects on the left,
which, in the impression, are to be on the right
hand. To acquire the art of reversing subjects,
when writing or drawing, is both difficult and
tedious; while by the aid of transparent, and of
autographic, paper, impressions' may be readily
obtained, in the same direction as that in which
the writing or the drawing has been made. In
order to make a transfer to stone of a writing or
drawing, in lithographic ink or in crayons, or
an impression from a copper-plate, it is neces-
sary, first, that the drawing, or transcript, should
be on a thin and flexible substance, such as com-
mon paper; secondly, that it should be capable of
being easily detached from this substance, and
transferred entirely to the stone, by means of
pressure. But as the ink with which a drawing
is traced penetrates the paper to a certain depth,
and adheres to it with considerable tenacity, it
would be difficult to detach them perfectly from
each other, if, between the paper and the draw-
ing, some substance were not interposed, which,
by the portion of water it is capable of imbibing,
should so far lessen their adhesion to each other,
that they may be completely separated in every
point. It is to effect this that the paper is pre-
pared, by covering it with a size, which may be
written on with facility, and on which the finest
lines may be traced, without blotting the paper.
Various means may be found of communicat-
ing this property to paper. The following pre-
paration is always found to succeed, and
L I T H O G R A P H Y.
45
when the operation is performed with the ne-
cessary precautions, admits of the finest and
most delicate lines being perfectly transferred,
without leaving the faintest trace on the paper.
For this purpose it is necessary to take a strong
unsized paper, and to spread over it a size, pre-
pared of the undermentioned materials:
Drachms.
Starch tº . . . 120
Gum Arabic & . . 40
Alum 21
A moderately thick paste is made with the
starch, by means of heat; into this paste is
thrown the gum arabic and the alum, which
have been previously dissolved in water, and in
separate vessels. The whole is mixed well toge-
ther; and it is applied warm to the sheets of
paper by means of a brush, or a large flat hair
pencil. The paper may be colored by adding
to the size a decoction of French berries, in the
proportion of ten drachms. After having dried
this autographic paper, it is put into a press, to
flatten the sheets; and they are made smooth
by placing them, two at a time, on a stone, and
passing them under the scraper of the lithogra-
phic press. If, on trying this paper, it is found
to have a tendency to blot, this inconvenience
may be remedied by rubbing it with finely pow-
dered gum sandarach. We give below another
receipt, which will be found equally useful; and
which has the advantage of being applicable to
thin paper, which has been sized. "It requires
only that the paper be of a firm texture.
Drachms.
Gum tragacanth e ... 4
German glue , . º ... 4
Spanish white . tº ... 8
Starch te ſº e ... 4
The tragacanth is to be put into a large quan-
tity of water, to dissolve, thirty-six hours before
it is mixed with the other materials. The glue
is to be melted over the fire in the usual manner.
A paste is made with the starch; and after hav-
ing, whilst warm, mixed these several ingre-
dients, the Spanish white is to be added to them,
and a layer of this sizing is to be spread over
the paper, as already described: taking care to
agitate the mixture with the brush, to the bottom
of the vessel, that the Spanish white may be
equally distributed throughout the liquid.
We must not omit to notice two autographic
processes which facilitate and abridge this kind
of work, when it is desired to copy a facsimile,
or a drawing in lines. The first of these methods
is to trace, with autographic ink, any subject
whatever, on a transparent paper, which is free
from grease and resin; like that which is known in
commerce by the name of papier vegetal; and,
to transfer it to stone, this paper is to be covered
with a transparent size; this operation is very
difficult to execute, and requires much address,
in consequence of the great tendency which this
paper has to cockle or wrinkle when it is wetted.
Great facilities will be found from using tissue
paper impregnated with a fine white varnish, and
afterwards sized over. In the second process,
transparent leaves, formed of gelatin or fish glue,
are employed; and the design is traced on them
with the dry-point, so as to make an incision;
these traces are to be filled up with autographic
ink, and thence transferred.
The German artists principally make use of
various tints, which are added to the original
black and white impression. This mode of
printing has been rarely adopted in this country;
but, when employed with judgment, is capable
of producing very beautiful effects. We may
illustrate this by reference to a chalk drawing
done in the common manner: when finished,
an impression of this drawing is thrown on a
polished stone, and a transparent coating of a
waxy substance laid over the impression thus
transferred. In this state it is sent to the artist,
who must scrape away this waxy coating where-
ever he wishes white lights to appear. To pro-
duce a good effect, in this way, requires some
judgment; the lights must never be scraped out
too broad, for the impressions will have a snowy
appearance, which will be very disagreeable, the
effect must rather be produced by small scratches
close to one another, it being well borne in mind
that half tints of white cannot be scraped out.
Every line scraped will be positive light; but
the effect of half tints must be produced by the
fineness of the lines, and not by the more or less
scraping of the waxy coating. In scraping, the
artist must feel that he has actually removed the
waxy coating, and that the tool has touched the
face of the stone, if not, the intended light will
not tell, and the scraping becomes useless. For
imitating the rough touches of white chalk, it is
a very good plan to jag (by striking with a knife)
the edge of the tool used in scraping. With such
a tool, a ruggedness will be given to the scrap-
ing, which could not be easily imitated in any
other manner; but, unless they are scraped with
art, these lights will have a heavy and mechanical
look in the printing.
There is another method of executing the tint
plates, which some persons prefer : it is as fol-
lows. After the printer has thrown off an im-
pression of the drawing on a polished stone,
instead of laying on a waxy mixture, the stone
is sent to the artist, who lays on gum water over
all those parts which are intended to be white;
a margin of gum must also be added, and the
rest is done by the printer. "
Lithographic chalk should have the qualities
of a good drawing crayon, it should be even in
texture and carry a good point. It is, however,
difficult to avoid making it too soft and greasy
on the one hand, and too brittle on the other.
For the chalk, as for the ink, more or less of the
soap, wax, and tallow, may be used, as the ex-
tent of the burning may render necessary, and
the remedies pointed out for defects of the ink
will enable the operator to judge of what is
wanting.
The following proportions are the best:
Ounces.
Common soap . . . 13
Tallow º * e ... 2
Virgin wax 2}
Shilia. . . . . .
The manipulation is similar to that for the ink.
It is well, however, to throw in a little of the
46
L I T H O G R A P H Y.
wax just before the flame is extinguished. Less
black must be mixed with the chalk than
with the ink, its only use being to color the
drawing, so that the artist may see the lines he
traceS. -
When the whole is well mixed, it should be
poured into a mould, and very strongly pressed
to prevent any bubbles, which would make the
texture irregular.
We may now furnish some useful information
relative to the kind of stone to be employed in
lithography. The country adjacent to that
wherein lithography originated is abundantly
provided with stones suited to this art. There
are immense quarries of it, disposed in layers,
along the Danube, in the country of Pappenheim,
and in several other spots. The principal quarries
worked are at a village called Solenhofen. Every
one admitting the existence of a first cause, must
believe that Providence, who destined to this
age the invention of an art favorable to the pro-
gress of civilisation, had formed a considerable
mass of stones ready prepared for the service of
lithography. They are, in fact, found disposed
in layers of one, two, three, or more inches in
thickness, in such a manner that it is merely ne-
cessary to raise them from the quarries, and to
cut them into convenient sizes, their thickness
being equal throughout in each strata. Nature,
who acknowledges neither privilege nor mono-
poly, has distributed the same benefit amongst
other countries also, though in a way less strik-
ing. Lithographic stones are found in France,
Italy, Prussia, Britain, Spain, and in the United
States. Researches made with greater care would
undoubtedly discover them in a great number of
places. All the lithographers of Paris make use,
almost exclusively, of the stones from Gérmany.
The reason of this is, that the French quarries
have been badly worked, either from want of funds
or ignorance. The first masses which presented
themselves on the superficial strata have been
employed; these stones are full of hollows, veins,
or other defects, though otherwise of a good
quality, being harder than those of Solenhofen.
Those of the first quality, from Germany, are
preferred for designs in crayons; those found in
commerce are not all equally good. The fol-
lowing are the properties which denote the good-
ness of a lithographic stone.
White stones are generally inferior to other
kinds, being less durable. Those of a yellowish,
or rather a grayish tint, are to be preferred on
account of their durability, and because their
grain is generally most equal. Those which are
covered with points, or little whitish parts resem-
bling vermicella, ought to be altogether rejected,
especially when it is necessary to make delicate
drawings in crayon; as the marblings or shades
of different colors deceive the eye of the artist,
and prevent his giving to his work that effect
and harmony which it ought to have. The strata
with stripes of a more transparent tint than the
rest of the stone ought to be rejected, not only
because they are liable to split, but because they
take the ink more readily in those parts, and
leave the traces of it more strongly upon the de-
signs. Stones, however, are met with, which
have fine lines, or threads of a brownish hue,
which do not present any impediments to the
success of the artist.
Stones which are hard and homogeneous ac-
quire a more equal surface, and are better adapted
to the harmony of the tints; they give a greater
number of impressions without clogging, and
furnish proofs more clear and brilliant, whilst
the contrary is the case with those which are
softer; the durability of a stone may be ascer-
tained by scratching it with the point of a knife,
Those which are soft retain with more difficulty
the traces of the design in the light touches;
they clog more readily, and consequently afford
a smaller number of impressions. The metallic
pen cuts them easily, which produces a clogging,
and prevents the ink from flowing. The grain
of these stones is always coarse and unequal.
Those which have holes, or those which are un-
equal in their grain or in their hardness, present
the same inconvenience; they check the point
of the pen when employed in imitating line
engraving, and do not admit of the artist giving
clearness and neatness to his work. The soft
parts being also more easily acted on by the
acid are corroded, and injure the parts of the
design with which they have been covered.
Stones which have any defect whatever, ought
never to be used for the crayon, with which it is
necessary to draw with particular care; they
are therefore generally used for works in ink.
The thickness of the stones is immaterial, pro-
vided they are not too thin; for in this case
there is a risk of breaking them in the operation
of printing. Their thickness ought to be pro-
portioned to their surface; the smallest should not
be less than an inch, when thicker they have the
advantage of serving for a considerable number of
designs; but they are very inconvenient when it
is desired to remove or export them. It some-
times happens that a stone, the surface of which
presents all the qualities which have just been
spoken of, and which has succeeded well in the
impressions of one or more copies, is found to
be bad in the succeeding impressions.
The stones proper for lithography are com-
posed of lime, argil, and silex. The first of
these substances predominates, the third is found
in very small quantity. A stone entirely cal-
careous does not answer for lithography, as has
been proved by the marble of Carrara; the
crayon and ink adhere to this stone with diffi-
culty, and are readily effaced from it; the lines
and the shades in a great measure disappear.
One of the most certain indications of lithogra-
phical properties is the conchoidal fracture. All
stones of this kind will be found good if they
are also hard, and have all the fineness of grain
and homogeneousness of texture which are
necessary.
The mode of polishing them must next be ad-
verted to. Polishing is an operation by means
of which a uniform and flat surface, and a polish
more or less high, is given to the stone, according
to the different kind of design or of work for
which it is intended. The care and precision
with which this first preparation of the stone is
effected, are not of less importance to the execu-
tion of the design than to that of the impression.
A stone, the grain of which is unsuitable for the
L I. T H O G. R. A. P. H. Y.
47
crayon, will not allow the artist to regulate his
tints, and to give them harmony; when he works
in ink, or with the dry point, he will meet with
other obstacles if the polish of the stone be not
perfect; and in each case his drawings will be
defective; but they will be more so, if in the
surface of the stone there are undulations, hol-
lows, stripes, &c. Stones are polished with sand,
by rubbing them one on the other. The best
sand for this purpose is that, quartzose sand
which is fine and hard-grained. In Paris they
in general make use of a yellow sand, which,
though fine, requires to be sifted. It is neces-
sary to be very careful that the sand which is
used be not mixed with gravel or any sharp
angular substance, which would form stripes on
the stones, the hollows of which would not
receive the printing-ink, and there would conse-
quently be white marks on the impressions.
This serious evil is avoided by sifting the sand
before it is used, and by rubbing the upper
stone slowly at the commencement of the oper-
ation, and occasionally turning it round upon
the lower stone.
The kind of design for which a stone is in-
tended determines the kind of polish which
should be given to it. A work in which the
crayon is used cannot be executed unless the
stone have a grain left upon it; all other kinds
of drawing require surfaces which have the polish
of marble. Whether we wish to employ a fresh
stone, or to renew one which has been already
used, it must equally undergo the process of
polishing. For this purpose it is placed on a
table; a little sand is very equally sifted over it,
which is moistened with a very little water. On
the first stone is placed a second, as nearly as
possible of the same dimensions, and the upper
one is rubbed about in a direction nearly circu-
lar, but drawing it successively towards the four
corners, and continually changing the relative
position of the stones, so that every part of their
surfaces may be subjected to an equal degree of
friction. If this be neglected, and the stones be
pressed on each other, and the circular motion
be always the same, hollows will be formed, and
uneven surfaces produced; and these irregulari-
ties will show themselves in the impressions. It
is easy to ascertain, by means of a straight line,
whether the stone be well levelled.
At first the motion should be slow, and the
pressure trifling, the rapidity of the one and the
force of the other increasing as the sand becomes
equally distributed. When the sand becomes
reduced to a paste, it no longer acts upon the
stone; fresh sand must be taken until the stone
be perfectly smooth, and there no longer remain
on it the traces of any former design. The ink
which formed this design may have been made
to disappear without our having removed the
source of its reproduction. This cause exists
in the particles of the fatty substance of the
crayon, or of the ink, which have penetrated be-
low the surface of the stone, and which, being
again brought in contact with the printing-ink,
will retain it, and reproduce part of the old de-
sign. It may be known that this cause exists,
when it is perceived that in the wet stone there
are light traces of the former drawing. It is
then necessary to eontinue the rubbing until
these have entirely disappeared. The aquafortis
employed in the preparation of the stone for
printing will, by itself, produce this effect when
the traces are very superficial. It should be
remarked, that, of two stones of the same size,
the lower becomes polished sooner than the
upper one. To avoid this it is only necessary
to change their position. ,
J. In order to produce, on a stone intended for a
drawing on crayon, the grain which it ought to
have, it is necessary, after having treated it as we
have just described, to sprinkle and rub it again
with fine sand, which, by the friction it produces,
may be made to give the desired grain. When
it is wished to obtain a coarse grain, the stone is
rubbed for a less space of time with the sand,
this being also renewed more frequently: but
the rubbing with the same sand is prolonged
when a very fine surface is required. This rub-
bing, however, should not be continued too long,
or the grain which has been produced will be
destroyed. The state of the grain may be judged
of by blowing briskly on the surface of the stone,
on which has been placed a little water, and
then examining its plane by looking at it in an
oblique direction. -
When stones intended for drawings in ink, or
with other materials fit for lithography, are to
have a very high polish given to them, the pro-
cedure is the same as that we have just described,
excepting only, that, after having produced a fine
grain on the surface, the rubbing is continued
with the same sand reduced to a thin paste,
taking care to wet the stones when the adhesion
between them becomes so great as to prevent
them moving freely. The workman, when he
discontinues his labor, should not leave the
stones in this state, as they would adhere, and
could then be separated only by keeping them
in a vessel full of water.
The stones, having acquired by the operation
described a certain degree of polish, are well
washed, in order to remove the grains of sand,
which might produce scratches; a fine polish is
then to be given to them by means of pumice-
stone. This polishing is effected on one stone at
a time, by rubbing it with a large piece of
pumice-stone after it has been slightly moistened.
The rubbing should be in a straight line, some-
times in one direction and sometimes in the
opposite, passing successively over all parts of
the surface of the stone. By this rubbing with
the pumice-stone, and the white paste which it
produces, only adding water enough to preserve
a slight degree of moisture, the beautiful polish
of marble is produced. It is afterwards neces-
sary to wash the stone in a considerable quan-
tity of water, rubbing it with the hand, or with
a cloth entirely free from grease, and thus to
remove any particles of matter, which, by their
position on the surface of the stone, would pre-
sent a substance intermediate between the surface
and the drawing, which would prevent the adhe-
sion of the latter.
Three kinds of grain may be given to stones,
the coarse, the middling, and the fine. The first
produces designs, the proofs of which have not
the finish and delicacy of those which are ob.
48
L 1 T H O G R A P H Y.
tained on the two others. The second ought in
every case to be preferred, for it possesses all the
properties, requisite for beauty of execution,
although the proofs which it produces have not
an appearance quite so soft and mellow as those
from stones with the finest grain. But these last
have the great disadvantage of soon losing the
delicacy of the design, of clogging readily, and
consequently of affording much fewer proofs.
In every case it is necessary that the grain should
be smooth and uniform over the whole surface
of the stone, otherwise the lines traced by the
Crayon will be found nearer to each other, or
more strongly marked in some places than in
others; the proofs, in reproducing the same de-
fects, will be found without harmony and without
effect.
When it is intended to execute very beautiful
designs, it is necessary to reject the stones which
are too soft; those which have hollows; those
whose texture is softer in particular spots than
in the general mass; those which are not of
equal thickness, and which have inequalities in
their upper surfaces; those, in short, which are
not of a good quality and well polished.
A last precaution is, to preserve the grained
or polished stones under cover, to protect them
from the air and the dust, and not to touch them
with the hand, or any greasy substance, on that
side which is to be worked upon. They are
preserved by wrapping them up carefully in an
envelope of white paper. To prevent the stone
being soiled by the hand, with which it is very
likely to come in contact, Mr. Hullmandel, in
his admirable work on Lithography, recommends
the use of a rest, A B, fig. , which supports the
hand, and is furnished with a slider K, which
may be tightened by a screw d, at any required
point. The smaller diagram represents the
moveable rest taken from its place, with the sup-
porting plane i i. •
As, in graining the stone, a portion of dust will
always remain on its surface, notwithstanding
the washing previously performed by the work-
man, this dust existing between the chalk of the
stone itself, will hinder many portions of the
pencil from adhering properly, and thereby
occasion some of the tints to be rotten. It is
prudent, consequently, on the part of the
draughtsman, either to wash the stone well in
pure water, or to rub the face with a piece of
clean flannel, and afterwards to brush off the
dust: great care must be taken not to begin the
drawing until the stone be perfectly dry. These
directions refer solely to grained stones, polished
stones requiring a mere wiping with a clean
cloth or brush.
As it is very difficult to alter any part of a
drawing, and it is almost always necessary to
execute it reversed on the stone, in order that it
might print the right way, it is requisite to have
a correct outline. If any parts be made out on
the stone with a lead pencil, it must be drawn
with a very hard one, and the line must be ex-
tremely fine and delicate; otherwise, if a thick
line be drawn, the portions of lead existing
between the face of the stone and the chalk will
hinder the latter from adhering, and a white line
will appear where the lead pencil had been
applied. The best method to follow is this —
having made a correct outline of the subject on
paper, take some French tracing paper (never
use in any case oiled or varnished paper), and
place a piece over the outline; as this paper is
transparent, the whole drawing will be seen
through. You may now trace an outline either
with a soft lead pencil (if a chalk drawing is
intended), or with red chalk (if an ink drawing).
This outline, when completed, must be placed
on the stone true and square, another thick piece
of paper placed over the whole, and this latter
piece well rubbed (without shifting) at the back,
with a piece of ivory, or the handle of a knife,
when the entire outline will be found to be trans-
ferred, reversed on the stone. • - " .
We have stated above that the outline on the
French tracing-paper must be made with red
chalk, if an ink drawing is the object; because
black-lead, however soft, comes off with great
difficulty on a polished stone, whereas red chalk
comes off very easily.
The method given above is very convenient
when the subjects are small; but, when they are
above eight or nine inches in length, and accu-
racy is required, it is unsafe to follow it, because
the paperextends by rubbing, and a double, or at
least a thick and blurred outline, is the conse-
quence. When the drawing is large, the tracing-
paper must be placed over the original outline,
and the lines drawn with a pen and Indian or
common ink, and the upper face (of this tracing),
or side on which the ink lies, be rubbed over
with a piece of cotton and black lead, or red
chalk; the overplus of the dust must then be well
shaken off, and the face of the paper thus rubbed
laid on the stone, so that the ink outline (which
is clearly seen through) may be the reverse of the
original; these lines must be carefully gone over
with a blunt etching needle, when a pure outline
will be found traced on the stone. As soon as
the lines have all been gone over, the paper may
be pulled up, and the face of the stone, being well
brushed, is ready to be commenced upon with
the drawing.
In order to copy the drawing, so that it may
be reversed, the best method is to place the ori-
ginal drawing at the foot of, and before, a look-
ing glass, and copy from the glass instead of
consulting the drawing. In placing the draw-
ing upon the stone, it is very important to recol-
lect that a space or margin, of at least half an
inch, and more if possible, must be left between
the extremities of the drawing and the edge of
the stone, and a still larger space left at the bot-
tom than at the top of the drawing, in order to
have room for the writing, if any is il,tended to
be placed under the subject; for, unless this be
attended to, the drawing cannot be printed, and
the whole labor of the artist is lost. It happens,
however, that some stones have small black veins,
like hair lines, which run across them, as well as
other little imperfections. The artist ought,
therefore, always to take these defects (if exist-
ing) into consideration, when he puts his tracing
on the stone; for often the drawing may be so
placed that these black veins (which are apt to
print) are lost in the dark tints of the foreground:
or if there are detached and separate subjects on
:

L I T H O G. R. A. P. H. Y.
49
the stone, he may place these so that the veins
shall come between them, as in this case they
are of little consequence: or else, if the stone is
large enough to allow it, there is no absolute
necessity to place the drawing in the middle;
but it may be made on one side so as to avoid
the veins, &c.
The drawing, being finished on the stone,
is sent to the lithographic printer, on whose
knowledge of his art the success of the impres-
sions entirely depends. The first process is to
etch the drawing, as it is called. This is done
by placing the stone obliquely on one edge over
a trough, and pouring over it very dilute nitric
acid. It is poured on the upper part of the stone,
and runs down all over the surface. The stone
is then turned, and placed on the opposite edge,
and the etching water, being collected from the
trough, is again poured over it in the same man-
ner. The degree of strength, which is little more
than one per cent. of acid, should be such as to
produce a very slight effervescence; after the
etching water has lain on the stone for a second
or two its strength must vary according to the
heat of the atmosphere, and the degree of fineness
of the drawing. It is desirable to pass the etch-
ing water two or three times over the darkest
parts of the drawing, as they require more etch-
ing than the lighter tints. Some stones, also,
and different chalks, require different degrees of
strength of the acid, and experience alone can
guide the lithographer in his practice upon this
point. Chalk drawings require weaker acid. than
the ink ones. -
The stone is now carefully washed by pouring
clean rain-water over it, and afterwards with
gum-water: and, when not too wet, the roller,
charged with printing-ink, is rolled over it in
both directions, sideways, and from top to bot-
tom, till the drawing takes the ink. It is then
well covered over with a solution of gum-arabic
in water, of about the consistency of oil. This is
allowed to dry, and preserves the drawing from
any alteration, as the lines cannot spread, in con-
sequence of the pores of the stone being filled
with the gum. After the etching, it is desirable
to leave the stone for a day, and best not to leave
it more than a week, before it is printed from.
In some establishments a few proofs are taken
immediately after the drawing is etched, but it is
better not to do so.
The operation of the etching requires great
nicety, and must be done quickly. If the draw-
ing is etched too strongly, the fine tints disappear;
if too weakly, the printing-ink mixes with the
darker parts, and the drawing runs into blots.
A soft stone requires weaker acid than a hard
one, if they are equally pure in quality. The dif-
ferences in the compositions of the stones also
require differences in the strength of the etching
water, so that no strict rules can be given. The
effect of the etching is, first, to take away the
alkali mixed with the drawing chalk, or ink,
which would make the drawing liable to be af-
fected by the water; and, secondly, to make the
stone refuse more decidedly to take any grease.
The gum assists in this latter process, and is
quite essential to the perfect preparation of the
surface of the stone.
Vol. XIII.
An experiment has lately been made to take
off impressions from plants by lithographic print-
ing. A specimen of Sibthorpia Europaea, which
was gathered several years ago in Cornwall, was
covered with lithographic ink and impressed on
a stone, from which stone several impressions
were afterwards taken. The experiment was not
so successful as was wished, but still promised
to be beneficial in leading to the means of mul-
tiplying copies of the impressions of plants,
much more accurate, in some respects, than a
drawing can be expected to be.
The press formerly employed in the litho-
graphic process, was exceedingly complicated ;
and, like the early German presses, but little
adapted to the higher branches of the art. This
cumbersome apparatus has now, however, been
materially simplified by Messrs. Taylor and Mar-
tineau, to whom the public have been some time
indebted for an improved typographical press.
Messrs. Taylor and Martineau's press is faith-
fully represented in plate LITHoGRAPHY, fig. 1;
and its arrangement may be best understood by
reference to the various parts lettered in the
engraving. w
The cast iron uprights aa form the sides of the
press, and are firmly attached to the base and
table beneath. The carriage b, with its stone
c, slide upon the railway dd, the former being
supported by small rollers, which considerably
diminish the friction that might otherwise arise
from the weight of a large stone. A stong handle,
e, is attached to the roller f, by means of which
motion is given to the carriage. The scraper, g,
is depressed by means of a spiral placed at the
extremity of the handle, h; and, as the scraper is
only in operation upon the narrow line with
which it is immediately in contact, the entire
force exerted upon every part of its surface is as
great as in a press requiring more than several
hundred times the power. represents the tym-
pan, and the regulating screw, k, is employed to
adjust the press to the various stones that may
be required in the different branches of this art.
The number of impressions which can be
taken from a chalk drawing will vary according
to the fineness of the tints. A fine drawing will
give 400 or 500; a strong one from 1000 to 1500.
Ink drawings and writings give considerably
more than copper-plates. The finest will give
6000 or 8000, and strong lines and writings
many more. Upwards of 80,000 impressions
have been taken at Munich from one writing of
a form for regimental returns.
LITHOMANCY, LITHOMANTIA, in antiquity,
a species of divination performed with stones.
Sometimes the stone called siderites was used ;
this they washed in spring water in the night, by
candle-light; the person that consulted it was to
be purified from all Inanner of pollution, and to
have his face covered: this done, he repeated
certain prayers, and placed certain characters in
an appointed order; and then the stone moved
of itself, and in a soft gentle murmur, or in a
voice like that of a child, returned an answer.
LITHONTRIPTICK. See. MEDIcINE.
LITHOPHYTA, the name of Linnaeus's third
order of vermes. See ZooLogy.
LITIIOSPERMUM, gromwell, a genus of
4.
LIT
LIT
50
the monogynia order, and pentandria class of
plants: coſt. funnel-shaped, the throat perforated
and naked: CAL. Quinquepartite. There are
several species; but the only remarkable ones
are these: 1. L. arvense, the bastard alkanet,
grows in corn fields. 2. L. officinale, the com-
mon gromwell,. grows in a dry gravelly soil.
The seeds are reputed to be of service in calcu-
lous cases. Grew says that they have so much
earth in their composition, that they effervesce
with acids; but if this is the case it must be at-
tributed rather to an alkaline than an earthy
uality. Both are natives of Britain. -
LITHOSTROTION, in natural history, a
species of fossil coral, composed of a great num-
ber of long and slender columns, sometimes
round, sometimes angular, jointed nicely to one
another, and of a starry radiated surface at their
tops. These are found in considerable quanti-
ties in the northern and western parts of this
kingdom, sometimes in single, sometimes in
complex specimens.
LITHOSTROTON, among the Romans, was
a pavement of Mosaic work, consisting of small
pieces of cut marble of different kinds and
colors. The lithostrota began to be used in the
time of Sylla, who made one at Praeneste in the
temple of Fortune. At last they were used in
private houses; and were brought to such per-
fection, that they exhibited most lively repre-
sentations of nature, with all the exactness of
painting.
LITHoToMY. See SURGERY.
LITHUANIA is the former name of an ex-
tensive tract of country lying between Poland
and Prussia (annexed to Poland in the fourteenth
century), and now forming the three Russian
governments of Wilna, Grodno, and Minsk. It
was divided into two parts, called Samogitia
and Lithuania Proper. Lithuania Proper was
formerly divided into the palatinates of Troki
and Wilna. It is flat and sandy, and intersected
by vast marshes and bogs, and covered with im-
mense pine, oak, and elm forests. Here bears,
wolves, and wild boars, abound; and the urus,
or wild ox, is sometimes found. Immense quan-
tities of pot-ash and pearl-ash are annually pro-
duced from these woods; and honey is collected
in great abundance. In some of the bogs is
found an ochre which gives forty per cent. of
tolerably good iron, copper, pyrites, petrifac-
tions, yellow amber, and the remains of marine
animals. The pasturage is excellent in particu-
lar districts, and the cattle of a better breed than
in Russia; and buck-wheat, is raised in prefer-
ence to any other. The Lithuanians are a slug-
gish race, and their appearance is generally very
squalid. Their dress is a coarse shirt, covered
by a woollen cloak or drawers, and sometimes
merely a sheepskin. Their shoes are made of
bark, and the harness of their horses of the more
flexible branches of trees.
LITIGANT, n.s. & adj. Lat. litigo, to
LiT'IGATE, v. a. & v. n. I strive ; Fr. litigans,
LITIGATION, n.s. { litigieut. One en-
LITIG'IOUs, adj. . ſgaged in a law suit:
LITIG'IOUSLY, adv. judicially contest-
Litig'IousNESS, n.s. Jing: to litigate is
to urge or manage a suit: litigious, disposed to
litigation in the legal or any other sense; also
(obsolete) disputable; controvertible. •
In litigious and controverted causes, the will of
God is to have them to do whatsoever the sentence
of judicial and final decision shall determine.
Hooker.
Soldiers find wars, and lawyers find out still
Litigious men, who quarrels move. JDonne.
The cast litigant sits not down with one cross ver-
dict, but recommences his suit. Decay of Piety.
And by that we shall know who are the litigants
that like the two sons of Rebecca strive within us.
- Jeremy Taylor.
Never one clergyman had experience of both liti-
gations, that hath not confessed, he had rather have
three suits in Westminster Hall, than one in the
arches. Clarendon.
No fences parted fields, nor marks, nor bounds,
Distinguished acres of litigious grounds.
Dryden's Georgics.
The litigants tear one another to pieces for the
benefit of some third interest. L’Estrange's Fables.
His great application to the law had not infected
his temper with anything positive or litigious.
- Addison,
The appellant, after the interposition of an ap-
peal, still litigates in the same cause.
- Ayliffe's Parergon.
Judicial acts are those writings and matters which
relate to judicial proceedings, and are sped in open
court at the instance of one or both of the parties
litigant. Id.
Dar'st thou still litigate thy desp'rate cause,
Spite of these numerous, awful witnesses, -
And doubt the deposition of the skies 3 Young.
LITMUS, or LACMUs, in the arts, a blue pig-
ment, formed from archil. It is brought from
Holland at a cheap rate; but may be prepared
by adding quicklime and spirit of urine to the
archil, previously bruised by grinding. The
mixture having cooled, and the fluid evaporated,
becomes a mass of the consistence of a paste,
which is laid on boards to dry in square lumps.
It is only used in miniature paintings, and can-
not be well depended on, because the least ap-
proach of acid changes it instantly from blue to
red. The best litmus is very apt to change and
fly. See ARCHIL.
LITTER, n. S. & v. a. Fr. litiere. A sedan
or portable bed; the straw bed of animals or
plants; the brood or young of one litter or bed:
and (from beds of straw apparently) to strew
things carelessly about : any number of things
carelessly strewed.
To my litter strait;
Weakness possesseth me.
- Shakspeare. King Jolim.
To crouch in litter of your stable planks.
Shakspeare.
Then was this island,
Save for the son that she did litter here,
A freckled whelp, hag-born, not honoured with
A human shape. - Id. Tempest.
I do here walk before thee like a sow that hata
overwhelmed all her litter but one. Shakspeare.
He was carried on a rich chariot litter-wise, with
two horses at each end. Bacon’s New Atlantis.
The whelps of bears are, at first littering, withou.
all form or fashion. Halewill on Providence.
- The drowsy frighted steeds,
That draw the bitter of close-curtained sleep.
Milton.
LIT
LIT
51
We might conceive that dogs were created blind,
because we observe they were littered so with us.
º Browne.
He found a stall where oxen stood,
But for his ease well littered was the floor.
Dryden.
Here modest matrons in soft litters driven
In solemn pomp appear. Id. Æneid.
Fruitful as the sow that carried
The thirty pigs at one large litter farrowed.
Id. Juvenal.
A wolf came to a sow, and very kindly offered to
take care of her litter. L’Estrange.
Reflect upon that numerous litter of strange,
senseless opinions, that crawl about the world.
- - South.
Take off the litter from your kernel beds.
- Evelyn.
Strephon, who found the room was void,
Stole in, and took a strict survey
Of all the litter as it lay. Swift.
They found
The room with volumes littered round. Id.
The LITTER, lectica, was carried upon shafts,
and was anciently esteemed the most easy and
elegant kind of carriage. Du Cange derives the
word from the barbarous Latin lecteria, straw or
bedding for beasts: others from lectus, a bed;
there being ordinarily a quilt and a pillow to a
litter in the same manner as to a bed. Pliny
calls the litter the traveller's chamber: it was
much in use among the Romans, among whom
it was carried by slaves kept for that purpose;
as it still continues to be in the east, where it is
called a palanquin. The Roman lectica, made
to be carried by four men, was called tetrapho-
rum; that by six, hexaphorum; and that by
eight, octaphorum. The invention of litters, ac-
cording to Cicero, was owing to the kings of
Bithynia: in the time of Tiberius they were be-
come very frequent at Rome, as appears from
Seneca; and even slaves were carried in them,
though never by more than two persons.
LITTLE, adj., n.s. & adv. Sax. lycel;
LIT'TLENESS, n. s. ; Goth. litill, litt;
Swed. lyt, comparative LESS, superlative LEAST,
which see. Small in bulk, or extent of space
or time; not much; not many; some : hence
of small power, dignity, or importance: as a
substantive, a small space, part, or affair: as
an adverb, small in degree or quantity: little-
ness is smallness (of any kind); meanness.
Nyle thou ghit drynke watir, but use a litil wyn
for the stomak and for thin ofte fallynge ynfirmytees.
Wiclif. 1 Tymo. v.
The coast of Dan went out too little for them.
Joshua, xix.
When thou wast little in thine own sight, wast
thou not made the head of the tribes 7
1 Sam. xv. 17.
A little sleep, a little slumber, a little folding of the
hands to sleep; so shall poverty come upon thee.
Proverbs.
And at the last a path of litel brede
I found, that gretly had not usid be,
For it forgrowin was with grass and wede,
That well unne this a wight might it se. Chaucer.
It is done by little and little, and with many es-
says ; but all this dischargeth not the wonder.
Bacom’s Natural History.
All trying, by a love of littleness,
To make abridgments, and to draw to less
Even that nothing which at first we were.
* - Donne.
Finding him little studious, she chose rather to en-
due him with conversative qualities of youth; as,
dancing and fencing. Wotton.
If we find but a little pleasure in our life, we are
ready to dote upon it. Bp. Hall's Contemplations.
All that is past ought to seem little to thee, be-
cause it is so in itself. Taylor's Guide to Devotion.
He was a very little gentleman.
And now in little space
The confines met.
- By sad experiment I know
How little weight my words with thee can find.
Id.
The poor sleep little. - Otway.
By freeing the precipitated matter from the rest by
filtration, and diligently grinding the white precipi-
tate with water, the mercury will little by little be
gathered into drops. - Boyle.
Much in little was writ; and all conveyed
With cautious care, for fear to be betrayed.
Clarendow.
Milton.
Dryden.
They have much of the poetry of Maecenas, but
little of his liberality. Id.
As if 'twere little from their town to chase,
I through the seas pursued their exiled race. Id.
His son, being then very little, I considered only
as wax, to be moulded as one pleases. Locke.
There are many expressions, which, carrying with
them no clear ideas, are like to remove but little of
my ignorance. Id.
I leave him to reconcile these contradictions,
which may plentifully be found in him, by any one
who will but read with a little attention. Id.
One would have all things little; hence has tryed
Turkey poults, fresh from the egg, in batter fryed.
King.
We may suppose a great many degrees of littleness
and lightness in these earthy particles, so as many
of them might float in the air. Burnet.
The English and French, in verse, are forced to
raise their language with metaphors, by the pompous-
ness of the whole phrase, to wear off any littleness that
appears in the particular parts. Addison.
I view with anger and disdain,
How little gives thee joy or pain:
A print, a bronze, a flower, a root. Prior.
The angelick grandeur, by being concealed, does
not awaken our poverty, nor mortify our littleness so
much, as if it was always displayed. Collier.
Where there is too great a thinness in the fluids,
subacid substances are proper, though they are a
little astringent. Arbuthnot.
These they are fitted for, and little else. Cheyne.
A little learning is a dangerous thing:
Drink deep, or taste not the Pierian spring.
Pope.
Several clergymen, otherwise little fond of obscure
terms, yet in their sermons were very liberal of all
those which they find in ecclesiastical writers.
Swift.
The received definition of names should be changed
as little as possible. Watts's Logick.
As man was made for glory and for bliss,
All littleness is in approach to woe. Young.
The great art of life is to play for much, and stake
little. Johnson.
LITTLE (William), an ancient English his-
torian, called also Gulielmus Neuburgensis,
born at Bridlington in Yorkshire, in 1136; and
E
LIT,
2 LIT
O
*
educated in the abbey of Newborough, where he
became a monk. In his advanced years, he
wrote a history of England, in five books, from .
the Norman conquest to A.D. 1197; which, for
veracity, regularity of disposition, and purity of
language, is one of the most valuable productions
of that period. -
LITTLETON (Adam), an eminent lexicogra-
pher, descended from an ancient family in
Shropshire. He was born in 1627, educated at
Westminster school, and went to Oxford, a stu-
dent of Christ Church, whence he was ejected,
by the parliament's visitors, in 1648. Soon
after he became usher of Westminster school;
and, in 1648, was made second master. After
the Restoration he kept a school at Chelsea, of
which church he was admitted rector in 1664.
In 1670 he took his degrees in divinity, being
then chaplain to Charles II. In 1674 he be-
came prebendary of Westminster, of which he
was afterwards subdean. Besides the well known
Latin and English Dictionary, he published
several other works. He died in 1694.
LITTLETON (Edward), LL.D., a learned En-
.glish divine, educated at Cambridge in 1716.
In 1729 he was elected fellow of Eton College,
and presented to the living of Maple Derham,
Oxford. In 1730 he took his degree, and was
appointed chaplain to king George I. He died
in 1734; and his discourses, in 2 vols. 8vo.,
were printed for the benefit of his family, under
the patronage of queen Caroline. His celebrated
poem on a spider, and other fugitive pieces,
are preserved in Dodsley's Collection.
LITTLETON, or LYTTLETON (Sir Thomas),
judge of the common pleas, was the eldest son
of Thomas Westcote, esq., of Devonshire, by
Elizabeth, sole heiress of Thomas Littleton of
Frankley in Worcestershire, at whose request
he took the name and arms of that family. He
was educated at Oxford or Cambridge; and was
afterwards, by Henry VI., made steward of the
court of the palace. In 1455 he was appointed
king's serjeant; and, in 1466, a judge of the
common pleas, under Edward IV. In 1474 he
was created knight of the Bath. He died in
1481 ; and was buried in the cathedral of Wor-
cester, where a marble tomb, with his statue, was
erected to his memory. He was author of the
Treatise upon Tenures, on which Sir Edward
Coke wrote a comment, well known by the title
of Coke upon Littleton.
LIT'URGY. Gr. Astrapya;
Fr. liturgie.
Form of prayer; devotion.
See below.
We dare not admit of any such form of liturgy, as
either appointeth no scripture at all, or very little to
be read in the church. Hooker.
At last, the Jesuitish casuits, finding their great
disadvantage by the inoffensive use of our liturgy,
determined it utterly unlawful to join in church ser-
vice with heretics. Bp. Hall.
The blessedest of mortal wights began to be im-
portuned, so that a great part of divine liturgy was
addressed solely to her. Howel.
It is the greatest solemnity of prayer, the most
powerful liturgy and means of impetration in this
world. Taylor.
In the Greek liturgies (the composure whereof is
fathered of St. Chrysostom) there are divers prayers
interspersed for the emperors, couched in terms very
pregnant and respectful. Barrow.
LITURGY is derived from Astroc, public, and
spyov, work; and includes all the ceremonies be:
longing to public worship. In a more restrained
signification, liturgy is used among the Romanists
to signify the mass; and, in the church of Eng-
land, the book of common prayer.
have written on liturgies agree that, in the primi-
tive days, divine service was exceedingly simple,
clogged with very few ceremonies, and consisted
of but a small number of prayers; but, by degrees,
they increased the number of external ceremo-
nies, and added new prayers. Liturgies have
been different in different times and countries.
There are liturgies of St. Chrysostom, St. Peter,
St. James, St. Basil, of the Maronites, of the
Cophtae; the Armenian, Roman, Gallican, Am-
brosian, Spanish, African, and English liturgies,
&c. In the early ages of the church, every
bishop had a power to form a liturgy for his own
diocese; and, if he kept to the analogy of faith
and doctrine, all circumstances were left to his
own discretion. Afterwards the whole province
followed the metropolitan church, which became
the general rule of the church: and this Lind-
wood acknowledges to be the common law of
the church; intimating that the use of several
services in the same province, which was the case
in England, was not to be warranted but by long
custom. The liturgy of the church of England
was composed in 1547, and established in the
second year of Edward VI. In his fifth year it
was reviewed; because some things were con-
tained in it which showed a compliance with
the superstition of those times, and which were
objected to by Calvin, and some learned men at
home. Some alterations were made in it; the
general confession and absolution were added;
and the communion was made to begin with the
ten commandments. The use of oil in confirma-
tion, and extreme unction, were taken away;
also prayers for souls departed. This liturgy, so
reformed, was established by act of 5 and 6 Ed-
ward VI., cap. 1: abolished by queen Mary
(who enacted that the service should stand as it
was used in the last year of Henry VIII.); but
re-established with a few alterations and addi-
tions, by 1 Eliz. cap. 2.
tions were introduced by order of king James I.,
in the first year of his reign; particularly in the
office of private baptism, in several rubrics, &c.;
with the addition of five or six new prayers and
thanksgivings, and all that part of the catechism
which contains the doctrine of the sacraments.
The book of common prayer, thus altered, re-
mained in force from the first year of king
James I. to the fourteenth of Charles II. The
last review of the liturgy was in 1661; and the
last act of uniformity, enjoining the observance
of it, is 13 and 14 Car. II., cap. 4. Many ap-
plications have been since made for a review,
but hitherto without success. -
LITUUS, among the Romans, was the staff
made use of by the augurs in quartering the
heavens. It bore a great resemblance to the
crosier of a bishop, but was shorter. It was
crooked at one end, and thickest in the curved
part, according to A. Gellius. We frequently
Some farther altera-
All who

LIV
LIV
53
meet with a representation of it upon medals,
amongst other pontifical instruments. It was
called Lituus Quirinalis, from Quirinus, a name
of Romulus, who was skilled in all the mysteries
of augury.
LiTU Us was also an instrument of music in
use in the Roman army. It was straight, except-
ing that it had a little bending at the upper end
like the littius or sacred staff of the augurs; and
from the similitude it derived its name. The
lituus, as an instrument of martial music, was of
a middle kind betwixt the cornu and the tuba.
LIVADIA, a province of European Turkey,
the ancient Achaia and Hellas, or Greek Proper;
bounded on the north by Epirus and Thessaly,
from which it is separated by Mount Oeta, now
Banina, and by the Euripus, now the strait of
Negropont; on the east by the Archipelago; on
the south by the gulf of Engia, the isthmus of
Corinth, and the gulf of Lepanto; and on the
west by the Ionian Sea and part of Epirus. Its
extent is about 180 miles from north-west to
south-east: its greatest breadth not above forty.
It is in general mountainous, but pleasant and
fruitful. The principal mountains are, the Oeta
in Boeotia, where is the famous pass of Thermo-
pylae, not above twenty-five feet broad; and
Parnassus, Helicon, and Cythaeron in Phocis,
celebrated by the poets. The rivers of most
note are, the Sionäpro, the ancient Achelous,
the Cephisus, the Ismenus, and the Asopus.
The province is at present divided into Livadia
Proper, Stramulippa, and the duchy of Athens.
The principal places are, Lepanto, anciently
Naupactus; Livadia, anciently Lebadia; Athens,
or Setines; Thebes, or Stibes : Lepsina, an-
ciently Eleusis; Castri, formerly Delphi; and
Megara. See GREECE.
Liv ADIA, the capital of the above province,
is a large and populous place, seated on the
gulf of Lepanto, about fifty miles from Athens.
It has a considerable trade in woollen stuffs and
rice. Near this place is the cave of Trophonius.
It contains about 10,000 inhabitants.
LIVE, v. n. & adj. Y. Sax. lipian ; Swed.
LIVE"LESS, adj. lefuſa; Goth. liva; Dan.
Live'LIHooD, n. s. leve, Belg, leven. To
I.IVE'LINESS, exist; be in animal
LIVF'LODE, existence ; vegetate :
} hence to continue in
life; pass life; con-
verse, or cohabit (tak-
ing with); feed; live
LIv'ING, adj. & m. s. in happiness; remain
LIv'INGLY, adv. J undestroyed or unex-
tinguished; be exempt from death: live, as an
adjective, is quick; active: hence burning: live-
less written by Shakspeare for lifeless: liveli-
hood, means of living, a corruption of livelode,
or lead, i.e. the manner of leading life. See
LoDE. Livelong is tedious; long in passage;
lasting: lively, according to, or representing,
life; active; strong ; energetic ; brisk; gay:
briskly; vigorously; with near resemblance to
life: liver, one who exists, or who lives in some
particular manner: living, as an adjective, is
synonymous with lively; as a substantive it sig-
niños power or means of continuing life; main-
LIv'ELONG, adj.
LIVE'LY, adj. & adv.
LIVE"LILY, adv.
LIV’ER, n. s.
tenance; benefice of a clergyman; all who live:
livingly in the state of the living.
In him was lyf, and the luf was the light of men.
Wiclif. Jon. i.
If one man's ox hurt another that he die, they
shall sell the live ox, and divide the money. Exodus.
My statutes and judgments, if a man do, he shall
live in them. - Lev. xviii. 5.
The living know that they shall die. Eccles.
All they did cast in of their abundance ; but she
of her want did cast in all that she had, even all her
living. * > Mark.
They which minister about holy things, live of the
things of the temple. Cor. ix. 13
Tell me, madame, I you beseech
For sith the first of my living
Was I so fereful cf nothing
. As I am now to here you speke.
Chaucer's Dreme.
By whiche the lesse whyle I looke to lyue with
you, the more depelye am I moued to care in what
case I leaue you, for such as I leaue you, suche bee
my children lyke to fynde you. Sir G. Moore.
His weary foe into that living well,
Gan high advaunce his broad discoloured brest
Above his wonted pitch, with countenance fell,
And clapt his yron wings, as victor he did dwell.
Spenser. Faerie Queene.
A most notorious thief; lived all his life-time of
spoils and robberies. Spenser.
If any loose liver have any goods of his own, the
sheriff is to seize thereupon. Id. on Ireland.
Some of our ministers having the livings of the
country offered unto them, without pains, will,
neither for any love of God, nor for all the good
they may do, by winning souls to God, be drawn
forth from their warm nests. Spenser.
She gave like blessing to each creature,
As well of worldly livelode as of live,
That there might be no difference nor strife.
- Hubberd.
For ourselves we may a living måke. ld.
My life thou shalt command, but not my shame :
The one my duty owés; but my fair name,
Despite of death, that lives upon my grave,
To dark dishonour's use thou shalt not have
Shakspeare.
Our high-placed Macbeth
Shall live the lease of nature, and pay his breath
To time and mortal custom. * Id.
The shepherd swains shall dance and sing,
For they delight each May morning.
If these delights thy mind may move,
Then live with me and be my love. Id.
The obscured bird clamoured the livelong nigh;
d
Then, may I set the world on wheels, when she
can spin for her living. . Id.
Is’t might's predominance, or the day's shame,
That darkness does the face of earth entomb,
When living day should kiss it? Id. Macheth.
Men's evil manners live in brass, their virtues
We write in water. . Id. Henry VIII. .
Description cannot suit itself in words,
To demonstrate the life of such a battle,
In life so liveless as it shews itself. Id. Henry V.
Living creatures have voluntary motion, which
plants have not. Bacon’s Natural History.
Dr. Parker, in his sermon before them, touched
them so near for their living, that they went near to
touch him for his life. & Haywºrd.
They brought their men to the slough, who dis-
charging lively almost close to the face of the enemy,
did much amaze them. * Jºl
LIV 5.
+ - LIV
So short is life, that every peasant strives,
In a farm-house or field, to have three lives.
Donne.
None but our last enemy comes once for all; and
I know not, if that: for even in living we die daily.
Bp. Hall's Contemplations.
The end of his descent was to gather a church of
holy christian livers over the whole world.
- Hammond's Fundamentals.
The faithful minister lives sermons. Fuller.
Isaac and his wife, now dig for your life,
Or shortly you’ll dig for your living. Denham.
That rebellion drove the lady from thence, to find
a livelihood out of her own estate. Clarendum.
Young and old come forth to play
On a sun-shine holiday, -
*Till the livelong day-light fail. Milton.
But wherefore comes old Manoa in such haste,
With youthful steps ? much livelier than ere while
He seems ; supposing here to find his son,
Or of him bringing to us some glad news?
Now three and thirty rolling years are fled
Since I began, nor yet begin to live. Browne.
In vain do they scruple to approach the dead, who
livingly are cadaverous, or fear any outward pollution,
whose temper pollutes themselves.
Id. Vulgar Errours.
The Arcadians fought as in an unknown place,
having no succour but in their hands; the Helots, as
In their own place, fighting for their livings, wives,
and children. Sidney.
Some so like to thorms and nettles live
That none for them can, when they perish, grieve.
- Waller.
A louder sound was produced by the impetuous
eruptions of the halituous flames of the saltpetre upon
casting of a live coal upon it. Boyle.
The rays of wit gild wheresoe'er they strike,
But are not, therefore, fit for all alike;
They charm the lively, but the grave offend,
And raise a foe as often as a friend;
Like the resistless beams of blazing light, .
That cheer the strong and pain the weakly sight.
* • Stillingfleet.
The number of soldiers can never be great in pro-
portion to that of people, no more than of those that
are idle in a country, to that of those who live by la-
bour. . Temple.
Id.
Pity and he are one ;
So merciful a king did never live,
Loth to revenge, and easy to forgive. Dryden.
To save the living, and revenge the dead,
Against one warrior's arms all Troy they led. Id.
Mark how the shifting winds from west arise,
And what collected night involves the skies!
Nor can our shaken vessels live at sea,
Much less against the tempest force their way. Id.
In a spacious cave of living stone,
The tyrant AEolus, from his airy throne,
With power imperial curbs the struggling win;
Id.
Pure oil and incense on the fire they throw ;
These gifts the greedy flames to dust devour,
Then on the living coals red wine they pour. Id.
That liveliness which the freedom of the pencil
makes appear, may seem the living hand of nature.
- * Id. Dufresnoy.
Since a true knowledge of nature gives us pleasure,
a lively imitation of it in poetry, or painting, must
produce a much greater. Id.
That part of poetry must needs be best, which
describes most lively our actions and passions, our
virtues and our vices. Dryden.
There is no living without trusting some body or
other, in some cases. L’Estrange.
\
He brings disgrace upon his character, to submit
to the picking up of a livelihood in that strolling way
of canting and begging. d.
Extravagant young fellows, that have liveliness and
spirit, come sometimes to be set right, and so make
able and great men; but tame and low spirits very
seldom attain to any thing. Locke.
The way to live long must be, to use our bodies so
as is most agreeable to the rules of temperance.
. Ray on the Creation.
It was a miraculous providence that could make a
vessel, so ill-manned, live upon sea; that kept it from
being dashed against the hills, or overwhelmed in the
deeps. Burnet.
It is their profession and livelihood to get their liv-
ing by practices for which they deserve to forfeit their
lives. South.
His faith must be not only living, but lively too;
it must be brightened and stirred up by a particular
exercise of those virtues specifically requisite to a due
performance of this duty. Id.
Most of the trades, professions, and ways of living
among mankind, take their original either from the
love of pleasure, or the fear of want. Addison.
When men of rank and figure pass away their lives
in criminal pursuits and practices, they render them-
selves more vile and despicable than any innocent
man can be, whatever low station his fortune and
birth have placed him in. Id.
If we are firmly resolved to live up to the dictates
of reason, without any regard to wealth and reputa-
tion, we may go through life with steadiness and
pleasure. Id.
They have been as often banished out of most other
places; which must very much disperse a people, and
oblige them to seek a livelihood where they can find it.
t - - Id. Spectator.
Be thy affections undisturbed and clear,
Guided to what may great or good appear,
And try if life be worth the liver's care. Prior.
The colours of the prism are manifestly more full,
intense, and lively, than those of natural bodies.
- Newton's Opticks.
Imprint upon their minds, by proper arguments
and reflections, a lively persuasion of the certainty ºf
a future state. Atterbury.
Here are the wants of children, of distracted per-
sons, of sturdy wandering beggars and loose disor-
derly livers, at one view represented. Id.
A late prelate, of a remarkable zeal for the church,
were religions to be tried by lives, would have lived
down the pope, and the whole consistory. Id.
Those animals that live upon other animals have
their flesh more alkalescent than those that live upon
vegetables. Arbuthnot.
The parson of the parish preaching against adui-
tery, Mrs. Bull told her husband that they would
join to have him turned out of his living for using
personal reflections. Id.
The tomb with manly arms and trophies grace
There high in air, memorial of my name,
Fix the Smooth oar, and bid me live to fame.
...' Pope
Formed by thy converse, happily to steer
From grave to gay from lively to severe. Id.
How could she sit the livelong day,
Yet never ask us once to play? Swift.
Sounds which address the ear are lost and won
In one short hour; but that which strikes the eye
Lives long upon the mind; the faithful sight
Engraves the knowledge with a beam of light.
Watts.
Live while you live, the Epicure would say
And snatch the pleasures of the present day;
L | V E R P O O L.
55
- &
Live while you live, the sacred preacher cries,
And give to God each moment as it flies:
Lord, in my yiews let both united be,
I live to pleasure when I live to thee. Doddridge.
We are of Christ; our concern is, to honour that
superior denomination, by living up to it. Mason.
When Love Divine, with brooding wings unfurled,
Called from the rude abyss the living world.
Darwin.
They only have lived long who have lived virtuously.
Sheridan.
She was not violently lively, but
Stole on your spirits like a May-day breaking;
Her eyes were not too sparkling, yet, half-shut,
They put beholders in a tender taking. Byron.
LIV’ER, n.s. Sax. lipen; Swed. lefever;
LIVER'GRowN. ; Dan. lever; Teut. liber, à li-
wen, to live.--Minsheu. One of the most im-
portant of the entrails, of a dark red color:liver-
grown is having too great a liver.
And the caul above the liver—it shall he take
away. , Lev. iii. 4.
With mirth and laughter let old wrinkles come;
And let my liver rather heat with wine,
Than my heart cool with mortifying groans.
Shakspeare.
I enquired what other casualties were most like the
rickets, and found that livergrown was nearest.
Graunt.
The uppermost stratum is of gravel; then clay of
various colours, purple, blue, red, liver colour.
Woodward.
LIVER, in anatomy. See ANATOMY, Index.
Plato, and others of the ancients, fix the prin-
ciple of love in the liver; whence the Latin
proverb, Cogit amare jecur: and in this sense
Horace frequently uses the word, as when he
says, Si torrere jecur quaeris 'idoneum. The
Greeks, from its concave figure, called it mirac,
vaulted or suspended; the Latins, jccur, q. d.
juxta cor, as being near the heart. The French
call it foye, from foyer, focus, a fire-place;
agreeably to the doctrine of the ancients, who
believed the blood to be boiled and prepared in
it. Erasistratus, at first, called it parenchyma,
i. e. effusion or mass of blood; and Hippocrates,
by way of eminence, frequently calls it the hy-
pochondrium.
LIVERPOOL, a borough and corporate town,
and the second port in Great Britain, is in 53°
.24' 40" of N. lat., and 2° 58' 25" W. long, cal-
culated from St. Paul's church in Liverpool. It
is situate in the county of Lancaster, and on the
river Mersey; and although it is not easy of en-
trance, on account of sand-banks at the mouth of
the Mersey, it is the most accessible port of the
west coast of England.
Liverpool was first noticed for its trade with
Ireland. Leland, who wrote in the reign of Henry
VIII., says of Liverpool, that “Irisch merchants
cum much thither as to a good haven;’ and
Camden, in his Britannia published in 1586,
says, “the Mersey spreading, and presently con-
tracting its stream from Warrington, falls into the
ocean with a wide channel, very convenient for
trade, where 'opens to view Litherpoole com-
monly called Lirpoole, from a water extending
like a pool, according to the common opinion,
Where is the most convenient and most frequented
passage to Irelande.’ At an early period, too
the conveniency of the port of Liverpool as a
passage to the Isle of Man was sufficiently esti-
mated by the Stanley family; and the trade to
Ireland and the Isle of Man, which commenced
at so early a period, has never been lost, but has
increased with their increasing wealth. Liver-
pool enjoys also a great coasting trade with
Wales, Bristol, London, the English. maritime
‘corn counties, and with Scotland and Cumber-
land. In 1752 Liverpool employed only 122
vessels in the coasting trade: in 1818 296G
vessels were entered outwards as coasters at the
Liverpool custom-house: in 1823 3580 vessels
were reported inwards as coasters. Since which
time the coasting trade of Liverpool has prodi-
giously increased by the number of steam vessels
constantly employed in it.
As to the inland trade, the manufacturing towns
of Manchester, Bolton, Blackburn, Wigan, Pres-
ton, Rochdale, Oldham, Ashton-Underlyne,
Stockpool, Macclesfield, and Congleton, are all
within fifty miles of Liverpool, and have almost
all communication with it by water. By water
conveyance too the more distant towns of Hud-
dersfield, Halifax, and Leeds, have constant com—
mercial intercourse with Liverpool. A rapid
communication also subsists between Liverpool,
Birmingham and Sheffield ; and great quantities
of hardware and polished goods, the manufactures
of these towns, are in the constant course of
transit to Liverpool. At the distance of about
fifteen to twenty miles from Liverpool is an inex-
haustible supply of excellent coal, which is
brought down by canal. The river Weaver,
which is navigable from Northwich to the Mer-
sey, furnishes an easy conveyance to Liverpool
for the produce of the salt works of Northwich
and Winsford. Liverpool has communication
by water with Staffordshire, and draws from that
county immense stores of iron and earthenware.
At St. Helen's and Warrington, the former within
twelve and the latter nineteen miles from Liver-
pool, are most extensive manufactures for plate
glass and glass bottles. The amount of the com-
mercial dealings between Liverpool and the in-
land district is beyond all computation. By a
railway, now laying down between Liverpool and
Manchester, the communication with the large
manufactures will be more direct and facile, and
an increase of traffic will necessary result from it.
In respect to its foreign trade, Liverpool is the
peculiar port for vessels belonging to the United
States; and, by lines of packet ships sailing be-
tween Liverpool and several of the principal
ports in the United States on stated days and
with the utmost punctuality, the most rapid
communication is kept up between the two coun-
tries. Most of the timber vessels from North
America import their cargoes into Liverpool.
The commerce of Liverpool with the infant states
of South America is also immense; and since
the opening of the East India trade Liver-
pool has entered spiritedly into it, and now
maintains a regular and advantageous commerce
with it. Regular trading vessels are also estab-
lished between Liverpool and New South Wales.
In the West India trade Liverpool has now far
outstripped Bristol. It has still some trade with
Africa; but no longer of the degrading and dis-
56
L 1 v E R P o o L.
morable.
gusting character for which it was once so me- Liverpool participates in all foreign unmonopo-
It has considerable trade too with lized commerce, except the Greenland trade,
Russia and all the European ports; in short which it has abandoned for the last few years.

Importation into London of grain, &c., from the lst of January Importation into Liverpool during the
to the 1st of December 1827. same period.
... l. Foreign Ame- Isle of Man and Ame-
Qty. Ireland. Coastwise. partº rica. Ireland. Coastwise. Europe. rica.
Wheat qrs. 2,818 214,894 | 96,850 184,332 45,957 79,737|23,654
Oats qrs. 138,410 | 126,652 |889,123 399,435 13,779 50,658] 375
Barley qrs. 400 | 122,830 | 96,561 10,119 27,185 30,274
Rye qrs. 495 5,523 209 1,363 8,274
Beans qrs. 25 || 41,904 || 53,352 3,591 3,292 25,321 10O
Peas qrs. 36,077 9,767 981 4,012 2,123 953
Malt qrs. 192,079 393 || 52,015
Meal | loads. 48,157 906
Flour sacks. 100 || 473,094 | 1,145 bar. 3365. 79,323 7,957 530|42,257
Beef Tierces. 14,044 .5,492
€6. : Barrels. 1,091 894
Tierces. 11,862
Pork Barrels. 14,761 14,764
R; bar. 2,417
Firkins. 312,201 268,272
Butter } # firkins. 1,555 16,457
Casks. 258,248 1.65
A statement is annually made by the Liverpool
timber brokers of the quantity of timber imported
into Liverpool during the preceding year. Their
calculation is to each 1st of February, and the
following is the table of imports from the 1st of
February 1826 to the 1st of February 1827.
Pine (British America), cubic feet . 4,168,000
Quebec deals, standard - e 1569
Quebec oak, cubic feet . 290,400
Quebec elm and ash 92,000
Quebec staves g 668
Pine planks . 2,200,000
Hardwood, cubic feet 290,000
Tathwood, fathom e - g 1,529
Timber, Dantzic, Munich and Stettin,
cubic feet . e - 764,000
Riga (Baltic) 51,000 .
Deals, standard º 3400
• wh º - 610
Wainscot logs * e e 162
Deck planks, pieces º 5200
Staves pipe, M * 42
Tathwood, fathom 640
Cedar Havannah logs 1888
Pencil cubic feet 3000
Pitch pine 26,700
African oak 124,000
The tides of the Mersey vary from twenty to
thirty feet in spring tides, and from ten to fifteen
feet at neap tides. Vessels exceeding 800 tons in
burthen have come into the port at the height of
spring tides; but the Liverpool merchants seldom
build vessels of greater burthen than 400 to 500
tons, from the danger of their being neaped, and
on account of the delay which always attends the
loading and unloading of large vessels.
Few maritime towns possess accommodations
for ships at all comparable to Liverpool; for it
has now six docks, viz. the Dry dock, the Salt-
house dock, the King's dock, the Queen's dock,
the George's dock, and the Prince's dock, which
with their basins occupy about forty-five acres of
land. These docks communicate with the river,
and vessels have "an easy entrance into them from
it, at flood tide. The old dock, which was made
early in the last century, was closed at the be-
ginning of the present year (1827), an arrange-
ment having taken place between the government
and the corporation of Liverpool for the erection
on its site of a custom-house and other govern-
ment buildings. But the present dock-room,
extensive as it is, is insufficient for the commerce
of the port, and a large dock to the northward is
now constructing, and another to the southward
will be commenced in the course of next year:
by which the extent of dock-room will be in-
creased to seventy-five acres. Steam vessels
have greatly increased in number during the last
four years, and a dock for their accommodation
exclusively is now in rapid progress. Commu-
nicating with the present docks are several grav-
ing docks, as they are called, where vessels
undergo repair. They are taken in at tide time
and the gates are then closed, and the water is let
out by flood-gates as the tide ebbs; the tide is af.
terwards wholly excluded, so that vessels in these
docks can be thoroughly exarmined from the keel
upwards. The docks are vested by act of par-
liament in trustees consisting of some members
of the Liverpool corporation, and some merchants
not of the corporation. Perhaps in the abstract
it is objectionable that members of the corpora-
tion should be dock trustees also, as there is oc-
casionally a collision of interest between the
corporation and dock estates: whéther the sys-
tem has been practically mischievous or not we
will not stop to enquire. At present the dock
trustees are vigilantly watched by the public, and,
they seem to have set on foot a judicious system
... -- - L I W. E. R. P. O O L.
57
for the management of their large revenue. The
dock duties, for the year ending June 1827,
amounted to £145,000. **
Besides the docks above enumerated the trus-
tees of the duke of Bridgewater, and the Man-
chester old quay company, have docks at Liver-
pool for the convenience of the flats and barges
plying on their respective navigations. And, for
the examination and repair of vessels, a patent
slip has lately been erected by a private indi-
vidual at Wallasey Pool on the Cheshire side of
the Mersey. The advantage of the patent slip
over graving docks is said to be that it is made
at a comparatively trifling expense, and that
vessels can be better examined there, as no part of
the day light is kept from the bottoms of the ves-
sels, whilst in graving docks a great deal of light
is obstructed by the sides of the graving docks,
which are narrow, and which could not be made
wider on account of the necessity of shoring up
vessels previous to repair.
A telegraphic communication between Liver-
pool and Holyhead, by means of stations at in-
tervals along the coast of North Wales has just
been effected by lieutenant Watson, R.N., and is
now in operation. Its objects are to give instant
tidings of the arrival of ships off Holyhead, the
variations of the wind there, and damage to
shipping on the Welsh coast.
The limits of the parish and town are co-
extensive, containing 2300 yards from east to
west, and 4420 yards from north to south, and
10,400 yards in circumference, forming an area
of 2202 acres, nearly one-half of which belongs
to the corporation of Liverpool, and the rest to
private individuals.
Liverpool sends two members to parliament:
it is a corporation by charter, with a common
council consisting of forty-one persons, from
among whom a mayor and two bailiffs are an-
nually chosen by the burgesses on St. Luke's day.
Towards the end of the last century many trials
at law were had between the burgesses and the
common council, upon the construction of the
charter, i.e. as to the power of the common
council to make by-laws without the sanction of
the burgesses in common hall, and as to their
power to fill up vacancies occurring in the coun-
cil. But these trials, though in favor of the bur-
gesses, did not effect any alteration in the system;
and so long as the council shall consist, as it now
does, of gentlemen of intelligence, wealth, and
integrity, and the revenue of the corporation
estate shall be expended in improving and embel-
lishing the town, and publicity be given to their
proceedings in council, no other mode of election
of common council-men would be more bene-
ficial to the town. The income of the corpora-
tion estate, for the year ending October 1827,
amounted to £88,980. There is a court for the
trial of civil causes arising within the borough,
at which the mayor and bailiffs and recorder pre-
side; but the process of attachment against the
goods of a debtor does not prevail here as in
London and Bristol.
The population of Liverpool has increased
since the commencement of the last century, at
the following prodigious ratio —
In 1700 it was gº º 5145
1750 ſº . . , 18,400
1801 º - . . 77,653
1811 e g 94,376
1821 Q © º 118,972
But the census of 1821 does not contain the
population of Harrington, Edgehill, Lowhill,
Everton, and Kirkdale, townships immediately
contiguous to it, and which are chiefly inhabited
by persons having some daily pursuit in Liver-
pool. These contained, in 1821, 22,515 per-
sons; and to them should be added almost 9000
sea-faring men belonging to the port, and of
whom no return is made. These would form an
aggregate of 150,000 persons, as the population
of Liverpool and its suburbs in 1821; and the
population has increased since that census.
In ship-building and repairing; in cordage
and Sail-making, a great many hands are em-
ployed. Here are also extensive brass and
iron foundries; at the latter of which boilers, and
all the necessary apparatus for steam vessels, are
executed. Brewing, distilling, soap-boiling, and
Sugar-refining, are also carried on to a great ex-
tent. There are a great many windmills and
'steam corn-mills in the town and neighbourhood
of Liverpool, and much corn is ground previous
to its being sent into the manufacturing districts.
The windmills are now generally upon a new
construction, the principle of which is that by
the action of a fan or pilot-sail, which varies
with any change of wind, the mill-sails are al-
ways presented to the wind, and much watching,
manual labor, and delay, are saved by it. Mor-
dant and alkali, and other chemical works, Čon-
nected with bleaching and dyeing, are increasing
here rapidly. Tanning is carried on to conside-
rable extent in Liverpool and the neighbourhood,
but the interruption of commercial intercourse
between this country and Buenos Ayres, in
which Liverpool is most materially interested,
fetters the operations of the Liverpool tanners.
A steam-mill, on a very ingenious construction,
for the separation of rice from the husk (or paddy,
as it is called,) has recently been erected in Li-
verpool. There is an immense bed of good clay in
Liverpool, and great quantities of bricks are an-
nually made here both for home consumption
and for shipment abroad. They are all made by
hand,
Liverpool can boast of many specimens of
architectural taste. The town-hall and the ex-
change buildings probably rank first. The ly-
ceum, the Wellington rooms, the infirmary, and
the corn exchange, are beautiful structures,
though certainly they are of different degrees of
merit. The Saint John's market, which was
erected by the corporation about five years ago,
under the direction of their architect Mr. John
Foster, jun., at an expense of £35,000, deserves
a more detailed notice had we space for it. It is
under excellent regulations, and the rents vary
from £18 a year, (which is the price for the best
shops), to 12s. a year, the rent for a bench com-
partment. Another roofed market on a similar
plan, but smaller scale, has been erected near St.
James's Church, from which it takes the name
LIV 58 Liv
of St.James's Market, and another is intended to
be erected to the north of the town.
There are about twenty churches in Liverpool
belonging to the establishment. These in gene-
ral do not display much architectural beauty;
but the church attached to the school for the
blind, St. George's, St. Michael's, and Christ's
Church, are exceptions; and St. Luke's Church,
at the top of Bold Street, as a specimen of pure
Gothic, when finished, will be scarcely exceeded
in the kingdom. It is built by the corporation,
from designs of their architect Mr. John Foster.
The chapels belonging to the various denomina-
tions of dissenters greatly exceed in number the
churches belonging to the establishment. There
are five Roman Catholic chapels, a meeting-
house for Quakers, and a Jews' synagogue. The
churches and all the dissenting chapels have
schools attached to them, and great facilities areaf-
forded for the education of the children of the poor.
The charitable institutions are too numerous
to detail. We shall content ourselves with Ilam-
ing the school for the instruction of the indigent
blind in music and several useful manufactures.
It was established in 1791, and has perhaps
never been surpassed for benevolence of design,
and success as a charity. It is the parent of the
London and other similar establishments.
A public cemetery, originating with the dis-
senters, was made a few years ago in Brunswick
Road, by the contributions of share-holders.
The building has a handsome stone front, the
ground is well laid out: and the arrangements
being such as to insure decent interment, and to
prevent exhumation; and it has become a com-
mon repository for the dead. A cemetery, at-
tached to the establishment is now constructing
in the form of catacombs, on a very large scale at
the Stone Delf, at the back of the St. James's
Walk, and when finisned will probably be one
of the most beautiful and curious in the kingdom.
Liverpool is deficient in public promenades,
having only the St. James's walk and the marine
parade, near the prince's dock; the latter, how-
ever, is beautiful, being of the extent of 700
yards along the side of the Mersey.
The Athenaeum is an institution combining
commercial and political information with lite-
rature, as it possesses a news-room and a most
valuable library. The lyceum is a similar insti-
tution, but the books in the latter circulate
amongst the proprietors.
The botanic garden, under the skill of its cu-
rator Mr. John Sheppard, has acquired both in
England and abroad considerable reputation for
its rare and valuable collection of native and
foreign plants. The royal institution, which was
opened in November 1817, has a charter of in-
corporation, and its object is the promotion of
literature, science, and the arts, by academical
schools, public lectures, the encouragement of so-
cieties, which may associate for similar objects;
the collection of books, specimens of art, natural
history, &c.; by promoting a laboratory and phi-
losophical apparatus; and by associations of the
proprietors. The academical schools have a
great many students, and are well conducted,
and the museum of the institution has been en- .
riched by several most valuable donations.
LIVER-WORT, in botany. See Lichen and
MARCHANTIA.
LIV’ERY, n.s. Fr. livrer, livrée; Ital.
LIv’ERYMAN, łsº and Port. le"rea, li-
brea ex Lat. libero. A giving or taking legal
possession; return, from wardship; food, or
clothes, given to servants, or followers, or at a
certain rate; hence any particular or charac-
teristic dress: liveryman, a footman; also, in
London, a freeman of a particular rank in some
company.
What livery is, we by common use in England
know well enough, namely, that it is an allowance of
horse-meat; as they commonly use the word stabling,
as to keep horses at livery; the which word, I guess,
is derived of livering or delivering forth their nightly
food, &c. Spenser on Ireland.
Perhaps they are by so much the more loth to for-
sake this argument, for that it hath, though nothing
else, yet the name of scripture, to give it some kind
of countenance more than the pretexts of livery coats
affordeth. Hooker.
You do wrongfully seize Hereford's right,
. Call in his letters patent that he hath
By his attorneys general to sue
His livery, and deny his offered homage.
Shakspeare.
I think, it is our way,
If we will keep in favour with the king,
To be her men and wear her livery. Id.
Had the two houses first sued out their livery, and
once effectually redeemed themselves from the ward-
ship of the tumults, I should then *::: my own
judgment. ing Charles.
Thou, who, in thyself, art worthy to be a child of
wrath, art, in him adopted to be a co-heir of glory;
and hast the livery and seizin given thee beforehand,
of a blessed possession. Bp. Hall.
# At once came forth whatever creeps the ground,
Insect, or worm : those waved their limber fans
For wings, and smallest lineaments exact,
In all the liveries decked of summer's pride,
With spots of gold and purple, azure, green.
Milton.
My mind for weeds your virtue's livery wears.
Sidney.
Every lady clothed in white,
And crowned with oak and laurel every knight,
Are servants to the leaf, by liveries known
Of innocence. Dryden's Flower and Leaf.
The witnesses made oath, that they had heard
some of the liverymen frequently railing at their mis-
treSS. Arbuthnot.
On others’ Interest her gay livery flings,
Interest that waves on party-coloured wings;
Turned to the sun she casts a thousand dyes:
And as she turns the colours fall or rise.
Dunciad.
If your dinner miscarries, you were teazed by the
footmen coming into the kitchen; and, to prove it
true, throw a ladleful of broth on one or two of their
liveries. . . Swift.
Because no livery of seisin is necessary to a lease
for years, such lessee is not said to be seized, or to
have true legal seisin of the lands. Tomlin.
Livery, in dress and equipage, a certain color
and form of dress, by which noblemen and gen-
tlemen distinguish their servants. Liveries are
usually taken from fancy, and continued in fami-
lies by succession. The ancient cavaliers, at
their tournaments, distinguished themselves by
wearing the liveries of their mistresses: thus
L I V
I U S. 59
people of quality make their domestics wear
their livery. The Romish church has also her
several colors and liveries; white for confessors
and virgins, and in times of rejoicing; black
for the dead; red for the apostles and martyrs;
blue or violet for the penitents; and green in
times of hope. Liveries were abolished in
France by the Constituent National Assembly,
as badges of servitude, inconsistent with their
system of equality, but have of course been since
resumed. -
The LIVERYMEN OF LONDON are a number
of men chosen from among the freemen of each
company. Out of this body the common-coun-
cil, sheriff, and other superior officers for the
government of the city are elected; and they
alone have the privilege of giving their votes
for members of parliament for the city. See
LONDox. -
LIVIA, the second wife of the emperor Au-
gustus, and mother of Tiberius, a woman of great
beauty and ability, but of a very loose and de-
praved character. She was the daughter of L.
T}rusus Calidianus, and the wife of Tiberius
Claudius Nero, one of Antony's adherents; by
whom she was pregnant, when Augustus saw
her, and married her; for which purpose he di-
vorced his wife Scribonia. To ensure the suc-
cession to her son, she secretly procured the
death of Augustus’s grand-children and nearest
relations. See Rome. She died A. D. 29, aged
eighty-six. -
LIV'ID, adj. A Fr. livide ; Lat. lividus.
LIVID'ITY, n.s. 5 Discolored, as by a blow;
purple-colored.
It was a pestilent fever, not seated in, the veins or
humours, for that there followed no carbuncles, no
purple or livid spots, the mass of the blood not being
tainted. Bacon.
They beat their breasts with many a bruising
blow,
Till they turned livid, and corrupt the snow.
Dryden.
The signs of a tendency to such a state, are dark-
ness or lividity of the countenance. Arbuthnot.
Days º * in that state, unchanged, though
chill,
With nothing livid, still her lips were red;
She had no pulse, but death seemed absent still ;
No hideous sign proclaimed her surely dead.
Buron.
LIVINGSTON (William), a statesman and
author of the United States of America, was
born at New York, in 1723. During the contest
for independence he employed himself in defend-
ing his country's cause; and after having filled
various important situations in his native city,
became a member of congress for New Jersey:
on the establishment of the constitution, he was
made goveraor of the state. He died at Eliza-
beth-town in 1790, having held the government
twelve years. He was the author of Philosophical
Solitude, a poem ; A Review of the Military
Operations in North America, from 1753 to
*758; and several other works.
LIVIUS (Titus), the celebrated Roman his-
torian, was born at Patavium. Few particulars
of his life have been handed down to us. We
first hear of him at Rome, where he acquired
the notice and favor of Augustus. . He had pre-
viously written Dialogues, historical and philo-
sophical, and some books on philosophy. It is
probable that he began his History as soon as he
was settled at Rome. He used to read parts of it,
while he was composing it, to Maecenas and
Augustus; and the latter appointed him to su-
perintend the education of his grandson Claudius,
afterwards emperor. After the death of Augustus,
Livy returned to the place of his birth, where he
was received with honor and respect; and where
he died in the fourth year of Tiberius's reign,
aged above seventy. Some say he died on the
same day with Ovid; it is certain he died the
same year. Scarce any man was ever more
honored, ºn life or after his death, than this his-
torian. A monument was erected to him in the
temple of Juno, where was afterwards founded
the monastery of St. Justina; and where, in
1413, was discovered the following epitaph:—
‘Ossa Titi Livii Patavini, omnium mortalium
judicio digni, cujus prope invicto calamo invicti
populi Romani res gestae conscriberentur.”—“The
bones of Titus Livius of Patavium, a man wor-
thy to be approved by all mankind, by whose
almost invincible pen the acts.and exploits of
the invincible Romans were written.” These
bones are said to be still preserved with high
veneration by the Paduans. In 1451 Alphonsus,
king of Arragon, sent his ambassador Anthony
Panormita, to desire of the citizens of Padua the
bone of that arm with which this their famous
countryman had written his history: and, obtain-
ing it, caused it to be conveyed to Naples with
the greatest ceremony as a most invaluable relic.
He is said to have recovered from an ill state of
health by the pleasure he found in reading this
history: and therefore, out of gratitude, took
this method of doing honor to the memory of
the writer. Panormita also, who was a native
of Palermo in Sicily, and one of the ablest men
of the fifteenth century, sold an estate to purchase
this work. The history of Livy is transmitted
down to us exceedingly mutilated and imper-
fect. Its books were originally 142, of which
only thirty-five are extant. The epitomes of it, from
which we learn their number, all remain, except
those of the 136th and 137th books. Livy's
books have been divided into decades, which some
will have to have been done by Livy himself,
because there is a preface to every decade; while
others suppose it to be a modern contrivance,
as nothing about it is mentioned by the ancients.
The first decade is extant, and treats of the affairs
of 460 years. . .The second is lost; the years of
which are seventy-five. The third is extant, and
contains the second Punic war, including
eighteen years. It is reckoned the most excel-
lent part of the history. The fourth contains the
Macedonian and Asiatic wars, which take up the
space of about twenty-three years. The first five
books of the fifth decade, were found at Worms
by Simon Grynaeus, in 1431, but are very defec-
tive; and the remainder, which reaches to the
death of Drusus in Germany in 746, together
with the second decade, are supplied by Frein-
shemius. The encomiums bestowed upon Livy,
by both ancients and moderns, are great and nu
merous. But his probity candor, and impartia
LIV
LLA
60
for neither complaisance to the times, nor his
particular connexion with the emperor, could
restrain him from speaking so well of Pompey,
that Augustus called him a Pompeian. Livy
has been censured, and perhaps with justice, for
being too credulous, and loading his history with
superstitious tales. But though he mentions that
milk and blood were rained from heaven, or that
an ox spoke, or a woman changed her sex; yet
he candidly confesses, that he recorded only
what made an indelible impression upon the
minds of a credulous age. Quintilian says, that
he had a son, to whom he addressed some ex-
cellent precepts in rhetoric. An ancient in-
scription speaks also of one of his daughters,
named Livia Quarta; the same, perhaps, who
espoused an orator of the name of Lucius
Magius, whom Seneca mentions; and observes,
that the applauses he usually received fom
the public in his harangues, were not so much
on his own account, as for the sake of his fa-
ther-in-law. Livy's history has been often
published with and without the supplement.
The best editions are that of Gronovius, cum notis
variorum et Suis, Lugd. Bat. 1679, 3 vols, 8vo.;
that of Le Clerc, at Amsterdam, 1709, 10 vols.
12mo.; and that of Crevier, at Paris, 1735, 6
vols. 4to. A fragment of Livy's history was
published in 1773, by Dr. Bruns.
LIVIUS ANDRONICUs, a comic poet, who flou-
rished at Rome about A. A. C. 240. He was
the first who turned the personal satires and
fescennine verses into the form of dialogue and
regular drama. Though the character of a player
was reckoned despicable among the Romans,
Andronicus acted a part in his dramatical com-
positions. He was a freed man of M. Livius
Salinator, whose children he educated. His
poetry was grown obsolete in the age of Cicero.
LIVONIA, a maritime province of the north-
west of Russia in Europe, bounded by Esthonia
on the north, and Courland on the south. It
has an area of 21,000 square miles; but a popu-
lation of not above 600,000, and consists of a
vast tract of level marshy country, and several
nundred lakes, great and small. Those of Peipus,
Ljuban, and Wirzjev, are of considerable size.
The soil is in general a rich loam, well calculated
for tillage or pasturage; and it exports rye, bar-
ley, flax, hemp, and linseed. The cattle are
small
This country, which has been often the seat of
war, was almost unknown to the south of Eu-
rope to the end of the twelfth century, when it
was overrun by the Danes. It was, during the
thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, governed by
the Teutonic knights; and in the sixteenth the
Poles acquired it. In the seventeenth century
Russia and Sweden contested the possession of
it ; but in 1660 it was ceded to the latter by the
peace of Olivia. The vice of drunkenness is said
to be here particularly prevalent, and the
wretchedness of the lower orders extreme. Edicts
have recently been issued to lighten their vas-
salage; but a long time must elapse before they
can produce a substantial result. Dorpat is the
only university here, and Riga the only place of
much trade.
lity, have distinguished him above all historians;
LIXIV'IAL, adj. Q Lat. livivium ; Fr. liri-
LIXIv'IATE, adj. X-vieuw. Impregnated with
LIXIv'IUM, m.s. 5 salts like a lixivium; ob-
tained by lixivium: lixiviate, making a lixivium:
lixivium, lie; water impregnated with alkaline
salt; having the power of extraction.
In these the salt and liriviated serosity, with some
ortion of choler, is divided between the guts and the
ladder. Browne.
Liaiviate salts, to which pot-ashes belong, by pierc-
ing the bodies of vegetables, dispose them to part
readily with their tincture. Boyle.
I made a lirivium of fair water and salt of worm-
wood, and, having frozen it with snow and salt, I
could not discern any thing more like to wormwood
than to several other plants. ld.
Helmont conjectured, that livivial salts do not pre-
exist in their alcalizate form. }. ©
The symptoms of the excretion of the bile vitiated,
were a yellowish color of the skin, and a lirivial urine.
Arbuthnot.
Liviviation is the separation, by means of water, or
other fluid, of such substances as are soluble in the
fluid from other substances that are not soluble in it.
Imison's Elements.
And, as the hydriodate of potash is very soluble
and even a deliquescent salt, this circumstance ac-
counts for its remaining in the mother-liquor during
the subtraction of the subcarbonate of soda and other
neutral salts from the alkaline livivium by the usual
process of evaporation. Parkes's Chemical Catechism.
LIXURI, a town of the island of Cefalonia,
Greece, having 6000 inhabitants. It has a har-
bour and a considerable trade, but has often
suffered from earthquakes.
LIZARD ISLAND, one of the Direction islands
in the South Pacific Ocean, is about 240 miles
in circumference, rocky and barren. This name
was given to it by captain Cook, from the num-
ber and large size of the lizards found here. It
is twenty miles north-east of Cape Flattery.
LIZARD Point, in Cornwall, the most south-
ern point of England; whence ships bound
westward usually take their departure. It is
282 miles south-west of London, and in long. 5°
11' 17" W., lat. 49° 57' 55" N.
IIZ'ARD, n. s. Fr. lisarde ; Lat, lacerta.
An animal resembling a serpent, with legs. See
LACERTA.
And the lizard, and the snail, and the mole.
These are unclean to you. Lev. xi. 30.
Thou'rt like a foul mis-shapen stigmatick,
Marked by the destinies to be avoided,
As venomous toads; or lizards dreadful stings.
Shakspeare.
There are several sorts of lizards; some in Arabia
of a cubit long. In America they eat lizards; it is
very probable likewise that they were eaten in Ara-
bia and Judea, since Moses ranks them among the
unclean creatures. Calmet.
LIZARD. See LACERTA.
LLANDAFF, a city of Glamorganshire, two
miles north-west from Cardiff, and 163 from
London. Its name is supposed to be a corrup-
tion of Llan-ar-daff, Welsh, the church on the
Taff, the walls of the church-yard being close to
the river. The present structure was built by
bishop Urban in 1120; it had two towers at the
west end, eighty-nine feet high, of which that on
the south only remains The north tower was
rebuilt in an elegant manner in the reign of
Henry VII. The body of its ancient cathedral
LLA
LO
6]
has been rebuilt. Among the ancient monu-
ments of the bishops interred in this church,
there is one representing an emaciated corpse in
a winding-sheet, in which the appearance of
death brought on by a long sickness is admira-
bly pourtrayed. The ecclesiastical establishment
consists of the bishop, archdeacon, twelve pre-
bendaries, and two vicars choral. The episcopal
see was founded about, the end of the fifth cen-
tury. This diocese includes great part of the
counties of Glamorgan and Monmouth, and
though this is styled a city, from being the see of
a bishop, it is without a market. It has the bene-
fit of a tolerably good harbour, that opens into
the Severn at four miles distance. Fairs 9th
of February and Whit-Monday.
LLANOS, SAN JUAN DE Los, a province of
the former kingdom of New Granada, bounded
on the north by Varinas and Merida, on the east
by Varinas, on the west by Santa Fe and Popa-
yan, and south by the government of Quixos,
and extending to the immense length and breadth
of from 200 to 300 leagues. It is watered by
the Apure, Meta, Casanari, and Orinoco. The
soil is fertile, but the climate immoderately hot,
especially on the widely extended plains, which
the long grass shelters from all winds. In some
of them Humboldt found the thermometer rise
to 115°. Here were several missions, established
by the monks of Santa Fe de Bogota and the
Jesuits; but little is known concerning them.
LLANOS, SAN JUAN DE LOS, the capital of the
above province, was formerly celebrated for the
gold mines of its neighbourhood. It was founded
in 1555; and is fifty miles E. S. E. of Santa Fe
de Bogota. Long, 73° 55' 30" W., lat. 3°11'N.
This is also the name of several inconsiderable
settlements of Spanish America.
LLANRWST, a market-town and parish of
Denbighshire, twelve miles south from Abercon-
way, and 218 north-west from London; stand-
ing on the banks of the river Conway, over
which it has a simple elegant bridge of three
arches, built in 1636. The church is a plain
building, adjoining which is a chapel built by
one of the Wynne family. The river is navi-
gable for small vessels for a mile and a half
above the town. Near Llanrwst stands Gwydir
House, the seat of lord Gwydir, an extensive pile,
which marks the splendor of its ancient posses-
sors. This town is in the high road from Shrop-
shire to Holyhead, and, being the only market-
town in this part of the country, it is the centre
of all the business of the populous vale in which
it stands. It has a good market-house, and a
free-school. Market-day Tuesday.
LLANTRISSANT, a borough, market-town,
and parish of Glamorganshire, ten miles north-
west from Llandaff, and 170 west from London.
It is pleasantly seated on the side of a steep
hill, the property of the marquis of Bute,
which abounds in lead-ore. Its name signifies
the church of the three saints; the church
being dedicated to St. Ilhog, St. Devong, and
St. Monow. The streets are steep and narrow,
but many of the houses are tolerably well-built,
and the prospects are picturesque. The town-
hall and market-house were both erected by the
late earl of Bute. Its ancient castle is in ruins.
This borough is governed by a portreve, and
with Cardiff, Swansea, &c., unites in sending
one member to parliament. Market on Friday.
LLORENTE (Don Juan Antonio), a modern
Spanish historian, was chancellor of the univer-
sity of Toledo, and a member of the Inquisition;
a complete history of which, from the period of
its establishment by Ferdinand V., was published
by him, and translated into English in 1817.
He accepted a situation under Joseph Buona-
parte, and was therefore driven into exile on the
return of Ferdinand; but being also expelled
from France, by the influence of the court of
Rome, he returned secretly to Madrid, where he
died in the spring of 1823. • *
LLOYD (Nicholas), a learned lexicographer,
in the seventeenth century, born in Flintshire, and
educated at Wadham College, Oxford. He was
rector of Newington, near Lambeth in Surry, till
his death in 1680. His Dictionarium. Histori-
cum is a valuable work, to which Hoffman and
Moreri are greatly indebted,
LLoyd (Robert), an English poet, son of Dr.
Pierson Lloyd, second master of Westminster
school, where Robert was educated. He took
his degree of M.A. at Cambridge. He pub-
lished a poem, entitled the Actor, in 1760, the
merit of which was so great, that, when the
Rosciad appeared, he was supposed to be the
author of that also. He was employed as usher
at Westminster school, but lost it by his irregu-
larities; and afterwards lived almost entirely on
the generosity of his friend Churchill, the poet.
He died in 1764. His poems were published by
Dr. Kenrick, in 2 vols. 8vo. He also wrote the
Capricious Lover, a comic opera, 1764, 8vo.,
and other dramatic pieces.
LLoyd (William), D. D., a learned English
bishop, born in Berkshire in 1627, and educated
under his father, who was vicar of Tylehurst in
Berkshire. He entered into orders at Oxford ;
in 1660 was made prebendary of Rippon; and
in 1666 chaplain to the king. . In 1667 he gra-
duated; in 1672 he was installed dean of Bangor;
and in 1680 was consecrated bishop of St. Asaph.
He was one of the seven bishops who were im-
prisoned in the tower, for subscribing a petition
to the king against his declaration for liberty of
conscience. Soon after the revolution he was
made almoner to king William and queen Mary:
in 1692 bishop of Litchfield and Coventry; and
in 1699 of Worcester, where he sat till his death
in 1717, in the ninety-first year of his age. His
works are much esteemed. - º
LO! interj. Sax, and Teut. lo, la, imperative
of Look, to which refer. See; behold!
And the farisees seiden to him, lo what thi
disciplis don in Sabotis that is not leful. tº tº e
Wiclif. Mark iii.
Lo! within a ken our army lies. Shakspeare.
Now must the world point at poor Catherine,
And say, lo! there is mad Petruchio's wife. d.
Why lo you now, I've spoke to the purpose wº.
For lo! he sung the world's stupendous birth.
Roscommon.
Lo! heaven and earth combine
To blast our bold design. Dryden's Albion.
O smile accurst to hide the worst designs
Now with blithe eye she wooes him to be blest,
LOA
* LOA
02
While round her arm unseen a serpent twines—
And lo, she hurls it hissing at his breast!—
* Beattie.
LOACH, n. s. Fr. loche; Lat. lotus. A fish;
the CoBITIs, which see.
.The loach is a most dainty fish; he breeds and
feeds in little and clear swift brooks or rills, and
lives there upon the gravel, and in the sharpest
streams: he grows not to be above a finger long, and
no thicker than is suitable to that length : he is of
the shape of an eel, and has a beard of wattels like a
barbel : he has two fins at his sides, four at his
belly, and one at his tail, dappled with many black
or brown spots: his mouth, barbel-like, under his
In OSes - Walton's Angler.
LOAD, n.s..& v. a. Sax. hlave; Swed. lada;
Ital. lade; Teut. laden. , Preterite loaded; part.
loaded, loaden, or laden. A burden; weight;
freight; pressure : hence violence of blows; any
thing that depresses; as much of drink, or any
other thing, as can be borne. t
Your carriages were heavy loaden ; they are a bur-
den to the beast. Isa. xlvi. 1.
Like lion moved they laid on load,
And made a cruel fight. Chevy Chace.
At last, laden with honour’s spoils,
Returns the good Andronicus to Rome.
Shakspeare.
Fair plant with fruit surcharged,
Deigns none to ease thy load, and taste thy sweet?
Milton,
Far heavier load thyself expect to feel
From my prevailing arm. - Id.
One grain of true science and sound wisdom in
real worth and use doth outweigh loads, if any load;
can be, of freakish wit. Barrow.
Then on his back he laid the precious load,
And sought his wonted shelter.
Dryden’s Nun’s Tale.
There are those that can never sleep without their
load, nor enjoy one easy thought, till they have laid
all their cares to rest with a bottle. L’Estrange.
He that makes no reflections on what he reads,
only loads his mind with a rhapsody of tales, fit in
winter nights for the entertainment of others. Locke.
How a man can have a quiet and cheerful mind
under a great burden and load of guilt, I know not,
unless he be very ignorant. Ray.
Thy dreadful vow, loaden with death, still sounds
In my stunned ears. Addison's Cato.
A mariner having discharged his gun, and loading
it suddenly again, the powder took fire. Wiseman.
Let India boast her groves, nor envy we
The weeping amber, and the balmy tree ;
While by our oaks the precious loads are born,
And realms commanded, which these trees adorn.
Pope.
When fraud is great, it furnishes weapons to de-
fend itself, and at worst, if the crimes be so flagrant
that a man is laid aside out of perfect shame, he re-
tires loaded with the spoils of the nations. Swift.
I consider very testy and quarrelsome people in
the same light as I do a loaded gun, which may by
accident go off and kill one. Shenstone.
Unheard, unpitied, unrelieved,
I bare alane my lade o'care,
For silent, low, on beds o'dust,
Lie a' that would my sorrows share. Burns.
The solemn fop : significant and budge;
A fool with judges, amongst fools a judge;
He says but little, and that little said
Owes all its weight, like loaded dice, to lead.
4. Cowper.
LOAD, or More properly writteti
LoDE, n.s. lode; Sax. laeoan, to lead ;
LOADs'MAN, X. Goth. lod, leid ; Dan. lood.
LoAD'STAR, Signifying respectively, the
LOAD'STONE, J leading vein of a mine; a
leading man or pilot: leading star, i.e. the pole-
star, or cynosure : leading stone, i.e. the magnet
by which mariners are led or directed.
And this sterre, that is toward the Northe, that wee
clepen the lode sterre ne apperethe not to hem.
- Sir J. Mandeville.
Ther saw I how woful Calistope,
Whan that Diane agreved was with here,
Was turned from a woman til a bere,
And aftir was she made the lode-starre. :
Chaucer. Cant. Tales.
My Helice, the loadstar of my life.
- • Spenser.
Their manner of working, in the lead mines, is to
follow the load as it lieth. "
- Carew's Survey of Cornwall.
O happy fair!
Your eyes are loadstars, and your tongue sweet air!
More tuneable than lark to shepherd's ear
When wheat is green, when hawthorn buds appear.
Shakspeare.
That clear majesty
Which standeth fixed, yet spreads her heavenly
worth, -
Lodestone to hearts, and loadstar to all eyes.
Davies.
She was the loadstar of my life; she the blessing
of mine eyes; she the overthrow of my desires, and
yet the recompence of my overthrow. Sidney.
The grace of God's spirit, like the true loadstone
or adamant, draws up the iron heart of man to it;
and holds it in a constant fixedness of holy purposes
and good actions. * Bp. Hall.
The use of the loadstone was kept as secret as any
of the rther mysteries of the art. Swift,
The loadstone is a peculiar and rich ore of iron,
fourd in large masses, of a deep iron-grey where
fresh broken, and often tinged with a brownish or
reddish color; it is very heavy and considerably hard,
and its great character is that of affecting iron. This
ore of iron is found in England, and in most other
places where there are mines of that metal.
- Hill's Materia Medica.
LoAD, or Lode, is used, particularly in the tin
mines, for any regular vein or course, whether
metallic or not; but most commonly for a metal-
lic vein. Mines in general are veins or cavities
within the earth, whose sides, receding from or
approaching to each other, make them of unequal
breadths in different places, sometimes forming
large spaces, which are called holes; these holes
are filled like the rest with substances, which,
whether metallic, or of any other nature, are
called loads. When the substances forming these
loads are reducible to metal, the loads are by the
English miners said to be alive, otherwise they
are termed dead loads. In Cornwall and Devon-
shire the loads all hold their course from east to
west, though in other parts of England they fre-
quently run from north to south. The miners
report, that the sides of the load never bear in a
perpendicular, but always overhang either to the
north or south above. The mines seem to have
been so many channels through which the waters
pass within the earth; and like rivers they have
their small branches opening into them in all
directions: these are by the miners termed the
LOA
LOA
63
feeders of me load. Most mines have streams of
water running through them; and, when they are
found dry, it seems owing to the water having
changed its course; which it seems sometimes
to have been compelled to do, by the load hav-
ing filled up the course, and sometimes to have
fallen into other more easy channels. The load
is frequently intercepted by the crossing of a
vein of earth or stone, or some other metalline
substance; in which case it generally happens,
that one part of the load is moved to a consider-
able distance on one side. This transient load
is, by the miners, termed a flooking; and the
part of the load which is moved is by them said.
to be heaved. This fracture or heave of a load,
according to Mr. Price, is produced by a subsi-
dence of the strata from their primary positions,
which he supposes to have been horizontal or
parallel to the surface of the earth, and therefore
should more properly be called a depression
than a heave. This heaving of the load would
be an inexpressible loss to the miner, did not
experience teach him, that, as the loads always
run on the sides of the hills, so the part heaved
is always moved towards the descent of the hill;
so that the miner, working towards the ascent of
the hill, and meeting a flooking, considers him-
self as working in the heaved part; wherefore,
cutting through the flooking, he works upon its
back up the ascent of the hill, till he recovers
the load, and vice versa. See MINE.
LOADED SHELL, an ingenious contrivance
for saving the lives of people in imminent danger,
on board a ship, when the vessel is either strand-
ed, or in danger of being so, near the coast. It
is a bomb-shell filled with lead, wherein a staple
or ring is fixed, to which a rope is fastened; and
the shell, thus loaded, being thrown on shore,
fixes itself in the ground, and, the other end of
the rope being fastened to the ship, the persons
on board are thereby enabled to haul themselves
ashore. It was invented by John Bell, serjeant
of the royal regiment of artillery, who obtained
a premium for it of fifty guineas in 1792, from
the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, &c.,
after exhibiting its utility and practicability be-
fore a committee of the society. On this occasion
a loaded shell, weighing about seventy pounds,
was thrown on shore, from a small mortar fixed
in a boat, moored in the Thames, about 200
yards from the coast. The shell, falling about
100 yards within land, buried itself about eight-
een inches in the gravel, when Bell and his
assistant, on a raft floated by casks' properly
ballasted, hauled themselves ashore in a few
minutes by the rope affixed to the shell.
LOADSTONE. See MAGNET.
I.OAF, n. s. Sax. hlap, lap ; Goth. hlef, laf,
of Sax. pluplan; Lat. levo, to raise up. See
LEAven. A mass or large portion of bread:
hence masses of other bulky articles.
And thei forgaten to take bread, and thai hadden
not with hem but oo loaf in the boot.
Wiclif. Mark 8.
Easy it is
Of a cut loaf to steal a shive we know.
º Shakspeare.
Democritus, when he lay a dying, caused loaves of
new bread to be opened, poured a little wine into
them ; and so kept himself alive with the odour till
a feast was past. Bacon.
The bread corn in the town sufficeth not for six
days: hereupon the soldiers entered into proportion;
and, to give example, the lord Clinton limited him-
Self to a loaf a-day. Hayward.
With equal force you may break a loaf of bread
into more and less parts than a lump of lead of the
same bigness. Digby.
Your wine becomes so limpid, that you may
bottle it with a piece of loaf sugar in each bottle.
Mortimer.
It undergoes in Europe several refinings in order
to form it into loaf sugar.
- Parkes's Chemical Catechism.
LOAM, n. s. & v.a. A Sax. laam; Teutonic
LoAM'Y, adj. : leim; Lat. limus (of Gr.
Aſplum, a fen, says Junius). Rich tenacious
earth; marl. l
Men are but gilded loam or painted clay.
Shakspeare.
Alexander returneth to dust; the dust is earth ;
of earth we make loam ; and why of that loam might
they not stop a beer barrel ? Id.
The mellow earth is the best, between the two ex-
tremes of clay and sand, if it be not loamy and bind-
lng. Bacon.
Auricula seedlings best like a loamy sand, or light
moist earth; yet rich and shaded. Evelyn.
The joist ends, and girders which be in the walls,
must be loamed all over, to preserve them from the
corroding of the mortar.
- Moron’s Mechanical Exercises
LOAN, n. s. Sax. plan, lan; Goth. and
Swed. lan. Something lent; amount of monies
lent or bargained for in the way of borrowing.
The better such ancient revenues shall be paid, the
less need her majesty ask subsidies, fifteens, and loans.
Bacon
You're on the fret, *
Because, in so debauched and vile an age,
Thy friend and old acquaintance dares disown
The gold you lent him, and forswear the loan.
Dryden.
As none but kings have power to raise
A levy, which the subject pays,
And tho’ they call that tax a loan,
Yet when 'tis gathered 'tis their own. Butler
LoANs, in modern finance, are the basis of the
funding system, and the reader will find their
general effect on the finances of this country
traced in our article FUNDs.
The British mode of negociating loans is there
particularly pointed out. Very extensive con-
tracts of this nature have however of late been
made in this country by the agents of foreign
governments. The terms of the loan required
are stated to one of the larger merchants or
bankers, the security offered, &c., and this house
and its friends have the management of the loan,
and the payment of the dividends upon it.
There is hardly a civilised state in the world that
has not raised money in this way in London
since the peace of Paris. These loans have, we
fear, in many instances, proved any thing but
what their name would import, i. e. money ad-
vanced with the prospect of its being returned.
Minor states, however, have thus participated
in the wealth of more established communities;
in some cases (as in the mercantile Greek loans)
they have received but a small share of advan-
64
L O A N G O.
tage from their pledged resources; and these
measures as interlinking the prosperity of nume-
rous and distant nations are a species of secu-
rity, perhaps, against the frequent recurrence of
WaltS.
LoAN-BANKS, or lending-houses, were esta-
blishments of an ancient data, supported by
humane persons, with a view of lending money
to the poor. The emperor Augustus we are told
converted into a fund the surplus of the money
which arose to the state from the confiscated pro-
perty of criminals, and lent sums from it, with-
out interest, to those who could give security for
its return, equal to double the amount. Suet.
Vit. Augusti, cap. 41. Tiberius also advanced
a large capital, from which those were supplied
with money, for three years, who could give secu-
rity of this kind in land. Suet. Wit. Tiberii, cap.
48. Tacit. Annal. vi. 17. Dio Cassius, cap. viii.
21. Alexander Severus also advanced certain
sums at a low rate, to the poor without interest
to purchase lands, and received payment from
the produce of them. AEl. Lamprid. Vit. Alex.
Severi, cap. 21.
In modern Italy, the pontiffs at first patronised
the erection of lending-houses to advance money
to the poor without interest; then they allowed
these houses to receive interest, not for the whole
capitals which they lent, but only for a part, that
they might raise money sufficient to defray their
expenses. In process of time, under pretext
of improving their resources for the public bene-
fit, it was thought proper, to give to those who
should advance money a moderate interest con-
cealed by blending it with the unavoidable ex-
penses of their establishments. The interest
received was said to be ‘pro indemnitate;’ in the
papal bulls, and the pope declared the lending-
houses or ‘holy mountains of piety,' as they
were called, to be legal; threatening those with
vengeance who dared to entertain any doubts on
the subject. Most of the Italian cities now
therefore established lending-houses: their origin,
in the strict sense of the term, is referred to the
time of Pius II. or Paul II., but the greater part of
them were established in the fifteenth and follow-
ing centuries by certain Minorites. The Domi-
nicans exclaimed against these institutions as
montes impietatis, and the dispute respecting
them was agitated with so much warmth in the
beginning of the sixteenth century, that Leo X.
was obliged in the council of the Lateran
to declare by a particular bull, that lending-
houses were legal and useful; that all doubts to
the contrary were sinful; and that those who
should write against them would be in a state of
excommunication. The holy council of Trent
Jlso decreed their legality, and confirmed their
tlSe.
LOANDO, or LoANDo St. PAUL's, the capital
of the Portuguese settlements in Angola,
Southern Africa, was founded in 1578. It
covers a large extent of ground, but the white
population is not more than 3000 in number;
the number of negroes is perhaps 5000. Pro-
visions are plentiful; but the water is bad, and
must be brought, either from a neighbouring
river, or the opposite island of this name. Lo-
ando contains three convents, and is the seat of
a bishop, but is wholly without forts and even
walls. Long. 13° 22' E., lat. 8° 55' S. -
LoANDo, the island opposite to the foregoing
city, is about twenty miles long, and one broad.
It is separated from the continent by a narrow
channel, which the natives often swim across.
It produces goats and sheep, and contains seven
or eight villages. The citizens have a number
of country houses and gardens here. It yields
the best"water in all the neighbourhood. Lat.
8° 50 S.
LOANGO, a considerable, but unexplored
country of Western Africa, to the north of the
river Zaire or Congo. The country, which owns
the supremacy of the king, is said to extend
from Cape St. Catherine to the Zaire, having a
coast of upwards of 400 miles: Loango Proper
occupies only the middle part of this space. The
character of the whole coast is very similar, and
is thus described by captain Tuckey in his Mari-
time Geography — - & -
Mayumba, or Alvarez Martin's Bay, is three
leagues wide between Cape Primero on the north,
which takes in three saddle hills, and Cape Se-
condo, or Matooty, on the south, from which a
reef runs out to the north one mile and a half;
and off Cape Primero is a sunken rock with but
two fathoms and seven fathoms all round. This
bay affords good anchorage in four to seven
fathoms. Ten leagues south of Mayumba is
Cape Sellage, on the south side of which, and
close to the main, is a small island, and two
leagues farther south, and three leagues off shore,
a reef of breakers. Kilonga River is sixteen
leagues south of Cape Sellage, and is closed by
a bar that admits only canoes; it is known by a
hill on the north, with a knob on the summit;
north of the river's mouth is a large lagoon. Se-
ven leagues south of Kilongo is Moutas River,
crossed by a bar of sand and stones, on which
the depth is two fathoms. &
Loango Bay is surrounded by red cliffs. From
its south point a reef, called the Indian Bar,
runs nearly half way across the bay, but within
it is good anchorage in four fathoms, three quar-
ters of a mile from the shore. The surf, how-
ever, prevents landing, except in the canoes of
the country. . Within the beach is a lagoon,
named Barachonas, which communicates with
the sea through the beach, or rather in high surfs
the waves beat over the beach; but, when the sea
outside is smooth, the beach remains dry, and the
lagoon empties itself by filtration and evapora-
tion: when half empty it may be passed on foot,
but when full it is extremely dangerous.
Sixteen leagues south of Loango is Malemba;
an open road, the approach to which is denoted
by the high mountains of Cacongo, which rise
behind a bay of the same name, into which falls
a little river: the anchorage in this bay is bad.
Malemba is a mountain, rising perpendicularly
from the water to the height of seventy fathoms,
and descending towards the land; before it is a
bar of volcanic rocks, one mile and a half from
the shore, which is sometimes dangerous to pass,
but, when within it, landing is perfectly commo-
dious, in a little cove called Paradise, or Canoe
Cove, and in another, named Sloops Cove, is the
watering place; the latter is, however, beat by
L O A N G. O. *
65
|
|
vegetation.
the surf, through which the casks are obliged to
be swam, not without risk from the sharks. The
anchorage is outside the bar, a league and a half
from the shore. The trading place is on the
summit of the mountain, the ascent to which is
through a ravine formed by the rains, and is dif-
ficult and surrounded by precipices, so that a false
step may endanger life. Goats, hogs, and fruit,
are abundant at Malemba, and a great slave
trade was formerly carried on here by the French.
A league and half to the south-east is the lagoon
of Loanguilly abounding with fresh water fish.
Cabenda, five leagues south of Malemba, is
named the Paradise of the Coast, from its agree-
able situation, and the facility of landing. It is
known by a single sugar-loaf mountain, covered
with wood. The south point of the bay is named
Cabenda Hook, or Palm-tree Point: it is long,
low, and covered with palm-trees, and shelters
the bay on the south. The anchorage is within
this point, in four fathoms; within two miles of
the shore, the hook bearing S. S. W. and the
sugar loaf E. S. E.; a small river falls into the
bay, and receives boats at its mouth; half a mile
above which the water is fresh, but is said to be
unwholesome. There is also another watering place
a little south of the point of the hook on the side
of the sea : the surf here renders watering dif-
ficult, but the water which issues from a spring
is excellent. The tide never rises by the shore
more than one inch and a half. The bay abounds
in fish, and has good places for hauling the
Sel Iné.
Half way between Malemba and Cabenda is
the little river Bela, off which is a line of
banks of the same name, whose north extremity
is a league and a half south of the anchorage in
Malemba. Their approach is dangerous, as
there is seven fathoms close alongside of them;
hence vessels sailing from Malemba to the south
are cautioned to keep off in twelve fathoms. On
these banks are taken great quantities of fish. The
coast of Congo commences at the river Zaire.
The climate is said to be fine, and never sub-
ject to hurricanes, nor even to violent winds.
Rain occurs rarely, and is never violent: while
the dews are sufficient for vegetation. The win-
ter is in May, June, and July, when the nights
are cooler, but without being chill. The soil is
in general a red stiff clay, very fertile; the sand
on the coast is extremely fine, and carried about
by the lightest breeze. The coast is high ; but
the hills are covered with earth and luxuriant
The lakes and rivers abound with
fish, and the forests with game. But the boun-
ties of nature are little improved by an indolent
people. Almost the only grains grown are
manioc, maize, and a species of pulse called
msangen. The women just stir the ground to
the depth of an inch, and cover up the grain, to
prevent it from being devoured by the birds:
and even this slender culture is confined to little
spots like gardens, situated around the villages.
The rest of the country is covered with luxuriant
herbs, rising to the height of eight feet, through
which it is almostimpossible to pass. The potatoe
and yam are abundant. The most remarkable
tree is the mapou, distinguished, like the boabab,
by the enormous dimensions of its trunk : but it
Vol. XIII.
affords neither fruit, shade, nor fuel, and forms
thus a striking contrast to the extreme utility of
the cocoa tree, which also abounds. Palm trees
are also plentiful.
The wild animals are hyaenas, tyger-cats, and
ounces. The hare, antelope, and Chinese hog,
are also seen: but it is remarkable that neither the
horse, the cow, the sheep, nor the ass, have mul-
tiplied in this country. -
It is obvious that the population of this coast
cannot be in proportion to its extent. The in-
habitants are not supposed by Degrandpré to
exceed 600,000. Their houses are of straw and
junk, roofed with palm-leaves cemented by
twigs Their grandees, and even kings, have
only a number of these upon the same plan.
The government here is despotic, and the dig
nity transmitted only it is said in the female line.
The son even of the king, by a female of ordi-
nary rank, enjoys no dignity above the rest of
the subjects. The princesses choose their own
husband, who does not enjoy the liberty of de-
clining the honor; and who is entirely debarred
from that privilege of polygamy which is en-
joyed in the most unlimited measure by other
nations. He is prevented, if possible, even
from seeing any other woman.
The object for which Europeans have resorted
to this coast is the disgraceful one of the trade
in slaves. The coast to the south of the Zaire is
almost entirely in the possession of the Portu-
guese. While Loango was in the height of its
power, its port was almost the exclusive theatre
of this trade; but now Mayumba, Malemba,
and Cabenda are as much frequented.
LoANGo, the capital of the above kingdom of
Loango, is about four miles in circuit, but does
not contain a population of above 15,000, and
there are not in the whole above 600 enclosures.
The land in the vicinity is fertile, and the water
excellent. It is not above a league from the
sea. The entrance of the bay we have de-
scribed. It is recognised by red cliffs, which, illu-
mined by the morning rays, appear as if on fire.
The longitude, according to captain Tuckey's
observations, appears to be about 12° 30' E., lat.
4° 40' N.
LOATH, adj. º
LoATHE, v. a. & v. n.
LOATH'FUL, adj.
LOATH'INGLY, adv.
LOATH'LY, adj. & adv.
Sax. laš, labian ;
Teut. leiden, to dislike.
Unwilling; uninclin-
ed; unready; averse :
to loathe is to hate; ab-
LOATH'NESS, n. s. hor; disrelish ; feelab-
LoATH'SoME, adj. horrence or disgust;
LoATH'soMENESs, n.s.J and, in an obsolete
sense, to create disgust: loathly is used both for
hateful and exciting hatred; as well as adver-
bially for unwillingly; without liking: loathsome
is also abhorred or causing abhorrence or disgust.
The fish in the river shall die, and the river stink;
and the Egyptians shall loath to drink of the water.
Exodus.
For on my portos here I make an oth,
That never in my lif, for lefe ne loth,
Ne shal I of no conseil you bewray. -
Chaucer. Cant. Tales.
When he heard her answers loth, he knew
Some secret sorrow did her heart distrain.
Faerie Queene
LOA
LOB
66
They with their filthiness
Polluted this same gentle soil long time,
That their own mother loathed their beastliness.
Spenser.
Where I was wont to seek the honey bee,
The grisly toadstool grown there might I see,
And loathing paddocks lording on the same. Id.
An huge great dragon, horrible in sight,
Bred in the loathy lakes of Tartary,
With murderous ravin. Faerie Queene.
Before such presence to offend with any the least
unseemliness, we would be surely as loth as they who
most reprehend or deride what we do. Hooker.
Which he did with loathful eyes behold,
He would no more endure. Hubberd's Tale.
To speak so indirectly, I am loath ;
I’d say the truth; but to accuse him so,
That is your part.
Shakspeare. Measure for Measure.
Sour-eyed disdain and discord shall bestow
The union of your bed with weeds so loathly, .
That you shall hate it. Id. Tempest.
Lothly opposite I stood
To his unnatural purpose. .
Id. King Lear.
Should we be taking leave,
As long a term as yet we have to live,
The loathness to depart would grow.
- Shakspeare.
The sweetest honey
Is loathsome in its own deliciousness,
And in the taste confounds the appetite. Id.
. After they had sat about the fire, there grew a
general silence and lothness to speak amongst them ;
and immediately one of the weakest fell down in a
SWOOIl, * Bacon.
Long doth she stay, as loth to leave the land,
From whose soft side she first did issue make ;
She tastes all places, turns to every hand,
Her flowery banks unwilling to forsake. Davies.
This shows that you from nature loathly stray,
That suffer not an artificial day. Donne.
How loth is God to strike, that threats so long.
*. Bp. Hall.
Loathing the honey cakes, I longed for bread.
Cowley.
Then wilt thou not be loth
To leave this paradise, but shalt possess
A paradise within thee, happier far ! : Milton.
While they pervert pure nature's healthful rules
To loathsome sickness. Milton’s Paradise Lost.
Such indignities did add somewhat of loathsomeness
to his cup of affliction. Barrow.
Parthenia had learned both liking and misliking,
loving and loathing. - Sidney.
To pardon willing, and to punish loth; , , ,
You strike with one hand, but you heal with both ;
Lifting up all that prostrate lie, you grieve -
You cannot make the dead again to live. Waller.
As some faint pilgrim standing on the shore,
First views the torrent he would venture o'er
And then his inn upon the farther ground,
Loth to wade through, and lother to go round:
Then dipping in his staff does trial make
How deep it is; and sighing, pulls it back. f
Dryden.
Red blisters rising on their paps appear,
And flaming carbuncles, and moisome sweat,
And clammy dews, that loathsome lice beget;
Till the slow creeping evil eats his ways.
- Id. Virgil.
For thee the lion loaths the taste of blood,
And roaring hunts his female through the wood.
Dryden.
If we consider man in such a loathsome and pro-
voking condition, was it not love enough that he was
permitted to enjoy a being? South.
Why do I stay within this hated place,
Where every object shocks my loathing eyes? .
t r Rowc.
The catacombs must have been full of stench and
loathsomeness, if the dead bodies that lay in them
were left to rot in open niches. Addison.
Loathing is a symptom known to attend disorders
of the stomach; the cure must have regard to the
CallS8, Quincy
. Our appetite is extinguished with the satisfac-
tion, and is succeeded by loathing and satiety.
- Rogers.
Now his exalted spirit loaths
: Incumbrances of food and clothes. Swift.
Body and soul, like peevish man and wife,
United jar, and yet are loath to part. Young.
The occurrences of life, by the time we come to
know it a little, would be incapable of affecting the
mind, with any other sensations than those of loathing
and weariness, if many things were not adapted to
affect the mind by means of other powers besides no-
velty in them, and of other passions besides curiosity
in ourselves. Burke on the Sublime.
The limb which it adorned, its only mould ;
So beautiful—its very shape would charm,
And clinging as if loth to lose its hold,
The purest ore inclosed the whitest skin
That e'er by precious metal was held in. Byron.
Thought of the gloomy day and ghastly night,
That dreads the darkness, and yet loathes the light,
That winds around, and tears the quivering heart!
Ah! wherefore not consume it—and depart? Id,
LOB, n.s. & v.a. : Belg. los, loon; Swed
LOB's-Pound. lom, slow. A sluggard;
a large earth worm: to lob is to let fall in a slow
sluggish manner: lob's-pound, a house of cor-
rection.
Farewel, thou lob of spirits, I’ll begone,
Our queen and all her elves come here anon.
- Shakspeare.
The horsemen sit like fixed candlesticks,
And their poor jades
Lob down their heads, dropping the hide and hips.
- Id.
Crowderow, whom in irons bound,
Thou basely threw'st into lob's pound.
Hudibras.
For the trout the dew worm, which some also call
the lob worm, and the brandling, are the chief.
Walton's Angler.
LOB'BY, n.s. Teut. laube. The opening or
waiting place before a room, public or private
His lobbies fill with 'tendance,
Rain sacrificial whisperings in his ear,
Make sacred even his stirrup.
Shakspeare. Timon of Athens.
Before the duke's rising from the table, he stood
expecting till he should pass through a kind of lobby
between that room and the next, where were divers
attending him. Wotton.
Try your backstairs, and let the lobby wait,
A stratagem in war is no deceit. King.
LOBE, n.s. Fr. lobe; Gr. Xo30c. A division-
distinct part: particularly a part of the lungs or
liver. *
Nor could the lobes of his rank liver swell
To that prodigious mass, for their eternal meal.
, Dryden.
From whence the quick reciprocating breath,
The lobe adhesive, and the sweat of death.
Sewell.
LoB
LOC
67
|
Air bladders form lobuli, which hang upon the
bronchia like bunches of grapes; these lobuliconsti-
tute the lobes, and the lobes the lungs.
- Arbuthnot on Aliments.
LOBEL (Matthias), M.D., physician and
botanist to king James I., was born at Lisle in
1538. He published several esteemed works,
viz. 1. Plantarum seu Stirpium Historia.”folio;
2. Dilucidae Simplicium Medicamentorum Ex-
plicationes, et Stirpium Adversaria, &c., folio;
Icones Stirpium, 4to.; Balsami Explanatio, 4to.;
Stirpium Illustrationes, 4to. He died at Lon-
don in 1616, aged seventy-eight.
LOBELIA, cardinal flower, a genus of the
monogamia order, and syngenesia class of plants:
natural order twenty-ninth, campanaceae: CAL.
quinquefid : coR. monopetalous and irregular:
CAPS. inferior, bilocular, or trilocular. There are
many species, but only four are cultivated in our
gardens; of these two are hardy herbaceous
plants for the open ground, and two shrubby
plants for the stove. They are all fibrous-rooted
perennials, rising with erect stalks from two to
five or six feet high, ornamented with oblong,
oval, spear-shaped, simple leaves, and spikes of
beautiful, monopetalous, somewhat ringent, five-
parted flowers, of scarlet, blue, and violet colors.
They are easily propagated by seeds, offsets, and
cuttings of their stalks. The tender kinds require
the common treatment of other exotics. They
are natives of America, from which their seeds
must be procured. º
L. siphilitica grows in most places in Virginia,
and stands our winter. The root is an article of
the materia medica. It is perennial, has an erect
stalk three or four feet high, blue flowers, a
milky juice, and a rank smell. The root consists
of white fibres about two inches long, resembles
tobacco in taste, which remains on the tongue,
and is apt to excite vomiting. It is used by the
North American Indians as a specific for the
venereal disease. The form is by decoction; the
dose is gradually increased till it bring on very
considerable purging, then intermitted for a
little, and again used in a more moderate degree
till the cure be completed. The ulcers are also
washed with the decoction, and the Indians
sprinkle them with the powder of the inner
bark of the spruce tree. The same strictness of
regimen is observed as during a salivation by a
mercurial course.
LOBINEAU (Guy Alexis), a Benedictine
monk born at Rennes, in 1666. He wrote se-
veral works of reputation; particularly, 1. The
History of Britanny, 2 vols. folio. 2. A conti-
nuation of Felibium's History of Paris, 9 vols.
folio. 3. A History of Spain. 4. A Transla-
tion of Polybius. He died in 1727, aged sixty-
O Ile.
LOBO (Jerome), a famous Portuguese Jesuit,
born at Lisbon. He travelled into Ethiopia, as
a missionary, and continued there for a long time.
At his rêturn he was made rector of the college
of Coimbra, where he died in 1678. He wrote
An Historical Account of Abyssinia, which is
esteemed, and was translated into French by Le
Grand, and into English by Dr. Johnson.
LOB'STER, n. s. Sax. lobrzen. A crusta-
ceous fish, g
Those that cast their shell, are the lobster, the crab
and craw-fish. Bacon's Natural History.
LOBSTER. See CANCER.
LOCAL, adj. Fr. local ; Lat. locus.
Local/ITY, m. s. (Pertaining to, or having the
Lo'cALLY, adv. (properties of, place; being
Loca’TION, n. s.) in a particular place: local-
ity is state or condition in relation to place:
location, the act of placing or of occupying a
particular place. . . . .
By ascending, after that the sharpness of death
was overcome, he took the very local possession of
glory, and that to the use of all that are his, even as
himself before had witnessed, I go to prepare a place
for you. - Hooker.
How is the change of being sometimes here, some.
times there, made by local motion in vacuum, without
a change in the body moved? . . Digby on Bodies.
Dream not of their fight,
• As of a duel, or of the local wounds
Of head or heel. Milton’s Paradise Lost.
That the soul and angels are devoid of quantity
and dimension, and that they have nothing to do
with grosser locality, is generally opinioned.
- -- t Glanville.
Whether things, in their natures so divers as body
and spirit, which almost in nothing communicate,
are not essentially divided, though not locally dis-
tant, I leave to the readers. Id.
To say that the soul is somewhere, means no
more than it does exist; this, though a phrase bor-
rowed from place, signifying only its existence, not
location. Locke.
A higher flight the venturous goddess tries,
Leaving material world, and local skies. Prior,
Which fashions also and institutions themselves
have grown out of the exigencies, the climate, situ-
ation, or local circumstances of the country. Paley.
Not that I mean to approve, or would enforce
A superstitious and monastic course:
Truth is not local, God alike pervades
And fills the world of traffic and the shades.
Cowper.
In case of invasion, or appearance of an enemy in
force upon the coast of any part of the united king-
dom, his majesty may order the local militia to be
embodied and marched to any part of Great Britain.
- Local Militia Act.
Local, in law, something fixed to the freehold,
or to a certain place: thus, real actions are local,
since they must be brought in the county where
they lie; and local customs are those particular
to certain countries and places.
LOCH, m. s. Scottish. A lake.
A lake or loch, that has no fresh water running
into it, will turn into a stinking puddle. • *
Cheyne's Philosophical Principles.
LOCHABER, a district of Scotland, in Inver-
ness-shire, bounded by Moydart on the west,
Glengary on the north, Badenoch on the east,
and Lorn on the south. It derives its name from
the lake or loch Aber; and extends about twenty
miles from east to west, and thirty from north to
south. The country is barren, bleak, mountain-
ous, and rugged. In one of the most barren
parts of this country, near the mouth of the
River Aber, in the centre between the West and
North Highlands, stands Fort William, with the
town of Maryburgh, built upon a navigable arm
of the sea, near the foot of Ben Nevis. The inha-
bitants pay little attention to any compº, but
* 2
©
LOC
LOC
68
that which consists in the sale of their black cat-
tle; and hunt fowl and fish as the seasons per-
mit, and as their occasions require.
LOCHES, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of Indre and Loire, and late province of
Touraine. It is defended by a strong castle, and
was anciently famous, or rather infamous, for its
horrid dungeons, built by Lewis XI; in one of
which Lewis Sforza, duke of Milan, after ten
years' imprisonment, ended his days. It is seat-
ed on the Indre, fifteen"miles south of Amboise,
and twenty south-east of Tours. Long. 0° 51’
E., lat. 47° 10' N.
LOCH-LEVEN, a spacious and beautiful
lake of Kinross-shire, about fifteen miles in cir-
cumference and four in length, interspersed with
islands of various appearance and extent. One
of these, called St. Serf's Isle, contains forty-
eight acres of good pasture. The ancient priory
of Loch-Leven, founded by Brudus king of the
Picts, was seated in it: two miles north of it lies
a small island almost covered with the ruins of a
castle, anciently belonging to the Douglasses of
Loch-Leven, and afterwards used as a state pri-
son. In this castle, the unfortunate Mary queen
of Scots was kept a close prisoner, from June
16th, 1567, to May 2d, 1568. It is said to have
been founded by Congal, the son of Dongart king
of the Picts, and occasionally inhabited by king
Alexander III. Its whole circuit is 585 feet.
Patrick Graham archbishop of St. Andrew's, and
grandson of king Robert III., died a prisoner
here in 1468; and the earl of Northumberland
was imprisoned in it from 1569 to the end of
1572. The island is ornamented with trees.
The lake abounds with a great variety of differ-
ent kinds of trouts, of a high flavor and bright
red color. The lake also abounds with eels,
pikes, perches, &c.; and the islands in it are fre-
quented by herons, snipes, teals, swans, gulls,
rails, king's fishers, &c.
LOCHMABEN, an ancient royal borough in
Annandale; governed by a provost, three, bai-
lies, dean of guild, treasurer, and nine counsellors.
Its first charter, granted by king Robert I., being
destroyed with its records by the English, a new
one was granted by James VI. in 1612. It has
fairs in January, April, July, and October, and
joins with Dumfries, Sanquhar, Annan, and
Kirkcudbright, in sending a representative to
theimperial parliament. It is almost surrounded
with lakes, and is seated on the west side of the
Annan, near its junction with the Ae and Kinnel;
eight miles north-east of Dumfries, and twenty-
two frem Annan.
The site of a very ancient castle, close to the
town, on a fine eminence, between the castle and
Kirk Lochs, surrounded by a deep moat and
fosse, is still visible. It was the original seat of
the Bruces, lords of Annandale, and the birth-
place of king Robert Bruce. The stones were
carried away to build another castle, which is
seated on a peninsula in the castle Loch, and
was by far the largest and strongest of any either
on the English or Scottish borders next to Car-
lisle, against which it was a frontier garrison. It
occupies about an acre, and contains three courts,
strongly built of stone and lime. The walls are
twelve feet thick. It was surrounded with three
deep fosses, filled with water from the lake,
which met on each side. The whole fortification
contains about thirteen acres. The inner fosse
went through the castle, within which there was
a basin for the boats, to preserve them from the
enemy and the weather. Before the Union, a
garrisºn of 200 men was constantly kept in it.
The castle Loch, on which it stands, is a beauti-
ful lake on the south side of the town, one mile
and a-half long and one bro d.
LOCK, n.s., v. a., & v. n. Sax. loc, lucan ;
Lock'ER, n. s. }: lok, luka. A
Lock'ET, fastening by way of
clasp, bolt, or grapple; a quantity of hair or
wool hanging together: hence any thing that
stops or secures an opening; secures the priming
of a gun, &c.: to lock is to fasten or shut with
locks; hence to close or fasten any way; and, as
a verb neuter, to become fast; to unite : a locker,
and locket, things fastened by a lock or catch ;
also the catch or spring of such things.
Thine herte to me now woll I shet,
For all thy joiful loke and knet
I bind undir this little keie,
That no wight maie cary awaie.
Chaucer. Romaunt of the Rose.
His grizly locks, long growen and unbound,
Disordered hung about his shoulders round.
- Spenser.
No gate so strong, no lock so firm and fast,
But with that piercing noise flew open quit or brast.
Id. Faerie Queene.
For not Öf wood, nor of enduring brass
Doubly disparted it did lock and close,
That when it locked, none might through it pass.
Id.
We have locks, to safeguard necessaries,
And pretty traps to catch the petty thieves.
Shakspeare.
I am lockt in one of them;
If you do love me, you will find me out. Id.
The bottom was set against a lock of wool, and the
sound was quite deaded. Bacon.
Then seek to know those things which make us
blest,
And, having found them, lock them in thy breast.
- Denham.
They must be practised in all the locks and gripes
of wrestling, as need may often be in fight to tugg
or grapple, and to close. Milton on Education.
Where knights are kept in narrow lists,
With wooden lockets 'bout their wrists.
Hudibras.
A goodly cypress, who bowing her fair head over
the water, it seemeth she looked into it, and dressed
her green locks by that running river. Sidney.
Either they lock into each other, or slip one upon
another's surface; as much of their surfaces touches.
as makes them cohere. Boyle.
The garden, seated on the level floor,
She left behind, and, locking every door,
Thought all secure. Dryden.
Sergesthus, eager with his beak to press
Betwixt the rival galley and the rock,
Shuts up the unwieldy centaur in the lock. Id.
If one third of the money in trade were locked up,
must not the landholders receive one third less?
Locke.
As there are locks for several purposes, so are there.
several inventions in locks, in contriving their ward"
or guards. Moxon.
Å gun carries powder and bullets for seven charges
and discharges: under the breech of the barrel is
L O C K S.
69
one box for the powder; a little before the lock
another for the bullets; behind the cock a charger,
which carries the powder to the further end of the
lock. Grew.
A lock of hair will draw more than a cable rope.
Id
Behold the locks that are grown white
Beneath a helmet in your father's battles.
Addison.
I suppose this letter will find thee picking of
daisies, or smelling to a lock of hay. Id.
I made lockers or drawers at the end of the boat.
r Robinson Crusoe.
Death blasts his bloom, and locks his frozen eyes.
Gau.
Two locks that graceful hung behind
In equal curls, and well-conspired to deck,
With shining ringlets her smooth ivory neck.
Pope.
Your wine locked up,
Plain milk will do the feat. Id. Horace.
Always lock up a cat in a closet where you keep
your china plates, for fear the mice may steal in and
break them. Swift.
Prudent men lock up their motives; letting fami-
liars have a key to their heart, as to their garden.
- Shenstone.
Fleecy locks and black complexion
Cannot forfeit Nature's claim ;
Skins may differ, but affection
Dwells in white and black the same.
t Cowper.
Locks. Mechanical fastenings for doors were
employed at a very early period, and we have
seen some of those brought from Herculaneum
that might, in complexity, vie with the most curi-
ous productions of the present day. From the
various structure of locks, accommodated to their
different intentions, they acquire various names.
Those placed on outer doors are called stock-
locks; those on chamber doors, spring-locks,
those on trunks, trunk-locks, padlocks, &c. The
principal parts of the spring-lock are, the main-
plate, the cover-plate, and the pin-hole: to the
main-plate belong the key-hole, top-hook, cross-
wards, bolt-toe or bolt knab, drawback-spring
tumbler, pin of the tumbler, and the staples; to
the cover-plate belong the pin main-ward, cross-
ward, step-ward, or dap-ward; to the º:
belong the hook-ward, main cross-ward shank,
the pot or bread, bow-ward, and bit.
The principle on which all locks depend is
the application of a lever to an interior bolt, by
means of a communication from without; so that
by means of the latter, the lever acts upon the
bolt, and moves it in such a manner as to secure
the lid or door from being opened by any pull or
push from without. The security of locks, in
general, therefore, depends on the number of
impediments we can interpose betwixt the lever
(the key) and the bolt which secures the door:
and these impediments are welf known by the
name of wards, the number and intricacy of
which alone are supposed to distinguish a good
lock from a bad one. If these wards, however,
do not in an effectual manner preclude the
access of all other instruments besides the pro-
per key, it is still possible for a mechanic of
equal skill with the lock-maker to open it with-
out the key, and thus to elude the labor of the
other. -
The excellence of locks consists in the secu-
rity they afford; and as numberless schemes are
continually brought forward by designing men,
to elude every contrivance of the most ingenious
mechanics, the invention of a durable lock, so
constructed as to render it impossible for any
person to open it without its proper key, has
ever been an object of considerable importance.
Denon has engraved an Egyptian lock of wood
of very clumsy construction; and such were
those of the Greeks and Romans, or at least
some similar. Bars or bolts suspended by chains
were drawn backwards or forwards by means of
a hook or key, or raised out of a latch, and let
fall, or a bolt cogged was caught in one of the
teeth, and drawn back by the key. Sometimes
there was a box with a pin, which box received
a bar, that the pin (balanos) confined. A key
in the form of a vice, called balanagra, disen-
gaged the pin, and the bar fell or turned aside.
But wooden locks still exist in the Highlands,
soartfully contrived by notches, made at unequal
distances, within side, that they can only be
opened by the wooden key which belongs to
them. These were probably Celtic, for locks
and keys of metal are found in British towns oc-
cupied by the Romans. Before the use of keys
and locks they fastened their doors with knots,
according to fancy, which were very difficult to
unloose, because the secret was known only to .
the makers. The locks upon scrinia resemble
our trunk locks. Du Cange mentions the pes-
Sulus versatilis, or turning latch, box-locks,
chain-locks, or padlocks, as early at least as
1381; gate-locks; the speldolum or crook by
which a chain was let into the lock, and the ver-
tevella not easily defined. - The lock and key of
Taillebois Castle was vast and substantial, in the
form of a fetter lock. The locks of our old church
doors and chests familiarly show their construc-
tion. On opening a small ancient brass ring
lock, the letters on each ring were thus placed
together E, R., C, O. Nares mentions also a
padlock formed of rings, marked with letters
(Amen) which when placed to form the word
would open, but not otherwise. This therefore is
not a modern fashion. It seems that on cham-
ber-doors there were often two locks; one called
the privy-lock.
The marquis of Worcester furnishes the fol-
lowing curious suggestion for the escutcheon of
a lock: ‘An escutcheon, to be placed before any
of these locks with these properties. 1. The
owner, though a woman, may, with her delicate
hand, vary the ways of coming to open the lock
10,000,000 of times, beyond the knowledge of
the smith that made it, or of me who invented it.
2. If a stranger open it, it setteth an alarm a-
going, which the stranger cannot stop from run-
ning out; and besides, though none should be
within hearing, yet it catcheth his hand, as a trap
doth a fox; and, though far from maiming him,
yet it leaveth such a mark behind it as will dis-
cover him if suspected; the escutcheon or lock
plainly showing what money he hath taken out
of the box, to a farthing, and how many times
opened since the owner had been at it.’
The noble author does not enter into any fur-
ther particulars of his contrivance: but Mr. Par-
70
L O C R. S.
tington, in his edition of the work, thus illustrates
it:- The two principal properties of this es-
cutcheon may be readily contrived; and the first
of them has, in fact, been already applied to 'a
very ingenious padlock, invented by Mr. Mar-
shall, and for which the Society of Arts voted
him a reward of ten guineas. In Mr. M.'s es-
cutcheon the letters or figures commonly used in
the ring padlock allow an almost endless variety
of changes, and the owner may in one minute
alter the arrangement in such a manner that even
the maker would experience as much difficulty
to open it, as an entire stranger to its construc-
tion. To render the combination of letters vari-
able, the characters must not be engraved upon
the outside of the rollers themselves, but upon a
thin brass hoop made to fit on its outer surface;
and a spring fastened to the roller, and pressing
upon the inside of the hoop, will cause a suf-
ficient degree of friction to make them move to-
gether. -
‘The other part of this invention is equally
simple with the preceding. An alarum, such as
is attached to a clock, may easily be wound up
prior to closing the box; and the lid provided
with a chamfered bolt or staple, capable of effect-
ing its discharge when the box is opened.
“To register the amount of money taken from
the box, it will be necessary either to place each
distinct piece of money in separate divisions, or to
put a number together in one deep recess capable
of admitting but one piece to pass at a time. As
the pieces are shaken out, they will, in their pas-
sage, raise a lever capable of moving a wheel
one division in the passage of each piece. The
Bank of England have a method somewhat Šimi-
lar for registering the number of notes worked
from the printing press of that establishment.’
In the year 1784 the Society of Arts conferred
their silver medal on Mr. Taylor, of Petworth,
for his improvement on the latch or spring-bolts
of common locks. This was effected by simply
reversing the tumbler, so that its curved side
acts against two stubs fixed on the tail of the
Žatch, and thrusts back the latter with ease; whe-
ther the knob be turned to the right or the left,
when the lock is opened. Mr. Taylor has also,
behind the tail of the latch, fixed a guide con-
taining a groove, in which runs a small friction-
wheel, that serves to keep the latch in its direct
situation, and at the same time to diminish its
friction; the arms of its tumbler are somewhat
contracted, in order that the latch or spring bolt
may move with greater facility. By this con-
struction the parts of the tumbler and latch,
which are in contact, move in a line, so that they
pass over the greatest space under the smallest
angle; and the lock itself may be constantly used
for several years, without requiring the applica-
tion of oil.
Various patents have been obtained for the
construction of locks, so as to prevent the possi-
bility of picking them : the principal of these is
Mr. Bramah's, registered in 1784. One of Mr.
Bramah's simplest forms of a lock for a drawer,
or for a door, is represented in plate Locks, figs.
1, 2, 3, and 4; in which A represents the bolt,
fitted to slide on the metal plate BBC, by pass-
ing through a hole in the side C, which is turned
up; the other end of the bolt is guided by pass-
ing under proper grooves in the lower side of the
circular box D D, which is screwed to the plate
B to confine the bolt down. It contains the
whole mechanism of the lock, consisting of an
interior cylinder or barrel EE, shown in the sec-
tion, fig. 3. This barrel is fitted to turn round
within the box DD; the upper end a a being
received into a cavity exactly fitting it, and the
middle encompassed by a circular ring of steel
plate b b, screwed into the box, as shown in fig.
3. The ring enters a circular groove formed
round the barrel, and thus confines it from having
any other motion than a rotation on its axis, and
this only by the aid of the key R, fig. 4. The
barrel has a hole through its centre, which is
closed at bottom by a circular plate screwed to
it, and supporting the central pin G, which occu-
pies the centre of the hole through the barrel;
this centre pin guides the key in entering the
lock. When the barrel E E is turned round by
the key it shoots the bolt A, by an ingenious
contrivance, explained in fig. 2, an aperture
being cut through the plate BBC to exhibit it.
The plate F, on the lower end of the barrel E,
has a pin f projecting from it: this pin enters a
curved opening, at a small distance from the
centre, and therefore describes a circle when the
barrel is turned round, cut through the bolt A,
as is shown by the dark curve F in fig. 2. In
the position there shown the bolt is withdrawn,
and the pin f, resting against the solid part of the
groove, prevents the barrel being turned round
any farther in the direction from F to f: but, by
the application of the key, the barrel may be
turned in the other direction, in which course it.
passes round in a circular part of the groove,’
and therefore produces no motion of the bolt
A, until the pin f strikes the straight part g of
the groove, and acts against it to throw the bolt
forwards: and when the barrel has made a com-
plete circuit, and the pin fis again come to the
same position it was at first, the bolt is shot out.
as at fig. 1, and the pin is resting in the hollow
h, which prevents its moving any further in the
same direction. When the barrel is turned back
again, the pin facts against the notch i, and the
curved part k of the groove, and withdraws the
bolt into the position of fig. 2; now the pin f,
either when the bolt is shot out or in, is in a right
line with the centre of the barrel E, to which it
is fixed, and the direction of the bolt's motion.
By this means no force whatever applied to drive
back the bolt can have the least tendency to turn
the barrel round, and strain the mechanism which
prevents its motion, unless the parts are first put
into a particular arrangement by the key.
The key has six notches cut in the end of it, ,
and, being forced down into the key-hole H,
depresses all the sliders at once, until the pro-
jecting leaf t of the key stops upon the bottom
of the recess cut in the upper edge of the barrel.
In this position the sliders are depressed, so that
the notch made in each slider comes exactly op-
posite the steel ring b b, and the barrel is at
liberty to turn round all the sliders, being by this
means removed, or at least relieved from the
steel ring, which embraces a groove cut round
the barrel, but which cannot turn round therein
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L O C K S.
71
unless the sliders are also moved by the key, that
the notches cut in them may coincide with the
groove cut round the barrel, and then it can turn
freely round. The key, having thus relieved the
barrel by being thrust in as far as it can go, "ob-
tains a hold of the barrel to turn it round, by the
leaf t entering the recess, which it exactly fills
up, so as to form a continuation of the circular
top of the barrel: but, as soon as the key is
turned round with the barrel a small quantity,
its leaf is caught beneath the circular cavity in
the top of the box D; and thus the key is pre-
vented from being thrown out by the spiral
spring, until it has been turned quite round, and
locked or unlocked the bolt: then the leaf of
the key coming opposite the enlargement 2, fig.
1, of the key-hole H, the spring throws the key
out, and raises all the sliders, that they may
interlock with the steel plate bb, and prevent the
barrel from turning, unless the key be again put
in (its leaf being opposite the aperture z of the
key hole), and, being thrust forwards as far as it
will go, the barrel will turn round very easily;
and, when it has made a complete circuit, the
lock is opened, and the key thrown out of the
key-hole by the spring. "
The security of this ingenious lock from being
picked, or opened by a false key, depends upon
a circumstance not yet mentioned, which is, that
the notches in the six sliders are so made, that
every one requires to be depressed a different
quantity to bring them all at once opposite the
steel ring, in which position alone the barrel can
be moved. For this reason the six notches in
the key are all of different depths, correspondent
to the positions of the notches in their respective
sliders; and, unless each notch in the key is of
the proper depth, the lock cannot be opened; for
any one being too deep, that slider will not be
pressed low enough to relieve the barrel, and
will hold it fast, though all the others may be
correct: on the other hand, any notch not being
of sufficient depth, the slider it acts upon will be
pressed too far, and in this case the notch in it,
having passed by the steel ring, will lock the
barrel as effectually as though it was not far
enough. Thus this lock admits of an immense
number of combinations: 1st, in the number of
the sliders; 2dly, in the depths of the different
notches in the key; and, 3dly, the arrangement
of these sliders. The coinbination of these three
changes admits such an immense number of va-
rieties of locks, that it never need happen that
two locks should be made to open by the
same key. Any of Mr. Bramah's locks may be
arranged so as to require a new and different
key in case the original should be lost or stolen:
for this purpose the lock must be opened, and
the sliders taken out and changed into different
grooves: a new key must now be made, with
the grooves of the same depth as the original key,
but arranged in a different order, corresponding
with the new arrangement of the sliders. The old
key will not now open the lock.
To pick a lock of this kind is perhaps impos-
sible; because, though the sliders are exposed to
the examination of any person, yet no information
can be obtained of the depth of each of the sli-
ders required to be depressed; for, unless they
are all together pressed down, the barrel cannot
be turned in the least, and, without turning it,
no guess can be made by pressing down anyone
slider of the depth at which the notch in it will
be opposite the steel ring. Another great advan-
tage of these locks is, that from the circumstance
before explained, of the bolt having no action to
turn the barrel, though the barrel has a great
power to shoot the bolt, a strong lock may have
but a very small key. For instance, the bolt of
the lock is of great strength, while the key R. is
so small, that it may always be carried suspended
to the watch chain, and then it will not be in
danger of being lost or mislaid, as one may hap-
pen to lose a key, and give opportunity for ill
disposed persons to make a false key from it, un-
known to the owner.
Mr. Bullock's drawback lock for house doors,
&c., will next engage our attention. The im–
provement consists in latching the door; for it
is well known, particularly in damp weather,
that the air drawing through it rusts the head
or bevel of the bolt, by which means it requires
great force to shut the door, and occasions a
disagreeable noise, besides shaking the building.
It has frequently happened that the house has
been exposed to robbers from the door being left
unlatched, when supposed to be fast. This im-
provement removes all these inconveniencies,
as it lets the bolt shoot into the staple immedi-
ately when the door closes, but not before; and
the reliever works so very easy, that the door is
made fast with #th part of the force required
with locks upon the common construction.
Mr. Bullock's lock is represented in fig. 5,
where A is the new iron latch here affixed to an
old common drawback house-lock. B, an iron
pin at one end of the latch, on whicn pin it is
moveable. C, a projecting part of the latch,
which, when the common spring bolt D of the
lock is drawn back, in the usual manner, is
forced into the nick on its higher part at E, by
the spring F underneath the latch. The bolt D
then remains within the lock, until, on closing the
door, the reliever G gently presses on the lockbox,
fixed in the common way on the door cheek;
which pressure draws the projecting part C out
of the nick E, and permits the end of the bolt
D, by the force of the spring G, to slide into the
lock-box, and fasten the door.
A lock invented by Mr. Stansbury, an Ameri-
can gentleman, has great merit. To explain it,
we must suppose that a flat circular plate is
fitted to turn round upon the centre-pin for the
key, and that this plate, when turned round,
shoots the bolt, which may be done by various
means. The locking part consists of four, six,
or more small steel pins, which are received in
holes made very near each other, through both
the circular turning plate, and the fixed plate
beneath it. By these pins the circular plate
is held fast from turning. The key has the same
number of pins, and arranged in the same
position and distance, as the pins in the plate:
The key, being introduced, is pressed forwards
against the circular plate, and turned round till
the pins in it come over the pins in the circular
plate, and the pressure of the hand forces the
pins out of the circular plate, the pins in the key
72
L O C K S.
occupying the place of them. The plate is now
relieved, and the key has hold of the plate to
turn it round and open the lock. Each pin is
provided with a spring behind the fixed plate to
force it forwards. The difficulty of making a
false key to this lock is very great; as any error
in the number, size, position, or length of the pins,
will prevent it from opening the lock. To avoid
the danger of impressions being taken, many
marks are stamped upon the circular plate, which
are exactly the same as the marks of the real
pins: thus an impression taken from it would
only mislead.
Mr. Stansbury has also made an ingenious im-
provement upon the common spring door-lock.
The handle which opens the spring catch for fast-
ening the door, instead of requiring to be turned
round, is made so that it withdraws the spring
catch, by pushing the handle on one side of the
door and pulling it on the other. This method
is extremely convenient; for pressing the handle
releases the lock, and continuing the pressure
opens the door, and pulling the handle on the
other side has the same effect. A person with
his hands full may open such a door by only
leaning against the handle.
Mr. Nicholson has invented a secret lock of
more than 6000 combinations; it possesses the
following requisites:—1. That certain portions
of the lock are variable in position through a
great number of combinations, only one of which
will allow the lock to be opened or shut... 2.
This last combination is variable at the pleasure
of the possessor. 3. It is not possible, after the
lock is closed and the combination disturbed,
for any one, not even the maker himself, to dis-
cover by any examination what may be the proper
situation of the parts required to open it. 4.
Trials of this nature will not injure the work.
5. It requires no key. And 6. It is as easily
opened in the dark as in the light. This lock
consists of four wheels: and by adding a fifth
the combinations would be increased to nearly
60,000. * --
It is well known that, in the usual way of ar-
ranging the levers of locks, it is necessary that
they should ascend to their proper places before
the bolt can pass; which arrangement gives an
opportunity of introducing a nail, or a piece of
Stout wire, &c., into the lock, and thus raising
the levers without the necessity of using the key.
In Mr. Somerford's lock, for which he was re-
warded by the Society of Arts, the arrangement
has been changed; one lever being made to as-
cend, and the others to descend, before the bolt
can be shot. These works may be put into all
kinds of locks without increasing their bulk, and
the bolt may be made to take on one side of the
lock or on the other. The lower ascending lever
has an iron plate attached to it, the use of which,
"besides receiving the key and thus bringing it
down to, its central place, is, that it stands as a
complete guard in front of the riding lever which
descends. The lever on the top of the bolt is
also of a new construction, having the lower
levers working in its racks, and refusing to let
them pass till it is brought to its proper situa-
tion. +.
Fig. 6 is a front view of the lock, the upper
plate being removed; a a the bolt, having a lon-
gitudinal perfora.ion, in each side of which are
four notches opposite each other; b b a plate of
brass fixed to the bolt by the pin and collet c,
under which it freely moves; this plate has a
perforation with four notches in the upper side,
and three in the under, corresponding with the
notches in the bolt, but deeper; d.d a spring
fixed to the side of the bolt acting on the protu-
berance b of the plate b b, and pressing it on one
side, so as to prevent the notched perforation
corresponding with that in the bolt. To move
the bolt, the key must by its hook l, fig. 7, tra-
velling in the groove m of the under plate f. pull
the pin just out of the upper notch, and no
more, while the front of the key, pushing the se-
cond plate e, moves its pin just out of the bot-
tom notch, and no more; and now, the pins.
being even, the bolt is free of them, but is,
locked by its upper plate bb catching them in two
of its upper notches; therefore the upper front
of the key must raise this plate to make its per-
foration coincide exactly with that in the bolt, and
then it is free.
The improved mortise lock, contrived by
Messrs. T. and S. Smith, of Darnick, is repre-
sented in fig. 8. A is the spring-bolt, cranked
inside to avoid the key of the lock-bolt, and to
bring its nose and tail into the same line. B the
tumbler or follower, of hardened steel, made to
work upon the beech C C, which is of brass, and
fixed to the bell by the tenon, D.D. E. a piece
of brass, with an oblong hole through it, to ad-
mit of the tail F working through it, to keep the
bolt in its proper place, and diminish the fric-
tion. The spring G, and player H, are brought
to the fore end of the lock, which allows it to be
narrowed at the other end.
In the lock-bolt and night-bolt there is little
difference from the common lock. The advari-
tages of a lock constructed upon this plan are the
following: viz.
1. It is less bulky than the common lock,
easier put on, and does not weaken the door so
much.
2. There is less friction in the working, from
the spring being placed to draw, instead of
pushing, as in the common lock. The slide at
F also contributes much to diminish the friction.
3. It works with perfect equality whichever
way the handle is turned, from the tumbler being
placed exactly in the line of the centre of the
bolt; which it is evident the common lock can
never do, from the tumbler being placed so far
from the bolt. In the common lock there is a
difference, in most cases, of between thirty and
forty per cent. between the turns of the handle,
which is the reason of the bolt coming readily
back when the handle is turned the one way,
and often sticking fast when turned the other

WaW.
focke (John), F.R.S., was the son of Mr.
John Locke of Pensford in Somersetshire, and
was born at Wrington near Bristol in 1632. He
was sent to Christ Church in Oxford, and here
became acquainted with the works of Des Cartes
which first attracted his attention to philosophy.
He applied himself with vigor to his studies,
particularly to physic, in which he gained a con
º
LOC
LOC
73
German princes.
. siderable knowledge, though he never practised
it. In 1694 he went to Germany as secretary to
Sir William Swan, envoy from the English court
to the elector of Brandenburgh, and some other
In 1695 he returned to Ox-
ford, where he applied himself to natural phi-
losophy, and became acquainted with lord Ash-
ley, who introduced him to some of the most
eminent persons of that age. In 1670 he began
to form the plan of his Essay on Human Un-
derstanding. About this time he became F. R. S.
In 1673 his patron, lord Ashley, now earl of
Shaftesbury, and lord chancellor of England,
appointed him secretary of the presentations. In
1673 he was made secretary to a commission of
trade, worth £500 a year; but that commission
was dissolved in 1674. The earl of Shaftes-
bury, after his discharge from the Tower, retired
to Holland in 1682, and Mr. Locke followed his
patron thither. He had not been absent from
England a year, when he was accused of having
written certain tracts against the government,
which were afterwards discovered to have been
written by another; and in November 1684 he
was deprived of his place of student in Christ
Church. In 1685 the English envoy at the
Hague demanded him and eighty-three other
persons to be delivered up by the States General,
upon which he lay concealed till 1686; and
during this time formed an acquaintance with
Limborch, Le Clerc, and some few other learned
men at Amsterdam. In 1689 he returned to
England in the fleet which brought over the
princess of Orange. Being esteemed a sufferer
for the principles of the revolution, he obtained
the post of commissioner of appeals, worth £200,
and was offered to be sent abroad as envoy at the
court of the emperor, the elector of Branden-
burg, or any other where he thought the air most
suitable to him : but he waived all these, on ac-
count of the infirm state of his health; which
led him to prefer an offer made by Sir Francis
Masham and his lady, of an apartment in their
country seat at Oates, in Essex, twenty-five miles
from London. This place proved perfectly
agreeable to him in every respect. He found in
lady Masham a lady of a contemplative and stu-
dious turn, inured from her infancy to deep spe-
culations in theology, metaphysics, and morality.
In this family Mr. Locke lived with as much ease
as if the whole house had been his own; and he
had the additional satisfaction of seeing this lady.
bring up her only son exactly upon the plan
which he had laid down for the best method of
education. He was made a commissioner of
trade and plantations in 1695, which engaged
him in the immediate business of the state.
With regard to the church, he published a trea-
tise the same year, to promote the scheme which
king William had much at heart, of a compre-
hension with the dissenters. This, however,
drew him into a controversy: which was scarcely
ended, when he entered into another, in defence
of his essay, which continued till 1698 : soon
after which, the asthma increasing with his years,
he became so infirm, that, in 1700, he resigned
his seat at the board of trade, as he could no
longer bear the air of London sufficiently for a
regular attendance upon it. After this he con-
tinued constantly at Oates, where he employed
the remaining years of his life entirely in the
study of the Holy Scriptures. He died in 1704
aged seventy-three. Whoever is acquainted
with the barbarous state of the philosophy of
the human mind, when Mr. Locke paved the
way to a clear notion of knowledge, will be able
to appreciate this great man's abilities; and dis-
cover how much we are indebted to him for the
improvements that have since been made. His
Discourses on Government, Letters on Tolera-
tion, and his Commentaries on some of St.
Paul's Epistles, are justly held in the highest es-
teem.
LOCK"RAM, n. s.
A sort of coarse linen.
The kitchen malkin pins
Her richest lockram about her reeky neck,
Clambering the walls to eye him. Shakspeare.
LOCOMOTION, n.s.
LocoMo'Tive, adj. ;
place.
All progression, or animal locomotion, is performed
by drawing on, or impelling forward, some part
which was before at quiet.
Browne's Vulgar Errours.
In the night too oft he kicks,
Or shows his locomotive tricks. Prior.
An animal cannot well be defined from any par-
ticular organical part, nor from its locomotive faculty,
for some adhere to rocks. Arbuthnot.
I shall consider the motion, or locomotive faculty
of animals. Derham's Physico-Theology.
From lock, twisted hair.
Lat. locus, motus.
Power of changing
LOCRI, or LocRI EPIZEPHYRI1, in ancient
geography, a town of the Bruttii, on the Ionian
Sea; a colony of the Locri Ozolae (Strabo); or
rather of the Epicnemidii, according to Virgil,
who calls it Nary.cii Locri, from Naryx, a town
of the Locri Epicnemidii. The epithet Epize-
phyrii is from its situation near the promontory
Zephyrium. (Strabo.)
LocR1, or LocRENSEs, the people of Locri.
They are said to have been the first who used a
code of written laws, compiled by Zaleucus from
the laws of the Cretans, Lacedemonians, and the
Areopagita, adding an express penalty to each
law, which was before discretionary, at the option
of the judge. (Strabo.) Adultery was punished
with the loss of both eyes. Zaleucus's own son
being convicted of this crime, in order to main-
tain the authority of the law, and at the same
time to pay some regard to the intercession of
the people in favor of his son, Zaleucus suffered
the loss of one eye, his son losing another.
(HElian, Val. Maximus.)
LOCRIS, a country of Achaia, in Greece;
twofold, and divided by mount Parnassus into
LocRIs CITERIOR, occupied by the Locri
Ozolae, or Zephyrii, i. e. Western Locri, con-
tained between Ætolia and Phocis, beginning at
Naupactum, and running in a narrow slip of
land, scarcely 200 stadia, along the sea, to the
borders of the Phocenses; and Locris Ulterior,
which lay beyond Parnassus, running out tow-
ards. Thermopylae, and reaching to the Euripus
of Euboea; occupied by the Locrii Opuntii, who
dwelt on the Euboean Sea; and the Locri Epic-
nemidii, who occupied mount Cnemis (Strabo);
and these two were the Eastern Locri.
*
LOD
f LOD
74
LOCULAMENTA, and Loculi, in botany,
cells or pockets. The internal divisions of a
capsule, or other dry seed-vessel. These cells
º the seeds, and differ in number in different
ants. - -
LOCULUS is also sometimes used to express
the minute divisions in some species of antherae,
which contain the fine impalpable powder, sup-
posed by the sexualists to be the principal agent
in the generation of plants. -
LOCUS, GEOMETRICUs, a lineby which alocal
or indeterminate problem is solved. Thus if a
right line suffice for the construction of the equa-
tion, it is called locus ad rectum; if a circle,
locus ad circulum; if a parabola, locus ad para-
bolam ; if an ellipsis, locus ad ellipsin; and so
of the rest of the conic sections.
LO'CUST, n.s. Lat, locusta. A species of
GRYLLUs, which see. -
And locustis wenten out of the smoke of the pit
into erthe, and power was ghouen to hem as scorpions
of the erthe hath power. Wiclif. Apoc. ix.
To-morrow will I bring the locusts into thy coast.
Erodus.
Nothing now is left him, but a bare fruitless earth
to live upon, and that covered over with locusts.
Bp. Hall.
Air º: with the steams of animals rotting, has
produced pestilential fevers; such have likewise
been raised by great quantities of dead locusts.
Arbuthnot on Air.
The Hebrews had several sorts of locusts, which are
not known among us : the old historians and modern
travellers remark, that locusts are very numerous in
Africk, and many places of Asia ; that sometimes
they fall like a cloud upon the country, and eat up
every thing they meet with: Moses describes four
sorts of locusts. Since there was a prohibition against
using locusts, it is not to be questioned but that these
creatures were commonly eaten in Palestine, and the
neighbouring countries. - Culmet.
Locust, in zoology. See GRYLLUS.
Locust, in botany. See CERATONIA.
Locust TREE. See GLEDITSIA, HYMENAEA,
and RobTNIA.
LOCUTORIUM. The monks and other re-
ligious in monasteries, after they had dined in
their common hall, had a withdrawing-room,
where they met and talked together among them-
selves; which room, from that sociable use and
conversation, they called locutorium (from loguor,
to speak), as we call such a place in our houses
parlour, from the French parler; and they had
another room which was called locutorium forin-
secum, where they might converse with laymen.
LODEVE, a town of France, on the Lergues,
in the department of the Herault. Its streets
are narrow, it has, however, flourishing manu-
factures of silk stuffs, cloth, hats, oil, and wine.
It was the birth-place of cardinal Fleury. During
the war it supplied a great part of the clothing
of the French army. Population 8000. Twenty-
nine miles west of Montpelier.
LODGE, v. a., v. n. & n.s. Saxon, logian ;
LoDG'EMENT, Moeso-Goth. lag-
LoDG'ER, gan, to lay; Fr.
LoDG'ING. loger. . To place;
deposit for a time; lay flat; afford an abode,
temporary or settled; to settle; fix: as a verb
neuter, to reside; take up an abode for the night,
or generally: a lodge is a small, appendant
abode: lodgement, collocation, disposition, or
collection of things in a place: lodger, one who
hires his lodging, or lives in hired rooms; one
who resides in a particular place: lodging has
the same temporary and general application as
lodger.
Thy father is a man of war, and will not lodge with
the people. Samuel.
Oh, that I had in the wilderness a lodging place
of wayfaring men, that I might leave my people !
- Jeremiah.
And eche of hem goth to his hostelrie,
And toke his logging as it wolde falle
That on of hem was logged in a stalle,
For in a yard, with oxen of the plough,
That other man was logged wel ynough.
- Chaucer. Canterbury Tales.
Fair bosom fraught with virtue's richest treasure,
The nest of love, the lodging of delight,
The bower of bliss, the paradise of pleasure,
The sacred harbour of that heavenly spright.
Spenser.
My lords
And soldiers, stay and lodge by me this night.
Shakspeare.
By whose fell working I was first advanced,
And by whose power I well might lodge a fear
To be again displaced. Id.
Though bladed corn be lodged, and trees blown
down, º
Though castles topple on their warders' heads. Id.
Care keeps his watch in every old man's eye,
And where care lodges, sleep will never lie. Id.
He and his lady both are at the lodge,
Upon the north side of this pleasant chase. Id.
Base tyke, call'st thou me host now, I scorn the
term; nor shall my Nell keep lodgers. Id.
I can give no reason,
More than a lodged hate, and a certain loathing
I bear Antonio. Id. Merchant of Venice.
Let him change his lodging from one end of the
town to another, which is a great adamant of
acquaintance. Bacon.
This cunning the king would not understand,
though he lodged it and noted it, in some particulars.
Id. Henry VII.
He hath no blood of an Israelite that delights to
lodge in Jebus. . Bp. Hall.
Those houses are soonest infected that are crowded
with multiplicity of lodgers and nasty families.
* Harvey.
Here thou art but a stranger travelling to thy
country; it is therefore a huge folly to be afflicted
because thou hast a less convenient inn to lodge
in by the way. Taylor.
Thus at their shady lodge arrived, both stood,
Both turned, and under open sky adored
The God that made both sky, air, earth. Milton.
Something holy lodges in that breast,
And with these raptures moves the vocal air
To testify his hidden residence. Id.
He brake up his court, and retired himself, his
wife and children, into a certain forest thereby,
which he calleth his desart, wherein he hath built
two fine lodges. • 7 Sidney.
The hounds were uncoupled; and the stag thought
it better to trust to the nimbleness of his feet, than
to the slender fortification of his lodging. Id.
When on the brink the foaming boar I met,
And in his side thought to have lodged my spear,
The desperate savage rushed within my force,
And bore me headlong with him down the rock.
Otway.
LOD
LOF
75
*
Every house was proud to lodge a knight. '
Dryden.
At night he came
To his known lodgings, and his country dame.
Id.
In viewing again the ideas that are lodged in the
memory, the mind is more than passive. Locke.
Their feathers serve to stuff our beds and pillows,
yielding us soft and warm lodging. - -
tº * . . Ray on the Creation.
• Long cone wheat they reckon in Oxfordshire best
for rank clays; and its straw makes it not subject to
lodge, or to be mildewed. Mortimer's Husbandry.
The gentlewoman begged me to stop; for that a
lodger she had taken in was run mad. Tatler.
He lodged an arrow in a tender breast,
That had so often to his own been prest.
't - . . . . . . Addison.
The deer is lodged, I’ve tracked her to her covert;
Rush in at once. - Id. Cato.
The military pedant is making lodgments, and
fighting battles, from one end of the year to the
other. - Addison.
It has been observed, that not one favourite of the
muses has ever been able to build a house since the
days of Amphion, whose art it would be fortunate for
them if they possessed; and that the greatest pu-
nishment that can possibly be inflicted upon them, is
to oblige them to sup in their own lodgings.
- Adventurer.
Sylla was reproached by his fellow-lodger, that
whilst the fellow-lodger paid eight pounds one shil-
ling and five pence halfpenny for the uppermost
story, he paid for the rest twenty-four pounds four
shillings and four pence halfpenny. Arbuthnot.
An oppressed diaphragm from a mere lodgment of
extravasated matter. Sharp's Surgery.
The curious lodgment and inosculation of the au-
ditory nerves. . - Derham.
The memory can lodge a greater store of images,
than all the senses can present at one time.
Cheyne's Philosophical Principles.
And dwells such rage in softest bosoms then ;
And lodge such daring souls in little men? Pope.
Wits take lodgings in the sound of Bow. ld.
Look in that breast, most dirty dear;
Say, can you find but one such lodger there? Id.
Whenever I am turned out, my lodge descends
upon a low-spirited family. Swift.
LoDGE (Thomas), M.D., an English phy-
sician and poet of the seventeenth century. He
was educated at Oxford, but graduated at Avig-
non. He settled in London, and obtained great
practice among the Roman Catholics, as he was
of that communion. He wrote two plays; viz.
Wounds of Civil War, a tragedy; and, A Look-
ing-Glass for London, a tragi-comedy; and
assisted R. Green in some others. He died in
1625.
LoDGEMENT, in military affairs, a work made
by the besiegers in some part of a fortification
(after the besieged have been driven out), to main-
tain it, and be covered from the enemy's fire.
When a lodgement is to be made on the glacis,
covert-way, or in a breach, there must be a great
provision, made of fascines, sand-bags, gabions,
wool-packs, &c., in the trenches; and, during
the action, the pioneers, under the direction of an
engineer, with fascines, sand-bags, &c.; should
be making the lodgement, in order to form a
covering, while the grenadiers are storming the
covett-way. *
in oil, by Callisto, a pupil of Titian.
LODI, a province of Austrian Italy, in the
government of Milan, surrounded by the grand
duchy of Parma, and the delegations of Pavia,
Milan, Bergamo, and Cremona. Its extent is
390 square miles. Pasturage is the chief object
of agriculture; and it is in this district that Par-
mesan cheese is chiefly made. Population
141,000. -
LoD1, a considerable town of Austrian Italy,
the capital of the above delegation, stands on
the Adda, over which there is a wooden bridge
of 600 feet in length. It is regularly and well
built. One of its public squares contains a
number of very superior buildings. The cathe-
dral and convents claim the attention of the tra-
veller: the most remarkable church is that called
dell' Incoronata, built by the celebrated Bra-
mante, and painted partly in fresco, and partly
Here are
manufactures both of silk and porcelain, and
some considerable trade. Its chief export is the
cheese made in the environs. Lodi is sur-
rounded with walls and stands high. Buona-
parte's early military career was here distin-
guished, in 1796, by his forcing with the bayonet
the passage of the bridge, though defended by
10,000 Austrians. Population 12,500. Sixteen
miles north-east of Pavia, and seventeen south-
east of Milan. -
LODRONE, a town of Italy, in the bishopric
of Trent, near which a bloody battle was fought,
on the 12th of August 1796, between the French
and Austrians, wherein the latter were defeated.
It is seated at the influx of the Chiese into Lake
Idro. -
LOEFORT, an island of the North Sea, on
the coast of Norway, a little north of the Mael-
Stroom. - -
LOEVESTEIN, or LowenstEIN, a fortress of
the Netherlands, in Guelderland, at the western
point of the island of Bommelwaert, and eigh-
teen miles E. S. E. of Rotterdam. s . .
LOFFT (Capel), esq., barrister-at-law, was the
son of Christopher Lofft, also a barrister, who
resided in Carey Street, Fleet Street, where this
his second son was born, in November 1751.
He distinguished himself at Eton, where he was
placed in 1759, by several elegant compositions,
and proceeded in 1769 to Peterhouse, Cam-
bridge. Here he had the reputation of being a
sound classical scholar; but his deficiency in
mathematical knowledge lost him the Craven
scholarship. His praise of Shakspeare in a
Latin poem in hexameters, published as a tripos,
March 1st 1770, inspired Garrick with so great
an interest in him, that to the exertions of that
actor may be attributed the reconciliation, with
some branches of his family, which eventually
secured his succession to the Capel estates. He
entered himself at Lincoln's Inn 1770, and, under
the superintendance of his father, proceeded to
qualify himself for the bar, to which he was
called in Michaelmas term, 1755; having, in the
mean time, published the Praises of Poetry; and
Timoleon, a tragedy; both of which appeared in
1775. . He also now commenced the study of
the Hebrew and Saxon languages. He published
in 1776 a collection of Cases, chiefly in the
king's bench, from 1772 to 1774, with a Latin
| LOF
LOG
76
list of law maxims. The latter maxims he
afterwards printed in an enlarged shape, in two
volumes, under the title of Principia cüm Juris
Universalis tum praecipue Anglicani; with a
translation, called Elements of Universal Law;
about the same period he also wrote several po-
litical tracts on the subject of the American war.
Succeeding to the Capel estates, in 1781, he re-
moved to Troston, in Suffolk; and became an
active magistrate for the county till 1800; when,
having unduly, as it was thought, exerted him-
self as under sheriff, to delay the execution of a
young woman who had received sentence of
death, Mr. Lofft was removed from the commis-
sion. In 1810 he became deputy recorder of
Aldborough ; but, conceiving that great facilities
were afforded for the education of his family on the
continent, he in 1816 proceeded to Brussels, and
thence to Lausanne, Turin, and Montcallier; at
which latter place he died, May 26th, 1824. Be-
sides a variety of political pamphlets, Mr. Lofft
was the author of Davideis, an imperfect poem
in blank verse; Eudosia, a poem in blank verse,
1780; a Translation of the first two Georgics of
Virgil, 1784; an Essay on the Law of Libel,
1785; an edition of Gilbert's Law of Evidence,
with considerable additions, 2 vols. 8vo. 1792;
Laura, or an Anthology of Sonnets, in 5 vols.
1814; and a volume of Aphorisms, from Shaks-
peare.
also to most of the magazines of his day; and it
was to his zealous patronage the public was, in
a great measure, indebted for the publication of
the Farmer's Boy, by Robert Bloomfield. Mr.
Lofft married twice, and left a son and daughter
by his first wife.
LOFODEN, a group of islands on the coast
of Norway, lying between 67° 30' and 68° 45' of
N. lat. They consist of five large, and several
Smaller islands, having in all about 4000 inhabi-
tants. Their lofty mountains are covered with
perpetual snow. During the winter they are
visited by boats, manned with perhaps 20,000
fishermen; and the value of the fish taken has
been estimated at £12,000.
LOFT, n.s. From LIFT, which see.
Lor'TY, adj. A high or elevated place;
Lof"TILY," adv. (the upper room or floor of
LoF'TINESS, n. s. X a building. Lofty is high;
towering, elevated in place, condition, true dig-
nity or temper; proud.
They speak wickedly concerning oppression: they
speak loftily. Psalms lxxiii. 8.
Thus saith the high and lofty One. Isaiah.
The eyes of the lofty shall be humbled. Id.
Eutychus fell down from the third loft. Acts.
To lull him in his slumbers soft,
A trickling stream from high rock tumbling down,
And ever-drizzling rain upon the loft,
Mixt with a murmuring wind. Faerie Queene.
My lowly verse may loftily arise,
And lift itself unto the highest skies.
Lofty and sour to them that loved him not;
But to those men that sought him sweet as summer.
- Shakspeare.
There is a traverse placed in a loft above. Bacon.
Passing through the spheres of watchful fire,
And hills of snow, and lofts of piled thunder.
- + Milton.
Cities of men with lofty gates and towers. Id
Id.
He was a very considerable contributor
- He knew
Himself to sing and build the lofty rhime.
See lofty Lebanon his head advance,
See nodding forests on the mountains dance.
Id.
Pope.
A wease! once made shift to slink
In at a corn loft, through a chink. Id.
Three poets in three distant ages born ;
The first in loftiness of thought surpassed,
The next in majesty; in both the last. Dryden.
Man, the tyrant of our sex, I hate, (*
A lowly servant, but a lofty mate. Id.
Augustus and Tiberius had loftiness enough in
their temper, and affected to make a sovereign figure.
- Collier.
Like birds quite exquisite of note and plume,
Transfixed by fate (who loves a lofty mark),
How from the summit of the groves he fell,
And left it unharmonious ! Young.
He was equally qualified for sprightly sallies, and
for lofty flights. Johnson.
The peevish youth, who ne'er had found before
A rival of his skill, indignant heard,
And soon (for various was his tuneful store)
In loftier tones defied the simple bird. Cowper.
In health how fair, how ghastly in decay
Man's lofty form how heavenly fair the mind
Sublimed by Virtue's sweet enlivening sway !
But ah! to Guilt’s outrageous rule resigned.
Beattie.
An empire thou could'st crush, command, rebuild,
But govern not thy pettiest passion, nor
However deeply in men's spirit skilled,
Look through thine own, nor curb the lust of war,
Nor learn that tempted Fate will leave the loftiest
Star. Byron.
LOG, m. s. Sax. liggan, to lie.—
LoG'GERHEAD, n. s. (Skinner. Goth. log,
LoG'GERHEADED, adj. (lag. That which is laid
LOG'MAN, n. s. or placed.—Thomson.
Belg. logge, heavy; lumpish. A mass of wood; a
block; a dolt or blockhead. Loggerhead is also
synonymous with blockhead. To go or fall to
loggerheads, to scuffle; to bring two or more
thick skulls into collision. Loggerheaded, stu-
pid; thick-skulled; doltish. Logman, one who
carries or transports logs from place to place.
- Would the lightning had
Burnt up those logs that thou’rt enjoined to pile.
Shakspeare.
For your sake
Am I this patient logman.
Where hast been, Halº
—With three or four loggerheads, amongst three or
fourscore hogsheads. Id. Henry IV.
You loggerheaded and unpolished groom, what!.
no attendance 3 Id. Taming of the Shrew.
The worms with many feet are bred under logs of
timber, and many times in gardens where no logs are.
Bacon.
Some log, perhaps upon the water swam,
An useless drift, which rudely cut within,
And hollowed, first a floating trough became,
And cross some riv'let passage did begin.
Dryden.
Says this loggerhead, what have we to do to quench
other people's fires? L’Estrange.
A couple of travellers that took up an ass, fell to
loggerheads which should be his master. Id.
The usual way of breaking up logs of wood for the
* Id.
purposes of fuel, is by axes, and driving wedges in.
Imison's Elements.
L
G. 77
O
The ship still lay
Like a mere log, and baffled our intent.
Byron.
Log, n.s. Heb. 19. The smallest measure
of capacity among the Jews (about three-fourths
of a pint).-Parkhurst. Arbuthnot says the se-
venty-second part of the boll or ephah, and
twelfth part of the hin.
A meat offering mingled with oil, and one log of
oil. Lev.
LOG, in the Jewish antiquities, is mentioned
(2 Kings vi. 25) as the fourth part of a cab. But
in Leviticus the word log is often met with, and
signifies that measure of oil which lepers were to
offer at the temple after they were cured of their
disease. -
LOG, a sea term, signifying a small piece of
timber, of a triangular, sectoral, or quadrantal
figure, on board a ship, generally about a quarter
of an inch thick, and five or six inches from the
angular point to the circumference. It is ba-
lanced by a thin plate of lead, nailed upon the
arch, or circular side, so as to swim perpendi-
cularly in the water, with about two-thirds im-
mersed under the surface. e
LOG AND LINE, or the LoG-LINE, a little cord,
or line, about 150 fathoms long, fastened to the
log by means of two legs, one of which passes
through a hole at the corner, and is knotted on
the opposite side, while the other leg is attached
to the arch by a pin fixed into another hole, so
as to draw out occasionally. By these legs the
log is hung in equilibrio; and the line thus an-
nexed to it is wound round a reel fixed for that
purpose in the gallery of the ship. This line,
from the distance of about ten, twelve, or fifteen
fathoms off the log, has certain knots or divisions,
which ought to be at least fifty feet from each
other; though it was the common practice at sea
not to have them above forty-two feet asunder.
The length of each knot ought to be the same
part of a sea-mile as half a minute is of an hour;
and admitting the measurement of Mr. Norwood,
who makes a degree on a great circle of the earth
to contain 367,200 English feet, or about sixty-
nine English statute miles and a half, and, there-
fore, one-sixtieth part of it, or a nautical mile,
will be 6120 feet; ºth of 6120, or fifty-one feet,
should be the length of each knot. But, because
it is safer to have the reckoning rather before the
ship than after it, therefore fifty feet may be taken
as the proper Yength of each knot. The knots are.
sometimes made to consist only of forty-two feet
each, even in the present practice; and this me-
thod of dividing the log-line was founded on the
supposition that sixty miles, each of 5000 Eng-
lish feet, made a degree; for tº of 5000 is forty-
one and two-thirds, or, in round numbers, forty-
two feet. Mariners, rather than quit the old way,
though known to be erroneous, use glasses for
half minute ones, that run but twenty-four or
twenty-five seconds. They have also used a line
of forty-five feet to thirty seconds, or a glass of
twenty-eight seconds to forty-two feet. When this
is the case, the distance between the knots should
be corrected by the following proportion: as
thirty is to fifty, so is the number of seconds of
the glass to the distance between the knots upon
the line. The heat or moisture of the weather
has often a considerable effect upon the glass,
so as to make it run slower or faster; it should
therefore be frequently tried by the pendulum in
the following manner:-On a round, nail hang
a string that has a musket-ball fixed to one end,
carefully measuring between the centre of the
ball and the string's loop over the peg thirty-
nine inches and an eighth, being the length of a
second pendulum; then swing it, and count one
for every time it passes under the peg, beginning
at the second time it passes; and the number of
swings made during the time the 'glass is running
out shows the seconds it contains. The line also
is liable to relax and shrink, and should there-
fore be occasionally measured. The use of the
log and line is to keep account, and make an
estimate of the ship's way or distance run;
which is done by observing the length of the
line unwound in half a minute's time, told by a
half-minute glass; for so many knots as run out
in that time, so many miles the ship sails in an
hour. Thus, if there be four knots veered out in
half a minute, the ship is computed to run four
miles an hour. No mention of this device for
measuring the ship's way occurs till 1607, in an
East India voyage published by Purchas; but
from that time its name occurs in other voyages
among his collections; and henceforward it be-
came famous, being taken notice of both by our
own authors and by foreigners; as by Gunter
in 1623: Snellius in 1624; Metius in 1631 ;
Oughtred in 1633; Herigone in 1634; Salton-
stall in 1636; Norwood in 1637; Pournier in
1643; and by almost all the succeeding writers
on navigation of every country.
LOG, HEAVING THE, is throwing it into the
water on the lee-side, letting it run till it comes
without the eddy of the ship's wake; then one,
holding a half-minute glass, turns it up just at the
first knot, or the mark from which the knots begin
to be reckoned, turns off the reel, or passes over
the stern. . As soon as the glass is out the reel is
stopped, and the knots run off are told, and their
parts estimated. It is usual to heave the log
once every hour in ships of war and East-India-
men, and in all other vessels once in two hours;
and if at any time of the watch the wind has in-
creased or abated in the intervals, so as to affect
the ship's velocity, the officer generally makes a
suitable allowance for it at the close of the watch
The log is a very precarious way of computing,
and must always be corrected by experience;
there being a great deal of uncertainty in the
yawing of the ship, going with the wind aft, or
upon the quarter, in the heaving of it, by its
coming home, or being drawn after the ship; on
account of the friction of the reel and lightness of
the log in the course of the current, and in the
strength of the wind, which seldom keeps the
same tenor for two hours together, which is the
interval between the times for using the log in
short voyages, though in longer ones they heave
it every hour. Yet this is a much more exact
way of computing than any other in use; much
preferable certainly to that of the Spaniards and
Portuguese, who guessed at the ship's way by
the running of the froth or water by the ship's
side; or to that of the Dutch, who used to heave
a chip overboard, and to number the paces they
78
L O G.
walk on the deck while the chip swims between
any two marks or bulk-heads on the side. ,
LoG, THE COMPOUND. The above mentioned
errors, and particularly the log's being subject to
drive with the motion which the water may have
at its surface, whereas the experiment requires
it to be fixed in the place where it is when the
mark commencing the knots goes off the reel,
have been considered by writers, and many me-
thods have been proposed to remove, or at least
to lessen them. The late M. Bouguer proposed
a method, which has been thought deserving of
particular attention, in the Mem. Acad. Sc. 1747;
afterwards in his Treatise on Navigation, pub-
lished at Paris in 1753, and since reprinted in
1760, by the abbé de la Caille. For this pur-
pose, take for the log a conical piece of wood,
which fix to the log-line passed through or along
its axis, at about forty, fifty, or sixty, or more
feet, from one end; and to this end fix the diver,
which is a body formed of two equal square
pieces of tin, or of thin iron plate, fixed at right
angles to one another along their diagonals; and
its size so fitted to that of the cone that the
whole may float. A cone of three inches diame-
ter in the base, and of six inches in the slant
height, is proposed by M. Bouguer to suit a
diver made of plates about nine inches and three
quarters square; the intersection of the diagonals
is joined to the log-line, and the loop and peg
fixed as in the common log. However, it has
been found, that no kind of wood used in British
dock-yards, when formed into a cone of the
above dimensions, will float a diver made of
stout tin, plates, one side of the square being
nine inches and three quarters. Such a diver,
weighing one pound fourteen ounces avoirdu-
pois, required to float it a cone of five inches
diameter and twelve inches on the slant side, so
as the point of the cone, which was made of light
fir, should just appear above the water. Now
supposing one side of such a square tin diver
to be about ten inches, and made of plates only
two-thirds of the thickness of the former, such a
diver would weigh, with its solder, about twenty
ounces, and can be floated by a light fir cone of
four inches diameter in the base, and ten inches
in the slant height or length; and such a com-
pound log might perhaps be found on trial to be
affected by about as much again as that proposed
by M. Bouguer; and consequently the differ-
ence between the numbers given by the com-
mon log and compound log, must be augmented
by two-thirds of itself for the necessary correc-
tion, as below. When the compound log of
Bouguer, above described, is hove overboard,
the diver will sink too deep to be much affected
by the current or motion of water at the surface,
and the log will thereby keep more steadily in
the place where it first fell; and consequently
the knots run off the reel will show more accu-
râtely the ship's rate of sailing. As the common
log is affected by the whole motion of the cur-
rent, so this compound log will feel only a part
thereof, viz., such a part nearly as the resistance
of the cone is to the resistance of the diver; then
the resistances of the above cone and diver are
about as one to five; and consequently this log
will drive but one-fifth part of what the common
log would do; and so the ship's true run will be
affected by one-fifth only of the motion of the
waters. To obtain the true rate of sailing, it will
be proper to heave alternately, hour and hour,
the common log and this compound log; then
the difference of their knots run off, augmented
by its fourth part, is the correction; which, ap-
plied to the knots of the common log, will give
the ship's true rate of sailing at the middle time
between the hours when these logs were hove.
The correction is additive when the compound
log's run is the greatest, otherwise it is subtrac-
tive. To find the course made good: increase
the observed angle between the log-lines by one
fourth part; and this gives the correction to be
applied to the apparent course, or the opposite
of that shown by the common log; the correc-
tion is to be applied to the right of the apparent
course, when the bearing of the common log is
to the left of the compound log; and vice versä,
to the left, when the bearing is to the right of it.
Or thus: the lengths run off both logs, together
with their bearings, being known; in a card'or
compass apply the knots run off, taken from a
scale of equal parts, along their respective bear-
ings, from the centre; join the ends; and in
this line produced, on the side next the com-
pound log's length, take one-fourth of the inter-
val; then a line drawn from the end, thus pro-
duced, to the centre of the card, will show the
true course and distance made good. When
a current, such as a tide, runs to any depth, the
velocity of that current may be much better as-
certained by the compound log than by the com-
mon one, provided the diver does not descend
lower than the run of the current; for, as those
ships which are deepest immerged drive fastest
with the tide, so the diver, by being acted on
below, as well as the log on the surface, their
joint motion will give the total effect of the cur-
rent's motion better than could be had from the
motion at the surface only. Also, by such a com-
pound log, the depth to which any current runs
may be easily tried.
We have an account, in the Voyage to the
North pole, p. 97, of two other logs, which were
tried by captain Phipps; one invented by Mr.
Russel, the other by Foxon; both constructed
upon this principle, that a spiral, in proceeding
its own length in the direction of its axis through
a resisting medium, makes one revolution round
the axis; if, therefore, the revolutions of that
spiral are registered, the number of times it has
gone its own length through the water will be
known. In both these the motion of the spiral
in the water is communicated to the clock-work
within-board, by means of a small line fastened at
one end to the spiral, which tows it after the ship,
and at the other to a spindle, which sets the clock
work in motion. That invented by Mr. Russel
has a half spiral of two threads, made of copper,
and a small dial with clock-work, to register the
number of turns of the spiral. The other log
has a whole spiral of wood with one thread, and
a larger piece of clock-work with three dials,
two of them to mark the distance, and the other
divided into knots and fathoms, to show the rate
by the half-minute glass, for the convenience of
comparing it with the log. . This kind of log
L O G A R IT H M I C L IN E S.
79
will have the advantage of every other in smooth
water and moderate weather; and it will be use:
ful in finding the trim of a ship when alone, in
surveying a coast in a single ship, or in measur-
ing distances in a boat between head-lands and
shoals: but it is subject to other inconveniences,
which will not render it a proper substitute for
the common log. : -
LOGAN, a chief among the Mingo tribe of
the North American Indians, whose pathetic ad-
dress to lord Dunmore, governor of Virginia,
has been much and justly admired. The occasion
was as follows; and the authenticity of the nar-
rative is unquestionable. In spring, 1774, a
robbery and murder were committed on an in-
habitant of the frontiers of Virginia by two In-
dians of the Shawanee tribe. The neighbouring
whites, according to custom, undertook to punish
this outrage in a summary way. Colonel Cresap,
a man infamous for the many murders he had
committed on that much-injured people, col-
lected a party, and proceeded down the Kanha-
way in quest of vengeance. Unfortunately a
canoe of women and children, with one man
only, was seen coming from the opposite shore,
unarmed, and unsuspecting any hostile attack
from the whites. Cresap and his party concealed
themselves on the bank of the river; and, the
moment the canoe reached the shore, singled out
their objects, and at one fire killed every person
in it. This happened to be the family of Logan,
who had long been distinguished as a friend of
the whites. This unworthy return provoked his
vengeance. He accordingly signalised himself
in a war which ensued. In autumn, 1774, a de-
cisive battle was fought at the mouth of the
Great Kanhaway, between the collected forces of
the Shawanees, Mingoes, and Delawares, and a
detachment of the Virginia militia. The Indians
were defeated, and sued for peace. Logan dis-
dained to be seen among the suppliants; but,
lest the sincerity of a treaty should be distrusted,
from which so distinguished a chief absented
himself, he sent by a messenger the following
speech, to be delivered to lord Dunmore : ‘I
appeal to any white man to say if ever he entered
Logan's cabin hungry, and he gave him not meat;
if ever he came cold and naked, and he clothed
him not. During the course of the last long and
bloody war Logan remained idle in his cabin,
an advocate for peace. Such was my love for
the whites, that my countrymen pointed as they
passed, and said, Logan is the friend of white
men. I had even thought to have lived with you,
but for the injuries of one man. Colonel Cresap,
the last spring, in cold blood, and unprovoked,
murdered all the relations of Logan, not sparing
even my women and children. There runs not
a drop of my blood in the veins of any living
creature. This called on me for revenge. I
have sought it; I have killed many; I have fully
glutted my vengeance. For my country, I re-
joice at the beams of peace ; but do not harbour
a thought that mine is the joy of fear. Logan
never felt fear. He will not turn on his heel to
save his life. Who is there to mourn for Logan?
Not one.’ -
LoGAN (John), D.D., late a clergyman of the
church of Scotland, author of several works of
merit. He was born in Mid Lothian about
1748; studied divinity at the university of Edin-
burgh, and was ordained minister of South
Leith, in 1770. In 1781 he published his Phi-
losophy of History, the substance of which had
been delivered in his public lectures at Edinburgh,
with great approbation. He also published his
Poems, which underwent a second edition in
1782. In 1783 he wrote Runnamede, a tragedy,
which he offered to the manager of Covent.
garden theatre; but as the lord chamberlain did
not approve of the political sentiments displayed
in it, a license was refused, though it was after-
wards acted at Edinburgh with much applause.
His last work was A Review of the Principal
Charges against Mr. Hastings. Mr. Logan died
in London in 1788. Two volumes of his Sermons
were published after his death. -
LOGARITHMICLINEs. Formany mechani-
cal purposes it is convenient to have the logarithms
of numbers laid down on scales, as well as the
logarithmic sines and tangents; by which means
computations may be carried on by mere men-
suration with compasses. Lines of this kind are
always put on the common Gunter's scale; but
as these instruments must be extended to a very
great length, in order to contain any considerable
quantity of numbers, it becomes an object of
importance to shorten them. Such an improve-
ment has been made by Mr. William Nicholson,
and published in the seventy-seventh volume of
the Philosophical Transactions. The principles
on which the construction of his instruments de-
pends are as follow : I. If two geometrical series
of numbers, having the same common ratio, be
placed in order with the terms opposite to each
other, the ratio between any term in one series
and its opposite in the other will be constant:
Thus,
2 6 18 54 162, &c.
. 3 9 27 81 243, &c. Then,
2 3 6 9 18 27 54 81 162 243, &c.
where it is evident that each of the terms in the
upper series is exactly two-thirds of the cor-
responding one in the lower. II. The ratio of
any two terms in one series will be the same
with that between those which have an equal
distance in the other. III. In all such geome-
trical series as have the same ratio the property
above mentioned takes place, though we compare
the terms of any series with those of another:
Thus,
$. 4 8 16 32 64, &c.
3 6 12 24 48 96, &c.
4 8 16 32.64 128, &c.
{: 10 20 40 80 160, &c.
where it is plain that 2, 4, 3, 6; also 2, 4, 4, 8,
and 2, 4, 5, 10, &c., have the same ratio with
that of each series. IV. If the differences of
the logarithms of the numbers be laid in order
upon equidistant parallel right lines, in such a
manner that a right line drawn across the whole
shall intersect it at divisions denoting numbers
in geometrical progression; then, from the con-
dition of the arrangement, and the property of
this logarithmic line, it follows, 1st, That every
right line so drawn will, by its intersections, in-
dicate a geometrical series of numbers ; 2dly,
80
L O G A R IT H M I C L IN E S.
That such series as are indicated by these right
lines will have the same common ratio; and,
3dly, That the series thus indicated by two pa-
rallel right lines, supposed to move laterally,
without changing either their mutual distance or
parallelism to themselves, will have each the same
ratio; and in all series indicated by such two lines,
the ratio between an antecedent and consequent,
the former taken upon one line, and the latter
upon another, will be also the same.
of these propositions is proved in the following
manner:—Let the lines AB, CD, E F, plate
LoGARITHMS, fig. 5, represent parts of the loga-
rithmic line, arranged according to the proportion
already mentioned; and let G H be a right line
passing through the points e, c, a, denoting num-
bers in geometrical progression; then will any
other line IK, drawn across the arrangement, like-
wise pass through three points f, d, b, in geometri-
cal progression. From one of the points of inter-
section f, in the last mentioned line IK, draw
the line fg parallel to GH, and intersecting the
arrangement in the points i, h; and the ratios of
the numbers e, f, c, i, will be equal, as well as
of a, h : because the intervals on the logarithmic
line, or differences of the logarithms of those
numbers, are equal. Again, the point f, the line
id, and the line h b, are in arithmetical progres-
sion, denoting the differences between the loga-
rithms of the numbers themselves; whence the
quotients of the numbers are in geometrical pro-
gression. The second proposition is proved in
a similar manner. For as it was shown that the
line fg, parallel to GH, passes through points
of division denoting numbers in the same con-
tinued ratio as those indicated by the line G. H.;
it may also be shown that the line LM, parallel
to any other line IK, will pass through a series
of points denoting numbers which have the same
continued ratio with those indicated by the line
IK, to which it is parallel. The third proposi-
tion arises from the parallelism of the lines to
their former situation; by which means they
indicate numbers in a geometrical series, having
the same common ratio as before: their distance
on the logarithmic line also remains unchanged;
whence the differences between the logarithms
of the opposite numbers, and of consequence
their ratios, will always be constant. V. Sup-
posing now an antecedent and consequent to
be given, in any geometrical series, it will
always be possible to find them, provided the
line be of unlimited length. Drawing two pa-
rallel lines, then, through each of the numbers,
and supposing the lines to move without chang-
ing their direction or parallel situation, they
will continually describe new antecedents and
consequents in the same geometrical series
as before. VI. Though the logarithmic line
contain no greater range of numbers than
from 1 to 10, it will not be found necessary for
the purposes of computation to repeat it. The
only thing requisite is to have a slider or beam
with two fixed points at the distance of the inter-
val betwixt 1 and 10, and let a moveable point
be made to range betwixt them always to indi-
cate the antecedent; then, if the consequent fixed
point fall without the rule, the other fixed point
will always denote the division on which it
The first
would have fallen had the ruler been prolonged;
and this contrivance may easily be adapted to
any arrangement of parallel lines whatever. The
arrangement of right lines, however, ought always
to be disposed in such a manner as to occupy a
right angled parallelogram, or the cross line al-
ready mentioned ought always to be at right an-
gles to the length of the ruler. ‘Fig. 6 is a ruler
consisting of ten parallel lines. Fig. 7 a beam
compass for measuring the intervals. B, A, C,
are the parts which apply to the surface of the
ruler; the middle one, A, being moveable side-
wise in a groove in the piece D E, so as always
to preserve its parallelism to the external pieces
D, C, which are fixed at a distance equal to the
length of the ruler, and have their edges placed
in such a manner as to form, with the parallel
lines which they intersect, a ratio, which by com-
position is one-tenth; which in the present case
requires them to be at right angles to the length.
The piece DE is applied to the edge FG of the
ruler. The edges or borders H, I, K, L, are
more conveniently made of transparent horn, or
tortoise-shell, than offiny opaque matter. In using
this ruler, apply the edge of either B or C to the
consequent, and slide the piece A to the antece-
dent; observing the difference between the num-
bers on the pieces denoting the lines they are
found on: then, applying the same edge of A to
any other antecedent, the other piece B or C will
intersect a consequent in the same ratio upon
that line, having the same situation with regard
to the antecedent that the line of the former con-
sequent had to its antecedent. But if B be the
consequent piece, and fall without the ruler, the
piece C will show the consequent one line
lower; or if C, in like manner, fall without the
ruler, then B will show the consequent one line
higher. ‘It might be convenient,’ says Mr.
Nicholson, “for the purpose of computation, to
make instruments of this kind with 100 or more
lines: but, in the present instrument, the num-
bers on the pieces will answer the same purpose;
for, if a consequent fall upon a line at any given
number of intervals without the ruler, it will be
found on that line of the arrangement which oc
cupies the same number of intervals, reckoned
inwards from the opposite edge of the ruler.”
Fig. 8 is an instrument on the plan of a Gunter's
scale, of twenty-eight inches and a half long, in-
vented by the late Mr. Robertson. There is a
moveable piece A B in the slider G H, across
which is drawn a fine line: the slider having also
lines C D, E, F, drawn across it at distances from
each other equal to the length of the ruler A. B.
In using the instrument, the line CD or E F is
to be placed at the consequent, and the line in
A B at the antecedent: then, if the piece A B be
placed at any other antecedent, the same line
CD or E F will indicate its consequent in the
same ratio taken the same way: that is, if the
antecedent and consequent lie on the same side
of the slider, all other antecedents and conse-
quents in that ratio will be in the same manner;
and the contrary if they do not. But, if the con-
sequent line fall without the ruler, the other fix-
ed line on the slider will show the consequent,
but on the contrary side of the slider to that
where it would else have been seen by means of
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L O G A R I T H M S.
81
the first consequent line. Fig. 9 is a circular
instrument equivalent to the former; consisting
of three concentric circles engraved and gradua-
ted upon a plate of an inch and a half diameter.
Two legs, A and B, proceed from the centre, hav-
ing right-lined edges in the direction of radii;
and are moveable either singly or together. In
using the instrument, place one of the edges at
the antecedent and the other at the consequent,
and fix them at the angle. Move the two legs
then together; and, having placed the antecedent
leg at any other number, the other will give the
consequent one in the like position on the lines.
If the line CD happen to lie between the legs,
and B be the consequent leg, the number sought
will be found one line farther from the centre
than it would otherwise have been: and, on the
contrary, it will be found one line nearer in the
like case, if A be the consequent leg. ‘This in-
strument,’ says Mr. Nicholson, “differing from
that represented fig. 6, only in its circular form
and the advantages resulting from that form, the
lines must be taken to succeed each other in the
same manner laterally; so that numbers which
fall either within or without the arrangement of
circles will be found on such lines of the arrange-
ment as would have occupied the vacant places,
if the succession of lines had been indefinitely
repeated sidewise. I approve of this construction,
as superior to every other which has yet occurred
to me, not only in point of convenience, but like-
wise in the probability of being better executed;
because small arcs may be graduated with very
great accuracy, by divisions transferred from a
larger original. The instrument, fig. 6, may be
contained conveniently in a circle of about four
inches and a half diameter. The circular instru-
ment is a combination of the Gunter's line and
thesector, with the improvements here pointed out.
The property of the sector may be useful in mag-
nifying the differences of the logarithms in the
upper part of the line of sines, the middle of the
tangents, and the beginning of the versed sines.
It is even possible, as mathematicians will easily
conceive, to draw spirals, on which graduations
of parts, every where equal to each other, will
show the ratios of those lines by moveable radii,
similar to those in this instrument.’
w
L O G. A. R. I. T H M S.
GENERAL DEFINITION.
1. LOGARITHMS. (logarithme, Fr. Aoyoc
and aptôuoc)—Logarithms, which are the indexes
of the ratios of numbers one to another, were
first invented by Napier lord Merchiston, a Scot-
tish baron, and afterwards completed by Mr.
Briggs, Savilian professor at Oxford. They are
a series of artificial numbers, contrived for ex-
pediting calculations; and proceedinan arithmeti-
cal proportion, as the numbers they answer to do
in a geometrical one. The addition and subtrac-
tion of logarithms answer to the multiplication
and division of the numbers they correspond with;
and this saves an infinite deal of trouble. In like
manner will the extraction of roots be performed,
by bisecting the logarithms of any numbers for
the square root, and trisecting them for the cube,
and so on. Harris.
The doctrine of logarithms being of great im-
portance, in the science of mathematics, we shall
explain their nature and properties more fully in
the following section:—
SECT. I.-OF THE NATURE AND PROPERTIES of
LoGARITHMS.
2. Let there be two series of numbers, the
one constituting an arithmetical progression,
and the other a geometrical progression, as fol-
lows:–
Arith. prog. 0, 1,2,3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, &c.
Geom. prog. 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32,64,128,256,512,&c.
where the terms stand over each other in such a
manner, that 0 in the arithmetical series corre-
sponds to unity in the geometrical series; then
we readily perceive, that the two series, so ar-
ranged, possess the following properties: -
3. I. Let the sum of any two terms of the
arithmetical series be taken; and also the pro-
duct of the corresponding terms of the geome-
trical series; then, below that term of the arith-
metical series, which is equal to the sum, will be
“ol. XIII. - -
Iound a term of the
the product.
Thus, if the terms of the arithmetical series be
3 and 5, those of the geometrical series will be
8 and 32. Now 3 + 5 = 8; and 8 × 32-256;
and, by inspecting the two series, we find that
the term 256 in the geometrical series stands be-
low 8 of the arithmetical series. .*
4. II. Let the difference of any two terms of
the arithmetical series be taken, and also the
quotient of the corresponding terms of the geo-
metrical series; then, below that term of the
arithmetieal series which is equal to the differ-
ence, will be found a term of the geometrical se-
ries equal to the quotient.
Thus, if the terms of the arithmetical series be
5 and 8, and therefore those of the geometrical
series 32 and 256; we shall have 8–5–3, and
256-32=8; and we find, by inspecting the se-
ries, that 8 of the geometrical series stands below
3 of the arithmetical series. This last property
is evidently nothing else than the converse of the
former. *
5. In the preceding geometrical series the com-
mon ratio is 2, but it may be any other number
whatever, whole or fractional. Thus the same
properties will be found to hold true of these
Ser1eS . - -
Arith. prog. 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, &c.
Geom. prog. 1, 3, 9,27,81,243,729,2187, &c.
where the common ratio of the geometrical series
is 3. They also hold true in the following:—
Arith. prog. 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, &c.
Geom. prog. 1, #, #, E, is, sh;, &c.
where the common ratio is #.
6. To demonstrate that the two foregoing pro-
perties must necessarily be true in every case, it
is orily necessary to write down a geometrical
series, according to the algebraic method of no-
tation, thus, r* or 1, r", r*, r*, r*, r*, r*, r*, &c.,
where r denotes the ratio of the series, and it
geometrical series equal to
82
Lo G A R I T H M s.
presently appears, that the arithmetical series is
supplied by the numeral exponents of the terms.
Hence it follows, that the properties, which we
have ascribed to any geometrical, and its corre-
sponding arithmetical series, are no other than
two well known propositions in algebra; namely,
that the sum of the exponents of any two powers
of an algebraic quantity is equal to the exponent
of their product; and that the difference of
their exponents is equal to the exponent of their
quotient.
7. When the terms of an arithmetical progres-
sion are adapted to those of a geometrical pro-
gression, as in the three examples given in § 2
and 5, the terms of the arithmetical series are call-
ed the logarithms of the corresponding terms of
the geometrical series.
Thus, in the first example, 0, 1, 2, 3, &c., are
the logarithms of 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, &c., respectively.
In the second example, 0, 1, 2, 3, &c., are the
logarithms of the numbers 1, 3, 9, 27, &c.
And, in the third example, 0, 1, 2, 3, &c., are
the logarithms of 1, #, #, ſº &c.
By applying now the properties of these series
which were demonstrated in § 6, to logarithms,
and their corresponding numbers, we may define
logarithms to be a series of numbers in arithme-
tical progression, so adapted to another series
of mumbers in geometrical progression, that the
sums and differences of the former correspond
to and show the products and quotients of the
latter.
8. From this lefinition of logarithms it appears,
that there may be an infinity of different sys-
tems according as one or other geometrical series
is adapted to the arithmetical series, 0, 1, 2, 3,
&c. It may, however, be readily supposed that
some systems are better suited to general calcu-
lation than others. Accordingly it has been
found convenient in practice to adopt that in
which the logarithm of 10 is unity: the series
of numbers which may have their logarithms
expressed by integers being as in the following
table:–
Logarithms 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, &c.
Numbers 1, 10, 100, 1000, 10,000, &c.
9. With respect to the numbers between 1
and 10, 10 and 100, &c., and their correspond-
ing logarithms, they may be understood to be
supplied by interpolation, thus: Conceive a
great number of geometrical proportionals to be
inserted between the natural numbers 1 and 10
which are the extremes; also an equal number
of arithmetical proportionals between their loga-
rithms 0 and 1: then, if the number of geometri-
cai proportionals be sufficiently great, some one
or other of them will be sufficiently near to each
of the natural numbers 2, 3,4, 5, &c., to 9, as to
admit of the one being taken for the other, with-
out any sensible error. There will also be a
corresponding logarithm to each, which, as it
will be less than unity, may be most convenient-
ly expressed by a decimal fraction.
10. Let us suppose the number of geometrical
proportionals between 1 and 10, and also the
number of arithmetical proportionals between
0 and 1, to be 9999, and therefore the number of
terms, including 1 and 10, 10001. Then the
3011th term of the geometrical series will be
19999, or 2 nearly, and the corresponding term
of the arithmetical series, 3010: therefore the
logarithm of 2 is 3010, nearly. Again, the
4772d term of the geometrical series will be
2.9999, or 3 nearly; and the corresponding term
of the arithmetical series 4771; therefore the
logarithm of 3 is 4771 nearly; and so on with
respect to other numbers.
11. If we suppose the series of natural num-
bers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, &c., to be arranged in a table,
so that each number may stand opposite to its
corresponding logarithm; it is evident from the
properties which we have shown to belong to
lögarithms, that, by means of such a table, the
arithmetical operations of multiplication, divi-
sion, involution, and evolution, may be performed
with great facility. ' -
12. For, since the sum of the logarithms of
any two numbers is equal to the logarithm of their
product, § 3, the product of any two numbers
will be found in the table opposite to that loga-
rithm which is the sum of the logarithms of the
numbers. n
Again, because the difference of the logarithms
of two numbers is equal to the logarithm of the
quotient arising from the division of the one num-
ber by the other, § 4, that quotient will be found
in the table, opposite to the logarithm which is
excess of the logarithm of the dividend, above
that of the divisor.
13. Involution is performed by multiplying the
root into itself a number of times, which is one
less than the exponent of the power; therefore,
if the logarithm of the root be multiplied by the
exponent of that power, the product will be the
logarithm of the power of the root. And, evolu-
tion being the 1everse of involution, the logarithm
of any root of a number will be had if we divide
the logarithm of that number by the index of the
root; and thence the root itself may be found,
by inspecting the table of logarithms.
14. Upon the whole, therefore, it appears that
by meansofa table containing the series of natural
numbers, 1, 2, 3, &c., as far as may be convenient,
and their corresponding logarithms, the opera-
tions of multiplication and division may be re-
duced to the more simple operations of addition
and subtraction; and the operations of involu-
tion and evolution, to those of multiplication and
division.
SECT. II.-HISTORY OF LOGARITH MS.
15. The properties of a geometrical series,
which constitute the foundation of the doctrine
of logarithms, appear to have been known as far
back as the days of Archimedes; for that cele-
brated mathematician makes use of them in his
work entitled Arenarius, or Treatise on the Num-
ber of Sands. The same properties are also
mentioned in the writings of Stifelius, a German
mathematician, who lived about the middle of the
sixteenth century. It does not, however, appear,
that any person perceived all the advantages
which might be derived from these properties,
till about the beginning of the seventeenth cen-
tury, when their utility was rendered evident by
the happy invention of logarithms.
16. This discovery, certainly one of the most
valuable that ever was made in mathematics, is
L O G A R.
I T H M S. 83
tlue to John Napier, baron of Merchiston, in
Scotland, who published it to the world, in 1614,
in a work which he called Mirifici Logarithmo-
rum Canonis Descriptio, and which contained a
large table of logarithms, together with their de-
scription and uses: but the author reserved his
method of constructing them, till the sense of the
learned concerning his invention should b
known.
17. In the above mentioned work, Napier ex-
plains his notion of logarithms bylines described,
or generated, by the motion of points, in this
manner:—He first conceives a line to be generated
by the motion of a point, which passes over equal
portions of it, in equal small moments or portions
of time. He then considers another line to be
generated by the unequal motion of a point, in
such a manner, that, in the aforesaid equal por-
tions, or moments of time, there may be described,
or cut off from a given line, parts which shall be
continually in the same proportion with the
respective remainders of that line, which had
before been left; then are the several lengths of
the first line the logarithms of the corresponding
parts of the latter. Which description of them
is similar to that which we have already given,
viz. that logarithms are a series of quantities, or
numbers in arithmetical progression, adapted to
another series in geometrical progression.
18. Napier made the first, or whole length of
the line, which is diminished in geometrical pro-
gression, the radius of a circle; and its logarithm
0, or nothing, representing the beginning of the
first or arithmetical line. Thus the several pro-
portional remainders of the geometrical line are
the natural sines of all arches of a quadrant, de-
creasing down to 0; while the successive in-
creasing values of the arithmetical line are the
corresponding logarithms of those decreasing
sines: so that, while the natural sines decrease
from radius to 0, their logarithms increase from 0
to infinity. Napier made the logarithm of radius
to be 0, that he might save the trouble of adding
and subtracting it in trigonometrical operations,
in which it so frequently occurred; and he made
the logarithms of the sines, from the entire qua-
drant down to 0, to increase, that they might be
positive, and so, in his opinion, easier to manage;
the sines being of more frequent use than the
tangents and secants, of which the whole of the
latter, and the half of the former, being greater
than radius, would, according to his construction,
have their logarithms negative.
19. The description and use of Napier's canon
being in the Latin language, they were translated
into English by Mr. Edward Wright, the inge-
nious inventor of what is commonly, though
erroneously, called Mercator's sailing. The
translation was sent to the author, who revised
it, and returned it with his approbation. Mr.
Wright, however, dying soon after he received it
back, the work, together with the tables, was
published in 1616, after his death, by his son
Samuel Wright, who dedicated it to the East
India Company. It contained also a preface by
Henry Briggs, of whom we shall have occasion to
speak again presently, on account of the great
share he bore in perfecting the logarithms.
20. As Napier's canon contained only the
natural sines for every minute of the quadrant,
and their carresponding logarithms, it was at-
tended with some degree of inconvenience, when
used as a table of the logarithms of common
numbers; because, when a number was proposed
which was not exactly the same with some num-
ber denoting a natural sine, it was then necessary
to find its logarithm by means of an arithmetical
calculation, performed according to precepts
which the author delivered in his work. This
inconvenience, which was in part obviated by
certain contrivances of Wright and Briggs, was
not the only one; for there was another, which
arose from the logarithms being sometimes +, or
additive, and sometimes —, or negative; and
which therefore required the knowledge of alge-
braic addition and subtraction. This last defect
was occasioned partly by making the logarithm
of radius 0, and those of the sines to increase;
and partly by the compendious manner in which
the author had formed the table ; making the
three columns of sines, cosines, and tangents, to
serve also for the other three of cosecants, secants,
and cotangents.
21. But this latter inconvenience was well re-
medied by John Speidell, in his New Logarithms,
first published in 1617; which contained all the
six columns, and these all of a positive form, by
being taken the arithmetical complements of
Napier's, that is, they were the remainders left
by subtracting each of the latter from 10,000,000.
And the former inconvenience was more com-
pletely removed by Speidell in a second table,
given in the sixth impression of the former work,
in the year 1624. This was a table of Napier's
Logarithms for the integers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, &c., to
1000, together with their differences and arith-
metical complements; as also the halves of the
said numbers, with their differences and arith-
metical complements; which halves were con-
sequently the logarithms of the square roots of
the said numbers. Those logarithms are, how-
ever, a little varied in their form from Napier's,
namely, so as to increase from 1, whose logarithm
is 0, instead of decreasing to 1 or radius, whose
logarithm Napier made 0 likewise; that is, Spei-
dell's logarithm of any number n is equal to
Napier's logarithm of its reciprocal #. So that,
in this last table of Speidell's, the logarithm of
1 being 0, the logarithm of 10 is 2302584; the
logarithm of 100 is twice as much, or 4605168;
and that of 1000, thrice as much, or 6907753.
The logarithms contained in this table are now
commonly called hyperbolic logarithms; be-
cause they serve to express the areas contained
between the curve of the hyperbola and its as-
symptote. * . . -
22. The celebrated inventor of the logarithms
died in the year 1618; and in 1619 his son
Robert Napier published a new edition of the
Logarithmorum Canonis Descriptio, to which
was now added the promised Logarithmorum
Canonis Constructio, and other miscellaneous
pieces written by his father and Mr. Briggs. This
work was reprinted in France in 1620; also,
nearly about this time, different mathematicians
abroad published tables of logarithms of the same
kind as those of Napier; as Benjamin Ursinus,
mathematician to the elector of Biº.
. 2
84
I, O G A R IT H M S.
also the famous Kepler, who was the mathema-
tician to the emperor Ferdinand II. and others.
23. Next to the discovery of logarithms, the
most remarkable circumstance connected with
their history is that improvement which they
received in their form from Henry Briggs, who
was, at the time of the publication of Napier's
logarithms, professor of geometry in Gresham
College, in London, and afterwards Savilian pro-
fessor of geometry at Oxford, where he died in .
the year 1630.
24. On the first publication of Napier's loga-
rithms, Briggs immediately applied himself to
the study and improvement of them; and pre-
sently saw that it would be of advantage to change
the scale; so that the logarithm of 1 being 0, as
in Napier's form, the logarithm of 10 might be 1,
that of 100 2, of 1000 3, and so on; whereas the
logarithms of the same numbers, according to
Napier's construction, were 2-302585, 4-605168,
6'907753, &c. This improvement Briggs com-
municated both to the public in his lectures, and
to Napier himself, who afterwards said, that he
had also thought of the same thing; as appears
from the following extract, translated from the
preface to Brigg's Arithmetica Logarithmica:
“Wonder not,’ says he, “that these logarithms
are different from those which the excellent baron
of Marchiston published in his Admirable Canon.
For when I explained the doctrine of them to my
auditors at Gresham College, in London, I re-
marked, that it would be much more convenient,
the logarithm of the sine total being 0 (as in the
Canon Mirificus), if the logarithm of the tenth
part of the said radius, namely, of 5° 44'21",
were 100000, &c., and concerning this, I presently
wrote to the author; also, as soon as the season
of the year, and my public teaching, would per-
mit, I went to Edinburgh, where, being kindly
received by him, I staid a whole month. But,
when we began to converse about the alteration
of them, he said, that he had formerly thought of
it, and wished it; but that he chose to publish
those that were already done, till such time as
his leisure and health would permit him to make
others more convenient. And, as to the nature
of the change, he thought it more expedient, that
0 should be the logarithm of 1, and 100000, &c.,
the logarithm of radius, which I could not but
acknowledge was much better; therefore, reject-
ing those I had before prepared, I proceeded, at
his exhortation, to calculate these, and the next
summer I went to Edinburgh, to show him the
principal of them, and should have been glad to
do the same the third summer, if it had pleased
God to spare him so long.’
25. Thus it appears that Briggs was the inventor
of the present scale of logarithms, in which 1 is
the logarithm of 10, and 2 that of 100,&c., and that
the share which Napier had in them was only ad-
vising Briggs to begin at the lowest number 1, and
make the logarithms, or artificial numbers (as Na-
pier had also called them), to increase with the
natural numbers, instead of decreasing, which
made no alteration in the figures that expressed’
Briggs's logarithms, but only in their affections
or signs, changing them from negative to posi-
tive; for, according to Briggs's first intention,
, the logarithms of -001, '01, "1, 1, 10, 100, 1000,
Vlacq, and nearly finished off before 1631.
&c., would have been +3, +2, + 1, 0, −1,
—2, —3, &c.; but, in conformity to the sugges-
tion of Napier, they were made —3, –2, —1, 0,
+1, +2, +3, &c., which is a change of no
essential importance, as the scale of the system
is the same in either case. And the reason why
Briggs, after that interview, rejected what he had
before done, and began anew, was probably
because he had adapted his new logarithms to
approximate sines of arcs, instead of the round
or integer numbers, and not from their being
logarithms of another system, as were those of
Napier.
26. About the year 1618 Briggs published
the first 1000 logarithms to eight places of
figures, besides the index, under the title of
Logarithmorum Chilias Prima : and in 1624 he
produced his Arithmetica, Logarithmica, a stu-
pendous workfor so short a time, containing the
logarithms of 30,000 natural numbers, to four-
teen places of figures besides the index; namely,
from 1 to 20,000, and from 90,000 to 100,000,
together with the differences of the logarithms;
and in both these works the logarithms were
calculated according to the system which had
been agreed upon between him and the first in-
ventor; that is, they were the same as the
system which we commonly employ at the pre-
Sent time.
27. Soon after the publication of the Arith-
Inetica Logarithmica, Adrian Vlacq, or Flack,
completed the intermediate seventy chiliads,
and republished it at Gouda, in Holland; thus
making in the whole, the logarithms of all num-
bers from 1 to 100,000; but only to ten places
of figures. He also added a table of artificial
sines, tangents, and secants, to, every minute of
the quadrant. -
28. Briggs himself also lived to complete a
table of logarithmic sines and tangents for the
100th part of every degree of the quadrant, to
fourteen places of figures, besides the index;
together with a table of natural sines for the
same parts, to fifteen places, and the tangents
and secants of the same to ten places, with the
construction of the whole. These tables were
printed at Gouda, under the care of Adrian
But
the death of the author, which happened in
1630, prevented him from completing the appli-
cation and uses of them. However, the per-
forming of this office he recommended, when
dying, to his friend Henry Gellibrand, then
professor of astronomy in Gresham College;
who added a preface; and the application of the
logarithms to plane and spherical trigonometry,
&c. The work was published in 1633, under
the title of Trigonometria Britannica; and be-
sides the arcs in degrees, and centesms of de-
grees, it has another column, containing the
minutes and seconds, answering to the several
centesms in the first column.
29. In the same year Vlacq printed at Gouda
his Trigonometria Artificialis; sive Magnus
Canon Triangulorum Logarithmicus, ad Deca-
das Secundorum Scrupulorum constructus. This
work contains the logarithmic sines and tangents
to ten places of figures, with their differences, for
every ten seconds in the quadrant. To them is
L O G. A. R. I T H M S
85.
also added Briggs's table of the first 20,000
logarithms; but carried only to ten places of
figures, besides the index, with their differences.
The whole is preceded by a description of the
tables, and the application of them to plane and
spherical trigonometry, chiefly extracted from
Briggs's Trigonometria Britannica, mentioned
above.
30. Gellibrand published also, in 1635, An
Institution Trigonometrical, containing the logar-
ithms of the first 10,000 numbers, with the
natural sines, tangents, and secants, and the
logarithmic sines and tangents for degrees and
minutes, all to seven places of figures, besides
the index; as also other tables proper for navi-
gation, with the uses of the whole.
. 31. Having now given some account of such
works on logarithms as seem most connected
with their first discovery and subsequent im-
provement, we shall pass over many others, some
of which, however, have been held in high
repute, both for their accuracy, and the extent
to which the tables have been carried. As,
however, even the arrangement of the logarithms
in the tables has received considerable improve-
ments since the days of Napier, it may be proper
to mention, that they were first reduced to the
most convenient form by John Newton, in his
Trignometria Britannica, published at London
in 1658. -
32. Among the tables of logarithms which
have been published of late years, in this country,
there are two works most deservedly in repute,
both for accuracy and convenience of arrange-
ment: these are Dr. Hutton's Mathematical
Tables, containing common, hyperbolic, and
logistic logarithms, &c., and Taylor's Tables of
logarithms of all numbers, from 1 to 101,000;
and of the sines and tangents to every second of
the quadrant. Several very accurate and well
arranged collections of tables of logarithms have
also been lately printed in France one which
deserves to be particularly mentioned is Callet's
stereotype edition of Tables Portatives de Lo-
garithms. These contain the logarithms of
numbers from 1 to 108,000, and the logarithmic
sines and tangents for every second, in the first
five degrees, and for every ten seconds of the
remaining degrees of the quadrant, and also for
every 10,000th part of the arc, according to the
new centesimal division of the quadrant. The
logarithms are to seven decimal places.
33. But a more extensive collection of logar-
ithmic tables than any we have yet mentioned,
was begun in France in 1794, under the direc-
tion of C. Prony, who engaged not only to com-
pose tables which should leave nothing farther to
be desired with regard to accuracy, but to make
them the most extended and most striking mo-
nument of calculation, which had ever been
executed, or even imagined. In preparing this
work, C. Prony availed himself of the advantage
to be derived from the division of labor, by
means of which, the greatest perfection of work-
manship is obtained in the arts, with the least
expense of money and time. By the united
labors of C. Prony and his assistants, who were
divided into three classes, two MS. copies of
the tables were prepared ; these composed
seventeen volumes, large folio, and contained,
(1.) An introduction, consisting of an expo-
sition of the analytical formulae, the use of the
trigonometrical table; and a number of auxiliary
tables. -
(2.) The natural sines for every 10,000th part
of the quadrant, calculated to twenty-five places
of decimals, with seven or eight columns of dif-
ferences; to be published with twenty-two deci-
mals, and five columns of differences.
(3.) The logarithms of these sines calculated
to fourteen decimals, with five columns of dif-
ferences.
(4.) The logarithms of the ratios of the sines
to the arcs, for the first 5000 10,000th parts of
the quadrant, calculated to fourteen decimals,
with three columns of differences.
(5.) The logarithms of the tangents, corre-
sponding with the logarithms of the sines.
(6.) The logarithms of the ratios of the tan-
gents to the arcs, calculated like those in the
fourth article. - w
(7.) Logarithms of numbers from 1 to 100,000,
calculated to nineteen places of decimals.
(8.) The logarithms from 100,000 to 200,000,
calculated to twenty-four decimals, in order to be
published to twelve decimals, and three columns
of differences. - -
The printing of this immense work was com-
menced under the auspices of the French govern-
ment, but was suspended at the fall of the
assignats, and has not since been resumed.
After the overthrow of Buonaparte an offer was
made by the British government (on the sugges-
tion of Mr. Davies Gilbert, the present president
of the Royal Society), to defray one-half of the
expense attending the printing and publication
of the work; but the offer was declined by the
French government, but in a manner which
showed that the feelings which dictated the offer
were duly appreciated.
SECT, III.—THE Construction of LoGAR-
ITHIMS.
34. From the general explanation which has
been given of the nature of logarithms, in § 1, it
is not difficult to see how we may find the logar-
ithms of as many numbers as we please. For
the arithmetical series 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, &c., being
assumed to denote the logarithms of the geome-
rtical series
1, 10, 100, 1000, 10,000, &c.
if we find any number of arithmetical propor-
tionals between every two terms of the former,
and an equal number of geometrical proportion-
als between the corresponding terms of the
latter; these arithmetical proportionals will be
the logarithms of the corresponding geometrical
proportionals.
35. The logarithms thus found will not indeed
correspond exactly to any term in the series of
whole numbers 2, 3, 4, 5, &c., but, proceeding
upon the same principle, the logarithms of these
may be also found, as in the following example,
where it is proposed to determine the logarithm
of the number 9: and, as the inserting of two or
more geometrical proportionals between any
two given numbers would require the extraction
of the cube or some higher root, we shall carry
on the operation by inserting only one mean,
86 1. o G A R
I T H M S
which may be done by the extraction of the
square root.
36. Because the logarithm of 1 is 0, and the
logarithm of 10 is 1, we are to find an arithme-
tical mean between 0 and 1, and a geometrical
mean between 1 and 10; the former will be
0 -- 1
#– 3
W 10 = 3-1622777. Hence the logarithm of
3.1622777 is 5. Again, let an arithmetical
mean be found between 5, the logarithm of
3°1622777, and 1, the logarithm of 10, and a
geometrical mean between 3:1622777 and 10,
1 + 5 1.5
g—=== 75; and the
latter V10 × 3.1622777 = 5.6234132. Thus
the logarithm of 5-6234132 is found to be 5-75.
= '5, and the lattery 1 × 10 E
tne former will be
For a third. operation, let an arithmetical mean .
be found between '75, the logarithm of 5.6234132,
and 1, the logarithm of 10; also a geome-
trical mean between 5'6234132 and 10; the
1 +; 75 = '875; and the latter
M10 × 5.6234132 = 7-498.9422. Therefore the
logarithm of 7,498.9422 is .875. -
Fourth operation. Let an arithmetical mean
be found between '875, the logarithm of
7-498.9422, and 1, the logarithm of 10; also
a geometrical mean between 7 498942 and 10;
the former will be '9375, and the latter
8:6596431. Thus the logarithm of 8:6596431
is 93.75.
Fifth operation. Let an arithmetical mean
be found between 9375, the logarithm of
86596431, and 1 the logarithm of 10; also
a geometrical mean between 8:6596431 and 10,
the former will be '96875, and the latter
9:3057204. Thus the logarithm of 9:3057.204
is ‘96875.
Sixth operation. As the geometrical mean
last found exceeds 9, let there now be found an
arithmetical mean between 9375, the logarithm
of 8:6596431, and '96875 the logarithm of
9:3057.204, the former will be ‘953125, and
the latter 8.9768713. Thus the logarithm of
8'9768713 is '953.125.
Proceeding in this manner, after twenty-five
extractions of the square root, it will be found
that the logarithm of 8.9999998 is 9542425,
which may be taken also for the logarithm of 9,
as it differs so little from it, that it is sufficiently
exact for all practical purposes.
37. Having found the logarithm of 9, we may
thence find the logarithms of all roots and
powers of 9, as well as all multiples of those
roots and powers, by 10, 100, 1000, &c. Thus
log. 3 = log. V 9 = } log. 9 = 4771213
log. 81 = log. 9°= 2 x log. 9 = 1-9084850
log. 30 = log. 3 + log. 10 = 1.4771213.
38. This method of computing the logarithms
of numbers, by the finding of geometrical pro-
portionals, is exceedingly tedious: it is, how-
ever, nearly the same as was employed by the first
computers of logarithms; but the improvements
which have been since made in the various branch-
es of mathematics, and particularly in the doctrine
ef infinite series, have furnished much easier me-
former will be
thods of computing logarithms. These, as well
as the nature and properties of logarithms, we
now proceed to explain, by means of the princia
ples of the common algebraic analysis, in the
following manner.
39. Let r denote any positive number what-
ever, different from unity. Then, by assuming
proper exponents, the powers of r may become
equal to all positive numbers whatever, whether
those numbers be whole or fractional. Thus if
+ = 2, we have 2"– 1, 2* = 2, 2* = 4, 2*= 8,
2* = 16, &c. As to the intermediate numbers
3, 5, 6, 7, &c., they may be expressed, at least
nearly, by fractional powers of 2. Thus,
21.5850 == 3, 22.3219– 5, 22.5850– 6, 12.8073 — 7,
&c. * - -
So also the powers of 10 may become, either
exactly or nearly, equal to all positive numbers'
whatever. Thus,
10° = 1 10-7781 – 6
10.3010 = 2 10.8451 - 7
10-4771 - 3 10.9031 - 8
10.6021 = 4 10.9542 - 9
10.6990 - 5 10! = 10
40. In general, if a denote any positive num-
ber, it is sufficiently evident, that it is possible to
conceive a corresponding number A, such, that -
r^- a ; and A, that is the exponent of r, which
º: a power equal to a, is called the logarithm
Of (1.
41. From this manner of defining logarithms,
we readily derive all their properties. For a and
b denoting any two numbers; also A and B their
logarithms; we have r" = a, and r* = b, there-
fore r* + r * = a b, but r* x r" = r^+*;
therefore A + B is the logarithm of a b ; that is,
the sum of the logarithms of any two numbers is
equal to the logarithm of the product. Again,
A A - f
: - #: but ºr= r a —”, therefore, A – B
0.
7,
the logarithms of two numbers is equal to the
logarithm of their quotient. -
If we resume the equation r * = a, we have
r" * = a ", therefore n A is the logarithm of
a “; and, since n may be either a whole number
or a fraction, it follows, that the logarithm of any
power of a number is equal to the logarithm
of that number, multiplied by the exponent
of the power; also, that the logarithm of any
root of a number is equal to the logarithm
of the number divided by the exponent of the
TOOt. - -
42. There may be various systems of loga-
rithms, according to the different values which
may be given to the number r, which is called
the radical number of the system. In the com-
mon system of the logarithms, r is 10; but in
the system of Napier it is 2:7182818. It is evi-
dent from the definition given in § 40, that the
logarithm of the radical number in every system
must be unity. In different systems, the loga-
rithms of the same number are always to one
another in a constant ratio. Suppose that A is
the logarithm of the number a, the radical number
of the system being r ; and A’ the logarithm of
the same number, according to another system,
is the logarithm of +; that is, the difference of
L O G A R I T H M S.
87
the radical number of which is r": Then r * =
a, and r * = a ; therefore r * = r *', and
A. p * , , , . . . . . . A
r-F = r. Thus it appears that the fraction Aſ
depends only on r, and r’; and therefore must
be the same whatever be the value of the num-
ber a.
43. Hence it follows, that if the logarithms of
numbers, according to any one system, be given.
the logarithms of the same numbers, according to
any other proposed system, may be readily found.
Thus, if the given system be the common loga-
rithms, the radical number of which is 10, and
it be required to find the logarithm of any num-
ber a, according to Napier's system, of which
the radical number is 2.7182818; let A denote
the logarithm of a, according to the former sys-
tem; and a the logarithm of a, according to the
latter. Then, by substituting 10 and 2.7182818,
for r and r"; also a for A', in the last equation of
A
§ 42, we have 10 F = 2.7182818, and, from
the nature of logarithms, . X log. 10 E log.
2.7182818, § 41 : Hence
_ log. 10 1
* = Lºis X*=:151351; x *
= 2.3025851 × A. Thus it appears, that Na-
pier's logarithm of any number is equal to the
common logarithm of the same number, multi-
plied by 2-3025851; or divided by 4342945.
44. Let us now denote any number whatever
by y, and its logarithm by a ; then, r represent-
ing as before the radical number of the system,
the relation between a number and its logarithm
is represented by the algebraic equation r" = y.
This equation suggests two subjects of enquiry,
both capable of being resolved by means of the
algebraic method of analysis. These are: first,
To determine y when w is given; or to determine
the number which corresponds to a given loga-
rithm. Secondly, To determine a wheny is given;
that is, to determine the logarithm corresponding
to a given number. -
45. We proceed to the first subject of enquiry,
namely, to find an algebraic expression for y, in
terms of r and r ; or to express, generally, any
number by means of its logarithm, and the base
or radical numbers of the system : for this pur-
pose, let us assume
r" = A + B a -- Caº + D w8 + Ea" + &c.
Here A, B, C, D, &c., are supposed to be co-effici-
ents independent of w. Let z denote any other
quantity; then, in like manner, we have
r” = A + B z + C z* + D z* + E z* + &c.
Taking now the difference between the assumed
equations, and dividing both sides of the result
by a -2, we have -
r”—r B(r—z)+C(a”—z”)+D(r3–28)+&c.
a —z T *-2
Now it is well known, that each of the quantities
a-2, r"—z”, a *—2°, a 4–2*, &c., which compose
the latter part of this equation, is divisible by
r—g; therefore, theseveraldivisions being actually
effected, the last equation may otherwise be ex-
*::= B+c(; +2)+D
pressed thus a — z
gºt- +2") + E,(rº-H ºx + r z + 4*) +
46. That we may expand the first part of this
equation into the form of a series, let us express
the numerator r" — r" thus, r* (r” T * – 1);
then, putting 1 + a for r, we have -
* *
Now, by the binomial theorem, the quantity
(1 + a) *T*, when expanded into a series, is
7 * — r *
1 + grº a + g-ºº-º-0 a”. --
(w—z) G---0g-1-2) a8 + &c.
1 - 2 3
Therefore, subtracting unity from this series, and
dividing each of the remaining terms by a -z, as
indicated by the latter part of the last equation,
— 7" " . a — z — 1
- nº - a?
===r (a + = a +
a” + &c.)
r
we have
(r—z— 1) (r—z–2)
2 © 3
Hence it appears that
a — 2 - 1 (a-2–1)(r—z—2) a%
** (a + 2 a? 2 iº
(r—z—1) (a-2—2) (r–3–3) ... -
+ 2 s 3 º 4 aft + &c.) -
B+ C (a + 2) + D(r^+ cz + 2*
+ E (w8-|- a "z + a z*-i- ??) -- &c
This last equation, by supposing z = r, becomes
y 62 a? ał a;
7- (a– ++ +– ++ #&c.) =
B + 2 Ca' + 3 D a " + 4 E as + 5 F wº + &c.
and substituting for r * the series
A + B r + C a” + Da" + E wº 4- &c.
also, putting, for the sake of brevity,
2
Q. a8 04 a 5
a – #4 +– H-4 5
we find
A m + B m a + C ma"+D m tº + Emaº-H &c.—
B+ 2C a + 3 D tº 4-4 Eaº + 5 F wº–H. &c.
Hence, by putting the co-efficients of the like
powers of a in each series equal to one another,
B m C m D m
wefnd B-Am, C===, D = ſā-, E==,
Em
F - ---, &c.
Thus we have obtained a series of equations, by
which all the co-efficients, except A, the first, are
determined. It is however readily obtained from
the assumed equation r" = A + Bir + C a” +&c.,
by taking a = 0; for then the first part of the
equation of r" becomes unity, and all the terms
of the second part vanish, except A : thus A= 1,
ºn c. – m” r m” . I — ”
B- +c++; D= #5 °FT3:54,
ºms - - -- *
F - Tº:34.5° &c.; and, by substituting these
values in the assumed series, we find y = r = 1
m a m” arº m3 a.” $mº 4.4
* * -- * * + tº t------- + &c.
+ 1 + 1°2 1-2-3 * 1:2:34 +
47. Thus we have obtained a series for y, which
will always converge, whatever be the values of
the quantities m and a. Before, however, the se-
ries can be applied to practice, it will benecessary
to compute the value of m, which, by putting
r — 1 for its value a, is equal to this other series
88
Lo G A R IT H M S.
r–1_(r-1} + (−1)" (r-1)....(?--1}_
—I-– 2 + 3 *mº 4 + 5
&c. But as this last series will not converge,
unless r— 1 be less than unity, it will be ne-
cessary to have recourse to another method of
obtaining its sum than by the mere addition of
its terms.
48. Resuming, therefore, the equation
... — , , m r , m** a m'a' , m***
= 1 ++++, ++; 1-2-3-4
set us suppose w = 1; and we have
m m” . m3 7m.”
- <!-- + -- +–1. + — + &c.
r=1 + +++,++; a +1; +
This series gives the value of r, when mis known.
Therefore, if we suppose a system of logarithms
to be such, that m = 1, and put e for the radical
number of that system, we have -
+ &c.
1 1 1 1
- * * * e=ºmº & g
•= 1 ++++++++1= +&c
and by reducing a sufficient number of the terms
of this series to decimal fractions, and taking their
sum, we readily find e- 2:7812818, nearly. Now,
as e is the radical number of a system, in which
m= 1, for the same reason that
7?? （? m2 tº mºa's
* = 1 + --- 1:---- - - - &c.
r=1 ++++++ +
1-2-3
we have
a . g.” &S **
e = 1 +----|--|--|- – -- — + &c.
1 + 1 tº #iº + TºâA +
and as this must be true, whatever be the value
of r, we may suppose a = m; hence we have
m m” m* m*
e” E 1 + ---|--|--|--|--|- — + &c.
+ 1 + 1.2 + 1.5°E 1-2-3-4 +
which last series we have already found to be
E r, therefore e " = r, and taking the loga-
rithms of both sides of the equation, m × log. e
log. r. O
log. e.” T,
since the logarithm of the radical number of any
E log. r, hence at last we find m:
Let this value of
log. e
m be substituted in the series of $46, and we
a”
1 + + 1 ‘2’ (log.e)”
system is unity, m-
— —”
- ?" -
+ T-2-3 (log.e);sº + &c., where it is to be ob-
served that a and log. e are logarithms belonging
to the same system; and by this series a number
may be found corresponding to any given lo-
garithm whatever.
49. We are next to investigate a series which
shall express the logarithm by means of the
number. This may be readily obtained, if we
recollect that in § 47 we found
r—1 (r—1)* , (r—1)" (r—1)*
=+---4---------&c.
and that in § 48 we also found log. r = m x
log. e, hence we have
*
have y Tſog. 6
77, -
—1 (r—1)* , (r—1)?
log. r = log. *-1 V-1)
og. r E log. e } 2 2 3.
— 1 Yº
sº city + &c. } Now, this equation must
hold true, whatever be the value of r: we may
therefore substitute : gy for r, and conse-
quently y for r—1; where y denotes
ber whatever; hence we find
-- • y',
log.(1 + y) = log.e (y–44 +-4-4
&c.) Thus we have found a series which ex-
presses the logarithm of any number whatever,
by means of the number itself, and the logarithm.
of another given number, e. -
50. The series which we have just now found
will be of little or no use in the actual construc-
tion of logarithms, unless y be a small fraction;
we may however derive from it another series,
much better adapted to that purpose, in the fol-
lowing manner:—
any num-
Let us put M for log. e = # Then, because
- 4. N .
log. (1 +y}=M(, º- ++ #— # + &c.)
if we substitute — y for + y we shall have
* = -º –2–2–4–sº
.og. (1–3)= M(— y–3–-r–H &c.)
and subtracting this last equation from the former,
3
º/
log. (1 + y)—log. (1–3)= 2M(y + ++ +
+ &c.) But, from the nature of logarithms,
1
log. (1 + y) — log. (1 – y) = logi #.
Therefore
1 w” ºf 7 *
log. #}=2M (, ++++++ +&c.)
1 + * and therefore z – 1
1 — y 2 + 1
$*-1 + 1/3 = 1 \'ll
iz II + #(H)+.
(H) +&c. }
and, by a proper application of this series, which
always converges, the logarithms of numbers
may be found with great facility.
51. For example, let us suppose that it is re-
quired to compute the logarithm of 2; then, be-
2 — 1
2 + 1
Or, putting 2 for for
y, log. a = 2 M
&=º
*º
therefore
cause 2 = 2, we have T.
1
1 1 1
&c.) This series converges very fast, for the
º 1
eighth t t d —:
ighth term does not excee 100000000?
ducing, therefore, the first seven terms to deci-
mals, and taking their sum, find
log. 2 = .3465736 × 2 M = '6931472 x log.e;
but we cannot find the absolute value of the
logarithm of 2, without previously assigning the
particular system to which the logarithm re-
quired is to belong. The most simple hypothe-
sis we can assume is, that log. e = 1; hence we
have log. 2 = .6931472. This system, which
corresponds to the equation y = e” (where y de-
notes a number, a its logarithm, and e the base
of the system, = 2.7182818), is the same as that
first adopted by Napier; the logarithms of which
are also called hyperbolic, for the reason already
assigned in § 21. - *
by re-
L O G A R I T H M S.
89.
52. It appears therefore, from $$ 49 and 50,
that Napier's, or the hyperbolic logarithm of
any numbers z, is equal to either of these two series
z – 1 (2 — 1)* , (3 – 1)" (2–1)*
H – º – + -a+––H +
&c. 1 N 3
z – 1 1 /2 — 1 /2 — 1 N5,
2#H ++(H)++(H. +
&c. ; and that the logarithm of 2, according
to any other system, is equal to the hyperbolic
logarithm of the same number, multiplied by a
certain constant quantity M = log. e., which,
being peculiar to that system, has been called by
writers on logarithms the modulus of the system.
. Now it appears, by recurring to § 47, that
1. - • ... •
H., or m, is equal to this series
log. e
(r—1)* , (r— 1)*
2 + 3
which is evidently the hyperbolic logarithm of r,
the radical number of the system: hence it fol-
lows, that the modulus of any system of loga-
rithms is the reciprocal of the hyperbolic loga-
rithm of the radical number of that system.
53. In the common system of logarithms, the
radical number being 10, the modulus of the
system may be found by computing the hyper-
bolic logarithm of 10. Now, by the latter series
of $ 52, we have
- 9 1 / 9 Nº
hyp. log. 10 E 2 } ++ ; (+) +
+(#)+&c.;
But, as this series converges too slowly to be of
any use, we may find another that converges
faster, by considering, that since 10 = 2 x 5,
therefore, log. 10 = log. 2 + log. 5: Now we
have already found hyperbolic logarithm 2; it is
only necessary, therefore, to compute hyperbolic
iogarithm 5.
54. But, in seeking hyperbolic logarithm 10,
it will be convenient to begin with even a less
number than 5; and, for this purpose, we shall in-
vestigate a rule, by which, the logarithm of any
number being supposed given, the logarithm of
another number, a little greater than the given
one, may be found with great facility
Let n be a number, whose logarithm is given,
and n + v another number, whose logarithm is
— &c.
r—1
required; then, since n + v = n (1 + +), it
follows, that log. (n + v) = log. n + log.
ty 1)
(1 ++). If we now put s = 1 + 7, we
have z — 1 = #, and a + 1 = 2 + #, and
2 - Q) - -
therefore; + 1 T 2 n + v Hence, by substi-
º º º 2 — 1
tuting 1 + n for 2, and 2 n + , for zTi”
in the series for the logarithm of z, found in $50,
we have
log. (n + v) = log. n + 2 MłżH +
1 ºys 1 Qjº &
3 & #1-y-F # 3 nº. + °. ;
which is the series we proposed to investigate.
55. To calculate the hyperbolic logarithm of
10 by this series, we may take n = 8 and v = 2,
1 tº
then †—, and, remarking that
17 * * = .
2n + v T 18 T 9
log. 8 = 3 x log. 2. we have
1.
hyp. log. 10 = 3 × hyp. 10g, 2 + 2 (#4 i.
1 1 1
93 + 5. 55 + &c.)
This series converges very fast, so that the three
first terms are sufficient to give a result true to
the seventh decimal; and accordingly their sum,
when multiplied by the co-efficient 2, will be
found = 2231435. Now we formerly found
hyperbolic logarithm 2 = 6931472, § 51,
therefore, to the number just now found, let
hyperbolic logarithm 8 – 3 hyperbolic logarithm
2 = 2-0794416 be added, and the result,
2-3025851, will be the hyperbolic logarithm of
2-302585.1 T
‘4342945 is the modulus of the common system.
of logarithms. *
56. We may now find the common logarithm
of 2; for nothing more is necessary than to mul-
tiply its hyperbolic logarithm already found,
§ 51, by the modulus, 4342945; or divide it
by 2-3025851, the reciprocal of the modulus,
and, in either way, we find the common logarithm
of 2 to be 3010300 The common logarithm of
1 O
2 5
we have log. 5 = log. 10 — log. 2 = 1 —
O'3010300 - 698.9700. -
57. We have investigated a series, by which
the logarithm of n + v may be found from that
of n ; or the logarithm of n from that of n + v.
We shall now investigate another series, by
means of which, and the logarithms of any two
of these three quantities, n — v, n, n + v, the
logarithm of the remaining quantity may be
found.
10; the reciprocal of which, or
5 may now also be found; for, since 5 =
m? m?
Because nº-º' therefore
2 log. n. — log. (m — v) — log. (n + v) = log.
m2 2
m”—
Let us suppose
7;
= 2. then z —
m”— vº 2
v?"
2 .2
Q) 2 n°–72
2 + 1 = −r and
} + m”—v"
2 – 1
z -- 1 T
v? 2 — 1
2 m” — vº 2 + 1 be
inserted in the series of $ 50, and we presently
have 2 log. n = log.(n—v) + log. (n+v)+2M ×
v2 1 v2 y & ;
łąż. + +(s m”—v” + &c.
58. We shall conclude this section by show-
ing the application of the three series which
have been investigated in §§ 51, 54, and 57,
to the calculation of the common logarithms of
1 =
n”—w"
: Let these values of 2 and
90 L O G A R I T H M S.
log. 5 = log. 10–log. 2 = 6989700
log. 6 = log. 2 + log. 3 = 778151
log. 8 = 3 log. 2 = 903090
log. 9 = 3 log. 3 = 954242
Example 3. Having given the logarithms of
6 and 8, it is required from these to determine
the logarithms of 7 to six places of figures, by
the third series.
the numbers between 1 and 10; and, as it will
be most convenient in practice to compute the
common logarithm directly, instead of first find-
ing the hyperbolic logarithm, and afterwards
multiply by the modulus of the common system,
we shall put down each series in a form suited
to that purpose. The value of v in the two series
last found will generally be unity, we shall
therefore put them down under that form.
Let N = 2 M = 8685889638 + &c.
Let n – 1, n, n + 1 denote three numbers.
1 1
Here n = 7, C=3;-T = +
Putt-- A. – B: and N = 8685890, NC = -00895.45
ut -- E. A.; ;--—r E B ; t 3
m + 1 * 2 n + 1 all N C2 = .0000010 ** = *0000003
1 r - *-*-*
2-a-T = C. - - •0089548
- 3 5 7 log. 6 = 7781513
I. Log n = NA+ * + ** sº log. 8 = '9030900
+ &c. NB 2)1.6901961
- 3 ------s—e
II. Log. (n + 1)= log. n. + NB + -ā- + - .8450980
N B5 log. of 7 = -84.5098
-- + &c. {. e e * .
5. Instead of finding the logarithm of 7 from the
III. 2 Log, n = log...(n −1) + log, (n + 1) logarithms of 6 and 8, we might have otherwise
NC -- N C3 + NC; + &c .. found itſrom those of 5 and 6, orthose of 8 and 9;
3 5 º in the former case we should have had n – 1 = 5,
59. Erample 1. It is required to find the
77 – 1 1 .
Here n = 2, A = a Ti- sº and the cal-
culation will stand as below. - §
N = 8685890
N A3 = -0321700
NA* = .0035944
N A7 = -OOO3972
NA* = .0000441
NA* == 0000049
Common logarithm of 2, to six places of figures,
by the first series.
NA = .2895.297
3
NA. = -0107233
N A5
5
J. A 7
sy = -0.000567
9
** = "0000049.
= -00071.49
NA11
— = *000000
11 O :
"3010299
n = 6, n + 1 = 7, and C = # ; and therefore
. N
- -- N
log ſ = 2 log, 6–log. 5 – } + #13 -H
7
N_ + &c. R and in the latter case n=1 — 7
5-715 * $ y
- 1
n = 8, n + 1 = 9, C = ſār; and hence
log. * = 2 log 8–log 9–3 ######
127 3-127s
&c. :
60 & 61. Proceeding in this manner, we may
find the logarithms of as many numbers as we
please, by deriving them one from another. Thus
we have -
log. 12 = log. 2 + log. 6.
2 log. 11 = log. 10 + log. 12 + N łą, +
The log, of 2 to six decimals is 301030. 1 - *
Example 2. Required the common logarithm 351ſ, t &c.;
of 3 to six places of figures, having given the * * 14 = 1 log. 7
logarithm of 2, by the second series. og. 14 = log. 2 + log. 7.
1 1 10g. 13 = logº. 1 g. 14 + N × ––
Here n + 1 = 3, n=3, B=#H=+. 2 log. 13 $. log. 12 + log. 14 + {#+
N = 8685890 N B = -17371.78 x+a+&c.!
- N B3 3-3373 $
NB3 = •0069487
N B5 = .0002779
N B7 = 0000111
Add log. 2
log. of 3 to six places is &
The logarithms of 2 and 3 being found, we hence Hutton's Mathematical Tables, where he will
find log. 4 = 2 log. 2 = .6020600
7
-ā- = *0023162
N B5
5
7
NB: = "0000016
= 0000556
•1760912
* = -3010299
4771211
•477.121.
and in this way might a table of logarithms be
calculated; it would however be necessary to
compute the logarithms of the numbers at the
beginning of the table, to many more figures
than were intended to be retained; because, that
at each operation, the last figure of the logarithm
is set down only to the nearest figure. But, in
constructing a table, there are many expedients
by which the calculations may be abridged;
these we cannot here find room to explain; and
must therefore refer the curious reader to Dr.
meet with ample information on the subject.
L O G A R I T H M S.
91.
62. On the method of computing logarithmic
sines, cosines, &c.—A table of the logarithms of
numbers being computed, by the methods ex-
plained above, one of logarithmic sines, &c.,
may easily be formed from it, by taking the lo-
garithms of the numbers which represent the
natural sines, &c.; and this, the most ready and
convenient method, is that which has generally
been used. But the logarithmic sines, &c., may
be computed independently of a knowledge of
the logarithms of natural numbers; or, with the
aid of a table of logarithms, they may be ob-
tained, without reference to natural sines; and
even without the aid of either the one or the
other, as we shall shortly explain. .
Tables of logarithmic sines, &c., are generally
adapted to a radius whose logarithm is 10, but
they can be more conveniently computed by as-
suming the radius unity; and 10 being added
to the logarithms computed on that supposition,
we have the logarithmic sines, &c., to the com-
mon tabular radius.
The length of an arc of 1°, to radius unity is
-01745329252, &c.; and this, multiplied by the
degrees contained in any given are, thus the
length of that arc, to radius 1, and it is this
length which is to be understood in what follows,
when the length of an arc is said to be given.
63. It has been shown in the article FLUXIONS,
in this work, that if M be 43429, &c., the mo-
dulus of the common system of logarithms,
then the logarithm of a is the fluent of M #.
And if a be any arc whose sine is y, then y=
* – 5:3 + 3-3-4-3-3-3-1-57577°º
a 9 & . a 4 + £6 i.
whence j=#–--- ##1-3
3 - 4 - 5.6,
&c.; and consequently by division *= : –
a £ tº # 2 a.º. a7 i. & .
-5 – 15 - 515 - 1755, &c.; and the fluent
of M y’ or log. y = log. a' – M ++ 136
§ 48
+ .335 taſöö'
of y = 10 + log. a' — M.:
&c., or the tabular logarithm
5 a." , r* £6
ſº i; + 150 + 3555
£8 .
+ #55, &c.
1 — &
64. Otherwise ; let 2 E 1 + º, y being the na-
— 23
1 – 4 ...a j —
tural sine; then y = 1 + z’ and;====
— 2 ° } 3 + 2* : + 2* 3 + 2* #, &c. ; ; hence the
sºme
o 3
fluent of M% or log. y = — 2 M. } 2 + f
7
-H ; + #,&c.;; or the tabular log. of y
$ zº 25 g/
= 10 – 2 M z + ā--- ++ +,&c.
By the former of these series a table of loga-
rithmic sines may be computed without a
knowledge of the corresponding natural sines,
and by the latter without the aid of a table of
logarithms, the natural sines being given.
65. We shall now show how such a table may
be computed without a knowledge of either loga-
rithms or natural sines.—Let a be any given
arc, of which it is required to find the lo-
garithmic cosine y. We have y = 1 — : +
44 46 . J) a 34.
#3–####, whence;=—rs–-
2.45 # 17 ac/4. . . •º
– ‘H- #,&c.; and theffuent of M%, or
tº , 44 46
the log. e of a E — s− == a-- * * =
** OI ºf M } 5 t is +:
17. -
+ ; &c.; and the tabular log. cos. a = 10
4.2 . r" , tº 1748
— M. } ++ 15 + 45 ºf 2526’ &c.; whence
the cosine is obtained without the aid of either
logarithms or natural numbers.
As the cosine of an arc is the sine of its com-
plement, this last series will give the sines as
well as the cosines of all arcs. Like expressions
might easily be deduced for the 'secants and
tangents of arcs; but, our object being simply
tô show the manner in which such expressions
may be obtained, we leave it to the student to
apply what we have here given to any other pur-
pose that he may think proper.
Of proportional or logistis logarithms.-These
logarithms are adapted to making proportions
among sexagesimals, and were particularly in-
tended by Dr. Maskelyne, who first formed
them, to facilitate the finding of the Greenwich
time, corresponding to the distance of the moon
from the sun or a star. If the change in the
lunar distance in three hours, as given in the
Nautical Almanac, be called m, and it be re-
quired to find the time w, corresponding to any
other less, but given change n, in the distance,
• * 3*m.
the proportion is m : n :: 3* : a = Tºn; whence
log, m — log. n = 3" — log. a. Now 3" and a
being expressed in seconds of time, log. 3"—
log, w is the proportional logarithm of a ; and
similarly, log. 3" — log. m is the proportional
logarithm of m, and log. 3" — log. n, is the pro-
portional logarithm of n. Hence log. m — log.
n = prop. log. a becomes (log. 3" — prop. log.
m) – (log. 3 – prop. log. n) = prop. log. a ;
or prop. log n – prop. log. m = prop. log. r.
Again, if m : n :: o : p, m, n, o, and p being
any sexagesimal quantities; we should have by
reducing them all to the same denomination p =
#; or log. p = log. o + log. n-log. m; or,
changing them for proportional logarithms, log.
3" — prop. log. pl. - log. 3" — prop. log o +
log. 3" — prop. log. n- og. 3” + prop. log. m;
or prop. log. p = prop. log. 0 + prop. log. n
— prop. log.m.; so that proportions are made
with these logarithms precisely as they are with
common logarithms.
It follows, from the construction of propor-
tional logarithms, that the logarithm of the
largest interval which they are made to compre-
head is always nothing; as in those adapted to
92
L O G. A. R. I. T. H. M. S.
three hours, the logarithm of three hours is
nothing. • -
66. Proportional logarithms greatly facili-
tate the taking of proportional points among
sexagesimal quantities, whether in time or in
arc ; for the hours, minutes, and seconds of time
may be considered as degrees, minutes, and
seconds of arc.
Example 1.—If the altitude of the sun in-
crease 38' 15" in 4° 20'; what will it increase in
1m 32*. -
Here the proportion is 4° 20' ' 1" 32 ::
38' 15" : 14' 34", the answer; or, by proportional
logarithms.
4° 20' prop. log. 1-6189
1* 32° ditto 2.0378
38' 15” ditto 67.26
2-7104
14' 34" ditto 2°09'19
Erample 2.—If the change in the lunar dis-
tance in 3" be 1°42' 14", what interval of time
will correspond to a change of 37' 5" in the dis-
tance?
37' 5" prop. log. 6861
1° 42° 14" ditto 2457
Ans. 1° 5' 18" ditto 4404 diff.
SECT. IV.—OF CERTAIN CURVES RELATED TO
LOGARITHMS.
68. The discovery of logarithms suggested to
mathematicians the idea of curve lines, which
might have similar properties to those numbers:
hence the origin of the logarithmic, or, as it has
been also called, the logistic curve, the nature
and properties of which we now proceed to ex-
lain.
69. Plate LoGARITHMs, fig. 11. Let CD be the
logarithmic curve, and AIB its base or abscissa, in
which let there be taken any number of points,
P, P', P, &c., so that the lines AP, AP, AP",
&c. may constitute an arithmetical progression;
then, if perpendiculars or ordinates, PM, P M',
P"M", &c., be drawn, meeting the curve in the
points M, M', M”, &c., its nature is such, that
the ordinates PM, P Mº, P'M", constitute a
geometrical progression. Hence, and from the
properties of logarithms, it appears, that the ab-
scissas AP, AP, A Pº, &c., may be considered
as the logarithms of their corresponding ordinates
PM, P'M', Pº M", &c., respectively.
70. That we may express the relation between
any abscissa and its corresponding ordinate, by
means of an equation, let us put the ordinate at
the point A, or AC, -1; take Ap, a given por-
tion of the abscissa, and put pm, the correspond-
ing ordinate, – a ; take pp', pp", &c., in the ab-
scissa, equal to one another, and to Ap; and let
AP = a x Ap; draw the ordinates p’m', p"m",
CB", &c.
&c., also PM. Then, from the nature of conti-
nued proportionals, p m' = a”, p"m"= a”, &c., to
PM, which will be expressed by a ; hence, if
we put PM = y, we have a' = y for the equa-
tion of the curve. -
71. From this equation, as well as by other
methods all the properties of the logarithmic
curve may be derived. We shall briefly mention
some of the most remarkable.
I. The base AB is an asymptote to the curve.
II. If PM be an ordinate to the curve at M,
and MQ, a tangent at the same point, the sub-
tangent PQ is a constant quantity, and equal to
the modulus of the particular logarithmic system,
to which the curve belongs. -
III. The curvilineal space, comprehended be-
tween any two ordinates, AC, PM, is equal to
the rectangle contained by PQ the subtangent
and PM — AC the difference of the ordinates.
72. There is yet another curve, the proper-
ties of which are analogous to those of loga-
rithms; namely, the common hyperbola. Fig.
12. Let C be its centre, and CD, C E, its
asymptotes, in either of which, let the points A,
A', A", A", &c., be taken, so that CA, CA, CA",
CA", &c., may be continued geometrical propor-
tionals; draw AB, A'B', A"B", A"B", &c., pa-
rallel to the other asymptote, meeting the curve
in B, B, B", B", &c., and join CB, CB, CB",
Then it is demonstrated, by writers
on conics, that the hyperbolic sectors CB B',
CB' B", CB"B", &c., are equal to each other; and
that the quadrilateral spaces ABBA, A'B' B"A",
A”.B"B"A”, &c., are also equal to one another,
and to each of the sectors. Hence the sectors,
CBB', C BB", CBB”, &c., or the quadrilateral
figures ABB'A', ABB"A", ABB"A”, &c., have
equal differences, while their corresponding ab-
scissas CAſ, CA", CA", have equal ratios to
one another, viz. the ratio of CA to CA’: thus
the former are analogous to the logarithms of the
latter.
73. Let H be the vertex of the hyperbola,
draw HG and HK parallel to the asymptotes,
so as to form the rhombus HGC K; then, put-
ting C K = 1, if CP denote any number what-
ever, and PQ be drawn parallel to the other
asymptote, the hyperbolic area K HQP will
serve to express the logarithm of CP, according
to a system, the modulus of which is denoted
by the area of the rhombus CKHG. If the
asymptotes contain a right angle, the area of the
rhombus will be = 1, and thus the hyperbolic
areas will express Napier's or the hyperbolic lo-
garithms. But any system of logarithms what- '
ever may be represented by hyperbolic areas;
thus, if the asymptotes contain an angle of
25° 44'25" 5, the area of the rhombus will be
•43429448, &c., viz. equal to the modulus of the
common system of logarithms, and therefore
the hyperbolic areas equal to the common loga-
rithms.
LOG-BOARD, a sort of table, divided into
several columns, containing the hours of the day
and night, the direction of the winds, the course
of the ship, and all the material occurrences that
happen during the twenty-four hours, or from
noon to noon; together with the latitude by ob-
servation. From this table the different officers
of the ship are furnished with materials to com-
L O G. I. C. - 93
pile their journals, wherein they likewise insert
whatever may have been omitted, or reject what
may appear superfluous in the log-board. -
LOG-BOQK, a book into which the contents
of the log-board are daily copied at noon, together
with every circumstance deserving notice that
may happen to the ship, or within her cogni-
sance, either at Sea or in a harbour, &c. The
intermediate divisions or watches of the log-
book, containing four hours each, are usually
signed by the commanding officers in ships of
war or East Indiamen. See NAvigATION.
LOG'GATS, n. s. Probably from log, a
game. See the extract from Hanmer.
Hoggats is the ancient name of a play or game,
which is one of the unlawful games enumerated in
the thirty-third statute of Henry VIII. It is the
same which is now kittle-pins, in which boys often
make use of bones instead of wooden pins, throwing
at them with another bone instead of bowling.
- Hanmer.
Did these bones cost no more the breeding, but to
play at loggats with them?
- Shakspeare. Hamlet.
L O G. I. C.
LOG'IC, m. g. Fr. logique; Span. Port.
LoGICAL, adj. / and Lat. logica; Gr. Aoyoc.
LoG'ICALLY, adv. S. Reason; the art of reason-
LOGIC'IAN, n.s.
LOGOM'AcHY, n.s.) to, or skill in this art. Lo-
gician, a teacher, performer, or proficient in it:
logomachy, verbal contention.
The heretick complained greatly of St. Augustine,
as being too full of logical subtilties. Hooker.
Talk logick with acquaintance,
And practise rhetorick in your common talk.
Shakspeare.
If a man can play the true logician, and have as
well judgment as invention, he may do great matters.
Bacon.
By a logick that left no man any thing which he
might call his own, they no more looked upon it as
the case of one man, but the case of the kingdom.
- Clarendon.
Forced terms of art did much puzzle 'sacred theo-
logy with distinctions, cavils, quiddities; and so
transformed her to a mere kind of sophistry and lo-
gomachy. Howel.
In such manner easily, without uttering any logical
untruth, one may yet grievously calumniate.
- Barrow.
Logicians use to class a proposition,
As justices do criminals in prison,
And in as learned authentic nonsense writ
The names of all their modes and figures fit :
For a logician’s one that has been broke
To ride and pace his reason by the book,
And by their rules, and precepts, and examples,
To put his wits in any kind of trammels. Butler.
Those who in a logical dispute keep in general
terms, would hide a fallacy. Dryden.
The application of whips, racks, gibbets, gallies,
dungeons, fire and faggot, in a dispute, may be
looked upon as popish refinements upon the old hea-
then logic. Addison.
If we may believe our logicians, man is distin-
guished from all other creatures by the faculty of
laughter. Id.
How can her old good man
With honor take her back again?
From hence I logically gather,
The woman cannot live with either. Prior.
Here foamed rebellious Logick, gagged and bound,
There stript, fair Rhetorick languished on the ground.
- Pope.
Each staunch polemick stubborn as a rock,
Each fierce logician still expelling Locke,
Came whip and spur. Id. Dunciad.
A logician might put a case that would serve for
an exception. Swift.
ing. Logical is pertaining
Logick is the art of using reason well in our enqui-
ries after truth, and the communication of it to others.
Watts’s Logick.
Add to these incentives to social life, my reputa-
tion for bookish knowledge, a certain wild logical
talent, and a strength of thought, something like
the rudiments of good sense; and it will not seem
surprising that I was generally a welcome guest
where I visited. Burns.
Vociferated logic kills me quite,
A noisy man is always in the right—-
I twirl my thumbs, fall back into my chair,
Fix on the wainscot a distressful stare,
And, when I hope his blunders are all out,
Reply discreetly—to be sure—no doubt . . . Cowper.
But hold, why deign I to dispute
With such a scoundrel of a brute?
Logic is lost upon a knave,
Let action prove the law our slave. Beattie.
LOGIC, accurately defined, is the art of think-
ing and reasoning justly : it traces the pro-
gress of our knowledge from our first and most
simple conceptions through all their different
combinations, and all those numerous deductions
that result from variously comparing them one
with another.
The object of this science therefore is, to ex-
plain the nature of the human mind, and the
proper manner of conducting its several powers,
in order to attain truth and knowledge. It lays
open those errors to which we are liable through
inattention; and teaches us how to distinguish be-
tween truth and the appearance of it. By these
means we become acquainted with the nature
and power of the understanding; see what
things lie within its reach; where we may attain
certainty and demonstration; and when we must
be contented with probability.
This science has been generally divided into
four parts, viz. perception, judgment, reasoning,
and method; which comprehend the whole ope-
rations of the Mind. The late professor Brown
resolves judgment and reason into relative sug-
gestion. See Lectures on the Philosophy of the
Human Mind, vol. iii, lec. 51. He also sup-
plies us with an able view of the rationale of
logic, which the reader will find in a coºdensed
form at the end of this paper.
PART I.
OF PERCEPTION.
Man is surrounded with a variety of objects,
which, acting differently upon his senses, convey
distinct impressions into the mind, and thereby
94
L O G. I. C.
Souse the attention and notice of the understand-
ing. By reflecting too on what passes withinus,
we become sensible of the operations of our own
minds, and attend to them as a new set of im-
pressions. But in all this there is only bare
consciousness. The mind, without proceeding
any farther, takes notice of the impressions that
are made upon it, and views things in order as
they present themselves one after another. This
attention of the understanding to the objects act-
ing upon it, whereby it becomes sensible of the
impressions they make, is called by logicians
perception; and the notices themselves, as they
exist in the mind, and are there treasured up to
be the materials of thinking and knowledge, are
distinguished by the name of ideas. In the
article METAPHYSICs, it will bé shown at large
how the mind, being furnished with ideas, con-
trives to diversify and enlarge its stock: we have
here chiefly to consider the means of making
known our thoughts to others; that we may not
only understand how knowledge is acquired, but
also in what manner it may be communicated
with the greatest certainty and advantage.
SECT, I.-OF WoRDs, conside RED AS THE
SIGNs of IDEAs.
1. Our ideas, though manifold and various,
being all within our own breasts, invisible to
others, cannot of themselves be made to appear.
But God, designing us for society, has provided
us with organs fitted to frame articulate sounds,
and has given us a capacity of using these
sounds as signs of internal conceptions. Hence
spring words and language: for, having once
fixed upon any sound to stand as the mark of an
idea in the mind, custom by degrees establishes
such a connexion between them, that the appear-
ance of the idea in the understanding always
brings to our remembrance the sound or name
by which it is expressed; as in like manner the
hearing of the sound never fails to excite the
idea for which it is made to stand. And thus it
is easy to conceive how a man may record his
own thoughts, and bring them again into view in
any succeeding period of life. For this con-
nexion being once settled, as the same sounds
will always serve to excite the same ideas; if he
can but register his words in the order and dis-
position in which the present train of his thoughts
presents itself to his imagination, it is evident he
will be able to recal his thoughts at pleasure, and
that too in the very manner of their first appear-
ance. Accordingly we find, that the inventions of
writing and printing, by enabling us to fix and
perpetuate such perishable things as sounds, have
furnished us with the means of giving a kind of
permanency to the transactions of the mind, so
that they may be subjected to our review in
the same manner as any other objects of nature.
2. But, besides the ability of recording our
own thoughts, there is this farther advantage in
the use of external signs, that they enable us to
communicate our thoughts to others, and to re-
ceive information of what passes in their breasts.
For any number of men, having agreed to esta-
blish the same sounds as signs of the same ideas,
it is evident that the repetition of these sounds
must excite the like perception in each, and
create a perfect correspondence of thoughts.
When, for instance, any ideas succeed one ano-
ther in my mind, if the names by which I am
wont to express them have been annexed by
those with whom I converse to the very same
set of ideas, nothing is more evident than that,
by repeating those names, according to the tenor
of my present conceptions, I shall raise in their
minds the same course of thought that has taken
possession of my own. So that we here clearly
perceive how a man may communicate his sen-
timents, knowledge, and discoveries to others, if
the language in which he converses be extensive
enough to mark all the ideas and operations of
his mind. But as this is not always the case,
and men are often obliged to invent terms of
their own to express new views and conceptions
of things; it may be asked, how in these circum-
stances we can become acquainted with the
thoughts of another, when he makes use of
words to which we have never annexed any ideas,
and which of course can raise no perceptions in
our minds ! To unveil this mystery, and give
Some insight into the foundation, growth, and
improvement of language, the following obser-
vations will be found of considerable moment.
3. First, that no word can be to any man the
sign of an idea, till that idea comes to have a
real existence in his mind. For names being
only so far intelligible as they denote known in-
ternal conceptions, where they have none such
to answer them, they are plainly sounds without
signification, and of course convey no instruc-
tion or knowledge. But no sooner are the ideas
to which they belong raised in the understand-
ing, than, finding it easy to connect them with
the established names, we can join in any agree-
ment of this kind made by others, and thereby
enjoy the benefit of their discoveries. The first
thing therefore to be considered is, how these
ideas may be excited in the mind; that, being
there, we may learn to connect them with their
appropriated sounds, and so become capable of
understanding others, when they make use of
these sounds in communicating their thoughts.
To comprehend this distinctly, it will be neces-
sary to attend to the division of our ideas into
the simple and complex. And first, as for our
simple ideas; they originate in sensation and
reflexion. If therefore any of these have as yet
no being in the understanding, it is impossible
by words to excite them there. A man who
had never felt the sensation of heat, could not
be brought to comprehend that sensation by any
thing we might say to explain it. If we would
really produce the idea in him, it must be by
applying the proper object to his senses, and
bringing him within the influence of a hot body.
When this is done, and experience has taught
him'the perception to which men have annexed
the name heat, it then becomes to him the sign of
that idea, and he thenceforth understands the
meaning of the term, which, before, all the words
in this world would not have been sufficient to
convey into his mind. The case is the same in
respect of light and colors. A man born blind,
and thereby deprived of the only conveyance
for ideas of this class, can never be brought to
understand the names by which they are ex-
• #
95
L. O. G. I. C.
pressed. The reason is plain: they stand for
ideas that have no existence in his mind; and,
as the organ appropriated to their reception is
wanting, all other contrivances are vain, nor can
they by any force or description be raised in his
imagination. But it is quite otherwise in our
complex notions: for these being no more than
certain, combinations of simple ideas, put toge-
ther in various forms; if the original ideas out
of which the collections are made have already
found admission into the understanding, and the
names serving to express them are known; it
will be easy, by enumerating the several ideas
Concerned in the composition, and marking the
order and manner in which they are united, to
raise any complex conception in the mind.
Thus the idea answering to the word rainbow
may be readily excited in the imagination of
another who has never seen the appearance it-
self, by barely describing the figure, largeness,
position, and order of colors; if we suppose
these several simple ideas, with their names, suf-
ficiently known to him.
4. This leads to a second observation upon this
subject, namely, that words standing for com-
plex ideas are all definable, but those by which
we denote simple ideas are not; for simple
ideas being perceptions, which have no other en-
entrance into the mind than by sensation or re-
flection, can only be obtained by experience,
from the several objects of nature proper to pro-
duce those perceptions in us. Words indeed
may serve to remind us of them, if they have
already found admission into the understanding,
and if their connexion with the established
names is known; but they can never give them
their original being or existence there. Hence,
when any one asks the meaning of a word de-
noting a simple idea, we pretend not to explain
it to him by a definition, knowing that to be
impossible; but, supposing him already ac-
quainted with the idea, and only ignorant of the
name by which it is called, we either mention it
to him by some other name with which we presume
he knows its connexion, or appeal to the object
where the idea itself is found. Thus, were any
man to ask the meaning of the word white, we
should tell him it stood for the same idea as albusin
Latin, or blanc in French; or, if we thought him
a stranger to these languages, we might appeal
to an object producing the idea, by saying it de-
noted the color we observe in Snow or milk.
But this is by no means a definition of the word,
exciting a new idea in his understanding; but
merely a contrivance to remind him of a known
idea, and teach him its connexion with the esta-
blished name. For if the ideas after which he
enquires have never yet been raised in his mind;
as suppose one, who had seen no other colors
than black and white, should ask the meaning of
the word scarlet; it is easy to perceive, that it
would be no more possible to make him com-
prehend it by words, or by a definition, than to
introduce the same perception into the imagina-,
tion of a man born blind. The only method in
this case is, to present some object, by looking
at which the perception itself may be excited;
and thus he will learn both the name and the
idea together.
5. But how comes it to pass, that men agree
in the names of their simple ideas, seeing they
cannot view the perceptions in one another's
minds, nor make known these perceptions by
words to others? The effect is produced by ex-
perience and observation. Thus finding, for in-
stance, that the name of heat is annexed to that
sensation which men feel when they approach
the fire, I make it also the sign of the sensation
excited in me by such an approach, nor have
any doubt but it denotes the same perception in
my mind as in theirs. For we are naturally led
to imagine, that the same objects operate alike
upon the organs of the human body, and pro-
duce a uniformity of sensations. No man fancies
that the idea raised in him by the taste of sugar,
and which he calls sweetness, differs from that
excited in another by the like means; or that
wormwood, to whose relish he has given the
epithet bitter, produces in another the sensation
which he denotes by the word sweet. Presuming,
therefore, upon this conformity of perceptions,
when they arise from the same objects, we easily
agree as to the names of our simple ideas: and if at
any time, by a more narrow scrutiny into things,
new ideas of this class come in our way, which
we choose to express by terms of our own inven-
tion; these names are explained, not by a defini-
tion, but by referring to the objects whence the
ideas themselves may be obtained.
6. Being in this manner furnished with simple
ideas, and the names by which they are expressed,
the meaning of terms that stand for complex ideas
is easily acquired, because the ideas themselves
answering to these terms may be conveyed into
the mind by definitions. For our complex notions
are only certain combinations of simple ideas.
When, therefore, these are enumerated, and the
manner in which they are united into one con-
ception explained, nothing more is wanting to
raise that conception in the understanding; and
thus the term denoting it comes of course to be
understood. And here it is worth while to reflect
a little upon the wisdom and goodness of the
Deity, in thus furnishing us with the very aptest
means of communicating our thoughts. For were
it not so ordered, that we could thus convey our
complex ideas to one another by definitions, it
would in many cases be impossible to make
them known at all. This is apparent in those
ideas which are the proper work of the mind.
For as they exist only in the understanding, and
have no real objects in nature in conformity to
which they are framed; if we could not make
them, known by description, they must lie for
ever hid within our own breasts, and be confined
to the narrow limits of a single mind. All the
fine scenes that arise from time to time in the
poet's fancy, and, by his lively painting, give such
entertainment to his readers; were he destitute of
this faculty of laying them open to the view of
others by words and description, could not ex-
tend their influence beyond his own imagination,
or give joy to any but himself. -
7. There is this additional advantage, in the
ability we enjoy of communicating our complex
notions by definitions; that as these make by
far the largest class of our ideas, and most fre-
quently occur in the progress and improvement
96
L O G I. C.
of knowledge, so tney are by these means im-
parted with the greatest readiness, than which
nothing would tend more to the increase and
spreading of science: for a definition is soon
examined; and, if the terms of it are well under-
stood, the idea itself finds an easy admission into
the mind. Whereas, in simple perceptions,
where we are referred to the objects producing
them, if these be not accessible, as is sometimes
the case, the names by which they are expressed
must remain empty sounds. But new ideas of
this class occurring very rarely in the sciences,
they seldom créate any great obstructions. It
is otherwise with our complex notions: for every
step we take leading us into new combina-
tions and views of things, it becomes necessary
to explain these to others, before they can be
made acquainted with our discoveries: and as
the manner of defining is easy, requiring no ap-
paratus but words, which are always ready, and
at hand, we can with less difficulty remove such
obstacles as might arise from terms of our own
invention, when they are made to stand for new
complex ideas suggested to the mind by some
present train of thinking. And thus we see how
we may become acquainted with the thoughts of
another, when he makes use of words to which,
we have as yet joined no ideas. If the terms
denote simple perceptions, he must refer us to
those objects of nature whence the perceptions
themselves are to be obtained; but, if they stand
for complex ideas, their meaning may be ex-
plained by a definition.
SECT. II.-OF DEFINITIONs.
1. A definition is the unfolding of some con-
ceptions of the mind, answering to the word or
term made use of as its sign. Now as, in exhi-
biting any idea to another, it is necessary that the
description be such as may excite that precise
idea in his mind; it is plain that definitions,
properly speaking, are not arbitrary, but confined
to the representing of certain determinate settled
notions, annexed by the speaker or writer to the
words he uses. As, however, it is universally
allowed, that the signification of words is per-
fectly arbitrary, and not the effect of any natural
and necessary connexion between them and the
ideas for which they stand; some may perhaps
wonder why definitions are not so too. To un-
ravel this difficulty, and show distinctly what is
and what is not arbitrary in speech, we must
carefully distinguish between the connexion of
bur words and ideas, and the unfolding of the
ideas themselves. *
2. First, as to the connexion of our words
and ideas; this, it is plain, is purely arbitrary.
When, for instance, we have in our minds the
idea of any particular species of metals, our call-
ing it by the name of gold is an effect of the volun-
tary choice of men speaking the same language,
and not of any peculiar aptness in that sound to
express that idea. Other nations we find make
use of different sounds, and with the same effect.
Thus aurum denotes that idea in Latin, and or
in French; and even the word gold itself would
have as well served to express the idea of that
metal which we call silver, had custom in the
beginning established it.
*.
3. But, although we are thus entirely at liberty
in connecting any idea with any sound, yet it is
quite otherwise in unfolding the ideas themselves.
For every idea having a precise appearance of its
own, by which it is distinguished from every
other idea; it is manifest that, in representing it
to others, we must study such a description
as shall exhibit that peculiar appearance. When
we have formed the idea of a figure bounded by
four equal sides, joined together at right angles,
we may express that idea by any sound, and call
it either a square or a triangle. But whichever of
these names we use, so long as the idea is
the same, the description by which we would
signify it to another must be so too. Let, it
be called square or triangle, it is still a figure
having four equal sides, and all its angles right
ones. Hence we clearly see what is and what is
not arbitrary in the use of words. The establish-
ing of any sound, as the mark of some determi-
nate idea in the mind, is the effect of free choice,
and a voluntary combination among men ; and,
as different nations make use of different sounds
to denote the same ideas, hence proceeds all
that variety of languages which we meet with in
the world. But, when a connexion between our
ideas and words is once settled, the unfolding of
the idea answering to any word, which properly
constitutes a definition, is by no means an arbi-
trary thing: for here we are bound to exhibit
that precise conception which either the use of
language, or our own particular choice, has
annexed to the term we use. -
4. Thus it appears, that definitions, considered
as descriptions of ideas in the mind, are steady
and invariable, being bounded to the representa-
tion of these precise ideas. But then, in the
application of definitions to particular names,
we are altogether left to our own free choice; be-
cause, as the connecting of any idea with any
sound is perfectly arbitrary, the applying the
description of that idea to that sound must be so
too. When, therefore, logicians tell us that the
definition of the name is arbitrary, they mean
no more than this; that as different ideas may be
connected with any term, according to the good
pleasure of him that uses it, so may different
descriptions be applied to the term, suitable to
the ideas thus connected. But this connexion
being settled, and the term considered as the
sign of some fixed idea in the understanding, we
are no longer left to arbitrary explications, but
must study such a description as corresponds
with that precise idea. Now this alone, accord-
ing to what has been before laid down, ought to
be accounted a definition. What seems to have
occasioned no small confusion in this matter, is,
that many explanations of words, where no idea
is unfolded, but merely the connexion between
some word and idea asserted, have yet been dig-
nified with the name of definitions. Thus, when
we say that a clock is an instrument by which
we measure time; that is by some called a defi-
nition: and yet it is plain that we are previously
supposed to have an idea of this instrument,
and only taught that the word clock serves
in common language to denote that idea. By
this rule all explications of words in our dic-
tionaries will be definitions, nay, the names of
L O G I C,
97
even simple ideas may be thus defined. White,
we may say, is the color we observe in snow or
milk; heat, the sensation produced by approach-
ing the fire; and so in innumerable other in-
stances. But these, and all others of the like
kind, are by no means definitions, exciting new
ideas in the mind, but merely contrivances to
remind us of known ideas, and teach their con-
nexion with the established names.
5. But now, in definitions properly so called,
we first consider the term we use as the sign of
some inward conception, either annexed to it by
custom, or by our own free choice; and then the
business of the definition is to unfold and ex-
plain that idea. As, therefore, the whole art lies
in giving just and true copies of our ideas; a
definition is then said to be perfect, when it
serves distinctly to excite the idea described in
the mind of another, even supposing him before
wholly unacquainted with it. This point settled,
let us next enquire what those ideas are which
are capable of being thus unfolded? . In the first
place, it is evident, that all our simple ideas are
necessarily excluded. We have seen that experi-
ence alone is to be consulted here, so that if either
the objects whence they are derived come not in
our way, or the avenues appointed by nature for
their reception are wanting, no description is
sufficient to convey them into the mind. But
where the understanding is already supplied with
these original and primitive conceptions, as they
may be united together in an infinity of different
forms, so may all their several combinations be
distinctly laid open, by enumerating the simple
ideas concerned in the various collections, and
tracing the order and manner in which they are
linked one to another. Now these combinations
of simple notices constitute what we call our
complex notions; whence it is evident, that com-
plex ideas, and these alone, admit of that kind of
description which goes by the name of a definition.
6. Definitions, then, are representations of our
ideas; and, as these representations are possible
only when the ideas themselves are complex, it
is obvious, that definitions cannot have place but
where we make use of terms standing for such
complex ideas. But, our complex ideas being
nothing more than different combinations of sim-
ple ideas, we then know and comprehend them
perfectly, when we know the several simple ideas
of which they consist, and can so put them toge-
ther in our minds, as may be necessary towards
the framing of that peculiar connexion which
gives every idea its distinct and proper appear-
a IłCé.
7. Two things are therefore required in every
definition: 1st, That all the original ideas, out of
which the complex one is formed, be distinctly
enumerated; and, 2dly, That the order and man-
ner of combining them into one conception be
clearly explained. Where a definition has these
requisites, nothing is wanting to its perfection ;
because every one who reads it and understands
the terms, seeing at once what ideas he is to join
together, and also in what manner, can at plea-
sure form in his own mind the complex concep-
tion answering to the term defined. Let us, for
instance, suppose the word square to stand for
that idea by which we represent to ourselves a
- VoI. XIII.
figure whose sides subtend quadrants of a cir-
cumscribed circle. The parts of this idea are the
sides bounding the figure. These must be four
in number, and all equal among themselves, be-
cause they are each to subtend a fourth part of
the same circle. But, besides these component
parts, we must also take notice of the manner of
putting them together, if we would exhibit the
pº idea for which the word square here stands.
or four equal right lines, anyhow joined, will
not subtend quadrants of a circumscribed circle.
A figure with this property must have its sides
standing also at right angles. Taking in there-
fore this last consideration, respecting the man-
ner of combining the parts, the idea is fully de-
scribed, and the definition thereby rendered
complete. For a figure bounded by four equal
sides, joined together at right angles, has the
property required; and is moreover the only
right-lined figure to which that property belongs.
8. It will now be obvious to every one, in
what manner we ought to proceed, in order to
arrive at just and adequate definitions. 1st, We
are to take an exact view of the idea to be de-
scribed, trace it to its original principles, and
mark the several simple perceptions that enter
into its composition. 2dly, We are to consider
the particular manner in which these elementary
ideas are combined, in order to form that precise
conception for which the term we make use of
stands. When this is done, and the idea wholly
unfolded, we have only to transcribe the appear-
ance it makes to our own minds. Such a de-
scription, by distinctly exhibiting the order and
number of our primitive conceptions, cannot fail
to excite at the same time, in the mind of every
one that reads it, the complex idea resulting from
them ; and therefore attains the true and proper
end of a definition.
SECT. III.-OF THE Composition AND REso-
LUTION of our IDEAs, AND THE RULES OF
DEFINITION THENCE ARISING.
1. The rule laid down in the last section is
general, extending to all possible cases; and is
indeed that to which alone we can have recourse
where any doubt or difficulty arises. It is not,
however, necessary that we should practise it in
every case. Many of our ideas are extremely
complicated, insomuch that to enumerate all the
simple perceptions, out of which they are formed,
would be a very troublesome and tedious work.
For this reason logicians have established certain
compendious rules of defining, of which we shall
give some account. But, for the better under-
standing of what follows, it is necessary to ob-
serve, that there is a certain gradation in the
composition of our ideas. The mind of man is
very limited in its views, and cannot take in a
great number of objects at once. We must
therefore proceed by steps, and make our first
advances subservient to those which follow.
Thus, in forming our complex notions, we begin
at first with but a few simple ideas, such as we
can manage with ease, and unite them together
into one conception. When we are provided
with a sufficient stock of these, and have by
habit and use rendered them familiar to our
minds, they become the component Paniof other
98
L O G H C.
ideas still more complicated, and form what we
call a second order of compound notions. This
process may be continued to any degree of com-
position we please, mounting from one stage
to another, and enlarging the number of combi-
nations. :
2. But, in a series of this kind, whoever would
acquaint himself perfectly with the last and high-
est order of ideas, finds it the most expedient
method to proceed gradually through all the in-
termediate steps. For, were he to take any very
compound idea to pieces, and, without regard to
the several classes of simple perceptions that have
already been formed into distinct combinations,
break it at once into its original principles, the
number would be so great as perfectly to con-
found the imagination, and overcome the utmost
reach and capacity of the mind. When we see
a prodigious multitude of men jumbled together
in crowds, without order or any regular position,
we find it impossible to arrive at an exact know-
ledge of their number. But if they are formed
into separate battalions, and so stationed as to
fall within the deliberate survey of the eye, by
viewing them successively and in order, we come
to an easy and certain determination. It is the
same in our complex ideas. When the original
perceptions, out of which they are framed, are
very numerous, it is not enough that we take a
view of them in loose and scattered bodies; we
must form them into distinct classes, and unite
these classes in a justand orderly manner, before
we can arrive at a true knowledge of the com-
pound notices resulting from them.
3. This gradual progress of the mind to its
compound notions, through a variety of inter-
mediate steps, plainly points out the manner of
conducting the definitions by which these notions
are conveyed into the minds of others. For as
the series begins with simple and easy combina-
tions, and advances through a succession of dif-
ferent orders, rising one above another in the
degree of composition, it is evident that, in a
train of definitions expressing these ideas, a like
gradation is to be observed. Thus the complex
ideas of the lowest order can no otherwise be
described than by enumerating the simple ideas
out of which they are made, and explaining the
manner of their union. But then, in the second
or any other succeeding order, as they are form-
Gd out of those gradual combinations, and con-
stitute the inferior classes, it is not necessary, in
describing them, to mention one by one all the
simple ideas of which they consist. They may
be more distinctly and briefly unfolded, by enu-
merating the compound ideas of a lower order,
from whose union they result, and which are all
supposed to be already known in consequence
of previous definitions. Here then it is, that the
logical method of defining takes place; which,
that it may be the better understood, we shall
explain somewhat more particularly the several
steps and gradations of the mind in compound-
ing its ideas, and thence deduce that peculiar form
of a definition which logicians have thought fit to
establish.
4. All the ideas we receive from the several
objects of nature that surround us represent dis-
tinct individuals. These individuals, when com-
pared together, are found in certain particulars
to resemblé each other. Hence, by collecting
the resembling particulars into one conception,
we form the notion of a species, And here let it
be observed, that this last idea is less complicat-
ed than that by which we represent any of the
particular objects contained under it. For the
idea of the species excludes the peculiarities of
the several individuals, and retains only such
properties as are common to them all. Again,
by comparing several species together, and ob-
Serving their resemblance, we form the idea of a
genus ; where, in the same manner as before, the
composition is lessened, because we leave out
what is particular to the several species compar-
ed, and retain only the particulars wherein they
agree. It is easy to conceive the mind proceed-
ing thus from one step to another, and advancing
through its several classes of general notions,
until at last it comes to the highest genus of all,
denoted by the word being, where the bare idea
of existence only is concerned.
5. In this procedure we see the mind unravel-
ling a complex idea, and tracing it in the as-
cending scale, from greater or less degrees of
composition, until it terminates in one simple
perception. If now we take the series the con-
trary way, and, beginning with the last or high-
est genus, carry our view downward, through all
the inferior genera and species, quite to the in-
dividuals, we shall thereby arrive at a distinct
apprehension of the conduct of the understanding
in compounding its ideas. For, in the several
classes of our perceptions, the highest in the
scale is for the most part made up of but a few
simple ideas, such as the mind can take in and
survey with ease. This first general notion,
when branched out into the different subdivisions
contained under it, has in every one of them
something peculiar, by which they are distin-
guished among themselves; insomuch that, in
descending from the genus to the species, we al-
ways superadd some new idea, and thereby in-
crease the degree of composition. Thus the idea
denoted by the word figure is of a very general
nature, and composed of but few simple percep-
tions, as implying no more than space every where
bounded. But if we descend farther, and con-
sider the boundaries of this space, as that they
may be either lines or surface, we distinguish the
several species of figure. For, where the space
is bounded by one or more surfaces, we give it
the name of a solid figure; but, where the boun-
daries are lines, it is called a plain figure. -
6. In this view of things it is evident, that the
species is formed by superadding a new idea to
the genus. Here, for instance, the genus is cir-
cumscribed space. If now to this we superadd
the idea of a circumscription by lines, we frame
the notion of that species of figures which are
called plain; but, if we conceive the circumscrip-
tion to be by surfaces, we have the species of
solid figures. This superadded idea is called
the specific difference, not only as it serves to di-
vide the species from the genus, but because, being
different in all the several subdivisions, wethere-
by also distinguish the species one from another.
And as it is likewise that conception, which, by
being joined to the general idea, completes the
L O G. I. C.
99
notion of the species; hence it is plain, that the
genus and specific difference are to be consider-
ed as thé_proper and constituent parts of the
species. If we trace the progress of the mind
still farther, and observe it advancing through
the inferior species, we shall find its manner of
proceeding to be always the same. For every
lower species is formed by superadding some
new idea to the species next above it; so that, in
this descending scale of our perceptions, the un-
derstanding passes through different orders of
complex notions, which become more and more
complicated at every step it takes. Let us re-
sume here, for instance, the species of plain fi-
gures. They imply no more than space bounded
by lines. But if we take in an additional con-
sideration of the nature of these lines, as whether
they are right or curves, we refer to the subdivi-
sions of plain figures, distinguished by the names
of rectilinear, curvilinear, and mixtilinear.
7. And here we must observe, that though
plain figures, when considered as one of those
branches that come under the notion of figure in
general, take the name of a species; yet, com-
pared with the classes of curvilinear, rectilinear,
and mixtilinear, into which they themselves may
be divided, they really become a genus of which
the above mentioned subdivisions constitute the
several species. These species, in the same
manner as in the case of plain and solid figures,
consist of the genus and specific difference as
their constituent parts. For, in the curvilinear
kind, the curvity of the lines bounding the figure
makes what is called the specific difference; to
which if we join the genus, which here is a plain
figure or space circumscribed by lines, we have
all that is necessary towards completing the no-
tion of this species. We are only to take notice
that this last subdivision, having two genera
above it, viz. plain figure, and figure in general,
the genus joined with the specific difference, in
order to constitute the species of curvilinears, is
that which lies nearest to the said species. It
is the notion of plain figure, and not of figure in
general, that, joined with the idea of curvity,
makes up the complex conception of curve-lined
figures. For in this descending scale of our
ideas, figure in general, plain figures, curve-lined
figures, the first two are considered as general in
respect of the third: and the second in order, or
that which stands next to the third, is called the
nearest genus. But now as it is this second idea,
which, joined with the notion of curvity, forms
the species of curve-lined figures, it is plain, that
the third or last idea in the series is made up of
the nearest genus and specific difference. This
rule holds invariably however far the series is
continued; because, in a train of ideas thus suc-
ceeding one another, all that precede the last
are considered as so many genera in respect of
that last, and the last itself is always formed by
superadding the specific difference to the genus
next it.
8. Here then we have a universal description,
applicable to all our ideas of whatever kind,
from the highest genus to the lowest species.
For, taking them in order downwards from the
said general idea, they every where consist of
the genus proximum, and differentia specifica,
as logicians express them. But when we come
to the lowest species of all, comprehending
under it only individuals, the superadded idea
by which these individuals are distinguished one
from another no longer takes the name of the
specific difference. For here it serves not to
denote distinct species, but merely a variety of
individuals, each of which, having a particular
existence of its own, is therefore numerically
different from every other of the same kind.
And hence it is that, in this last case, logicians
call the superadded idea by the name of the nu-
meral difference, so that, as the idea of a species
is made up of the nearest genus and specific
difference, the idea of an individual consists of
the lowest species and numeric difference. Thus
the circle is a species of curve-lined figures, and
what we call the lowest species as comprehend-
ing under it only individuals. Circles in parti-
cular are distinguished from one another by the
length and position of their diameters. The
length therefore and position of the diameter of
a circle form what logicians call the numerical
difference; because, these being given, the circle
itself may be described, and an individual
thereby constituted. t
9. Thus the mind, in compounding its ideas,
begins, we see, with the most general notions,
which, consisting of but a few simple notices,
are easily combined and brought together into
one conception. Thence it proceeds to the
species comprehended under this general idea,
and these are formed by joining together the
genus and specific difference. And as it often
happens that these species may be still farther
subdivided, and run on in a long series of con-
tinued gradations, producing various orders of
compound perceptions, so all these several
orders are regularly and successively formed by
annexing in every step the specific difference to
the nearest genus. When by this method of
procedure we are come to the lowest order of
all, by joining the species and numeric differ-
ence, we frame the ideas of individuals. And
here the series necessarily terminates, because it
is impossible any farther to bound or limit our
conceptions.
This view of the composition of
our ideas, representing their constituent parts in
every step of the progression, naturally points
out the true and genuine form of a definition.
For as definitions are merely descriptions of the
ideas for which the terms defined stand, and as
ideas are then described, when we enumerate
distinctly the parts of which they consist, it is
plain that, by making our definitions follow one
another according to the natural train of our
conceptions, they will be subject to the same
rules, and keep pace with the ideas they describe.
10. As, therefore, the first order of our com-
pound notions, or the ideas that constitute the
highest genera in the different scales of percep-
tion, are formed by uniting together a certain
number of simple notices, so the terms express-
ing these genera are defined by enumerating the
simple notices so combined. And as the species
comprehended under any genus, or the complex
ideas of the second order, arise from super-
adding the specific difference to the said general
idea, so the definition of the mº of the
2 4.
.300
I C.
L O G
species consists in a detail of the ideas of the
specific difference connected with the term of
the genus. For, the genus having been before
defined, the term by which it is expressed stands
for a known idea, and may therefore be intro-
duced into all subsequent definitions, in the same
manner as the names of simple perceptions. It
will now be sufficiently obvious, that the defini-
tions of all the succeeding orders of compound
notions will every where consist of the term of
the nearest genus, joined with an enumeration of
the ideas that constitute the specific difference;
and that the definition of individuals unites the
names of the lowest species with the terms by
which we express the ideas of the numeric dif-
ference.
11. Here then we have the true and proper
form of a definition, in all the various orders of
conception. This is that method of defining
which is commonly called logical, and which we
see is perfect in its kind, as it presents a full
and adequate description of the idea for which
the term defined stands.
PART II.
OF JUDGMENT.
SECT I.-OF THE GROUNDS of HUMAN
JUDGMENT.
1. The mind being furnished with ideas, its next
step in the way to knowledge is the comparing
of these ideas together, in order to judge of their
agreement or disagreement. In this joint view
of our ideas, if the relation is such as to be
immediately discoverable by the bare inspection
of the mind, the judgments thence obtained are
called intuitive, from a word that denotes to look
at ; for, in this case, a mere attention to the
ideas compared suffices to let us see how far
they are connected or disjoined. Thus, that
the whole is greater than any of its parts, is an
intuitive judgment; nothing more being re-
quired to convince us of its truth than an
attention to the ideas of whole and part. And
this too is the reason why we call the act of the
mind forming these judgments intuition; as it is
indeed no more than an immediate perception of
the agreement or disagreement of any two ideas.
2. But here it is to be observed, that our
knowledge of this kind respects only our ideas,
and the relations between them; and therefore
can serve only as a foundation to such reason-
ings as are employed in investigating those rela-
tions. Now it so happens, that many of our
judgments are respecting facts, and the real
existence of things, which cannot be traced by
the bare contemplation of our ideas. It does
not follow, because I have the idea of a circle in
my mind, that therefore a figure answering to that
idea has a real existence in nature. I can form
to myself the notion of a centaur or golden moun-
tain, but never imagine on that account that
either of them exists. What then are the
grounds of our judgment in relation to facts?
Experience and testimony. By experience we
are informed of the existence of the several
objects which surround us, and operate upon
our senses. Testimony is of a wider extent, and
#eaches not only to objects beyond the present
sphere of our observation, but also to such as
could not without this conveyance have fallen
under our cognizance.
3. Here we have three foundations of human
judgment, from which the whole system of our
knowledge may with ease and advantage be
derived. First, intuition, which respects our
ideas themselves, and their relations, and is the
foundation of that species of reasoning which we
call demonstration. For whatever is deduced
from our intuitive perceptions, by a clear and
connected series of proofs, is said to be de-
monstrated, and produces absolute certainty in
the mind. Hence the knowledge obtained in
this manner is what we properly term science;
because in every step of the procedure it carries
its own evidence along with it, and leaves no
room for doubt or hesitation. And it is highly
worthy of notice, that as the truths of this class
express the relation between our ideas, and the
same relations must ever and invariably subsist
between the same ideas, our deductions in the
way of science constitute what we call eternal,
necessary, and immutable truths. If it be true
that the whole is equal to all its parts, it must be
so unchangeably; because the relation of equa-
lity, being attached to the ideas themselves, must
ever intervene where the same ideas are com-
pared. Of this nature are all the truths of
natural religion, morality, and mathematics, and,
in general, whatever may be gathered from the
bare view and consideration of our ideas.
4. The second ground of human judgment is
experience; from which we infer the existence of
those objects which surround us, and fall under
the immediate notice of our senses. When we
see the sun, or turn our eyes towards a building,
we not only have perceptions of these objects
within ourselves, but ascribe to them a real
existence out of the mind. It is also by the
information of the senses, that we judge of the
qualities of bodies; as when we say that snow
is white, fire hot, steel hard. For, as we are
wholly unacquainted with the internal structure
and constitution of the bodies that produce
these sensations in us, nay, are unable to trace
any connexion between that structure and the
sensations themselves, it is evident, that we
build our judgments altogether upon observa-
tion, ascribing to bodies such qualities as are
answerable to the perceptions they excite in us.
Not that we ever suppose the qualities of bodies
to be things of the same nature with our per-
ceptions; for there is nothing in fire similar
to our sensation of heat, or in a sword similar to
pain; but that, when different bodies excite in
our minds similar perceptions, we necessarily
ascribe to these bodies not only an existence
independent of us, but likewise.similar qualities,
of which it is the nature to produce similar per-
ceptions in the human mind. But this is not
the only advantage derived from experience;
for to it also we are indebted for all our know-
ledge regarding the co-existence of sensible
qualities in objects, and the operations of
bodies one upon another. Ivory, for instance,
is hard and elastic; this we know by experience,
and indeed by that alone. For, being altogether
strangers to the true nature both of elasticity
L O G. I. C.
IOI
and hardness, we cannot by the bare con-
templation of our ideas determine how far the
one necessarily implies the other, or whether
there may not be a repugnance between them.
But, when we observe them to exist both in the
same object, we are then assured from experi-
ence that they are not incompatible; and when
we also find that a stone is hard and not elastic,
and that air though elastic is not hard, we also
conclude upon the same foundation, that the
ideas are not necessarily conjoined, but may
exist separately in different objects. In like
manner, with regard to the mutual operations of
bodies, it is evident that our knowledge is
derived entirely from observation. Nitro-mu-
riatic acid dissolves gold, as has been found by
frequent trial, nor is there any other way of
arriving at the discovery. Naturalists may tell
us, if they please, that the parts of nitro-muria-
tic acid are of a texture apt to insinuate between
the corpuscles of gold, and thereby loosen and
shake them asunder. If this is a true account of
the matter, it will notwithstanding be allowed,
that our conjecture in regard to the conformation
of these bodies is deduced from the experiment,
and not the experiment from the conjecture. It
was not from any previous knowledge of the
intimate structure of nitro-muriatic acid and
gold, and the aptness of their parts to act or be
acted upon, that we arrived at the conclusion
above mentioned. The internal constitution of
bodies is wholly unknown to us; and, could we
even surmount this difficulty, yet as the separa-
tion of the parts of gold implies something like
an active force in the chemical agent, and we
are unable to conceive how it comes to be pos-
sessed of this activity, the effect must be owned
to be altogether beyond our comprehension.
But when repeated trials had once confirmed it,
so that it was admitted as an established truth, it
was then easy for men to spin out theories of
their own invention, and contrive such a struc-
ture of parts, both for gold and nitro-muriatic
acid, as would best serve to explain the pheno-
menon upon the principles of that system of
philosophy which they had adopted. -
5. But, though experience is what we may
term the immediate foundation of knowledge, yet
with respect to particular persons its influence
is very narrow and confined. The bodies that
surround us are numerous, many of them lie at a
great distance, and some quite beyond our reach.
Life is so short, and so crowded with cares, that
but little time is left for any single man to employ
himself in unfolding the mysteries of nature.
Hence it is necessary to admit many things upon
the testimony of others, which thus becomes the
foundation of a great part of our knowledge of
body. No man doubts of the power of nitro-
muriatic acid to dissolve gold, though perhaps
he never himself made the experiment. In these
therefore, and such cases, we judge of the facts
and operations of nature upon the mere ground
of testimony. However, as we can always have
recourse to experience where any doubt or scruple
arises, this is justly considered as the true foun-
dation of natural philosophy; being indeed the
ultimate support on which our assent rests, and
to which we appeal when the highest degree of
evidence is required.
imports the same as, he is sitting,
6. But there are many facts that will not al-
low of an appeal to the senses; and in this case
testimony is the true and only foundation of our
judgments. All human actions of whatever kind,
when considered as already past, are of the na-
ture here described; because, having now no.
longer any existence, both the facts themselves,
and the circumstances attending them, can be
known only from the relations of such as had
sufficient opportunities of arriving at the truth.
Testimony therefore is justly accounted a third
ground of human judgment; and as from the
other two we have deduced scientific knowledge,
so we may from this derive historical; by which
we mean, not merely a knowledge of the civil
transactions of states and kingdoms, but of all
facts whatever, concerning which testimony is
the sole foundation of our belief.
SECT. II—OF AFFIRMATIVE AND NEGATIVE
PROPOSITIONs.
1. While the comparing of our ideas is con-
sidered merely as an act of the mind, assembling
them together, and joining or disjoining them
according to the result of its perceptions, we call
it judgment; but, when our judgments are put
into words, they then bear the name of proposi-
tions. A proposition therefore is a sentence
expressing some judgment of the mind, whereby
two or more ideas are affirmed to agree or dis-
agree. Now, as our judgments include at least
two ideas, one of which is affirmed or denied of
the other, so must a proposition have terms an-
swering to these ideas. The idea of which we
affirm or deny, and of course the term expressing
that idea, is called the subject of the proposition.
The idea affirmed or denied, as also the term an-
swering it, is called the predicate. Thus in the
proposition, God is omnipotent: God is the
subject, it being of him that we affirm omnipo-
tence; and omnipotent is the predicate, because
we affirm the idea expressed by that word to
belong to God.
2. But as, in propositions, ideas are either
joined or disjoined, it is not enough to have
terms expressing those ideas unless we have
also some words to denote their agreement or
disagreement. That word in a proposition which
connects two ideas together is called the copula;
and, if a negative particle beannexed, we thereby
understand that the ideas are disjoined. The
substantive verb is eommonly made use of for
the copula: as in the above-mentioned proposi-
sition, God is omnipotent: where it represents the
copula, and signifies the agreement of the ideas
of God and omnipotence. But, if we mean to
separate two ideas, then, besides the substantive
verb, we must also use some particle of negation
to express this repugnance. The proposition,
Man is not perfect, may serve as an example of
this kind; where, the notion of perfection being
removed from the idea of man, the negative par-
ticle not is inserted after the copula, to signify the
disagreement between the subject and predicate.
3. Every proposition necessarily consists of
these three parts: but then it is not alike needful
that they be all severally expressed in words;
because the copula is often included in the term
of the predicate, as when we say, he sits; which
In the Latiis.
102
E, O G. H. C.
language, a single word has often the force of a
whole sentence. Thus ambulat is the same as
ille est ambulans; amo, as ego sum amans; and
so in innumerable other instances: by which it
appears, that we are not so much to regard the
number of words in a sentence, as the ideas they
represent, and the manner in which they are put
together. For whenever two ideas are joined or
disjoined in an expression, though of but a single
word, it is evident that we have a subject, pre-
dicate, and copula, and of consequence a com-
plete proposition. -
4. When the mind joins two ideas, we call it
an affirmative judgment; when it separates them,
a negative ; and, as any two ideas compared toge-
ther must necessarily either agree or not agree,
it is evident that all our judgments fall under
these two divisions. Hence likewise the propo-
sitions expressing these judgments are all either
affirmative or negative. An affirmative propo-
sition connects the predicate with the subject, as,
a stone is heavy; a negative proposition sepa-
rates them, as, God is not the author of evil.
Affirmation therefore is the same as joining two
ideas together, and this is done by means of the
copula. Negation, on the contrary, marks a re-
pugnance between the ideas compared; in which
case a negative particle must be called in, to
show that the connexion included in the copula
does not take place. -
5. Hence we see the reason of the rule com-
monly laid down by logicians, That, in all nega-
tive propositions, the negation ought to affect
the copula. For as the copula, when placed by
itself, between the subject and the predicate,
manifestly binds them together, it is evident
that, to render a proposition negative, the parti-
cles of negation must enter it in such a manner.
as to destroy this union. In a word, then only
are two ideas disjoined in a proposition, when
the negative particle may be so referred to the
copula as to break the affirmation included in
it, and undo that connexion, it would otherwise
establish. When we say, for instance, No man
is perfect, take away the negation, and the copula
of itself plainly unites the ideas in the proposition.
But, as this is the very reverse of what is intend-
ed, a negative mark is added, to show that this
union does not here take place. . The negation,
therefore, by destroying the effect of the copula,
changes the very nature of the proposition, inso-
much that, instead of binding two ideas together,
it denotes their separation. On the contrary, in
this sentence, The man who departs not from an
upright behaviour is beloved of God; the pre-
dicate, beloved of God, is evidently affirmed of
the subject an upright man: So that, notwith-
standing the negative particle, the proposition is
still affirmative. The reason is, plain: the nega-
tion here affects not the copula, but, making
properly a part of the subject, serves, with other
terms in the sentence, to form one complex idea,
of which the predicate, beloved of God, is
directly affirmed.
SECT. III.-OF UNIvERSAL AND PARTICULAR
PROPOSITIons.
1. The next considerable division of propo-
sitions is into universal and particular. Our
ideas, according to what has been already ob-
served in the first part, are all singular as they
enter the mind, and represent individual objects.
But as by abstraction we can render them uni-
versal, so as to comprehend a whole class of
things, and sometimes several classes at once;
hence the terms expressing these ideas must be
in like manner universal. If, therefore, we sup-
pose any general term to become the subject of
a proposition, it is evident that whatever is
affirmed of the abstract idea, belonging to that
term, may be affirmed of all the individuals to
which that idea extends. Thus, when we say,
men are mortal; we consider mortality, not as
confined to one or any number of particular men,
but as what may be affirmed without restriction
of the whole species. Thus the proposition be-
comes as general as the idea which makes the
subject of it; and indeed derives its universality
entirely from that idea, being more or less so,
according as this may be extended to more or
fewer individuals. But it is further to be ob-
served of these general terms, that they some-
times enter a proposition in their full latitude, as
in the example given above; and sometimes ap-
pear with a mark of limitation. In this last case
we are given to understand, that the predicate
agrees not to the whole universal idea, but only
to a part of it; as in the proposition, Some men
are wise: for here wisdom is not affirmed of
every particular man, but restrained to a few of .
the human species.
2. From this different appearance of the
general idea, that constitutes the subject of any
judgment, arises the division of propositions into
universal and particular. A universal proposition
is that wherein the subject is some general term
taken in its full latitude; insomuch that the pre-
dicate agrees to all the individuals comprehended
under it, if it denotes a proper species; and to
all the several species and their individuals, if it.
marks an idea of a higher order. The words all,
every, no, none, &c., are the proper signs of this
universality; and, as they seldom fail to accom-
pany general truths, so they are the most ob-
vious criterion whereby to distinguish them. All
animals have a power of beginning motion. This
is a universal proposition; as we know from the
word all prefixed to the subject animals, which
denotes that it must be taken in its full extent.
Hence the power of beginning motion may be
affirmed of all the several species of animals.
3. A particular proposition has in like manner
some general term for its subject; but with a
mark of limitation added, to denote that the pre-
dicate agrees only to some of the individuals.
comprehended under a species, or to one or more
of the species belonging to any genus, and not
to the whole universal idea. Thus, Some stones
are heavier than iron; Some men have an un-
common share of prudence. In the latter of these
propositions, the subject, some men, implies only
a certain number of individuals, comprehended
under a single species. In the former, where
the subject is a genus that extends to a great
variety of distinct classes, some stones may not
only imply any number of particular stones, but
also several whole species of stones, inasmuch
as there may be not a few with the property there
L O G I C,
103
described. Hence we see that a proposition
does not cease to be particular by the predicate's
agreeing to a whole species, unless that species,
singly and distinctly considered, makes also the
subject of which we affirm or deny.
4. There is still one species of propositions
that remains to be described, and which the more
deserves our notice as it is not yet agreed among
logicians, to which of the two classes mentioned
above they ought to be referred; namely, singu-
lar propositions, or those where the subject is an
individual. Of this nature are the following:—
Sir Isaac Newton was the inventor of fluxions;
This book contains many useful truths. There
is some difficulty as to the proper rank of these
propositions, because, the subject being taken ac-
cording to the whole of its extension, they some-
times have the same effect in reasoning as uni-
versals. But if it be considered that they are in
truth the most limited kind of particular pro-
sitions, and that no proposition can with any
propriety be called universal but where the sub-
ject is some universal idea, we shall not be long
in determining to which class they ought to be
referred. When we say some books contain use-
ful truths; the proposition is particular, because
the general term appears with a mark of restric-
tion. If, therefore, we say, This book contains
useful truths; it is evident that the proposition
must be still more particular, as the limitation
applied in the word this is of a more confined
nature than in the former case.
5. We see, therefore, that all propositions are
either affirmative or negative; nor is it less evi-
dent that, in both cases, they may be universal or
particular. Hence arises that celebrated fourfold
division of them into universal affirmative and
universal negative, particular affirmative and
particular negative, which comprehends indeed
all their varieties. The use of this method of
distinguishing them will appear more fully after-
wards, when we come to treat of reasoning and
syllogism.
SECT. IV. — OF ABSOLUTE AND ConDITIONAL
PROPosLTIons.
1. The objects about which we are chiefly
Conversant in this world are all of a nature
liable to change. What may be affirmed of them
at one time, cannot often be affirmed at another;
and it makes no small part of our knowledge to
distinguish rightly these variations, and trace the
reasons on which they depend. For it is observ-
able that, amidst all the vicissitude of nature,
Some things remain constant and invariable;
nor even are the changes, to which we see others
liable, effected but in consequence of uniform
and steady laws, which, when known, are suffi-
cient to direct us in our judgments respecting
them. Hence philosophers, in distinguishing
the objects of our perception into various classes,
have been very careful to note, that some pro-
perties belong essentially to the general idea, so
as not to be separable from it but by destroying
its very nature; while others are only accidental,
and may be affirmed or denied of it in different
circumstances. Thus solidity, a yellow color,
and great weight, are considered as essential qua-
lities of gold; but whether it shall exist as a
uniform conjoined mass, is not alike necessary.
We see that by a certain process it may be re-
duced to a fine powder, and that an intense heat
will bring it into a state of fusion.
2. From this diversity in the several qualities
of things arises a considerable difference as to
the manner of our judging concerning them.
For all such properties as are inseparable from
objects, when considered as belonging to any
genus or species, are affirmed absolutely and
without reserve of that general idea. Thus we
say, Gold is very weighty; a stone is hard; ani-
mals have a power of self-motion. But in the
case of mutual or accidental qualities, as they
depend upon some other consideration distinct
from the general idea, that also must be taken
into the account, in order to form an accurate.
judgment. Should we affirm, for instance, of
some stones, that they are very susceptible of a
rolling motion; the proposition, while it remains
in this general form, cannot with any advantage
be introduced into our reasonings. An aptness.
to receive that mode of motion flows from the
figure of the stone; which, as it may vary infi-
nitely, our judgment then only becomes appli-
cable and determinate, when the particular figure,
of which volubility is a consequence, is also
taken into the account. Let us, then, bring in
this other consideration, and the proposition will
run as follows: stones of a spherical form are
easily put into a rolling motion. Here we see
the condition upon which the predicate is affirm-
ed, and therefore know in what particular cases
the proposition may be applied.
3. This consideration of propositions, respect-
ing the manner in which the predicate is affirmed
of the subject, gives rise to the division of them
into absolute and conditional. Absolute propo-
sitions are those wherein we affirm some pro-
perty inseparable from the idea of the subject,
and which therefore belongs to it in all possible
cases: as, God is infinitely wise; virtue tends
to the ultimate happiness of man. But where
the predicate is not necessarily connected with
the idea of the subject, unless upon some consi-
deration distinct from that idea, there the pro-
position is called conditional. The reason is
from the supposition annexed, which is of the
nature of a condition, and may be expressed as
such, thus: If a stone is exposed to the rays of
the sun, it will contract some degree of heat; if
a river runs in a very declining channel, its rapi-
dity will constantly increase.
4. There is not any thing of greater import-
ance in philosophy than a due attention to this
division of propositions. If we are careful never
to affirm things absolutely but where the ideas
are inseparably conjoined, and if in our other
judgments we distinctly mark the conditions
which determine the predicate to belong to the
subject, we shall be less liable to mistake in
applying general truths to the particular concerns
of human life. It is owing to the exact observ-
ance of this rule that mathematicians have been
so happy in their discoveries, and that what
they demonstrate of magnitude in general may
be applied with ease in all obvious occurrences.
5. The truth of it is, particular propositions
are then known to be true, when we can trace
104
I, O G H C.
their connexion with universals; and it is accord-
ingly the great business of science to find out
general truths that may be applied with safety in
all obvious instances. Now the great advantage
arising from determining with care the condi-
tions upon which one idea may be affirmed or
denied of another is this: that thereby parti-
cular propositions really become universal, may
be introduced with certainty into our reasonings,
and serve as standards to conduct and regulate
our judgments. To illustrate this by a familiar
instance: if we say, some water acts very for-
cibly; the proposition is particular : and, as the
conditions on which this forcible action depends
are not mentioned, it is as yet uncertain in what
cases it may be applied. Let us then supply
these conditions, and the proposition will run
thus: Water, conveyed in sufficient quantity along
a steep descent, acts very forcibly. Here we
have a universal judgment, inasmuch as the pre-
dicate forcible action may be ascribed to all
water under the circumstances mentioned. Nor
is it less evident that the proposition in this new
form is of easy application; and in fact we find
that men do apply it in instances where the for-
cible action of water is required; as in corn-
mills and many other works of art.
SECT. V.-OF SIMPLE AND Compound PRo-
POSITIONS.
1. Hitherto we have treated of propositions,
where only two ideas are compared together.
These are in the general called simple ; because,
having but one subject and one predicate, they
are the effect of a simple judgment that admits
of no subdivision. But if several ideas offer
themselves to our thoughts at once, whereby we
are led to affirm the same thing of different ob-
jects, or different things of the same object, the
propositions expressing these judgments are
called compound; because they may be resolved
into as many others as there are subjects or pre-
dicates in the whole complex determination of
the mind. Thus, God is infinitely wise and infi-
nitely powerful. Here there are two predicates,
infinite wisdom and infinite power, both affirm-
ed of the same subject; and accordingly the
proposition may be resolved into two others,
affirming these predicates severally. In like
manner, in the proposition, Neither kings nor
people are exempt from death; the predicate is
denied of both subjects, and may therefore be
separated from them in distinct propositions.
Nor is it less evident that, if a complex judg-
ment consists of several subjects and predicates,
it may be resolved into as many simple propo-
sitions as are the number of different ideas com-
pared together. Riches and honors are apt to
elate the mind, and increase the number of our
desires. In this judgment there are two subjects
and two predicates, and it is at the same time.
apparent that it may be resolved into four dis-,
Riches are apt to elate the
tinct propositions.
mind. Riches are apt to increase the number of
our desires. And so of honors.
2. Logicians have divided these compound
propositions into many different classes; but
not with a due regard to their proper definition.
Thus conditionals, causals, relatives, &c., are
mentioned as so many distinct species of this
kind, though in fact they are merely simple pro-
positions. To give an instance of a conditional:
If a stone is exposed to the rays of the sun, it
will contract some degree of heat. Here we have
but one subject and one predicate; for the com-
plex expression, a stone exposed to the rays of
the sun, constitutes the proper subject of this
proposition, and is no more than one determined
idea. The same thing happens in causals. Re-
hoboam was unhappy because he followed evil
counsel. There is here an appearance of two
propositions arising from the complexity of the
expression; but, when we consider the matter
more attentively, it is evident that we have but
a single subject and predicate. The pursuit of
evil counsel brought misery upon Rehoboam.
It is not enough, therefore, to render a propo-
sition compound, that the subject and predicate
are complex notions, requiring sometimes a whole
sentence to express them; for in this case the
comparison is still confined to two ideas, and
constitutes what we call a simple judgment. But
where there are several subjects or predicates, or
both, as the affirmation or negation may be alike
extended to them all, the proposition expressing
such a judgment is truly a collection of as many
simple ones as there are different ideas compared.
Confining ourselves therefore to this more strict
and just notion of compound propositions, they
are all reducible to two kinds, viz. copulatives.
and disjunctives.
3. A copulative proposition is, where the sub-
jects and predicates are so linked together, that
they may be all severally affirmed or denied one
of another. Of this nature are the examples of
compound propositions given above. ‘Riches.
and honors are apt to elate the mind, and in-
crease the number of our desires.’ “Neither
kings nor people are exempt from death. In
the first of these the two predicates may be af-
firmed severally of each subject, whence we
have four distinct propositions. The other fur-
nishes an example of the negative kind, where
the same predicate, being disjoined from both
subjects, may be also denied of them in separate
propositions. -
4. The other species of compound propo-
sitions are those called disjunctives; in which,
comparing several predicates with the same sub-
ject, we affirm that one of them necessarily be-
longs to it, but leave the particular predicate
undetermined. If any one, for example, says,
* This world either exists of itself, or is the work
of some all-wise and powerful cause; it is evi-
dent that one of the two predicates must belong
to the world; but, as the proposition determines
not which, it is therefore of the kind we call
disjunctive. Such too are the following: ‘The
sun either moves round the earth, or is the centre
about which the earth revolves.’ ‘Friendship
finds men equal, or makes them so.’ It is the
nature of all propositions of this class, suppos-
ing them to be exact in point of form, that, upon
determining the particular predicate, the rest are
of course to be removed; or, if all the predicates
but one are removed, that one necessarily takes
place. Thus, in the example given above, if we
allow the world to be the work of some wise and
Lo G I c.
105.
powerful cause, we of course deny it to be self-
existent; or, if we deny it to be self-existent, we
must necessarily admit that it was produced by
some wise and powerful cause. Now this parti-
cular manner of linking the predicates together,
so that the establishing one displaces all the rest,
or the excluding all but one necessarily esta-
blishes that one, cannot otherwise be effected
than by means of disjunctive particles. And
hence propositions of this class take their names
from these particles which make so necessary a
part of them, and indeed constitute their very
nature considered as a distinct species
SECT. VI.-OF THE DIVISION OF PROPOSITIONS
INTO SELF-Ev1DENT AND DEMONSTRABLE.
1. When any proposition is offered to the view
of the mind, if the terms in which it is expressed
be understood, upon comparing the ideas toge-
ther, the agreement or disagreement asserted is
either immediately perceived, or found to lie be-
yond the present reach of the understanding.
In the first case, the proposition is said to be
self-evident, and admits not of any proof, because
a bare attention to the ideas themselves produces
full conviction and certainty; nor is it possible
to call in anything more evident by way of con-
firmation. But, where the connexion or repug-
nance comes not so readily under the inspection
of the mind, there we must have recourse to rea-
soning; and if by a clear series of proofs we can
make out the truth proposed, so that self-evidence
shall accompany every step of the procedure, we
are then able to demonstrate what we assert, and
the proposition itself is said to be demonstrable.
When we affirm, for instance, that “it is impos-
sible for the same thing to be and not to be ;’
whoever understands the terms made use of per-
ceives at first glance the truth of what is asserted,
nor can he by any efforts bring himself to believe
the contrary. The proposition therefore is self-
evident, and such that it is impossible by reason-
ing to make it plainer; because there is no truth
more obvious or better known, from which as a
consequence it may be deduced. But if we say,
this world had a beginning; the assertion is in-
deed equally true, but shines not forth with the
same degree of evidence. We find great diffi-
culty in conceiving how the world could have a
beginning : and are not brought to a free and
full consent, until by reasoning we arrive at a
clear view of the absurdity involved in the con-
trary supposition. Hence this proposition is of
the kind we call demonstrable, as its truth is not
immediately perceived by the mind, but yet may
be made to appear by means of others more
obvious, whence it follows as an unavoidable
consequence.
2. From what has been said, it appears, that
reasoning is employed only about demonstrable
propositions, and that our intuitive or self-evi-
dent perceptions are the foundation on which it
IeStS. -
3. Self-evident propositions furnish the first
principles of reasoning ; and it is certain, that if
in our researches we employ only such principles
as have the character of self-evidence, and apply
them according to the rules to be afterwards ex-
plained, we shall be in no danger of error in
advaneing from one discovery to another. For
this we may appeal to the writings of the mathe-
maticians, which, being conducted by the express.
model here mentioned, are an incontestable proof

of the firmness and stability of human know-
ledge, when built upon so sure a foundation.
For not only have the propositions of this science
stood the test of ages, but are found attended with
that invincible evidence, which forces the assent
of all who duly consider the proofs upon which
they are established. Since the mathematicians
are universally allowed to have adopted the right
method of arriving at unknown truths, and
have been the happiest in the choice as well
as in the application of their principles, it may
not be amiss to explain here their method of
stating self-evident propositions, and applying
them to the purposes of demonstration.
4. First then, it is to be observed, that they
have been very careful in ascertaining their ideas
and fixing the signification of their terms. For
this purpose they begin with definitions, in
which the meaning of their words is so distinctly
explained, that they cannot fail to excite in the
mind of an attentive reader the very same ideas
that are annexed to them by the writer. And in-
deed the clearness and irresistible evidence of
mathematical knowledge is owing to nothing so
much as to this care in laying the foundation.
Where the relation between any two ideas is ac-
curately and justly traced, it will not be difficult
for another to comprehend that relation, if in
setting himself to discover it he brings the very
same ideas into comparison. But if, on the con-
trary, he affixes to his words ideas different from
those that were in the mind of him who first
advanced the demonstration ; it is evident that,
as the same ideas are not compared, the same re-
lation cannot subsist, so that a proposition will
be rejected as false, which, had the terms been
rightly understood, must have appeared incon-
testably true. A square, for instance, is a figure
bounded by four equal right lines, joined together
at right angles. Here the nature of the angles
makes no less a part of the idea than the equality
of the sides; and many properties demonstrated
of the square flow entirely from its being a rect-
angular figure. If, therefore, we suppose a man,
who has formed a partial notion of a square,
comprehending only the equality of its sides,
without regard to the angles, reading some de-
monstration that implies also this latter conside-
ration; it is plain he would reject it as not
universally true, as it could not be applied where
the sides were joined together at equal angles.
For this last figure, answering still to his idea of
a square, would be yet found without the pro-
perty assigned to it in the proposition. But, if
he comes afterwards to correct his notion, he
will then readily own the truth and justness of
the demonstration.
5. We see, therefore, that nothing contributes
so much to the improvement and certainty of
human knowledge as having determinate ideas,
and keeping them steadily and invariably in all
our discourses and reasonings. On this account
mathematicians always begin by defining their
terms, and distinctly unfolding the notions they
are intended to express. Hence such as apply
106
L O G I C.
themselves to these studies have exactly the same
views of things; and, bringing always the very
same ideas into comparison, readily discern the
relation between them. It is likewise of im–
portance, in every demonstration, to express the
same idea invariably by the same word. From
this practice mathematicians never deviate; and
if it be necessary in their demonstrations, where
the reader's comprehension is aided by a diagram,
it is much more so in all reasonings about moral
or intellectual truths, where the ideas cannot be
represented by a diagram. The observation of
this rule may sometimes be productive of ill-
sounding periods; but, when truth is the object,
sound ought to be disregarded.
6. When the mathematicians have taken this
first step, and made known the ideas whose rela-
tions they intend to investigate; their next care
is, to lay down some self-evident truths, which
may serve as a foundation for their future reason-
ings. And here indeed they proceed with re-
markable circumspection, admitting no principles
but such as flow immediately from their defini-
tions, and necessarily force themselves upon a
mind in any degree attentive to its ideas. Thus
a circle is a figure formed by a right line moving
round some fixed point in the same plane. The
fixed point round which the line is supposed to
move, and where one of its extremities termi-
nates, is called the centre of the circle. The
other extremity, which is conceived to be carried
round until it returns to the point whence it first
set out, describes a curve running into itself, and
termed the circumference. All right lines drawn
from the centre to the circumference are called
radii. From these definitions compared, geo-
metricians derive this self-evident truth, “that
the radii of the same circle are all equal to one
another.’
7. We now observe, that, in all propositions,
we either affirm or deny some property of the
idea that constitutes the subject of our judgment,
or we maintain that something may be done or
effected. The first sort are called speculative
propositions, as in the example mentioned above,
“The radii of the same circle are all equal one to
another.’ The others are called practical, for a
reason quite obvious; thus, that a right line may
be drawn from one point to another, is a practi.
cal proposition, inasmuch as it expresses that
something may be done.
8. From this twofold consideration of propo-
sitions arises the twofold division of mathema-
tical principles into axioms and postulates. By
an axiom they understand any self-evident spe-
culative truth; as, ‘That the whole is greater than
its parts: ’ ‘That things equal to one and the
same thing are equal to one another.' But a self-
evident practical proposition is what they call a
postulate. Such are those of Euclid : * That a
finite right line may be continued directly for-
wards;’ ‘That a circle may be described about
any centre with any distance.’ And here we are
to observe, that, as in an axiom the agreement or
disagreement between the subject and predicate
must come under the immediate inspection of
the mind, so in a postulate, not only the possi-
bility of the thing asserted must be evident at
first view, but also the manner in which it may
be effected. For, where this manner is not of
itself apparent, the proposition comes under the
notion of the demonstrable kind, and is treated
as such by geometrical writers. Thus, “to draw
a right line from one point to another, is assumed
by Euclid as a postulate, because the manner of
doing it is so obvious, as to require no previous
teaching. But then it is not equally evident, how
we are to construct an equilateral triangle. For
this reason he advances it as a demonstrable
proposition, lays down rules for the exact per-
formance, and at the same time proves, that, if
these rules are followed, the figure will be justly
described.
9. This leads us to notice, that as self-evident
truths are distinguished into different kinds, ac-
cording as they are speculative or practical, so
is it also with demonstrable propositions. A
demonstrable speculative proposition is by ma-
thematicians called a theorem. Such is the
famous forty-seventh proposition of the first
book of the Elements, known by the name of
the Pythagoric theorem, from its supposed in-
ventor Pythagoras, viz. “That, in every right-
angled triangle, the square described upon the
side subtending the right angle is equal to both
the squares described upon the sides containing
the right angle.’ On the other hand, a deinon-
strable practical proposition is called a problem;
as where Euclid teaches us to describe a square
upon a given right line.
10. Besides the four kinds of propositions
already mentioned, mathematicians have also a
fifth, known by the name of corollaries. These
are usually subjoined to theorems or problems,
and differ from them only in this, that they flow
from what is there demonstrated in so obvious a.
manner as to discover their dependence upon
the proposition whence they are deduced, almost
as soon as proposed. Thus Euclid having de-
monstrated, ‘ that in every right-lined triangle
all the three angles taken together are equal to.
two right angles,’ adds, by way of corollary, “that
all the three angles of any one triangle taken to-
gether are equal to all the three angles of any
other triangle taken together:” which is evident
at first sight; because in all cases they are equal
to two right ones, and things equal to one and
the same thing are equal to one another.
11. The scholia of mathematicians are indif-
ferently annexed to definitions, propositions, or
corollaries: and answer the same purposes as
annotations upon a classic author. For in them
occasion is taken to explain whatever may ap-
pear intricate and obscure in a train of reasoning;
to answer objections; to teach the application,
and uses of propositions; to lay open the original
and history of the several discoveries made in the
science; and, in a word, to acquaint us with all
such particulars as deserve to be known, whether
considered as points of curiosity or profit.
PART III.
OF REASONING.
SECT. I.-OF REASONING IN GENERAL, AND THE
PARTs of which IT consrSTS.
1. It often happens, in comparing ideas toge-
ther, that their agreement or disagreement cannot
L O G. I. C.
107
be diseerned at first view, especially if they are
of such a nature as not to admit of an exact ap-
plication one to another. . When, for instance,
we compare two figures of a different make, in
order to judge of their equality or inequality, it
is plain that, by barely considering the figures
themselves, we cannot arrive at an exact deter-
mination; because, by reason of their disagreeing
forms, it is impossible to put them together, so
that their several parts shall mutually coincide.
Here then it becomes necessary to look out for
some third idea that will admit of such an appli-
cation as the present case requires; wherein if we
succeed, all difficulties vanish, and the relation
we are in quest of may be traced with ease. Thus
right-lined figures are all reduced to squares, by
means of which we can measure their areas, and
determine exactly their agreement or disagree-
ment in point of magnitude.
2. But how can any third idea serve to disco-
ver a relation between two others ? The answer
is, by being compared severally with these others;
for sueh a comparison enables us to see how far
the ideas with which this third is compared are
connected or disjoined between themselves. In
the example mentioned above of two right-lined
figures, if we compare each of them with some
square whose area is known, and find the one
exactly equal to it, and the other less by a square
inch, we immediately conclude that the area of
the first figure is a square inch greater than that
of the second. The manner of determining the
relation between any two ideas, by the interven-
tion of some third with which they may be com-
pared, is that which we call reasoning; and is
indeed the chief instrument by which we push on
our discoveries, and enlarge our knowledge. The
great art lies in finding out such intermediate
ideas, as, when compared with the others in the
question, will furnish evident and known truths;
because, as will afterwards appear, it is only by
means of them that we arrive at the knowledge
of what is hidden and remote.
3. Hence it appears, that every act of reason-
ing necessarily includes three distinct judgments;
two wherein the ideas whose relation we want to
discover are severally compared with the middle
idea, and a third wherein they are themselves
connected or disjoined, according to the result
of that comparison. Now, as in the second part
of logic our judgments, when put into words,
were called propositions, so here in the third
part the expressions of our reasonings are termed
syllogisms. Hence it follows, that as every act
of reasoning implies three several judgments, so
every syllogism must include three distinct pro-
positions. When areasoning is thus put into words,
and appears in form of a syllogism, the interme-
diate idea, made use of to discover the agreement
or disagreement we search for, is called the middle
term; and the two ideas themselves, with which.
this third is compared, go by the name of the
€XtremeS.
4. But as these things are best illustrated by
examples; let us, for instance, set ourselves to
enquire whether men are accountable for their
actions. As the relation between the ideas of
men and accountableness comes not within the
immediate view of the mind, our first care must
be to find out some third idea, that will enable
us the more easily to discover and trace it. A
very small measure of reflection is sufficient to
inform us, that no creature can be accountable
for his actions, unless we suppose him capable
of distinguishing the good from the bad; that is,
unless we suppose him possessed of reason.
Nor is this alone sufficient. For what would it
avail him to know good from bad actions, if he
had no freedom of choice, nor could avoid the
one and pursue the other? Hence it becomes
necessary to take in both considerations in the
present case. It is at the same time equally
apparent, that wherever there is this ability of
distinguishing good from bad actious, and of
pursuing the one and avoiding the other, there
also a creature is accountable. We have then
obtained a third idea, with which accountable-
ness is inseparably connected, viz. reason and
liberty; which are here to be considered as
making up one complex conception. Let us
now take this middle idea, and compare it with
the other term in the question, viz. man, and we
all know by experience that it may be affirmed
of him. Having thus by means of the interme-
diate idea formed two several judgments, viz.
that man is possessed of reason and liberty; and
that reason and liberty imply accountableness;
a third obviously and necessarily follows, viz.
that man is accountable for his actions. Here
then we have a complete act of reasoning, in
which, according to what has been already ob-
served, there are three distinct judgments' two
that may be styled previous, inasmuch as they
lead to the other, and arise from comparing the
middle idea with the two ideas in the question;
the third is a consequence of these previous acts,
and flows from combining the extreme ideas. If
now we put this reasoning into words, it exhibits
what logieians term a syllogism: and when pro-
posed in due form runs thus:—“Every creature
possessed of reason and liberty is accountable
for his actions.—Man is a creature possessed of
reason and liberty;-Therefore man is account-
able for his actions.’
5 In this syllogism we may observe, that there
are three several propositions expressing the three
judgments implied in the act of reasoning; and
so disposed as to represent distinctly what passes.
within the mind in tracing the more distant rela-
tions of its ideas. The first two propositions an-
swer the two previous judgments in reasoning,
and are called the premises, because they are
placed before the other. The third is termed the
conclusion, as being gained in consequence of
what was asserted in the premises. We are also
to remember, that the terms expressing the two.
ideas whose relations we enquire after, as here
man and accountableness, are in general called
the extremes; and that the intermediate idea, by
means of which the relation is traced, viz. a crea-
ture possessed of reason and liberty, takes the
name of the middle term. Hence it follows,
that by the premises of a syllogism we are always
to understand the two propositions where the
middle term is respectively compared with the
extremes; for these constitute the previous judg-
ments, whence the truth we are in quest of is by
reasoning deduced. The conclusion is that other
i{}8
L O G. I. C.
proposition, in which the extremes themselves
are joined or separated agreeably to what appears
upon the above comparison.
6. The conclusion is made up of the extreme
terms of the syllogism: and the extreme, which
serves as the predicate of the conclusion, goes
by the name of the major term ; the other ex-
treme, which makes the subject in the same pro-
position, is called the minor term. From this
distinction of the extremes arises also a distinc-
tion between the premises, where these extremes
are respectively compared with the middle term.
That proposition which compares the greater
extreme, or the predicate of the conclusion, with
the middle term, is called the major proposition:
the other, wherein the same middle term is com-
pared with the subject of the conclusion or less
extreme, is called the minor proposition. All
this is obvious from the syllogism already given,
where the conclusion is, man is accountable for
his actions. For here the predicate, accountable
for his actions, being connected with the middle
term in the first of the two premises, every crea-
ture possessed of reason and liberty is account-
able for his actions, gives what we call the major
proposition. In the second of the premises, man
is a creature possessed of reason and liberty, we
find the less extreme, or subject of the conclu-
sion, viz. man, connected with the same middle
term, whence it is known to be the minor pro-
position. When a syllogism is proposed in due
form, the major proposition is always placed
first, the minor next, and the conclusion last.
7. These things premised, we may define rea-
soning to be an act or operation of the mind,
deducing some unknown proposition from other
previous ones that are evident and known. These
previous propositions, in a simple act of reason-
ing, are only two in number; and it is always re-
quired that they be of themselves apparent to the
understanding, so that we assent to and perceive
the truth of them as soon as proposed. In the
syllogism given above, the premises are supposed
to be self-evident truths; otherwise the conclu-
sion could not be inferred by a single act of rea-
soning. If, for instance, in the major, “every
creature possessed of reason and liberty is ac-
countable for his actions,’ the connexion between
the subject and predicate could not be perceived
by a bare attention to the ideas themselves; it is
evident that this proposition would no less re-
quire a proof than the conclusion deduced from
it. In this case a new middle term must be
sought, to trace the connexion here supposed;
and this of course furnishes another syllogism,
by which having established the proposition in
question, we are then, and not before, at liberty
to use it in any succeeding train of reasoning.
And should it so happen, that in this second
essay there were still some previous proposition
whose truth did not appear at first sight, we must
then have recourse to a third syllogism, to lay
open that truth to the mind: because, so long as
the premises remain uncertain, the conclusion
built upon them must be so too. When, by
conducting our thoughts in this manner, we at
last arrive at some syllogism where the previous
propositions are intuitive truths, the mind then
rests in full security as perceiving that the se-
veral conclusions it has passed through, stand
upon the immoveable foundations of self-evi-
dence. *.
8. Wesee, therefore, that, to infer a conclusion
by a single act of reasoning, the premises must
be intuitive propositions. Where they are not,
previous syllogisms are required; in which case
reasoning becomes a complicated act, taking in
a variety of successive steps. This frequently
happens in tracing the more remote relation of
our ideas; where, many middle terms being
called in, the conclusion cannot be made out but
in consequence of a series of syllogisms follow-
ing one another in train. But although, in this
concatenation of propositions, those that form
the premises of the last syllogism are often con-
siderably removed from self-evidence; yet, if we
trace the reasoning backwards, we shall find them
the conclusions of previous syllogisms, whose
premises approach nearer and nearer to intui-
tion in proportion as we advance, and are found
at last to terminate in it. And if, after having
thus performed a demonstration, we take it the
contrary way; and observe how the mind, setting
out with intuitive perceptions, couples them to-
gether to form a conclusion; how, by introducing.
this conclusion into another syllogism, it still
advances one step farther; and so proceeds,
making every new discovery subservient to its
future progress; we shall then perceive clearly,
that reasoning is no more than an orderly com-
bination of those simple acts which we have
already so fully explained.
9. Thus we see that reasoning, beginning with
first principles, rises gradually from one judg-
ment to another, and connects them in such a
manner, that every stage of the progression brings
with it intuitive certainty. And now we may
clearly understand the definition given above of
this distinguishing faculty of the human mind.
Reason, we have said, is the ability of deducing
unknown truths from principles or propositions
that are already known. This evidently appears
by the foregoing account, where we see that no
proposition is admitted into a syllogism, to serve
as one of the previous judgments on which the
conclusion rests, unless it is itself a known and
established truth, whose connexion with self-
evident principles has been already traced.
SECT. II.-OT THE SEVERAL KINDS OF REASON-
ING ; AND FIRST OF THAT BY WHICH WE DETER-
MINE THE GENERA AND SPECIES OF THINGs.
1. All the aims of human reason may in gene-
ral be reduced to these two: 1. To rank things
under those universal ideas to which they truly
belong; and, 2. To ascribe to them their several
attributes and properties in consequence of that
distribution. …-
2. One great aim of human reason is to dete-
mine the genera and species of things. We have
seen, in the first part of this treatise, how the
mind proceeds in framing general ideas. We
have also seen, in the second part, how, by means
of these general ideas, we arrive at universal
propositions. Now, as in these universal propo-
sitions we affirm some property of a genus or
species, it is plain that we cannot apply this
property to particular objects till we have first
L O G. I. C.
109
determined whether they are comprehended
under that general idea of which the property is
affirmed. Thus there are certain properties be-
longing to all even numbers, which cannot how-
ever be applied to any particular number, until
we have first discovered it to be of the species
expressed by that name. Hence feasoning begins
with referring things to their several divisions
and classes in the scale of our ideas; and, as
these divisions are all distinguished by particular
names, we hereby learn to apply the terms ex-
pressing general conceptions to such particular
objects as come under our immediate observa-
tion.
3. Now, to arrive at these conclusions, by
which the several objects of perception are
brought under general names, two things are
manifestly necessary. First, that we take a view
of the idea itself denoted by that general name,
and carefully attend to the distinguishing marks
which serve to characterise it. Secondly, that we
compare this idea with the object under consi-
deration, observing diligently wherein they agree
or differ. If the idea is found to correspond with
the particular object, we then without hesitation
apply to it the general name; but, if no such cor-
respondence intervenes, the conclusion must
ºnecessarily take a contrary turn. Let us, for in-
stance, take the number eight, and consider by
what steps we are led to pronounce it an even
number. First, then, we call to mind the idea
signified by the expression an even number, viz.
that it is a number divisible into two equal parts.
We then compare this idea with the number
eight, and, finding them to agree, see at once the
necessity of admitting the conclusion. These
several judgments, therefore, transferred into
language, and reduced into the form of a syllo-
gism, appear thus:–“ Every number that may
be divided into two equal parts is an even num-
ber :—The number eight may be divided into
two equal parts;–Therefore the number eight is
an even number.
4. Here it may be observed, that where the
general idea, to which particular objects are re-
ferred, is very familiar to the mind, and fre-
quently in view; this reference, and the applica-
tion of the general name, seem to be made
without any apparatus of reasoning. When we
See a horse in the fields, or a dog in the street,
we readily apply the name of the species; habit,
and a familiar acquaintance with the general
idea, suggesting it instantaneously to the mind.
We are not however to imagine on this account
that the understanding departs from the usual
rules of just thinking. A frequent repetition of
acts begets a habit; and habits are attended with
a certain promptness of execution, that prevents
our observing the several steps and gradations
by which any course of action is accomplished.
But in other instances, where we judge not by
precontracted habits, as when the general idea is
very complex, or less familiar to the mind, we
always proceed according to the form of reason-
ing established above. A goldsmith, for instance,
who is in doubt as to any piece of metal, whether
it be of the species called gold, first examines its
properties, and then comparing them with the
general idea signified by that name, if he finds a
perfect correspondence, no longer hesitates under
what class of metals to rank it.
5. Nor let it be imagined that our researches
here, because in appearance bounded to the im–
posing of general names upon particular objects,
are therefore trivial and of little consequence.
Some of the most considerable debates among
mankind, and such too as nearly regard their
lives, interest, and happiness, turn wholly upon
this article. Is it not the chief employment of
our several courts of judicature to determine, in
particular instances, what is law, justice, and
equity? Of what importance is it in many cases
to decide aright, whether an action shall be
termed murder or manslaughter! We see then
that no less than the lives and fortunes of men
often depend upon these decisions. The reason
is plain. Actions, when once referred to a gene-
ral idea, draw after them all that may be affirmed
of that idea; insomuch that the determining the
species of actions is all one with determining
what proportion of praise or dispraise, commen-
dation or blame, &c., ought to follow them. For,
as it is allowed that murder deserves death, by
bringing any particular action under the head of
murder, we of course decide the punishment
due to it. -
6. But the great importance of this branch o
reasoning, and the necessity of care and circum-
spection in referring particular objects to general
ideas, is still farther evident from the practice of
the mathematicians. Every one, who has read
Euclid, knows that he frequently requires us to
draw lines through certain points, and according
to such and such directions. The figures thence
resulting are often squares, parallelograms, or
rectangles. Yet Euclid never supposes this from
their bare appearance, but always demonstrates
it upon the strictest principles of geometry, Nor
is the method he takes in any thing differen:
from that described above. Thus, for instance,
having defined a square to be a figure bounded
by four equal sides joined together at right
angles; when such a figure arises in any con-
struction previous to the demonstration of a pro-
position, yet he never calls it by that name until
he has shown that its sides are equal, and all its
angles right ones. Now this is apparently the
same form of reasoning we have before exhibited
in proving eight to be an even number. ſº
7. Having thus explained the rules by which
we are to conduct ourselves in ranking particular
objects under general ideas, and shown their
conformity to the practice and manner of the
mathematicians, it remains only to observe, that
the true way of rendering this part of knowledge
both easy and certain, is, by habituating ourselve.
to clear and determinate ideas, and keeping then
steadily annexed to their respective names. For
as all our aim is to apply general words aright.
if these words stand for invariable ideas that are
perfectly known to the mind, and can be readily
distinguished upon-occasion, there will be little
danger of mistake or error in our reasonings.
Let us suppose that, by examining any object,
and carrying our attention successively from one
part to another, we have acquainted ourselves
with the several particulars observable in it. If
among these we find such as constitute some
I 10
L O G. I. C.
general idea, framed and settled before-hand by
the understanding, and disinguished by a par-
ticular name, the resemblance thus known and
perceived necessarily determines the species of
the object, and thereby gives it a right to the
name by which that species is called. Thus
four equal sides, joined together at right angles,
make up the notion of a square. As this is a
fixed and invariable idea, without which the
general name cannot be applied, we never call
any particular figure a square until it appears to
have these several conditions; and, contrarily,
wherever a figure is found with these conditions,
it necessarily takes the name of a square. The
same will be found to held in all our other rea-
sonings of this kind, where nothing can create
any difficulty but the want of settled ideas.
for instance, we have not determined within our-
selves the precise notion denoted by the word
manslaughter, it will be impossible for us to de-
cide whether any particular action ought to bear
that name: because, however nicely we examine
the action itself, yet, being strangers to the gene-
ral idea with which it is to be compared, we are
utterly unable to judge of their agreement or
disagreement. But if we take care to remove
this obstacle, and distinctly trace the two ideas
under consideration, all difficulties vanish, and
the resolution becomes both easy and certain.
8. Thus we see of what importance it is
towards the improvement and certainty of human
knowledge, that we accustom ourselves to clear
and determinate ideas, and a steady application
of words.
SECT. III.-Of REASONING AS IT REGARDS THE
Powers AND “PROPERTIES of THINGS, AND
THE RELATIONS OF OUR GENERAL IDEAS.
1. We now come to the second great end
which men have in view in their reasonings:
namely, the discovering and ascribing to things
their several attributes or properties. And here
it will be necessary to distinguish between rea-
Soning as it regards the sciences, and as it con-
cerns common life. In the sciences our reason
is employed chiefly about universal truths, it
being by them alone that the bounds of human
knowledge are enlarged. Hence the division of
things into various classes, called otherwise
genera and species. For these universal ideas
being set up as the representatives of many par-
ticular things, whatever is affirmed of them may
be also affirmed of all the individuals to which
they belong. Murder, for instance, is a general
idea, representing a certain species of human
actions. Reason tells us that the punishment
due to it is death. Hence every particular action,
coming under the notion of murder, has the
punishment of death allotted to it. Here then
we apply the general truth to some obvious in-
stance; and this is what properly constitutes the
reasoning of common life. For men, in their
ordinary transactions and intercourse one with
another, have, for the most part, to do only with
particular objects. Our friends and relations,
their characters and behaviour, the constitution
of the several bodies that surround us, and the
uses to which they may be applied, are what
chiefly engage our attention. In all these we
If,
reason about particular things; and the whole
result of our reasoning is, the applying the gene-
ral truths of the sciences in the ordinary transac-
tions of human life. When we see a viper, we
avoid it. Wherever we have occasion for the
forcible action of water, to move a body that
makes considerable resistance, we take care to
convey it in such a manner that it shall fall upon
the object with impetuosity. Now all this hap-
pens in consequence of our familiar and ready
application of these two general truths. ‘The
bite of a viper is mortal.’ “Water, falling upon
a body with impetuosity, acts very forcibly
towards setting it in motion.' In like manner,
if we set ourselves to consider any particular
character, in order to determine the share of
praise or dispraise that belongs to it, our great
concern is to ascertain exactly the proportion of
virtue and vice. The reason is obvious. A just
determination, in all cases of this kind, depends
entirely upon an application of these general
maxims of morality; Virtuous actions deserve
praise; vicious actions deserve blame.
2. Hence it appears that reasoning, as it re-
gards common life, is no more than the ascribing
the general properties of things to those several
objects with which we are more immediately
concerned, according as they are found to be of
that particular division or class to which the
properties belong. The steps then by which we
proceed are manifestly these. First, we refer
the object under consideration to some general
idea or class of things. We then recollect the
several attributes of that general idea. And,
lastly, ascribe all those attributes to the present
object. Thus, in considering the character of
Sempromius, if we find it to be of the kind called
virtuous, when we, at the same time, reflect that
a virtuous character is deserving of esteem, it
naturally and obviously follows that Sempronius
is so too. These thoughts, put into a syllogism,
in order to exhibit the form of reasoning here
required, run thus:– Every virtuous man is
worthy of esteem.—Sempronius is a virtuous
man;–Therefore Sempronius is worthy of es-
teem.”
3. By this syllogism it appears, that, before we
affirm any thing of a particular object, that object
must be referred to some general idea. Sempro-
nius is pronounced worthy of esteem only in
consequence of his being a virtuous man, or
coming under that general notion, Hence we
see the necessary connexion of the various parts
of reasoning, and the dependence they have one
upon another. The determining the genera and
species of things is one exercise of human rea-
son; and here we find that this exercise is the
first in order, and previous to the other, which
consists in ascribing to them their properties,
and relations. But when we have taken this
previous step, and brought particular objects
under general names; as the properties we as-
cribe to them are no other than those of the
general idea, it is plain that, in order to a suc-
cessful progress in this part of knowledge, we
must thoroughly acquaint ourselves with the
several relations and attributes of these our
general ideas. When this is done, the other
part will be easy, and requires scarcely any labor
|
L O G H C.
111
or thought, as being no more than an application
of the general form of reasoning represented in
the foregoing syllogism. Now, as we have al-
ready sufficiently shown how we are to proceed
in determining the genera and species of things,
which, as we have said, is the previous step to
this second branch of human knowledge, all that
is farther wanting towards a due explanation of
it is, to offer some considerations as to the man-
ner of investigating the general relations of our
ideas. This is the highest exercise of the powers
of the understanding, and that by means of which
we arrive at the discovery of universal truths; so
that our deductions in this way constitute that
particular species of reasoning which regards
principally the sciences.
4. But, that we may conduct our thoughts
with some order and method, we shall begin
with observing, that the relations of our general
ideas are of two kinds: either such as imme-
diately discover themselves, upon comparing the
ideas one with another; or such as, being more
remote and distant, require art and contrivance
to bring them into view. The relations of the
first kind furnish us with intuitive and self-
evident truths , those of the second are traced
by reasoning, and due application of inter-
mediate ideas, It is of this last kind that we
are to speak here, having discussed the other in
the second part. As, therefore, in tracing the
more distant relations of things, we must always
have recourse to intervening ideas, and are more
or less successful in our researches according to
our acquaintance with these ideas, and ability
of applying them, it is evident that, to make a
good reasoner, two things are principally re-
quired. 1st, An extensive knowledge of those
Intermediate ideas, by means of which things
may be compared one with another. 2dly, The
skill and talent of applying them happily in all
particular instances that come under considera–
tion.
5. In order to our successful progress in rea-
soning, we must have an extensive knowledge of
those intermediate ideas, by means of which
things may be compared one with another. For
as it is not every idea that will answer the pur-
pose of our enquiries, but such only as are pecu-
liarly related to the objects about which we
reason, so as, by a comparison with them, to
furnish evident and known truths; nothing is
more apparent than that the greater variety of con-
ceptions we can call into view, the more likely
we are to find some among them that will help
us to the truths here required. And, indeed, it
holds in experience, that in proportion as we en-
large our views of things, and grow acquainted
with a multitude of different objects, the reason-
ing faculty gathers strength: for, by extending
our sphere of knowledge, the mind acquires a
certain force and penetration, as being accus-
tomed to examine the several appearances of its
ideas, and observe what light they cast one upon
another.
6. This is the reason why, in order to excel
remarkably in any one branch of learning, it is ne-
cessary to have at least a general acquaintance
with the whole circle of arts and sciences. All
the various divisions of human knowledge are very
and precepts are of little service.
nearly related, and, in innumerable instances,
serve to illustrate each other. And although
it is not to be denied that, by a resolute appli-
cation to one branch of study, a man may make
considerable progress, and acquire some degree
of eminence in it; yet his views will be always
narrow and contracted, and he will want that
masterly discernment which not only enables us
to pursue our discoveries with ease, but also, in
laying them open to others, to spread a certain
brightness around them. But, when our reason-
ing regards a particular science, it is further
necessary that we more nearly acquaint ourselves
with whatever relates to that science. A general
knowledge is a good preparation, and enables us
to proceed with ease and expedition in whatever
branch of learning we apply to. But then, in
the minute and intricate questions of any sci-
ence, we are by no means qualified to reason
with advantage until we have perfectly mastered
the science to which they belong.
7. We come now to the second thing required,
in order to a successful progress in reasoning;
namely, the skill and talent of applying inter-
mediate ideas happily in all particular instances
And here rules
Use and ex-
perience are the best instructors. For, whatever
logicians may boast of being able to form perfect
reasoners by book and rule, we find by expe-
rience that the study of their precepts does not
always add any great degree of strength to the
understanding. In short, it is the habit alone of
reasoning that makes a reasoner. And, therefore,
the true way to acquire this talent is, by being
much conversant in those sciences where the
art of reasoning is allowed to reign in the great-
est perfection. Hence it was that the ancients,
who so well understood the manner of forming
the mind, always began with mathematics as the
foundation of their philosophical studies. Here
the understanding is by degrees habituated to
truth, contracts insensibly a certain fondness for
it, and learns never to yield its assent to any
proposition where the evidence is not sufficient
to produce full conviction. For this reason Plato
has called mathematical demonstrations the
cathartics or purgatives of the soul, as being the
proper means to cleanse it from error, and to
promote that natural exercise of its faculties in
which just thinking consists.
8. If, therefore, we would form our minds to
a habit of reasoning closely and in a train, we
cannot take any more certain method than exer-
cising ourselves in mathematical demonstrations.
so as to contract a kind of familiarity with them.
Not that we look upon it as necessary that all
men should be deep mathematicians; but that
having acquired the manner of reasoning, which
that study necessarily brings the mind to, they
may be able to transfer it to other parts of
knowledge, as they shall have occasion.
9. But though the study of mathematics be of
all others the most useful to form the mind, and
give it an early relish for truth, yet ought not
other parts of philosophy to be neglected. For
that come under consideration.
there also we meet with many opportunities of
exercising the powers of the understanding; and
the variety of subjects naturally leads us to ob-
112 * L O G. I. C.
serve all those different turns of thinking that
are peculiarly adapted to the several ideas we
examine, and the truth we search after. A mind
thus trained acquires a certain mastery over its
own thoughts, insomuch that it can range and
model them at pleasure, and call such into view
as best suit its present designs. Now in this the
whole art of reasoning consists; from among a
great variety of different ideas to single out those
that are most proper for the business in hand,
and to lay them together, in such order, that
from plain and easy beginnings, by gentle
degrees, and a continued train of evident truths,
we may be insensibly led on to such discoveries
as at our first setting out appeared beyond the
reach of the human understanding. For this
purpose, besides the study of mathematics before
recommended, we ought to apply ourselves
diligently to the reading of such authors as have
distinguished themselves for strength of reason-
ing, and a just and accurate manner of thinking.
For it is observable, that a mind exercised and
habituated to truth seldom rests satisfied in a
bare contemplation of the arguments offered by
others; but will be frequently trying its own
strength, and pursuing its discoveries upon the
plan it is most accustomed to. Thus we insen-
sibly contract a habit of tracing truth from one
stage to another, and of investigating those gene-
ral relations and properties which we afterwards
ascribe to particular things, according as we find
them comprehended under the abstract ideas to
which the properties belong.
SECT. IV.—OF THE FoRMs of SYLLoGISMs.
1. Having thus given a general notion of
syllogisms, and their parts, we shall now enter
inore particularly into the subject, examine their
various forms, and lay open the rules of argu-
mentation proper to each. In the syllogisms
above mentioned the middle term is the subject
of the major proposition, and the predicate of
the minor. This disposition, though the most
natural and obvious, is not however necessary;
as it often happens that the middle term is the
subject in both the premises, or the predicate in
both; and sometimes, directly contrary to its
disposition in the preceding sections, the predi-
cate in the major, and the subject in the minor.
Hence the distinction of syllogisms into various
kinds, called figures by logicians. For figure,
according to their use of the word, is nothing but
the order and disposition of the middle term in
any syllogism. And, as this disposition is four-
fold, so the figures of syllogisms thence arising
are four in number. When the middle term is
the subject of the major proposition, and the
predicate of the minor, we have what is called
the first figure: as, “No work of God is bad:—
The natural passions and appetites of men are the
work of God:—Therefore none of them is bad.”
If, on the other hand, it is the predicate of both
the premises, the syllogism is said to be the
second figure : as, “Whatever is bad is not the
work of God:—All the natural passions and
appetites of men are the work of God:—There-
fore the natural passions and appetites of men
are not bad.' Again, in the third figure, the
middle term is the subject of the two premises:
as, “All Africans are black:—All Africans are
men:—Therefore some men are black.' And
lastly, by making it the predicate of the major
and subject of the minor, we obtain syllogisms
in the fourth figure: as, “The only being who
ought to be worshipped is the Creator and
Governor of the world :—The Creator and
Governor of the world is God:—Therefore God
is the only being who ought to be worshipped.’
2. But, besides this fourfold distinction of
syllogisms, there is a further subdivision of them
in every figure, arising from the quantity and
quality, as they are called, of the propositions.
By quantity we mean the consideration of pro-
positions, as universal or particular; by quality,
as affirmative or negative. *
Now as, in all the several dispositions of the
middle term, the propositions of which a syllo-
gism consists may be either universal or par-
ticular, affirmative or negative, the due determi-
nation of these, and so putting them together as
the laws of argumentation require, constitute
what logicians call the moods of syllogisms. Of
these moods there is a determinate number to
every figure, including all the possible ways in
which propositions differing in quantity or
quality can be combined, according to any dis-
position of the middle term, in order to arrive at
a just conclusion.
The first figure has only four legitimate moods.
The major proposition in this figure must be
universal, and the minor affirmative; and it has
this property, that it yields conclusions of all
kinds, affirmative and negative, universal and
particular. •
The second figure has also four legitimate
moods. Its major proposition must be univer-
sal, and one of the premises must be negative.
It yields conclusions both universal and particu-
lar, but all negative. .
The third figure has six legitimate moods. Its
minor must always be affirmative; and it yields
conclusions both affirmative and negative, but
all particular. These are all the figures which
were admitted by the inventor of syllogisms;
and of which, so far as we know, the number of
legitimate moods has been ascertained, and seve-
rally demonstrated. In every figure it will be
found upon trial that there are sixty-four differ-
ent moods of syllogism; and he who thinks it
worth while to construct so many in the fourth
figure, always remembering that the middle term
in each must be the predicate of the major and
the subject of the minor proposition, will easily
discern what number of these moods are legiti-
mate, and give true conclusions.
Besides the rules that are proper to each
figure, Aristotle has given some that are common
to all, by which the legitimacy of syllogisms
may be tried. These may be reduced to five:
1. There must be only three terms in a syllo-
gism: as each term occurs in two of the propo-
sitions, it must be precisely the same in both ;
if it be not, the syllogism is said to have four
terms, which makes a vicious syllogism. 2.
The middle term must be taken universally in
one of the premises. 3. Both premises must not
be particular propositions, nor both negative.
4. The conclusion must be particular, if either
L O G I C. 113
of the premises be particular; and negative, if
either of the premises be negative. 5. No term
can be taken universally in the conclusion, if it
be not taken universally in the premises.
For understanding the second and fifth of
these rules, it is necessary to observe, that a
term is said to be taken universally, not only
when it is the subject of a universal proposition,
but also when it is the predicate of a negative
proposition. On the other hand, a term is said
to be taken particularly, when it is either the
subject of a particular, or the predicate of an
affirmative proposition.
3. The division of syllogisms, according to mood
and figure, respects those especially which are
known by the name of plain simple syllogisms;
that is, which are bound to three propositions,
all simple, and where the extremes and middle
term are connected, according to the above rules.
But as the mind is not tied down to any one
precise form of reasoning, but sometimes makes
use of more, sometimes of fewer premises, and
often takes in compound and conditional propo-
sitions, it may not be amiss to take notice of the
different forms derived from this source, and
explain the rules by which the mind conducts
itself in the use of them.
4. When in any syllogism the major is a con-
ditional proposition, the syllogism itself is
termed conditional. Thus: “If there is a God,
he ought to be worshipped:—But there is a
God:—Therefore he ought to be worshipped.’
In this example the major, or first proposition,
is conditional, and therefore the syllogism itself
is also of the same kind. And here we must
observe, that all conditional propositions con-
sist of two distinct parts: one expressing the
condition upon which the predicate agrees or
disagrees with the subject, as in this now before
us, if there is a God; the other joining or dis-
joining the said predicate and subject, as here,
he ought to be worshipped. The first of these
parts, or that which implies the condition, is
called the antecedent; the second, where we
join or disjoin the predicate and subject, has the
name of the consequent.
5. In all propositions of this kind, supposing
them to be exact in point of form, the relation
between the antecedent and consequent must ever
be true and real; that is, the antecedent must
always contain some certain and genuine con-
dition, which necessarily implies the consequent;
for otnerwise the position itself will be false,
and therefore ought not to be admitted into our
reasonings. Hence it follows, that when any
conditional proposition is assumed, if we admit
the antecedent of that proposition, we must at
the same time necessarily admit the consequent;
but, if we reject the consequent, we are in like
manner bound to reject the antecedent. For as
the antecedent always expresses some condition
which necessarily implies the truth of the conse-
quent; by admitting the antecedent, we allow of
that condition, and therefore ought also to admit
the consequent. In like manner, if it appears
that the consequent ought to be rejected, the
antecedent evidently must be so too; because,
as has just been demonstrated, the admitting of
Vol. XIII.
the antecedent would necessarily imply the ad-
mission also of the consequent. *
, 6. There are two ways of arguing in hypothe-
tical syllogisms, which lead to a certain and un-
avoidable conclusion. For as the major is always
a conditional proposition, consisting of an ante-
cedent and a consequent; if the minor admits
the antecedent, it is plain that the conclusion must
admit the consequent. This is called arguin
from the admission of the antecedent to the ad-
mission of the consequent, and constitutes that
mood or species of hypothetical syllogisms which
is distinguished in the schools by the name of
the modus ponens, as by it the whole conditional
proposition, both antecedent and consequent, is
established. Thus: If God is infinitely wise,
and acts with perfect freedom, he does nothing
but what is best:-But God is infinitely wise,
and acts with perfect freedom :—Therefore he
does nothing but what is best.’ Here we see the
antecedent or first part of the conditional propo-
sition is established in the minor, and the con-
sequent or second part in the conclusion; whence
the syllogism itself is an example of the modus
ponens. But if now we on the contrary suppose
that the minor rejects the consequent, then it is
apparent that the conclusion must also reject the
antecedent. In this case we are said to argue
from the removal of the consequent to the removal
of the antecedent, and the particular mood or
species of syllogism thence arising is called by
logicians the modus tollens; because in it both
antecedent and consequent are rejected or taken
away, as appears by the following example. ‘If
God were not a being of infinite goodness,
neither would he consult the happiness of his
creatures:–But God does consult the happiness
of his creatures:—Therefore he is a being of infi-
nite goodness.’ & -
7. These two species take in the whole class
of conditional syllogisms, and include all the pos-
sible ways of arguing that lead to a legitimate
conclusion; because we cannot here proceed by
a contrary process of reasoning, that is, from the
removal of the antecedent to the removal of the
consequent, or from the establishing of the con-
sequent to the establishing of the antecedent.
For although the antecedent always expresses
some real condition, which, once admitted, ne-
cessarily implies the consequent, yet it does not
follow that there is therefore no other condition
and if so, then, after removing the antecedent,
the consequent may still hold, because of some
other determination that infers it. When we
say, If a stone is exposed some time to the rays
of the sun, it will contract a certain degree of
heat; the proposition is certainly true; and, ad-
mitting the antecedent, we must also admit the
consequent. But, as there are other ways by
which astone may gather heat, it will not follow,
from the ceasing of the before-mentioned con-
dition, that therefore the consequent cannot take
place. We cannot argue: but the stone has not
been expèsed to the rays of the sun ; therefore
neither has it any degree of heat: for there are
many other ways by which heat might be com-
municated to it. And, if we cannot argue from
the removal of the antecedent to the removal of
L O G. I. C.
N
1 14
the consequent, neither can we from the admission
of the consequent to the admission of the antece-
dent: because, as the consequent may flow from
a great variety of different suppositions, the al-
lowing of it does not determine the precise sup-
position, but only that some one of them must
take plaee. Thus, in the foregoing propositions,
“If a stone is exposed some time to the rays of
the sun, it will contract a certain degree of heat;’
admitting the consequent, viz. that it has con-
tracted a certain degree of heat, we are not there-
fore bound to admit the antecedent, that it has
been some time exposed to the rays of the sun;
because there are many other causes whence that
heat may have proceeded. These two ways of
arguing, therefore, hold not in conditional syllo-
gisms. Y. -
8. As, from the major being a conditional
proposition, we obtain the species of conditional
syllogisms; so, where it is a disjunctive propo-
sition, the syllogism to which it belongs is also
called disjunctive, as in the following example:—
“The world is either self-existent, or the work of
some finite, or of some infinite being :-But it is
not self-existent, nor the work of a finite being:—
Therefore it is the work of an infinite Being.’
Now, a disjunctive proposition is that, in which,
of several predicates, we affirm one necessarily to
belong to the subject, to the exclusion of all the
rest, but leave that particular one undetermined.
Hence it follows that, as soon as we determine
the particular predicate, all the rest are of course
to be rejected; or if we reject all the predicates
but one, that one necessarily takes place. When,
therefore, in a disjunctive syllogism, the several
predicates are enumerated in the major; if the
minor establishes any one of these predicates, the
conclusion ought to remove all the rest; or if in
the minor all the predicates but one are removed,
the conclusion must necessarily establish that one.
Thus, in the disjunctive syllogism given above,
the major affirms one of the three predicates to
belong to the earth, viz. self-existence, or that it
is the work of a finite, or that it is the work of an
infinite Being. Two of these predicates are re-
moved in the minor, viz. self-existence, and the
work of a finite being. Hence the conclusion
necessarily ascribes to it the third predicate, and
affirms that it is the work of an infinite Being.
If we give the syllogism another turn, so that
the minor may establish one of the predicates,
by affirming the earth to be the production of
an infinite Being: then the conclusion must re-
move the other two, asserting it to be neither
self-existent, nor the work of a finite being.
These are the forms of reasoning in these species
of syllogisms, the justness of which appears at
first sight: and that there can be no other is
evident from the very nature of a disjunctive pro-
position.
9, in the several kinds of syllogisms hitherto
mentioned, we may observe, that the parts are
complete; that is, the three propositions of which
they consist are represented in form. But it often
happens, that some one of the premises is not
only an evident truth, but also familiar and in
the minds of all men; in which case it is usually
omitted, whereby we have an imperfect syllogism
.hat seems to be made up of only two propositions.
Should, we, for instance, argue in this manner:—
“Every man is mortal:—therefore every king is
mortal:—the syllogism appears to be imperfect,
as consisting but of two propositions. Yet it is
really complete; only the minor (every king is a
man) is omitted; and left to the reader to supply,
as being a proposition so familiar and evident
that it cannot escape him. -
10. These seemingly imperfect syllogisms are
called enthymemes; and occur very frequently in
reasoning, especially where it makes a part of
common conversation. Nay, there is a particular
elegance in them, because, not displaying the ar-
gument in all its parts, they leave somewhat to
the exercise and invention of the mind. We are
thus put upon exerting ourselves, and seem to
share in the discovery of what is proposed to us.
Now this is the great secret of fine writing, so to
frame and put together our thoughts as to give
full play to the reader's imagination, and draw
him insensibly into our views and course of rea-
soning. This gives a pleasure not unlike to that
which the author himself feels in composing. It
besides shortens discourse, and adds a certain force
and liveliness to our arguments, when the words
in which they are conveyed favor the natural
quickness of the mind in its operations, and a
single expression is left to exhibit a whole train
of thoughts. l
11. But there is another species of reasoning
with two propositions, which seems to be com-
plete in itself, and where we admit the conclusion
without supposing any tacit or suppressed judg-
ment in the mind, from which it follows syllogis-
tically. This happens between propositions,
where the connexion is such, that the admission
of the one necessarily, and at the first sight, implies
the admission also of the other. For if the pro-
position on which the other depends is self-evi-
dent, we content ourselves with barely affirming
it, and infer that other by a direct conclusion.
Thus, by admitting a universal proposition, we
are forced also to admit of all the particular pro-
positions comprehended under it, this being the
very condition that constitutes a proposition uni-
versal. If then- that universal proposition be
self-evident, the particular ones follow of course,
without any farther train of reasoning. Whoever
allows, for instance, ‘that things equal to one
and the same thing are equal to one another,’
must at the same time allow, “that two triangles,
each equal to a square whose side is three inches,
are also equal between themselves.” This argu-
gument, therefore, ‘Things equal to one and
the same thing, are equal to one another —
Therefore these two triangles, each equal to the
square of a line of three inches, are equal between
themselves:’—is complete in its kind, and con-
tains all that is necessary towards a just and legi-
timate conclusion. For the first or universal
proposition is self-evident, and therefore requires
no farther proof. And as the truth of the par-
ticular is inseparably connected with that of the
universal, it follows from it by an obvious and
unavoidable consequence. *
12. Now, in all cases of this kind, where pro-
positions are deduced one from another, on ac-
count of a known and evident connexion, we are
said to reason by immediate consequence. Such
I, O G. I. C.
115
a coherence of propositions, manifest at first sight,
and forcing itself upon the mind, frequently oc-
curs in reasoning. Logicians have explained at
some length the several suppositions upon which
it takes place, and allow of all immediate conse-
quences that follow in conformity to them. It
is however observable, that these arguments,
though seemingly complete, because the con-
clusion follows necessarily from the single pro-
position that goes before, may yet be considered
as real enthymemes, whose major, which is a
conditional proposition, is wanting. The syllo-
gism justmentioned, when represented according
to this view, will run as follows:–“If things
equal to one and the same thing, are equal to
one another; these two triangles, each equal to a
square whose side is three inches, are also equal
between themselves. But things equal to one and
the same thing are equal to one another:—there-
fore also these triangles, &c., are equal between
themselves.” This observation will be found to
hold in all immediate consequences whatsoever,
so that they are in fact no more than enthymemes
of hypothetical syllogisms. But then it is par-
ticular to them, that the ground on which the
conclusion rests, namely its coherence with the
minor, is of itself apparent, and seems imme-
diately to flow from the rules and reasons of
logic. -
13. The next species of reasoning we shall
notice here is what is commonly known by the
name of Sorites. This is a way of arguing, in
which a great number of propositions are so
linked together, that the predicate of one becomes
continually the subject of the next following,
until at last a conclusion is formed, by bringing
together the subject of the first proposition, and
the predicate of the last. Of this kind is the
following argument:—‘God is omnipotent:—
an omnipotent being can do every thing possi-
ble : he that can do every thing possible, can do
whatever involves not a contradiction:—there-
fore God can do whatever involves not a contra-
diction.’ This particular combination of pro-
positions may be continued to any length we
please, without in the least weakening the ground
upon which the conclusion rests. The reason is,
because the sorites itself may be resolved into as
many simple syllogisms as there are middle terms
in it; where this is found universally to hold,
that when such a resolution is made, and the
syllogisms are placed in train, the conclusion of
the last in the series is also the conclusion of the
Sorites. This kind of argument, therefore, as it
serves to unite several syllogisms into one, must
stand upon the same foundation with the syllo-
gisms of which it consists, and is indeed, properly
speaking, no other than a compendious way of
reasoning syllogistically.
14. What is here said of plain simple propo-
sitions, may be as well applied to those that are
conditional; that is, any number of them may
be so joined together in a series, that the conse-
quent of one shall become continually the antece-
dent of the next following; in which case, by
establishing the antecedent of the first proposi-
tion, we establish the consequent of the last,
or, by removing the last consequent, remove
also the first antecedent. This way of reasoning
is exemplified in the following argument:—‘If
we love any person, all emotions of hatred
towards him cease:—If all emotions of hatred
towards a person cease, we cannot rejoice in his
misfortunes:–If we rejoice not in his misfor-
tunes, we certainly wish him no injury:—There-
fore, if we love a person, we wish him no in- .
jury.’ It is evident that this, sorites, as well as
the last, may be resolved into a series of distinct
syllogisms, with this only difference, that here
the syllogisms are all conditional. -
15. The last species of syllogism we shall take
notice of in this section is that commonly dis-
tinguished by the name of a dilemma. . A di-
lemma is an argument by which we endeavour
to prove the absurdity or falsehood of some
assertion. In order to this, we assume a condi-
tional proposition, the antecedent of which is
the assertion to be disproved, and the consequent
a disjunctive proposition, enumerating all the
possible suppositions upon which that assertion
can take place. If then it appears, that all these
several suppositions are to be rejected, it is
plain, that the antecedent or assertion itself must
be so too. When, therefore, such a proposition
as that before mentioned is made the major of
any syllogism; if the minor rejects all the sup-
positions contained in the consequent, it neces-
sarily follows, that the conclusion ought to reject
the antecedent, which is the very assertion to be
disproved. This particular way of arguing is
that which logicians call a dilemma; and, from
the account here given of it, it appears that
we may in the general define it to be a hypothe-
tical syllogism, where the consequent of the ma-
jor is a disjunctive proposition, which is wholly
taken away or removed in the minor. Of this
kind is the following:—“If God did not create
the world perfect in its kind, it must either pro-
ceed from want of inclination, or from want of
power:—But it could not proceed either from
want of inclination or want of power:-There-
fore, he created the world perfect in its kind.”
Or, which is the same thing: “It is absurd to
say that he did not create the world perfect in
its kind.' -
16. The nature, then, of a dilemma is univer-
sally this: The major is a conditional proposi-
tion, whose consequent contains all the several
suppositions upon which the antecedent can take
place. As, therefore, these suppositions are
wholly removed in the minor, it is evident that
the antecedent must be so too; insomuch that
we here always argue from the removal of the
consequent to the removal of the antecedent.
That is, a dilemma is an argument in the modus
tollens of hypothetical syllogisms, as logicians
speak. Hence it is plain that, if the antecedent
of the major is an affirmative proposition, the
conclusion of the dilemma will be negative; but,
if it is a negative proposition, the conclusion will
be affirmative. -
SECT. W.-OF 1NDUCTIAN.
1. All reasoning proceeds ultimately from first
truths, either self-evident or taken for granted;
and the first truths of syllogistic reasonings are
general propositions. But except in the mathe-
matics, and such other sciences as, being con-
- I 2
i 16
L O G. I. C.
versant about mere ideas, have no immediate
relation to things without the mind, we cannot
assume as truths propositions which are general.
The mathematician, indeed, may be considered
as taking his ideas from the beginning in their
general form. Every proposition composed of
such ideas is therefore general; and those which
are theoretic are feducible to two parts or terms,
a predicate and a subject, with a copula generally
affirmative. If the agreement or the relation
between the two terms be not immediate and
Self-evident, he has recourse to an axiom, which
is a proposition still more general, and which
supplies him with a third or middle term. This
he compares first with the predicate, and then
with the subject, or vice versä. These two com-
parisons, when drawn out in form, make two
propositions, which are called the premises; and,
if they be immediate and self-evident, the con-
clusion, consisting of the terms of the question
proposed, is said to be demonstrated. This me-
thod of reasoning is conducted exactly in the syl-
logistic form explained in the preceding section.
2. But, in sciences which treat of things exter-
nal to the mind, we cannot assume as first prin-
ciples the most general propositions, and from
them infer others less and less general till we
descend to particulars. The reason is obvious.
Every thing in the universe, whether of mind or
body, presents itself to our observation in its in-
dividual state; so that perception and judgment,
employed in the investigation of truth, whether
physical, metaphysical, moral, or historical, have
in the first place to encounter with particulars.
* With these reason begins or should begin, its
operations. It observes, examines, compares,
and judges of them by some of those native evi-
dences and original lights which, as they are
the first and indispensable inlets of knowledge
to the mind, have been called the primary
principles of truth.” * #
3. ‘By such acts of observation and judgment,’
says, that accurate logician, Mr. Tatham, ‘dili-
gently practised, and frequently repeated, on
many individuals of the same class or of a simi-
lar nature, noting their agreements, marking
their differences, however minute, and rejecting
all instances which, however similar in appear-
ance, are not in effect the same, reason, with
much labor and attention, extracts some general
laws respecting the properties and relations of
real things.’ This is no hasty, premature, no-
tional abstraction of the mind, by which ideas
are formed that have no archetypes in nature: it
is a rational experimental process, instituted and
executed upon the constitution of beings, which
in part compose the universe. By this process
reason advances from particulars to generals,
from less general to more general, till by a
Series of slow progression, and by regular de-
grees, it arrives at the most general notions.
And by affirming or denying a genus of a
Species, or an accident of a substance or class
of substances, through all the stages of the gra-
dation, we form conclusions, which, if logically
drawn, are axioms, or general propositions
ranged one above another, till they terminate in
those that are universal.
4. ‘Thus, for instance, the evidence of the ex-
ternal senses is obviously the primary principle.
from which all physical knowledge is derived.
But, whereas nature begins with causes, which,
after a variety of changes, produce effects, the
senses open upon the effects, and from them,
through the slow and painful road of experiment
and observation, ascend to causes. By experi-
ment and observations skilfully chosen, carefully
conducted, and judiciously applied, the philo-
sopher advances from one stage of enquiry to
another, in the rational investigation of the gene-
ral causes of physical truth. From different ex-
periments and observations made on the same
individual subject, and from the same experi-
ments and observations made on different sub-
jects of the same kind, by comparing and
judging, he discovers some qualities, causes, or
phenomena, which, after carefully distinguishing
and rejecting all contradictory instances that
occur, he finds common to many, Thus, from
many collateral comparisons and judments formed
upon particulars, he ascends to generals; and, by
a repetition of the same industrious process and
laborious investigation, he advances from general
to more general, till at last he is enabled to form
a few of the most general, with their attributes
and operations, into axioms or secondary prin-
ciples, which are the well-founded laws enacted
and enforced by the God of nature. This is that
just and philosophic method of reasoning which
sound logic prescribes, in this as well as in other
parts of learning; by which, through the slow
but certain road of experiment and observation,
the mind ascends from appearances to qualities,
from effects to causes, and, from experiments
upon many particular subjects, forms general
propositions concerning the powers and proper-
ties of physical body.
5. “Axioms so investigated and established are
applicable to all parts of learning, and are the
indispensable, and, indeed, the wonderful expe-
dients, by which, in every branch of knowledge,
reason pushes on its enquiries to the particular
pursuit of truth: and the method of reasoning
by which they are formed is that of true and
legitimate induction; which is, therefore, by lord
Bacon, the best and soundest of logicians, called
‘the key of interpretation.’
6. “Instead of taking his axioms promis-
cuously or arbitrarily out of the great families of
the categories, and erecting them by his own
sophistical invention into the principles upon
which his disputation was to be employed, had
the analytical genius of Aristotle presented us
with the laws of the true inductive logic, by
which axioms are philosophically formed, and
had he, with his usual Sagacity, given us an ex-
ample of it in a single branch of science, he
would have brought to the temple of truth
an offering more valuable than he has done by
the aggregate of all his logical and philosophical
roductions. -
7. “In all sciences, except the mathematics,
it is only after the inductive process has been in-
dustriously pursued and successfully performed,
that definition may be logically and usefully
introduced, by beginning with the genus, pass-
ing through all the graduate and subordinate
stages, and marking the specific difference as it
L O G. I. C.
117
descends, till it arrive at the individual, which is
the subject of the question. And, by adding an
affirmation or negation of the attribute of the
genus on the species or individual, or of a ge-
neral accident on the particular substance so
defined, making the definition a proposition, the
truth of the question will be logically solved
without any farther process. So that instead of
being the first, as employed by the logic in com-
mon use, definition may be the last act of reason
in the search of truth in general.
8. “These axioms, or general propositions,
thus inductively established, become another
species of principles, which may be properly
called secondary, and which lay the foundation
of the syllogistic method of reasoning. When
these are formed, but not before, we may safely
admit the maxim with which logicians set out in
the exercise of their art, as the great hinge on
which their reasoning and disputation turn:
“From truths that are already known, to derive
others which are not known.” Or, to state it
more comprehensively, so as to apply to pro-
bable as well as to scientific reasoning—“From
truths which are better known, to derive others
which are less known.’ Philosophically speak-
ing, syllogistic reasoning is, under general pro-
positions to reduce others which are less general,
or which are particular ; for the inferior ones are
known to be true, only as we trace their con-
nexion with the superior. Logically speaking,
it is, To predicate a genus of a species or indi-
vidual comprehended under it, or an accident of
the substance in which it is inherent.
9. “Thus induction and syllogism are the two
methods of direct reasoning corresponding to the
two kinds of principles, primary and secondary,
on which they are founded, and by which they
are respectively conducted. In both methods,
indeed, reason proceeds by judging and compar-
ing, but the process is different throughout; and,
though it may have the sanction of Aristotle, an
inductive syllogism is a solecism.
10. “Till general truths are ascertained by in-
duction, the third or middle terms by which syl-
logisms are made, are no where safely to be
found. So that another position of the Stagyrite,
that “syllogism is naturally prior in order to in-
duction,’ is equally unfounded; for induction
does not only naturally but necessarily precede
syllogism; and, except in mathematics, is in
every respect indispensable to its existence;
since, till generals are established, there can be
neither definition, proposition, nor axiom, and of
course no syllogism. And, as induction is the
first, so is it the more essential and fundamental
instrument of reasoning: for, as syllogism can-
not produce its own principles, it must have them
from induction: and if the general propositions,
or secondary principles, be imperfectly or in-
firmly established, and much more, if they be
taken at hazard, upon authority, or by arbitrary
assumption, like those of Aristotle, all the syl-
logising in the world is a vain and useless logo-
machy, only instrumental to the multiplication
of false learning, and to the invention and con-
firmation of error. The truth of syllogisms de-
pends ultimately on the truth of axioms, and the
truth of axioms on tha soundness of inductions.'
Tatham's Chart and Scale of Truth. But though
induction is prior in order, as well as superior in
utility, to syllogism, we have thought it expedient
to treat of it last; both because syllogism is an
easier exercise of the reasoning faculty than induc-
tion, and because it is the method of mathematics,
the first science of reason in which the student
is commonly initiated.
SECT. VI.-OF DEMonstration.
1. Having despatched what seemed necessary
with regard to induction and syllogism ; we now
proceed to consider the laws of demonstration.
And here it must be confessed that, in strict de-
monstration, which removes from the mind all
possibility of doubt or error, the inductive me-
thod of reasoning can have no place. When
the experiments and observations from which the
general conclusion is drawn are numerous and
extensive, the result of this mode of reasoning
is moral certainty; and, could the inductions be
made complete, it would be absolute certainty,
equally convincing with mathematical demon-
stration. But however numerous and extensive
the observations and experiments may be, upon
which an inductive conclusion is established,
they must of necessity come short of the num-
ber and extent of nature; which in some cases,
by its immensity, defeats all possibility of their
co-extension; and in others, by its distance, lie
out of the reach of their immediate application.
Though truth does not appear in all other de-
partments of learning with that bold and resist-
less conviction with which it presides in mathe-
matical science, it shines through them all, if
not interrupted by prejudice or perverted by
error, with a clear and useful, though inferior
strength. And as it is not necessary, for the
general safety or convenience of a traveller, that
he should always enjoy the heat and splendor of
a mid-day sun, whilst he can with much more
ease pursue his journey under the weaker in-
fluence of a morning or an evening ray; so it is
not requisite, for the various concerns and pur-
poses of life, that men should be led by truth
of the most redundant brightness. Such truth
is to be had only in those sciences which are
conversant about ideas and their various rela-
tions; where, everything being certainly what it
appears to be, definitions and axioms arise from
mere intuition. Here syllogism takes up the
process from the beginning; and by a sublime
intellectual motion advances from the simplest
axioms to the most complicated speculations,
and exhibits truth springing out of its first and
purest elements, and spreading on all sides into
a system of science. As each step in the pro-
gress is syllogistic, we shall endeavour to explain
the use and application of syllogisms in this
species of reasoning.
We have seen that, in all the different appear-
ances they put on, we still arrive at a just and
legitimate conclusion : now it often happens,
that the conclusion of one syllogism becomes a
previous proposition in another; by which means
great numbers of them are sometimes linked to-
gether in a series, and truths are made to follow
one another in train. And as in such a conca–
tenation of syllogisms all the various ways of
118
L O G. H. C.
reasoning that are truly conclusive may be with
safety introduced; hence it is plain, that in de-
ducing any truth from its first principles, espe-
cially where it lies at a considerable distance
from them, we are at liberty to combine all the
several kinds of syllogisms above explained,
according as they are found best to suit the end
and purpose of our enquiries. When a propo-
sition is thus, by means of syllogisms, collected
from others more evident and known, it is said
to be proved; so that we may, in general, define
the proof of a proposition to be a syllogism, or
a series of syllogisms, collecting that proposition
from known and evident truths. But, more par-
ticularly, if the syllogisms of which the proofs
consist admit of no premises but definitions,
self-evident truths, and propositions already es-
tablished, then is the argument so constituted
called a demonstration: whereby it appears that
demonstrations are ultimately founded on defi-
nitions and self-evident propositions.
2. All syllogisms, whether compound, multi-
form, or defective, are reducible to plain simple
syllogisms in some one of the four figures. But
this is not all. Syllogisms of the first figure, in
particular, admit of all possible conclusions:
that is, any proposition, whether a universal
affirmative or universal negative, a particular af-
firmative or particular negative, which fourfold
division embraces all their varieties; any one of
these may be inferred by virtue of some syllo-
gism in the first figure. By these means it hap-
pens, that the syllogisms of all the other figures
are reducible also to syllogisms of the first figure,
and may be considered as standing on the same
foundation with them. To demonstrate and ex-
plain the manner of this reduction would too
much swell this treatise. It is enough to notice
that the thing is universally known and allowed
among logicians, to whose writings we refer such
as desire farther satisfaction in this matter. This
then being laid down, it is plain that any de-
monstration whatever may be considered as
composed of a series of syllogisms, all in the
first figure. For, since all the syllogisms that
enter the demonstration are reducible to syllo-
gisms of some one of the four figures; and
since the syllogisms of all the other figures are
farther reducible to syllogisms of the first figure,
it is evident, that the whole demonstration may
be resolved into a series of these last syllogisms.
Let us now, if possible, discover the ground on
which the conclusion rests in syllogisms of the
first figure; because, by so doing, we shall arrive
at a universal principle of certainty, whence the
evidence of all demonstrations in all their parts
may be ultimately derived.
3. The rules, then, of the first figure are briefly
these: the middle term is the subject of the
major proposition, and the predicate of the
minor. The major is always a universal pro-
position, and the minor always affirmative. Let
us now see what effect these rules will have in
reasoning. The major is a universal proposi-
tion of which the middle term is the subject,
and the predicate of the conclusion the predi-
cate. Hence it appears, that in the major the
predicate of the conclusion is always affirmed or
denied universally of the middle term. Again,
the minor is an affirmative proposition, whereof
the subject of the conclusion is the subject, and
the middle term the predicate. Here then the
middle term is affirmed of the subject of the
conclusion; that is, the subject of the conclu-
sion is affirmed to be comprehended under, or
to make a part of, the middle term. Thus then
we see what is done in the premises of a syllo-
gism of the first figure. The predicate of the
conclusion is universally affirmed or denied of
some idea. The subject of the conclusion is
affirmed to be or to make a part of that idea.
Hence it naturally and unavoidably follows, that
the predicate of the conclusion ought to be
affirmed or denied of the subject. To illustrate
this by an example, we shall resume one of the
syllogisms of the first section: “every creature
possessed of reason and liberty is accountable
for his actions:—Man is a creature possessed of
reason and liberty:—Therefore man is account-
able for his actions.' Here, in the first proposi-
tion, the predicate of the conclusion, account-
ableness, is affirmed of all creatures that have
reason and liberty. Again, in the second
proposition, man, the subject of the conclu-
sion, is affirmed to be or to make a part of this
class of creatures. Hence the conclusion ne-
cessarily and unavoidably follows, viz. that man
is accountable for his actions; because, if reason
and liberty be that which constitutes a creature
accountable, and man has reason and liberty, it
is plain he has that which constitutes him ac-
countable. In like manner, where the major
is a negative proposition, or denies the predicate
of the conclusion universally of the middle term,
as the minor always asserts the subject of the
conclusion to be or make part of that middle
term, it is no less evident that the predicate of
the conclusion ought in this case to be denied of
the subject. So that the ground of reasoning,
in all syllogisms of the first figure, is manifestly
this, “whatever may be affirmed universally, of
any idea, may be affirmed of every one or any
number of particulars comprehended under that
idea.’ And again, ‘whatever may be denied
universally, of any idea, may be in like manner
denied of every one or any number of its indi-
viduals. These two propositions are called by
logicians the dictum de omni, and dictum de
nullo ; and are indeed the great principles of
syllogistic reasoning, as all conclusions whatever
either rest immediately upon them, or upon pro-
positions deduced from them. But what adds
greatly to their value is, that they are really self-
evident truths, and such as we cannot gainsay
without running into an express contradiction.
To affirm, for instance, that no man is perfect,
and yet argue that some men are perfect; or to
say that all men are mortal, and yet that some
men are not mortal, is to assert a thing to be and
not to be at the same time.
4. And now we may affirm that, in all syllo-
gisms of the first figure, if the premises are true,
the conclusion must also be true. If it be true
that the predicate of the conclusion, whether af-
firmative or negative, agrees universally to some
idea; and if it be also true that the subject of
the conclusion is a part of, or comprehended
under that idea; then it necessarily follows, that
L O G. I. C.
1 19
the predicate of the conclusion agrees also to the
subject.
run counter to some one of the two principles
before established; that is, it would be to main-
tain an evident contradiction. And thus we are
come at last to the point we have been all along
endeavouring to establish; namely, that every
proposition which can be demonstrated is neces-
sarily true For as every demonstration may be
resolved into a series of syllogisms, all in the
first figure; and as in any one of these syllo-
gisms, if the premises are true, the conclusion
must be so too; it evidently follows that, if all
the several premises are true, all the several con-
clusions are so, and consequently the conclusion
also of the last syllogism, which is always the
proposition to be demonstrated. Now, that all
the premises of a demonstration are true, will
easily appear from the very nature and definition
of that form of reasoning. A demonstration is
a series of syllogisms, all whose premises are
either definitions, self-evident truths, or proposi-
tions already established. Definitions are iden-
tical propositions, wherein we connect the de-
scription of an idea with the name by which we
choose to have that idea called, and therefore as
to their truth there can be no dispute. Self-evi-
dent propositions appear true of themselves, and
leave no doubt or uncertainty in the mind. Pro-
positions before established are no other than
conclusions gained, by one or more steps, from
definitions and self-evident principles, that is,
from true premises, and therefore must needs be
true. Whence, all the previous propositions of
a demonstration being manifestly true, the last
conclusion, or proposition to be demonstrated,
must be so too. So that demonstration not only
leads to certain truth, but we have here also a
clear view of the ground and foundation of that
certainty. For as, in demonstrating, we may be
said to do nothing more than combine a series
of syllogisms together, all resting on the same
bottom; it is plain that one uniform ground of
certainty runs through the whole, and that the
conclusions are every where built upon some
one of the two principles before established as
the foundation of all reasoning. These two
principles are easily reduced into one, and may
be expressed thus: whatever predicate, whether
affirmative or negative, agrees universally to
any idea; the same must agree to every one or
any number of individuals comprehended under
that idea. And thus we have, according to our
first design, reduced the certainty of demonstra-
tion to one simple and universal principle, which
carries its own evidence with it, and which is
indeed the ultimate foundation of all syllogistic
reasoning.
5. Demonstration therefore serving as an infal-
lible guide to truth, and standing on so sure and
unalterable a basis, we may now venture to as-
sert, that the rules of logic furnish a sufficient
criterion for distinguishing between truth and
falsehood. For, since every proposition that can
be demonstrated is necessarily true, he is able to
distinguish truth from falsehood, who can with
certainty judge when a proposition is truly de-
monstrated. Now a demonstration is nothing
more than a concatemation of Syllogisms, all whose
For to assert the contrary, would be to
premises are definitions, self-evident truths, or
propositions previously established. To judge
therefore of the validity of a demonstration, we
must distinguish whether the definitions that en-
ter it are genuine and truly descriptive of the
ideas they are meant to exhibit; whether the pro-
positions assumed without proofs as intuitive
truths have really that self-evidence to which they
lay claim : whether the syllogisms are drawn up
in due form, and agreeable to the laws of argu-
mentation: in fine, whether they are combined
together in a just and orderly manner, so that no
demonstrable propositions serve anywhere as pre-
mises unless they are conclusions of previous
syllogisms. Now it is the business of logic, in
explaining the several, operations of the mind,
fully to instruct in all these points. It teaches
the nature and end of definitions, and lays down
the rules by which they ought to be framed. It
unfolds the several species of propositions, and
distinguishes the self-evident from the demon-
strable. It delineates also the different forms of
syllogisms, and explains the laws of argumenta-
tion proper to each. In fine, it describes the
manner of combining syllogisms, so as that they
may form a train of reasoning, and, lead to the
successive discovery of truth. The precepts of
logic, therefore, as they enable us to judge
with certainty when a proposition is duly demon-
strated, furnish a sure criterion for the distin-
guishing between truth and falsehood.
6. Perhaps it may be objected, that demon-
stration is a thing very rare and uncommon, as
being the prerogative of but a few sciences, and
therefore the criterion here given can be of no
great use. But wherever, by the bare contem-
plation of our ideas, truth is discoverable, there
also demonstration may be attained. Now that
is an abundantly sufficient criterion which enables
us to judge with certainty in all cases where the
knowledge of truth comes within our reach ; for,
with discoveries that lie beyond the limits of the
human mind, we have, properly, no business.
When a proposition is demonstrated, we are cer-
tain of its truth. When, on the contrary, our
ideas are such as have no visible connexion or
repugnance, and therefore furnish not the proper
means of tracing their agreement or disagreement,
there we are sure that scientific knowledge is not
attainable. But where there is some foundation
of reasoning, which yet amounts not to the full
evidence of demonstration, there the precepts of
logic, by teaching us to determine aright of the
degree of proof, and of what is still wanting to
render it full and complete, enable us to make a
due estimate of the measures of probability, and
to proportion our assent to the grounds on which
the proposition stands. And this is all we can
possibly arrive at, or even so much as hope for,
in the exercise of faculties so imperfect and li-
mited as ours.
7. Before we conclude this section, it is proper
to take notice of the distinction of demonstration
into direct and indirect. A direct demonstra-
tion is, when, beginning with definitions, self-
evident propositions, or known and allowed
truths, we form a train of syllogisms, and com-
bine them in an orderly manner, continuing the
Series through a variety of successive steps, until
120
L O G. I. C.
at last we arrive at a syllogism whose conclusion
is the proposition, to be demonstrated. Proofs
of this kind leave no doubt or uncertainty behind
them; because, all the several premises being
true, the conclusion must be so too, and of course
the very last conclusion or proposition to be
proved. The other species of demonstration is
the indirect, or, as it is sometimes called, the apo-
gogical. The manner of proceeding here is, by
assuming a proposition which directly contra-
dicts that which we mean to demonstrate; and
thence, by a continued train of reasoning, in the
way of a direct demonstration, deducing some
absurdity or manifest untruth. For hereupon we
conclude that the proposition assumed was
false; and thence again, by an immediate con-
sequence, that the proposition to be demonstrated
is true. Thus Euclid, in his third book, being
to demonstrate that circles which touch one ano-
ther inwardly have not the same centre, assumes
the direct contrary to this, viz. that they have
the same centre; and thence, by an evident train
of reasoning, proves that a part is equal to the
whole. The supposition therefore leading to this
absurdity he concludes to be false, and thence
immediately infers, that they have not the same
Centre.
8. Now, because this manner of demonstra-
tion is accounted by some not altogether so clear
and satisfactory, we shall therefore endeavour to
show that it leads to truth and certainty equally
with the other. Two propositions are said to be
contradictory, when that which is asserted to be
in the one is asserted not to be in the other. Thus
the propositions, Circles that touch one another
inwardly have the same centre, and Circles that
touch one another inwardly have not the same
centre, are contradictories, because the second
asserts the direct contrary of what is asserted in
the first. Now, in all contradictory propositions,
this holds universally, that one of them is neces-
sarily true, and the other necessarily false. For,
if it be true that circles which touch one another
inwardly have not the same centre, it is una-
voidably false that they have the same centre.
On the other hand, if it be false that they have the
same centre, it is necessarily true that they have
not the same centre. . Since therefore it is impos-
sible for them to be both true or both false at the
same time; it unavoidably follows that one is
necessarily true, and the other necessarily false.
This then being allowed, which is indeed self-
evident, if any two contradictory propositions
are assumed, and one of them can, by a clear
train of reasoning, be demonstrated to be false,
it necessarily follows that the other is true. For,
as the one is necessarily true and the other ne–
cessarily false, when we come to discover which
is the false proposition, we thereby also know the
other to be true.
9. Now this is precisely the manner of an in-
direct demonstration, as is evident from the ac-
count given of it above. For there we assume
a proposition which directly contradicts that
which we mean to demonstrate; and having, by
a continued series of proofs, shown it to be false,
thence infer that its contradictory, or the propo.
sition to be demonstrated, is true. As, therefore,
this last conclusion is certain and unavoidable;
let us next enquire after what manner we come
to be satisfied of the falsehood of the assumed
proposition, that so no possible doubt may re-
main as to the force and validity of demonstra-
tions of this kind. The manner then is plainly
this: Beginning with the assumed proposition,
we, by the help of definitions, self-evident truths,
or propositions already established, continue a
series of reasoning, in the way of a direct de-
monstration, until at length we arrive at some ab-
surdity or known falsehood. Thus Euclid, in
the example before-mentioned, from the supposi-
tion that circles touching one another inwardly
have the same centre, deduces, that a part is
equal to the whole. Since, therefore, by a due
and orderly process of reasoning, we come at last
to a false conclusion; it is manifest that all the
premises cannot be true; for, were all the pre-
mises true, the last conclusion must be so too, by
what has been before demonstrated. Now, as
to all the other premises made use of in the course
of reasoning, they are manifest and known truths
by supposition, as being either definitions, self-
evident propositions, or truths previously esta-
blished. The assumed proposition is that only as
to which any doubt or uncertainty remains. That
alone, therefore, can be false; and indeed, from
what has been already shown, must unavoidably
be so. And thus we see that, in indirect de-
monstrations, two contradictory propositions be-
ing laid down, one of which is demonstrated to
be false, the other, which is always the proposition
to be proved, must necessarily be true; so that
here, as well as in the direct way of proof, we
arrive at a clear and satisfactory knowledge of
truth.
10. This is universally the method of reason-
ing in all apogogical or indirect demonstrations.
But if any proposition is assumed from which,
in a direct train of reasoning, we can deduce its
contradictory; the proposition so assumed is
false, and the contradictory one true. For, if we
suppose the assumed proposition to be true, then,
since all the other premises that enter the demon-
stration are also true, we shall have a series of
reasoning consisting wholly of true premises;
whence the last conclusion, or contradictory of
the assumed proposition, must be true likewise:
so that we should thus have two contradictory
propositions both true at the same time, which is
manifestly impossible. . The assumed proposi-
tion, therefore, whence this absurdity flows, must
necessarily be false; and consequently its con-
tradictory, which is here the proposition deduced
from it must be true. If then any proposition
is proposed to be demonstrated, and we assume
the contradictory of that proposition, and thence
directly infer the proposition to be demonstrated;
by these very means we know, that the proposi-
tion so inferred is true. For since, from an as-
sumed proposition, we have deduced its contra-
dictory, we are thereby certain that the assumed
proposition is false; and if so, then its contradic-
tory, or that deduced from it, which in this case
is the same with the proposition to be demon-
strated, must be true.
11. We have a curious instance of this in the
twelfth proposition of the ninth book of the Ele.
ments. Euclid there proposes to demonstrate,
H, O G | C. - 121
that in any series of numbers, rising from unity
in geometrical progression, all the prime num-
bers that measure the last term in the series will
also measure the next after unity. In order to
this, he assumes the contradictory of the propo-
sition to be demonstrated: namely, that some
prime number measuring the last term in the
series does not measure the next after unity, and
thence, by a continued train of reasoning, proves
that it actually does measure it. Hereupon he
concludes the assumed proposition to be false;
and that which is deduced from it, or its contra-
dictory, which is the very proposition he pro-
posed to demonstrate, to be true. Now that this
is a just and conclusive way of reasoning is
abundantly manifest from what we have so clearly
established above. Whence it appears how ne-
cessary some knowledge of the rules of logic is,
to enable us to judge of the force, justness, and
validity of demonstrations. For, though it is
readily allowed, that by the mere strength of our
natural faculties we can at once discern that, of
two contradictory propositions, the one is neces-
sarily true, and the other necessarily false; yet
when they are so linked together in a demon-
stration, as that the one serves as a previous pro-
position whence the other is deduced, it does not
so immediately appear, without some knowledge
of the principles of logic, why that alone, which
is collected by reasoning, ought to be embraced
as true, and the other, whence it is collected, to
be rejected as false.
12. Having thus sufficiently evinced the cer-
tainty of demonstration in all its branches, and
shown the rules by which we ought to proceed,
in order to arrive at a just conclusion, according
to the various ways of arguing made use of; it
is needless to enter upon a particular considera-
tion of those several species of false reasoning
which logicians distinguish by the name of so-
phisms. He that thoroughly understands the form
and structure of a good argument, will of himself
readily discern every deviation from it. And
although sophisms have been divided into many
classes, which are all called by sounding names,
that therefore carry in them much appearance of
learning; yet are the errors themselves so very
palpable and obvious, that it would be lost la-
bor to write for a man capable of being misled
by them. Here, therefore, we choose to conclude
this, part of logic; and shall in the next give
some account of method, which, though insepa-
rable from reasoning, is nevertheless always con-
sidered by logicians as a distinct operation of the
mind; because its influence is not confined to
the mere exercise of the reasoning faculty, but
extends in some degree to all the transactions of
the understanding.
PART IV.
OF METHOD.
SECT. I.-OF THE DIFFERENT SPECIES OF
METHOD.
1. We have now done with the first three
operations of the mind, whose office it is to
search after truth, and enlarge the bounds of
human knowledge. There is yet a fourth, which
regards the disposal and arrangement of our
thoughts, when we endeavour so to put them
together as that their mutual connexion and
dependence may be clearly seen. This is what
logicians call method, and place always the last
in order in explaining the powers of the under-
standing; because it necessarily supposes a
previous exercise of our other faculties,. and
some progress made in knowledge, before we
can exert it in any extensive degree.
2. In this view, it is plain that we must be
previously well acquainted with the truths we
are to combine together; otherwise, how could
we discern their several connexions and rela-
tions, or so dispose of them as their mutual
dependence may require? But it often happens
that the understanding is employed, not in the
arrangement and composition of known truths,
but in the search and discovery of such as are
unknown. And here the manner of proceeding
is very different. We assemble at once our
whole stock of knowledge relating to any sub-
ject, and, after a general survey of things, begin
with examining them separately and by parts.
Hence, though at our first setting out we were
acquainted only with some of the grand outlines
of truth, we gradually discover the whole: and
thus by a narrow scrutiny into things, when we
have unravelled any part of knowledge, and
traced it to its first principles, so that the whole
contexture of it lies open to the view of the
mind; here by taking it the contrary way, and
beginning with these principles, we can so adjust
and put together the parts, as the order or
method of science requires.
3. But, as these things are best understood
when illustrated by examples, let us suppose
any machine, for instance a watch, presented to
us, whose structure we are as yet unacquainted
with, but want, if possible, to discover. The
manner of proceeding in this case is by
taking the whole in pieces, and examining the
parts separately one after another. When, by
such a scrutiny, we have thoroughly informed
ourselves concerning each, we then compare
them together, in order to judge of their mutual
action. Thus we gradually trace out the make
and composition of the whole, and come at
length to discover how parts of such a form, and
so put together, constitute that particular machine
called a watch, and contribute to all the several
motions observable in it. This discovery being
made, we can take things the contrary way, and,
beginning with the parts, so dispose and con-
nect them as their several uses and structures
require, until at length we have the whole pre-
sented to our view.
4. And as in tracing and examining the works
of art, so it is in a great measure in unfolding
any part of human knowledge; for the relations
and mutual operations of things do not always
immediately appear upon comparing them
together. Hence we have recourse to interme-
diate ideas, and, by means of them, are fur-
nished with those previous propositions that
lead to the conclusion we are in quest of. And,
if it so happen that the previous propositions
themselves are not sufficiently evident, we en-
deavour, by new middle terms, to ascertain.
their truth; still tracing things backward, in
122
L O G. I. C.
a continual series, until we arrive at some
syllogism where the premises are first and self-
evident principles. This done, we become per-
fectly satisfied as to the truth of all the conclu-
Sions we have passed through, as they are now
Seen to stand upon the firm and immoveable
foundation of our intuitive perceptions: and, as
We arrived at this certainty by tracing things
backward to their original principles, so may we
at any time renew it by a direct contrary pro-
cess, if, beginning with these principles, we carry
our thoughts forward, until they lead us, by a
connected chain of proofs, to the very last con-
clusion of the series.
5. Hence it appears, that, in disposing and
putting together our thoughts, either for our
own use, that the discoveries we have made may
at all times lie open to the review of the mind,
or where we mean to communicate and unfold
the discoveries to others, there are two ways of
proceeding equally within our choice; for we
may so propose the truths relating to any part of
knowledge, as they presented themselves to the
mind in the manner of investigation; carrying
on the series of proofs, in a reverse order, until
they at last terminate in first principles: or,
beginning with these principles, we may from
them deduce, by a direct train of reasoning, all
the several propositions we want to establish.
The diversity in the manner of arranging our
thoughts gives rise to the two-fold division of
method established among logicians; for method,
according to their use of the word, is nothing
but the order and disposition of our thoughts
relating to any subject. When truths are so
Fº and put together as they were or might
have been discovered, this is called the analytic
method, or the method of resolution, as it traces
things backward to their source, and resolves
knowledge into its first principles. When, on
the other hand, they are deduced from these
principles, and connected according to their
mutual dependence, so that the truths first in
order tend always to the demonstration of
those that follow; this constitutes what we call
the synthetic method: for here we proceed by
gathering together the several scattered parts of
knowledge, and combining them into one whole,
or system, in such a manner that the understand-
ing is enabled distinctly to follow truth through
all her different stages and gradations.
6. The first of these two species of method
has also obtained the name of the method of
invention, because it observes the order in which
our thoughts succeed one another in the inven-
tion or discovery of truth. The other, again, is
often denominated the method of doctrine or
instruction; as, in laying our thoughts before
others, we generally choose to proceed in the
synthetic manner, deducing them from their first
principles. For although there is great pleasure
in pursuing truth in the method of investigation,
because it places us in the condition of the in-
ventor, and shows the particular train and pro-
cess of thinking by which he arrived at his dis-
coveries; yet it is not so well adapted to the
purposes of evidence and conviction. For, at
our first setting out, we are commonly unable to
divine whither the analysis will lead us, so that
our researches are for some time little better
than a mere groping in the dark. And, even
after light begins to break in upon us, we are still
obliged to make many reviews, and a frequent
comparison of the several steps of the investi-
gation among themselves. Nay, when we have
unravelled the whole, and reached the very foun-
dation on which our discoveries stand, all our
certainty in regard to their truth will be found
in a great measure to arise from that connexion
which we are now able to discern between them
and first principles, taken in the order of com-
position. But in the synthetic manner of dis-
posing our thoughts, the case is quite different;
for as we here begin with the intuitive truths,
and advance by regular deduction from them,
every step brings evidence and conviction with
it ; so that, in our progress from one part of
knowledge to another, we have always a clear
perception of the ground on which our assent
rests. In communicating, therefore, our dis-
coveries to others, this method is apparently to
be chosen, as it greatly improves and enlightens
the understanding, and leads to an immediate
perception of truth.
SECT. II.—OF THE UTILITY of LoGIc.
The logic which for so many ages kept posses-
sion of the schools, and was deemed the most
important of the sciences, has long been con-
demned as a mere art of wrangling, of very little
use in the pursuit of truth. Attempts have been
made to restore it to credit, but without success;
and of late years little or no attention whatever
has been paid to the art of reasoning in the
course of what is called a liberal education. As
both extremes are faulty, we cannot conclude
this short treatise more properly than with the
following reflections on the utility of this science.
If Aristotle was not the inventor of logic, he
was certainly the prince of logicians. The whole
theory of syllogisms he claims as his own, and
as the fruit of much time and labor; and it is
universally known, that the later writers on the
art have borrowed their materials almost entirely
from his Organon and Porphyry's Introduction.
But after men had labored nearly 2000 years in
search of truth by the help of syllogisms, lord
Bacon proposed the method of induction, as
more effectual for that purpose; and since his
days the art of logic has gradually fallen into
disrepute. ,
To this consequence many causes contributed.
The art of syllogism is admirably calculated for
wrangling; and by the schoolmen it was em-
ployed, with too much success, to keep in coun-
tenance the absurdities of the Romish church.
Under their management it produced numberless
disputes, and numberless sects, that fought against
each other with much animosity, without gaining
or losing ground; but it did nothing consider-
able for the benefit of human life, whilst the me-
thod of induction has improved arts, and increas-
ed knowledge. It is no wonder, therefore, that
the excessive admiration of Aristotle, which con-
tinued for so many ages, should end in an un-
due contempt ; and that the high esteem of logic
as the grand engine of science should at last
make way for too unfavorable an opinion, which
#
L C G H C
123
seems now prevalent, of its being unworthy of a
place in a liberal education. Men rarely leave
one extreme without running into the contrary:
those who think according to the fashion will
be as prone to go into the present extreme as
their grandfathers were to go into the former;
and even they who in general think for them-
selves, when they are offended at the abuse of
any thing, are too apt to entertain prejudice
against the thing itself. “In practice,’ says the
learned Warburton in his Introduction to Julian,
&c., “logic is more a trick than a science, form-
ed rather to amuse than to instruct. And in
some sort we may apply to the art of syllogism
what a man of wit says of rhetoric, that it only
tells us how to name those tools which nature
had before put into our hands. In the service
of chicane, indeed, it is a mere juggler's knot,
now fast, now loose; and the schools where this
legerdemain was exercised in great perfection are
full of the stories of its wonders.’ The authority
of Warburton is great; but it may be counter-
balanced by another which, on subjects of this
nature, is confessedly greater. -
“Laying aside prejudice, whether fashionable
or unfashionable, let us consider (says Dr. Reid
in his Appendix to lord Kames's Sketch on the
Principle and Progress of Reason), whether logic
may be made subservient to any good purpose.
Its professed end is to teach men to think, to
judge, and to reason with accuracy. No man
will say that this is a matter of little importance;
the only thing therefore that can admit of doubt
is, whether it can be taught? -
“To resolve this doubt, it may be observed,
that our rational faculty is the gift of God, given
to men in very different measures: Some have a
large portion, some a less; and, when there is a
remarkable defect of the natural power, it cannot
be supplied by any culture. But this natural
power, even where it is the strongest, may lie
dead for want of the means of improvement.
Many a savage may have been born with as good
faculties as a Newton, a Bacon, or an Aristotle;
but their talents were buried by having never
been put to use, whilst those of the philosophers
were cultivated to the best advantage. It may
likewise be observed, that the chief means of im-
proving our rational power is the vigorous ex-
ercise of it in various ways and on different sub-
jects, by which the habit is acquired of exercising
it properly. Without such exercise, and good
sense also, a man who has studied logic all his
life may be only a petulant wrangler, without
true judgment or skill of reasoning in any
SC18thCe.’ - , *
This must have been Locke's meaning, when,
in his Thoughts on Education, he says, “If you
would have your son to reason well, let him read
Chillingworth.” The state of things is much
altered since Locke wrote: logic has been much
improved, chiefly by his writings; and yet much
less stress is laid upon it, and less time con-
sumed in its study. His counsel, therefore, was
judicious and seasonable: to wit, that the im–
provement of our reasoning power is to be
expected much more from an intimate acquaint-
ance with the authors who reason best, than .
from studying voluminous systems of school
logic. But if he had meant, that the study of
logic was of no use, nor deserved any attention,
he surely would not have taken the pains to
make so considerable an addition to it, by his
Essay on the Human Understanding, and by his
Thoughts on the Conduct of the Understanding;
nor would he have remitted his pupil to Chil-
lingworth, the acutest logician as well as the best
reasoner of his age. - &
There is no study better fitted to exercise and
strengthen the reasoning powers than that of the
mathematical sciences; because there is no other
branch of science which gives such scope to long
and accurate trains of reasoning, or in which there
is so little room for authority or prejudice of any
kind to give a false bias to the judgment. When
a youth of moderate parts begins to study Euclid,
every thing is new to him: his apprehension is
unsteady, his judgment is feeble, and rests partly
upon the evidence of the thing, and partly upon
the authority of his teacher. But every time he
goes over the definitions, the axioms, the elemen-
tary propositions, more light breaks in upon
him; and, as he advances, the road of demon-
stration becomes smooth and easy: he can walk
in it firmly, and take wider steps, till at last he
acquires the habit, not only of understanding a
demonstration, but of discovering and demon-
strating mathematical truths.
It must indeed be confessed, that a man with-
out the rules of logic may acquire a habit of
reasoning justly in mathematics, and perhaps in
any other science. Good sense, good examples,
and assiduous exercise, may bring a man to
reason justly and acutely in his own profession
without rules. But whoever thinks, that from
this concession he may infer the inutility of
logic, betrays, by this inference, a great want of
that art; for he might as well infer, because
a man may go from London to Edinburgh by the
way of Paris, that therefore any other road is
useless.
There is perhaps no art which may not be
acquired, in a very considerable degree, by
example and practice, without reducing it to
rules. But practice joined with rules may carry
a man forward in his art farther and more
quickly than practice without rules. Every in-
genious artist knows the utility of having his art
reduced to rules, and thereby made a science.
By rules he is enlightened in his practice, and
works with more assurance. They enable him
sometimes to correct his own errors, and often to
detect the errors of others; and he finds them of
great use to confirm his judgment, to justify
what is right, and to condemn what is wrong.
Now mathematics are the noblest praxis of logic.
Through them we may perceive how the stated
forms of syllogism are exemplified in one sub-
ject, namely the predicament of quantity; and
by marking the force of these forms, as they are
there applied, we may be enabled to apply them
of ourselves elsewhere. Whoever, therefore,
will study mathematics with this view, will be-
come, not only by mathematics a more expert
logician, and by logic a more rational mathema-
tician, but a wiser philosopher, and an acuter
reasoner, in all the possible subjects either of
science or deliberation. But when mathematics,
124
L O G. I. C.
instead of being applied to this excellent pur-
pose, are used, not to exemplify logic, but to
supply its place; no wonder if logic fall into
contempt, and if mathematics, instead of fur-
thering science, become in fact an obstacle.
For when men, knowing nothing of that reason-
ing which is universal, come to attach themselves
for years to a single species, a species wholly
involved in lines and numbers, the mind be-
comes incapacitated for reasoning at large, and
especially in the search of moral truth. The
object of mathematics is demonstration; and
whatever, in that science, is not demonstration,
is nothing, or at least below the sublime en-
quirer's regard. Probability, through its almost
infinite degrees, from simple ignorance up to ab-
solute certainty, is the terra incognita of the ma-
thematician. And yet here it is that the great
business of the human mind is carried on, in the
search and discovery of all the important truths
which concern us as reasonable beings. And
here, too, it is, that all its vigor is exerted; for,
to proportion the assent to the probability ac-
companying every varying degree of moral evi-
dence, requires the most enlarged and sovereign
exercise of reason. -
In reasonings of this kind, will any man pre-
tend that it is of no use to be well acquainted
with the various powers of the mind by which
we reason 7 Is it of no use to resolve the vari-
ous kinds of reasoning into their simple elements;
and to discover, as far as we are able, the rules
by which these elements are combined in judg-
ing and in reasoning 2 Is it of no use to mark
the various fallacies in reasoning, by which even
the most ingenious men have been led into
error? It must surely betray great want of un-
derstanding, to think these things useless or un-
important. Now these are the things which
logicians have attempted; and which they have
executed—not indeed so completely ās to leave
no room for improvement, but in such a manner
as to give very considerable aid to our reasoning
powers. That the principles they have laid
down with regard to definition and division,
with regard to the conversion and opposition of
propositions, and the general rules of reasoning,
are not without use, is sufficiently apparent from
the blunders committed daily by those who dis-
dain any acquaintance with them.
Although the art of categorical syllogism is
confessedly little fitted for the discovery of un-
known truth, it may yet be employed to excel-
lent purpose, as it is perhaps the most compen-
dious method of detecting a fallacy. A man in
quest of unknown truths must generally proceed
by the way of induction, from effects to causes;
but he who, as a teacher, is to inculcate any
system upon others, begins with one or more
self-evident truths, and proceeds, in the way of
demonstration, to the conclusion which he wishes
to establish. Now every demonstration may be
resolved into a series of syllogisms, of which the
conclusion of the preceding always enters into
the premises of that which follows; and if the
first principles be clear and evident, and every
syllogism in some legitimate mode and figure,
the conclusion of the whole must infallibly be
admitted. But, when the demonstration is thus
broken into parts, if we find that the conclusion
of one syllogism will not, without altering the
meaning of the terms, enter legitimately into the
premises of that which should immediately fol-
low; or, supposing it to make one of the pre-
mises of a new syllogism, if we find that the
conclusion resulting from the whole series, thus
obtained, is different from that of the demonstra-
tion; we may, in either of these cases, rest as-
sured that the author's reasoning is fallacious,
and leads to error; and that, if it carried an ap-
pearance of conviction before it was thus
resolved into its elementary parts, it must have
been owing to the inability of the mind to com-
prehend at once a long train of arguments.
Whoever wishes to see the syllogistic art em-
ployed for this purpose, and to be convinced of
the truth of what we have said respecting its
utility, may consult the excellent writer recom-
mended by Locke, who, in places innumerable
of his incomparable book, has, without pedantry,
even in that pedantic age, made the happiest
application of the rules of logic for detecting and
exposing the sophistry of his Jesuitical antago-
nist. *
On the whole then, though we acknowledge
that much time was wasted by our forefathers in
syllogistic wrangling, which may be termed the
mechanical part of logic, yet the art of forming
and examining arguments is certainly an attain-
ment well worthy the ambition of that being
whose highest honor is to be endued with rea-
SOI.
SECT. III.--DR. BRowN's VIEw of THIS }
ScIENCE.
The following is a condensed view of the ge-
neral pretensions of the Aristotelian logic from
Lectures on the Philosophy of the Human
Mind by Dr. Brown, late professor of moral phi-
losophy in the university of Edinburgh. In the
condemnation of the science he may be found
too severe and indiscriminating in the opinion
of some of our readers, but his great and just
fame as a metaphysician entitles him to a hear-
}}}9,
ºwning according to this author, then is
nothing more than a number of propositions,
consecutive in a certain order: it is a continued
series of analytic operations developing the ele-
ments of our thought. In every proposition,
that which is affirmed is a part of that of which
it is affirmed, and the proposition, however tech-
nical its language may be, expresses only the
single feeling of this relation. When I say
snow is white, I state one of the many feelings
which constitute my complex notion of snow.
When I say man is fallible, I state one of the
many imperfections which enter into my com-
plex notion of man. The statements of one
particular relation are, simple propositions, in
each of which a certain analysis is involved.
But, when I reason, or add proposition to pro-
position in a certain series I merely prosecute
my analysis, and prosecute it more or less mi-
nutely, according to the length of the ratioci-
nation. When I say man is fallible, I state a
quality involved in the nature of man, as any
other part of an aggregate is involved in any
L. O. G. I. C.
125
other comprehending whole. When I add, he
may therefore err, even when he thinks himself
least exposed to error, I state what is involved in
the motion of his fallibility. When I say, he
therefore must not expect that all men will think
as he does, even in points which appear to have
no obscurity, I state that which is involved in
the possibility of his and their erring even on
such points. When I say, that he therefore
should not dare to punish those who merely
differ from him, and who may be right even in
differing from him, I state what is involved in
the absurdity of expecting that all men should
think as he does. And when I say, that any par-
ticular legislative act of intolerance is as unjust
as it is absurd, I state only what is involved in
the impropriety of attempting to punish those
who have no other guilt than that of differing in
opinion from others, who are confessedly of a
nature as fallible as their own.
In all this reasoning, though composed of
many propositions, there is obviously only a
progressive analysis, with a feeling, at each step,
of the relation of parts to the whole, the predi-
cate of each proposition being the subject of a
new analysis in the proposition which follows it.
Man is fallible. He who is fallible may err,
even when he thinks himself least exposed to
error. He who may be in error, even when he
thinks himself safest from it, ought not to be as-
tonished that others should think differently from
him, even on points which may seem to him
perfectly clear; and thus, successively, through
the whole ratiocination, the predicate becomes
in its turn a subject of new analysis, till we ar-
rive at the last proposition, which is immediately
extended backwards to the primary subject of
analysis, man,—as involved in that which is
itself involved in the primary complex concep-
tion, or aggregate of many qualities.
If reasoning be nothing more than a number
of propositions, consecutive in a certain order
of mutual relation between the subjects and pre-
dicates, what are we to think of that art of rea-
soning, which, for so many ages, banished reason
from the schools; of that art which rendered it
so laborious a drudgery to be a little more igno-
rant than before; which could produce so much
disputation without any subject of dispute, and
so many proud victories of nothing over less
than nothing! Such was the scholastic art of
logic: an art which was held out, not so much
as an auxiliary to reason, as with the still higher
praise of being an instrument that might almost
supply its place, and by the possession of which
the acute and accurate might argue still more
acutely and accurately, and imbecility itself be-
come a champion worthy of encountering them;
and, though not perhaps the victor, at least not
always the vanquished. -
That there may be, or rather that there is, a
rational logic, we are far from denying; and that
many useful directions, in conformity with a cer-
tain system of rules, may be given to the inex-
perienced student that may facilitate to him
acquisitions of knowledge which, but for such
directions, he would have made only more slowly,
or perhaps not made at all. The art of reason-
ing, however, which a judicious logic affords, is
not so much the art of acquiring knowledge as
the art of communicating it to others, or record-
ing it in the manner that may be most profitable
for our own future advancement in the track
which we have been pursuing. Its direct benefit
to ourselves is rather negative than positive—
teaching us the sources of error in our mental
constitution, and in all the accidental circum-
stances of the language which we are obliged to
use, and the society in which we must mingle,
and thus rather saving us from what is false, than
bestowing on us what is true. Indeed, since we
cannot produce directly in our mind any one
conception, or any one feeling of relation, it is
very evident that the influence of any art of rea-
soning on our trains of thought must be indirect
only. -
But, if an art of reasoning is to be given to us,
it ought surely to be an art which will render
the acquisition of knowledge more easy, not
more difficult; an art which is to avail itself of
the natural tendency of the mind to the discovery
of truth, not to counteract this tendency, and to
force the mind, if it be possible, to suspend the
very progress which was leading it to truth.
With which of these characters did the syllogistic
logic more exactly correspond?
The natural progress of reasoning has been al-
ready explained and illustrated. One conception
follows another conception, according to certain
laws of suggestion (commonly termed association)
to which our divine Author has adapted our
mental constitution; and by another set of laws,
which the same divine Author has established,
certain feelings of relation arise from the consi–
deration of the suggesting and suggested object.
This is all in which reasoning as felt by us con-
sists. We have the conception of A, it suggests
B, and, these two conceptions co-exerting, we
feel some relation which they bear to each other;
B, thus suggested, suggests C, and the relation
of these is felt in like manner; and thus through
the longest ratiocination, analytical or propor-
tional, each subject of our thought suggests
something which forms a part of it and is in-
volved in it, or something which has to it a cer-
tain relation of proportion; and the relation of
comprehension in the one case, or of proportion
in the other case, is felt accordingly at every
step. Nothing surely can be simpler than a
process of this kind; and it is not easy to con-
ceive how the process could be made shorter
than nature herself has rendered it, unless every
truth were known to us by intuition. Objects
and the relations of objects—these are all which
reasoning involves; and these must always be
involved in every reasoning. While reasoning,
then, or a series of propositions, is necessary for
the development of truth, the intervening con-
ceptions which form the subjects of those pro-
positions that connect one remote conception
with another must arise successively in the mind,
and their relations be felt in like manner, suc-
cessively. What is it which the syllogistic art
would confer on us in addition? To shorten
the process of arriving at truth, it forces us to
use, in every case, three propositions instead of
the two which nature directs us to use. Instead
of allowing us to say man is fallible he may
126
L O G I C.
therefore err even when he thinks himself most
secure from error, which is the spontaneous
order of reasoning, the syllogistic art compels us
to take a longer journey to the same conclusion,
by the use of what is called a major proposition,
a proposition which never rises spontaneously,
for the best of all possible reasons, that it cannot
rise without our knowledge of the very truth
which is by supposition unknown. To proceed
in the regular form of a syllogism, we must say,
all beings that are fallible may err, even when
they think themselves most secure from error.
But man is a fallible being: he may therefore err,
even when he thinks himself most secure from
error. In our spontaneous reasonings, in which
we arrive at precisely the same conclusions, and
with a feeling of evidence precisely the same,
there are, as we have said, no major propositions,
but simply what, in this futile art, are termed
technically the minor and the conclusion. The
invention and formal statement of a major pro-
position, then, in every case, serve only to retard
the progress of discovery, not to quicken it, or
render it in the slightest degree more sure.
This retardation of the progress of reasoning
is one circumstance which distinguishes the syl-
logism; but the absurdity, which is implied in
the very theory of it, distinguishes it still more.
It constantly assumes, as the first stage of that
reasoning by which we are to arrive at a parti-
cular truth, our previous knowledge of that par-
ticular truth. The major is the very conclusion
itself under another form, and its truth is not
more felt than that which it professes to deve-
Hope. Thus to take one of the many trifling ex-
amples which, in books of logic, are usually
given, with a most appropriate selection, to illus-
trate this worse than trifling art, when, in order
to prove that John is a sinner, I do not adduce
any particular sin of which he has been guilty,
but draw up my accusation more irresistibly, by
the major of a syllogism. All men are sinners:
John is a man: therefore John is a sinner. If I
really attached any meaning to my major propo-
sition, all men are sinners, I must, at that very
moment, have felt as completely that John was a
sinner, as after I had pursued him technically
through the minor and conclusion.
The great error of the theory of the syllogism,
consisted in supposing that, because all our
knowledge may be technically reduced, in some
measure, to general maxims, these maxims have
naturally a prior and paramountexistence in our
thought, and give rise to those very reasonings
which, on the contrary, give rise to them. It is
not on account of our previous assent to the
axiom, A whole is greater than a part, that
we believe any particular whole to be greater
than any part of it; but we feel this truth in every
particular case, by its own intuitive evidence, and
the axiom only expresses briefly our various
feelings of this kind without giving occasion to
them. The general axiom is, in every case, pos-
terior to the separate feeling of which it is only
the brief expression, or at least without which,
as prior to our verbal statement of the axiom, the
axiom itself never could have formed a part of
our system of knowledge. The syllogism there-
fore, which proceeds from the axiom to the de-
monstration of particulars, reverses completely
the order of reasoning, and begins with the con-
clusion in order to teach us how we may arrive
at it.
The natural process of reasoning, by two pro-
positions, instead of the three which the syllogism
would force us to use, has been allowed, indeed,
by logicians to have a place in their system;
because, with all their fondness for their own tech-
nical modes and figures, they had not quite suffi-
cient hardihood to deny, that it is at least possi-
ble for us to reason sometimes, as in truth we
always reason. Their only resource, therefore,
was to reduce this natural process under their
own artificial method, and to give it a name which
might imply the necessity of this reduction, be-
fore the reasoning itself could be worthy of that
honorable title. They supposed, accordingly,
the proposition, which was technically wanting,
to be understood in the mind of the thinker or
hearer, and termed the reasoning, therefore, an
enthymeme. It was, they said, a truncated or
imperfect syllogism. They would have expressed
themselves more accurately, if they had described
their own syllogism, as, in its relation to the
natural process of our thought, a cumbrous and
overloaded enthymeme.
These remarks, though relating chiefly to the
influence of this technical process, as a supposed
mode of facilitating the acquisition of knowledge
in our own meditative. reasonings, show that if
the syllogism was inefficacious, and worse than
inefficacious as a process for discovering truth,
it was not less inadequate as an instrument for
communicating truth to others. A very little
attention to the nature of the different proposi-
tions of the syllogism will be sufficient to show
that the same fundamental error, which renders
it useless for discovering truth, renders it equally
useless for the development of it: and that, as
our internal reasoning is only a series of enthy-
memes, it is only by such a series of enthymemes
as that by which truth unfolds itself to our own
minds that it can be successfully unfolded to the
minds of others. As a mode of communicating
knowledge the syllogism is indeed, if possible.
still more defective than as a mode of acquiring
it. It does not give any additional knowledge,
nor communicate the knowledge which it does
communicate in any simpler, or shorter, or surer
way. On the contrary, whatever knowledge it
gives it renders more confined by being more
cumbrous ; and it cannot fail to train the mind
which receives instruction this way to two of
the most dangerous practical errors, the errors
of admitting, without proof, only what requires
proof, and of doubting, that is to say, of requiring
proof, only of what is evident. Such is the syl-
logism, considered as an instrument, either for
facilitating our attainments in knowledge, or for
communicating those attainments unto others.
The triumph of the syllogistic art, it must he
confessed, however, is not as an art of acquiring
or communicating truth, but as an art of disputa-
tion,--as the great art of proving anything by any
thing, quidlibet per quodlibet probandi. And if it
be a merit to be able to dispute long and equally
well, on subjects known and unknown, to van-
quish an opponent by being in the wrong, and
L O G [ C.
127
sometimes too by being in the right, but without
the slightest regard either to the right or the
wrong, and merely as these accidental circum-
stances may have corresponded with certain
skilful uses of terms without a meaning,-this
merit the logicians of the schools unquestionably
might claim. Indeed in controversies of this sort,
in those ages of endless controversy, success, as
has been very truly remarked, “tended no more
to decide the question, than a man's killing his
antagonist in a duel serves now to satisfy any
person of sense that the victor had right on his
side, and that the vanquished was in the wrong.’
Of the direct influence of the school logic in
retarding, and almost wholly preventing, the pro-
gress of every better science, it is unnecessary
to attempt any additional illustration after the
remarks already offered, and the masterly views
of the subject presented by the great lord
Bacon. But the indirect influence of this art
was not less hurtful. H
One of the most hurtful consequences of this
method was the ready disguise of venerable ra-
tiocination which it afforded for any absurdity.
However futile an explanation might be, it was
still possible to advance it in all the customary
solemnities of mood and figure; and it was very
natural, therefore, for those who heard what they
had been accustomed to regard as reasoning to
believe, that, in hearing a reasoning, they heard
3. TeaSO11.
Another very hurtful consequence of this tech-
nical system was, that the constant necessity of
having recourse to some syllogistic form of argu-
ment, and of using these forms in cases in which
the opinions involved in the syllogism were as
clear before the syllogism as after it, rendered
argument and belief, by a sort of indissoluble
association, almost synonymous terms. If we
had still to prove John to be fallible, after
having proved, or at least obtained assent to the
proposition, that all men are fallible, it was not
easy to discover any truth so self-evident as not
to stand, at least equally, in need of demonstra-
tion. Hence the constant tendency in the scho-
lastic ages to prove what did not stand in need
of proof. Every thing was to be demonstrated,
and every thing was demonstrated; though it
must be confessed the only effect of the demon-
stration frequently was to render obscure (as ob-
scure as any thing self-evident could be ren-
dered), what, but for the demonstration, could
not have admitted of the slightest doubt.
Akin to this tendency of proving every thing,
even self-evident propositions, by some syllogis-
tic form, was the tendency which the mind ac-
quired to apply many varieties of technical phra-
seology to the same proposition, so as to make
many propositions of one, as if every repetition
of it, in another form of language, were the enun-
ciation of another truth. It is impossible to read
a single page of the old logicians without dis-
covering innumerable examples of this. Indeed
as the forms of technical expression, or at least
the possible combinations of them are almost
infinite, it is, in many cases, difficult to discover
what principle of forbearance and mercy to the
reader led the logician to stop at one of his
identical propositions, rather than to extend the
supposed ratiocination through many similar
pages. There can be no doubt that the principle
which produced many pages might with as much
reason have produced as many volumes.
The reign of this philosophy may now be con-
sidered, like the age of Chivalry, as gone; for it is
scarcely necessary to speak of a few admirers of
the Aristotelian logic who have not yet vanished
from among us, who love what is very ancient
and what is written in Greek, and who have
therefore two irresistible reasons for venerating
that philosphy which is unquestionably much
older than Newton, or Des Cartes, or Bacon, and
as unquestionably written in language which
saves it from vulgar eyes. Or, to speak with more
candor of such misplaced sages of other times,
there may perhaps be some few generous, but
erring, lovers of wisdom, who, impressed with
the real merits of Aristotle, and with the majesty
of that academic sway, which he exercised for
so long a period of the history of our race, give
him credit for merit still greater and more exten-
sive than he really possessed; but merit it must,
at the same time, be acknowledged, which was
long as indisputable as his real excellence, and
which all the learned and honored, of every
nation, in which learning could confer honor,
united in ascribing to him, and gloried in being
his worshippers. The worship, however, is now
past, but there are effects of the idolatry which
still remain. We have laid aside the superstition,
but, as usually happens where Superstition has
reigned, we have retained many of the super-
stitious practices.
That we reason worse than we should have
done, if our ancestors had reasoned better, there
can be no doubt, because we should have pro-
fited by the results of their better reasoning; but
there can be almost as little doubt that we suffer
from their errors, in another way, by having
imbibed some portion of the spirit of their
dialectic subtleties; some greater passion for
distinctions merely verbal, and more laborious
demonstrations of things self-evident, than we
should have felt from the mere imperfection of
our intellectual nature, if the logic of Aristotle
had never existed.
LOGWOOD, n.s. From Laguna, in the bay
of Campeachy. A dye-wood: a species of
HEMAToxYLON, which see. -
To make a light purple, mingle ceruse with log-
wood water. Peacham.
Logwood is of a very dense and firm texture : and
is the heart only of the tree which produces it. It
is very heavy, and remarkably hard, and of a deep,
strong red colour. It grows both in the East and
West Indies, but no where so plentifully as on the
coast of the bay of Campeachy. Hill's Mat. Med.
LoGwood. See HEMATOXYLON. Logwood
is used in great quantities for dyeing purple, and
more especially black. All the colors, however,
which can be prepared from it, are of a fading
nature, and cannot, by any art, be made equally
durable with those prepared from some other
Tmaterials. Of all the colors prepared from log-
LOI
LOI
128
wood, the black is the most durable. Dr. Lewis
recommends it as an ingredient in making ink.
Logwood is also found to have a considerable
astringent virtue as a medicine, and an extract
of it is sometimes given with great success in
diarrhoeas.
LOHAGHUR, or the Iron Fort, is a celebrated
fortress of Hindostan, in Dowletabad, and stands
on a rock nearly perpendicular, of great height,
and surrounded by a double stone wall. It is
also well supplied with water, and has extensive
magazines and store rooms in the solid rock. It
belongs to the British, who took it not long since
from the paishwa, and is about twenty miles
north-west of Poona.
LOHEIA, a city of Yemen, Arabia, on the
coast of the Red Sea, and at the bottom of a ca-
pacious but shallow bay. A large island, and a
group of smaller ones, are a barrier against the sea
to the north-west. It is defended by several
towers, which admit cannon, and many of the
houses are built of stone; but the greater number
are mud huts. Vessels can only anchor at a
distance from the town; and at low water heavy
laden boats cannot approach. The trade is in a
second rate species of coffee of inferior quality.
Goods brought direct from India pay a duty of
five per cent. here: all goods brought down the
Red Sea, seven percent.; and presents are neces-
sary to a good understanding with the authori-
ties. The water is bad, and the surrounding
country desolate.
LO'HOCK, m. s. Fr. lohoc, loch. “An elec-
tuary that is licked, not chewed, nor divided by
the teeth.-Minsheu.
Lohock is an Arabian name for those forms of
medicine which are now commonly called eclegmas,
lambatives, or linctuses. Quincy.
Lohocks and pectorals were prescribed, and vene-
section repeated. Wiseman’s Surgery.
LOIN, n. S. Sax. leno; Belg. longie ; Ital.
longea : Fr. longe. The back of an animal. In
the plural, the reins of man: metaphorically,
any source of progeny or production.
Thou slander of thy heavy mother's womb
Thou loathed issue of thy father's loins !
Shakspeare.
My face I’ll grime with filth,
Blanket my loins. Id. King Lear.
Shall these hands destroy the fruits of mine own
loins 2 . Bp. Hall.
A multitude like which the populous north
Poured never from her frozen loins, to pass
Rhene, or the Danaw, when her barbarous sons
Came like a deluge on the south. Milton.
LOIR, a river of France, which rises at Cernay,
in the arrondissement of Chartres, department
of the Eure et Loire. It begins to be navigable
for floats at Ponce, and for vessels at Coësmont,
near Chateau du Loir, in the department of
Sarthe. In its course, which is about 165 miles,
it receives the Ozanne the Couie, the Braye, the
Long, the One, and several small rivers.
LoIR-ET-CHER, a department of France,
bounded on the north-west by that of the Sarthe,
north-east by that of the Loiret, south by that of
the Indre, south-east by that of the Cher, and
south-west by that of the Indre-et-Loire. It is
formed of part of the Blaisois and the Sologne,
a dependency of the old province of Orleannais,
and derives its name from the two rivers: the
Loir, which flows into it from the north toward
the east, and the Cher, which runs from east to
west. The chief place in this prefecture is Blois:
it contains three arrondissements; Blois, contain-
ing 111,075 inhabitants; Romarantin 43,624;
and Vendome 72,828; being a total population
of 227,527, on a surface of 2871, square miles,
These are subdivided into twenty-four justiciaries
of the peace, or cantons, and 309 communes,
with a territorial revenue of 11,721,000 francs.
It is in the fourth military division, belongs to
the diocese and royal court of Orleans, and is
divided into two electoral arrondissements, send-
ing three members to the chamber of deputies.
This is almost entirely a level country, having
very few hills; the Loire, in its course, divides it
into two very distinct parts: that on the left bank,
which is nearly covered with marshes, pools, ex-
tensive forests, uncultivated and Sandy lands,
where scarcely any thing but buck-wheat will
grow; while that on the right bank of the river
presents an appearance of the greatest fertility,
being, composed of rich and well cultivated
plains, hills covered with vineyards, and beautiful
verdant meadows. A long line of small hills,
planted with vines and fruittrees, extends through
the whole course of the river, on the borders of
which are seen handsome residences, and villages
shaded with groves of trees. The climate is
generally mild and temperate, and the air pure
and healthy, with the exception of some parts
near Romarantin, from the marshes of which un-
wholesome exhalations arise. The soil is chalky,
but produces more than sufficient for its inhabi-
tants. It contains 66,324 hectars of forest kand
(chiefly oaks and hornbeams), and 28,000 hec-
tars of vineyards. The average produce of a
hectar of arableland amounts to 17 francs 15 cen-
times. It yields all kinds of grain, especially
wheat and buck-wheat, chestnuts, fruits, and
vegetables of every description; a great quantity
of fine hemp, wines of excellent quality, mulberry
trees, wood, and good pasturage. There is
abundance of game, as red partridges, foxes, and
wolves; the rivers are well stocked with fish,
especially trout, carp, crabs, &c.; numerous
flocks of sheep, and herds of horned cattle, good
horses, and poultry of all sorts, abound here, as
well as silk-worms and bees. It has a large
nursery, a royal depôt of standard measures at
Blois, iron-mines, quarries of alabaster, freestone,
flint (supplying all France with gun-flints), marl,
potter's earth, and turf. The inhabitants carry
on the manufacture of coarse woollen cloths,
cotton, fringes, cotton counterpanes, woollen
caps, leather gloves, and cutlery. They have also
refining houses for sugar, procured from beet-
root, spinning mills for woollen and cottonyarn.
worked by water, tan-yards, glass-houses, delf-
factories, forges, &c.; and trade in grain, wines,
Orleans brandy, vinegar, wood for building and
for fuel, cattle, iron, flint stones, &c. The prin-
cipal rivers which water this department are the
Loire and the Cher, which are navigable in this
part of their course; the Loir; the Beuvron; the
Cosson; and the Sauldre; it is crossed by the
great roads of Tours, Châteaudun, and Orleans.
* *
L O I R E.
129
LOIRE, one of the principal rivers of France
for the length of its course, rises in Mount Ger-
bier-le-Joux, near the village of Sainte Eulalie,
in the department of Ardeche, watering, a vast
plain of more than 600 miles, and dividing
France almost into two equal parts. It establishes
a communication between the Atlantic Ocean
and the Mediterranean Sea, by means of the cen-
tral canal, and facilitates the commercial opera-
tions of a great number of cities in the kingdom.
At first this majestic river is closely shut up be-
tween the romantic mountains of the Vivarais,
then crossing Velay, Forez, Berry, and Nivernais,
it directs its course a little from the south-east to
the north-west, as far as Orleans: below that
city it flows directly westward through the middle
of a fertile vale, bordered with woody elevations,
and hills planted with vines, at the foot of which
are extensive and beautiful plains. Numerous
hamlets, villages, towns, cities, and chateaus,
adorn its banks, while the multitude of boats
that skim over its waters contribute to give life
to this charming country. Standing on the
bridge at Blois, and looking towards its source,
the most magnificent prospect presents itself of
hills and woods, towns, villages, country houses,
and insulated towers, in a vast amphitheatre of
nearly twenty miles.
The Loire presents no uniform or clear channel
for navigation; the shifting of the sands, from
one side to the other, constantly varies the
course that the boats must pursue. It has been
found necessary, therefore, to construct dikes in
some parts, both for the purpose of collecting
its waters in the dry season, and confining them
in times of great increase. These embankments
are generally about twenty feet high, and twenty-
four feet broad at the top; in parts where they are
most exposed to the shock of the waters, they are
capped with masonry. The middle of this cause-
way is also paved almost through its whole
length, and presents one of the finest roads in the
world, bordered with rows of poplars. This
river begins to be passable for rafts, carrying fir
trees for boat-building at Retournac, in the de-
partment of the Upper Loire; it is then navigable
for other vessels from La Noirie, in the depart-
ment of the Loire, to Roanne, where the greater
part of the merchandise of Lyons, Languedoc,
Provence, and Dauphiny, is embarked. The
chief of these are grain, wines, brandy and other
spirits, liqueurs, oils, southern fruits, colonial
commodities, salt, wool, hemp, forged, and cast
iron, small copper vessels, pit-coal, wood for
ship-building, ropes, resin, tar, &c. The mean
height of water varies from 1 metre 95 centimes,
to 2 metres 90 centimes, and, their fall is about
1 metre in every 200. A sort of boats has lately
been established on the Loire, called flies, which
regularly proceed from Nantes to Orleans, com-
pleting the voyage in about a fortnight.
After passing by Nevers, Chatillon, Chateau-
neuf, Orleans, Blois, Tours, Saumur, Nantes, and
many other considerable places, the Loire falls
into the ocean just below St. Nazaire; its course
being about 660 miles, and receiving the waters
of the Arroux, the Bebre, the Arnon, the Nievre,
the Allier, the Cher, the Indre, the Vienne, the
Thouet, the Authion, the Mayenne, the Sevre-
Vol. XIII.
Nantaise, the Erdre, the Acheneau, and many
Cther smaller tributary streams. Its mouth is in
a very bad state, occasioned by the formation of
a Sand-bank about a mile and a half from the
anchorage, where the water is not more than
seven or eight feet deep at low tide, while for-
merly it was more than.twenty. -
LoIRE, THE, a department of France, is form-
ed out of the Forey, a dependency of the former
province of Lyonnois, and takes its name from
the above river, which crosses it from south to
north. The chief place of this prefecture is
Montbrison : it has three arrondissements, Mont-
brison, containing 114,607 inhabitants; Roanne
107,808; and St. Etienne 121,139; being a to-
tal population of 343,554 souls, on an area of
732 square miles, and yielding a revenue of
14,368,000 francs. It is situated in the nine-
teenth military division, has twenty-eight can-
tons, and 327 communes, a royal court and a
bishop's see at Lyons, is divided into three elec-
toral arrondissements, and sends five members to .
the chamber of deputies. This department is
bounded on the north by that of the Saone et
Loire; on the east by that of the Rhone; on the
south by those of Ardeche and the Upper Loire;
and on the west by those of Puy de Dôme and
the Allier.
It consists of beautiful and fertile plains on
both banks of the Loire, and lofty mountains,
which surround it on the north, south, and west;
the soil is for the most part poor and stony. On
these mountains, the highest point of which is
Mount Pilat, are to be found some excellent
pastures, feeding a great number of cattle, and
excellent cheeses are made in these places; some
of them are cultivated to a certain height, others
are covered with vines, producing wines of good
quality; and abundance of chestnut trees, the
fruit of which is sold at Paris under the name of
Lyons chestnuts. This rocky soil is cultivated
mostly with horses and mules, but the produce is
far from sufficient for its inhabitants; the country
contains about 36,386 hectars of forests, chiefly
of oaks, beech, and firs; and 13,000 hectars of
vineyards, each hectar of arable land yielding on
an average twenty-four francs ninety centimes.
The jiaº consist of all kinds of grain,
excellent potatoes, fine chestnuts, good fruits, a
quantity of hemp, dyers' weed, madder, saffron,
every sort of mountain plants, wine, and wood.
It abounds in roe-bucks, hares, thrushes, and
aquatic birds; pools full of fish; mules, horses,
horned cattle, sheep (famous for the delicacy of
their meat), and great numbers of goats, and
poultry. This department also contains mines
of iron, lead, natural steel, and black emery, be-
sides quarries of marble, granite, porphyry,
whetstones, gun-flints, &c. At St. Alban, and
Sail-en-Cousan, are some fine mineral springs.
The inhabitants have considerable manufactories
of arms of all kinds, ironmongery, hempen cloths,
£alicoes, cambrics, coarse cloths, lace, silk,
ribands and shoe-laces, haberdashery, crapes,
glue, lamp-black, cast and wrought iron, files,
saw-blades, locks, fencing foils, knives, and
nails. There are also many cotton spinning ma-
nufactories, paper-mills, numerous and large
glass-houses, silk-mills, iron works, lime, plaster,
IS.
130°
R. H.
L O Í
brick and tile kilns, dye-houses, tan-yards, and
factories for the preparation of chamois leather.
There is likewise a royal manufactory of arms.
Their trade consists in coal, iron and iron wares,
arms, nails, leather, paper, silk, ribands, wood for
boat-building, chestnuts, and the famous cheeses
called La Roche cheeses,
The principal rivers are the Loire, which is
here navigable, the Lignon, the Ysable, the Aax,
the Semene, the Coise, the Faran, and the Gier;
and this department is crossed by the great
roads of Lyons, Clermont, and Moulins.
LoIRE, UPPER, a department of France, com-
prising the Velay and that part of the Cevennes
dependent on the former province of Languedoc,
derives its name from its situation with regard
to the river Loire, which flows through it from
the south to the north-east. The principal place of
this prefecture is Le Puy; it contains three arron-
dissements, Le Puy, with 122,717 inhabitants;
Briouda 78,227; and Yssengeaux 75,677; con-
stituting a total population of 276,621 souls, on
an area of 2196 square miles; twenty-eight can-
tons, and 272 communes. It yields a revenue
of 10,400,000 francs, is in the nineteenth mili-
tary division, has a royal court at Riom, and a
bishop's see at St. Flour: it is divided into two
electoral arrondissements, and sends three mem-
bers to the chamber of deputies. It is bounded
on the north by the departments of the Loire and
the Puy de Dome; on the east by that of Ar-
deche; on the south by that of Lozere; and on
the west by that of Cantal.
This department is entirely covered with ba-
saltic mountains, the tops of which are covered
with snow during more than six months of the
year, and on the sides of them are extensive
forests, enclosing excellent pastures, which feed
a great number of cattle, and mules. Some of
the smaller hills are covered with chestnut trees
and vines, cultivated with great care. In the
valleys are found plains of small extent, and yet
more fertile than might be expected from their
wild situation; they yield abundance of excel-
lent fruit for the Paris market, and a quantity of
good corn. The soil is naturally very fertile,
especially in the valleys and on the hills: it is
almost every where of the same quality, consist-
ing of volcanic earth, lava, and pumice-stone of
all kinds. In the mountains are to be perceived
the remains of ancient volcanoes; streams of lava
and strange collections of basaltic columns cover
their sides, and extend to their feet, presenting a
most singular spectacle. The soil, being rocky,
is cultivated with mules, and yields a full supply
for its inhabitants; there are 36,386 hectars of
forest land, and 13,000 of vineyards: the mean
produce of each hectar of arable land is eighteen
fratics fifty-nine centimes. -
Here are mines of antimony and pit-coal, and
quarries of statuary marble, granite, mill-stones,
freestone, plaster, and gray stone. The manu-
factures consist of black and white lace, thread,
silk, blond, ribands, woollen counterpanes, com-
mon stuffs, nails, organzine silk, and fullers' earth.
They have also considerable dye-houses, tan-
yards, paper-mills, sand-pits, lime-kilns, &c. An
extensive trade is carried on in grain, vegetables,
mules, cattle, lace, leather, and paper. This
country is watered by the Allier, which is navi-
vable, the Loire, the Ance, the Auzon, the Alag-
non, and the Arcueil.
Loſ RE-INFERIEURE, a department of France,
is formed of part of the former province of Up-
per Bretagne, and takes its name from the
natural course of the Loire, which crosses it from
east to west, and here empties itself into the
ocean. The principal place of this prefecture is
Nantes: it is divided into five arrondissements,
Nantes, containing 187,435 inhabitants; Ance-
nis 45,234; Chateau Briant 57,237; Paimboeuf
39,394; and Savenay 104,515: being a total po-
pulation of 433,815 souls, on a superficial extent
of 3168 miles: it has forty-five cantons and 209
communes, yielding a revenue of 18,904,000
francs: it is in the twelfth military division, has
a royal court at Rennes and a bishopric at
Nantes, and consists of four electoral arrondisse-
ments, which send six members to the chamber
of deputies. Its boundaries are, the department
of Morbihan to the north-west; that of Ille-et
Vilaine to the north; that of Maine-et-Loire to
the east; that of La Vendée to the south; and the
ocean to the west.
The territory of this maritime department is
intersected by an incredible number of rivers,
several of which are navigable. It has a coast
of sixty miles in extent, which the inroads of
the sea are continually increasing in some parts.
The soil, generally level, presents a multitude of
delightful situations and various scenery, and
produces grain of all kinds; the pasturage is
excellent, and furnishes feeding for great num-
bers of cattle and horses; extensive forests,
heaths, marshes, meadows planted with fruit
trees, and rich vineyards spread over the surface
of this country. The salt marshes, which stretch
along the coast, are very productive and of con-
siderable importance to the inhabitants. In the
southern part is the lake Grand Lieu, one of
the largest in France, and abounding in fish;
there is also another formed by the Erdre, which
for nearly twenty miles widens into a stream be-
tween seven and eight miles broad; this lake is
very beautiful, being surrounded by verdant hills,
planted with chestnut trees and peopled with
villages and country houses. This country is
cultivated with the aid of horses, and yields a
sufficiency for its inhabitants, containing 37,452
hectars of forest land, chiefly oaks, beech, and
birch, and 45,000 hectars of vineyards, pro-
ducing on an average twenty-nine francs eighty-
nine centimes per hectar of arable land. There
are mines of iron, antimony, pewter, loadstone,
and fine coal; and quarries of marble, granite,
freestone, quartz, potter's clay and turf. The
manufactures consist of common stuffs, linen
and cotton cloth, handkerchiefs, printed calicoes,
flannels, stockings, porcelain, delf and earthen-
ware, pipes, iron, cast metals, sugar baking,
vinegar, liqueurs, mineral acids, lamp-black,
leather, morocco, ropes, paper, glass, tanning,
brass founding, cotton spinning, sugar refining,
salt making, forging, blast furnaces, nail making,
a royal foundry for cannon and ship building
both for merchants and the state. The trade lies
chiefly in grain, faggots, wool, cattle, wines,
brandy, sugar, honey, building wood, iron, salt,
LOI
LOK
13]
dry and salted fish, spices, drugs, colonial pro-
duce, exports and imports to and from the prin-
cipal states of Europe, Africa and the Indies,
fishing tackle for the cod fishery in Newfound-
land and Cape Breton, and the herring, mackerel,
and pilchard fishery. It also largely supplies
the navy with provisions and ammunition. The
principal rivers of the department are the Loire,
the Sevre Nantaise, the Acheneau, the Boulogne,
the Brive, the Don, the Isac, the Erdre, the
Ognon, and the Tenu navigable; the Vilaine,the
Logue, the Cher and the Maine: it is crossed
by the great roads of Rochelle, Vannes, Rennes,
and Angers.
LoIRET, THE, a department of France, consists
of part of the former province of Orleannais,
and takes its name from the little river Loiret,
which rises here, and falls into the Loire below
Orleans. This town is the chief place of the
prefecture, which is divided into four arrondisse-
ments: Orleans, containing 133,006 inhabitants;
Gien 38,550; Montargis 61,942; and Pithwiers
57,896; being a total population of 291,394
souls, on an extent of 2016 square miles; thirty-
one cantons and 363 communes. This depart-
ment yields a territorial revenue of 17,516,000
francs, is in the first military division, has a royal
court and bishopric at Orleans, contains three
electoral arrondissements, which send five mem–
bers to the chamber of deputies. It is bounded
on the north by the departments of Seine-et-Oise
and Seine-et-Marne; on the east by that of the
Gonne, on the south by those of the Cher and
the Loir-et-Cher, and on the west by that of the
Eure-et-Loir.
This is generally a level country, composed of
fertile plains, vast forests, hills covered with
vines, beautiful meadows and numerous pastures.
That part, which extends along the right bank
of the Loire from Orleans to Briare, and for a
great distance inland, presents nothing but a
sterile and sandy soil; the 'hills, however, are
covered with vines, which yield excellent red and
white wines. Great numbers of cattle also, and
abundance of poultry, especially turkeys, are
reared here for the supply of the capital. The
climate is temperate and healthy; the soil,
which is mostly fat and rich, is cultivated with
horses and yields more than sufficient for its
inhabitants; there are 95,700 hectars of forests,
and 39,000 of vineyards,each hectar of arable land
producing twenty-four francs twelve centimes.
The productions of this department are all sorts
of wheat, barley, buck-wheat, maize, millet, dry
vegetables, hemp, flax, fine saffron, good fruits
of every kind, pasturage for cattle, wood, abun-
dance of game, river fish, numerous herds of
cattle and flocks of sheep, poultry, and bees.
There is a botanical garden, at Orleans; mines
of antimony and quarries of stone for building,
marl and potter's earth. Mineral springs are
found in different communes, and establishments
of mineral waters at Segay and Beaugency.
Considerable manufactures are carried on by
the inhabitants, in woollen counterpanes, cloth,
serge, caps, paper, parchment, leather, files,
shot, brass pots, pipes, and highly esteemed
vinegar. They have likewise sugar-refining
houses, brandy distilleries, wax-bleaching houses,
cotton and wool spinning mills, brass foundrias
and farhous tan-yards. Their trade consists in
faggots, corn, wine, vinegar, brandy, spices,
drugs, fruits and fruit trees, vegetables, chestnuts,
cyder, excellent honey, Saffron, salt, wool, wood,
charcoal, cattle, &c. The principal rivers of
this department are the Loire and the Loiret,
navigable; the canals of Briare and Orleans, the
Loing, the Bied, the Ouanne, the Essonnes and
the Cosson; and the chief roads are those of
Paris, Malon, Bourges, and Tours.
LOIRET, THE, a small river, which rises from
a very deep spring at the chateau de la Source,
about a league below the bridge of Olivet, in
the department to which it gives its name; and,
after running a course of scarcely nine miles,
falls into the Loire below St. Mesmin. It is
navigable from the mills of la Chausse Inferieure
to its mouth, and possesses the singular property
of never being frozen over, however intense the
cold. Many factories are established on its
banks, and in time of frost it serves for a recep-
tacle to the Orleans boats, which run up for
shelter as far as St. Mesmin.
LOI"TER, v. m. Belg. leuteron; Goth. la-
LOITERER, n. s. 5 tur. To delay; linger; idle
time away.
Give gloves to thy reapers a largess to cry,
And daily to loiterers have a good eye.
Tusser's Husbandry.
Sir John, you loiter here too long, seeing you are
to take soldiers up in the countries. Shakspeare.
The poor, by idleness or unthriftiness, are riotous
spenders, vagabonds, and loiterers. Hayward.
Where hast thou been, thou loiterer 7
Though my eyes closed, my arms have still been
- opened,
To search if thou wert come. . Otway.
Providence would only enter mankind into the
useful knowledge of her treasures, leaving the rest to
employ our industry, that we live not like idle loiter-
ers and truants. More.
Whence this long delay ?
You loiter, while the spoils are thrown away.
Dryden.
Mark how he spends his time, whether he inac-
tively loiters it away. Locke.
If we have gone wrong, let us redeem the mistake;
if we have loitered, let us quicken our pace, and
make the most of the present opportunity. Rogers.
Ever listless loiterers, that attend
No cause, no trust, no duty, and no friend.
Pope.
What folly can be ranker? like our shadows,
Our wishes lengthen as our sun declines,
No wish should loiter, then, this side the grave.
Young.
LOKE, in mythology, a deity of the northern
nations, answering to the Arimanius among the
Persians, whom they represent as at enmity both
with gods and men, and the author of all the
evils which desolate the universe. Loke is de-
scribed in the Edda as producing the great ser–
pent which encircles the world; which seems to
have been intended as an emblem of corruption
or sin; he also gives birth to Hela or death, the
queen of the infernal regions; and to the wolf
Fenris, who is to encounter the gods and destroy
the world.
LOKEREN, a large town of the kingdom of
the Netherlands, in East Flanders, on the
K 2
LOL
LOL
132
Durme, a small river from which is a canal unit-
ing it with the Scheldt. It carries on a good
trade in corn, hemp, flax, and linen. The ma-
nufactures are woollens, lace, cotton, hats, and
tobacco works: it has also fifteen oil mills.
Population 12,800; twelve miles north-east of
Ghent.
LOKMAN, surnamed the Wise, an eminent
philosopher among the Easterns. The Arabians
say he was the son of Baura, the son or grand-
son of a sister of Job. He was an Ethiopian,
and a slave for some time. It is said that he
was born in the time of David, and lived till the
age of the prophet Jonas, a period of about 240
years. Some suppose him to have been the
same with AEsop the mythologist: and indeed
his Parables or Apologues in Arabic, as well as
many particulars in his life, resemble the fables
and fortune of Esop. He is said, like AEsop,
to have been deformed in his person, and some
of his pieces are still extant; Mahomet entitled
a chapter of the Koran after his name, in which
he introduces God as saying, ‘We heretofore
bestowed wisdom on Lokman.’ He obtained
his liberty on account of his obedience in eating
the whole of a bitter melon, at his master's com-
mand. His master, surprised, asked how it
was possible for him to eat such a nauseous
fruit He answered, ‘I have received so many
favors from you, that it is no wonder I should
once in my life eat a bitter melon from your
hand.’ M. Galland translated all the fables of
Lokman, and Bidpai or Pilpay, a brahmin phi-
losopher, which were published at Paris in 1724.
Erpenius published his fables and grammar in
Arabic and Latin, at Leyden, in 1636.
LOLIUM, darnel grass, in botany, a genus of
the digynia order, and triandria class of plants,
natural order fourth, gramina: CAL. monophyl-
lous, fixed, and uniflorous. t
L. perenne, red darnel, or rye-grass, is very
common in roads and dry pastures, and makes
excellent hay upon dry, chalky, or sandy soils.
It is advantageously cultivated along with clover,
and springs earlier than other grasses; thereby
supplying food for cattle at a time when it is
most difficult to be obtained. Cows, horses, and
sheep eat it; goats are not fond of it.
L. temulentum, or white darnel, grows spon-
taneously in ploughed fields. If the seeds of
this species are malted with barley, the ale soon
occasions drunkenness; mixed with bread corn;
they produce but little effect unless the bread is
eaten hot.
LOLL, v. n. & v. a. Belg. luylegin, luy, idle,
and ligên, to lie; Belg. lullen ; Teut. loellen is
to suck with the tongue.—Thomson. To lie idle
upon or against; recline lazily: to hang or put
out the tongue.
So hangs, and lolls, and weeps upon me; so
shakes and pulls me. Shakspeare. Othello.
He is not lolling on a lewd love bed, "
But on his knees at meditation.
- ld. Richard III.
Close by a softly murmuring stream,
Where lovers used to loll and dream.
- Hudibras.
To loll on couches, rich with cytron steds,
And lay your guilty limbs in Tyrian beds.
Drudem.
With harmless play amidst the bowls he passed,
And with his lolling tongue assayed the taste. Id.
By Strymon's freezing streams he sat alone,
Trees bent their heads to hear him sing his wrongs,
Fierce tygers couched around, and lolled their fawn-
ing tongues. Id. Virgil.
. A lazy, lolling sort
Of ever listless loiterers. Dunciad.
'Tis done—he steps into the welcome chaise,
Lolls at his ease behind four handsome bays,
That whirl away from business and debate
The disencumbered Atlas of the state. Cowper.
LOLLARD (Walter), founder of the sect of
the Lollards, is said to have been an English-
man. He first introduced his doctrines in Ger-
many, about A. D. 1315. After preaching with
great zeal, and gaining many proselytes on the
continent, he returned to England, where his
disciples were called Lollards. He and his
followers rejected the sacrifice of the mass, ex-
treme unction, and penances for sin; insisting
that Christ's sufferings were sufficient. He is
likewise said to have set aside baptism as a thing
of no effect; and repentance, as not absolutely
necessary. But, in that age, none who had the
courage to oppose the errors of the church of
Rome escaped slander or persecution. Lollard
sealed his testimony with his blood, being burnt
alive in Cologne in 1322.
LoLLARDS, in ecclesiastical history, a reli-
gious sect, which arose in Germany about the
beginning of the fourteenth century; so called
from W. Lollard, their founder. See the last
article. Some, derive the name from lolium, a
tare, as if the Lollards were tares in God's vine-
yard: others derive lollhard, lullhard, lollert, or
lullert, from the old German word lullen, lollen,
or lallen, “to sing with a low voice;’ and say,
Lollard means a singer, or one who is conti-
nually praising God with a song. The Alexians
or Cellites were called Lollards, because they
were public singers who interred those who died
of the plague, and sang a dirge in a mournful
tone as they carried them to the grave. The
name was afterwards assumed by persons who,
though they made many pretences to piety, enter-
tained the most ridiculous opinions, and com-
mitted the most enormous vices. And many
injurious aspersions were propagated against those
who assumed this name by the priests and monks;
so that, by degrees, any person who covered he-
resies or crimes under the appearance of piety,
was called a Lollard. Thus the name was for-
merly common to all persons and sects who were
supposed to be guilty of impiety against God or
the church, under profession of extraordinary
piety. However, many societies of Lollards, of
both sexes, were formed in most parts of Ger-
many and Flanders, and were supported partly
by their manual labors, and partly by charitable
donations. The magistrates and inhabitants of
the towns where they resided favored and pro-
tected them, on account of their usefulness to the
sick. They were thus supported against their
malignant rivals, and obtained many papal cor-
stitutions, by which their institute was confirmed,
their persons exempted from the cognisance of
the inquisitors, and subjected entirely to the ju-
risdiction of the bishops; but, as these measures
f, O M. B. A. R. D. S.
133
were insufficient to secure them from molestation,
Charles, duke of Burgundy, in 1472, obtained a
solemn bull from pope Sixtus IV., ordering that
the Cellites or Lollards should be ranked among
the religious orders, and delivered from the juris-
diction of the bishops; and pope Julius II.
granted them, yet greater privileges in 1506. In
England, the followers of Wickliffe were called,
by way of reproach, Lollards, from some affinity.
between their tenets. They were solemnly con-
demned by the archbishop of Canterbury and
the council of Oxford.
LOMBARD (Lambert), an eminent painter,
born at Liege in 1500; who, after a diligent
study of the antique at Rome, introduced that
style of painting among his countrymen instead
of the Gothic. He painted historical and archi-
tectural pieces; and, though he could never alto-
gether free himself from his national taste, he is
ranked among the best painters of his time. He
died in 1560.
LoMBARD (Peter), well known by the title of
Master of the Sentences, was born at Novara in
Lombardy; but, being educated in Paris, he dis-
tinguished himself so much at that university,
that he was first appointed canon of Chartres;
afterwards tutor to Philip, son of Louis VI., and
lastly bishop of Paris. He died in 1064. His
work on the Sentences is looked on as the source
of the scholastic theology of the Latin church.
He wrote also Commentaries on the Psalms, and
on St. Paul's Epistles.
LOMBARDO-VENETIAN KINGDom, a name
given in 1815, at the congress of Vienna, to Aus-
trian Italy, comprising both Lombardy and the
former Venetian territory. See ITALY.
LOMBARDS, a nation of Scandinavia, who
formerly settled in Italy, and for some time
made a considerable figure. The name of Lom-
bards, or Longobards, is derived by Paulus Dia-
conus, their historian, who was himself a Lom-
bard, from the length of their beards. A nation,
called Lombards, is mentioned by Tacitus,
Strabo, and Ptolemy; but these are different
from the Lombards who afterwards settled in
Italy, and are reckoned to be the same with the
Gepidae, whom the Italian Lombards almost ex-
terminated. The Lombards who settled in Italy
are first mentioned by Prosper Aquitanus, bishop
of Rhegium, in 379, who tells us, that about
this time the Lombards, abandoning the most
distant coasts of the ocean, and their native
country Scandinavia, and seeking for new set-
tlements, as they were overstocked with people
at home, first attacked and overcame the Van-
dals in Germany. They were then headed by
two chiefs, Iboreus and Aion; who, dying about
A. D. 389, were succeeded by Agilmund.
The Lombards were at first a cruel and bar-
barous nation; but their native fierceness gra-
dually wore off, after they had embraced the
Christian religion; and they governed with such
equity and moderation, that most other nations
envied the happiness of those who lived under
them. Under their government, says Paulus
Diaconus, no violence was committed, no one
unjustly dispossessed of , his property, none
oppressed with taxes; theft, robberies, murder,
and adultery, were seldom heard of; every one
went, without apprehension, wherever he pleased.
Their laws were so just and equitable, that they
were retained in Italy, and observed there some
ages after their kingdom was at an end. Their
dress was loose, and for the most part of linen,
such as the Anglo-Saxons wore, being interwoven
with various colors; their shoes were open to the
end of their foot, and they used to button or lace
them. From some ancient paintings, it appears,
that they shaved the back part of their heads, but
that their hair was long before; their locks being
parted, and laid on each side their foreheads.
Agilmund is commonly reckoned the first king
of the Lombards. Before the time of Odoacer
the history of the Lombards affords nothing re-
markable; in his time, however, they settled on
the Danube, in the country of the Rugians,
whom Odoacer had either exterminated or carried
into captivity. During their stay in this country
they rendered themselves formidable to the neigh-
bouring nations, and carried on successful wars
with the Heruli and Gepidae. In 526 they were
allowed by the emperor Justinian to settle in
Pannonia; and here they made war a second
time with the Gepidae. Alboinus, the Lombard
king, killed the king of the Gepidae with his
own hand, put his army to the rout, and cut such
numbers of them in pieces, that they ceased from
that time to be a nation. Having caused the
deceased king's head to be cut off, he made a
cup of his skull, which he used in all public en-
tertainments. However, having taken, among
many other captives of great distinction, Rosa-
munda, the late king's daughter, he married her
after the death of his former wife Clodisvinta, the
daughter of Clotaire king of France. By this
victory Alboinus gained such reputation, that his
friendship was courted by Justinian; and, in
consequence of the emperor's application, 6000
Lombards were sent to the assistance of Narses
against the Goths. The success of the Romans
in this expedition, the invasion of Italy by th
Lombards, and their successes, have been related
under ITALY. At last Alboinus having made
himself master of Venetia, Liguria, AEmilia, Ile-
truria, and Umbria, was murdered in the year
575, the fourth of his reign, by the treachery of
his wife, whom he had irritated to the most im-
placable vengeance, by ordering her, one day, at
a feast at Verona, to drink merrily with her father,
presenting her with the cup above-mentioned.
This she accomplished by the assistance of Helmi–
child, the king's shield-bearer, who at first pe-
remptorily refused to engage in the treason; but
Rosamunda having, by placing herself in his
mistress's bed, drawn him into an adulterous
connexion with herself, told him he must now
either kill Alboinus, or be himself put to death;
promising at the same time to marry him, if he
accomplished it, and bestow on him the king-
dom. This last part of her promise, however,
she did not get fulfilled, as they were obliged to
save themselves by flight. They fled to Longi-
nus the exarch of Ravenna, taking with them all
the jewels and treasure of the late king. Longi-
nus receiving her with the greatest kindness, as-
sured her of his protection; and, judging this a
favorable opportunity of making himself king of
Italy, proposed to marry her, provided she dis-
}34 L O M B A R D S.
|
patched Helmichild. Rosamund, pleased with
the proposal, resolved to satisfy her ambition by
getting rid of the man she had married to gratify
her revenge. Accordingly, having prepared a
strong poison, she mixed it with wine, and gave
it to her husband as he came out of the bath;
but he had not half emptied the cup, when, from
its sudden effects, he concluded what it was, and
compelled her to drink the rest. They both died
in a few hours. Longinus, on her death, laid
aside thoughts of making himself king of Italy,
and sent the king's treasure to Constantinople,
together with Albisoinda, the daughter of Alboi-
nus by Rosamund, whom she had brought along
with her. After the death of Alboinus the Lom-
bards chose Clephis, one of the nobility, for their
king. He was murdered after a short reign of eigh-
teen months; upon which ensued an interregnum
of ten years. During this time they extended their
conquests in that country; but, at last, the Ro-
mans, jealous of their progress, resolved to put
a stop to their victories, and, if possible, to drive
them quite out. For this purpose they entered in-
to an alliance with the Franks; which so alarmed
the Lombards, that they re-established the mo–
narchical form of government among themselves,
and chose Autharis, the son of Clephis, for their
king. This monarch, considering that the power
of the dukes, who had governed Lombardy for
ten years, was very much established, allowed
them to continue in their government; but
obliged them to contribute a moiety of their re-
venues towards the support of his royal dignity,
and take an oath that, in the time of war, they
would assist him to the utmost of their power.
Having thus settled matters with the dukes, he
enacted several wholesome laws against theft,
rapine, murder, adultery, &c., and was the first
Lombard king who embraced Christianity. Most
of his subjects followed his example, but, be-
ing instructed by Arian bishops, disputes con- .
tinued long between them and the orthodox
bishops of the cities subject to them. From the
re-establishment of the monarchy under Autharis,
to the reign of Rotharis in 636, the history of
the Lombards affords nothing memorable. This
period is remarkable for the introduction of
written laws among these people. Before this
time they had been governed only by tradition;
but Rotharis, in imitation of the Romans and
Goths, undertook the publishing of written laws;
and, to those which he enacted, many were
added by succeeding princes. These laws were
enacted in public assemblies, convened for that
purpose, after they had been examined and ap-
proved of by all the lords of the kingdom; the
legislative power being lodged in the king and
nobles alone. Rotharis also carried on success-
ful wars with the exarch of Ravenna, whom he
totally defeated in several engagements, and
made himself master of part of his territories.
He died in 652; and the affairs of the Lombards
went on prosperously, till the ambition of Luit-
prand laid the foundation of the total ruin of his
kingdom. He ascended the throne in 711, and
watched all opportunities of enlarging his domi-
nions at the expense of the emperors. In 726,
the emperor Leo III. having forbidden the wor-
ship of images, and ordered them to be pulled
down, the people revolted. And having strictly
enjoined his officers in the west, especially the
exarch of Ravenna, to see his edict punctually
obeyed, Scholasticus, then exarch, began to pull
down the images in Ravenna; which incensed
the superstious multitude to such a degree, that,
taking arms, they openly declared they would
rather renounce their allegiance to the emperor
than the worship of images. Luitprand seized
this opportunity of making himself master of the
seat of the exarch; having drawn together all his
forces, he unexpectedly appeared before Ra-
venna, and closely besieged it. But the exarch
defended the place with such courage, that Luit-
prand broke up the siege, and led his army
against Classis, which he took, plundered, and
levelled with the ground. The severe treatment
the inhabitants met with, threw the citizens of
Ravenna into the utmost consternation; which
Luitprand resolved to take advantage of, and,
returning before Ravenna with his whole army,
by frequent attacks tired the inhabitants and
garrison to such a degree, that the exarch,
despairing of relief, privately withdrew. Luit-
prand, having carried the town by storm, gave
it up to be plundered by his soldiers, who found
in it an immense booty, as it had been long the
seat of the emperors, the Gothic kings, and the
exarchs. The reduction of Ravenna was fol-
lowed by the surrender of several cities of the
exarchate, which Luitprand reduced to a duke-
dom; appointing Hildebrand, his grandson, to
govern it with the title of duke, and, as he was
yet an infant, appointing Peredeus, duke of Vi-
cenza, for his guardian. The conquest of the
greater part of the exarchate alarmed Gregory
II. though he was then at variance with the em-
peror, whose edict against the worshipping of .
images he had opposed. But, jealous of the
power of the Lombards, he exerted his influence
with Urfus, doge of Venice, who resolved to
assist the exarch with the whole force of the
republic. The exarch accordingly laid siege to
Ravenna by land, while they invested it almost
at the same instant by sea. Peredeus defended
the town for some time with great courage and
resolution; but the Venetians, having forced open
one of the gates, the city was taken, and Pere-
deus slain, while attempting to drive the enemy
from the posts they had seized. Hildebrand
fell into the hands of the Venetians; who, having
thus recovered Ravenna to the emperor, returned
home, leaving the exarch in possession of the
city. Luitprand was then at Pavia; but the
town was taken before he was able to assemble
his troops for its relief. Gregory, persuading
himself that the emperor would now, out of gra-
titude for the recovery of Ravenna, give ear to
his admonitions, began to solicit him with the
most pressing letters to revoke his edict against
the worship of images: but Leo, instead of com-
plying, sent three officers to Rome, with private
orders either to assassinate the pope, or send him
prisoner to Constantinople: and in 725 he re-
called Scholasticus, and sent Paul, a patrician,
into Italy, to govern in his room, with private
instructions to encourage the above-mentioned
officers. But, in the mean time, the plot was
discovered, and two of the conspirators were
L O M B
A R D S. 135
apprehended by the citizens of Rome, and put
to death; the third having escaped. Hereupon
the exarch drew together a considerable body of
troops, and set out on his march to Rome, with
a design to seize the pope, and send him in chains
to Constantinople. But the politic Luitprand
now leagued with Gregory against the exarch, in
order to preserve the balance of power between
them, and, by assisting sometimes the one and
sometimes the other, weaken both. The conse-
quence of this coalition was, that, the superstition
of the people being awakened, almost the whole
of Italy revolted from the emperor. Meantime
the exarch Paul, having gained a considerable
party in Ravenna, began to remove the images
out of the churches. Hereupon the adverse
party, encouraged by the pope, flew to arms;
and, falling upon the Iconoclasts, gave rise to a
civil war within the walls of Ravenna. Great
numbers were killed on both sides; but, the
worshippers of images prevailing, a dreadful
slaughter was made of the opposite party, and
the exarch himself was murdered. However,
Ravenna continued faithful to the emperor; but
most of the cities of Romagna, belonging to the
exarchate, and all those of Pentapolis, abhorring
the emperor as a heretic, submitted to Luit-
prand. In Naples, Exhilaratus, the duke, hav-
ing received orders from Leo to execute his
edict, endeavoured to persuade the people to
receive it; but, finding all his endeavours
thwarted by the pope, for whom the Neapolitans
had a great veneration, he hired assassins to
murder him. But, the plot being discovered,
the Neapolitans murdered both the duke and his
son, with one of his chief officers. They still,
however, continued stedfast in their allegiance
to Leo, who sent one Peter to govern them in
the room of Exhilaratus. In the mean time
Leo, not doubting but the pope was the chief
author of so much mischief, sent the eunuch
Eutychius into Italy, with the title and authority
of exarch, strictly enjoining him to get the pope
despatched, as his death was absolutely neces-
sary for the tranquillity of Italy. But a mes-
senger, whom the exarch had sent to Rome, be-
ing apprehended, and the emperor's order being
found upon him, the pope's friends thenceforth
guarded him with such care, that the exarch's as-
Sassins could never afterwards find an opportunity.
The Romans were for putting the messenger to
death; but the pope interposed, contenting him-
self with excommunicating the exarch. And now
the Romans, provoked more than ever against
Leo, resolved to revolt, and appoint their own
magistrates, keeping themselves united under the
pope, not yet as their prince, but only as their
head. Eutychius, having brought with him from
Constantinople a good number of troops, easily
quelled the rebellion at Ravenna, and severely
punished the authors. But he found he could
never reduce them, so long as they were sup-
ported by the Lombards: and therefore he em-
ployed all his art and policy to take off Luit-
prand from the party of the Romans, and bring
him over to his own. Luitprand, for some time,
withstood all his offers; but Thrasimund, duke
of Spoleto, revolting at this juncture, the exarch
offered to assist the king against the rebellious
t
duke, provided he would assist him against the
pope and the Romans. With this proposal
Luitprand readily closed ; and the two armies
joined, and began their march towards Spoleto.
At their approach, the duke, despairing of being
able to resist two such powers, sued for pardon;
which Luitprand not only granted, but confirmed
him in the dukedom, after he had obliged him to
take a new oath of allegiance, and give hostages
for his future fidelity. From Spoleto the two
armies marched to Rome; and encamped in the
meadows of Nero, between the Tiber and the
Vatican. Gregory had caused the city to be for-
tified; but, being sensible that the Romans alone
could not long hold out against two such armies,
he went to the king in his camp; and there, with
a pathetic speech, softened Luitprand to such a
degree, that, throwing himself at his feet in pre-
sence of the army, he begged pardon for entering
into an alliance against him ; went with him
to the church of St. Peter, and laid his girdle,
sword, gauntlet, royal mantle, crown of gold
and cross of silver, on the apostle's sepulchre
After this he reconciled the pope with the ex-
arch, who was thereupon received into the city,
where he continued for some time, in a friendly
correspondence with the pope. At this time an
impostor, taking the name of Tiberius, and pre-
tending to be descended from the emperors, se-
duced many people in Tuscany, and was by
them proclaimed emperor. Gregory, wishing
to oblige Leo, persuaded the Romans to attend
the exarch in his expedition against this usurper,
whom they soon took in a castle, sent his head
to the emperor, and suppressed the rebellion.
But Leo, still insisting upon his edict against the
images being received in Rome, the Romans, at
the instigation of the pope, publicly renounced
their allegiance, paid him no more tribute, and
withdrew for ever their obedience to the eastern
emperors. On this Leo caused all the patrimo
nies of the church in Sicily, Calabria, and his
other dominions, to be confiscated ; and raised
a powerful army to recover the towns that had
revolted. Gregory, alarmed at these warlike
preparations, resolved to recur to the protection
of the French, the only nation then capable of
coping with the emperor, and on whom, on ac-
count of their zeal for religion, he thought he
might depend. They were, at this time,
governed by the celebrated Charles Martel, who
was reckoned the greatest hero of his age. To
him, therefore, Gregory sent a solemn embassy,
with a great number of relics, earnestly entreating
him to take the Romans, and the church, under
his protection, and defend them against the at-
tempts of Leo. The ambassadors were received
with extraordinary marks of honor; and a treaty
was soon concluded between them and Charles.
But Gregory did not long enjoy the fruit of this
negociation; for he died the same year, 731, and
was succeeded by Gregory III. The French
nation, by the bravery and conduct of Charles
Martel, had now become the most powerful
kingdom in the west. His successor, Pepin, was
no less wise and powerful than his father; and, as
the ambition of the Lombard princes would be
satisfied with nothing less than the entire con
quest of Italy, the French monarch, Charlemagne,
LOM l
6 LOM
under color of assisting the pope, at last put an
end to the empire of Lombardy, as related under
the article FRANCE. .
LOMBARDY, a country of Upper Italy, is a
name commonly given to the whole tract of
country between the Alps and the Appennines,
or between the frontiers of Switzerland and Tus-
cany. It is more strictly applicable to the vale
of the Po only. In the more general acceptation it
is about 250 miles in length, and 150 in breadth,
and corresponds pretty nearly to the Gallia
Cisalpina of the Romans. It derived its present
name from the Lombards of the sixth century,
who occupied it as a kingdom till the eighth.
Lombardy is divided into Upper and Lower:
the former, the western part, comprehending the
Milanese, and a portion of the Sardinian terri-
tory; the latter, Parma, Modena, the papal
legislation, and great part of the Austrian govern-
ment of Venice. It is also divided into Cispa-
dan, and Transpadan Lombardy : the former, or
Lombardy on this side the Po, including all the
territory between that river and the Appennines;
Transpadan Lombardy, or Lombardy beyond
the Po, all that is between that river and the
Alps. The states of Lombardy at present are
Austrian Italy, Sardinia, Parma, Modena, and
Lucca.
LOMIBLEM, one of the Sunda Islands, be-
tween the larger islands of Floris and Timor, and
the eighth and ninth degrees of south latitude.
It is itself about fifty miles in length, by sixteen
average breadth; but has never been explored.
LOMBOCK, an island in the eastern seas,
separated from that of Bally by the straits of
Lombock, and from Sumbawa by the straits of
Allas. It is about fifty-three miles in length,
north and south, and forty-five in average
breadth, very mountainous, but covered with
wood and verdure. At the town of Bally, in the
Straits of Allas, and in the many flourishing
plantations and villages of the coast, European
ships passing to the east are well supplied. The
articles required in exchange are fire-arms, am-
munition, or dollars. Its commerce with the
neighbouring Malay Islands is also extensive.
The inhabitants are supposed to have been
originally emigrants from Hindostan, and retain
most Hindoo customs.
LOMBock, THE STRAIT OF, is formed by the
island of Bally west, and that of Lombock east.
The south entrance is in long. 115° 43' E., and
in lat. 8° 45' S., where is a large island, called
Banditti Island, to the west of which there is no
passage. The navigation is here extremely dan-
gerous, owing to the great rapidity of the tides.
The strait of Allas, formed by the island of Lom-
bock to the westward, and that of Sumbawa
eastward, is reckoned the best and safest to the
eastward of Java, having generally anchorage at
the towns and villages.
LOMOND HILLs, several verdant hills of
Scotland, in the west part of Fifeshire, distin-
guished by different names. The two highest
are called the Eastern and Western Lomonds.
From their relative situation, more than from
their magnitude, they command a very extensive
and variegated prospect into many distant as
well as adjacent counties, and are seen at a
very great distance by travellers in various di-
rections. ‘-
LoMond, EASTERN, the most regular and
beautiful of the above hills, is said to be about
550 yards in height above the level of the plain;
and, where it is most accessible, seems to have
been fortified near the top with a deep trench. It
lies a little west of Falkland, and is skirted with
furze, above which it exhibits a beautiful ver- .
dure at all seasons, and rises into a conical sum-
mit. It slopes gradually on the east, but on the
west the descent is steep, down to the gap or
valley below; which separates it from the
Western Lomond, and extends above a mile
nearly on a level. Very near the top there is a
small cavity about one foot and a half in diame-
ter, which, by travellers, has been esteemed a
volcanic crater. It abounds with limestone, and
has also some strata of good coal, and a lead
mine. -
LoMond, WESTERN, is considerably higher
than the Eastern, and has a large cairn of loose
stones at the top. From its summit, the southern
aspect has little variety, but a gradual and uni-
form descent, till it joins the parishes of Leslie
and Portmoak.
LoMond, Loch, a large lake of Scotland, in
Dumbartonshire, which Mr. Pennant styles “the
most beautiful of the Caledonian lakes.' The
view of it from Tarbat presents an extensive ser-
pentine lake, winding amidst lofty hills on the
north, barren, bleak, and rocky, which darken
with their shade that contracted part of the
water. About twenty-eight islands are dispersed
over the lake, well wooded; of these some just
peep above the surface, and are tufted with trees;
others are so disposed as to form a magnificent
vista. Opposite Luss, at a small distance from the
shore, is a mountainous isle almost covered with
wood, near half a mile long. The largest island
is two miles long, and stocked with deer. The
lake is thirty-six miles long; its greatest
breadth is eight; its greatest depth 120 fathoms.
Its surface has, for many years past, been ob-
served gradually to increase, and invade the ad-
jacent shore. And, from a passage in Camden's
Atlas Britannica, it appears, that an island exist-
ing in his time, called Camstraddan, in which
was a house and orchard, is now lost. Large
trees are also often found in the mud near the
shore, overwhelmed in former times by the in-
crease of water, occasioned by vast quantities of
stone and gravel brought down by the rivers,
and by the falls of their banks.
LOMONOZOF, a celebrated Russian poet,
the great reformer of his native tongue, was the
son of a fishmonger at Kolmogori, and was born
in 1711. His genius for poetry was first kindled
by the perusal of the Song of Solomon, versified
by Polotski. He soon after left his father, and,
took refuge in the Kaikonospaski monastery at
Moscow; where he indulged his taste for letters,
and studied the Greek and Latin languages. In
this seminary he made such progress in litera-
ture as to be employed by the Imperial Aca-
demy of Sciences. In 1736 that society sent him
to the university of Marpurg in Hesse Cassel,
where he studied universal grammar, rhetoric,
and philosophy, under the celebrated Christian
L O N D O N.
137
Wolf. He continued at Marpurg four years,
during which time he applied himself to che-
mistry, which he afterwards pursued with still
greater success under the famous Henckel at
Freyberg in Saxony. In 1741 he returned into
Russia, was chosen in 1742 adjunct to the impe-
rial academy; and, in 1743, member of that
society, and professor of chemistry. In 1760 he
was appointed inspector of the seminary, then
annexed to the academy, and in 1764 Catharine
II. made him a counsellor of state. Lomonozof
excelled in various kinds of composition; but
his chief merit is derived from his poetical com-
L O N
LONDON, (Lat. Londinium and Augusta),
from the British Lyn-den, signifying the town on
the lake, thus supplies in its name one of the earli-
est and most prominent facts of its history, i.e.
that at the period of its foundation the Thames
in this neighbourhood was rather a lake, occa-
sionally subsiding into a stream, than a river re-
gularly confined by fences and embankments.
The name of the village of Mort-lake still per-
petuates the same idea. - -
PART I.
EARLY HISTORY OF LONDON.
Ammianus Marcellinus mentions Londinium
as the capital of the Trinobāntes: and Tacitus
says, “London is so called from its situation, and
Augusta from its grandeur.' If we advert to
more remote writers, the chronicler, Geoffry of
Monmouth, tells us that London was founded
in the year 1108 before the Christian era, by
Brute, a lineal descendant of Eneas, and called
by him, after the great scene of his ancestor's ex-
ploits, Troy Novant, or New Troy, whence the
inhabitants received the name of Trinovantes, or
Trinobantes; and so, as we are further told, it
continued to be called for 1000 years and more,
till the sceptre having devolved on king Lud, a
native of Britain, he gave it the name of Caer
Lud, or Ludstoun, which in process of time be-
came softened into London. Mr. Pennant, re-
jecting this story, has framed another of his own,
nearly as fanciful. “London,’ he says, “certainly
existed prior to the invasion of Caesar; it was, at
the time of his arrival in this island, the capital of
the Trinobantes, who had recently come from
Belgium, and composed one of the small nations
into which Britain was formerly divided. The
name of this nation, as we learn from Baxter's
British Glossary, was derived from the three fol-
lowing British words—tri now hant, which sig-
nify the inhabitants of the New City, the ancient
name of the renowned metropolis of Britain.”
But the Commentaries of Caesar at once dis-
sipate these visions of the early grandeur of our
metropolis, and prove that it owed every thing
worthy of that character to the Romans. He
tells us that “what the Britons called a town
was nothing more than a thick wood, surrounded
by a ditch'and fortified by a rampart, into which
they retired when apprehensive of invasion.’
positions, the finest of which are his odes. They
are greatly admired for originality of invention,
sublimity of sentiment, and energy of language.
In this, and other species of composition, he en-
riched his native language with various kinds of
metre, and is hence styled the Father of Russian
Poetry. His principal works were printed in 3
vols. 8vo. He wrote Annals of the Russian
Sovereigns; and The Ancient History of Russia,
from its Origin to the Death of Yaroslaf I. in
1054; a work of great merit, as it illustrates the
most obscure period in the annals of Russia. He
died 4th of April, 1764.
D O N.
The proofs are indubitable, that the Britons
knew nothing of brick-making at this period,
and had never, so far as the Romans could ob-
serve, attempted to raise one stone above ano-
ther. No traces of building have ever yet been
discovered about London, which could with any
probability be ascribed to a period anterior to
the Roman invasion; though, of the natural ad-
vantages of the place, the Britons were probably
as good judges as their conquerors. We find,
accordingly, that as far as regards the site of
London, a stronger one for purposes of defence
could scarcely have been chosen. The heart of
the city was on the summit of an angle of rising
ground (about where St. Paul's cathedral now
stands), bounded on the one side by the marshy
Thames, on the other by the Fleta, a stream or
torrent since covered over, which emptied itself
into the Thames, near where Blackfriars-bridge
has been since erected; and behind this naturally
entrenched mount there was a thick wood, which
extended far into the interior. We have only
in imagination to cover this mount also with
‘thick wood,’ to complete the idea which Caesar
presents to us of the British town. So slowly,
indeed, was the wood cleared away, that so late
as the reign of Henry II. all the northern parts
of the city bordered on a thick forest, where
beasts of the chase roamed. When, under
Caesar, the Romans advanced to the Thames, the
Trinobantes were the first of the tribes beyond
that river who sent proposals of submission;
and there is every reason to believe, that they
formed no part of that native force which, under
Cassivelaunus, attempted to oppose his progress.
When victory declared for Caesar, and he had
effected the passage of the river, he found not
only a friendly people in the Trinobantes, but, in
their city or strong hold in the wood, as advan-
tageous a position for encampment as the in-
vader of an unknown territory could desire. It
was such as a very slight application of the Ro-
man skill in fortification could render impregna-
ble to any attacks from the hostile nations of the
interior: while, on the side of the Thames, he
secured a free communication with the sea.
It has beer, a matter of dispute among anti-
quaries to determine the precise spot where Ju-
lius Caesar forded the Thames. Camden and
others think that it was at Shepperton, and that
138
L O N D O N.
what are called Cowey Stakes were planted there
to obstruct his passage. Maitland, conceiving
however that this would place the ford at a
greater distance from London than would agree
with Caesar's account, was at great pains to dis-
cover a ford lower down. “I endeavoured,” he
says, “by sounding the river at several neap
tides, from Wandsworth to London-bridge, to
discover a ford, which, to my no small satisfac-
tion, I did, on the 18th of September, anno
1732, about ninety feet west of the south-west
angle of Chelsea College-garden; where, in a
right line from north-east to south-west, I found
the deepest part of the channel to be only four
feet seven inches deep.’ But the state of any
part of the river in modern times can be no evi-
dence of what its state was in the time of the
Tºomans. It is besides certain, that to the west
of London-bridge, and not so high up as Chel-
sea, there existed, previous to the general em-
bankment of the river, at least two well known
fords. Milford Lane, opposite to St. Clement's
Church in the Strand, was so called from a corn
mill which anciently stood there, and from its
leading to a ford across the river. At York
House, the palace of the archbishop of York,
which stood on the site of the streets adjoining
to what still bears the name of York-stairs,
there was another ford, which, as late as the be-
ginning of the eighteenth century, had been used
within the memory of many persons.
Mr. Bagford, another learned antiquary, in a
letter to Hearne, written in 1714, says, “And
now I shall relate to you the manner of the Ro-
man approaches near to London. These led
along Kent Street, on the left hand, leading to
London, and pointed directly to Dowgate, now
so called, through an arch since built by the
bishop of Winchester at his stairs, which, to
this day, is called Stone Street, and came directly
out of Surrey. It was at this very place (as I
take it) that the Roman legions forded over the
river of Thames, first the horse and then the
foot, which might not then take them up to the
shoulders. And this they might attempt (as we
may conjecture) when the tide was first coming
in, they then making an angle, and directing
their course against the stream of the river.
When they came to the middle of the stream,
the tide drove them to their intended landing-
place—which was Dowgate.’
At whatever place the Romans forded the ri-
ver, it seems certain, at least, that the passage was
not effected at any part lower than the junction
of the Fleta with the Thames. All the territory
within the angle formed by these two streams
was occupied by the Trinobantes, who were in
negociation for a friendly treaty with the inva-
der; and it must have been above it, therefore,
that Caesar found the hostile forces of Cassive-
launus drawn up to oppose his passage. It may
possibly have been as far up as Cowey Stakes,
but not less possibly as low down as the Mill-
ford;—in short, the range of reasonable conjec-
ture is so wide, that nothing can be vainer than
to attempt to come to a fixed conclusion-on the
subject.
1. London, under the Romans.—The Romans
conquered to civilise. They showed the Britons
how to fashion the clay of their soil into bricks
and domestic utensils ; to build houses for them-
selves, temples to their gods, and courts for the
administration of justice; to drain and embank;
to cut roads and erect causeways; to lay out
their towns in streets and squares, and to sur- .
round them with walls and towers. The Bri-
tons chose the site of London, but to the Romans
we must allow the praise of adorning it with its
earliest monuments of art. r
It was soon perceived, by this sagacious peo-
ple, that London, though well fitted by its na-
tural strength for a military station, was still
better qualified to be a place of extensive com-
merce. Seated at a considerable distance from
the sea on a broad and navigable river, which,
after watering some of the fairest portions of the
island, discharges itself into the ocean almost in
sight of the continent of Europe, it seemed cal-
culated to be at once the mart for a great do-
mestic and great foreign trade. The Romans,
however, were warriors, and not traffickers; and
they contented themselves with directing the
Britons to the cultivation of those advantages,
which have raised their capital to the proud pre-
eminefice which it now holds among the cities
of the earth. We find, accordingly, that London
was never, like other settlements of the Romans,
formed into what they termed a military colony,
exclusively Roman. Here the Roman prefects
resided; and from this point, as we learn from
the Itinerary of Antoninus, branched most of
the great roads into the interior ; both decisive
proofs that they regarded it as the most important
station they possessed in the island: yet neither
did they occupy it alone, not did they subject it
to the inconvenient restrictions of a garrison-
town. London remained a free city, where Ro-
man and Briton mingled amicably together;
and to which strangers from all parts were en-
couraged to resort with their commodities. So
rapid was now the progress of London in com-
mercial importance, that, as early as the revolt of
the celebrated Boadicea, it is described by Ta-
citus as having become famous for the vast num-
ber of merchants who resorted to it, and the
abundance of every species of commodity which
it could supply. The first interruption to its
prosperity arose from the early triumphs of this
illustrious heroine. The Roman general Sueto-
nius, unable in the outset to encounter so for-
midable a rebellion, was obliged to abandon
London to its fate. Boadicea and her troops,
eager to punish the ancient defection of the Tri-
nobantes from the common cause of the native
powers, and irritated by the spectacle which
London presented of Roman greatness, mas-
sacred every soul they found in the city, and,
setting fire to it in several places, nearly reduced
the whole to ashes.
The Romans, however, again recovering the
ascendancy, a new city speedily arose on the
same favored spot, devoted as before to the
peaceful pursuits of commerce, and flourishing
by them. In the year 359 no less than 800
vessels are said to have been employed in the
exportation from London of corn alone. On
the decline of the empire, in the fifth century,
London had to lament the departure of the be-
L O N
D O N. 139
neficent founders of her greatness. There are
various statements of the period when the Ro-
mans 'abandoned Britain; all that is certain is,
that it took place not later than the year 450,
when a dominion which brought many blessings
to this island had wholly and for ever ceased.
2. Roman remains.—When the Romans eva-
cuated London, they left it encompassed with
lofty and well fortified walls. The circuit of
them, as described by Stowe, measured two miles
and a furlong; and this did not include the side
towards the Thames, which, though originally
walled in, was subsequently left to its natural de-
fence: when perfect, the walls are supposed to
have been twenty-two feet high. They com-
menced on the east with a large fort, erected on
the present site of the Tower (supposed by Bag-
ford still to survive under the name of the White
Tower), and taking a semicircular direction by
the Minories, Hounsditch, Cripplegate, Alders-
gate, Newgate, and Ludgate, terminated in ano-
ther lofty fort on the Thames, close to Fleet
Brook. Besides these two principal forts, the walls
were guarded by thirteen other towers, erected at
proper distances on the land side, and supposed
by Maitland, from some remains of them exist-
ing in his time, to have been about forty feet high.
The entrances into the city on the land side were
originally but three ; by Aldgate on the east;
Aldersgate on the north, and Ludgate on the west;
but in the course of time many new gates were
opened to facilitate communication with the
country, such as Newgate, Cripplegate, Moor-
gate, Bishopsgate, the postern on Tower Hill,
&c. The barbican, specula, or watch-tower, be-
longing to every fortified place, stood a little
without the walls to the east of Aldersgate, on
the spot which still goes by the name of Bar-
bican. Mr. Bagford's account of the uses to
which this was applied is curious. ‘Here,' he
says, “the Romans kept cohorts of soldiers in
continual service to watch in the night, that if
any sudden fire should happen they might be
in readiness to extinguish it, as also to give no-
tice if an enemy were gathering or marching
towards the city to surprise them. In short, it
was a watch-tower by day, and at night they
lighted some combustible matter on the top
thereof, to give directions to the weary traveller
repairing to the city, either with provision, or upon
Some other occasion. The same was intended
by a lantern on the top of Bow steeple before
the fire of London (although seldom made use
of), for burning of lights, to give direction to the
travellers and to the market people, that came
from the northern parts of London. Of all these
extensive out-works, walls, towers, and gates,
very few vestiges remain.
The dangers which they were erected to avert,
having long since ceased to exist: they have one
after another been swept away in the course of
modern improvement; and it is only by the names
which survive, that their sites are now to be
traced. The coins found at their foundations
have been invariably Roman; an incontestable
proof that it was to the protecting and magnifi-
cºnt spirit of the Roman people, that the British
were indebted for the fortification of their capital.
Some of the gates were very handsome and
costly structures; especially in later times, when
the citizens delighted to distinguish themselves
by benefactions and bequests for the embellish-
ment of these inlets to their cherished city. Lud-
gate, which was taken down and rebuilt in the
reign of queen Elizabeth, was not even at that
time erected at a less expense than £1500; and
the expenditure on the other gates was equally
munificent. When in the last stage of their di-
lapidation they were ordered to be pulled down,
they brought, even as old materials, considerable
prices. Aldgate was sold for £157 10s. ; Lud-
gate for £148; and Cripplegate for £91.
London Stone, now to be seen in the south
wall of St. Swithin's Church, Cannon Street, was
another monument of the Roman power. It ap-
pears to have been a miliary, of the same kind
as that in the forum at Rome, where all the high-
ways of the country met in a point, and from
which they were measured. We have before
alluded to the proof which this furnishes, that
London was regarded by the Romans as the chief
seat of their British dominion. When Jack Cade
struck this stone with his sword, exclaiming,
* Now is Mortimer lord of London,’ he was
probably not unaware of its emblematic cha-
racter.
According to Bagford, the Romans had in
London a field of Mars, in imitation of that at
Rome; and through so long a lapse of ages did
the same spot continue to be appropriated to
military exercises, that this field was no other
than what, in more recent times, was called the
Old Artillery Ground. ‘ On the farther side of
Whitechapel Street, he says, “next Bishopsgate
Street, was another station of the Romans, in
that part which formerly bore the name of the
Old Artillery Ground, and was their field of
Mars, in which place the Romans trained up and
exercised their young soldiers, and likewise the
youth of the neighbouring Britons, in the skill
and exercise of arms, that they might be more
expert in the use of them upon all emergent oc-
casions. And, if any sudden tumults or insur-
rections should happen in the city, they were
then ready and at hand to suppress them. This
field of Mars was in imitation of that at Old
Rome, where they mustered their soldiers, and
which must needs have been a very large place, as
the same is excellently described and likewise
observed to have been a Roman camp, by a ju-
dicious author in the latter end of queen Eliza-
beth's reign. *
Of the temples of the Romans no specimens
are now extant. In Norden's Middlesex, it is
said, there was one near the Tilt Yard; and Bag-
ford makes no doubt of there having been a
temple of Diana on the south side of St. Paul's.
The ruins of a building, called the Camera
Dianae, situated on the eminence of St. Paul's
Wharf, existed in the time of How, who wrote a
continuation of Stowe; and the tenements which
have been since erected on its site are still de-
signated in the leases of them as part and parcel
of the ancient Camera Dianae. From the ac-
counts given of this structure, however, it does
not appear to have been at all of the nature of a
temple. The Camera Dianae was a vaulted laby-
rinth, similar in its ground plan to the celebrated
140
L O N D O N
Rosamond's Bower at Woodstock, and was em-
ployed by Henry II., of amorous memory, for the
same purpose. The one was the country, and the
other the town repository of this jewel of his
heart. ‘At this time,’ says How, “some ruins
of it are remaining, and many evident testimo-
nies of intricate turnings and windings, as also a
subterraneous passage to Castle Baynard, which
no doubt the king made use of privately to have
access to his brightest Diana, one of the most ex-
quisite and most celebrated beauties that we find
mentioned in any history.’ The name Camera
Dianae had an obvious reference to those pur-
poses of chaste seclusion, for which the building
was designed; and it would be preferring a less
probability to a greater, to suppose that it de-
rived this appellation from having been erected
on the same spot where a Roman temple of
Diana previously stood.
In December, 1803, a large and very beautiful
specimen of Roman mosaic was accidentally
discovered by some workmen employed in dig-
ging for a sewer immediately opposite the East
India House. . It is preserved in the honor-
able company's museum, and suggests to us a
splendid idea of the extent to which the Romans
had carried the internal embellishment of their
houses. It is about eleven feet square, and ex-
hibits the centre of the floor of an apartment,
which could not have been less than twenty-two
feet square, but in all probability was considerably
larger. The figure of the god Bacchus is repre-
sented reclining on the back of a tiger. The
drawing, coloring, and shadows, are all effected
with great skill and ingenuity, by the use of
about twenty separate tints, composed of tessellae,
of different materials. The major part consist of
baked earths, but the more brilliant colors of
green and purple, which form the drapery, are of
glass. These tessellae are of different sizes and
figures, adapted to the situations they occupy in
the design; and are placed in rows, either straight
or curved, as occasion demanded, each tessella
presenting to those around it a flat side. The
interstices of mortar being thus very narrow,
and the bearing of the pieces against each other
uniform, the work in general possessed much
strength, and was, very probably, when uninjured
by damp, nearly as firm as the solid stone. A
mosaic pavement, with a similar device, was dis-
covered in 1711–12 at Woodstock in Oxford-
shire. -
3. London to the Danish conquest.—The de-
parture of the Romans proved the commencement
of a long train of calamities to London. The
sun of her prosperity seemed to have set. The
Saxons, invited over to furnish that protection
against the incursions of the Scots and Picts
which the Romans could no longer afford, vio-
lated the compact which gave them a footing in
the country; and during the vain and sanguinary
struggles of the British, for nearly a century and
a half, to preserve themselves from Saxon subju-
gation, London, from its importance, became,
more than any other part of the island, a prey to
the evils of intestine war. When the Saxons had
at last established themselves in the sovereignty
of the country, it was no longer with London
that the metropolitan sceptre was suffered to re-
main. Ethelbert, king of Kent, to whom all the
Saxon nations, south of the Humber, were feu-
datory, made Canterbury the seat of his govern-
ment; and neglected London ceases to figure in
history, except for the disasters which befel it.
In 664 it was ravaged by the plague; in 764 it
was wasted by fire; in 798 it again suffered se-
verely from fire, and numbers of the inhabitants
perished in the flames; and in 801, before there
was time to repair the ruin done, a third confla-
gration nearly completed the work of destruction.
On the establishment of the Heptarchy under
Egbert, A. D. 827, the fortunes of London bright-
ened for a moment. Egbert chose it for his re-
sidence, and here, in 833, a wittenagemot, or
parliament, was held. But on the invasion of
England by the Danes, soon after, they drove
Egbert from his adopted capital, and, after de-
livering it up to pillage and massacre, reduced
nearly the whole to ashes. º g
In such a succession of calamities, it was in-
evitable, that nearly all that beauty and magnifi-
cence which the Romans had imparted to Lon-
don should for ever disappear. Its naked walls,
in fact, alone remained; and if a city, far trans-
cending even the Roman Augusta, has since
arisen within and around them, it is to the Bri-
tish themselves that the merit and the fame be-
long.
After a dismal lapse of nearly four centuries,
the reign of the renowned Alfred brought, among
many blessings, the restoration of London to its
former greatness and prosperity. Having, A. D.
884, freed the kingdom from the Danish yoke, he
gave directions for rebuilding the desolated
cities; and of these none claimed or received a
larger share of his beneficent patronage than
London. He repaired and strengthened the
walls; he prevailed on the inhabitants, whose
houses had hitherto consisted almost wholly of
wood—the cause of repeated conflagrations, to
rebuild many of them of brick and stone; he
presented them with models of merchant ships,
that would both sail better and carry larger car-
goes than those of former times; and he laid
down the plan of that excellent system of munici-
pal government which, with various modifications
and improvements, subsists to the present day.
With such aids and encouragements, the renova-
tion of London proceeded so rapidly, and the
spirit of its citzens so much revived, that not-
withstanding an accidental fire in 893, which oc-
casioned very considerable injury, it was in a few
years in a condition, for the first time since the
departure of the Romans, not only to defend
itself against invasion, but to go forth and meet
the invaders. In 895 when a predatory party of
the Danes, under the command of Hastings, en-
couraged by the absence of Alfred from his
capital, had advanced as far as Beamflete, the
garrison of London, joined by a body of gallant
citizens who eagerly volunteered their services,
went out and surprised the enemy in their camp,
cut all who opposed them to pieces, took a great
many prisoners, and spoiled the spoilers. When
again, in 896, another body of the Danes had saile6
up the river Lea to Ware, and posted themselves
in a strong position between that place and Hert-
ford, Alfred, at the head of his grateful and in
.* : *-* * *
L O N
D O N. |41
trepid citizens, marched from London, attacked
the enemy in their intrenchments, and compelled
them to fly at all points.
In 994, about one century after the restoration
of London by Alfred, during all which time it
continued to increase in strength and opulence,
the kings of Denmark and Norway, at the head
of a numerous fleet and army, sailed up the
Thames, with the hope of reducing the city to
their power. The reins of the Saxon govern-
ment were at this moment in the hands of the
feeble and dastardly Ethelred II., and the citizens
of London were left unassisted to the defence of
their own walls. So bravely, however, did they
defend them, that the enemy were repeatedly
repulsed with great loss, and finally obliged
to raise the siege. The Danes, though un-
able to make themselves masters of Lon-
don, ceased not to harass every other part
of the country with their incursions; till, weary
of resistance, Ethelred abdicated his throne, and
retired into Normandy, A. D. 1013. London,
thus abandoned, was at length compelled to
open her gates, and with her the whole of Eng-
land submitted to the sceptre of Sweyn, king of
Denmark.
On the accession of Canute, the son of Sweyn,
to the throne, the citizens of London joined in
the general effort made by the Saxons under the
brave Edmund Ironside, the son of Ethelred, to
throw off the Danish yoke. For a time the
enterprise gave promise of a glorious triumph.
Canute was obliged to abandon the capital to
his rival; and, in 1016, Edmund Ironside was
in London crowned king of England. Three
times in the course of that year Canute returned
and laid siege to it, but was as often repulsed
with great loss. The contending princes, finding
at length that their forces were too equally
balanced, to give either a hope of sole dominion,
entered into an agreement for a division of
territory; but scarcely had this compromise been
made, when the assassination of the gallant
Edmund, by his perfidious relation Edric Streon,
depriving the Saxons of a leader, left Canute
sovereign of all England. -
4. London under the Danes and Normans.—
Historians have represented Canute as filled
with resentment against London, for the strenuous
resistance which it made to his pretensions, and
its persevering attachment to the Saxon line.
Of a tax of £82,000 Saxon, which he imposed
on the whole country, the portion for which he
assessed London was nearly one-eighth ; and it
is to this we are referred as a proof of the
weight with which his vengeance fell upon this
devoted city. It seems to us a great deal more
probable, that one-eighth was only the fair pro-
portion which the wealth of London then bore
to that of the rest of the kingdom; for as yet
agriculture had made but small progress in the
inland counties; there were few or no manufac-
tures; the bowels of the earth had scarcely
begun to pour forth their mineral treasures; and
whatever profit could be derived from commerce
with foreign nations was almost wholly absorbed
by the merchants of the Thames. Canute was
too high minded to cherish an ungenerous recol-
lection; too wise, had it been otherwise, to
satiate his revenge by the oppression of a people
whom he wished to attach to his dominion
He proved, in fact, a beneficent conqueror.
He established order and tranquillity throughout
the country; and was, perhaps, the first of our
princes who was at the pains to protect his sub-
jects in their commercial intercourse with foreign
states, by treaties which had this alone for their
object. A letter which William of Malmesbury
has preserved (l. ii. c. 11), written by Canute to
his regent in England, when he was on a pilgrim-
age to Rome, shows a solicitude on this head which
does immortal honor to his memory. “I have
conversed,’ he says, “with the pope, the emperor,
and all the princes whom I found here, respect-
ing the grievances imposed on my subjects,
whether English or Danes, on visiting their
several states; and have insisted that in future
they shall be treated more favorably, and ex-
empted from the tolls and exactions of various
kinds, with which they have been hitherto
harassed. The emperor, king Rodolphus, and
the other sovereigns, have accordingly listened to
my remonstrances, and have assured me that
henceforth no subject of mine, whether merchant
or pilgrim, passing through their territories, shall
meet with any obstruction, or be made liable to
the payment of any impost whatever.’
On the death of Hardicanute, the third and
last prince of the Danish line, the nation called
to the throne a prince of the race of Alfred, in
the person of Edward the Confessor. The
privileges of London, which seem to have
rested hitherto altogether upon usage and tradi-
tion, received from Edward their first statutary
recognition; but what these privileges were does
not distinctly appear. In the Speculum, one of
the oldest records ‘de antiquis legibus, liberta-
tibus, et consuetudinibus civit. Lond,’ there is a
great deal of romance about the privileges of
London being “after the manner of old great
Troy.’ The only certain fact we are able to
collect from it is, that London possessed from
time immemorial a right of conferring liberty on
such slaves or vassals as should reside for a year
and a day within the city unclaimed by their
lords; and that this was among the rights con-
firmed in general terms by Edward. The city
was from this circumstance called the Free
Chamber of the King of England; inasmuch as
a slave so emancipated might ever afterwards
‘as freely and securely tarry there, as if he were
in the house or chamber of the king.' The
value of such a privilege, at a time when the
feudal system held all the rest of the kingdom
in slavery, is beyond all calculation. It pre-
sented to the people at large the first chance of
obtaining liberty through some other means than
the benevolent caprices of their feudatory lords;
it made London, to the rest of England, nearly
what England has since become to all the world
beside—the only spot, to touch which is to be
free. Proud is the distinction which London
thus enjoys, of having been the nursery of
British liberty l A distinction only equalled by
another, to which London has no less a claim, that
of being for ages the chief strong hold of that li-
berty which she nursed and reared. So justly have
the citizens appreciated a blessing, which, for
142 L O N
D O N.
a long time, they almost exclusively enjoyed,
that there are instances upon record of individuals
having been degraded from the rank of citizens,
solely because, forgetting the freedom to which
they had been raised, they had descended.to hold
in villainage lands without the limits of the city.
It was not by force of arms only, but by
treaty and compact, that William the Norman
advanced to the throne of England. The citi-
zens of London, like the men of Kent, agreed to
receive him for their king; but it was with arms
in their hands, and with spirit to use them if they
had been so inclined. That the Normans should
abuse the influence which they acquired, by the
elevation of their chief to the throne of Eng-
land, was an event which might have been
reasonably anticipated; but let us not confound
want of prudence with want of courage.
The conditions on which the citizens of Lon-
don consented to William's assumption of the
crown formed the subject of a written charter,
the first they ever possessed. It is still preserved
among the city archives, and consists of only
four lines, on a bit of parchment six inches long
and one broad. The following is a literal trans-
lation of this interesting document:—‘William
the king greeteth William the bishop and God-
frey the portreve, and all the burgesses within
London, friendly. And I acquaint you, that I
will that ye be all there law–worthy, as ye were
in king Edward's days. And I will that every
child be his father's heir, after his father's days.
And I will not suffer that any man do you
wrong. God preserve you.’
To be law-worthy appears to have meant, that
they should, in all cases of disputed right, or
alleged crime, be entitled to a legal trial; that
they should not, like men who still remained in
a state of vassalage, be liable, in their persons or
possessions, to arbitrary rule. That “every child
should be his father's heir,’ insured the descent
of property to the heirs of those who acquired it;
an important privilege, for there were still num-
bers who held their lands and goods at the will
of the feudal lords, and could never be sure of
leaving any part of the fruits of their industry to
their posterity.
Among the laws or customs of King Edward's
days, referred to in this charter, we see that most
important one of conferring freedom on every
vassal or slave who could accomplish a residence
of a year and day within the city, unclaimed by
his lord. William not only confirmed this pri-
vilege to the city of London, but he extended it
to all other cities and walled towns throughout
the kingdom.
The first circumstantial detail of the rights of
the city of London was contained in a charter of
confirmation, granted by William's son, Henry
I. Some of these have in the course of time
been considerably modified; such as the exemp-
tion of the citizens from going (from being
obliged to go), to war (nullus eorum faciat bel-
lum); their freedom from all tolls, duties, and
customs, throughout the realm; and the pri-
vilege of hunting in Chiltre, Middlesex, and
Surry, now annually compounded for by a day's
frolic at Epping. Others again have been lost
entirely; particularly a right of summary execu-
tion against the goods of debtors without the
walls: but the citizens have still, as is deciared
in this charter, the right of electing their own
sheriffs and magistrates, and of being amenable
only to courts held within the walls—for the
rule, which is to this day observed by the king's
courts of holding sittings in each term at Guild-
hall for the city of London, is but the practical
result of this privilege; and they are still ex-
empted from having soldiers, or any of the
* king's livery,’ quartered upon them. A stout
sheriff of the city, named John de Causton, once
resisted, by force of arms, an attempt to invade
this last privilege within the verge of the tower,
in the time of Edward II. ; and, on being pro-
secuted for this contempt, as it was called, of
the king's authority, was brought in ‘faulty in
nothing.’
It is deserving of remark, that this declaratory
charter makes no mention of the rights of inhe-
ritance and of conferring freedom, recognised by
the charter of William I. ; and the omission can
only be explained by the supposition, that they
had by this time become matters of such noto-
riety and necessity, as not to be reckoned among
those rights which stood in need of confirmation.
The omission was not, however, without its con-
sequences; for it gave occasion in the reign of
Henry VI. to a writ of inspeximus, issued for
the express purpose of ascertaining on what
ground the city of London claimed the privilege
of emancipating servants and natives, “tarrying
there for a year and a day.’ The return which
the lord mayor and aldermen made to this writ
showed, so satisfactorily, that both London and
all other walled cities and towns now possessed
this right, that it was again solemnly recognized
and confirmed by the king. -
In the same charter by which he declared and
confirmed the privileges of the citizens of Lon-
don, Henry conferred on them, for an annual
rent of £300, to be paid to his majesty and his
heirs for ever, the perpetual sheriffalty of Mid-
dlesex. Considering the low prices of provisions,
at this period, it would seem that they paid dear
for the acquisition. For such was the prosperous
state of the country during this reign that corn,
sufficient for a day's consumption of 100 per-
sons, could be purchased for the small sum of
1s.; and a pint of wine was sold at the taverns
for 1d., with bread for nothing ! . The prices of
these articles have since increased at least forty-
fold, so that the £300, paid by the city of London
in the time of Henry I. for the privilege of giving
sheriffs to the county of Middlesex, were equal to
not less than £12,000 at the present day. The privi-
lege was by no means, however, a nominal one,
though extravagantly paid for. The internal
government of so large and increasing a metro-
polis as London could never have been well
administered without it. Already had it suffered
severely from the ease with which offenders could
escape from the jurisdiction of its magistrates
into the adjoining county of Middlesex; and it
was to remedy this grievance, that the citizens
were now content to pay the price of a princi-
pality, to unite the powers of the sheriffalties of
London and Middlesex in two freemen of their
own nomination.
L O N D O N.
143
The reign of Richard I., though not one of
glory or prosperity to England, cannot be said to
have been productive of much positive harm.
He scattered charters among his subjects, in
order to raise the means of pursuing his schemes
of adventure in foreign lands; but they were
charters of liberty. He left his people in a great
measure to shift for themselves; but the evil con-
sequences of interfering little with the pursuits
of an industrious nation, do not appear to have
been enormous. When the chivalrous knight-
errantry of Richard had terminated in an Aus-
trian dungeon, London was both able and gene-
rously forward to contribute largely to his
ransom; and on his return from captivity, such
was the civic magnificence with which he was
received in his ancient capital, that a German
nobleman, who attended Richard to England,
was constrained to observe, that “ had his mas-
ter, the emperor, been aware of the wealth of the
king of England's subjects, he would have de-
manded a far higher sum for his release.’
Richard was not unmindful of the loyal ser-
vices which London rendered on this occasion.
He granted the citizens a confirmation of all their
rights and privileges, such as they existed in ‘the
freest and best' periods of their history, and he
farther conferred upon them the conservatorship
of the Thames, and the power of fixing a stan-
dard of weights and measures for the whole.
5. Foundation of Westminster, and its junction
with London.—For several centuries after the
foundation of London, the space which is now
covered by the sister city of Westminster con-
sisted of a small island, called Thorny, in conse-
quence, says Stowe, of its being ‘a place
overgrown with thorns, and environed with
waters.’ Here, according to monkish chronicles,
there anciently stood a heathen temple of Apollo,
out of the ruins of which Sebert, king of the
East Saxons, after his conversion to Christianity
A.D. 612, erected a church, which he dedicated
to St. Peter, and which forms, the east angle of
what is now called Westminster Abbey. Sir
Christopher Wren, however, could not discover
in the materials of this structure the least trace
of heathen or Roman art. The church of St.
Peter's was certainly one of the earliest architec-
tural monuments of the introduction of Christi-
anity into Britain; but it was, in all probability,
not erected till after the principal remains of the
Roman power had been swept away amidst the
furious struggles, which ended in the subversion
of Britain to the Saxons.
When the Danes began, in their turn, to con-
tend for mastery with the Saxons, the church of
St. Peter's suffered severely from their devasta-
tions; and but for the piety of Edgar the Peace-
able, who repaired it in 958, and, at the same
time, erected it into a monastic establishment, it
might not have survived the downfal of a Saxon
dynasty. From its situation to the westward of
London, it was now called (in monkish Latin)
Westmonasterium, and hence the modern name
of Westminster.
On the temporary restoration of the Saxon
dynasty, in the person of Edward the Confessor,
Westminster was one of the few places to which
that event proved auspicious. By the peniten-
, ºr
tiary labors of this sceptred monk the abbey
was enlarged into that magnificent fabric which,
embellished by Sir Christopher Wren, now
stands the admiration of the world; and near to it
he erected a palace (on the site since called Old
Palace Yard) which, though now no more, made
Westminster the seat of royalty, as well as of
ecclesiastical splendor. The courts of law and
parliament necessarily attached themselves to the
spot where our kings resided; and contributed,
in a very material degree, to raise Westminster
to dignity and importance.
In 1257 Henry III. granted to the abbot and
convent of Westminster the privilege of hold-
ing a market and fair, for the space of forty
days; and in 1352 the town had so much in-
creased, that Westminster was one of the ten
places where, by act of parliament, the staple of
wool was to be perpetually held. -
An order of council was passed in the ensuing
year (1353), which imposed a duty on every
pack of wool, as well as all other goods, “car-
ried either by land or water to the staple of West-
minster;' for the purpose of repairing the
highway leading from the gate of London, called
Temple Bar, to the gate of the Abbey at West-
minster.” It is evident, from this record, that
London and Westminster were then regarded as
distinct towns; but it would be, perhaps, too
much to infer, that “the highway’ between them,
* now the noble street, called the Strand, was
not then built upon, but was a mere country
road, having, however, many noblemen's and
gentlemen's houses and gardens adjoining to it,”
&c.; Hughson, vol. i. p. 78. For we learn,
from the same order of council, that the cause
of the impost was, the ‘highway being, by the
frequent passing of carts and horses, carrying
merchandise and provisions to the said staple,
become so deep and miry, and the pavemegt so
broken and worn, as to be very dangerous both
to men and carriages;' and we farther find, that
it was ordained, that ‘ all owners of houses, ad-
jacent to the highway, should repair as much as
lay before their doors.’ It seems pretty clear,
from these parts of the edict, that even at this
early period the buildings of both cities had ex-
tended considerably beyond their respective
gates, along the line of the highway between
them; although probably they did not reach on
either side as far as Charing Cross, which is .
supposed to have derived its name from a village
.#. Charing, which anciently stood midway
between London and Westminster.
The privilege which Westminster possessed,
of holding a fair for forty days every year, was
fenced with a prohibitory clause, by which,
during all that time, no sales were permitted,
either in London or in any of the places adja-
cent. As trade and population increased, the
evil consequences of this monopoly came to be
very severely felt by the citizens of London.
The corporation, therefore, opened a negociation
with the abbot, for the redemption of this part
of their privilege, and found him so well dis-
posed to prefer a present good to all prospective
advantages, that for the sum of £8000 he aban-
doned the right to a fair altogether. By this
stroke of priestly cupidity, Westminster, which
144
L O N TY O N.
had been rising fast in commercial importance,
was almost entirely cut off from this source of
prosperity, and left to depend in future chiefly
upon those advantages which it derived from
being the residence of the court. The Genius
2f Trade took its leave of her for ever; and
Fashion became henceforth the tutelary deity of
Westminster.
On the general suppression of the monas-
teries by Henry VIII., that of Westminster was
converted into a bishopric; but in 1550 the
bishopric of Westminster merged in that of Nor-
wich. It was this temporary possession of a
mitre which conferred on Westminster the rank
of a city; and, though the mitre is gone, the
popular voice, inclining always to reason in its
decisions, has refused to give an inferior title to a
place, which, though no longer a bishop's see,
is the seat of supreme power both in church and
State.
Since that period, Westminster has spread so
extremely on all sides, and become so interlaced
with London, that the two cities have lost every
external mark of separation, Temple Bar alone
excepted. But see WESTMINSTER for some parti-
culars of its history, into which we cannot now
diverge.
6. The great charter and early wealth of Lon-
don.—On the accession of king John to the
throne, the citizens of London paid 3000 marks
to him for a confirmation of their liberties. “It
shall be delivered to them,' said the royal man-
date, “on these terms, that if they will give those
3000 marks they shall have the charter; but if
not, they shall not have it.’ On the field of
Runnymede, this mercenary tyrant was after-
wards content to give them what they pleased,
on their own terms. The general resistance
which produced that glorious declaration of the
rights of Englishmen, Magna Charta, had its
first rise under the city banner. The castellan
and standard bearer of London, at this period,
was Robert Fitzwalter, a gallant knight of Nor-
man descent, and lord of Baynard's Castle, an
ancient and princely fabric, from which one of
the wards of the city derived its name. This
knight had a daughter, called Matilda the Fair,
whose beauty attracted the admiration of the
king. John came not, however, as an honorable
suitor, and, when his proposals were repelled
with indignation, he threatened to have recourse
to violence. Fitzwalter appealed to his brother
barons, to aid him in protecting his child from
the polluting grasp of the tyrant. With honor-
able alacrity they obeyed the call; and, from the
battlements of Baynard's Castle, the city banner
waved defiance to aggression. John, whom a
continued series of misdeeds had deprived of all
favor with his subjects, was unable to muster a
force sufficient to cope with so formidable an op-
position; and, yielding reluctantly to the neces-
sity of his situation, he affected to have abandoned
all design against the honor of Fitzwalter's fa-
mily, and, by the strongest assurances of respect
for the rights of the barons, prevailed with them
to disperse their forces. No sooner, however,
did he find himself alone in the field, than he
violated every promise he had made. Taking
Fitzwalter by surprise, he compelled him to fly
the country; razed his castle of Baynard to the
ground; and when the unfortunate Matilda,
whom her father, in his sudden flight, had been
forced to leave behind him, still resisted all his
entreaties, he is said to have destroyed by poison
that beauty which he could not enjoy. The day
of retribution at-length arrived. Fitzwalter had
taken refuge in France, and fought on the side of
the French in their battles with the English
under king John. During the truce which took
place, in 1214, an English knight rode into the
space between the two armies, and challenged
any one of the opposite side to a trial of prowess.
Fitzwalter, mounted on a noble charger, instantly
came forth to accept the challenge, and at the
first course struck both the English champion
and his horse to the ground. John, admiring
the gallantry of the stranger, warmly exclaimed,
‘He were a king, indeed, who had such a knight.”
Fitzwalter had been recognised by some old
friends in the English camp, and, on hearing this
observation from John, they kneeled down, and
said, ‘May it please your majesty, he is your
own knight; it is Robert Fitzwalter.' John, re-
penting the injury he had done to the gallant
knight, next day effected a reconciliation with
him, and publicly restored to him all the posses-
sions of which he had been so unjustly deprived.
Fitzwalter, however, returned to England only
to find new cause, in common with his fellow
citizens, to detest the arbitrary rule of John; and
we accordingly behold him again a leader against
the king, in that patriotic struggle which obtain-
ed for England the great charter of its liberty.
By the thirteenth article of this charter it is spe-
cially provided, “That the city of London, and
all other cities, burghs, and towns, and ports of
the kingdom, shall enjoy all their free customs
both by land and water.’
Of the military importance of the citizens of
London, about this period, contemporary writers
give us a very high idea. Although exempted
by their charters from “going to war,’ they ap-
pear to have been naturally of so martial a tem-
perament, and so forward in the assertion of
their rights, even at the point of the sword, that
William of Malmesbury assures us, they ‘showed
at a muster 20,000 armed horsemen, and 40,000
footmen, serviceable for the wars.’ In this num-
ber, however, were doubtless included the fol-
lowers of many noblemen and chiefs, who resided
in the city, or who, from various causes, consi-
dered themselves identified with it; for so large
a quota is wholly incompatible with every account
we have of the ancient population of London.
Speaking of the commercial prosperity to
which London had now reached, the same writer
describes it as “a noble city, renowned for the
opulence of her citizens, and crowded with the
merchants who resort thither with their various
commodities.” Corn was still, as in the time of
the Romans, their chief article of commerce;
“they had their granaries always filled, whence all
parts of the kingdom were supplied.’
The commencement of the reign of John's
successor, Henry II., presents us with a very
striking display of the wealth for which the citi-
zens of London were now, above all other classes
of their fellow subjects, distinguished. When it
L O N D O N.
145
was known, that queen Eleanor was to ride
through the city to be crowned at Westminster,
the chief citizens, to the number of 360, preceded
by a band of trumpeters, went out to welcome
her majesty. They were all clothed in silken
garments, richly embroidered with gold; and
mounted on horses, most splendidly caparisoned.
Every man bore a cup of gold or silver in his
hand; and, having joined in the royal train, these
360 cup-bearers served the wine, as butlers, at
the coronation of her majesty. *
The prodigality and misrule of Henry soon
destroyed that cordiality which, at first, sub-
sisted between him and the city. When, how-
ever, his necessities became so great, that he was
obliged to pawn the crown jewels for an imme-
diate supply, it was to the citizens he was forced
to have recourse. Angry that they should ac-
cept a pledge which it was ignominious in him
to give, he passionately exclaimed, “Were the
treasures of Augustus Caesar exposed to sale,
the city would buy them. These fellows, who
call themselves barons, are wallowing in wealth
and every species of luxury, whilst we labor
under the want of common necessaries.’ -
When the citizens, however, had to deal with
princes, not embarrassed through their personal
follies, but impoverished by honorable enterprises
for their country's benefit or renown, they stayed
not for pledges to administer most liberally to
their wants. They presented the hero of Cressy
with a free gift of 20,000 marks, to pursue his
honorable warfare in France; and their mayor,
the celebrated Whittington, at an entertainment
given at Guildhall to the hero of Agincourt,
threw into a fire of spices, bonds which he held
from that monarch, for money advanced, to the
amount of no less than £60,000 !
It must be allowed, indeed, that although the
citizens of London were occasionally thus libe-
ral, there was, in general, a considerable degree
of reserve between the city and the court, on the
score of money transactions. , Till as late a pe-
riod as the reign of Elizabeth, our sovereigns
were obliged to have recourse to the merchants
of Antwerp for such loans as they required; and
though the citizens of London often became secu-
rity for these loans, because without it they could
not have been obtained, they could never be in-
duced, except as in the case of Henry III., when
the jewels of the crown were to be saved, to become
themselves the lenders. Can any one be in doubt
as to the reason 2 Notwithstanding all the char-
ters, and confirmations of charters, granted by the
sovereigns of England to their subjects, property
was still insecure. A king of England might
still deny to his own subjects that justice which he
would not nor durst not, deny to those of another.
The first considerable loan effected in England,
solely on the personal seeurity of an English
monarch, was negociated by Sir Thomas Gresham,
in behalf of the maiden queen, and this fact we
may regard as a certain indication that her go-
vernment approached nearer to one of order
and law, than England had ever known since
the days of Alfred. Her majesty paid the in-
terest of the loan régularly, until she was in a
situation to discharge the principal; and it has
been ever since found, that it is only necessary
Vol. XIII.
to observe the same simple rule of honesty, to
find at home, and in London itself, whatever aid
the exigencies of the public service require.
The opulence of the citizens of the olden time
was in no instance more laudably displayed,
than in doing honor to such illustrious strangers,
as friendship to the monarch, or the chances of
war, brought to England. In 1363 Henry Pi—
card, who had some years before served the
office of lord mayor, gave a splendid entertain-
ment, at his house in Cheapside, to king Edward
III., king John of France, king David of Scot-
land, and the king of Cyprus; an honor such
as no citizen ever before enjoyed.
Among the citizens themselves there appears
to have been a constant rivalry in sumptuous
and costly living. A dish fit for an alderman, in
those days, while turtle was as yet unknown,
was one of eels, so lusciously dressed, as to cost
about £5, equal to at least £80 of our present
money.—Fitzstephen. At the annual Spittal
feast, the cost to the sheriffs, for wine alone, was,
about the middle of the sixteenth century, £600;
so, that supposing the guests to have drank of
Malmsey only, which, though the most choice
wine of that period, cost no more than 1s. a
gallon, there must have been emptied, on this
occasion, the incredible number of 48,000 bot-
tles! The expense of feasting became at length
so excessive, that in 1554 the corporation found
it necessary to pass a bye-law to restrain it. ‘So
huge and great,’ says this curious document, had
‘the charges of the mayoralty and shrivealty”
become through this means, ‘ that aimost all
good citizens flie and refuse to serve in this ho-
norable city, only because of the great excess and
chargeable fare and diet, used in the time of the
said offices.’ To remedy this grievance, it was
ordained, that no mayor, or sheriff, or alderman,
or commoner, should have at dinner or supper
more courses than one, and not more dishes at
one course than six, whether hot or cold. Some
curious reservations, however, follow, which
show, on the part of the corporation, a prudent
care to soften, as much as possible, the hardship
of this limitation. It is provided, that “one or
two of the same six dishes may come to the
board hot, as a reward, if they will, after the first
three or five are served.” It is farther specially
declared, that neither brawn, nor collops with
eggs, nor Sallads, nor ſpottage, nor butter, nor
cheese, nor eggs, nor herrings, nor sprats, nor
shrimps, nor any shell fish whatever, nor any
kind of unbaked fruit, are to “be accounted for
any of the said number of dishes above-men-
tioned..!’ And moreover, as the guests could not
be supposed, after such penurious fare, to have
any disposition to make merry, it was decreed,
that % from henceforth neither mayors nor sheriffs
shall keep any lord of misrule (merry andrew or
fool), in any of their said houses.’ All these
regulations, it will be observed, had reference
only to the private and family entertainments of
the citizens; for, it is yet farther provided, that
when a foreign ambassador, or any of the privy
council, happens to be of the party, the feast
may be “amended and ordered” at discretion.
In 1573 we find it again a matter of grave
lamentation, that there should be such an excess
146 L O N
D O N.
of good things at the tables of the chief magis-
trates, and of the companies; nay, at the very
taverns and cook-shops, the consumption of
venison, we are told, was shameful, “insomuch
that the court was much offended with it.’ The
common council, therefore, in order ‘that the city
might not continue to give the queen and nobility
offence,’ issued another commandment, by which
they forbade all such extravagant feasting in fu-
ture, except at their ‘necessary meetings,’ and
ordered that, even on these necessary occasions,
(most incredible sacrifice!), there should be no
VeralSOI). . y
We have mentioned Whittington as entertain-
ing the hero of Agincourt. The story of Sir Richard
and his cat is not, after all, so remote from pos-
sibility as might be imagined. Mr. Southey, in
his History of the Brasils, relates, that ‘ the first
couple of cats which were carried to Cuyuba,
sold for a pound (a pound's weight) of gold.
There was a plague of cats in the settlement,
and they (the cats) were purchased as a specu-
lation, which proved an excellent one. Their
first kittens produced thirty oitavas each; the
next generation were worth twenty; and the
price gradually fell as the inhabitants were
stocked with these beautiful and useful crea-
tures.’ In the East, also, according to a Persian
MS. Quoted by Sir William Gore Ouseley, there
is an island, which derived its name from a cir-
cumstance of the same kind; and Mr. Collet,
an intelligent collector of relics, asserts, without
hesitation, that the story of Whittington and his
Cat is borrowed" from this tale of the East.
It is scarcely necessary to remark, that there may
have been a plague of rats, and that cats may
have been worth their weight in gold, more than
once since the world began. Although it is just
possible, therefore, that the story of Whittington,
as it exists in nursery records, may have had
some foundation in fact, there are few who will
not be desirous of a more probable explanation
of his extraordinary rise in life. Foote, in his
comedy of the Nabob, makes Sir Matthew Mite
offer to the Society of Antiquaries a suggestion
on the subject, which is not without ingenuity,
whatever degree of truth it may possess.- The
commerce,’ says Sir Matthew, “which this wor-
thy merchant carried on was chiefly confined to
our coasts; for this purpose he constructed a
vessel, which from its agility and lightness he
aptly christened a cat. Nay, to this day, gentle-
men, all our coals from Newcastle are imported
in nothing but cats; from hence it appears, that
it was not the whiskered, four-footed, mouse-
killing cat, but the coasting, sailing, coal-carry-
- ing, cat—that, gentlemen, was Whittington's
Cat.
While Whittington was yetaboy, the burning of
coal was considered such a public nuisance, that
it was prohibited by an act of parliament, under
pain of death; but it is singular enough, that
by the time he had been ‘thrice lord mayor of
London’ (1419), and although there is no trace
of any repeal, in the interim, of the prohibitory
statute, the importation of coal formed a con-
siderable branch of the commerce of the Thames.
“As early as 1421,” says Mr. Brand in his His-
tory of Newcastle, ‘it appears to be a trade of
great importance, and that a duty of 2d. per
chaldron had been imposed upon it for some
time.’ To account for the trade having made
such progress, while a statute against it remained
unrepealed, and of such rigorous operation, that,
according to a record in the tower, a person was
once actually executed for offending against it
(Sir Everard Home's Dissertations), we must
suppose, that the crown had exercised that dis-
pensing power, which it assumed in the earlier
periods of our history, and had permitted to the
lieges generally the importation of the forbidden
commodity; or, what is more probable, because
more consistent with the court practices of those
days, granted to some favored individual a license
to make his fortune, by infringing the kaw. It
would be making a bold leap to a conclusion to
say, that Sir Richard Whittington was the indi-
vidual on whom this privilege was conferred;
and yet the supposition is countenanced by a
very strong declaration in the foundation charter
of Whittington's College. The members of it
are directed to remember in their prayers “Ri-
chard the Second, and Thomas of Woodstock,
duke of Gloucester, special lords and promoters
of the said Richard Whittington;’ showing dis-
tinctly, that it was to some special privilege or
favor conferred on him by these princes, that he
was indebted for his rise in life. It is farther
extremely worthy of observation, that from the
first opening of the coal trade in England, and
for ages after, it had a reputation for making
fortunes, only exceeded by that of the mines of
Golconda and Peru.
Many circumstances thus combine to heighten
the probability, that Sir Richard Whittington,
who flourished at the same time with the com-
memoement of this trade, was one of those who
made a fortune by it; and that it was, as Sir
Matthew says, “the coasting, sailing, coal-carry-
ing cat,' that was the real instrument of his ag-
g Cat,
grandisement. It had only to become a by-word,
that by a cat and a king he had made his fortune;
and popular invention would soon supply all the
other lineaments of the story. In the print of
Whittington by Elstrucke, he is represented with
a grimalkin by his side, but Granger, our best
historian of portraits, says, that it was substituted
for a skull, which originally occupied its place,
as the common people did not choose to pur-
chase the print without their favorite traditional
emblem.
Sir Richard was a liberal benefactor to the
city, over which he had so often the honor to
preside. At his own expense, he built the chapei
of guildhall, and the library of Christ's Hospital;
made large additions to the guildhall and St.
Bartholemew's Hospital; and left funds to his
executors for entirely rebuilding the prison of
Newgate, which was previously in a most ruinous
and miserable condition. He, besides, annexed
to the church of St. Michael's a college of priests,
called after his name, with an alms-house for
thirteen poor persons; and to use the words of
his executors, in the ordinances of the college,
‘while he lived had ryghte liberal and large
hands to the needy and poor.” The house in
which Whittington resided is still to be seen in
Swithin's-passage, Moor-lane.
L. O. N.
D O N. 147
jº
, the country 'squire.
**
7. Ancient sports and pastumes.-Let us come
now,' as honest Fitzstephen says, “to the sports
and pastimes, seeing it is fit that a city should
not only be commodious and serious, but also
merry and sportful.” In the olden time, the in-
habitants of the metropolis united the duties of
the citizen with the relaxations and recreations of
Fitzstephen notices, that
the citizens delighted in hawks and hounds, and
the “common hunt' still gives a yearly salary to
an officer of the lord-mayor's household, whose
duty, it is to take care of a pack of hounds,
which the corporation is entitled to keep. The
exercise of hunting is now little indulged in by
the citizens, “not, however,’ says Stowe, ‘for want
of taste for the amusement, but for want of leisure
to pursue it.’ The ‘common hunt,’ who used to
purchase his place, which sometimes sold as high
as £1500, had formerly a house in Finsbury-
fields, where the hounds were kept, particularly
‘the deep, full-mouthed hounds,’ and he had a
yearly salary and perquisites.
“In the holidays all the summer,’ says the same
historian, “the youths are exercised in leaping,
dancing, shooting, wrestling, casting the stone,
and practising their shields. The maidens trip
with their timbrels, and dance as long as they
can well see. “In winter, every holiday before
dinner, the bears prepared for brawn are set to
fight, or eise bulls or bears are baited. When
the great fen, or moor, which watereth the walls
of the city on the north side, is frozen, many
young men play upon the ice: some striding as
wide as they may, do slide swiftly; others make
themselves seats of ice, as great as mill-stones.
One sits down, many hand in hand do draw him,
and one slipping on a sudden, all fall together.
Some tie bones to their feet and under their heels,
and, shoving themselves by a little picked staff
do slide swiftly, as a bird flieth in the air, or an
arrow out of a cross-bow.’ •. -
The most gallant of the youthful exercises of
these times was that of running at the quintain.
This game is of Roman origin. On an upright
post, a cross bar was placed horizontally, which
turned upon a swivel. A board was nailed to
one end of this bar, and a bag of sand to the
other. It was the custom to tilt against the board,
on horseback, with a spear, or long staff; and it
required great dexterity to avoid being struck
with the bag of sand as it swung round. At
this city exercise, in 1253, some of the household
of Henry III., being present, chose to deride the
performance of the citizens, who, resenting the
affront, beat ‘his majesty's servants severely.’
For this act of just resentment, the city was fined
1000 marks. The fields were more usually the
scene of this pastime; but it was frequently per-
mitted even in the heart of the eity. “I have
seen, says Stowe, ‘a quintain set up in Cornhill,
near the Leadenhall, where the attendants on
the lord of Merrydisports have run and made
great pastime; for he that hit not the board end
of the quintain, was of all men laughed to scorn.’
The greatest feat which could be accomplished
at this game was to break the board, and escape
the revolving blow of the bag of sand. Who-
ever did so was accounted for the time ‘Prin-
ceps Juventutis, the prince or chief of the
youths. Plot, in his History of Oxfordshire,
says, that this game was still to be met with in
his time at Deddington; and Dr. Kennet, bishop
of Peterborough, mentions, that he had seen it at
the village of Blackthorn, where he thinks it had
been introduced as in London by the Romans,
the Roman way lying through that village. At
the Easter holidays there used to be a sort of
water quintain on the river, where boats supplied
the place of horses. The tilter stood with his
lance in the prow, leaving the boat to be carried
by the force of the stream against a shield sus-
pended from a pole. If he broke his lance and
kept his place in the boat, he was loudly ap-
plauded; but if, as was more frequently the case,
the shock threw him into the water, “there were
upon the bridge, wharfs, and houses, by the river
side, standing great numbers to see and laugh
thereat.” •
Archery became also a favorite game with the
citizens, and was very successfully cultivated.
It appears at one time, however, to have been sup-
planted by sports of a less noble order; for there
is a writextant, from Edward III. to the citizens
of London, in which he thus reprimands them on
the subject:-‘the king, to the citizens of London,
greeting: Because the people of our realm, as
well of good quality as mean, have commonly
in their sports, before these times, exercised the
skill of shooting arrows, whence it is well known
that honor and profit have accrued to our whole
realm; and to us, by the help of God, no small
assistance in our warlike acts; and, now the said
skill being as it were wholly laid aside, the
same people pleasing themselves in hurling of
stones, and wood, and iron, and some hand
ball, football, bandy ball, and in lumbrick and
cock fighting; and some also apply themselves
to other dishonest games, and less profitable or
useful, whereby the said realm is likely in a
short time to become destitute of archers;’ his
majesty therefore commanded, “every one of
the said city, strong in body,’ to cultivate the
art of archery, and to leave off the other games
to which they had betaken themselves, under
pain of imprisonment. In consequence of this
compulsatory order archery became speedily
again the favorite amusement, and continued to
be so, long after It mad ceased to be of import-
ance in a military point of view. In Henry
VIII.'s time, it was as much in vogue as at any
period of our history. The king himself was
fond of it, and used to repair frequently to Mile
End to witness the performances of the citizens.
Many of the most skilful archers received nomi-
mal titles, as the duke of Shoreditch (a title given
by the king to one Barlow), the marquis of
Clerkenwell or Hogsden, earl of Pancras, &c.
In the year 1583 there was a great shooting
match, when a vast body of the citizens marched
in great pomp, singularly dressed, through the
principal streets of London, to Smithfield, the
scene of contest. Their attire is said to have been
very gorgeous; 942 of them wearing chains
of gold. The number of archers that shot
was 3000, and their attendants exceeded that
number.
Wrestling was another favorite amusement,
and the lord mayor and citizens frequently
L 2
148 - L O N D O N.
attended to encourage the youths engaged in this
athletic game at Clerkenwell. In the year 1222, at
a match of wrestling near St. Giles's, the citizens
challenged those in the suburbs and city of
Westminster, and beat them, which so irritated
the bailiff of Westminster, that he determined
on a base and treacherous revenge. He pro-
claimed a game to be held at Westminster on
Lammas day, to which the citizens were invited,
and attended. When they had played some
time, the bailiff, with a large party, suddenly
furnished themselves with arms, and treacher-
ously attacked the citizens, who, being unarmed,
fled to the city, where they sounded the alarm,
by ringing the common bell. The citizens
assembled in great numbers, eager for revenge,
when one Constantine Fitz-Arnult, notwithstand-
ing the remonstrance of the lord mayor, who
promised to obtain redress, urged the multitude
to join him in pulling down the house of the
abbot of Westminster, and several others. A
few days afterwards, the chief justice of England,
Hubert de Burgh, with a great army of men,
repaired to the Tower, and, sending for the lord
mayor and aldermen, demanded the ring-leaders.
Constantine gave himself up, and, with two
others, was executed next morning, although he
offered 15,000 marks for his life.
As the fields around London came, in the
progress of improvement, to be divided and en-
closed, the tilting at the quintain, archery, wrest-
ling, and all other field sports, began to decline;
and, at the period at which we have now arrived,
they have entirely disappeared. In 1514 much
discontent prevailed among the populace, on
account of the abridgments which were con-
stantly taking place in the theatre of their rural
pastimes; and being stirred up by a fellow who
went about disguised in the dress of a merry-
andrew, calling out for spades and shovels, they
resolved to take the work of redress into their
own hands. A great multitude of them assem-
bling, armed with these weapons, they soon le-
velled with the ground all the newly erected
fences and enclosures about Shoreditch, Hoxton,
Islington, &c. Government censured the ma-
gistrates severely for neglect of duty in not pre-
venting this tumultuary proceeding; but that
cannot be considered as a proceeding altogether
without apology, which the government itself,
about a century after, sanctioned by an act of its
own as nearly similar (in intention at least) as
possible. James I., in the eighth of his reign,
granted a commission to several persons of dis-
tinction, for the purpose, he states, of stopping
the practice of enclosing the ground formerly
used for archery, by making of banks and hedges
in such fields and closes, as, time out of mind,
were allowed to be shot in. It empowers the
commissioners to go upon these places, and to
view and survey in such grounds next adjoining
to the city of iondon and the suburbs, within
two miles compass; and the same to reduce in
such order and state for the archers, as they were
in the reign of king Henry VIII., and to cause
the banks, ditches, and quicksets, to be made
plain and reformed. It is scarcely necessary to
state, that this commission was never carried into
efleet; nor would it now be of any avail to en-
quire into the causes which made it inoperative.
That it would have been injurious to the public
interest, and oppressively unjust to individuals,
had it been fully executed, must be sufficiently
obvious; but we may be permitted to regret, that
it should have been so entirely neglected, and
the cultivation of the robust virtues so much dis-
regarded, that a population of about 1,000,000
of souls is now left with scarcely a single open
spot on which they can indulge in athletic and
manly exercises. -
Excluded from the fields, the citizens were
forced to turn to such pastimes as the narrower
limits of their streets, courts, and squares, and
the safety of the passengers, would allow. The
proscribed games of the days of Edward III.,
hand-ball, foot-ball, throwing of bars, cock-
fighting, &c., came again into fashion; and hence
the skittle-grounds, bowling-greens, tennis-courts,
which now form the chief resorts of the London
artizans, in their hours of recreation.
It appears, that, even as late as the time of
Charles II., the citizens were still allowed, without
hindrance, to make the streets the scene of their
most boisterous amusements. Sir William Da-
venant, in a satirical description which he gives
of London at this time, in a letter to a friend,
says, “I would now make a safe retreat, but that,
methinks, I am stopped by one of your heroic
games, called foot-ball, which, I conceive (under
your favor), not very conveniently ciyil in the
streets, especially in such irregular and narrow
roads as Crooked Lane. Yet it argues your
courage, much like your military pastime of
throwing at cocks; but your metal would be
much magnified (since you have long allowed
these two valiant exercises in the streets), to draw
your. archers from Finsbury, and during high
market let them shootat butts in Cheapside.’ The
citizens (under favor to Davenant) had some
reason to complain, that the streets alone were
left them to exercise in ; and it was thought pru-
dent probably, to allow their feelings on the sub-
ject to die away, before the municipal govern-
ment interfered to put a stop to what must
indeed have been a great nuisance.
The most celebrated holiday of early times:
was May-day. A may-pole, or shaft, used to be
erected on that occasion in the middle of the
street, before the church of St. Andrew Under-
shaft, of such height, that it overtopped the
steeple; and hence it was that the parish, which
was originally called St. Andrew only, acquired
the addition of Undershaft. Chaucer, describing
a lofty braggart, says, he bears his head as high
as the great shaft of Cornhill.
The arrival of this day of festivity used to be
anticipated by the people with such eagerness,
that Shakspeare speaks of them as being unable
to go to sleep on May-eve.
however, occurred, and never again did May morn
come to the citizens of London wreathed in its
usual smiles. In consequence of an insurrection
which broke out in London, on May-eve, 1517,
the sports of May-day were long suspended; nor
One evil May-day,
were they, ever after, more than:very partially re-
sumed. -
The game in universal use within doors, for
many centuries, was that most seductive of all
*
, L O N D O N.
I49
games of hazard—dice; nor is it possible, that it.
could have been indulged in to the extent we
find it was, without being attended with all the
most ruinous consequences of gaming. When
Henry Picard had the honor of feasting four
kings at his house in Cheapside, in the year 1363,
we are told, that after these illustrious guests
were gone, he kept his hall for all comers that
were willing to play at dice and hazard; and
that, in like manner, the lady Margaret, his wife,
kept her chamber to the same intent. During
the Christmas holidays of 1377 a party of the
citizens, to the amount of 130, went a mumming,
as it was called (in masks, representing kings,
emperors, &c.) to Kennington, in order to pay
their respects to Richard, the son of the Black
Prince, who was residing there with his mother.
After the mummers were introduced to the young
prince, they put a pair of dice on the table, and
invited him to try his luck with them. The first
stake they proposed was a bowl of gold; the
second a cup of gold; the last a gold ring; and
it was so managed that the prince won every
throw. The prince's mother, his uncle, the duke
of Lancaster, and many other noblemen who
were present, were also successively invited to
take the chance of the die for a gold ring; and
as certainly as they tried they won. It must be
allowed, that there was an air of gallantry in all
this ; but what can be said for the moral senti-
ments of an age when false dice could be made
the passports to princely favor? The vice of
gaming did not confine itself to private society;
for we find that, as early as the beginning of the
sixteenth century, there were public gaming
houses in the city, to which habitual gamblers
resorted in great numbers. They were situated
chiefly about the Exchange, in the parish of
St. Bennet Finke. In 1551 an information was
laid against one of these houses in the Exchequer,
and five of the parties concerned in it fined 40s.
each. James I. seems to have thought that this
mode of amusement was as commendable as any
other, for he granted a privilege to his groom
porter, Clement Cottrel, to license, within the .
limits, of London and Westminster, and two
miles thereof, no fewer than forty taverns, “for
honest and reasonable recreation of good and
civil people, who for their quality and ability
may lawfully use the games of bowling, tennis,
dice, cards, tables, nine-holes, or any other game
hereafter to be invented.’
PART II.
CIVIL AND MODERN HISTORY.
Early civil government.—The civil govern-
ment of the city has varied considerably under
the successive domination of the Romans, Sax-
ons, Danes, and Normans. In the early period
of the Roman sway in Britain, it was entirely
military; but the growing importance of the
city soon raised it to the rank of a colony,
which entitled it to peculiar privileges. The
government then became assimilated to that of
Rome; the chief magistrate was a prefect, ap-
pointed by the parent state, and the inhabitants
were 'considered as Roman citizens. -
Under the dominion of the Saxons, and of our
great lawgiver Alfred, the civil institutions of
the metropolis, like those of all the rest of the
country, appear to have been modelled anew,
and in a manner so wise, that they have retained
the form then given them through all succeeding
ages. It was Alfred who first divided the king-
dom into shires or counties, the counties into
hundreds, and the hundreds into tythings, in or-
der that, by this subdivision of jurisdiction,
peace and order in the community might be the
better preserved ; and, though our histories are
silent as to the extension of this system to the
metropolis of the kingdom, the evidence of anal-
ogy is strong enough to warrant us in concluding,
that it was from Alfred also that London first
derived its sheriff (shire-reve), and its division
into wards and precincts, under the government
of ealdermen or aldermen, and their deputies.
When it is considered, likewise, that every
search which has been made into the antiquity
of these offices has reached back to the Saxon time,
and there stopped, all doubt must vanish as to
the source from which they sprung. The civil
government of London, and that of the
country at large, can have had but one common
parent—the great, the good, the enlightened Al-
fred.
The office of sheriff being purely executive,
and the aldermen all of equal power, it became
necessary, for the completion of the municipal
scheme of polity, that there should be one
supreme governor or magistrate (the eldest
among the aldermen), who might superintend the
conduct of the rest, in their respective jurisdic-
tions, preside over them in their collective deli-
berations, be the organ of the city's will, and,
more peculiarly than any other, the guardian of
its interests. The officer on whom this power
was conferred was styled, by the Saxons, the
port-gerefor port-reve. The duration of his of
fice was limited to one year; but it does not
appear whether he was elected to it by the citi-
zens themselves, or nominated by the king. The
Normans retained the port-reve, but appear on
some occasions to have associated with him an-
other officer, called a provost. Of the manner
in which the duties of the office were divided
between them we have no account. No instance
of the chief magistracy being thus put in com-
mission occurs later than the accession of Henry
In the first year of Richard I., according to
Stow (1189), the city obtained to be governed
by two bailiffs, which bailiffs are, in divers an-
cient deeds, called shrives, i.e. sheriffs; and it
has been from this hastily inferred, by some
writers, that these bailiffs superseded both port-
reve and provost. The statement appears to us,
however, to mean only that the office of sheriff
had been then first split into two : for it is a
vulgar error which prevails that it is because of
the annexation of the sheriffalty of Middlesex, to
that of London, that there are two sheriffs. The
division of the office took place some years an-
terior to that annexation; and the reason for it
was, that London is by charter both a city and a
county within itself. It is certain that, in the
fourth year of Richard's reign, only three years
after this supposed innovation of the two
150
L O N D O N. .
bailiffs, the chief Inagistracy, was vested in one
person as usual; for it was in that year that
Henry Fitz Alwyn, being then governor or
port-reye, assumed the title of mayor, and placed
himself first in that long line of worthies who
have done honor to the name and office. While
Fitz Alwyn lived the mayoralty remained, by a
sort of courtesy, vested in his person, and was
filled in a manner free from reproach; but on
his death, in the twenty-fourth year of his civic
administration, the citizens manifested a very
proper anxiety to have the office placed on a
more constitutional basis. King John was de-
sirous of conciliating their good will at this time,
and they obtained from him, without difficulty,
a charter, by which the crown conceded to them
the liberty of choosing a mayor annually out of
their own body, and continuing him at their own
pleasure from year to year. .
The oppressive conduct of John towards the city
at a later period, put its rights in jeopardy for a
season, but served in the end to bring about
a course of events which placed them on a still
surer foundation. In the great charter it was dé-
clared, among other things, that the ‘city of
London should have all its ancient priuileges,
and free customs, as well by land as by water.’
In the ignominious times of Henry III., and
particularly when that monarch was under
the influence of the justiciary Hubert de Burgh,
the privileges of the citizens of London were re-
peatedly invaded, in the most wanton manner, by
the crown. In consequence of the tumult which
we have before related (Ancient Sports and Pas-
times), for inciting which Constantine Fitz Ar-
nulph and others were executed, the justiciary
thought proper to degrade the mayor and alder-
men from their functions, on the pretence of their
not having exerted themselves sufficiently to pre-
serve the peace. He then transferred the govern-
ment of the city to a custos or keeper of his own
nomination, and selected thirty of the principal
inhabitants, whom he obliged to sign a bond for
the future good conduct of their fellow citizens.
The real character of these measures may bega-
thered from the fact, that in a short time after
the citizens were permitted to purchase back the
rights of which they had been thus violently de-
prived. Stowe says, that the price amounted to
‘many thousand marks.’ The whole of Henry's
conduct towards the citizens of London was, in
faet, one continued system of extortion and op-
pression. After granting them five charters, four
of which were merely confirmatory, and the fifth
of small importance, he exacted from them, by
way of fine for these five grants, a fifteenth of
all their personal estates. At another time he
obliged them to make him a present of 5000
marks, because they had given a like sum to
prince Louis of France, when, along with the
barons, they sided with that prince against king
John. At Christmas he would take up his abode
in the city, and compel the citizens, not only to
present him with valuable new years' gifts, but
to feast the whole court in the most sumptuous
and extravagant manner. Not a single act of
misgovernment, whether proceeding from the
worst or the lightest of motives, was suffered to
pass without being made the pretext for some
new exaction, soma new punishment. Twica
was the government of the city again taken out of
the hands of its own magistrates and transferred to
custodes, nominated by the king; and as often
was it restored to them on the usual condition
of paying handsomely for getting back their own.
When such deprivations had not the effect con-
templated by royal cupidity, the magistrates
were cast into prison, and detained there till
presents of plate and money appeased the anger
of their sovereign. Neither person nor property
was safe from the grasp of the tyrant. Appre-
hensive, at last, that he would strip them of all
they possessed, they collected £10,000 of their
money, and deposited it in the treasury of the
knight's templars at the New Temple, conceiving
that from the sanctity of the place it would there
be safe from spoliation. Prince Edward, the
king's son, however, immediately went and
broke open the treasury, and took away the
whole of the money. The citizens could be
quiescent no longer; and immediately flew to
arms, resolved on asserting their undoubted
right of resistance to a reign of plunder and op-
pression. The barons had *f; unfurled their
banners, and the citizens of London joined them
in great numbers. In the battle of Lewes there
were 15,000 of them present, who suffered most
severely; for, though the king's army was de-
feated, the Londoners reaped none of the laurels.
Prince Edward, having made the city column the
object of his principal attack, put it to the route
and pursued it with relentless slaughter for four
miles; but while thus absent from the field,
Simon de Montfort and his brother barons were
gaining advantages, which ultimately decided
the victory in their favor. The affairs of the
king were, however, retrieved by the triumph at
Evesham in the following year, and vengeance
now fell with a heavy hand on all who had been
concerned in this luckless effort for freedom.
A parliament was assembled at Westminster,
by which it was enacted, “that the city of Lon-
don for its late rebellion should be divested of
its liberties, its posts and chains taken away, and
its principal citizens imprisoned and left to the
mercy of the king.' The citizens endeavoured in
vain to propitiate that “mercy' to which they
were thus consigned, by the most humble Sup-
plications. The act of parliament had been pur-
posely so framed, that the king might again rob
and oppress them to the utmost; and never had
a wicked law a more zealous executor. He
seized on the estates, houses, and personal effects
of many of the chief citizens, and consigned four
of the richest to dungeons till they paid enor-
mous sums for their ransom. Nor did he stay
the work of spoliation, till the citizens came for-
ward with a general contribution of 20,000
marks, which, owing to the exhausted state of
the city, was collected with so much difficulty,
that even servants and lodgers were obliged to
be included in the assessment. The pardon
which it procured from Henry amounted after
all to no more than an exemption from farther
pillage; for the chartered rights of the citizens
Henry still withheld. Four custodes were ap-
pointed to rule the city, according to their own
discretion; and the citizens were left without
L O N
HD O N. 151
the smallest share in the direction of its affairs.
After they had remained three years under this
arbitrary sway, the king so far relented, that, by
a charter, dated in March, 1268, he remitted all
past offences, and confirmed all the ancient pri-
vileges of the city, with this important exception,
that they should continue deprived of the right
of electing their own magistrates. In 1270, how-
ever, prince Edward, being appointed governor
of the city, prevailed with the king to concede
also the excepted privilege, and thus restored the
citizens to the full enjoyment of all their ancient
institutions. - •
On the accession of Edward I. Gregory de
Rokeslie was mayor of Iondon, and a man of so
much talent and consideration, that the king
employed him to execute a foreign mission of
considerable importance, in preference to many
dignitaries in church and state, who solicited the
appointment. In order to provide for the go-
vernment of the city, during the mayor's absence,
the king addresed a writ to the corporation, di-
recting them “to appoint four respectable and
discreet persons, whom he might commission,
during the mayor's absence, to preserve peace
and good order, and to administer justice within
the city's jurisdiction.’
Rokeslie had subsequently fallen into disfavor,
for we find that, in his person, the dignity and
privileges of the mayoralty were afterwards very
grossly violated. In 1286 the mayor, sheriffs,
aldermen, and other eminent citizens, were sum-
moned to make inquisition at the tower, before
John de Kirkeby, treasurer, and other justices of
the king. It was, however, one of the ancient
privileges of the city, that the corporation should
not be bound to make inquisition in the tower,
nor appear, there, pro judicio, unless on a pre-
vious notice of forty days. The mayor, therefore,
previous to obeying the summons, resigned the
common seal of the city to Stephen Aswy, and
other aldermen: and at Barking church, which is
on the eastern verge of the city, laid down the
insignia of his office. He then entered the tower,
not as mayor but as a private individual, and,
when an explanation of this conduct was de-
manded from him, he asserted firmly the rights
of the city.
The treasurer immediately declared the office
of mayor and the liberties of London forfeited to
the king, giving as a reason, the odious fiction,
that, as Rokeslie had divested himself of the seal
and insignia of office, the city had no longer any
chief magistrate. Eighty of the principal citizens
repaired to Westminster Hall, to remonstrate
against this usurpation, but for their temerity
were arrested, and thrown into prison. For four
days were this numerous and respectable depu-
tation thus immured, and then, without apology
or explanation, dismissed to their homes. The
king now appointed Sir Radulph de Sandwich,
knight, custos, in place of the mayor, with orders
at the same time to goverti the city according to
its ancient customs and liberties. Sir Radulph
and Sir John Breton were alternately custodes,
until the year 1298, when the king allowed the
citizens again to choose their own mayor, though
not till they had made him a gift of 20,000 marks.
But many years were not suffered to elapse before
l
It would seem that
the citizens had again to complain of infractions
of their rights; arising in this instance, however,
not from external aggression, but from corruption
among themselves. The mayor and aldermen
began to assume the right of continuing them-
selves in office during pleasure; and when they
resigned it was but for a season, for the sake of
preserving appearances, and to persons of their
own appointment. They imposed taxes too upon
the citizens, and disposed of the money derived
from them, as well as of the whole revenue of the
city, in any manner they pleased. From 1315
to 1322 the discontents and upbraidings, which
these lawless usurpations occasioned, kept the
city in a state of continual ferment. In 1318
articles of agreement were, through the mediation
of the king (Edward II.), entered into between
the citizens and their magistrates, for a redress
of grievances; but, if observed at all, it was only
for a short period. No permanent redress fol-
lowed, and the city still continued a prey to the
tyranny of a self-elected few. Edward, at length,
on the specious pretext of putting an end to this
state of things, took the government of the city
into his own hands. Shortly after, indeed,
he gave permission to the aldermen and com-
monalty to elect their own mayor; but a gift of
f2000, which they immediately presented to him,
told the price at which their rights were redeemed
from this double usurpation.
When the attachment of Edward to his favor-
ites, the Spensers, drove his queen, Isabella, and
the barons, into rebellion, the citizens of London
having evinced a disposition to take part with
the latter, the king again seized upon the govern-
ment of the city, and appointed Walter Staple-
ton, bishop of Exeter, custos. The bishop pro-
ceeded accordingly to demand the keys from the
mayor; but the citizens, assembling in great
numbers around their chief magistrate, not only
obliged him to maintain possession of the sym-
bols of authority, but, laying hold of the unlucky
prelate, proclaimed him a traitor and cut off his
head.
The citizens now declared openly for the
queen; seized and executed a number of persons
whom they supposed to be her enemies; made
themselves masters of the tower; dismissed all
the king's officers; and placed both the city and
tower at the command of those who were en-
gaged in the righteous cause of freeing the coun-
try from the bondage of favoritism. The king,
unable to stem the torrent of popular indigna-
tion, was defeated, taken prisoner, and deposed.
Isabella entered London in triumph, and trans-
ferred to her son, Edward III., that crown which
his father had so unworthily worn.
In return for the services which the citizens
had rendered at this crisis, Edward III., within
two months after his accession, granted them a
most ample confirmation and enlargement of their
corporate privileges. He not only confirmed all
the ancient rights of the city, whether founded
upon charter or custom, and annulled every in-
novation upon them that had been made from
the earliest times, and in whatever manner; but,
in order to prevent any future infraction or sus-
pension of them, on account of any real or pre-
tended misconduct of persons temporarily in-
152 * L O N D O N.
vested with the administration of the city govern-
ment, it was expressly declared, “that for any
personal transgression, or personal judgment of
any minister of the same city, the liberty of
this city should not be taken into the hands of
the king, or his heirs; nor a custos be deputed
on that occasion in the same city.” Edward
continued, throughout his reign, to pay a strict
regard to the privileges which he had thus so-
lemnly confirmed and extended. In the days of
his dotage, a report prevailed, that it had been
proposed in council,to abrogate or suspend them,
on account of the part which the citizens took
against the celebrated Wickliff; but, though
there is evidence of their having opposed the
spread of the reformation, there is none of their
having received the punishment which their bi-
gotry deserved. A synod had been held at St.
Paul's, to pass judgment on Wickliff for the
new opinions which he then maintained in reli-
gious matters. The apostle of reform made his
appearance before the tribunal, accompanied by
the duke of Lancaster and the earl marshal of
England, as his friends and protectors. In the
course of the proceedings, a dispute arose be-
tween the duke and the bishop of London, in
which the citizens espoused the cause of their
spiritual chief so warmly; that the duke and earl
marshal thought it prudent to withdraw with the
accused. A rumor was next day spread abroad
that the duke, out of resentment, had moved in
council, that the city privileges should be taken
away, the office of lord mayor abolished, and
the government of the city entrusted to the earl
marshal. The citizens immediately assembled,
in a most tumultuous manner, broke open the
marshal's prison (the marshalsea), and liberated
the prisoners; then proceeded to the duke of
Lancaster's palace, in the Savoy, which they
plundered, and, missing the prince himself, made
prize of his coat of armour, which they dragged
along the streets in token of their detestation of
the owner. Had no proposition of the kind been
agitated in council, such conduct was of itself
sufficient to provoke the most exemplary punish-
ment. The duke, however, contented himself
with insisting on the degradation merely of the
mayor and certain of the aldermen, who appear-
ed not to have exerted themselves with sufficient
vigor in quelling the riot. . . *
In the time of Richard II. the reign of rapa-
city returned, and the citizens of London were
again doomed to suffer largely in their property
for the preservation of their privileges. In one
of the many pecuniary difficulties in which this
prince was involved, by his prodigal habits, he
made a demand on the city, for the loan of
£1000. The city not only refused the money,
but when a Lombard merchant, of more exube-
rant loyalty, offered to make the advance out of
his own purse, they chastised him severely for
his officiousness. They seem to have been ac-
tuated less by a regard for the money itself, than
an honest desire to check the profusion in which
Richard indulged to a degrée beyond all pre-
ceding example. The moral censorship which
they chose to exercise, cost them, however, dear.
Richard called his nobles together, to whom he
represented, in indignant terms, the presumption
and maliciousness of ‘these Londoners,’ and with
their concurrence suspended the mayor, alder-
men, and sheriffs, from their offices; revoked and
annulled the whole of the rights and privileges
of the city; removed the courts of law to York
and Nottingham; ordered the magistrates to pay
into the royal treasury the sum of 3000 marks,
and the commonalty the more enormous sum of
£100,000 (Rymer's Foedera, Vol. VII. p. 785),
and in the mean time committed the mayor and
other principal citizens to different and distant
prisons, there to remaintill these fines were paid.
Nor were they even then to expect restoration to
favor; for it was decreed, that in future the citi-
zens should have no government of their own;
but that the king should appoint one of his
knights to be ruler of the city.
It was not long before the king showed a dis-
position to commute these severe penalties;
which seem indeed to have been made thus se-
vere for the very purpose of enabling his majesty
the more readily to turn the remission of them to
profitable account. The citizens appreciated the
character of his majesty's proceedings quite cor-
rectly, when, as Stowe informs us, they concluded
that, “the end of these things was a money matter.”
They first tried the cupidity of the king with an
offer of £10,000 for a restoration of their privi-
leges, but this proposal was not thought worthy
of an answer. Soon after, however, they were:
informed that the king had taken compassion on
them, and meant, with his queen, to pay the city
a visit, when they would have an opportunity of
showing, by the reception they gave their majes-
ties, how far they were deserving of the royal favor.
Richard, having set out on this visit of concilia-
tion from his palace at Sheen, was metat Wands-
worth by 400 of the principal inhabitants, mount-
ed on horseback, who tendered the humble sub-
mission of the city, and besought his majesty's
gracious pardon for all its past offences. As he
entered the city his coming was greeted with the
acclamations and blessings of assembled thou-
sands; in all the streets through which he passed
the houses were decorated with cloths of gold,
silver, and silk; the conduits ran with the choicest
wines; and at every step the most costly gifts
were heaped on the monarch and his queen.
Crowns and tables and vessels of gold; horses
proudly caparisoned: cloths of the richest fabrics;
coins, jewels, and precipus stones; are enume-
rated among the offerings made on this occasion
by an injured people, to appease the wrath of
their sovereign. Well might the citizens ima-
gine, that their pardon was now secure; yet, pro-
fuse as they had been, Richard was still unsa-
tisfied. He insisted on having a further gift of
f10,000 in money; and not until this sum was
collected by an assessment on the inhabitants,
and paid into the royal coffers, would he consent
to restore the city to its privileges, and remit the
fines of 3000 marks and £100,000, which he had
originally imposed on the magistrates and com-
monalty. Such is the compassion of tyrants;
such the ‘good old times,’ which ought to make
the citizens of London reckon, as above all price,
the constitutional liberty which they now enjoy.
Every care was taken not to furnish Richard with
any new pretext for interfering with the city; but,
L O N D O N.
153
when he could no longer plunder it under dis-
guise of the royal prerogative, he did not hesitate
to have recourse to open force. In 1397, with-
out any pretext whatever, he extorted from the
city, in its corporate capacity, 10,000 marks, and
in the following year levied still larger sums
from individual citizens. The tyranny of Rich-
ard, however, was now drawing to its termina.
tion. The universal disaffection which it had
"produced encouraged Henry of Bolingbroke to
hoist the standard of rebellion; Richard was in
an instant hurled from his throne; and those
streets which had been so lately paved, as it
were, with diamonds at his approach—where he
had witnessed far more loyalty than he knew
how to appreciate—saw him led captive to the
tower, without one token of that commiseration
which the fall of greatness usually inspires.
Henry IV. gave the citizens no cause to regret
his accession to the throne; while he lived he
respected their institutions, and granted them
Several new privileges highly conducive to the
good government of the city, particularly a more
absolute control than they had yet possessed
over the different gates and posterns. During
the splendid reign of Henry V., and that of his
son Henry VI., while under the beneficent, pro-
tectorate of the great duke of Bedford, the go-
vernment of the city was left, without interfer-
ence, in the hands of its own magistrates, and
never, perhaps, was that government more ably
or prosperously administered.
When the turbulent cardinal Beaufort endea-
voured, in the absence of the protector in France,
to wrest the reins of power from the hands of
the deputy protector, the good duke Humphry
of Gloucester; he commenced with an attempt
to get possession of London by surprise, while
the citizens were engaged in the annual festivity
of welcoming their chief magistrate into office;
but through the vigilant and spirited conduct of
the mayor, Sir John Coventry, the design was
happily frustrated.
After the assumption of the sceptre by Henry
VI., the loyalty of the citizens of London was as-
sailed by many temptations; but they were slow
in participating in the party feuds which the mis-
government of this imbecile prince produced.
The good service which they rendered Henry on
the occasion of Jack Cade's, or rather Richard
duke of York's insurrection, as already related
appears to have arisen, more from a wish to
rid the city of a troublesome guest than from any
affection for the prince himself; nor was it till a
considerable time after war was openly declared,
between the rival houses of York and Lancaster,
that they declared for either. In 1458 it was
Selected as a sort of neutral ground where the
chiefs of the adverse parties might meet to treat
of terms of accommodation; and the manner in
which its magistrates conducted themselves, on
the occasion, did singular honor to their impar-
tiality and firmness. From a distrust of each
other's good faith, the leaders of both parties
came to the conference attended by numerous
retinues of armed men; and, to preserve the
peace of the city from the imminent danger to
which it was exposed by so numerous a conflu-
ence of hostile spirits, the mayor, Sir Godfrey
Boleyn (ancestor to the queens, Ann Boleyn and
Elizabeth), caused a guard of 5000 well armed
citizens to keep watch day and night. So im-
posing a force kept both the Yorkists and Lan-
castrians in awe, while it showed that possession
of the city was a prize to be hoped for, at pre-
sent, by neither. After many communings, ar-
ticles of reconciliation were at length agreed to,
and celebrated with abundant solemnity in St.
Paul's cathedral; but founded in mutual insin–
cerity and deceit, the parties separated only to
appeal anew to the decision of arms.
The citizens now thought it incumbent on
them to depart from that line of neutrality which
they had º observed. The miseries of
civil war were no longer to be averted; and they
felt, as all true patriots must feel in such cases,
that it was their duty to throw their weight
where it might have most influence in bringing
these miseries to a speedy termination. The
side which the Londoners espoused was that, in
fact, which ultimately triumphed. The duke of
York was established on the throne, by the title
of Edward IV., and manifested his gratitude to
the citizens, for the services they had rendered
to his cause, by several important grants, which
added considerably both to the jurisdiction and
to the revenue of the corporation.
The union of the houses of York and Lancas-
ter, though in its general results auspicious to
the nation, was less immediately so to the citizens
of London, than to any other portion of the com-
munity. The reign of the first of the Tudors,
though distinguished by a policy well suited to
the character of the times, was stained by many
acts of grievous oppression towards the citizens
of London. The master passion of Henry's
breast was avarice; and, to fill his coffers, he
had recourse to modes of extortion quite as
odious as those by which Henry III. and
Richard II. fed the streams of their thriftless
prodigality. He did not, like them, traffic in
taking away privileges that he might make
money by restoring them; he showed every
respect for the ancient and undoubted right of
the citizens to elect their own magistrates, but
took the liberty at the same time of asserting his
own right to determine whether their magistrates
did their duty, and to fine them smartly for
whatever, in the omnipotence of his discrimina-
tion, he chose to brand with the name of malver-
sation. The ingenuity of this mode of spoliation
was considerable; since it made the citizens
themselves the purveyors, and, the worse the
magistrate, the more certain he was to enrich the
sovereign. Civic honors became now the greatest
of all individual misfortunes; to be elected into
office was to be marked out as a victim for
royal rapacity. Sir W. Capel, who filled the
mayoralty in 1503, was, five years after, on a
general allegation of remissness in his efficial
duties, fined £2000; and, because he refused to
submit to the iniquitous exaction, was committed
a close prisoner to the tower. Sir Thomas
Kniesworth, who was mayor in 1505, and his
two sheriffs, paid the sum of £1400 to escape a
similar fate. Sir Lawrence Aylmer, who filled
the mayoralty in 1507, and his two sheriffs,
preferred the example of Capel, and followed
154 L O N
T) O. N.
him to prison rather than pay the heavy fines
which were demanded from them. An alderman
of the name of Hawes was also imprisoned for
some pretended misconduct in his official ca-
pacity, which affected him so much that he died
of a broken heart.
The accession of Henry VIII. opened the
prison gates to Capel and the other victims of
his predecessor's tyranny; while Empson and
Dudley, who had been the chief agents in these
schemes of extortion, expiated by their lives the
infamy of their employment. With ‘a generous
magnanimity, not uncommon in the world, the
new king gave up the offenders, and profited by
the offence; sent the collectors to the scaffold,
and kept the money in his treasury.’
During this reign, despotic and sanguinary as
it was, the corporate privileges of the city of
London were more respected than they had been
for many a preceding age. The events of Evil
May-day exhibited as remarkable an example of
misgovernment as is perhaps to be found in the
city annals; but though there was humiliation,
and shame, and reproach, in the treatment which
the magistrates experienced from Henry on the
occasion, it was attended with no resumption,
no infringement of charters. The citizens, too,
went farther than they had ever yet done, in op-
posing the pretensions of the crown to levy taxes
of its own authority; but with the exception of
one stubborn patriot, who was seized and sent to
the wars on account of the lead which he took
in this opposition, they suffered no harm for their
spirited conduct; Henry even withdrew his pre-
tensions, and disavowed the authority by which
they had been put forward. -
In the reign of Mary, the civil government of
the city suffered a temporary suspension during
the formidable rebellion of Sir Thomas Wyatt.
The Londoners were suspected, and not without
reason, of being favorable to the cause of the
rebels. The city was, therefore, placed under
the military command of lord William Howard,
as her majesty’s lieutenant; and it was by his
spirited conduct in defending it, when attacked
by the insurgents, that the rebellion was ulti-
mately defeated.
When Elizabeth succeeded to the throne, she
administered the government of the kingdom, in
all its parts, so arbitrarily, and yet so well, by the
mere force of her personal talents, that the privi-
leges of the city of London, like every other free
institution of the country, were lost to the sight,
amid the glories of her unrivalled reign. The
metropolis was at all times an object of her pe-
culiar care; and, in her own person, she may be
said to have at once united the various functions
of counsellor, alderman, and chief magistrate.
The persons who filled the different civil offices,
during her reign, were in general the mere in-
struments of her will. The power she exercised
was unlimited; but tempered with so steady a
regard to the interests and honor of her people,
as to gain her their unanimous esteem and cqnfi-
dence. The numerous and large demands which
were made on the city, during her reign, for men
and money, were obeyed with an alacrity, which
showed that she had their hearts and purses
equally at her command. It is remarked by his-
torians, as a singular circumstance, that such de-
votion, as the citizens of London displayed to
Elizabeth, should not have been rewarded by
any new privileges, nor even by a confirmation
of those which had been granted to them by her
predecessors. The fact, however, is but in har-
mony with the character of her reign. She ruled
well, not by virtue of wax and parchment. She
made the days forgotten when charters were
worth caring about, by showing how easy it is
for a good and wise monarch to make a people
happy without them; and she left besides, in her
example, what ought to have been of more weight
with her successors than 10,000 charters.
James I., with talents for ruling vastly inferior
to those of Elizabeth, endeavoured to govern the
kingdom on the same absolute principle; but
governing it weakly, and ingloriously—exerting
power more for its own sake than for any good
it could confer—he brought odium on himself,
and disaster on his race, by the experiment.
The citizens of London, however, were among
those who suffered the least from his arbitrary
pretensions; for, sensible of the importance of
cultivating their good opinion, he treated them
at all times with peculiar kindness and respect.
He became a member of several of their compa-
nies; he honored their public feasts with his
presence; he borrowed repeatedly large sums of
money from them, which he repaid punctually,
though in his general habits careless and profuse;
and he extended and confirmed the city's juris-
diction by more than one valuable charter. The
local government of the city, which had been in
a manner superseded during the reign of Eliza-
beth, now resumed its functions; and, in one
remarkable instance, we find it even opposing
itself to the general government of thesovereign.—
After James had published his Book of Sports,
by which a general toleration was given to break
the Lord's day, his majesty happening one Sun-
day to drive through London during divine ser-
vice, in contempt of one of the city's regulations,
the lord mayor (the Right Hon. George Bolles)
had the spirit and firmness to order the king's
carriages to be stopped. “What!' exclaimed
James, swollen with rage, ‘I thought there had
been ne'er a king in England but myself.’ He
immediately despatched a messenger to the lord
mayor, with his royal commands to let the car-
riages pass. “While it was in my power,’ re-
plied the worthy magistrate, “I did my duty;
but, that being taken away by a higher power, it
is my duty to obey.” It is said that James had
the good sense to do justice to the spirit which
dictated this conduct, and thanked the mayor for
knowing the duties of his office so well.
Charles I., acting upon his father's extravagant
notions of the kingly prerogative, while the ad-
vancing intelligence of the age was daily render-
ing them more and more intolerable, the patience
of the people became at length exhausted, and
they had recourse to arms to re-assert their vio-
lated liberties. In this necessary effort, the city
of London, which had suffered more than any
other part of the kingdom from the oppression
of the king, took a leading and important part;
from first to last it was the life and soul of the
independent causé; and, but for its perseverance,
L O N D O N.
155
firmness, and sacrifices, it seems more than
pººl. that the nation would, at this time,
ave sunk at the feet of despotism. From being
so directly under the eye of the star chamber and
high commission courts, it had opportunities of
witnessing too many of those “fantastic tricks,”
which make “even angels weep,” to abandon
easily the attempt to be free.—It had seen its
most venerated institutions set at nought; mar-
tial law substituted for civic rule; trade and in-
dustry made matters of privilege and monopoly;
the property of the citizens plundered by illegal
exactions; the richer sort thrown into prison
when they refused compliance, and the poorer
dragged to serve in the army and navy. It had
seen the king repenting himself of these severities,
when he found them less productive to his trea-
Sury than he expected, and by a formal charter
(18th October, 1638) confirming and restoring to
the citizens “every right, immunity, franchise,
and privilege, which they had ever enjoyed;’ and
yet, immediately after, violating all of them as
wantonly and perfidiously as ever. The sword
of the lord mayor was at last ordered to be taken
from him; and four of the aldermen were com-
mitted to different prisons, because they refused
to be the instruments of exacting from their fellow-
citizens a forced loan of £200,000. Submission
had now reached its limits; and, in turning the
sword of the city against the tyrant who de-
manded its surrender, the citizens did but their
duty. The attempt, it is true, was far from end-
ing in the attainment of that liberty and security
for which the citizens took the field; for, after
years of anarchy, they but exchanged one despo-
tism for another—that of the king for that of the
commonwealth; yet, though defrauded of the
fair harvest which promised to crown their la-
bors, the spirit is not the less to be commended
which made them foremost in the fight when
liberty seemed the prize. The destruction of the
monarchy formed no part of the views which
guided the more rational and respectable portion
of the London citizens—they desired only to see
it restored to a constitutional basis. When par-
liament passed the “act for the eheredation of
the royal line, and the abolition of monarchy in
the kingdom, Sir Abraham Reynardson, the lord
mayor, refused to proclaim it in the city; and,
for doing so, was degraded from his office, fined
£2000, and committed to the tower. -
The last to submit to the usurpation of Crom-
well, the citizens of London were also the first to
co-operate with Monk in his plans for the restora-
tion of the exiled family. They made him the
major-general of their forces, for the purpose of
adding to his weight at this important crisis;
and the lord mayor, Sir Thomas Adams, formed
one of the deputation which went over to Breda,
to invite the return of Charles II. The restored
monarch evinced at first a just sense of the
claims which the city had established to his
kindness and protection. He granted them a
charter, since called the Great Charter of Confir–
mation, in which all the privileges, liberties,
rights, and customs, granted to the city by former
sovereigns, were carefully recited, and now
solemnly confirmed, “in return for the late
tokens of loyalty discovered in the said city
towards his person and government, by their ef.
fectual aid to restore him to the crown.” The
gratitude of Charles, however, was but of brief
duration. Neither the unhappy fall of his father,
nor his own misfortunes, nor all the lights of the
age, had been able to purify his nature from that
love of arbitrary power which formed the heredi-
tary vice of his race. Scarcely had the shouts
which welcomed his return ceased to vibrate in
the ear, when he entered on a similar career of
misgovernment to that which had led his prede-
cessor to the scaffold. Again were the citizens
of London driven, by the course of events, to
stand forward in defence of the rights of the
subject; and, had the nation only supported them
as well on this as they had done on former oc-
casions, our history might have been spared the
“disgrace’ which, in the opinion of an enlightened
statesman, was cast on it by the impunity with
which Charles II. was suffered to pursue his
career of tyranny to its end.—Fox's Life of James
II. When, in 1681, parliament was dissolved
because of its refusal to proceed with the supplies
till the bill for the exclusion of the duke of
York from the throne, on account of his Catholic
tenets, was passed, the citizens of London as-
sembled in common hall, and, after voting
thanks to their representatives for the share they
had in this refusal, they resolved, ‘ by God’s as-
sistance, to stand by them with their lives and
fortunes; being confidently assured, that the
said members for the city will never consent to
the granting any money or supply, till they have
effectually secured them against popery and ar-
bitrary power.” The same sentiments were re-
echoed in the resolutions of other corporate
bodies, in all parts of the country; yet when
Charles, rather than accept of supplies on such
terms, resolved to govern without a parliament
at all, and became a pensionary to France for the
means of supporting his state as an English mo-
narch, no general effort was interposed to save
the country from this declension into absolute
despotism, and the citizens of London were left
to be overwhelmed by the vengeance of the
court, for the single example which it had pre-
sumed to offer of resistance to its will. “The
city of London,’ says Mr. Fox, ‘seemed to hold
out for a certain time like a strong fortress in a
conquered country; and, by means of this citadel,
Shaftesbury and others were saved from the ven-
geance of the court. But this resistance, however
honorable to the corporation who made it, could
not be of long duration. The weapons of law
and justice were found feeble when opposed to
the power of a monarch, who was at the head of
a numerous and bigoted party of the nation,
and who, which was most material of all, had
enabled himself to govern without parliament.’
The court first succeeded in wresting from the
livery of London, partly by corruption and partly
by violence, the election of their mayor and
sheriffs. As soon as it had thus obtained un-
limited control over the administration of jus-
tice—the power of packing juries who would
decide as they were ordered, and of nominating
magistrates who would shrink from the execu-
tion of no iniquity—it began to maltreat and
plunder, under color of law, all who had shown
156
L O N D O N.
themselves most forward in asserting the rights
of the people. A fine of £1000 had hitherto
been thought enormous; but such was the thirst
of revenge which now animated the court party,
that the fines imposed by venal judges, for
what venal juries chose to pronounce offences
against law, were increased to £10,000, £40,000,
and even £100,000 ! Alderman Pilkington, and
two other citizens, Colt and Oates, were fined
f100,000 each, for speaking disrespectfully of
the duke of York; Sir Patience Ward, who was
lord mayor in 1681, was found guilty of perjury
because he had sworn that he did not hear the
words ascribed to Pilkington; nor could the just
and mild principles which characterise the crimi-
nal law of England, protect even the lives of
such men as Sidney, Russel, and Armstrong,
‘when the sacrifice was called for by the policy
and vengeance of the king.” Incredible as it may
seem, something more was still wanted to com-
plete the schemes of tyranny which the court was
now triumphantly pursuing. It had got into its
hands, as we have seen, the appointment of the
mayor and sheriffs; but as the annual election to
these offices, according to the chartered usages of
the city, might, in some evil hour, give an op-
portunity to the disaffected to contest the power
of nomination with success, it was decided to be
necessary that the corporate privileges of the city
should be abrogated entirely, and the government
of it rendered simply and absolutely dependent
on the king.—The citizens were served with a
writ of quo warranto, calling upon them to show
that they had not forfeited, by certain acts of
malversation imputed to them, the various rights
which the charters of a long line of sovereigns
had conferred on them. -
In the pretexts employed to obtain the cloak
of a judicial decision, for this predetermined ex-
tinction of the corporation, a good deal of wicked
ingenuity was displayed. When the crown, said
the king's lawyers, conferred the privileges of a
corporation on the citizens, they were of course
intended to operate for the good of the crown;
if employed for a different purpose, it was but
right that they should revert to it; and that they
had been so, was clear from the resolution which
they had published after the dissolution of the
parliament in 1681, to support, “with their lives
and fortunes,' the members who opposed the
king. The charters of the city, moreover, had
not conferred on it the right of taxing the lieges;
and yet it had, of its own authority, imposed
certain tolls on all goods brought thither for sale.
The corporation had, in short, both scandalised
the king's government and oppressed their fellow-
subjects; and “as the common council was the
body of the city chosen by all the citizens, so
they were all involved in what the common
council did.’ The council for the city had one
invincible answer to make to all these arguments,
namely, that whatever might be the character of
the resistance which the corporation of 1681 had
offered to the king, and however illegal the tolls
which that or other corporations had imposed,
yet they were but personal misdemeanours; and
by the celebrated provision of Edward III. con-
firmed by every succeeding sovereign, it had been
expressly declared, that “the liberties of the city
could not be taken into the king's hands for any
personal trespass or judgment of any minister of
the said city.' . *
Defence, however, was unavailing, where
judgment had previously been signed. In Tri-
nity term, 1683, the court of king's bench de-
clared it to be their opinion, that the malversa-
tions of the common council must be considered
as acts of the whole city; and that the two points
set forth in the pleadings of the crown were just
grounds for the forfeiture of the city's charter.
The attorney-general did not, however, enter up
judgment immediately; in the hope, as it would
seem, that, when the corporation saw their fate
thus dependent on the nod of the king, they
might be induced to come forward with some
offer of compromise, by agreeing to which, the
crown might probably gain more than it could
hope to accomplish by the absolute resumption
of the city's rights. The court party in the city,
with a ready perception of what was expected
from them, immediately called a court of com-
mon council, where they succeeded in procuring
the adoption, by a considerable majority, of a
petition to the king, in which the corporation
fully acknowledged the misgovernment ascribed
to them, solicited pardon, promised constant
loyalty and obedience for the future, and placed
themselves entirely at the disposal of his ma-
jesty. r
The lord mayor, at the head of a numerous
deputation from the council, presented this pe-
tition to the king. When Charles had read it,
he handed it to the lord keeper North, desiring
him to state the conditions on which his majesty
would accede to the prayer of the petitioners.
The conditions were—1. That no lord mayor,
sheriff, recorder, common serjeant, town clerk, or
coroner of the City of London, or steward of the
borough of Southwark should be capable of, or ad-
mitted to, the exercise of their respective offices,
before his majesty had approved them under his
sign manual. 2. That if his majesty should disap-
prove the choice of any person to be lord mayor,
and signified the same under his sign manual,
the citizens should, within one week, proceed to
a new choice, and, if his majesty should also dis-
approve of the second choice, that he might
himself nominate the lord mayor for the year
ensuing. 4. That the lord mayor and court of
aldermen might, with the leave of his majesty,
displace any alderman or other officer of the city.
5. That on the election of an alderman, if the
court of aldermen did not approve of him, the
ward should be obliged to choose again; and, if
the second choice was also disapproved, that the
court might themselves fill up the vacancy. And
6. That all justices of the peace, within the
bounds of the city, should be appointed by the
king's commission; in other words, that no
officer of the city should be ex-officio a justice.
“If these regulations are made, continued the
lord keeper, ‘ his majesty will not only stop this
prosecution, but confirm your charters in all other
respects. The term, my lord mayor, draws to-
wards an end, and Midsummer is at hand, when
some of the officers used to be chosen; whereof
his majesty will reserve the approbation. It is,
therefore, his majesty's pleasure that you return
L O N D O N.
157
to the city, and convene the common council,
that he may speedily know your resolutions
thereupon, and give his directions accordingly.
That you may see the king is in earnest, and the
matter is not capable of delay, I am commanded
to let you know, that his majesty has given
orders to his attorney-general to enter up judg-
ment on Saturday next, unless you prevent it by
your compliance in all these particulars.'
On the return of the deputation to the city, a
court of common council was immediately sum-
moned to consider of the king's propositions. The
debates which it produced were warm and tem-
pestuous. Numbers there still were devotedly
attached to liberty, who declared, that they would
rather sacrifice all that was dear to them, than
consent to such slavish conditions. “If we must,’
said they, “sink under oppression; let us at least
have the consolation left us, that it was by no act
of our own that we lost our birthright; that we
became slaves not through choice, but by force.”
Other sentiments, unhappily, prevailed with a
larger party of the council; and the degradation
of the city was consummated, by the consent of
a majority of eighteen, to all that the king re-
quired. Charles appears, however, to have dis-
dained the triumph he had achieved; for to the
surprise and mortification of the servile crowd,
who had thus proclaimed themselves his willing
slaves, he refused to set his seal to the arrange-
ment, and preferred entering up the judgment
which had been pronounced on the quo warranto.
It has been generally supposed, that he followed
this course from a wish to heap degradation and
insult on the city; but the inference is superficial
and improbable. Charles had no cause to be
displeased with his own friends and partizans—
with the majority who voted for submission to
his terms—and it was on them alone all the igno-
miny of such treatment fell; while, to those who
opposed concession, it must have been a source
of just pride to witness the shame and confusion
of its advocates. The circumstance which in all
probability determined the conduct of Charles,
was the smallness of the majority by which the
acceptance of his propositions was carried; for,
while so numerous a party remained hostile to
the pretensions of the crown, any attempt to
conduct the government of the city, through the
medium of the citizens themselves, must have
been attended with perpetual embarrassment,
and not altogether exempt from the chance of
utter failure. -
The judgment on the quo warranto having
been entered up, the king, by a commission
under the great seal, appointed the creatures of
the crown who then filled the offices of mayor
and sheriffs, to hold the same during pleasure;
and nominated another individual of the same
cast to the recorder, in place of Sir George Treby,
who, as counsel for the city, had advocated its
privileges with honesty and zeal. The fate of
London spread a general alarm among the corpo-
rations throughout the country; and in the vain
hope of escaping the general sweep which they
supposed to be meditated, by a spontaneous
submission to the will of the king, most of them
resigned their charters into his hands, with a re-
quest rather slightly expressed, that his majesty
would be pleased to re-model them in such
manner as he might in his wisdom think meet.
The king accepted the surrenders; but, in all the
new charters which he gave, reserved to the crown
the nomination to every place of power and
profit, and for the few indifferent privileges which
they contained, exacted large sums.
The duke of York, by whose advice the gay
and dissolute Charles chiefly acted in these op-
pressive measures, at length succeeded him in the
throne; and being now enabled to give full scope
to his inclinations, he speedily filled up that
measure of iniquity which led so deservedly to
his own downfall, and to the final expulsion of
his house. One of the earliest victims of the
tyranny of James II. was alderman Cornish,
who, in discharging his official duties, when
Sheriff, in 1680, had particularly exerted himself
in the detection and prosecution of what was
called the Popish plot, the reality of which, his
majesty, with a view to the introduction of
popery, was now using every possible endeavour
to discredit. Cornish was now accused of being
concerned in the Ryehouse plot, for which lord
William Russel suffered, and on suborned testi-
mony, to which no man gave serious credit, was
found, by a packed jury, guilty of high treason.
That the vengeance inflicted on this ill-fated gen-
tleman might inspire the greater terror in the
community, the merciless Jefferies ordered that
he should be hanged, drawn, and quartered, not
at the usual place of execution, but in front of
his own door, at the end of King Street, Cheap-
side. On the 23d of October, 1685, the citizens
beheld with horror and dismay this barbarous
sentence literally carried into execution. James
had no sooner glutted his monstrous revenge,
than conscience appears to have begun her up-
braidings. In the memoirs of his life, which
Dr. Clarke has compiled from James's own
p?pers, we read that “although Cornish had been
a furious stickler in these times, and that no one
doubted his guilt, yet when his majesty heard
that one of the witnesses against him did not so
positively reach to what is criminal in the case,
he was troubled that the least formality in the
law should have been infringed for his security,
and therefore declared he was sorry he had suf-
fered, and (marvellous compassion 1) ordered his
quarters to be taken down, and given to his re-
lations to be decently buried.” Life of James, vol.
1. p. 45. Never, perhaps, were guilt, confusion,
and shame more apparent than in these few lines.
At first, we are told “no one doubted his guilt,’
and next, that his majesty had “heard that one
of the witnesses (as there were but two, the
failure of the one destroyed the whole case), did
not so positively reach to what was criminal in
the case.’ And so for want of this slight ‘for-
mality, the mere want of evidence that he had
done any thing ‘criminal,' any thing meriting
punishment at all, far less a fate so cruelly ag-
gravated as that which befel him, is the conscience
of the tyrant troubled !’ A succeeding age did
more justice to the real character of this transac-
tion, when it pronounced the execution of Al-
derman Cornish to be among the most odious
cruelties of James's reign, restored his estate to
his family (for, with all his compassion, James
158 L O N
D O N.
scrupled not to beggar the children whom his
cruelties had made fatherless); and condemned
the witnesses against him to be lodged in remote
prisons for the remainder of their lives.
When at length the nation rose, as one man,
to expel their oppressor, James became as mean
and pitiful in his concessions, as he had been
proud and arrogant in his usurpations. Among
other steps which he took to avert the impend-
ing ruin, he directed that intimation should be
made to the lord mayor and aldermen of the city
that he had resolved (out of “tender regard’
merely) to restore to them, by a new charter, all
the ancient franchises and privileges on which
they had been deprived by the decision of the
quo warranto. He sent at the same time for Mr.
William Kyffin, a merchant of great weight and
eminence in the city, who still mourned the loss
of two grandsons, who had been executed for
the rebellion in the West, with circumstances of
peculiar cruelty; and in the hope of conciliating
him, by such honors as it was yet in his power
to bestow, told him, that “he had put down his
name as an alderman in the new charter.’ “Sir,’
answered Kyffin, ‘I am a very old man; I have
withdrawn myself from all kind of business for
some years past, and am incapable of doing any
service, in such an affair, to your majesty or the
city.—Besides, sir,’ continued the old man, fix-
ing his eyes stedfastly on the king, while the
tears ran down his cheeks, “the death of my
grandsons gave a wound to my heart which is
still bleeding, and never will close but in the
grave.’—(Hughes's Letters.)—O bitter reproach |
O most just retribution l Not even the name of
this venerated sufferer, however, nor the names
of all the city sufferers from James's tyranny to-
gether, could have sufficed to obtain respect for
a charter thus meanly tendered in the hour of
desperation. The time for reconciliation and
compromise had for ever passed. The citizens of
London—the whole nation—saw safety only in
revolution; James was forced to abdicate the
throne which he had disgraced, without a single
arm being raised in his defence; and the vacant
diadem was transferred to the Prince of Orange
and his consort, on terms by which liberty and
happiness were once more restored to the coun-
try; and the relative rights of sovereign and sub-
ject placed on a surer and more lasting basis
than they had ever yet been. -
One of the first acts of the first parliament of
William the third, was to do justice to the city
of London. The judgment given on the quo
warranto, by this was pronounced to be illegal
and arbitrary; every right, charter, and indem-
nity, anciently conferred on the city, was re-
stored ; and all grants prejudicial to them, which
had been made by the two last sovereigns, were
‘ declared null and void. ‘Glorious,’ indeed, this
revolution deserves to be called by the citizens of
London. Nearly a century and a half have since
elapsed, and during all this period they have as
freely enjoyed as they have spiritedly maintained
their municipal privileges. - -
The citizens were not insensible to the benefits
thus gained, and lost no opportunity of showing
how ready they were to support a government
founded on the principles of liberty. William
having suppressed the rebellion in Ireland, and
consolidated his government at home, resolved,
in 1691, to pay a visit to his Dutch dominions,
leaving his illustrious and amiable consort, queen
Mary, regent. Scarcely had his majesty quitted
the British shores, however, when a report was
raised by the jacobite faction, that the French
were on the point of invading England with a
large force, in order to restore the exiled James.
No circumstance could have been more fortunate
for the house of Orange, since it proved its sta-
bility on the throne; for the threats of invasion
excited no alarm, but much preparation. The
city of London increased its military force, and,
well knowing that money was the sinew of war,
the common council voted an advance of
£200,000 to the queen.
So much had the city suffered from a popish
monarch, that the strongest prejudices existed at
this time against the Roman Catholics, so that in
the years 1697, 1699, and 1700, proclamations
were issued, fixing their residence within certain
limits, and empowering the magistracy to seize all
arms and ammunition found in their possession.
But no attempts were made in London to dis-
turb the public tranquillity, although the violence
of party was often manifested in a strong degree.
An instance of this occurred in 1710, when the
intemperate Dr. Sacheverell attempted to revive
the principles which had been the cause of hurling
the Stuarts from the throne. The Dr. preach-
ed two sermons, in which he censured the act of
toleration, and vindicated the doctrine of non-
resistance to the government to the utmost ex-
tent. The house of commons took up this bu-
siness, and after declaring his sermons to be
“malicious, scandalous, and seditious libels,'
appointed a committee to draw up articles of
impeachment against him. The house of lords,
however, thought the matter had been treated too
seriously, and, although they condemned Sache-
verell by a majority of seventeen voices, he was
merely restrained from preaching for three years.
During these proceedings the Dr., who was of
the high church party, became a great favorite
with a considerable portion of the populace of
London, who considered him as the champion of
the established church, and suffering for its sake.
They conducted him in triumph from Westmin-
ster Hall to his house, and testified their zeal in
his cause, by attacking the dissenting meeting-
houses, particularly the chapel of the eccentric
Daniel Burgess, in New Court, Carey Street.
They tore down the pulpit, the pews, and
benches, and made a fire of them in Lincoln’s-
Inn-fields.
The accession of the house of Brunswick to
the throne was hailed in the metropolis and
through Great Britain as the last act of the great
drama of the revolution; for, although queen
Anne was popular, it was known that in her lat-
ter days she wavered as to her successor, and,
could she have possessed sufficient power to in-
fluence the appointment, it was believed she
would have recalled amember of her own family.
No sooner had George I. arrived than he receiv-
ed the warm congratulations of the city, and in
his answer to their address complimented them
on their importance, and assured them that he

L O N
D O N. 159
would take their privileges and interests under
his particular protection. On the ensuing lord
mayor's day, the king and the royal family dined
in the city; on which occasion he created the
lord mayor, Sir William Humphreys, a baronet,
and gave £1000 to be applied for the relief and
discharge of poor people imprisoned for debt.
The rebellion of 1715 excited some sensation
in the metropolis, but did not in the slightest
degree affect the citizens, who, in an address to
his majesty, declared their unalterable adherence
to the royal person and government. In 1721
the plague raged so furiously at Marseilles, that
strong measures were taken by the legislature to
prevent its being introduced into this country.
One of the clauses in the law enacted, that “every
infected place should be enclosed and shut up
by a line or trench, in order to cut off all commu-
nication, and that all persons endeavouring to
escape from the said infected place, without
having regularly performed quarantine, should
suffer death as felons, without benefit of clergy.’
The corporation of the city, ever watchful of the
privileges of their fellow citizens, presented a
petition against this bill; and, although unsuc-
cessful in the first instance, they procured its re-
peal in the following year. Nor was it to matters
of a local nature that the city limited its interfe-
rence, wisely considering every infringement on
the liberties of any class of individuals, as an at-
tack on the liberties of all.
With this feeling, in the year 1733, the court of
common council resisted the extension of the
excise laws, by Sir Robert Walpole. On the
day fixed 3. the minister to propose the obnoxi-
ous measire, the citizens in great numbers
thronged the avenues leading to the house of
commons, when Sir Robert, with an indiscretion
not usual with him, insinuated that the multitude
who had assembled had been gathered together
unfairly, and applied to them the legal term of
‘sturdy beggars.’ The patriotic Sir John Bar-
nard, at that time one of the members for the
city, resented with becoming spirit this attack of
the minister. ‘The right honorable gentleman,
he said, “talks of sturdy beggars: I do not know
what sort of people, Mr. Speaker, may pow be
at your door, i. I have not been lately out
of the house, but I believe they are the same sort
of people that were there when I entered the
house; and then, sir, I can assure you, that I
saw none but such as deserve the name of sturdy
beggars as little as the right honorable gentleman
himself, or any gentleman whatever? When,
finally, the sheriffs, who were accompanied by
the chief citizens in 200 carriages, present-
ed the petition of the lord mayor, aldermen, and
common-council, against the bill, at the bar of
the house; the minister took the alarm, and, per-
ceiving the unpopularity of the measure, aban-
doned it. f -
In the rebellion of 1745 the city of London
again exhibited its firm attachment to the pro-
testant succession. Addresses were presented by
the corporation, and by the merchants of the
metropolis, who proceeded, in 140 coaches, to
declare their fidelity to the throne. The military
preparations were prompt and vigorous; and
when the duke of Cumberland, after putting
down the rebellion, returned to London, he was
presented with the freedom of the city inagold box.
Ready, however, as the citizens were, at all
times, to support the government, and to sanc-
tion every measure consistent with the honor and
interests of the country, they never ceased to
watch over their own liberties. A proof of their
vigilance in this respect occurred in the year
1749, when the government suspecting that art
attempt would be made to rescue two men, who
had been principals in a riot in the Strand, or—
dered a party of the foot-guards to attend at Hol-
born Bars, and assist the civil authorities in
guarding the prisoners to Tyburn. The sheriff,
Mr. Janssen, knowing that the constitution and
usages of the city precluded the interference of
the military, civilly dismissed the guard, and,
heading his own body of police, sºcured the due
execution of the law without molestation.
The early part of the reign of George III. was
agitated by the well-known proceedings against
Wilkes, who was committed to the tower on a
warrant (afterwards declared to be illegal) from
the secretary of state, for a libel in No. XLV. of the
North Briton. On being liberated, by the deci-
sion of lord chief justice Pratt in his favor, Mr.
Wilkes brought an action against the under
Secretary for illegally seizing his papers, and
obtained £1000 damages. He afterwards re-
printed the obnoxious No. of the North Briton,
when the house of commons expelled him, and a
prosecution was commenced against him in the
court of king's bench, in which the publication
was adjudged a libel, and, on his not appearing
to receive sentence, he was outlawed. The pub-
lic now manifested a strong feeling in favor of
this demagogue; and, when the house of commons
ordered the libellous number of the North Briton
to be burnt by the common hangman, the popu-
lace assailed the sheriff and city officers, who at-
tempted to carry the order into effect at the
Royal Exchange, and broke the glass of sheriff
Harley's carriage. They also snatched the libel
from the flames, and proceeded to Temple Bar,
where they made a bonfire, into which they threw
a large jack boot, in allusion to lord Bute, then
prime minister.
In 1768 Wilkes, who had retired to France,
suddenly made his appearance on the hustings
at Guildhall, at the general election, and offered
himself as a candidate to represent the city ;
failing in this object, he determined to stand for
the county of Middlesex, and was elected by a
large majority; when his partizans, not having
the discretion to enjoy their triumph in quiet,
committed several outrages. Mr. Wilkes had
been committed to the king's bench prison, on
a sentence against him for the libel. On the
10th of May, when the parliament met, an opi-
nion prevailed that he could not be detained, and
a great concourse of people assembled, ready to
convey him in triumph to the house of commons;
but finding there was no prospect of his liberation
they became very clamorous. This alarmed the
Surry magistrates, who called in the aid of the
military and read the riot act. The mob, incens-
ed at what they deemed an unnecessary inter:
ference, assailed the soldiers with stones and
brick-bats; when the latter, who were principally
160 L O N
D O N.,
Scotchmen, became irritated, and one of them,
wantonly discharging his musket, shot Mr.
Allen, the son of a livery stable keeper, at the
door of his father's cow-house. The soldiers
were afterwards ordered to fire, and upwards of
twenty persons were killed and wounded.
The death of Allen, who had not participated
in the riot, excited a great sensation, not only
in the metropolis, but in the country; and the
celebrated Horne Tooke strained every nerve to
bring the offender to justice, but without effect.
The house of congreoms, as we have seen (arti-
cle GREAT BRITAIN) now annulled Wilkes's
election, and the Middlesex freeholders, twice in
the course of six weeks, re-elected him. A third
writ was issued, when colonel Luttrel was in-
duced to offer himself; and although his rival
was again returned, by a majority of 850 votes,
the house of commons declared the colonel the
sitting member. Petitions were presented from
the city of London, as well as from the inhabi-
tants of the county, against these proceedings,
but without effect, until the great question as to
the legality of general warrarts was decided in
the court of common pleas, in November 1769,
by Wilkes obtaining a verdict of £4000 against
the earl of Halifax then secretary of state. In
the month of April following, the former who
had previously been elected alderman of the city
was liberated ; on which occasion the metropolis
was illuminated. His triumph was not yet,
however, complete, and it was not until after a
long struggle that the legality of his seat in the
house of commons was admitted, and the pro-
ceedings against him ordered to be erased from
the journals.
The tumults of this period of the history of
London were not always of a political nature:
the Spitalfields weavers, who felt aggrieved by
the introduction of foreign manufactures and the
low rate of wages, had long exhibited symptoms
of discontent, and on more than one occasion
been guilty of excesses. Towards the close of the
year 1769 these proceedings became more serious,
and a party of the guards was called in to seize
some of the ringleaders, at the Dolphin public-
house. On entering the house, the weavers, who
were armed, attacked the soldiers, one of whom
they killed ; the soldiers returned the fire, killed
two of the rioters, and took four others prisoners.
Two of these were capitally convicted; and go-
vernment deeming, it necessary to display its
rigor, in order to deter future offenders, by an
exemplary punishment, ordered them to be exe-
cuted near Bethnal Green church. The sheriffs,
doubting how far they were authorised to deviate
from the sentence pronounced in the Old Bailey,
Sent several memorials to the minister, and the con-
victs were respited until the opinion of the judges
could be taken on the subject, when, they having
declared, that “the time and place of execution
are in law no part of the judgment, and that the
recorder's warrant was a lawful authority to the
sheriffs as to the time and place of execution,'
the criminals were executed at the place fixed
upon by the government. .
Two other events occurred at this period,
which strongly marked the watchfulness of the
city magistrates in preserving the liberties of the
citizens. During the riots in Spitalfields, the
soldiers had passed through the city unmolested,
until the commanding officer on one occasion
marched his men to the sound of the drum and
fife through all the public streets. The patriotic
Beckford, then lord mayor, immediately wrote
to lord Barrington, the secretary of state, to re-
quest an explanation, which was promptly and
satisfactorily given: , ‘ I am very clear in opi-
nion,’ said his lordship, “that no troops should
march through the city of London, in the man-
ner described by your lordship, without previous
notice given to the lord mayor.’ His lordship
added, that he would take such measures as he
trusted for the future would “prevent any just
offence being given to the city or its chief ma-
gistrate.” In later times, however, the city has
become less scrupulous in this respect, though
the right to exclude the military remains undis-
puted. .
In 1771 the city made a strong effort to oppose
the authority of the house of commons in cases
of breach of privilege. Messrs. Wheble and Mil-
ler, the printers of two newspapers, had been
ordered to the bar of the house, on a charge of
having violated its privileges, by the publication
of reports of parliamentary proceedings. The
Serjeant at arms failing in taking them into cus-
tody, a royal proclamation was issued, offering
a reward for their apprehension. Mr. Wheble
was then taken by a journeyman printer, and
brought before Mr. Wilkes, the sitting alderman
at Guildhall, who, not recognising the authority
of the proclamation, discharged Wheble, having
first bound him over to prosecute the man who
had arrested him. Mr. Miller was arrested at
his own house, by a messenger from the house
of commons; but he gave him in charge to a
constable, and had him carried to the mansion-
house, where the lord mayor, Brass Crosby, esq.,
and the aldermen Wilkes and Oliver were sitting.
The serjeant at arms attended, and in the name
of the house of commons demanded Miller and
the messenger. The lord mayor refused on the
ground that the warrant was illegal, not having
been indorsed by a city, magistrate, and ordered
the messenger to enter into recognisances to an–
swer the assault at the next sessions in Guildhall.
The house of commons, indignant that the city
should thus beard its authority, ordered the lord
mayor and the two aldermen to appear before
them. Wilkes refused to attend, unless he was
summoned as member for Middlesex; but the
commons, not having acknowledged the lega-
lity of his election, would not do this, and, in
order to avoid any farther contest with a man
who had so often foiled them, adjourned over the
day fixed for his appearance. The aldermen
Crosby and Oliver appeared to the order of the
house, and were committed to the tower, where
they remained until the prorogation of parliament.
The citizens, however, so far approved of the
couduct of their magistrates, that a committee was
appointed to procure their liberation by an ap-
peal to the courts of law, but the judges refused to
interfere with the privileges of the house of com-
mons. On their liberation, they were saluted at
the Tower gate by a salute of twenty-one guns, and
were escorted to the Mansion House by the artil-
L O N
D O N. 161
lery company and several of the most eminent
citizens in fifty-three coaches. Silver cups were
voted by the common council and livery to these
public spirited magistrates; and the printer who
had arrested Mr. Wheble was tried at Guildhall
for the assault, when he was sentenced to two
month's imprisonment in the compter, and to pay
a fine of one shilling.
In a subsequent year the city made a formi-
dable opposition to the obnoxious system of
impressment, but the decision of lord Mansfield
was not in their favor, although his lordship vin-
dicated the measure rather on the principle of
necessity than of law.
It is to be regretted, that, while the city magis-
tracy manifested such watchful jealousy of their
liberties, a party of misguided men should be
guilty of such acts, of intolerance and outrage as
disgraced the metropolis in the year 1780. We
refer for the details of them to our article GREAT
BRITAIN. Dr. Johnson, in his Letters to Mrs.
Thrale, when giving what he calls a journal of
“a week's defiance of government,’ unhesitatingly
states that if the mob had attacked the bank “at
the height of the panic,” on Tuesday instead of
the Wednesday night, ‘when no resistance had
been prepared, they might have carried irreco-
verably away whatever they had found.” Wilkes
headed the party who drove the rioters away,
and this was the first effectual resistance they en-
countered.
Certainly the ministers had become so ob-
noxious, that scarcely any measure that origi-
nated with them could give satisfaction. War
is seldom unpopular while it is successful,
but the contest with the colonies in America was
not only considered as impolitic, but the ill suc-
cess, which attended it generated a mass of dis-
content in the metropolis, which manifested itself
on all occasions. Strong remonstrances were
presented to his majesty from the city in 1781,
deprecating all further perseverance in ‘a system
of measures which had proved so disastrous to
the country, and intreating him to dismiss, from
his presence and councils, all those persons who
had deluded him into an “unfortunate and un-
natural war.’ It has been the maxim of the
citizens to speak their sentiments boldly, and to
bear to the throne their grievances, but they have
still always been foremost in loyalty to the sove-
reign, and in support of the government when it
required their aid.
Many opportunities have occurred in which
they have manifested both. When, in the year
1786, the wretched maniac Margaret Nicholson,
attempted to stab our late venerated sovereign,
the citizens of London were the first to express
their congratulations on his majesty's escapc ;
and three years afterwards, when the king had
recovered from the dreadful malady with which
he had been afflicted, the metropolis was one
scene of gaiety and joy; when the first moments
of exultation had subsided, they crowded to the
altar, and joined their majesties in returning
thanks to that Being who has the hearts of kings
in his keeping, and who chasteneth those whom
he loveth.
The early appearances of the French revolu-
tion were hailed with transport in a country
Vol. XIII.
which had long been considered as the natu-
ral and political enemy of France; but as, in
times of political effervescence, some ardent
minds will overstep the bounds of discretion,
it was not to be surprised that a portion, even
of the population of London should sigh for
institutions they had been led to believe more
liberal than their own. Political associations
were formed, which, at a less critical moment,
would have excited no alarm; and individuals
were prosecuted, whose plans might have been
sufficiently watched and defeated by a vigilant
police, yet it is difficult to censure the govern-
ment even for an unnecessary vigor in preserv-
ing the country from the horrors of a revolu-
tion. The prosecution of Tooke, Hardy,
Thelwall, and Bonney, in 1794, on a charge of
high treason, was, perhaps, ill-advised, though
the result proved a triumph to civil liberty; for
it was on this trial that the doctrine of construc-
tive treason, which, in a darker period of our
history had sent many to the block, was over-
turned by the eloquence of an Erskine and a
Gibbs. A less exceptionable mode of counter-
acting the spread of sedition was afterwards .
adopted by the formation of loyal associations.
The dread of an insurrection in this country,
when the scenes, which had been acted in Paris,
might be re-acted in the British metropolis, now
excited alarm, and a meeting was held at Mer-
chant Tailors' Hall, of 3000 of the principal
merchants, bankers, and traders of the capital,
who agreed to a declaration of attachment to the
constitution, which, in a few days, was signed
by upwards of 8000 individuals, the most re-
spectable for rank, character, and property.
But nothing tended so much to heal the poli-
tical dissensions which, at this period, distracted
the country as well as the metropolis, as the war
which commenced between this country and
France. The court of common council now
addressed his majesty, to thank him “for his
paternal care in the preservation of the public
tranquillity,’ and assured him of ‘the readiness
and determination of his faithful citizens to sup-
port the honor of his crown, and the welfare of
his kingdoms, against the ambitious designs of
France.”
A few tumults, but not of a political nature,
occurred about this time, in which some crimp-
ing houses, and decoy houses for recruiting,
were destroyed by the mob: the pop-gun plot,
in which three persons were apprehended for a
conspiracy to assassinate the king, also excited
some alarm, but, after the persons had been con-
fined a few months, they were liberated; not
but that there were individuals capable of com-
mitting the most daring outrages, even on their
sovereign, who, in proceeding to open the par-
liament, in October, 1795, was beset by a mob,
said to amount to 100,000 persons: they assailed
his majesty with seditious cries; several stones
were also thrown at the royal carriage, and one
of the glass pannels was broken by a bullet
either of lead or marble. -
While a misguided populace were thus insult-
ing one of the best of monarchs, the monied in-
terest of London was manifesting the strongest
marks of confidence in his majesty's conduct. The
- M
162
L O N D O N.
exigencies of the times requiring extraordinary
supplies, Mr. Pitt, who calculated largely, but
not erroneously, on the disposition of the city,
proposed raising a voluntary loan of £18,000,000,
and on the 1st of December, 1796, communi-
gated his project to the lord mayor, requesting
him to make it known to the corporation and
public companies. Had the minister offered to
lend the sum, instead of asking to borrow it, he
could not have been answered more promptly.
The bank lent £1,000,000, and in four days the
whole sum was subscribed, so that when the
court of common council voted £100,000, on the
morning of the fifth day, it was only admitted as
a favor. Two years afterwards the merchants,
bankers, and traders of London determined on
aiding government with a voluntary subscription,
which, in the course of a few hours on the day it
was proposed in the Royal Exchange, amounted
to £46,500; the bank added £200,000, and the
court of common council £10,000; and, in the
course of a very short time, the subscription
amounted to nearly £2,000,000.
The vigor with which the war was prosecuted,
the patience with which the people submitted to
every privation, and the joy with which peace
was hailed, are events which belong to the his-
tory of Great Britain, and not to London in par-
ticular. The peace was, however, of short
duration, and the government found the people
ready for new sacrifices.
The domestic history of this period was marked
by a conspiracy to overturn the constitution,
when colonel Despard, and other persons of the
lower class of society, were arrested at a public-
house—the Oakley Arms, Oakley Street. In the
month of February, 1803, ten of them were con-
victed of high-treason, and on the 21st of that
month Despard and six others were executed on
the top of Horsemonger gaol, Southwark; their
heads were cut off and exhibited to the crowd,
but the other part of the sentence on traitors was
remitted. ... *
During the long war that ensued, party poli-
tics were carried to a great length, not only in
the Senate, but also in the city council, and on
Imore than one occasion the citizens were divided
in their sentiments, as to the measures of govern-
ment: a new call for men or money, or a new
opportunity of testifying their loyalty, was how-
ever sure to unite all ranks and parties, and no
loyalty could be less equivocal than that which
was manifested in the metropolis on the 25th of
October, 1809, when his late majesty entered the
fiftieth year of his reign, and which was cele-
brated as a jubilee. The arms of France had
triumphed over every continental power, and
England, left to continue the struggle single-
handed, had swept the ocean of her enemies, and
sighed for new worlds to conquer—or a new
stage on which to renew the combat, when the
Spaniards began to shake off the lethargy which
had placed them beneath the yoke of the Gallic
emperor. England was not backward in her
aid, and the city of London, equally prompt,
opened the subscription for the Spanish army,
which, in the course of a few weeks, amounted
to upwards of £50,000. The contest was obsti-
mate, and the issue long doubtful, when a domes-
tic event created an alarming sensation in the
metropolis. On the evening of the 11th of May,
1812, as Mr. Percival, the chancellor of the ex-
chequer, was entering the lobby of the house of
commons, he was shot by a person of the name
of John Bellingham. In the first moment of
alarm it was feared that this sanguinary act
might only be part of a deep laid and extensive
conspiracy against government, but it was soon
discovered that it was the single act of an assas-
sin, who had become desperate by misfortune,
and imagined that government had not afforded
him the protection to which he was entitled in
his commercial intercourse with Russia. The
wretched man, who made no attempt to escape,
was taken into custody, tried and convicted at
the Old Bailey, on the Friday morning, and on
Monday the 18th he was executed.
From the time that his present majesty was
appointed regent, in January 1811, in conse-
quence of the malady with which his royal sire
was afflicted, the success of the British arms be-
came as signal on land as it hitherto had been at
sea; and often were the tranquil pursuits of the
citizens interrupted by the roar of the park and
tower guns, announcing some new victory ob-
tained by our gallant troops in the Peninsula
under the illustrious Wellington, until even vic-
tory lost its novelty, and the people of England
felt more joy in giving peace to France than they
had done in all their triumphs over her.
The treaty concluded at Paris, on the 30th of
May 1814, gave peace to Europe, after a war of
more than twenty years’ duration; and, on the
8th of the following month, the emperor of Rus-
sia, the king of Prussia, and two of his sons,
with several of the Austrian, Russian, and Prus-
sian generals who had most distinguished them-
selves, visited London, and were treated by the
court and the city with true English hospitality.
The war which had been for some time carried
on between Great Britain and the United States
of America, was terminated by the treaty of
Ghent; but scarcely had the nation felt the bles-
sings of peace, when Napoleon, the emperor of
France, who, on his abdication, had chosen and
been allowed the Isle of Elba for his residence,
returned to France, and, in a march to Paris
which has no parallel in history, overturned the .
government of the Bourbons, and reseated him-
self on the imperial throne, without drawing a
sword, or firing a musket. The clangor of arms
again resounded through Europe. The British
troops, under the command of the duke of Wel-
lington were cantoned in the Netherlands, and the
Prussians soon marched to their support. The
battle of Waterloo followed—the anxiety in Lon-
don for tidings of its results was unbounded; we
need not repeat what they were: the allied
armies again entered Paris; Buonaparte surren-
dered himself to the British nation, and was sent
to the Island of St. Helena, where the imperial
exile died on the 5th of May 1821.
Domestic calamities and domestic dissensions
succeeded the war; the princess Charlotte of
Wales, who had been married to prince Leopold
of Saxe Coburg, in the preceding year, died on
the 6th of November, 1817, in child-bed, to the
great grief of the whole nation! and never per-
L O N
D O N. 163
haps did the metropolis wear an aspect of such
profound and sincere grief as on the day of her
funeral: all business was suspended, and the
churches and chapels were unable to contain the
numbers that crowded to acknowledge their
submission to the will of the divine Being.
Some time previous to this period several
meetings had taken place in Spa-fields, and othér
places, for the avowed purpose of petitioning or
remonstrating with the government. One of
these was held on the 2d of December 1816, and
was followed by riots in the city. Some pawn-
brokers' and gunsmiths' shops were robbed, and
several outrages committed. Four persons were
arrested for high-treason, and tried, but were
acquitted. One of the rioters was, however, con-
victed and executed.
The metropolis was still in an unsettled state,
and in January 1818 it was deemed necessary
to suspend the Habeas Corpus Act, which for
some time restrained the disaffected; until the
Cato Street conspiracy was discovered in 1820,
when nine persons were secured in a small stable:
loft, where they had assembled on the night fixed
upon for assassinating his majesty's ministers,
while assembled at dinner at the house of lord
Harrowby. The ring-leader Thistlewood, who had
been tried for high treason in 1817, at first
escaped, but was taken next day, and, together
with five of his associates, tried and executed at
the Old Bailey, 29th of April. Since this occur-
rence the tranquillity of the metropolis has been
undisturbed by any political events of moment.
REMARKABLE IXISTINCT. Events.
There are some few events in the history of
London so remarkably distinct from the general
occurrences of our narrative, that we have thought
they would prove more acceptable to our readers
as separate addenda.
1. Earthquakes and hurricanes, as natural
calamities, first demand our attention. London
has been but four times visited with any shocks
of the former kind, and they have been remark-
ably slight. The first of them known in history
occurred on Valentine's Eve, in the year 1247,
but the damage done was trifling; as was that of
two others in 1601 and 1692; a severer shock
was experienced in 1580, when Stowe assures
us several churches were shattered, and the bells
struck against the hammers. Two other shocks
were felt on the 8th of February and 8th of
March, 1751, which the fears of the inhabitants
appear to have magnified excessively—for the
only damage that they did was what is done by
a high wind every year, throwing down a few
chimneys and some old houses, which ought to
have been condemned. The earthquake of 1751
afforded one Bell, a life-guards-man, the oppor-
tunity to practise on the credulity of the people,
by prophesying, that “as the second earthquake
had happened exactly four weeks after the first,
so there would be a third precisely four weeks
after the second, which would lay the cities of
łondon and Westminster in ruins.”
was the panic, that, a few days before the threat-
ened destruction, the inhabitants began to quit
the town in great numbers. ‘Many persons,’
say the newspapers of the day, “left their houses
So great
and walked in the fields, or lay in boats all night,
many people of fashion in the neighbouring vil-
lages sat in their coaches till day break; others.
went to a greater distance, so that the roads were
never more thronged, and lodgings were hardly
to be procured at Windsor; so far, and even to
their wit’s end, had their superstitious fears, or
their guilty consciences, driven them.’
But this metropolis has frequently and severely
suffered by hurricanes: on one occasion more
severely than by any other calamity, except by
the great fire. The most remarkable storms have
been those of the years 1440, 1445, 1599, 1703,
1739, 1740, 1788, 1790, 1794, 1797, 1798, and
1801; but, with the exception of that of 1703,
none of these were very destructive. The last men-
tioned hurricane, which is often denominated the
high wind of 1703, began about ten o’clock on the
night of the 16th of November, and raged with
unabated fury until seven o'clock next morning.
Such a scene of devastation was scarcely ever
witnessed as in a few hours had been committed
in London, where 2000 stacks of chimneys were
blown down, and the lead torn from the roofs of
several churches, or rolled up like skins of
parchment. Two turrets, which had been built
a short time before on the church of St. Mary,
Aldermary, the four pinnacles of St. Michael's
in Cornhill, and one of the spires of St. Saviour's,
Southwark, were blown down; the guard room,
at Whitehall, was completely unroofed; the
vanes and spindles of the weather-cocks on nearly
all the churches were broken to pieces; upwards
of thirty houses in Moorfields and other parts of
the town were entirely blown down, and several
hundreds more were dilapidated. Twenty-one
persons were killed, and upwards of 200 severely
wounded by the falling of chimneys and houses.
All the ships in the river Thames, except four,
broke from their moorings, and were cast on
shore, principally between Shadwell and Lime-
house; sixty barges were driven, with great fury,
against London-bridge, many of which were
sunk or staved, and nearly 500 wherries were
w"
entirely lost. The loss sustained in London was,
estimated at £2,000,000 sterling, and such was
the demand for tiles for covering the dilapidated
houses, that the price was advanced from £1
1s, to £66s, per 1000, and bricklayers' labor rose
in an equal proportion. It was in this storm
that the Eddystone light-house was blown down.
2. Remarkable fires.—The first fire in London
we find noticed is by the Iceni under Boadicea,
who laid Colchester, St. Albans, and London,
waste by fire and the sword. In the years 764,
798, and 801, also, London suffered severely
from conflagration, particularly in 798, when the
city was almost burnt down, and many of the
inhabitants perished in the flames. In 982 a fire
accidentally took place, which nearly destroyed
the whole city; but, according to the Saxon
chronicle, ‘the greatest casual fire that till this
time befel the city’ was in 1077, when the
greatest part of it was laid in ashes.’
We find, however, the city rebuilt, and a prey
to a still greater fire in the year 1086, which
Stowe says, “ spread over almost all the princi-
pal cities of England: the church of St. Paul's,
in London, was burnt, with the most part of the
- MI 2
I64 L O N
D O N.
citie, which fire began at the entry of the west
gate, and consumed to the east gate.” Another
fire in 1990 destroyed a considerable part of the
city; which in 1135 again fell a prey to the
flames. This began near London Stone, and
burnt eastward as far as Aldgate, and westward
to St. Paul's. The fire of 1212 belongs rather
to the account of London Bridge. See our Part
III. of this article. In 1232 and 1483 London
was visited with fires; in the latter, which began
at Leadenhall, Stowe says, “much housing was
burnt, and all the stocks for guns, and other like
provision, belonging to the city.’
The great fire of London, as it has been most
appropriately called, broke out at one o'clock
on Sunday morning Sept. 2d, 1666, at the house
of one Farryner, a baker, in Pudding Lane, Fish
Street Hill. Whether it originated in accident or
design is a point on which historians by no means
agree, while all concurin representing it as at once
more destructive in its progress, and ultimately
productive of more beneficial effects, than any
conflagration recorded in history. It is even the
opinion of more than one respectable writer,
that the fire was almost necessary to promote the
complete extinction of the plague, which had
the year before dealt desolation with such an un-
sparing hand in the metropolis, that the very air
had become tainted with the putrefaction of the
dead; we are far from thinking this to have been
the case, but it is not too much to infer, that, had
it not been for some such calamity as the great
fire, London might long have suffered by that
dreadful scourge of humanity, which its crowded
streets, by confining the circulation of the air,
and the want of cleanliness on account of the
scanty supply of water, seemed so well calcu-
lated to promote. It is true’ that a city was
destroyed, and property to an unparalleled
amount was lost; but the result was, a new city,
improved in wealth, grandeur, and all the con-
veniences of life, which otherwise would not
have been obtained for ages: and, however fatal
the calamity must have been to the age in which
it happened, it has been productive of the most
lasting benefits to posterity. The part of the
town where it began is now very confined, but
it was much more so at that time, when theneigh-
bourhood consisted of nothing but narrow lanes
and passages, and the houses were principally of
wood, or lath and plaster. The fire soon spread
to the adjacent houses, and defied the power of
buckets, for the engines could not be brought to
bear upon it with any degree of success, on
account of the narrowness of the streets. It was
then suggested to the lord mayor, Sir Thomas
Bludworth, who arrived on the spot at three
o'clock in the morning, that it would be advisa-
ble to pull down several houses, in order to inter-
cept the progress of the flames; but he refused to
allow of so prudent a measure, and is said to
have expressed his opinion of the insignificance
of the fire in flippant and indelicate terms. By
eight o'clock in the morning it had reached Lon-
don Bridge, ‘ and there dividing, left enough to
burn down all that had been erected on it since
the fire in 1633, and, with the main body pressed
forward into Thames Street, which was charged
with combustible materials that augmented it
very considerably, raging with great fury the
whole day, and striking the inhabitants with such
terror, that, says Lord Clarendon, “all men stood
amazed as spectators only, no man knowing what
remedy to apply, nor the magistrates what orders
to give.'
The amiable Evelyn, who has left a most
nervous and unaffected narrative of this great
calamity, says, “the conflagration was so uni-
versal, and the people so astonished, that from
the beginning, I know not by what despondency
or fate, they hardly stirred to quench it, so that
there was nothing heard or seen but crying out
and lamentations, running about like distracted
creatures, without at all attempting to save even
their goods, such a strange consternation there
was upon them.’ At first the fire took an
easterly direction, and proceeded so rapidly, that
considerable fears were entertained it would
reach the tower, to prevent which several houses
were pulled down: but on the night of Monday
it became directed to other quarters. The wind
changed, and blew with ‘so great and irresistible
violence, that it scattered the fire from pursuing
the line that it was in with all its force, and
spread it over the city, so that they who went
late to bed, at a great distance from any place.
where the fire prevailed, were awakened before
morning with their own houses being in a flame.”
On Monday, Gracechurch Street, and part of
both Lombard Street and Fenchurch Street, were
in flames; the fire then was burning in the form
of a bow.
When the first panic was over, and the fire
spread so rapidly that no person could calculate
on the safety of his house, great exertions were
made to remove the property into the adjacent
fields, which, for many miles round, were strewed
with all sorts of moveables. Five, ten, and even
fifty pounds were given for a cart, to remove
some valuable property about to be consumed—
the boats and barges on the river were all laden;
and ‘scarcely a back, either of man or woman,
that had strength, but had a burden on it in the
street.’
The night of Monday was more dreadful than
the preceding one; the fire shone with such a
fearful blaze, that the streets were as light as from
the sun at noon-day. After spreading, in one
line westward, along the banks of the Thames,
as far as Queenhithe, and in a parallel direction
along Cornhill to the Royal Exchange, and
northward to Dowgate and Watling Street, it di-
vided itself into four branches, which united in
one great flame at the eastern end of Cheapside:
on Tuesday the whole of that street was in
flames, and the fire was seen “leaping from
house to house, and street to street, at great dis-
tance one from the other.’ The impetuous
flames now advanced with lawless power to the
cathedral of St. Paul's; “the stones of which,'
says Evelyn, “flew like granados, mealting lead
running downe the streetes in a streame, and the
very pavements glowing with a fiery rednesse.
so as no horse nor man was able to tread on
them, and the demolition had stopped all the
passages, so that no help could be applied.’ The
neighbouring streets shared the same fate, and
the writer just quoted draws a vivid feature of
L O N Do N.
165
the appalling scene: “Oh the miserable and
calamitous spectacle!' he exclaims, ‘such as
haply the world had not seene the like since the
foundation of it, nor be outdone till the universal
conflagration. All the skie was of a fiery aspect,
like the top of a burning oven, the light seene
above forty miles round about for many nights.
God grant my eyes may never behold the like,
now seeing above 10,000 houses all in one flame;
the noise and cracking and thunder of the
impetuous flames, the shrieking of women and
children, the hurry of people, the fall of towers,
houses, and churches, was like an hideous storme,
and the aire all about so hot and inflamed, that
at last one was not able to approach it, so that
they were forced to stand still and let the flames
burn on, which they did for neere two miles in
length and one in breadth. The clouds of smoke
were dismall and reached, upon computation,
neere fifty miles in length. Thus I left it this
afternoone burning, a resemblance of Sodom, or
the last day. London was, but is no more.’
On Tuesday night, the devouring element
continued its destructive havoc, sweeping away
Ludgate Hill, the Old Bailey, the whole of Fleet
Street, and the Inner Temple, and threatening
even the Court at Whitehall, which now began
to be alarmed, and gave directions to blow up
several houses with gunpowder—a plan which,
if adopted at the commencement of the fire,
when it was suggested by some seamen, might
have saved half the city; but this ‘some tenaci-
ous and avaricious men, aldermen, &c., would
not permit, because their houses must have been
of the first.’
On Wednesday morning, when the inhabitants
of Westminster and the suburbs were preparing
to flee from the flaming sword which seemed to
pursue them, the wind was hushed, the fire was
stayed, and a remnant of London was saved.
The first effectual check that the fire encountered
was the brick buildings of the Temple, which
were only partially consumed, and although the
fire broke out again here on the Thursday evening,
the duke of York, who watched there the whole
of that night, caused the houses in front of it to
be blown up, by which means the flames were
extinguished. -
To aggravate the ruin and distress in which
the citizens were involved, by the loss of their
houses and their property, the most alarming
reports were spread. It was rumored that
persons had been taken with fire balls and
matches, in the act of attempting to set fire on
the city in other places. This so enraged the
multitude, that they killed a poor woman who
had something concealed in her apron, which
they conceived to be fire balls, and wounded
several other persons, particularly French and
Dutch, against whom they felt very indignant.
A more alarming rumor was circulated on the
Wednesday night; when the inhabitants were
lying in tents in the neighbouring fields, it was
reported, that “the French were coming armed
against them to cut their throats, and spoil them
of what they had saved out of the fire.’ Des-
pair roused the citizens, and, fired with indigna-
tion, they prepared to defend themselves; but
morning dispelled their uneasiness, and brought
with it the joyous prospect that the fire was sub-
dued, and that no new calamity threatened them.
Nothing could exceed the zeal and activity of
the king and the duke of York during the whole
of the dreadful scene: they traversed the city
night and day, encouraging the laborers, where
they thought there was the slightest chance of
arresting the progress of the flames, and person-
ally directing every measure for that purpose;
to this energy, and to a corresponding vigilance
on the part of the magistracy and the train bands,
must be attributed the circumstance, that so few
lives were lost, and so few outrages committed.
The extent of the ravages covered a space of
436 acres; as the boundaries are fixed in the
official account of the fire, which appeared in
the London Gazette of the 10th of September. It
is here stated, that a stop was put to it at ‘the
Temple Church, near Holborn Bridge, Pye Cor-
ner, Smithfield; Aldersgate, Cripplegate, near
the lower end of Coleman Street, at the end of
Basinghall Street, by the postern at the upper
end of Bishopsgate Street, and Leadenhall Street,
at the standard in. Cornhill, at the church in Fen-
church Street, near Clothworkers' Hall in Min-
cing Lane, at the middle of Mark Lane, and at
the Tower Dock.’
In the British Museum there are forty-one
folio volumes, of the Decisions of the Commis-
sioners on the claims of the persons who had
suffered by the fire, but they do not furnish any
account of the aggregate loss, nor could it, in-
deed, be very accurately ascertained. The in-
scription on the monument, founded on the
reports of the surveyors, states that of the six
and twenty wards it utterly destroyed fifteen,
and left eight others shattered and half burnt;
that it consumed 400 streets, 13,200 dwelling
houses, eighty-nine churches, beside chapels,
four of the city gates, the Guildhall, with several
public buildings, hospitals, schools, libraries,
and a vast number of stately edifices. In a
tract, printed in the Harleian Miscellany, there
is an estimate of the value of the property de-
stroyed, in which the number of houses is cal-
culated at 12,000; they are valued, one with
another, at £25 per annum, which, at twelve
years' purchase, make the whole amount to
f:3,600,000. The cathedral, the churches, and
other public buildings, are valued at £1,800,000;
the personal property and goods at a similar
sum; £20,000 in wharfs; and £150,000 in
boats and barges, cart loads of furniture, &c.;
making in the whole £7,370,000: but it is sup-
posed, that this calculation is much too low, and
that the property destroyed could not be less
than £10,000,000 sterling.
Great as the calamity was, and convinced as
the citizens were that it had been the work of
incendiaries, yet they bore it with patience and
resignation, and thought only of repairing their
loss and restoring the city, which they did so
successfully, that Burnet says: ‘to the amaze-
ment of all Europe, London was, in four years
time, re-built with so much beauty and magnifi-
cence, that we, who saw it in both states, before
and after the fire, cannot reflect on it, without
wondering where the wealth could be found to
bear so vast a loss as was made by the fire, and
166 L O N
D O N.
go prodigious an expense as was laid out in re-
Duilding the city.’ It is very remarkable that,
during the whole time of the fire, and amidst
all the alarm and confusion it occasioned, not
more than six persons perished, and those prin-
cipally by venturing incautiously over the ruins;
nor do the bills of mortality appear to have been
increased by the houseless, condition to which so
many thousands of persons were reduced, when
compelled to live in huts erected in Smithfield,
Finsbury, and Moorfields, and other places in
the vicinity of the metropolis.
* Although so indiscriminate and so dreadful
an act of vengeance, as that of destroying a
whole city, can scarcely be supposed to be har-
boured by any human being, yet there is strong
reason to believe,’ say the brothers Percy, “that
the city was set on fire by incendiaries, and that
in more places than one. The Roman Catholics
have always stoutly denied it, and compare the
accusation to that of Nero against the Christians,
whom he charged with setting fire to Rome;
and Pope, knowing that an invective or an as-
sertion is better recollected and lives longer in
verse than prose, has, in two lines on the monu-
ment, declared, that the accusation against the
Roman Catholics is false. If, however, the cir-
cumstances were to be decided according to the
rules of circumstantial evidence, we believe it
would be fully established, that the fire was not
accidental. Lord Clarendon, who certainly
cannot be suspected of any illiberal prejudices,
and would rather attribute the fire to chance
than design, says, “the breaking out of the fire
in several places, at so great distance from each
other, made it evident, that it was by conspiracy
and combination;’ that ‘it could not be con-
ceived how a house, that was distant a mile from
any part of the fire, could suddenly be in a flame
without some particular malice; and this case
fell out every hour.” The noble author next
alludes to Herbert, who was executed for the
crime; and although his examination was some-
what contradictory, yet his confession was suffi-
ciently explicit; for, when he was taken by the
committee to identify the place, he pointed out the
site of the house where the fire commenced as
that which he and his accomplices had set on
fire. Even lord Clarendon, who maintains Her-
bert's innocence, furnishes very strong proof of
his guilt, in his account of his confession : he
says, “the house, and all which were near it,
were so covered and buried in the ruins, that the
owners themselves, without some infallible mark,
could very hardly have said where their own
houses had stood; but this man led them directly
to the place, described how it stood, the shape
of the little yard, the fashion of the door and
windows, and where he first put the fire; and
all this with such exactness, that they who dwelt
long near it, could not so perfectly have described
all particulars.”
Farryner, the baker, in whose house the fire
originated, confidently asserts that it was set on
fire; but whether Herbert was really guilty or
not, or was, as his advocates contend, insane,
there is evidenee which is more than presump-
tive, that the city was wilfully burnt; it is not
the deposition of prejudiced persons after the
fire happened, but evidence that the design ex-
isted many months before it was carried into
effect. In the London Gazette, No. 48, for
April 30th, 1666, there is an account of the con-
viction at the Old Bailey sessions, of John
Rathbone, “an old army colonel,' and several
others, for 'conspiring the death of his majesty,
and the overthrow of the government; and it
states that “the better to effect this hellish design,
the city was to have been fired, and the portcullis
to have been let down to keep out all assistance;
the horse-guards to have been surprised in the
inns where they were quartered, several ostlers
having been gained for that purpose. The
Tower was accordingly viewed, and its surprise
ordered by boats over the mote, and from thence
to scale the wall. One Alexander, who is not yet
taken, had likewise distributed sums of money
to these conspirators; and, for the carrying on
of the design more effectually, they were told of
a council of the great ones that sate frequently
in London, from whom issued all orders; which
council received their directions from another in
Holland, who sate with the States; and that the
3rd of September was pitched on for the at-
tempt, as being found, by Lillie's almanack and
a scheme erected for that purpose, to be a lucky
day, a planet then ruling, which prognosticated
the downfal of monarchy.’ The account con-
cludes with stating, that “the evidence against
these persons was very full and clear, and they
accordingly were found guilty of high trea-
son.’
At first the following inscription was placed
on the house built on the site of Farryner's;
but the number of persons it attracted to the
spot caused it afterwards to be removed. “Here,
by the permission of heaven, hell broke loose
upon this Protestant city, from the malicious
hearts of barbarous Papists, by the hand of
their agent Herbert; who confessed, and on the
ruins of this place declared the fact for which he
was hanged, viz. that here began the dreadful
fire which is described and perpetuated on and
by the neighbouring pillar, erected anno 1681, in
the mayoralty of Sir Patience Ward, Knight.”
There have, since the above period, been
some serious conflagrations in London, parti-
cularly the fire in Thames Street on the 15th of
January 1715, when upwards of 120 houses, and
an immense quantity of merchandise, were de-
stroyed. This calamity was aggravated by the
death of more than fifty persons, who perished
in the flames, and by other accidents. &
On the 25th of March, 1748, a most destruc-
tive fire broke out at a peruke-maker's shop
in 'Change Alley, Cornhill, which continued
for twelve hours, and totally destroyed nearly
100 houses, twenty of which were in Corn-
hill. Mr. Eldridge, his wife, children, and ser-
vants, all perished in the flames, and several
other persons were killed by various accidents. .
The loss occasioned by this fire, was estimated
at £200,000. , *
On the 7th of November, 1765, a fire broke
out in the house of a peruke-maker, in Bishops-
gate Street, which destroyed, or greatly injured,
100 houses. All the houses from Cornhill to
the church of St. Mary Outwich, in Bishopsgate
L O N ID O N.
167
Street, were burnt down: as was the White Lion
Tavern, which had been purchased only on the
preceding evening for £3000; several persons
were killed by the fire, and by the falling of chim-
neys; and the next day a gentleman, thinking
that some persons were buried among the ruins,
got the firemen to work with their pick-axes,
When, on removing the rubbish, they drew out
two men, three women, and a child about six
years old, all alive. - *
During the riots of 1780, the King's Bench,
Fleet, and Bridewell prisons were set on fire, as
well as several houses in various parts of the
metropolis. In 1793, on the 2d of December,
an extensive range of warehouses, near Hermi-
tage Bridge, Wapping, was destroyed by fire,
together with several adjoining houses. Three
vessels lying in the dock were also burnt. The
goods destroyed consisted principally of sugar,
rum, and hemp. Of the sugar, 1400 casks were
melted into one mass by the intense heat, and
flowed through the streets in a brilliant stream
of liquid fire.
But the greatest conflagration known in Lon-
don since 1666 was the fire in Ratcliff, which
broke out at Cock Hill, on the 23d of July
1794. It was caused by the boiling over of a
pitch kettle at a boat-builder's, from whose
warehouses it communicated to a barge laden
with saltpetre and other stores, and thence
extended to several other vessels. The ware-
houses of the East India Company were also
consumed, and nothing could arrest the progress
of the destructive element, until, having reached
an open space of ground towards Stepney, the
flames ceased for want of materials. It was cal-
culated that, out of 1200 houses, of which the
hamlet consisted, not more than 570 were left
standing. A calamity so sudden and so fatal
called for the immediate and the liberal aid of
both the government and the public, and it was
freely given: 150 tents were forwarded from the
tower, and pitched in a vacant piece of ground
near Stepney Church. Provisions were supplied,
in the first instance, by the parish to the poor
sufferers. A subscription was opened at Lloyd's
Coffee-house for their relief, and several gentle-
men, who attended near the ruins to solicit the
assistance of the benevolent, were so successful,
that on the Sunday immediately after the fire up-
wards of £800 was thus collected, of which £426
was in copper, including £38 14s. in farthings;
exhibiting a singular instance how universal the
feelings of sympathy and benevolence must have
been. The whole sum subscribed in various
ways for the relief of the sufferers was more than
f16,000.
Several other fires, which have done considera-
ble damage to various parts of the metropolis,
have occurred, but those above noticed are the
principal ones. The more substantial and less
inflammable nature of materials used in building,
the width of the streets, the regulation of the
building act as to party-walls, and the more
ready supply of water, are all guarantees that
London will never again be visited with those
calamities, which have laid it in ashes, in the
course of a few hours. The fires in London have
more frequently originated in accident than de-
profession.
sign: and so convinced was the legislature of
this, that in the act of 1708 it was enacted, “ that
every servant, by whose negligence or careless-
mess a fire should be occasioned, should forfeit
£100, or, in default, be imprisoned and kept to
hard labor during eighteen months.”
3. Wat Tyler's insurrection has already been
recorded in our article ENGLAND. After finding
himself at the head of 100,000 men, this incen.
diary aimed at the subversion of the government,
and marched to London, breathing vengeance
against the nobility and the members of the legal
The public gaols, which were
opened, added to the rebel army, now so nu-
merous, some men of a determined character,
and with talents well calculated for keeping alive
the flame of rebellion, which had been so suc-
cessfully kindled. Among those gaol recruits
was the famous John Ball, the priest, who now
became chaplain-general to the army. Wat
Tyler had for associates several other daring
men, who, making a merit of their humble oc-
cupations, assumed the fictitious names of Jack
Straw, Hob Carter, and Tom Miller.
In their route to London they committed
many excesses, putting to death several peers
and gentlemen, and every lawyer that had the
misfortune to fall into their hands. In their hos–
tility to the duke of Lancaster, they bound
themselves by an oath, never to acknowledge
for king any man whose name was John. When
the rebels arrived at Blackheath, the princess of
Wales, the king's mother, who was returning
from a pilgrimage to Canterbury, passed through
the midst of their encampment. The rebels
permitted her to proceed on her journey, though
some of the most insolent of them obliged her to
kiss them, and maltreated her retinue.
The rebels now sent a deputation to the king, .
who had taken refuge in the Tower, and desired
to have an interview with him. For this pur-
pose Richard sailed down the river in his barge;
but, on approaching the shore, and witnessing
many instances of tumult and confusion, he did
not think proper to land, but returned to the
Tower. The king then sent to know the object
of their assembling, and what it was they asked.
Wat Tyler was reviewing his army when the
king's messenger arrived, and, confident in the
numbers of the men he saw marshalled before
him, he sent back an insolent message, stating,
that their business was of such importance as
only to be communicated to the king, whom they
desired to meet them. This request having been
refused, agreably to the determination of the
king's council, the rebels marched towards Lon-
don, and were soon masters of Southwark, which
they plundered. London bridge-might have
offered some obstruction to their progress; but
the mob, on the city side, opened the gates in
spite of the magistrates, and Wat Tyler and his
army entered the city, where they committed the
most wanton excesses. The duke of Lancaster's
palace in the Savoy, the archbishop of Canter-
bury's palace, the Temple, the hospital of St.
John's Clerkenwell, and the houses of the judges
and principal citizens (but more particularly
those of the Flemings) were razed to the ground.
Against the Flemings their rage was unbounded :
168
I, O N D O N.
they dragged them from the churches where they
had taken Sanctuary, and massacred them in the
open streets. Plunder, the usual attendant of
public tumult, was certainly repressed, as much
as possible, by the leaders of the insurrection,
who even threw into the fire, amongst a heap of
burning wealth, one of their followers, whoſen-
deavoured to secure a piece of plate.
The rebels now approached the Tower, where
the king, with his mother, the archbishop of
Canterbury, the lord treasurer, and several of
the nobility had taken refuge, when Richard sent
word, that he would give them a meeting on
Mile-End Green, and thither a large body of
them, chiefly of the Essex party, accordingly re-
paired. As he was about to leave the Tower,
however, a chosen band of Wat Tyler's followers
rushed into the fortress, cut off the heads of the
archbishop, the lord treasurer, Sir Robert Hales,
and the chancellor, and pillaged the royal apart-
ments. Wat Tyler remained near the Tower at
the head of 30,000 men. Consternation now
seized on the government, and, after some dis-
cussion, it was deemed advisable to offer the re-
bels a charter; not, however, confirming the pri-
vileges of the people, or redressing theirgrievances,
but abolishing villainage, and offering a general
pardon for all crimes committed during the in-
surrection. This charter, which was dated the
15th of June, was in the following terms :—
“Richard, &c. Know, ye, that of our special
grace, we have manumitted or set free all and
singular our liege subjects, and others of the
county of Essex; and them and every of them
from all bondage do release and acquit, by these
presents. And also we pardon to our said liege
men and subjects, all manner of felonies, trea-
sons, transgressions, and extortions by them, or
any of them, in any manner whatsoever done or
committed.’
Armed with this charter, the young king pro-
ceeded to Mile-End, where his offers were ac-
cepted by the Essex men, who immediately
dispersed to their homes. The success which
had here crowned the efforts of Richard, induced
him to attempt a negociation with the principal
rebel leader. For this purpose he repaired to
Smithfield, with a few attendants, and sent Sir
John Newton to desire Wat Tyler to meet him.
Wat Tyler would only, however, attend at the
head of his troops. When entering Smithfield,
he was met by the same knight, with another
message from the king, but the bearer, delivering
it without dismounting from his horse, so offend-
ed the dignity of Wat Tyler, that he raised his
sword to strike him down. The king, however, in-
terposed, and cried out to Sir John to dismount.
In the conference that ensued, Tyler demanded
much more than had been yielded to his fellow
insurgents. Besides a general enfranchisement
of bond-men, he required that all warrens, parks,
and chases should be made free and common to
all, so that the poor, as well as the rich, should
have liberty to fish, fowl, and hunt in all places
throughout the kingdom. It is, however, worthy
of remark, that none of the rebels asked for the
slightest modification of the poll tax, the griev-
ance in which the insurrection had originated.
The insolence of Wat Tyler, who is said, du-
ring the conference, to have frequently raised his
sword, did not provoke the resentment of the
king; but it soroused the indignation of the
lord mayor, William Walworth, that, with a
sword or dagger, he struck the rebel dead at his
feet, and thus terminated the rebellion. See
ENGLAND. Richard immediately knighted on
the field the lord mayor, Walworth, and several
of the aldermen, for their important services at
this difficult crisis.
Thus terminated one of the most extraordinary
and most formidable insurrections that London
ever witnessed. Like most other popular com-
motions, it presented instances of private revenge,
more striking than those of public feeling, and
that too, in two of the most prominent characters
who figured in it, Wat Tyler and Sir William
Walworth. The former had been in the service
of Richard Lions, an eminent wine merchant,
and sheriff of London, who had inflicted per-
sonal chastisement upon him. When the rebel
chief reached London, he caused his old master
to be beheaded, and his head carried before him
on the point of a spear, though it is, perhaps,
too much to charge this act on Wat Tyler's re-
Sentment, since to be rich was a sufficient crime
to insure the punishment. As for Sir William
Walworth, whose name is perpetuated in a po-
pulous suburb, his loyalty is, perhaps, as ques-
tionable as Wat Tyler's patriotism. He was a
principal sufferer by the insurrection, which had
levelled to the ground a number of tenements
which this citizen possessed on the bank side,
and which were let out for the very worst of
purposes. It is not too much, therefore, to sus-
pect, that private feeling may have prompted his
activity to put down the rebellion, and punish
its leader. wr
4. Jack Cade's Rebellion.—Shakspeare, who
“exhausted worlds and then imagined new,’ has
rendered the insurrection of Jack Cade, in 1450,
better known in the second part of his play of
Henry VI. than it would have been had it been
recorded only in history. With that license,
which to poets is never denied, he has turned into
ridicule an event, which occasioned no ordinary
degree of alarm at the time, and has, by the ex-
travagancies which he makes its leaders commit,
thrown a discredit on popular insurrections,
from which it is difficult to divest them. Not
content with demolishing public buildings, and
the houses of the wealthy, our bard makes Jack
anxious to burn all the records of the realm, that
his mouth may be “the parliament of England.
Denying that
—— ignorance is the curse of God,
Knowledge the wing wherewith we fly to heaven,”
Cade is represented as having a particular
enmity to learning. He makes it one of his most
serious charges against lord Say and Sele, that
he had ‘most traiterously corrupted the youth of
the realm in erecting a grammar school,' and
adds this more sweeping accusation: ‘whereas
before, our forefathers had no other books but
the score and the tally; thou hast caused print-
ing to be used, and, contrary to the king, his
crown, and dignity, thou hast built a paper mill.
It will be proved to thy face, that thou hast men
L O N D O N.
169
about thee, that usually talk of anoun and a verb,
and such abominable words as no Christian ear
can endure.”
Whatever designs Jack Cade might have had
after striking his sword on London stone, and
exclaiming ‘now is Mortimer lord of this city,'
he was, in the first instance, only the tool of
others. The struggles of the rival houses of York
and Lancaster, though not terminated, had a
momentary cessation, when Richard, duke of
York (whose son succeeded to the throne, under
the title of Edward IV.) aspired to the crown.
He was at this time in Ireland; and although
the disasters of the government, in the loss of
Normandy, had increased the number of his ad-
herents, yet he did not choose himself to hazard
an attempt to seize the crown. He enlisted Jack
Cade, a daring Irishman, in his service, who,
well supplied with money, and assuming the
name of John Mortimer, of the house of March,
executed in the early part of the reign, proceed-
ed to Kent, where the duke had many friends.
Here, in May, 1450, he hoisted the standard of
insurrection, which was soon so numerously at-
tended, that Jack Cade was strong enough to
insult the city, and encamp as near it as Black-
heath. -
The king, determining to put down the insur-
rection by force of arms, assembled a body of
15,000 men, with which he marched against
them. On his approach Jack retired, and lay
in ambush in a wood near Sevenoaks. The king,
imagining the rebels were dispersed, sent a de-
tachment after them, under the command of Sir
Humphrey Stafford. This detachment (see
ENGLAND) falling into the ambush was cut to
pieces, and the commander, as well as his bro-
ther, killed.
Cade now marched towards London, while the
king and his court hastily fled to Kenilworth,
leaving a garrison in the Tower, under the com-
mand of lord Scales. The city of London open-
ed her gates to the rebels, and Cade entered in
triumph at the head of his troops; but he prohi-
bited, under the severest penalties, any injury
being done to the inhabitants. . He did not,
however, take up his residence in the city, but in
the borough of Southwark. On the second day
he seized on the lord treasurer, lord Say, and
had him beheaded. The Londoners seemed on
very good terms with his followers, until some
of the soldiers committed a riot in the city; the
next morning, when Cade was about to enter the
city as usual, he found the gate on London
Bridge shut against him: a severe battle now
ensued, which lasted all day. In the night a
proclamation was issued by the government, of
fering a free pardon to all who laid down their
arms. This being actively circulated through
Southwark, next morning Jack Cade was desert-
ed by his followers, and fled into Sussex, where
he was killed by Alexander Iden or Eden as we
have already stated. Many of his followers were
executed.
5. The Bastard Falconbridge's attack.-The
bastard of Falconbridge, eldest son, as Shakspeare
says, -
To Robert Falconbridge,
A soldier by the honor-giving hand
Of Coeur-de-Lion, knighted in the field,
having collected, in Essex and Kent, a consider-
able force of ships and men, sailed up the Thames
to London, resolving, as at Angiers, to beat
‘The flinty ribs of this contemptuous city,
# * ~ * * * * *
Even till unfenced desolation
Should leave them naked as the air.”
Falconbridge, however, found the “saucy walls
of London too much even for his ‘heavy hand.
The citizens flew to arms in great numbers, and
defended themselves gallantly. The bastard
made his first attack by the river side of the city,
which, in consequence of the ruin into which the
walls in that direction had been suffered to fall,
presented the least chance of resistance; but he
found so many stout hearts arrayed in defence of
every breach, that all his attempts to effect ar.
entrance on this side were unavailing. After
firing some houses on London Bridge, he re-
turned down the river, and, at some distance be
low the Tower, landed his forces, amounting to
about 5000 men, with the view of attacking the
city, by land from the eastward. On Sunday, the
11th of May, the assault was made at Aldgate;
the bulwarks were won; and the assailants were
pushing boldly forward, when the portcullis was
let down, and such as had entered the city were
cut to pieces. Robert Basset, the alderman of
Aldgate Ward, who commanded at this point,
animated with a spirit as valiant as that of the
bastard himself, was not, however, content with
repulsing the enemy; for we are told, that he
‘commanded, in the name of God, the portcullis
to be drawn up ; which being done they issued
out, and with fierce fight drove their enemies
back as far as St. Botolph's Church. The lieu-
tenant of the Tower, observing the success of this
spirited sally, issued forth with the earl of Rivers,
at the head of a fresh company, and joining the
brave alderman Basset, assisted him to put the
enemy completely to the route. The pursuit
was continued as far as Stratford; many of the
enemy were slain, and many taken prisoners.
The bastard only escaped, with the wreck of his
forces, on board of his ships.
6. The plague years.—In former ages scarcely
ten years elapsed in London without the visita-
tion of this tremendous scourge. The narrow
Streets in which the current of air was either ob-
structed by architectural projections, or by the
signs across them, together with the want of
cleanliness, owing to the inefficient supply of
water, and the want of regulations to prevent the
accumulation of filth in the streets, did much to
increase if not even to generate that disease,
which under this name occupies so prominent a
place in the severe calamities of the British me-
tropolis.
In the middle ages the church yards are said to
have groaned with the bones of the dead, piled up,
and exposed to the air which they corrupted—the
streets were filled with garbage and filth which
no exercise of authority could compel the inha-
bitants to remove—the sewers, which generally
ran above ground, were in a neglected state,
while the sluttishness within doors corresponded
with the filthiness of the streets without. As
early as the fourteenth century we find the plague
attributed to want of cleanliness; for when, in
170 L O N
D O N.
the year 1361, it was dreaded that the plague
which made its appearance in France, woul
cross the channel, the king sent a letter to the
mayor and sheriffs of London, commanding that
cattle should not be killed nearer than Stratford-
le-Bow or Kensington. Even as late as the me-
morable years 1625 and 1665, the plague was
attributed to this want of cleanliness; and the
tracts of the time are full of complaints on the
subject. “Let not carcasses of horses, dogs,
cats, and other animals,’ says the author of a
pamphlet, entitled Certain Rules, Directions, and
Advertisements on the Plague, printed in London
in 1625, ‘ lye rotting and poisoning the air, as
they have done in More and Finsbury Fields, and
elsewhere, round about the citie.’ Another
author of the same period distinctly attributes
the plague to all sorts of unsavory stenches,
proceeding either from carrion, ditches, and
rotten dunghills, vaults, sinks, nasty kennels, and
streets strewed with all manner of filth, seldom
cleansed; these foetid smells are the maintaining
cause of the contagion. .
Although there is strong reason to believe, that
for some centuries, the city was not wholly free
from the plague; yet there have been particular
years when it has broken out with singular fury,
and which on this account have been denomi-
nated plague years. Independently of those
which have been general to the country, we find
London has suffered more immediately on several
occasions. The year 1348 is distinguished by a
dreadful pestilence, which is said to have origi-
nated in India, and thence spread over all the
globe. Historians relate, that it fell with somuch
force on London, as scarcely to leave a tenth
person of all sorts alive. The ordinary cemete-
ries were insufficient, and burial grounds were
opened in several places beyond the walls of the
city, where the dead were heaped in indiscrimi-
nate confusion: 50,000 persons perished in
London alone. . The years 1361 and 1369 were
also plague years, but less fatal to London than
that of 1407; when 30,000 were swept from the
metropolis. The plague of 1479, though of short
duration, only from September to November, was
very destructive, but nothing equal to that of
1499–1500, when another 30,000 of the citizens
of London were hurried to a premature death.
The king and court, taking the alarm, removed
from place to place, and lastly to Calais, then
belonging to England, in order to avoid the in-
fection. In a former year, 1485, if we are to be-
lieve Hall, a sweating sickness killed two mayors
and six aldermen in one week. The pestilences
of 1513, 1525, and 1548, were also severe.
During that in 1525, Michaelmas term was ad-
journed, and the king removed to Eltham, where
he kept his Christmas with so unusually small a
court, that it was called the still Christmas.
In the plague of 1563-1564, 20,000 persons
died in London, and the lawyers suspended one
term, and removed the sittings of another to
Hereford Castle; while, in that of 1574, the city
banquet at Guildhall on the installation of the
new lord mayor, was dispensed with by order of
the queen. The plague of 1582 carried off
nearly 7000 persons, and that of 1592 more than
$1,000.
Almost every succeeding plague exceeded its
predecessor in severity; that which followed in
1603, on the succession of James VI. of Scot-
land to the throne, was particularly fatal. The
citizens had welcomed the king to London in
great triumph, and conducted him to the Char-
ter House, where he had a most royal entertain-
ment for four days, given to him by lord Thomas
Howard. Great preparations were also made in
the city for the coronation, but these were inter-
rupted by the plague, which was by this time
considerably increased. The coronation indeed
took place, but it was stripped of the pomp and
circumstance of a city pageant. Their majesties
rode not through the city in royal manner as had
been accustomed, nor were the citizens permitted
to behold the ceremonial at Westminster, being
forbidden by proclamation to repair thither, with
the exception of the lord mayor, and such of the
citizens as, by virtue of the ancient claim, as-
sisted the chief butler at the coronation.
The courts of law were removed; Michaelmas
term was held at Winchester, and the courts of
exchequer at Richmond. Bartholomew fair and,
all fairs within fifty miles of the metropolis were
suspended; and James issued several proclama-
tions for preventing any further increase of build-
1ngs.
The great plagues have not been wanting in
historians. That of 1603 has found an eccentric,
but by no means inelegant chronicler, in a black
letter tract, entitled The Wonderful Yeare 1603,
wherein is showed the picture of London, lying
sicke of the plague. At the end of all (like a
merry epilogue to a dull play), certaine tales are cut
out in sundry fashions, of purpose to shorten the
lives of the long winter nights, that lye watching
in the darke for us. The author gives a most
vivid description of this horrible pestilence. He
compared the citie to a vast silent charnel house,
with lamps dimly and slowly burning, where
the pavement, instead of green rushes, is strewed
with blasted rosemary, withered hyacinths, fatal
cypress, and yew thickly mingled with heaps of
dead mens' bodies; the bare ribs of a father that
begot him lying there; here the chaplesse hollow
Sculle of a mother that bore him, round about
him 1000 corses; and even such he says was the
city:
* For he that durst, in the dead hour of gloomy
midnight, have been so valiant as to have walkt
through the still and melancholy streets, what
thinke you should have been his musicke. Surely
the loud groanes of raving sicke men: the strug-
ling panges of soules departing. In every house
griefe striking up an alarum; servants crying
out for masters, wives for husbands, parents for
children, children for their mothers; here he
should have met some frantickly running to
knock up sextons; there others fearfully sweat-
ing with coffins, to steale forth déad bodies, least
the fatal hand writing of death should seale up
their doores. -
‘How often,’ continues this writer, ‘hath the
amazed husband waking, found the comfort of his
bedde lying breathlesse by his side; his children
at the same instant gasping for life; and his ser-
vants mortally wounded at the heart by sickness,
the distracted creature beats at death's doores, ex-
L O N ID “O N.
171
*
claimes at windows, his cries are sharp enough
to pierce heaven, but on earth no eare is opened
to receive them And in this manner do the te—
dious minutes of the night stretch out the sorrow
of 10,000.
“It is now day, let is looke forth and try what
consolation rises with the sun; not any, for be-
fore the jewel of the morning be fully set in silver,
100 hungry graves stand gaping, and every one
of them (as at a breakfast) hath swallowed down
ten or eleven lifelesse carcasses: before dinner in
the same gulfe are twice so many more devoured:
and before the sun takes his rest, those numbers
are:doubled. Threescore, that not many houres
before had every one several lodgings here very
delicately furnisht, are now thrust altogether into
one close room—a little noisome roome not full
ten feet square.’ - . . . . . . . . . .
The tales which the author introduces, to shor-
ten the lives of long winter nights, are many of
them as pathetic as his general description, though
Some of them have touches of humor, which
show that he was no ordinary master of the pas-
sions. One of the most affecting is that of a young
couple who went to church to get married, when
the bride was so ill, that, “ had not the holy officer
made haste, the ground on which she stood to be
marryed might easily have been broken up for
buryall.” She was led not like a bride, but rather
like a corse to her bed, and died in a few days.
. The number of persons who fell victims to the
plague, is during this year, estimated by some
historians at 30,561; and by others at 30,578;
but, as the total number of deaths in the city from
March to December was 37,294, it is probable
that a larger portion of them fell by the plague
than is here assigned to it. . . . . . . . .
The plague of 1625 was still more destructive,
sweeping off from a city already half desolated
35,000 persons in one year. The coronation of
Charles I., like that of his father, king James,
was shorn of its accustomed honors, particularly
the procession through the city from the tower.
In Whitelocke's Memorials we find a curious
anecdote of the terror created by this dreadful
scourge. He says, “When the plague was some-
what assuaged, and there died in London but
2500 in a week, it fell to judge Whitelocke's turn
to go to Westminster Hall, to adjourn Michael-
mas term to Reading; and accordingly he went
from his house in Buckinghamshire to Horton,
near Colnbrooke, and the next morning early to
Hyde Park Corner, where he and his retinue
dined on the ground, with such meat and drink
as they brought in the coach with them; and
afterwards he drove fast through the streets, which
were empty of people, and overgrown with grass,
to Westminster Hall, where the officers were
ready, and the judge and his company went strait
to the king's bench, adjourned the court, re-
turned to his coach, and drove away presently
out of town.’ -
In the MSS. in the British Musuem there are
several original letters written during the time of
this plague, by Mr. Mead to Sir Martin Stute-
ville, one of his friends, which give some curious
particulars relating to this malady which have
escaped the historians of the time. Mr. Mead
lived at Christ Church, Cambridge, at the time;
but he appears to have had letters every week
from Dr. Meddus, the rector of St. Gabriel's,
Fenchurch. In a letter, dated July 20, 1625, Mr.
Mead states that there were fifty parishes infected
within the walls; and, as an instance of the very
sudden manner in which the hand of death was
laid on individuals, he mentions that “My lord
Russel (afterwards fourth earl of Bedford), being
to go to parliament, had his shoemaker to pull
on his boots, who fell down dead of the plague
in his presence, whereupon he abstains from that
honorable assembly, and hath sent the lords word
of this accident.’ -
In a letter, written the week after, Mr. Mead
enumerates the deaths by the plague as in one
week 593, and states that the intercourse between
Cambridge and London was stopped. Hobson
the famous carrier, of ‘Hobson's choice' memory,
had gone his last journey in the preceding week.
The infection appears to have been at its height
in the latter end of July : the deaths during that
week were 3583, of whom 2471 were allowed to
have died of the plague; and Mr. Mead attri-
butes the deaths of the greatest part of the re-
mainder to what he calls the invisible plague.
Dr. Meddus, in one of his letters to Mr.
Mead, relates the following very credible anec-
dote: “A woman near the Old Swan, removing
into Surrey for fear of the plague, when she was
come on the hill, near Streatham, in the way to
Croydon, turned back, looked on the city,” said,
‘Farewell London and farewell plague, but soon
after was taken sick, had the tokens on her
breast, and these words to be distinctly read, ‘It
is in vain to fly from God, for he is every where.”
Mr. Mead, in communicating this anecdote to
Sir M. Stuteville, adds, “You may judge of this.
or suspend it as you please.’ -
This gentleman was not however exempt from
the superstitions of the time, for in another
letter, dated September 4th, he says ‘We have
some here, make an observation that the first abate-
ment of the plague was the week next following
that, wherein came out the proclamation against
papists, and it is true by the date thereof: but
let me add my observation too, that, as the walls
of Jericho fell down, when the priests with the
ark of God had compassed it, blowing trumpets
seven days or times; so is the fall bf the sick-
ness, after the seventh general fast, accounting
that general representative of the whole parliament
for one.’ -
The plague in the year 1636 was less destruc-
tive; though this does not appear to have been
in the least owing to an improved mode of treat-
ment, or that necessary means of preventing it,
cleanliness in the houses and streets, since at a
much later period, we find complaints on this ac-
count as strong and as frequent as ever. During
this year, from April to December, the number
of persons who died was 23,357, of whom only
10,400 are supposed to have perished by the
plague.
At length the metropolis was consigned for a
whole year to apestilence more obstimatein its na-
ture, and more destructive in its effects, than any
that had preceded it. Although the plague of 1665,
the Great Plague as it is called, to distinguish it
from all others, is generally supposed to have

172
L O N D O N.
been brought from the Levant in some goodsim-
ported through Holland by a tradesman in Long
Acre; (yet, independently of the doubt, which
exists as to this disease being at all importable),
there is strong reason to believe that it is to be at-
tributed to the same causes, that produced those
which preceded it, the narrow streets, confined
air, and want of cleanliness. This seems the more
probable, as for a long period London had not
been wholly free from the plague. Maitland
says, for five and twenty years previous to 1665,
it had not been clear of the malady, and that
even from the year 1603 until 1670, the bills of
mortality exhibit but three years, in which Lon-
don, more or less, was notafflicted with the plague.
Even in 1665, when it broke out with unresist-
ing fury, the populace considered it only as one
of the judgments of the Almighty, to which sub-
imission was all they could offer, and conceived
that to oppose it would be a mockery, or an in-
sult to the deity. The very fears and supersti-
tions of the people were no inconsiderable aux-
iliaries to the plague ; and they considered
themselves as doomed to destruction, by the ap-
pearance of the heavens, and by a thousand indi-
cations, which, though as nothing in the eyes of
philosophy, bring to the timid and superstitious
confirmations strong as proofs of Holy Writ. A
comet, which had appeared some months before
the plague, was, when it broke out, considered as
having foretold a judgment slow but severe, ter-
rible and frightful.
These apprehensions were much increased by
the pretended prophecies and astrological calcu-
lations of a set of impostors, who pretended to
be better acquainted with the future than their
neighbours. They fabricated stories of malignant
conjunctions of the planets, and levied from the
credulous no inconsiderable sums, until the hand
of death, which respected not their knowledge,
levelled them with the dupes of their artifice.
So eager were the people to consult fortune-
tellers and conjurors, that “if but a grave fellow,'
says the author of the History of the Great
Plague, attributed to Defoe, ‘in a velvet jacket,
a band, and a black coat, which was the habit
those quack conjurors generally went in, was but
seen in the streets, the people would follow them
in crowds, and ask them questions as they went
along. The almanacks too proved a source of
terror, and the coming plague was thought to
have been fixed in Lilly's Almanack, Gadbury's
Astrological Predictions, and Poor Robin's Al-
manack.
Fanatics or visionaries are said also to have run
through the streets, agitated and agitating by their
oral denunciations and predictions. One man
ran about in a state of wild disorder, crying day
and night like the man mentioned by Josephus,
whose Woe to Jerusalem preceded and foretold
its fall; he walked quickly, and, with a voice and
countenance beaming with horror, continuall
ejaculated “O the great and dreadful God.' Ano-
ther man, pretending a more than human autho-
rity for preaching to the city, went about like
Jonah in the city of Nineveh, crying out ‘Yet
a few days and London shall be destroyed.’
However imaginary these horrors were, a fearful
reality was soon experienced.
The plague first began in Long Acre, towards
the close of the year 1664, when, two or three
persons suddenly dying in one family, the timid
neighbours took the alarm and removed into the
city, whither they are supposed to have unfortu-
nately carried the infection. Here it gathered
strength from the denseness of the population,
and soon its ravages became extensive. The
lower classes were seized with a panic; and en-
tertaining an absurd, but very general notion,
that the plague visited London every twenty
years, they took no means to counteract it.
A frost, which set in in December, and con-
tinued three months, if it did not exterminate the
distemper, suspended its destructive effects; but,
no sooner had a thaw succeeded, than it burst
forth with increased force. From the month of
February the plague began to advance; and,
when it was discovered that it had extended to
several parishes, the magistrates issued an order,
dated 1st July, 1665, to shut up all the infected
houses, which were marked with a red cross,
bearing this inscription, ‘Lord have mercy upon
us.” Guards were constantly in attendance, to
supply the sick with the necessary food, and to
prevent their quitting their houses until forty
days after recovery. This precaution is thought
to have done much injury. Dr. Hodges, in his
Loimologia, says, he verily believes that “many
who were lost might have been alive, had not
the tragical mark upon their door driven proper
assistance from them.’ The same author adds,
that what greatly contributed to the loss of the
people thus shut up was, the wicked practice of
nurses. “These wretches,’ says he, “out of greedi-
ness to plunder the dead, would strangle their
patients, and charge it to the distemper in their
throats! Others would directly convey the pes-
tilential taint from sores of the infected to those
who were well.’ This is a serious charge, but it
is not without a parallel in our own times; for,
during the last Russian campaign, some Jews
who were employed in clearing the hospitals, of
Wilna of the dead, at a certain sum per head,
were actually detected in throwing the sick and
wounded out of the window, in order to aug-
ment the number. -
The plan of shutting up the houses mad been
first adopted in the plague of 1603, when an act
of parliament was passed to authorise it, en-
titled An Act for the charitable Relief and or—
dering of Persons infected with the Plague. If,
on the one-hand, it might be contended, that, by
suffering persons to leave houses infected by the
plague, they might extend its ravages, it must on
the other be allowed as more than probable, that
in many cases whole families fell victims to it;
who might have lived, had they been allowed to
quit the house on the first appearance of infec-
tion in any one of the family.
If the destroyer, when only stalking forth
among men free to fly from his approach, and to
shrink from contact with him, committed such
havock, it may be imagined how fell his ravages
must have been among persons thus pent up
together. Even those who retained full posses—
sion of health might calculate the hours they
had still to live; those who to-day turned out
ihe bodies of their lifeless companions, might lay

Lo N D O N.
173
their certain account with following them on the
morrow; no hope of escape being left to any, all
must have prepared to die; and this consolation
at least they must have had, that neither fear nor
apprehension could any longer interfere with the
tender offices of friendship and affection. The
surviving son needed not to shrink from closing
the eyes of his dying parent, nor the widowed
wife from pillowing her head on the cold breast
of her departed spouse.
Rigorous as the prohibition to quit an infected
house was, yet some were found to brave it. In
the City Remembrancer, for 1665, it is related
that “a citizen broke out of his house in Alders-
gate Street, and attempted, but was refused,
going into the Angel or the White Horse at
Islington. At the Pyed Horse he pretended
going into Lincolnshire, that he was entirely free
from infection, and asked lodgings for the night.
They had but a garret bed empty, and that but
one night, expecting drovers with cattle next
day. A servant showed him the room, which he
gladly accepted. He was well dressed; and,
with a sigh, said he had seldom lain in such a
lodging, but would make a shift, as it was but
for one night, and in a dreadful time. He sat
down on the bed, desiring a pint of warm ale,
which was forgot. Next morning, one asked
what was become of the gentleman? The maid,
starting, said she had never thought more of him;
he bespoke warm ale, but I forgot it. A person
going up, found him dead across the bed; his
clothes were pulled off, his jaw fallen, his eyes
open, in a most frightful posture; the rug of the
bed clasped hard in one hand. The alarm was
great, having been free from the distemper,
which spread immediately to the houses round
about. Fourteen died of the plague that week in
Islington.’
In the months of May, June, and July, the
plague had continued with more or less severity;
but in August and September it quickened into
dreadful activity, sweeping away 3000, 4000,
5000, and sometimes 8000 persons in a week.
Then it was that the whole British nation wept
for the miseries of the metropolis.
houses, carcases lay waiting for burial, and in
others, persons in their last agonies; in one room
were heard dying groans, and in another the
ravings of delirium, mingled with the wailings of
relations and friends, and the apprehensive
shrieks of children. Infants passed at once
from the womb to the grave. ‘Who would not,’
says Dr. Hodges, “burst with grief, to see the
stock for a future generation hang upon the
breast of a dead mother, or the marriage-bed
changed the first night into a sepulchre, and the
unhappy pair meet with death in their first em-
braces? Some of the infected ran about stagger-
ing like drunken men, and fell and expired in
the streets; while others lie half dead and coma-
tose, but never to be waked but by the last
trumpet.”
The divine often received the stroke of death
in the exercise of his sacred office; the physician,
finding no assistance in his own antidotes, died
while administering them to others. The soldiery,
retiring from an enemy with whom human power
could not cope, encamped in the suburbs of the
guish even the fires with their showers.”
In some
city; but were overtaken, and fell unres'sting
victims of the great destroyer. Business was
suspended; and if in the market a solitary in-
dividual was seen purchasing the means of life,
that life was often terminated ere he reached his
home. The bells seemed hoarse with tolling;
and the sextons were not sufficient to bury the
dead, with which the church-yards were so
glutted, that they were thrown into pits, in heaps
of thirty or forty together. , ,
In the month of September the disease was at
its height, and more than 12,000 perished in one
week. Some persons recommended fires in the
streets, and they were kindled for thiee days,
though many of the physicians were against it;
but, ‘before the three days were quite expired,
the heavens both mourned over so many funerals,
and so wept for the fatal mistake, as to extin-
A fatal
night succeeded, in which more than 4000 per-
sons expired.
Those moving sepulchres, the ‘dead carts,’
continually traversed the streets; while the ap-
palling cry, “Bring out your dead, thrilled
through every soul not yet dead to feeling.
Then it was that parents, husbands, wives, and
children, saw all that was dear to them thrown
with a pitchfork into a cart, like the offal of the
slaughter-house, to be conveyed without the
walls, and flung in one promiscuous heap,
without the rites of sepulture, without a coffin,
and without a shroud. Single graves were no
longer dug in church-yards, but huge pits, suf-
ficient almost to entomb a whole army. In
Aldgate church-yard, after several pits capable
of holding sixty or 100 bodies, had been dug
and filled, the churchwardens caused one to
be formed so large, that they were blamed, as
making preparations to bury the whole parish.
It was about forty feet in length, and fifteen or
sixteen feet broad, and in some parts about
twenty feet deep. Into this gulf they began to
throw the dead on the 4th of September, and by
the 20th of that month they had cast into it
1114 dead bodies, when they were obliged to fill
it up, as it was within six feet of the surface. In
other church-yards similar pits were dug, till
they were choked with the dead, and additional
burial grounds were formed in several parts of
the town, some of which have ever since been
used for the same purpose, while others have no
trace of the dread calamity which first marked
them out as sepulchres.
The burial ground in Bunhill-fields, in which
many a nonconformist rests in peace, was
first appropriated to that purpose during the
lague. A piece of ground near the street
called Old Bethlem, in Moorfields; and the plot
at the top of Holywell Street, Shoreditch; and
a third in Goswell Street, were also used as tem-
porary burying grounds on this melancholy oc-
casion. Stepney, though at this time it had
three distinct burying grounds, overcharged them
all with its dead; and there were no fewer than
five other pieces of ground devoted to this pur-
pose. On two of these the parish churches of St.
Paul, Shadwell, and St. John, Wapping, have
since been built. Agreen field at the upper end
of Hand Alley, Bishopsgate Street, was enclosed
174 ' -
L O N D O N.
for the parish of St. Botolph alone, though the
inhabitants of some courts beyond its precincts
were allowed to bring their dead to.it. Two or
three years after the plague, a scene took place
here which seemed to bring back all the horrors
of that dreadful period. The ground was pur-
chased by Sir Robert Clayton, who immediately
let it out on building leases. In digging the
ground for the foundations, numberless bodies
were dug up; “sqme of them,' says the author of
Reflections on the Bills of Mortality, ‘remaining
so plain to be seen, that the women's skulls were
distinguished by the long hair, and of others the
flesh was not quite perished.” On complaint
being made, the bodies were removed to another
place in the same ground, where “the ground,’
says the same author, “is palisadoed off in a lit-
tle square, where lie the bones and remains of
2000 bodies, carried by the dead carts to the
grave in one year.” Horrible as these pits were,
constables were obliged to be placed near them
during the plague; for it was not unusual for
persons infected, either seized by a fit of delirium,
or, what is more probable, anxious to mingle
with the bodies of all that was dear to them, to
steal from their houses unobserved, or obtain an
egress by bribing the watchmen, and wrapped
in blankets and rugs, to throw themselves among
the dead. -
In this wreck of a city, which was half en-
tombed, delirium hurried many even to a prema-
ture death. ‘People,’ says Defoe, ‘in the torment
of their swellings, which was indeed intolerablé,
running out of their own government, raving and
distracted, and oftentimes laying violent hands
upon themselves, throwing themselves out at
their windows, shooting themselves, &c. Mothers
murdering their own children in their lunacy,
some dying of mere grief and passion, some of
mere fright and surprise, without any infection
at all; others frightened into despair and lunacy;
others into melancholy madness.’ Many were
the cases in which the mother and her unborn
offspring perished at once; in others where they
died for want of proper assistance in the hour of
nature's sorrow. Others frequently sucked the
fatal poison from the lips of their dying infants.
The plague reached its height in August,
and during that month and September 50,000
perished. . . . -
It was now that the dead carts were insufficient
for the office, and the houses and streets were
rendered tenfold more pestilential by their un-
buried dead. All who had survived now made
the attempt to escape, and eighteen or twenty
watchmen were killed in opposing the people
when fleeing from the infected houses. -
The change which now took place in the feel-
ings of the people is thus vividly described by
Defoe. “As I have mentioned how the people
were brought into a condition to despair of life,
and abandom themselves, so this very thing had
a strange effect among us for three or four
weeks; that is, it made men bold and venturous;
they were no more shy of one another, or
restrained within doors, but went any where and
every where, and began to converse. One
would say to another, “I do not ask you how
you are, or say how I am. [t is certain we shall
all go; so 'tis no matter who is sick or who is
sound;” so they run deliberately into any place
or compány.’
The moral lesson conveyed in the following
passage is worthy of being kept in everlasting
remembrance. “As it brought the people into
public company, so it was surprising how it
brought them to crowd into the churches; they
enquired no more whom they sat near to, or
far from, what offensive smells they met with,
or what condition the people seemed to be in ;
but, looking upon themselves all as so many
dead corpses, they came to the churches without
the least caution, and crowded together, as if
their lives were of no consequence, compared to
the work which they came about. Indeed, the
zeal which they showed in coming, and the
earnestness and affection they showed in their
attention to what they heard, made it manifest,
what a value people would all put upon the
worship of God, if they thought every day they
attended at the church that it would be their
last. Nor was it without other strange effects;
for it took away all manner of prejudice at, or
scruple about, the person whom they found
in the pulpit, when they came to the churches.
It cannot be doubted, but that many of the
ministers of the parish churches were cut off
among others in so common and so dreadful a
calamity; and others had not courage enough to
standit, but removed into the country as they
found means to escape. As then some parish
churches were quite vacant and forsaken, the
people made no scruple of desiring such dis-
senters as had been a few years before deprived
of their livings, by virtue of the act of parlia-
ment, called the act of uniformity, to preach in
the churches; nor did the church mińisters in
that case make any difficulty of accepting their
assistance; so that many of those whom they
called silenced ministers had their mouths
opened on this occasion, and preached publicly
to the people.' It will be remembered how well
the zeal and fidelity of these ministers was re-
quited when the danger was over, by the act of
uniformity. -
The dead now were no longer numbered;
for the parish clerks and sextons perished in the
execution of their office. In the parish of Step-
ney alone, 116 sextons, grave-diggers, and cart-
ers employed in removing the dead bodies, died
in one year; 10,000 houses were at once de-
serted, and it is said that, during the plague, not
fewer than 20,000 persons quitted the metropolis.
Empty the streets in uncouth verdure clad
Into the worst of desarts sudden turned
The cheerful haunts of man. -
In the last week of September, the plague
began somewhat to abate, and the bills of mor-
tality fell from upwards of 8000 to little more
than 6000 weekly. Every succeeding week the
number of victims diminished; so that by the
month of February, in the following year, the
pestilence had wholly ceased. The number that
perished during this plague, according to the
returns, was 68,590; but Defoe asserts, that
the number was at least 100,000. The lives of
a great many persons were preserved by means
L O N D O N.
175
of the shipping on the Thames, into which the
infection did not reach except in a very few
InstanceS.
Even the survivors of this dreadful calamity
would have perished of famine, but for the,
bounty of the affluent. The money subscribed
is said to have amounted to £100,000 a week, to
which Charles II. humanely gave £1000 weekly.
In the parish of Cripplegate alone the disburse-
ments to the poor amounted to £17,000 a week.
But, even when the poor had obtained the money,
they feared to lay it out in provisions, lest they
should by this means catch the infection. If they
bought a joint of meat in the market, they would
not receive it from the butcher, but took it off
the hooks themselves; the butcher, equally cau-
tious, would not touch the money, but had it
dropt into a pot with vinegar kept for the pur-
pose. Workmen were equally-cautious-with
their masters, and even members of the same
family with each other.
The conduct of the magistracy; during the
prevalence of calamity, did them infinite honor.
Darwin has celebrated the heroic devotion of
Sir John Lawrence, ‘London's generous Mayor,”
who,
When Contagion, with mephitic breath,
And wither'd Famine urg'd the work of death,
* # #. * # #. $: .#
With food and faith, with med'cine and with prayer,
Rais'd the weak head, and stay’d the pārting sigh;
Or with new life relum'd the swimming eye.
“The vigilance of the magistrates,’ says the
account ascribed to Defoe, “was put to the ut-
most trial, and, it must be confessed, can never
be enough acknowledged ; whatever expense or
neglected in the city or suburbs either. First,
provisions were always to be had in full plenty,
and the price not much raised either hardly
worth speaking. Secondly, no dead bodies lay
unburied, or uncovered ; and, if one walked
from one end of the city to another, no funeral,
or sign of it, was to be seen in the day-time,
except a little in the three first weeks in Sep-
tember.’ -
For the security of the country dealers by
land, new markets were established on the out-
skirts of the metropolis, and proper regulations
made to ensure the safety of those who attended
them. Either the lord mayor, or one, or both of
the sheriffs, went every market-day on horseback
to see these orders executed. The necessitous
were likewise furnished with food and money
gratuitously, and the aldermen frequently rode
through the streets on horseback, to enquire
whether the wants of the people in the streets or
houses were duly supplied.
In this year of desolation the most appalling
scenes were continually occurring, which lan-
guage would in vain attempt to depict. Many
were the instances in which bodies were found
stripped naked by thieves; and others, where
the stupor of disease was mistaken for the sleep
of death, and bodies yet 'warm and breathing
were buried in the general mass. Tradition
relates a narrow escape of a poor piper, which
has been further immortalised by that great
sculptor, Cibber, in 'a statue well known in
Tottenham Court Road. It represents a Highland
piper playing on his pipes, with his dog and
keg of liquor by his side. The piper, as the
story goes, usually took his stand at the bottom
of Holborn Hill, near St. Andrew's church, and,
having one day met with some of his country-
men, he drank rather freely, and sought a couch
on the steps of the church. As this was no time
to sleep in the infected streets, when the dead
cart arrived, one of the men did not hesitate to
put his fork ifito the piper's belt, and transfer
him to the cart. The piper's dog attempted to
prevent his master from being carried off, but,
unable to do this, he determined to accompany
him, and, leaping into the cart, began howling
most piteously over the body of his master.
The shaking of the cart along the rugged pave-
ment, and the howling of the dog, at length
awoke the piper, who, instinctively turning to
his pipes, struck up a lively Scotch tune, to the
great terror of the carters, who fancied they had
got a cargo of ghosts, until, lights having been
procured, the piper was released, and his narrow
escape was commemorated by one of his bene-
º who employed Cibber to execute a statue
Of hime
PART III.
DESCRIPTION OF MODERN LONDON.
This will embrace its site and climate; its
rivers, canals, docks, and bridges; the tower and
military defences; public buildings, civil, eccle-
siastical, and charitable; streets, and squares;
theatres and places of amusement; and the im-
provements in progress. -
Situation and general plan.-The city of London
stands entirely on the north bank of the Thames.
St. Paul's is in lat. 51°30'49" N., and long. 5' 30"
W. of Greenwich observatory. Its distance from
the other capitals of Europe is, from Edinburgh
395 miles south; from Dublin 338 south-east;
from Amsterdam 190 miles west; from Paris
225 miles N. N.W.; from Copenhagen 610 miles
south-west; from Vienna 820 north-west; from
Madrid 860 miles north-east by east; from Lis-
bon 850 miles; from Rome 950 miles N. N. W.;
from Constantinople 1660 miles; from Moscow
1660 miles E. S. E.; from Stockholm 750 miles;
from Petersburgh 1140 miles; and from Berlin
540 miles. - -->
The ancient city, or London within the walls,
is about a mile and half in length, and some-
thing more than half a mile in breadth. During
the last century its population has diminished
nearly one-half; a circumstance to be attributed
to the widening of the streets, to the many public
buildings that have been erected, and to the
general extension of its suburbs. London with-
out the walls, being merely the expansion of the
ancient city which it surrounds, is governed by
the city magistrates.
The greater part of London stands upon rising
ground; the soil is sound and dry; the lower parts
are freed from moisture by subterraneous sewers
or drains: and, from the vast quantities of water
with which the inhabitants are constantly sup-
plied, by means of the Thames and of the New
River, great sweetness and cleanliness are pre-
served. The drains here mentioned are large
176 L O N
D O N.
vaulted channels, beneath the pavements, com-
municating with each house by smaller ones, and
with the respective streets by gratings, to carry
off such as may be conveyed in that manner into
the river. Mud, and other rubbish, are taken
away in carts, by persons constantly employed
for that purpose. -
Considered in the aggregate, London com-
prises the city and its liberties, with the city and
liberties of Westminster, the borough of South-
wark, and nearly thirty of the contiguous villages
of Middlesex and Surrey. The greatest portion
of the whole is built on the northern bank of the
Thames, or in Middlesex; whilst Southwark,
with Lambeth, and several connecting villages,
'extend along the southern shore of the same river,
in the county of Surrey. The extent east and
west, from Poplar to Knightsbridge, is full seven
miles and a half; while its breadth from north
to south, or from Newington Butts to Islington,
is nearly five miles. The circumference of the
whole, allowing for various inequalities in the
extension of streets, &c., at the extremities, is
upwards of thirty miles. Hence it may be fairly
estimated, that the buildings of this metropolis
cover at least eighteen square miles, or 11,520
square acres. The river Thames occupies, for
seven miles, a space of about one quarter of a
mile, or 400 yards in width; or 1120 square
2Creº.
This metropolis may be said to consist of five
great parts or portions; viz. the west end of the
town, the city, the east end of the town, West-
minster, and the Borough. The west end of the
town is popularly regarded as extending from
Charing Cross to Hyde-park, and from St.
James's park to Paddington. It is considered
the superior and most fashionable part of the
town, is the general abode of the court, and is
laid out in two great thoroughfares, Oxford Road
or Street, and Piccadilly and Regent Street;
with various handsome squares and streets,
chiefly occupied by the town houses of the no-
bility and gentry, and fashionable shops. The
city includes the central part, and is the empo-
rium of commerce. .
The east of the town is also devoted to com-
merce, to ship-building, manufactures, and va-
rious collateral branches of merchandise; and
here vast commercial docks and warehouses
have been formed and constructed. The southern
bank of the Thames, from Deptford to Lambeth,
bears a great resemblance to the east end of the
town; being occupied by persons engaged in com-
mercial and maritime concerns; and docks,wharfs,
and warehouses are abundant.
London abounds likewise with iron-foundries,
glasshouses, soap-boilers, dye-houses, boat-buil-
ders, shot and hat manufactories, &c.
Southwark, a borough, once entirely indepen-
dent of the city, but now forming the ward called
Bridge Without, was, up to the reign of Edward
III, so notoriously the resort of felons, robbers,
and divers other malefactors, and disturbers
of the peace,’ that the king, with the consent of
the parliament, granted the city of London ‘the
said village with all its appurtenances,’ for the
sum of £10, to be paid annually. This grant,
however, Richard, his successor, refused to con-
This part of
firm; and the corporation was unable, for several
reigns, to establish its jurisdiction here. But,
the privileges of the religious houses being at
length renewed, the regents under Edward VI.
..(the great obstacle in their way), confirmed the
complete annexation of the borough to the city .
by letters patent, dated 23d April, in the fourth
year of that monarch's reign.
Many improvements have of late years been
made, and many respectable houses erected in
St. George's Fields. Hither also has been brought
the Bethlem hospital for lunatics, formerly in
Moorfields. Another part of the metropolis,
the most regular and systematic of the whole in
its arrangement, is the northern side, comprehend-
ing a large mass of new buildings between Hol-
born and Somers-town, and in the parishes of
Mary-le-bone, and Paddington.
Amongst the many proofs of the early and ex-
treme fondness for legislation which marks our
history, may be mentioned the various laws which
have been passed to prevent the growth of Lon-
don. Queen Elizabeth led the way in this sage
endeavour, and a statute of her reign commands
(webelieve it is not yet repealed), that “persons
of livelihood and means should reside in their
countries, and not abide or sojourn in the city
of London, so that countries remain unserved."
James I. predicted that “England would shortly
be London and London England; ' and, in one
of his numefous addresses.to the people, stigma-
tises “those swarms of gentry who, at the insti-
gation of their wives, or to new-model and fashion
their daughters (who if they were unmarried
marred their reputations, and if married lost
them), did neglect their country hospitality, and
cumber the city, a general nuisance to the king-
dom.’ He urged the Star-chamber to regulate
‘the exorbitancy of the new buildings about the
city, which were but a shelter for those who,
when they had spent their estates in coaches,
lacqueys, and fine clothes, like Frenchmen, lived
miserably in their houses like Italians.’ A ma-
nuscript writer of the times complains of the
breaking up of old family establishments, all
crowding to ‘upstart London.” “Every one,’
says he, “strives to be a Diogenes in his house,
and an emperor in the streets: not caring if they
sleep in a tub, so they must be hurried in a
coach, giving that allowance to horses and mares,
that formerly maintained houses full of men;
pinching many a belly to paint a few backs, and
turning all the treasures of the kingdom into a few
citizens' coffers, their woods into wardrobes,
their leases into laces, and their goods and chat-
tels into guarded coats and gaudy toys.'
The government, however, did not confine
itself to mere fulminations on this subject; for
new buildings were not only forbidden within
ten miles of London, but even pulled down
when they had been erected. Charles I. issued
various proclamations, ‘in which he complained
of the continued residence of the nobility and
gentry in town, which raised the price of provi-
sions, increased the number of mendicants, and
brought so many loose and disorderly people
into the metropolis, that it could not be governed
by ordinary magistrates.’ He ordered that per-
sons of all ranks, who were not connected with
L O N
D O N. 177
public offices, should resort to their several
counties, and that “they should not put them-
selves to unnecessary charge in providing them-
selves to return in winter to the said cities, as it
was the king's firm resolution to withstand such
great and growing evil.” Proclamations proving
ineffectual, the Star-Chamber determined that
they should no longer remain a dead letter; an
inquisitorial examination of all strangers was
ordered, and an account taken of their time of
residence and departure. Prosecutions were in-
stituted by the attorney-general; and one gen-
tleman, a Mr. Palmer, from Sussex, was fined
£1000 for disobeying the proclamation which or-
dered a residence in the country; and, to discou-
rage all other gentlemen from living in town,
the proclamation prohibited any pheasants,
ducks, partridges, or hares, from being dressed
or eaten in any inn. It is true, that these rigo-
rous proceedings rendered the government ob-
noxious, and proved ineffectual; yet they were
attempted to be renewed even after the Restora-
tlOn. -
What must the weak and tyrannical Stuarts
have felt, had they, for the castigation of the
country, continued to rule over us to the present
times, when more houses are frequently built in
a single year, than during the whole of their
united reigns! It appears by the census of
1821, that London, including the borough of
Southwark, contained the vast number of 161,905
houses, and that 3437 other houses were then
building; and, when we consider that every
month brings a large addition, it probably would
not be too much to estimate the metropolis as
containing at present 180,000 houses; nor are its
limits, though the rage for building was partially
stopped last year, likely here to stop, according
to present appearances. -
Climate.—It would seem pretty well estab-
lished that the climate of this country was in
early times far more genial than at present.
A writer of the thirteenth century tells us that a
* continued fall of showers throughout England
for three days terrified many.’ In ancient times,
according to Mr. Bagford, there were vineyards
in Hatton Garden, St. Giles, and East Smith-
field; and the many Vine Streets in Westmin-
ster, Bloomsbury, Lambeth, and the borough,
seem to have derived their name from the same
Source. This change, which the climate has un-
dergone, appears to have chiefly taken place dur-
ing the last century. Charles II., whose daily
habits of walking about the metropolis gave him
opportunities of correct observation on the sub-
ject, used to say, that there never was a day in
which it rained so incessantly that a person could
not take a dry walk for one hour out of the
twenty-four.
. The inhabitants of London, however, have less
reason to complain of the deterioration of the cli-
mate than perhaps any other part of this country.
We have noticed, article ENGLAND, the circum-
stance, not, perhaps, generally known, that the
temperature of the air in the metropolis is raised
by the artificial sources of heat existing in it, no
less than 2° on the annual mean above that of
its immediate vicinity; and the reader will there
Vol. XIII. -
find a table of the London temperature in the
twelve different months of the year.
The usual range of the thermometer in Lon-
don is from 5° to 95°. Even in the coldest
seasons, however, the medium of the twenty-four
hours, upon a long average, does not fall below
the freezing point. Continued frost in winter is
always an exception therefore to the general
rule of the climate. -
The most severe frosts of which we have any
record were those of 1683, 1716, 1739, 1766,
1768, 1785, 1789, 1795, and 1814. Few of
these, however, were peculiar to London; the
greater number were, more or less, common to
the whole of the north of Europe.
The frost of 1683, which is the first great one
of which we have a particular account, appears
to have been one of the most intense. The
Thames was frozen to such an extent and depth,
that even as far down as Woolwich the heaviest
loaded carriages passed securely over it. From
thé Temple to Southwark it was covered with
temporary shops and booths, arranged in streets
and squares, where hackney-coaches plied as
safely as on the terra firma of the metropolis.
Shows and pastimes of all sorts diversified the
scene; and the merry monarch himself, Charles
II., mingled with his subjects in celebrating the
novelty of a frost fair. In the night time the cold
was so severe, that large fires were kept burning
in Cheapside, Fleet Street, and other principal
streets, to save from perishing those whose ne-
cessary avocations called them abroad ; but not-
withstanding this humane precaution, and the
most commendable exertions on the part of the
rich and benevolent to provide the poor with
fuel at their own homes, many were the instances
of persons in the lower walks of life being frozen
to death. Wild ducks and other water fowl,
driven from their native fastnesses to seek shelter
in the haunts of men, dropped down dead in the
public streets; and so general was the havoc
among the feathered tribe, that in the ensuing
summer scarcely a bird was to be seen. In other
parts of Europe the cold was as severe as it was
in England; particularly in Germany and France,
where the number of human beings frozen to
death appears to have been much greater than
in England, owing, no doubt, to the inferior
condition of the people of these countries, in all
that regards the comforts and charities of life.
Next to the frost of 1683 in its disastrous con-
sequences was that of 1739, which was also com-
mon to the whole of the north of Europe. The
Thames was again completely frozen, but in a
few days after so high a wind arose as to sweep
every thing moveable from its surface. The
number of the shipping in the river happened to
be unusually great; and, locked up by the ice,
they opposed a resistance to the fury of the
wind, which made its ravages only the more
destructive. Numbers were blown to pieces,
and sunk; and all were, more or less, stripped
and shattered. Never had the Thames, in the
memory of those living, presented a more dismal
scene of wreck and destruction. The damage
done between London Bridge and the Medway
was computed at not less than twº, Many
178
L O N D O N.
were the lives also lost upon this occasion; and
sever e. the sufferings of the lower classes of
people, although charity was again both active to
save, and most liberal in its benefactions.
The frost of 1814 was, in some respects, even
more memorable than those of 1683 and 1739.
It was probably not so severe as either, and the
injury which it committed was inconsiderable;
but it served to exhibit in a remarkable manner
the progress which a free people have made in
those attainments, which help us to set the sea-
sons themselves at défiance. As in the days of
the gay Charles, mirth and jollity again joined
hand in hand to soften the rigors of the icy
year; but, among other novelties, we beheld
what in Charles's days would have been more
dreaded than even perpetual frost—a free press
erected on the now solid deep, to commemorate
the wonders of the scene.
River Thames. – The conservancy of the
Thames belongs to the city of London west-
ward as far as Staines, a little above which it
enters the county of Middlesex. See THAMEs.
Nothing can be more picturesque than its now
devious course towards the metropolis, graced
with ‘such fields, such woods, such stately piles,
and such gardens,
That Thames with Roman Tiber may compare.’
At Putney and Battersea, the Thames, which
has received the tributary streams of the Colne,
the Wey, the Crane, the Brent, and the Wandle,
has become a large and busy stream, and at these
places is crossed by two wooden bridges. At
Vauxhall it is crossed by a light and beautiful
iron bridge, and between this place and the
tower by four other bridges.
After running through the metropolis the river
rolls onward past Deptford, Greenwich, and
Gravesend, until, joined by the Medway, they
pay their joint tribute to the ocean, at the Nore.
In London it is from 800 to 1500 feet, and at
the Nore seven miles broad. It is navigable
nearly 143 miles above London Bridge: its
whole length is upwards of 180 miles; and the
tides, which ebb and flow twice every twenty-
four hours, affect it upwards of eighty miles
from the sea. The Thames has also its spring
tides, and is remarkable for the inequality of its
tides, a subject much dwelt upon by the early
historians, who considered every deviation from
the ordinary flow and ebb as a prodigy. It is
related, that on the 12th of October, 1411, and
on the 17th of September, 1550, the Thames
flowed thrice in one day. In the years 1564,
1574, 1608, 1609, 1622, 1653, 1654, and 1660,
similar phenomena occurred, all of which might,
no doubt, have been traced to very natural
causes had they been observed at the time.
The Thames has sometimes overflowed its
banks considerably in the metropolis. The most
memorable instance of this sort was on the 1st
of September, 1555, when, in consequence of
heavy rains and a high wind, the river was forced
into the king's palace at Westminster, and into
Westminster Hall, a circumstance particularly
unfortunate, as it was the day on which the
lord mayor of London had to present the sheriffs
to the barons of the exchequer. Stowe says,
‘ all Westminster Hall was full of water,’ but he
does not inform us whether the city magistrates
presented the sheriffs in a boat or not, though he
informs us by report that morning, that, “a
wherrie man rowed with his boate over West-
minster Bridge into the Palace Court, and so
through the staple gate, and all the wooll staple
into the king's streete.” All the marshes on the
Lambeth sides were also so overflowed, that ‘ the
people from Newington Church could not pass
on foote, but were carried by boates from the
said church to the Pinfold, neere to St. George's
in Southwark.’ . . .
In 1774 was another great overflow; and again
on the 2d of February, 1791, when considerable
damage was done to the wharfs along both sides
of the river. Westminster, which always suffered
most from an inundation of the Thames, saw
boats plying, instead of hackney coaches, in
Palace Yard and Privy Gardens, like Egypt
watered by an over-bountiful river.
In the winter of 1821 the Thames again burst
its bounds; though neither promoted by an
easterly wind, nor a sudden thaw. It appears
by an official report presented by officers ap-
pointed to make a survey of the river, that the
flood rose four inches higher than it did in 1774,
as recorded by a stone let into a wall at Isleworth.
The editor of the present work had on this oc-
casion to pay a severe penalty for his general en-
joyment of a very pleasant situation on the banks
of the river. Its classic stream was not at this
time ‘strong without rage,’ for it burst every
barrier with which his cottage could be fenced;
and flooding his library, to the depth of eighteen
inches, scattered his papers remorselessly on
the surface of six successive tides. Consider-
able damage was done above Westminster Bridge,
yet the navigation of the river in the city district
was never an hour impeded.
At Staines (Sax. stana a stone) is a stone which
marks the limits of the city's authority, and bears
the early date of 1280. During the mayorality
of Sir Watkin Lewes, in 1781, it was placed on a
new pedestal. The city jurisdiction extends
eastward to Yemdal or Yenleet, and includes also
part of the Medway and the river Lea.
The conservancy of the Thames has been
claimed by the city of London ever since the
reign of Richard I., who, for a sum of 1500
marks, granted a charter which empowered the
city to remove all weirs from the river. The
authority claimed under this charter was after-
wards confirmed by more explicit enactments.
The power of the citizens not merely extended
to the water and the fish, but to the actual bed
of the river, so that, according to a manuscript
in the papers of lord Burleigh, quoted by Strype,
they have the ground and soil under the river,
‘whereupon if any that hath a house or land ad-
joining do make a strand, stairs, or such like,
they pay forthwith a rent to the city of London.'
The authority of the city was long disputed by
the lord high admiral of England, until the de-
cision of a court of justice, and the confirmatory
charter of James I., fixed the conservatorship of
the Thames in the hands of the city, to be exer-
cised by the lord mayor for the time being, or his
deputy, an officer with the title of water bailiff,
L O N
L} O N. 179
who protects the rights of the city, and its autho-
rity over the river.
The lord mayor holds a court of conservancy
eight times a year, at any place he pleases within
the city jurisdiction, on the banks of the river,
either in Middlesex, Surrey, Essex, or Kent.
The jury attendant on the court is always sum-
moned from the county in which it is held. In
order to hold the court, the lord mayor, with the
necessary officers, proceeds in state in the city
barge, and is often accompanied by some of the
barges of the companies, who render it an agree-
able aquatic excursion. Once in every seven
years his lordship traverses the whole limits of
his jurisdiction on the Thames and the Medway.
A material part of the duty of the water bai-
liff is to regulate the watermen who ply on the
river, and who are a very numerous body,
amounting to upwards of 12,000, two-thirds of
whom are freemen of the city. As far back as
1556, they were incorporated by act of parlia-
ment, and have their rulers and overseers; but
the general government and superintendance of
the body is vested in the city magistracy, who are
empowered, by a statute passed in the 34th of
George III., to make rules and orders for the
government of watermen, wherrymen, and ligh-
termen, between Gravesend and Windsor, and to
enforce observance of them by penalties and for-
feitures. The wherries belonging to this frater-
nity are required to be twelve feet and a half
long, and four feet and a half broad in the
midship; they are all numbered, and the rates
of fare fixed, for any exaction beyond which the
offender may be punished, on complaint being
made at Watermen’s Hall (on St. Mary's Hill).
In point of fact, however, but little regard is
paid to the established list of fares, which are
very generally exceeded, and as generally ac-
quiesced in, from a feeling, we believe, that they
are rather less than they ought to be. Among
other regulations for the good conduct of the
watermen, they are particularly cautioned against
the use of improper and immodest language; and
offenders in this respect are punishable by fine.
By an act of parliament of the 11th & 12th of
William III. the lightermen were united to the
watermen, and placed equally under the jurisdic-
tion of the city magistrates. -
The Thames westward has several locks, with-
out which, owing to the great number of shoals,
it would not be navigable in summer. The
locks within the city's jurisdiction, according to
a return made to an order of the house of com-
mons, yielded to the city a revenue of £12,506
7s. 1d. for the year ending the 29th of September,
1822. Upwards of £1000 had, however, to be
deducted for the incidental repairs. The profits
of the locks have been a good deal injured by
canals, yet the interests of the city have been
protected; since we find, in the same parlia-
mentary return, that the Grand Junction Canal
Company paid to the city £600 for compensa-
tion for loss of toll that year; the Regent's
Canal Company £450; and even the Surrey
Iron Railway Company £10.
The immense property continually lying in
shipping in the river Thames was long subject
to the most daring depredation. The robbers
were indeed so numerous, that they were divided
into classes. The river pirates formed the most
desperate class. They plundered ships and
Small craft in the night; and have been known
to weigh a ship's anchor, and hoist it with the
cable into the boat; and when discovered, to
tell the captain what they had robbed him of, and
row away bidding him a good night. The night
plunderers consisted of watchmen, who, formed
into gangs of five or six each, used to lighten
every vessel they could get to of some portable
articles of her cargo, while a receiver was always
in readiness to purchase the spoils of the night.
These night plunderers have frequently been
known to cut lighters adrift, and follow them.
down the river, to a place where they could
more successfully carry off the cargo, which they
have sometimes done completely. The light
horsemen confined their depredations to West
India ships, and originated in the connivance of
the revenue officers at a connexion established
between the mates of the vessels and some re-
ceivers on shore. In all West India ships there
is a quantity of sugar spilt in unloading the
cargo, which is claimed as a perquisite by the
mates, and sold. The purchasers of these
sweepings, however, by a bribe of forty or fifty
guineas, often succeeded in getting on board the
ships, and opening the hogsheads and taking as
much as they could, by the assistance of coopers
and watermen, carry away with them. They
were provided with black bags, which they call-
ed black strap, and these were often filled and
emptied during a night. Puncheons of rum were
also drawn by means of a small pump. The
heavy horsemen, another class of river plunderers,
went on board ships, either by connivance, or
in the day, under the pretext of selling some ar-
ticles. They were provided with peculiar dresses,
which had pockets all round, and bag bladders
and pouches affixed in various parts, which they
filled with sugar, coffee, cocoa, or any portable
articles they could lay their hands on. In the
night they would frequently plunder more large-
ly, and boats, rowed by what were called game
watermen, were constantly near the ships, ready
to receive the stolen property and conduct them
on shore. So active were the heavy horsemen,
that they frequently made five guineas a night;
and an apprentice to the game waterman has
been known to keep a country house and a sad-
dle horse. The mud larks, the scuffle hunters,
the copemen, and several other classes of depre-
dators, were not confined to any particular
branch of plunder, but were ready, either as
principals or auxiliaries on all occasions.
The coal-heavers, of whom there were 1200 or
1400 constantly engaged on the river, were in
the constant practice of each man taking his sack
of two or three bushels of coals when he went on
shore during the unloading of a ship. Neither
the captain nor the owner of the ship and cargo
durst resist their taking what they considered as
a perquisite, and when they found a boat ready
to sink with their plunder, they conceived them-
selves the injured party. - -
Some idea may be formed of the success of
these plunderers, when it is stated, that the loss
of various classes of property on º pre-
- Q
º
180
L O N D O N.
vious to the formation of the docks and the es-
tablisment of marine police, was £500,000 an-
nually, of which, according to an averaged
estimate of some years, the West India trade
suffered annually to the amount of £232,000;
the East Indies, £25,000; the United States,
f30,000; and the coal trade alone, £20,000.
Such was the state of the cargoes in the river
Thames, until, in the year 1797, Mr. Harriott
formed a plan of marine police, which, by the
aid of Mr. Colquhoun, he was enabled to carry
into effect; and so successful was the system thus
formed that in the first year the saving to the
West India merchants alone was upwards of
f:100,000, and to the revenue more than half that
sum. In the same period, no less than 2200
culprits were convicted for misdemeanors on the
river; while now the instances of street robberies
are so rare, or so unimportant, that they are
scarcely ever recorded. .
Various amusements have at different times
taken place on the Thames, adapted to the taste
and character of the age. The water quintain
has, however, altogether ceased, and at present
rowing and sailing matches seem the only sports
with which it is occupied. Of these, one of the
most remarkable is the competition for a coat
and silver badge, which Dogget the player ap-
pointed to be rowed for, annually, by six water-
men, on the 1st of August, being the anniversary
of the accession of the House of Hanover to the
throne. The competitors set out on a signal given,
at that time of the tide when the current is strong-
est against them, and row from the Old Swan, near
London Bridge, to the White Swan, in Chelsea.
Smaller rivers and supply of water.—Nothing
has contributed so essentially towards preserving
the health of the inhabitants of London from
disease, or their property from conflagration, as
the abundant supply of water with which every
street, and even every house, is furnished. Be-
fore the metropolis had become extensive, it was
watered by several small brooks, independent of
the Thames. One of these, which was succes-
sively called the river of Wells, Turnmill Brook,
and the river Fleete, or Fleet Ditch, ran from
Bagnigge Wells, through Clerkenwell, between
Saffron Hill and Turnmill Street, under Holborn
Bridge, and down Fleet Market into the Thames.
It was once very considerable, turned a great
number of mills in its course, and must have
been navigable from the Thames to Holborn at
the least; for, in a parliament, held at Carlisle
in 1307, the earl of Lincoln complained, that
‘whereas, in times past, the course of water run-
ning at London under Oldbourn-bridge and
Fleet-bridge into the Thames, had been of such
breadth and depth, that ten or twelve ships'
navies at once, with merehandizes, were wont to
come to the aforesaid bridge of Fleet, and some
of them to Oldbourn Bridge; now the same
course, by filth of the tanners and such others,
was sore decayed.’ Tradition would carry the
navigation much higher, since it relates, that an
anchor was found in this river at Pancras-wash,
where the road branches off to Somer's-town.
This river is now, by rapid rains or sudden thaws,
sometimes much overflowed, as was the case in
1809 and 1817–18.
Another small river, called Wallbrook, from
the wall thrown over it, ran through the city in a
serpentine direction, from the north down by
the present Mansion House, and the street now
called Wallbrook, into the Thames. This brook,
which was necessarily crossed by numerous
bridges, was vaulted over with brick, and in .
many parts covered with houses.
A third rivulet, which was called Langbourn,
on account of its length, originated in an over-
flowing spring in Fenchurch Street, which ran
down Lombard Street, and turned south down
Sherbone Lane (then called Sharebourne, from
its sharing or dividing the bourne or brook into
Small rills of water), whence it flowed into the
Thames. This brook was stopped at the source,
though its name is still retained in Langbourn-
ward.
, Oldbourn, now Holborn, was a brook which
issued from a spring near Middle Row, and ran
down at Holborn Bridge, into the river Fleet.
In the suburbs were several very excellent
wells, as Holywell, Skinner's-well, Clement's-
well, Clerkenwell (so called from the parish-
clerks of London assembling there annually to
act plays or interludes, founded on Scripture),
with several other smaller wells. To the wells
and the brooks are to be added pools, which,
though not contributing to the health of the city,
supplied water for various uses. Of these the
principal was in Smithfield, and was called
Horsepool, on account of the inhabitants water-
ing horses there. This pool, which was at one
time walled round with brick, was filled up in
the improvements that took place in Smithfield
after the fire of London. Near St. Giles's church,
Cripplegate, there was a large pool, in which
Anne of Lodbury was drowned in the year 1244.
North of Holywell there was a pool, called
Agnes le Clair; and, not far from it, another
sheet of water, which was called Perilous Pond,
on account of several youths who went to swim
in it having been drowned. This Perilous Pond
has since been converted into a bath, under the
name of Peerless Pool. . .
The pools being filled up, and the brooks
covered, the inhabitants found it necessary to
look to other sources, for a supply of water. In
1236 one Gilbert Sandford obtained a grant from
Henry III., to allow him to convey water from
the town of Tyburn, by pipes of lead, into the
city. The work was soon carried into effect, and
a leaden pipe, of six inches bore, conveyed the
water, from six wells in the neighbourhood of
Tyburn, to conduits that were erected to receive
it in various parts of the city. The first, and one
of the principal conduits, was in West Cheap,
now Cheapside, and was erected in 1285: it was
a cistern of lead, castellated with stone. Other
conduits and bosses were erected in several parts
of the town. •
In 1438 Sir William Eastfield, knight of the
Bath, then lord-mayor, brought water from
Highbury Barn, as well as from Tyburn, to
London, and caused conduits to be erected in
Fleet Street, Aldermanbury, and Cripplegate.
In 1535 the common council granted a sum
of money for bringing water from . Hackney
to Aldgate, where a conduit was erected; and,
L O N D O N.
18]
this being insufficient, fresh supplies were after-
wards obtained from St. Mary-le-bourn, Hackney,
Hampstead Heath, Muswell Hill, &c. One of
the principal conduits was between Snow Hill
and Holborn, and was built, or rather rebuilt, by
William Lamb, a gentleman of the chapel to
king Henry VIII. in 1577, at an expense of
f1500, . This conduit was supplied from another,
erected by the same gentleman at the north end
of Red-Lion Street, called Lamb's Conduit.
The conduits were formerly visited and in-
spected, with great ceremony, by the lord mayor
and corporation. Strype relates, that, on the
18th of September 1562, the lord mayor, alder-
men, and many worshipful persons, after inspect-
ing the conduit heads, hunted a hare, which
they killed, and then proceeded to a dinner at
the head of the conduit, where they were hand-
somely entertained by the chamberlain. After
dinner they went to hunt the fox: “there was,’
Says he, ‘a great cry for a mile, and, at length,
the hounds killed him at the end of St. Giles's,
with great hallowing and blowing of horns at
his death.’ But, though the number of con-
duits was considerable, they were found insuffi-
cient, and many citizens were obliged to fetch
their water from the Thames. In those times,
persons were regularly employed to convey
water from the river, or the conduits, to the
houses, which they did in vessels, called tankards,
that held about three gallons. They were hooped
round, like a pail, and were, in figure, like the
frustum of a cone. They had a small iron handle
at the upper end, like an alehouse pot, and, being
fitted with a bung or stopple, were easily porta-
ble. These water-bearers and their tankards are
alluded to in Ben Jonson's comedy of “Every
Man in his Humor.”
In the year 1582 one Peter Maurice, a Ger-
man, proposed to supply the city with water by
means of machinery. In order to prove his
skill, Maurice made an experiment before the
lord mayor and aldermen, by throwing the water
over the steeple of St. Magnus's church, with
which they were so much pleased that they
granted him the use of the Thames water, and
one arch of London Bridge, on lease for 500
years, on condition of paying 10s. yearly to
the city. He then erected his water-works on
the north side of the river; and, finding that he
had not room enough, he procured, two years
afterwards, the grant of another arch of the
bridge for a similar term. By these works, which
supplied a considerable portion of the east of
the city, Maurice and his descendants made a
large fortune. In the year 1701 the proprietor
sold his right in the London Bridge water-works
for £38,000 to Richard Soams; who, obtaining
a renewal of the leases from the city, and the
liberty of occupying two more arches of the
bridge, divided the property into 300 shares of
f500 each, an operation by which he made a
clear profit of above £100,000. -
During the reigns of queen Elizabeth and king
James I. acts of parliament were granted for the
better supplying of the metropolis with water;
but they were not carried into effect, until Mr.
Hugh Middleton, a native of Denbigh, and gold-
smith of London, undertook to bring the water
from Chadwelland Amwell, nearWarein Hertford-
shire, a distance of upwards of twenty miles. The
work was begun on the 28th of February, 1608,
and concluded in five years. The course of the
river extends about thirty-nine miles, being in a
serpentine direction, and there are upwards of
200 bridges over it. The great reservoir, called the
New-River Head, is at Islington, into which the
water was first let in, on Michaelmas day 1613,
the day on which Sir Thomas Middleton, the
brother of Sir Hugh, was elected mayor. On
the opening of the basin, the lord mayor, the
lord mayor elect, the aldermen, &c., rode to see
it; when a company of sixty laborers, well and
uniformly clothed, preceded by drums, and ac-
coutred with spades, shovels, and pick-axes,
marched twice or thrice round the cistern, and
then presented themselves before the visitors,
when one of the workmen delivered an ad-
dress, written for the occasion, which thus con-
cluded:—
Now for the fruits; then flow forth, precious
spring,
So long and dearly sought for, and now bring
Comfort to all that love thee Loudly sing,
And with thy crystal murmurs struck together,
Bid all thy true well-wishers welcome hither.
At the conclusion of these words, “the flood-
gate flew open, and the stream ran swiftly into
the cistern, with drums and trumpets sounding,
and guns firing in a triumphant manner.’
The main pipes of the New River company
were originally of wood, but they are now almost
entirely of cast iron. A large basin has been
constructed in the Hampstead-road, which re-
ceives its water from Islington, in order to supply
the western parts of the town. The number of
houses supplied by the New River is upwards of
56,000, which is continually increasing, particu-
larly since the water-works have been recently
taken down at London Bridge. -
The New River was, however, long an unpro-
fitable speculation, and, for nineteen years after
it was finished, the seventy-two shares, into
which it was divided, did not yield a profit of
more than 12s. each. These shares, in the course
of time, were sold as high as £14,000 each; and
although, at the present moment, they are un-
productive, in consequence of the great expense
incurred in substituting iron for wooden pipes,
yet they are considered valuable. As for the
projector of this great work, his only reward was
a ruined fortune, and a barren title. Mr. Mid-
dleton was created a baronet, and there is an
entry in one of the Cottonian MSS. in the British
Museum, stating, that the fees of the creation
were to be remitted to him. .
There are several other water companies in
London and its suburbs, the relative importance
of which will be seen from the quantity of water
supplied by each, which we are enabled to col-
lect from the evidence adduced before a commit-
tee of the house of commons in 1821.
In 1808 and 1809 the New River, on an ave-
rage of the two years, supplied London with
78,110,000 hbds., or 4,217,940,000 galls. of water
annually, to 59,058 houses and buildings, occu-
pied by 42,960 tenants, who paid an annual:
182
L O N D O N.
rental to the company of £80,782. In 1820 the
New River, including the York Building water-
works, established in the reign of Charles II.,
supplied 67,000,000 hlids. to 52,082 houses, and
38,535 tenants, on a rental of £68,297.
In the same year the Chelsea water-works,
which were formed in 1721, supplied 7,533,900
hhds.; the London Bridge works 26,322,705;
the East London works 29,516,333; the Grand
Junction water company 13,104,100; and the
West Middlesex works 11,904,000. These form
an aggregate, in the year 1820, of 155,381,038
hhds. of water, supplied to 120,732 houses, and
yielding a rental of £175,890 annually. So effec-
tive is the machinery of these water-works, that
they can force water into the rooms of every
house, to the height of 100 feet if required.
The docks.-Connected both with the com-
merce of the metropolis and the river is the
establishment of closed docks, which have been
of the most decided service to the revenue and
trade of the country—to quote the words of the
report of the parliamentary committee on the
West India docks, in June 1823, the value of
these institutions, whether in giving facility to
commerce, in securing the collection of the reve-
nue, or in protecting the interests of the mer-
chants, is so unquestionable, that it would be an
unnecessary waste of time to enter into any de-
tailed discussion on the subject.’
The insecurity in which the property of the
river was placed, and the daring plunder com-
mitted on it, which has already been noticed, no
doubt first led to the formation of the commer-
cial docks. The most important of these are
the East India, the West India, and the London
docks; there is also the East Country dock at
Rotherhithe, near the king's victualling-office,
which is appropriated to the Baltic and American
trade, the fisheries, &c. It will contain eighty
ships.
The West India docks are situated in that
peninsular part of the environs of London called
the Isle of Dogs, and they communicate with
the Thames at Limehouse on the west, and at
Blackwall on the east. They were commenced
on the 12th of June 1800, and finished in August
1802. The docks, and the ground belonging to
them, occupy an area of 204 acres. The dock
for unloading inwards is 2600 feet long, 510
wide, and twenty-nine feet deep; it is built
round with brick-work five feet thick: the dock
for loading outwards is similarly constructed, and
of the same dimensions except in the width,
which is only 400 feet narrower than the other.
The entrance basin at Blackwall, which commu-
nicates by means of two locks with the import
and export docks, occupies a space of six acres:
the basin on the Limehouse side, which also has
a communication with both docks, is somewhat
smaller. The warehouses which surround the
docks are necessarily of immense magnitude, and
they are built in a style of neatness that would
render them an ornament to any part of the me-
tropolis. The expense of these docks, which
have rendered an inestimable service to its trade,
was £1,200,000.
During the construction of these docks, the
ballast which formed a barrier between the dock
and the Thames was driven away, and, the water
rushing in from the river, several persons were
killed. The largest dock was completed and
opened for the reception of the water on the 3d
of August 1802; and such is the extent of this
artificial lake, that, although the water flowed in
at the rate of from 500 to 1000 gallons in a
second, yet the great dock was not completely
filled a sufficient depth until six o'clock the next
morning, being ten hours. On the 3d of Sep-
tember the grand ceremony of receiving the first
ship took place, when the Henry Addington, a
new-built West India vessel of 350 tons burden,
was towed in by ropes amidst the cheers of at
least 10,000 spectators. -
The proprietors of the West India docks are
an incorporated body, under the title of the West
India Dock Company, and they are reimbursed
by a tonnage on the vessels that enter the docks,
and a per centage for landing, weighing, and
warehousing the cargoes. Near the docks is a
school, established by the company for the ac-
commodation and instruction of apprentices in
the West India trade during the time that the
vessels are in dock. The boys are taught reading,
writing, and arithmetic, and the elementary prin-
ciples of mathematics and navigation.
Parallel with the docks there is a canal, which
enables vessels to save a distance of a mile and
three quarters by avoiding the circuitous naviga-
tion round the Isle of Dogs. This canal, which
is three quarters of a mile in length, and 200 feet
in width, was cut pursuant to an act of parliament
passed in 1799, at an expense of £133,849 12s.
6d. For the first three years after it was formed
a small duty was charged on all vessels that passed
through it.
The East India docks are farther down the
river than the West India docks, though at no
great distance from them: they consist also of
an import and an export dock; the former,
covering an area of eighteen acres and a half, is
1410 feet long, 560 wide, and thirty feet deep;
the latter, which is of equal depth, is 780 feet
long, 520 wide, and covers a space of nine acres
and a half. The entrance basin occupies an area
of two acres and three quarters. The largest
dock is sufficiently capacious to admit at the
same time twenty-eight East Indiamen, with
double that number of smaller vessels. When
the goods are landed, they are conveyed along
the East India dock and Commercial Roads to
the company's warehouses in covered waggons,
which are well secured against all depredations.
The London dock, situated in the parish of
St. John, Wapping, was formed for the same
purpose as the East and West India docks-—the
facilitating the unloading of vessels, and the safe
custody of the cargoes. This dock, which is not
confined to any particular branch of commerce,
is 1262 feet long by 699 wide, and in depth
twenty-nine feet. It is capable of containing 200
sail of merchantmen, and was constructed at an
expense of £1,200,000. The dock, which is
entered through a basin, opposite Wapping Old
Stairs, capable of containing several sail, was
opened on the 1st of February 1805, when the
Perseverance of Liverpool, the oldest vessel in
the Oporto trade, decorated with the flags of all
L O N Do N. 183
nations, not excepting the French, with whom
we were at war, sailed majestically into the dock,
which is nearly surrounded by a quay of 100 feet
in width. The warehouses are immense, parti-
cularly two appropriated to the reception of to-
bacco, which are under the direction of the offi-
cers of the customs. One of these warehouses is
762 feet long and 160 wide; the other 250 feet
long and 200 wide. Underneath these ware-
houses are cellars, in which there are seldom less
than 7000 pipes of wine. The London dock
water is said to be very injurious to health, and
a modern historian of the metropolis gravely
assures us, that it “never fails of proving fatal
to persons long immersed in it,” a quality not
peculiar entirely to the London dock water: cer-
tainly, however, the verdigris generated here will
act as a poison on the stomach; and it is remark-
able that a person, who was only eight minutes
under water, was not long since drowned.
THE BRIDGES.—At what period a bridge was
first thrown over the Thames, between London and
Southwark, seems doubtful. The first notice we
have of its existence occurs in the laws of Ethel-
red II, which fix the tolls to be paid on all vessels
coming up to the bridge. William of Malmsbury
also mentions this bridge, in his account of the
sieges which the city sustained on the invasion
of England by the Danes, under Sweyn and Ca-
nute. That the bridge was erected between the
years 993 and 1016 is inferred from the circum-
stance, that in the former year, Unlaf the Dane
is said to have sailed much higher up the river;
and that, in the latter year, Canute's progress was
impeded by it. -
The first bridge, which consisted entirely of
timber, was not, as Stowe affirms, constructed
by the convent of St. Mary Overy, but at the
public expense, and in a different place from the
present one, as we learn from a charter of Wil-
liam the Conqueror to Westminster Abbey,
which mentions it as directly opposite to St. Bo-
tolph's gate and wharf. The bridge was burnt
in 1136, but not totally destroyed; it was re-
paired, but decayed so rapidly, that in the year
1163 it was taken down, and entirely rebuilt of
timber. The expense of keeping it in repair was,
however, so great, that in 1176 a new one of
stone was begun to be erected on the present site.
The most active promoter and superintendent of
this building was a priest, called Peter of Cole-
church, who was well skilled in architecture, and
who has hence acquired the credit of being its
founder; but the king, Henry II., the archbishop
of Canterbury, and several merchants of London,
contributed largely to it. The aid granted by
IIenry II. to the bridge was in the form of a tax
on wool, levied for the purpose; and hence arose
a vulgar tradition, that ‘London-bridge was built
on woolpacks.’ It was constructed on piles,
principally of elm, which have remained for six
centuries without material decay. On the piles,
long beams of timber, ten inches thick, were
placed, strongly bolted together, and the lower-
most stones were embedded in pitch, in order to
resist the water.
In 1202 king John appointed Isenbert of
Xainctes to finish the bridge, Peter of Cole-
church being either dead or incapacitated from
attending to it. The same monarch gave the
profits and rents of several plots of ground, sold
or let for building, towards the building and re-
pairing of the bridge; and, during the same
reign, the master mason built a large chapel on
the centre arch, at his own expense, which w
dedicated to St. Thomas à Becket. -
The erection of chapels on bridges is of the
highest antiquity, and, no doubt, originated from
the custom of making sacrifices on bridges,
whence Plutarch has derived the word Pontifex.
The most remarkable bridge of this sort was at
Droitwich, where the high road passed through
the chapel, and divided the congregation from
the reading-desk and pulpit. The priests attached
to the chapels were commissioned, as an indis-
pensable part of their office, to keep the bridge
in repair; and hence, although Stowe is wrong
in stating, that London Bridge was built by the
priests of St. Mary Overy, it is not improbable
that they were enjoined to repair it, in accord-
ance with the ancient custom. The chapel on
London Bridge was at first endowed for two
priests and four clerks, and in the reign of Henry
VI. it maintained four chaplains.
Four years after the bridge was finished, it was
the scene of a very tragical accident. In the
night of the 10th of July, 1213, a fire broke out
in Southwark; when the bridge became crowded
with people, all hastening from the city, either
to witness or extinguish the conflagration. The
flames, catching St. Mary Overy's church, were,
by a strong southerly wind, extended to the
Southwark end of the bridge: those who were
foremost in the advancing throng endeavoured,
but vainly, to fall back from the destroying ele-
ment; the multitude on the London side, igno-
rant of the danger, continued to press unyield-
ingly forward, and, in this tumultuous conflict,
numbers were trampled to death; others leaped
into the river, to find only a watery grave; while
many more perished miserably in the flames.
Not less than 3000 lives are stated to have been
lost on the occasion. It is supposed, that at this
period the only building on the bridge was the
chapel of St. Thomas à Becket; nay, it has been
said, that even as late as 1395, “the bridge, at
that time, was only coped on each side, and not
replenished with houses.” (Seymour and Mar-
chant). That, at least, the last statement is erro.
neous, is, however, quite certain; for among
the records, preserved in the tower, there are
letters patent of Edward I., by which, in 1280,
he authorises a collection to be made throughout
the realm, for the repair of London Bridge,
which is there described to be in such a ruinous
condition, that ‘unless speedy remedy be put,
not only the sudden fall of the bridge, but also
the destruction of innumerable people dwelling
on it, may suddenly be feared.’ :-
The subscriptions obtained under the letters
patent of Edward I. being found inadequate to
the execution of the repairs wanted, Edward,
in 1281, ordered a toll to be levied, during three
years, on all persons crossing the bridge with
merchandise, and on “every saleable pack.’
Whenever it was necessary for the sovereign
to cross the bridge, he was treated with great
magnificence by the citizens, Richard II. and
184
L O N D O N.
his young queen, Anne of Bohemia, were met
by the citizens ‘ at the gate of the brigge of Lon-
don,’ says an old chronicler, “where they pre-
sented him with a mylk-white stede, sadled and
bridled, and trapped with cloth of gold and rede
parted togedre; and the quene, a palfry all white,
and in the same way trapped with white and
rede, while all the condites were rounen with
wyne, bothe whyte and rede, for all maner of
peple to drynke of.”
In 1282, on the breaking up of the river after
a great frost, five arches of the bridge were car-
ried away; and, though these appear to have been
immediately restored, yet in 1289 the bridge
was again so much decayed, that people were
afraid to pass over it. A new collection was,
therefore, made throughout the kingdom for its
repair, and that yielding, as before, but little, it
was found necessary, in 1298, to revive the toll
on goods and passengers.
The bridge was now so encumbered with
houses, that the broad way between them did not
exceed twelve feet in breadth; yet it appears to
have been employed as a sort of joint mart for
the inhabitants of the city and those of the bo-
rough. The first order of common council upon
record is one of 1277, prohibiting ‘any market
from being held on London Bridge.’ What had
been a theatre for the quarrels of costermongers,
became afterwards the chosen spot of jousts of a
higher order. On St. George's day, 1395, there
was a grand jousting match upon London Bridge,
at which the lord Wells engaged to maintain the
renown of England against all comers. A stout
Scotsman, David, earl of Crawford, entered the
lists, and at the third course, threw the English
champion out of his saddle.
In 1471, when Falconbridge was repulsed in
his attempt to seize the city, several houses on
the bridge were burnt down by the disappointed
invaders. The next remarkable conflagration
took place in 1632, when forty houses were de-
stroyed. The Thames being frozen over at the
time, water could not be obtained, and the fire
continued burning in the vaults and cellars up-
wards of a week. All the houses destroyed on
this occasion had not been replaced, when the
great fire of 1666 caused a still greater devasta-
tion. -
Amidst the general improvements for which
that calamity paved the way, the bridge was not
neglected. The whole of the houses, from one
end to the other, were taken down, with the ex-
ception of one house at the north end, which
had been constructed in Holland, and was called
the Tower of London Bridge, or the Nonsuch,
from its not having a single nail in it, but being
pinned together with wooden pegs. New ones
were erected of a uniform breadth and eleva-
tion; and three vacancies left at equal distances,
from which a view of the river might be ob-
tained. The Nonsuch occupying the whole
breadth of the bridge, the archway under it was
raised to the height of two stories, and over it
the following inscription was placed:—
Anno MDCLXXXV., et primo Jacobi II. Regis.
This street was opened and enlarged from twelve to
the width of twenty feet.
Sir James Smith, knight, Lord Mayor.
The bridge itself consisted, as at present, of
nineteen arches, the highest of which rises sixty
feet above the water level.
The three widest of these arches used to be
called The Navigable Locks, from their being the
only ones which afforded an easy passage for ves-
sels. The one nearest to the London side was par-
ticularly distinguished by the name of the Rock
Lock, in consequence of a strange imagination
among the vulgar, that there was a growing or
vegetating species of rock beneath the water at
this spot. It appears, from many subsequent
observations, that this growing rock was nothing
more than a collection of fallen materials; some
former arch or coping—which, by serving as
a nucleus for the deposits of millions of tides,
has given rise to the popular and metaphorical
notion.
The arch nearest of all to the London side was
formed of a drawbridge; and, as late as 1722,
such were the ideas which then prevailed of the
means by which the invasion of enemies is best
resisted, that the corporation did not grudge the
expense of laying down a new one, nor the pub-
lic the interruption occasioned by this idle pro-
ject for adding to the security of the capital.
Besides the Nonsuch Tower at the city end of
the bridge, there was another at the Southwark
end, and to each there were gates with pos-
terns for foot passengers. It was on the last of
these towers that the heads of traitors in later
times were exposed, when the citizens of London,
falling into a distaste for such marks of civilisa-
tion, chose to remove them from their own end
of the bridge. As late as 1598 Hentzner, the
German traveller, relates, that he counted on it
above thirty heads.
In 1756 an act of parliament was obtained
for improving the bridge, and a temporary wooden
bridge was constructed while the repairs were
going on ; but, with the fate common to wooden
bridges, the latter was destroyed by fire the 11th
April, 1759. The two centre arches of the stone
bridge were now thrown into one ; and the re-
maining houses, which were principally occupied
by pin and needle makers, were taken down,
and the bridge put into that state in which it
now appears. * ,
On the opening of the great arch, the excava-
tion around and under the starlings was so con-
siderable, that the bridge was thought to be in
great danger of falling. Mr. Smeaton, the en-
gineer, was then in Yorkshire, but an express
was sent for him, and he arrived with the utmost
despatch; when the apprehensions of the bridge
falling were so general, that few persons would
pass over or under it. Mr. Smeaton having as-
certained the state of the starlings, and called the
committee together, recommended that they
should re-purchase the stones that had been taken
from the middle pier, then lying on Moorfields,
and throw them into the river to guard the star-
lings. Nothing shows the fears entertained for the
stability of the bridge more than the alacrity with
which his advice was adopted. The stones were
re-purchased that day, and on the following
morning the work commenced, which in all pro-
bability preserved the bridge from falling, and
secured it until more effectual methods could be
1, Ö N
D O N. 185
taken. We need hardly add, that it is now
under sentence of death; and that its successor is
likely to claim our attention before this work
closes.
London Bridge is the greatest thoroughfare
across the river. When the Southwark Bridge
was projected, the directors attended one day in
July, 1811, in order to ascertain the extent of
this thoroughfare. On that day 89,640 foot pas-
sengers, 769 waggons, 2924 carts and drays, 1240
coaches, 485 gigs and taxed carts, and 764
horses, passed over it. .
It is in no small degree surprising that a city
like London, which had grown to such magni-
tude and opulence, and extended for miles along
both banks of a mighty stream, should, till so
late a period as the middle of last century, have
had but one bridge across the river. It makes
probable a statement of Strype's, which seems at
first sight very exaggerated, namely, that in his
time there were no less than 40,000 watermen
upon the rolls of the watermen's company; now
they do not much exceed 2000. The great in-
convenience which the inhabitants of Westmin-
ster suffered from the want of a bridge at that
end of the metropolis, led them at length, in
1734, to apply to parliament for powers to erect
one from New Palace Yard to the opposite shore
in the county of Surrey. Strong opposition was
made to the measure by the city, the inhabitants
of Southwark, the watermen, and the west
country bargemen, who were all liable to suffer
in their peculiar interests by such an erection;
but the interest of the public very properly pre-
vailed, and the act was granted. The first stone
of the bridge was laid on the 29th of January,
1738-9, by Henry, earl of Pembroke, and the
last on the 10th of November, 1750, by Thomas
Lediard, esq. It is from wharf to wharf about
1223 feet long; the width is about forty feet,
and on each side there is a high balustrade of
stone, with semi-octangular alcoves, to serve as
places of shelter from the rain. The free water
way under the arches extends to 870 feet; the
arches are fifteen in number; the centre one is
seventy-six feet wide; the others diminish in
width by four feet equally on each side; the two
smallest ones close in shore to the abutments are
each about twenty-five feet wide. The whole
edifice is of stone, and rests upon a gravel bed,
the piers having been sunk for that purpose to
from five to fourteen feet under the bed of the
river. When the work was nearly finished, in
consequence of the incautious' removal of some
gravel from the bed of the river, immediately
joining one of the piers, it sunk so far as to
damage the incumbent arch to such a degree,
that it was thought proper to have it pulled
down and rebuilt. But for this interruption, the
bridge would have been finished three years
earlier. The total expense of the bridge, which
was defrayed by parliament, amounted to
£389,500. The architect was an ingenious
Frenchman of the name of Labelye. -
While Westminster Bridge had no rival but
that of London, or only Blackfriars, it was
esteemed one of the noblest structures of the
kind in the known world; but since the erection
near it of Waterloo Bridge, it seems to have lost
t
much of the grandeur which it possessed ; and,
although not a century old, it has suffered greatly
from the decomposition of its stone.
When a person whispers against the wall of
any of the alcoves of this bridge, the sound is
very distinctly conveyed across to the corres-
ponding alcove on the opposite side, notwith-
standing all the noise occasioned by the passing
of carriages, &c. §
Blackfriars, originally called Pitt's Bridge,
was begun in 1760, and occupied nine years in
its erection. “On the last day of October,’ says
an inscription on a tin plate on the foundation
stone of the edifice, ‘in the year 1760, and in the
beginning of the most auspicious reign of George
III., Sir Thomas Chitty, knight, lord mayor,
laid the first stone of this bridge, undertaken by
the common council of London (in the height of
an expensive war), for the public accommo-
dation and ornament of the city; Robert Mylne
being the architect; and that there may remain
to posterity a monument of this city's affection
to the man, who by the strength of his genius,
the steadiness of his mind, and a kind of happy
contagion of his probity and spirit (under the
divine favor and fortunate auspices of George II.)
recovered, augmented, and secured the British
empire in Asia, Africa, and America, and res-
tored the ancient reputation and influence of his
country among the nations of Europe; the citi-
zens of London have unanimously voted this
bridge to be inscribed with the name of William
Pitt.” How evanescent a thing is this city affec-
tion! Of all the thousands who now pass this
bridge daily, how few are aware of the fact which
this inscription records ! The compliment which
the citizens of 1760 unanimously voted, the
citizens of later times have refused to confirm,
and Pitt's bridge is now styled, beyond all hope
of alteration, Blackfriars. -
The expense of this bridge was small when
compared with that of Westminster, and still
more with other bridges erected at a later period.
The total cost was only £260,000, which was all
defrayed by a toll imposed on passengers for
several years. Blackfriars bridge is shorter and
not so high as Westminster, but the differences
are not so great as to account for the latter hav-
ing cost above £100,000 more. The length of
this bridge from wharf to wharf is 995 feet; and
its width forty-two. It has nine elliptical arches,
the centre one of which is 100 feet wide. Over
each pier there is a square recess, supported by
Ionic pillars and pilasters, which have a very
light and ornamental effect on the appearance of
the bridge, when viewed from the river. Black-
friars, unlike Westminster Bridge, rests on piles
driven under water, and cutoff level with the bed
of the foundations, by a machinery of Mr.
Mylne the architect's invention.
The erection of this bridge was attended with
corresponding improvements of great impor-
tance to the adjacent parts of the metropolis.
What is now called Bridge Street, one of the
most spacious and elegant in the metropolis, was
of old the channel of one of its greatest nuisances;
and thither, as to the veriest sink in town, has
Pope made the genius of Dulness dismiss her
children – -
186
L O N D O N.
— By Bridewell all descend,
As morning prayer and flagellation end),
o where Fleet ditch, with disemboguing streams,
Rolls the large tribute of dead dogs to Thames;
†he king of Dykes! than whom no sluice of mud
With deeper sable blots the silver flood.
In 1734 and 1737 this ditch had been arched
over as far as the obelisk at the commencement
of the present Bridge Street; and the arching
being now continued onward to the bridge, every
visible trace of the “sluice of mud' was remov-
ed. Altogether, this forms by far the finest en.
trance into the metropolis. When a stranger
ascends the bridge, the views of the city which
burst upon him on either hand are singularly
grand and picturesque. Before him, on the right,
he beholds the mighty dome of St. Paul's, and
beyond it spires and turrets thickening into a
yery forest towards the east; on the right, the
lofty terraces of Somerset House and the Adelphi,
Westminster Abbey's venerable towers, and
Waterloo, the first of bridges. As the opening
of this bridge entirely ruined a Sunday ferry,
established at this place for the benefit of the
poor of the fraternity of watermen, the bridge
Committee very handsomely agreed to transfer
£13,650 consolidated 3 per cents. to the rulers
of the company by way of recompense for the
loss; the interest of which is now appropriated
to the same uses as the profits which were
derived from the ferry. • -
To defray the expense of lighting, watching,
cleansing, and repairing this bridge, there is a
particular fund set apart, consisting of a small
balance of consolidated 3 per cent. annuities,
left after payment of the expense of erecting the
bridge, the rent of some premises, and £15,000
raised by bonds in the credit of the Orphan's
Fund, by virtue of an act of the 52 Geo. III.,
and assigned to the chamberlain for this special
purpose. The revenue of this fund in the year
1821-2 was £882 12s. 103d.; the expenditure
only £522 16s. 6d.
It has been well observed, of Waterloo Bridge,
that it is ‘a work not less pre-eminent among the
bridges of all ages and countries, than the event
which it will commemorate is unrivalled in the
annals of ancient or modern history.’ The cele-
brated Canova, when on a visit to this country,
declared that it was worth a journey from
the remotest corner of the earth to behold it.
M. Dupin, another intelligent foreigner, describes
it as a monument worthy of the Sesostrises and
the Caesars. The original projector of this bridge
was Mr. George Dodd; but quarrelling with the
company, who subscribed the capital to carry
the plan into effect, he was put aside as soon as
real business commenced, and the execution of
the work confided to Mr. Rennie. It was at first
proposed that it should be of wood, and that
with the profits arising from a toll on this bridge,
which were expected to be immense, one of
stone should be afterwards erected; but, after
struggling for three sessions to carry a bill to
this effect through parliament, the company
found the opposition to it so strong, that they
abandoned the project, and, having agreed to
undertake the building of one of stone, obtained
the necessary powers. For this purpose they
*
increased their capital from £100,000 to
£500,000; and so sanguine were they of being
still amply remunerated by the tolls, that the
additional capital was all raised among them-
selves, and shares were at a guinea premium
next day. The expense of the building, however,
so much exceeded the estimate, that the com-
pany was under the necessity of raising about
f500,000 more, by means of annuities on the tolls;
and any chance of a dividend on the original
shares has been thus postponed to so remote a
period, that they have sunk in the market
to a merely nominal price.
Waterloo, or Strand Bridge, as it was first
called, consists of nine elliptical arches, each of
120 feet span, and thirty-five feet elevation. It
is of the same width exactly as Blackfriars, and
longer within the abutments than Westminster
bridge by nineteen feet. The roadway is per-
fectly level, and in this respect the bridge has a
decided advantage over every other on the river.
The arches and piers are built of large blocks of
granite, with short counter-arches over each pier.
The adjustment of the equilibrium throughout
the whole structure is said to be singularly per-
fect, the curve of equilibrium passing every
where extremely near to the middle of the blocks.
In building the arches, the stones were rammed
together with great force, so that, on the removal
of the centres, none of the arches sunk more
than an inch and a half. In short, “the accuracy
of the whole execution seems to have vied with
the beauty of the design, and with the skill of
the arrangement, to render the bridge of Water-
loo a monument, of which the metropolis of the
British empire will have abundant reason to be
proud for a long series of successive ages.’
The rapidity with which this great work was
erected is not the least remarkable feature in its
history. The foundation stone was laid on old
Michaelmas-day in 1811, and on the 18th of
June, 1816, the first anniversary of the battle of
Waterloo, the glorious memory of which it
is designed to commemorate, it was opened with
great pomp by the prince regent in person,
accompanied by his royal brother, the duke
of York, the duke of Wellington, and a long
train of persons of the first distinction.
Vauxhall Bridge, near Vauxhall Gardens, and
hence called Vauxhall Bridge, was the first iron
bridge over the Thames, and the project of Mr.
Ralph Dodd, the father of the projector of Wa-
terloo Bridge; but, alike in their fates, he also
was deprived of the satisfaction of executing his
design. On his dismissal, in consequence of
some disagreement with the committee of persons
who subscribed for its erection, the aid of Mr.
Rennie was called in, and an act of parliament
procured for the construction of a bridge accord-
ing to a design which he proposed, and which
was universally approved of at the time. Before
operations commenced, however, a new plan was
brought under the notice of the committee by
Sir Samuel Bentham; and, after much discus-
sion, and, it is said, not a little intrigue, it was
resolved to adopt it in preference to the other.
Mr. Rennie on this withdrew from any further
concern in the undertaking, and the work was
begun under the direction of Sir Samuel Ben-
L O N D O. N.
187
tham. In a short time, however, the successful
knight was dismissed in his turn, and it was left
to Mr. J. Walker, an engineer of eminence, to
complete the structure. The first stone was laid
in 1813 by prince Charles, now duke of Bruns-
wick. It is said to have cost £300,000. See
IRoN BRIDGEs.
Southwark Bridge.—The great extension of
buildings in the borough of Southwark, St.George's
Fields, and other parts on the south of the river
bearing immediately on London Bridge and
Blackfriars, and consequent increase in the
thoroughfare over these bridges, suggested the
expediency of erecting an intermediate one from
the bottom of Queen Street, Cheapside. The
projectors of the undertaking were at the pains
to obtain an accurate account of the persons,
vehicles, and horses, that passed over these two
bridges in the course of a day, and the following
were the returns; the first taken on the 16th of
October, and the second on the 22d of October,
1810. -
LoNDoN BRIDGE.
Persons - tº 56,180
Coaches and Chaises 871
Gigs and Taxed Cart 520
Waggons & -> ſº 587
Carts and Drays . f 2,576
Horses e º 472
BLACKFRIARS BRIDGE.
Persons - e 37,280
Coaches and Chaises 626
Gigs and Taxed Carts 526
Waggons • º 389
Carts and Drays 1,269
Horses . º 433
Calculating that one-sixth of these passengers
would prefer the new bridge, the projectors saw
in the toll that might fairly be imposed an ample
return for the capital required for its erection.
A toll of 1d. from that proportion of foot-pas-
sengers alone would produce upwards of £60,000,
which would be more than sufficient to pay fifteen
per cent. on a capital of £400,000, for which
sum Mr. Rennie estimated that a bridge of cast-
iron with stone piers might be executed, which,
though of less costly materials, would rival in
magnificence and splendor that of Waterloo
itself. -
An act of parliament was accordingly obtain-
ed, in 1811, for the erection of the proposed
bridge; but a provision was inserted, that ope-
rations should not be commenced until £300,000
of the £400,000 admitted to be required were
subscribed. The unexpected calls which had
been made on the Waterloo Bridge Company
had however so far damped the ardor for such
speculations, that three years elapsed before the
requisite sum was made up, and the work actually
begun.
The Southwark Bridge consists of three im-
mense arches of cast iron; the span of the centre
one is 240 feet, and of the two side ones 210.
The abutment is of fine masonry connected by
dowels to prevent its sliding; and rests on grat-
ings of timber supported by oblique piles. The
piers stand on foundations nine or ten feet
below the present bed of the river, and are abun-
dantly secured by a flooring of timber placed on
piles. “When we consider,’ says M. Dupin,
‘the extent and elevation of the arches of the
bridge, and the magnitude of the elements that
compose it, what an idea does it not give to us of
the power of man! We exclaim involuntarily,
while we gaze on the chef d'oeuvre, ‘Behold the
Bridge of Giants!' .
... The subscribers are allowed by their act of in-
corporation to receive ten per cent. annually on
their shares; and the remainder of the receipts
is to be laid by and to accumulate until it shall
become sufficient to pay each proprietor double
the sum he subscribed, after which the bridge is
to be made free to the public.
The Tower.—Antiquaries are very eager to
give the tower of London a Roman origin;
and from the circumstance of an ingot of silver
having been discovered, in digging the founda–
tions for a new ordnance-office, have inferred,
that it was not only the capital fortress of the
Romans, but their treasury and their mint. One
historian, more minute than the rest, even con-
siders this identical ingot as a portion of the last
treasure sent into Britain for the payment of
the Roman forces ! That the Romans might have
fortified the banks of the Thames, on this spot, is
by no means improbable; but there is not the
slightest evidence that they ever did so; nor is
there any proof of a building having been
erected here, until the time of William the Con-
queror, who built the White Tower. In an age
when ecclesiastics were the principal architects,
and bishops exchanged their crozier for a baton,
, and marched at the head of armies, it was not
surprising that those who possessed the talents
should employ them in military architecture.
Hence the tower was actually built by Gun-
dulph, bishop of Rochester; but so obscure is
every thing connected with the early history of
this fortress, that even the date of its erection is
unknown, though it must have been begun about
the year 1080. * -
Whether any thing more than the White
Tower was built in the reign of William seems.
doubtful; but his successors, William Rufus and
Henry I., are known to have made considerable
additions to the original structure, and the for-
mer surrounded the tower with a wall in the year
1096. - t
Though the first object of the tower might be
as a fortress, yet its history is much more in-
teresting as a palace and as a state prison. As
a fortress, it has never had to defend itself against
a foreign enemy, though in the domestic trou-
bles, which at an early period of our history
agitated the metropolis, the tower was always.
considered of importance, and its garrison some-
times called into action; and Mandeville, in
whose family the custody of the tower was at
first made hereditary, defended it successively.
against the Londoners in the time of Stephen,
and even made a sortie from it as far as Ful-
ham, carrying off the bishop of London from
his palace. -
Longchamps, bishop of Ely, who was made
keeper of the tower during the absence of
Richard I, in the Holy Land, found it a place
of refuge when his tyranny had roused the no-
188 L O N D O N.
bles to resistance. He increased its fortifications,
and surrounded them with adeep ditch; and, had
he not been as cowardly as he was tyrannical,
might have maintained a long resistance; he
however surrendered the fortress, and sought per-
sonal safety in flight, disguised as a female.
Prince John, who had assisted the barons in
overthrowing the despotism of Longchamps, as-
suming the tyrant himself, had no sooner gained
the throne than he had to defend the tower
against them. At the commencement of hos-
tilities, the barons, to whom the citizens had
given the charge of the capital, laid siege to the
tower, which, though feebly garrisoned, de-
fended itself until the promise of a charter of
liberties was wrested from the reluctant monarch.
The archbishop of Canterbury was appointed
to hold the tower, in trust, until the king ful-
filled his promise, and signed Magna Charta.
In his subsequent attempts to violate the com-
pact he had signed, he was not able to gain pos-
session of this fortress, which was kept by the
archbishop until the arrival of prince Louis of
France, who had been invited to the English
throne, and to whom the tower was given up.
While John lived, and England was torn by in-
testine wars, the French prince entertained hopes
of the crown; but, on the death of that weak
and perfidious monarch, loyalty to the native
princes returned, and Louis was compelled to
give up the tower to Henry III, who aug-
mented its fortifications with an additional line,
and built the great hall, the royal chapel, a state
chamber, &c. This monarch was anxious to
make it suitable as a royal residence, by the
splendor and convenience of its apartments;
he was equally careful to render it secure, as a
place of retreat from the growing turbulence of
the barons. Some works of considerable mag-
nitude had been raised, and were barely com-
pleted, when, on St. George's day, in the year
1240, the foundations gave way, and the walls
and bulwarks, with a grand portal, fell down;
they were immediately rebuilt; when, if we are
to believe Matthew Paris, on the following year,
and on the same day and hour, the whole again
fell down. -
All design of enlarging or strengthening the
tower was now suspended for some time; and
indeed the king was unable to keep possession
of it; for in 1258 the parliament of Oxford
wrested the sceptre from his feeble hands, and
established a government of twenty-four barons,
and seized upon the tower. The measure was,
however, too violent, and the king resumed his au-
thority; but the tower was now rather a fortress,
where he could defend himself, than a palace;
and he at length yielded to the commands of the
refractory barons, by subscribing conditions
more humiliating than even the parliament of
Oxford had demanded. He yielded up all the
castles and fortresses, and consented that all
foreigners who were obnoxious to the twenty-
four barons, who were thus reinstated in power,
should be banished. The queen, who possessed
more spirit than her husband, indignant at a
treaty which banished aliens, quitted the tower
before the barons entered, and endeavoured to
reach Windsor, where her son, prince Edward,
had a strong garrison of foreign troops. She
left the tower in a barge; but had scarely reached
London Bridge, when a mob collected, and not
only assailed her with the most indecent lan-
guage, and cries of “drown the witch,' but they
actually pelted her with every thing they could
lay hold of, which compelled her to return to
the tower.
On the restoration of Henry to his authority,
Otho, the pope's legate, fixed his residence. in
the tower, and had soon to sustain a very vigor-
ous attack made by the earl of Gloucester, whose
new insurrection again endangered the king's
crown. Otho, assisted by the Jews, who had
taken refuge in the tower, maintained the fortress
until relieved by the king, who had marched
from Cambridge, and, being joined by his son
from the north, invested the city with 60,000
men. He threw succours into the tower, and
carried off the legate; but it was not until a
large fleet of Gascoigns sailed up the Thames,
and lay before the tower, that the rebels sued for
peace, which was granted.
Edward I. completed the fortifications com-
menced by his father, erected some additional
outworks to the west, and enlarged the moat
considerably. His son and successor, Edward
II., fearing attacks from the barons, who had
become provoked by his favoring the oppres-
sions of Piers Gaveston and the De Spensers,
endeavoured to make the tower impregnable by
additional fortifications, and by reinforcing the
garrison. He did not, however, venture to de-
fend it against the conspiracy of Mortimer and
queen Isabella; but on their approach to the ca-
pital, having failed in rousing the Londoners to
resistance, he left the tower in charge of the
bishop of Exeter. The citizens only waited for
the king's departure, to display that rebellious
spirit which was too manifest; they took the
tower by surprise, seized the amiable prelate,
and several other persons attached to the king,
and cut off their heads. The king was soon
afterwards made prisoner, and the two De
Spencers hung. The queen entered the city in
triumph, accompanied by prince Edward, and
a parliament was called, which transferred the
crown from Edward II. to his son.
During the victorious reign of Edward III.
the tower is only interesting on account of its
illustrious prisoners, the kings of France and
Scotland, who for some time were its inmates.
When the fatal insurrection of Gloucester
threatened the power of Richard II., and the
tower was blockaded, he invited the leaders to a
conference within its walls. They refused, fear-
ing they might be surprised; until the weak
monarch, in order to remove all suspicions, sent
them the keys of the gates and the strong turrets,
and offered to admit 200 armed men. The pro-
posal was too favorable to be refused, and the .
rebels agreed to the conference. The king re-
ceived them in a splendid pavilion, and agreed
to go to Westminster, where he was compelled
to submit to the execution of many of his most
faithful followers: he soon saw the result of his
weakness, and although he returned to the for-
tress it was only as a prisoner, to abdicate the
throne to his rival.
L O N D O N.
189
Jack Cade, whose insurrection has already
been noticed, on entering London, attempted to
besiege the tower; but it was, at that time, de-
fended by a strong garrison, and commanded
by a brave governor, lord Scales, who was very
active in putting down the insurrection.
During the wars between the houses of York
and Lancaster the tower was vigorously be-
sieged by the Yorkists. Sir John Wenlock car-
ried on the siege on the eastern side of the
fortress; artillery was planted to the south, on
the opposite side of the river; and lord Cobham,
with some city aldermen, conducted the siege on
the west. Lord Scales, unable to defend the
place against such a force, left the tower by
Water, but he was seized and killed, and his
maked body thrown on the bank of the river.
From this time the tower ceases to be in-
teresting as a fortress; for, during the civil wars,
it was successively occupied by the different
parties, without a sword being drawn or a shot
being fired; and, when James II. quitted the
capital, it was secured immediately for the prince
of Orange. In times of alarm, measures have
been taken for strengthening the city fortress, as
was the case so late as 1792, when the gar-
rison was increased ; “several hundred men,’
says Bayley, in his History of the Tower, “were
employed in repairing the fortifications, opening
embrasures, and mounting cannon; and, on the
western side of the fortress, a strong barrier was
formed with old casks, filled with earth and rub-
ble: the gates were closed at an early hour, and
no one but the military allowed to go upon the
ramparts.' But from the time that the tower
was first erected, until the reign of queen Eli-
zabeth, it was frequently used as a palace where
our monarchs ‘kept open household and frank
resort,’ and where the royal court, and even
parliaments, were held. From the tower all
processions and pageants generally proceeded,
whether it was to a tournament or a coronation :
and the kings of England, from the reign of
Richard II. to the accession of James II., al-
ways proceeded from the tower to Westminster
to be crowned, in grand procession, with the ex-
ception of Charles I. who was prevented by the
plague.
Gorgeous as the procession of queen Eliza-
beth appears to have been, it was surpassed at
the coronation of Charles II.; at least so Heath
would have us believe, for he assures us, in his
Chronicle, that ‘ all the world that saw it, could
Rot but confess, that what they had seen before,
was but solemn mummery to the most august,
noble, and true glories of this great day: even
the vaunting French confessed their pomps of the
late marriage with the infanta of Spain, at their
majesty's entrance into Paris, to be inferior in
state, gallantry, and riches, to this most glorious
cavalcade from the tower.’
The fortifications of the tower occupy a
space of about twelve acres, and consist of a
citadel, or keep, encompassed by an inner and
outer ward, and surrounded by a moat supplied
with water from the Thames. There are four
entrances: the principal one is over a stone
bridge at the south-west angle of the enclosure,
where there was formerly a large draw-bridge.
In addition to the two draw-bridges on the
south side, which separate the fortress from the
quay, or terrace, on the banks of the Thames,
there is also a private entrance by water, under
a strong tower, which is called the Traitor's Gate,
on account of its being the way by which state
prisoners were brought to the tower. The
barbican, which formerly stood beyond the ditch
on the west, no longer exists. The entrance to
the principal bridge is protected by a strong
tower flanked with bastions; and the fortress is
so constructed as to afford many precautions
against sudden surprise, or a full capture of the
place, even if the outer works should be occupied.
The principal royal apartments were in the inner
ward, which was formerly enclosed by a lofty
wall of stone, about forty feet high, and from
nine to twelve feet thick. It was also embattled
and strengthened with thirteen small towers,
most of which, as well as a considerable part of
the wall, still remain. - -
The White Tower, though the largest, the
most ancient, and the most complete, is by no
means the most interesting part of this fortress.
It is a massive edifice of a quadrangular form,
116 feet long, ninety-six broad, and ninety-two
feet high ; it is embattled, and has a turret at
each angle; one of these turrets was used by
Flamstead as an observatory, previous to the
establishment of the royal observatory at Green-
wich. On the first floor of the White Tower
are two large rooms, one of which is at present
used as a repository for cavalry arms, and the
other as a tool house. There are also a vaulted
room and a cell evidently intended for prisons:
and tradition relates, that in one of these cells
Sir Walter Raleigh wrote: his History of the
World. Here, too, were confined several of the
persons connected with Sir Thomas Wyat's re-
bellion in 1553–4, two of whom have left the
following inscription on the sides of the door-
way leading to the cell. ‘HE THAT INDVRETH
To THE ENDE SHALL BE SAVED. M. 10. R.
Rvdston DAR. KENT. ANo. 1553.”—“BE
FAITHF W L V N TO THE DETH AND I WILL GIVE
THE A CRowNE of LIFE. T. FANE, 1554,' and
underneath the inscription is “T. Cvlpepper of
Darford.”
On the second floor are two rooms used as
armories, and an apartment commonly called
Caesar's chapel, which Mr. Bayley, to whose
History of the Tower we acknowledge ourselves
indebted, says, “may justly be said to exhibit
one of the finest and most perfect specimens of
the Norman style of architecture now extant in
this country.’ When the sovereign held his
court in the tower, this chapel was used for the
private devotions of the royal family and house-
hold. A chaplain regularly performed service
here, whose salary, in the reign of Henry III.,
who greatly ornamented the chapel, was fifty
shillings a year. The chapel, which was de-
dicated to St. John the Evangelist, has long
ceased to be a sacred room, and is now appro-
priated as one of the rooms of the record office.
The uppermost story of the White Tower ex-
hibits a massive timber roof of great antiquity.
The principal room on this floor is traditionally
reported to have been the council chamber; and
190 L O N
D O N.
here the duke of Gloucester, afterwards Richard
III., is said to have ordered the execution of
lord Hastings, and the arrest of the archbishop
of York, the bishop of Ely, and lord Stanley.
In addition to the chapel already noticed,
there is another in the fortress which was erected
in the reign of Edward I., and was dedicated to
St. Peter ad Vincula. It is a plain building
quite destitute of ornament, and derives its
sole interest from its being the cemetery where
so many noble and distinguished personages at
last found repose, after falling the victims of the
tyranny or jealousy of Henry VIII., whose soul
must have been appalled at the recollection of
the chapel of St. Peter, could the consciousness
of guilt appal it.
Here rest the remains of the lovely Anne
Boleyn, whose absence the monarch once de-
clared, ‘gave greater pains to his heart, than
angel or scripture could express;' and yet he
sent her, and her innocent brother, George
Boleyn, lord Rochford (who is also buried here),
to the block. If the spirits of the dead could
be disturbed by the vicinage of crime, those of the
queen and her brother might be so, for here the
wife of the latter, the wretched agent of the king in
their death, is buried. She was an accomplice in
the crimes of queen Catharine Howard, another of
Henry's wives, and with her was executed and
buried. The pious prelate, John Fisher, bishop
of Rochester, who was reduced to the melan-
choly situation of begging food, a shirt, and
other clothes, and who, when found to survive
this treatment, was beheaded, sleeps in the same
tomb as his patron, Thomas Cromwell, earl of
Essex, so long the favorite of the king; and
with them rests, in eternal peace, the virtuous
Sir Thomas More, lord chancellor. All these
were sacrificed to the tyranny, jealousy, or
caprice of Henry VIII. The last of the Plan-
tagenets, Margaret, countess of Salisbury; Ed-
ward Seymour, duke of Somerset, lord pro-
tector, who was executed in 1552; and his
brother, the haughty Thomas Seymour, baron
Sudley, whom he had three years before sent to
the block, sleep in peaceful amity, with the
ambitious John Dudley, duke of Northumber-
land, the enemy of their house, who raised
himself on the ruin of Somerset, and, like him,
fell a victim to his ambition. .
Here also reposes the victim of paternal and
fraternal affection, Gerald Fitzgerald, ninth earl
of Kildare, lord deputy of Ireland, who died of
a broken heart, a short time before his son, and
five of his brothers, who were executed for par-
ticipating in the treason with which he was
charged.
Here also are entombed two of the victims of
queen Elizabeth's jealousy, Thomas Howard,
duke of Norfolk, executed for aspiring to a
union with Mary queen of Scots, and the once
favorite Essex. The ill-fated James, duke of
Monmouth, is also buried here, as are the three
Scottish peers who joined in the rebellion of
1745; the lords Kilmarnoc, Balmerino, and
Lovat, who are all buried in the same grave.
The leaden plates which had been fixed on
their coffins are still preserved in the chapels,
and bear similar inscriptions, with the alteration
of the name and age of the parties. That on
lord Lovat is -
Simon Dominus
Frazer de Lovat
Decollat. Apr. 9, 1747
AEtat. suae, 80.
Several officers of the Tower are also interred
in this chapel, and, among others, that faithful
guardian of the regalia Talbot Edwards, who
defeated colonel Blood's attempt to steal the
crown. The advowson of this chapelry is in the
crown, and the annnal stipend £115 5s.
In the lieutenant's house, a large and incon-
venient old building, usually occupied by the
major, or resident governor, there is a monument
recording the gunpowder plot conspiracy.
The Bell Tower is of a circular form, with a
curious vaulted roof. It was in this tower that
Fisher, bishop of Rochester, was confined; and
tradition, without any good ground, also marks it
as the place of queen Elizabeth's confinement.
It is now used as one of the domestic offices of
the governor.
Connected with the Bell Tower, by a paved
foot-way, is the Beauchamp, or Cobham Tower,
which has always been one of the principal
state prisons. It takes its double name from
Thomas de Beauchamp, earl of Warwick, a
prisoner here in 1397, and from the Cobhams,
who were also its inmates for Wyat's conspi-
racy. The Beauchamp Tower consists of two
stories, whose walls bear numerous records of
the misery of those who were confined within
them, and, destitute of books or paper, beguiled
the time in inscribing memorials of their suffer-
ings on their walls.
Among the distinguished prisoners in this
tower was Philip, earl of Arundel, son of the
duke of Norfolk, whose execution has already
been noticed. The earl, who had been arrested
on frivolous charges, and eondemned on very
questionable evidence, was reprieved by Elizabeth,
and, after lingering ten years in confinement,
died on the 19th of October, 1595, in the for-
tieth year of his age. His principal crime was
that of being a staunch papist; and it is said
that the descendants of the family consider him
so much a martyr to the Roman Catholic religion,
that a late duchess procured the skull, and had
it enchased in gold, as a valuable relic. This
earl has left several inscriptions on the walls of
this tower, expressive of his innocence.
John Dudley, earl of Warwick, who died in
this tower in 1553, has left a piece of well ex-
ecuted sculpture near the fire-place, represent-
ing the bear and ragged staff (the family arms),
surrounded with a border of oak sprigs, roses,
and other flowers. . ' -
Another prisoner, Charles Bailly, an adherent
of Mary queen of Scots, who once suffered the
tortures of the rack without making any dis-
closure of importance, has left some moral re-
flections neatly inscribed on the walls of his
prison. , Here Dr. Story, who was executed at
Tyburn in 1571, has also inscribed his name on
the walls. A singular circumstance attended
his execution: he was cut down before his
senses had left him; and is reported to have
L O N D O N.
191
struggled with the executioner, while the latter
was carrying into effect that revolting part of the
punishment of traitors (now repealed) tearing
out his bowels. One of the charges against Dr.
Story was, for consulting with a noted magician
against the queen's life, and for having cursed
her daily in his grace at meals |
Pious ejaculations, moral reflections, worldly
advice, and records of personal suffering, form
the subjects of nearly all the inscriptions; and
only one individual has left a memorial of his
attachment to the sex; it is that of a prisoner
whose name is only known from the circum-
stance, and of whose crime there is no record.
A bleeding heart, with the initials, T. W. and
P.A., are subcribed with the following words:
“Thomas Wyllingar goldsmith—My hart is yours
till dethe.” - #
The Beauchamp Tower is traditionally said to
have been the prison of Anne Boleyn and Lady
Jane Grey; but, though there is no evidence to
support it, it is by no means improbable, as it
was long more used as a prison than any of
the towers. Some of the state prisoners of 1794
were confined here.
The Jewel Tower, where the regalia are now
kept, was formerly known by the name of the
Martin Tower. -
The Broad Arrow Tower is of smaller dimen-
sions than the Beauchamp Tower, but, like it,
has been much used as a prison, and its walls
contain numerous inscriptions, few of which are
of interest; indeed, our prison albums are much
less interesting than those discovered in the Bas-
tile, on its demolition in 1789.
The Salt Tower contains a very singular and
hieroglyphical device by one “Hew Draper, a
tavern keeper at Bristol,’ who was committed
here on the 21st of March, 1560, on the accu-
sation of “one John Man, an astronomer, as a
suspect of a conjurer or sorcerer, and thereby to
practice matter against Sir William Lowe and
my ladie;’ a lamentable instance of the facility,
with which life and liberty could, in those days,
be sacrificed.
The Lanthorn Tower was of considerable an-
tiquity, and formerly contained the king's bed
chamber. It communicated with the great hall,
the scene of many a royal banquet in the reigns
of our Henries and our Edwards. The Lanthorn
Tower was considerably damaged by fire in
1788, and soon after its remains were taken
down. The site of this tower, and of several
other parts of the ancient palace, are now occu-
pied by the buildings of the Ordnance office.
The Bloody Tower is thought to have derived
its appellation from the circumstances of the two
princes, Edward V., and his brother, Richard,
duke of York, who are supposed to have been
put to death here, by order of their uncle, the
duke of Gloucester. Mr. Bayley, who doubts
whether the royal brothers were murdered in the
tower, and ridicules the idea of calling it bloody
when the children were smothered, infers, that if
they were put to death in this fortress at all, it
must have been at a different part of it; as the
bones discovered in the time of Charles II.,
which, on account of their appearing to be those
of children, had afterwards royal interment in
Henry VII.'s chapel, were found on the south
side of the White Tower, which is at a con-
siderable distance from the place where the
deed is supposed to have been perpetrated. In
addition to the towers thus described, there were
several others, of some of which nothing but the
foundation remains; nor is the history of them
interesting even in their ancient state.
The history of the tower of London forms a
black page in the early annals of this country, as,
on account of the security it presented, the most
illustrious prisoners have always been confined
within its walls. -
A lamentable catastrophe attended one of the
first prisoners of royal blood that tenanted it.
This was Gryffydd, the eldest son of Llewelyn,
prince of Wales, who attempted to make his es–
cape from this prison in 1244. He had formed
a rope of the hangings, sheets, and table cloths,
with which he let himself down from the top of
the Tower; but, being a very corpulent man, the
rope broke, and he was dashed to pieces. In the
reign of Edward III., two sovereigns, taken
prisoners in two distant wars, were confined in
the tower—John, king of France, and David,
king of Scotland; both were treated with the
highest respect, and even with delicate attention,
by Edward, and his gallant son, the Black
Prince.
It was in the tower that lady Arabella Stuart
died the victim of grief. This amiable princess
was an object of unjust suspicion with both
Elizabeth and James, though guilty of no other
crime than that of marrying a man she loved,
William Seymour, grandson of the earl of Hert-
ford. For this offence, she was committed to
the tower, while her husband was also committed
to prison. Both the prisoners contrived to escape,
and intended to pass over to France, but were
seized and brought back to prison. The lady
Arabella was more strictly watched than ever;
and it appears by her autograph letters, of which
there are several in the possession of lord Wey-
mouth, as well as in the British Museum, that
she was even deprived of necessary comforts.
In a letter to viscount Fenton, she entreats his
lordship to make known to the king her “most
discomfortable and distressed state;’ and in
another part of the letter, which she had after-
wards cancelled, she complains that she cannot
get any thing but ordinary diet, and that unfit
for a person suffering under sickness, as she was.
It was in vain that she presented memorials to
the king, and sought the good offices of the queen,
and such of the nobility as she thought had in-
fluence with his majesty—for the relentless James
left her to perish in the tower. In the Harleian
MSS., vol. 7003, there is a fragment of one of
her letters to the king, which forcibly exhibits
her humility, and the unfeeling character of
James. - -
During the civil wars of Charles I, the pro-
tectorate, and after the restoration of Charles II.,
the tower was not wanting in inmates.
In a collection of pamphlets, which were pre-
sented by his late majesty to the British Museum,
there is a folio sheet, printed in September, 1647,
which gives us a list of the prisoners in the
tower at that time. It is entitled “A Loyall Song
192
Lo N D o N.
of the Royall Feast, Kept by the Prisoners in
the Towre, in August last, with the names, titles,
and character of every prisoner. By Sir F. W.,
Knight and Baronet, prisoner.’
The song, which contains twenty-five stanzas,
is curious, as showing the staunch loyalty of the
prisoners, and the humor of one of them at
least, even in his confinement. It thus com-
mences:—
* God save the best of kings, King Charles,
The best of queens, Queen Mary,
The ladies all, Gloster and Yorke,
Prince Charles so like old Harry:
God send the king his own again,
His Towre and all his coyners,
And bless all kings who are to reigne
From traytors and purloyners.
The king sent us poor traytors here
(But you may guesse the reason,)
Two brace of bucks to mend the cheere;
Is’t not to eat them treason?”
The writer of the song, which is an imitation of
the ballad of Chevy Chace, enumerates the names
of the prisoners, all of whom he eulogizes for
their good conduct.
The tower still continues to be used as a state
prison; here the last victims of attachment to the
exiled house of Stuart perished; and here, in
1794; Mr. Horne Tooke, Hardy, and the other
persons charged with high treason, were confined:
one of them, John Augustus Bonney, has in-
scribed, on the walls of his prison, an epitaph on
a cat, which, with true republican feeling, he
called citizen, and the following epitaph on a
goldfinch.
Where Raleigh pined, within a prison's gloom,
I cheerful sung, nor murmured at my doom;
Where heroes bold, and patriots firm could dwell,
A goldfinch in content his note might swell;
But death, more gentle than the laws decree,
Hath paid my ransom from captivity.
Buried, June 23, 1794, by a fellow-prisoner, in
the Tower of London.
The last time that the tower of London was
used as a state prison, and may it long continue
the last, was in the year 1820, when Thistlewood,
and his associates in the plot, known by the name
of the Cato Street Conspiracy, for massacring the
whole of the king's ministers, were confined here.
During their trial they were brought every morn-
ing from the tower to the Old Bailey, and con-
veyed back again in the evening. When five of
them had been found guilty, and sentenced to
death, they were executed in front of Newgate,
and not on Tower Hill, as was formerly the
CuSt0m. -
Within the walls of the tower are the Mint,
the Jewel Office, the Armoury, the Ordnance
Office, the Record Office, and the Menagerie.
The Ordnance Office, of which his grace the
duke of Wellington is at present master, superin-
tends the supplying of arms, ammunition, and
other warlike stores required in the service.
When the principal arms consisted in the bow,
the officers of this establishment were called the
Bowyer, the cross-bowyer, the armourer, &c. In
time of war, the number of officers, clerks, and
wardens, in the Ordnance Office, exceeds 300,
exclusive of porters, servants, and other at-
tendants. ſ
The Record Office contains the parliamentary
rolls, from the reign of king John to that of
Richard III.: a survey of the manors of England,
and a register of the ancient tenures of all the
lands; ancient perambulation of forests; a col-
lection of charters granted to colleges and corpo-
rations; the book of prayer under the great seal,
printed and sanctioned by Charles II., on his
restoration, together with several state papers,
and documents of great antiquity. •
The public records of Scotland, which Oliver
Cromwell seized on, were placed in the tower,
where they remained until the restoration, when
Charles II., intending to return them to Edin-
burgh Castle, sent them in a vessel, which was
wrecked near Holy Island, and the valuable
documents were lost.
The Royal Menagerie in the tower, where
our monarchs formerly amused themselves with
seeing the combats of wild beasts, , is not re-
markable either for the number or the rarity of
the animals it contains; and, as a collection of
natural history, is unworthy of a great nation,
whose fleets and armies would enable them to
collect all that is wonderful in nature or art from
every clime. -
The government of the tower is vested in a
constable, a lieutenant, and other subordinate
officers. The opening and shutting of the gates,
in the morning and evening, is done with great
ceremony, and is almost the only circumstance
that reminds the inhabitants of London that they
have a fortress within their walls regulated by a
military government. The warders, who attend
at the tower, and wear the livery of the yeomen
of the guard, were appointed to their office by
Henry VIII. The king, after residing in the
tower some months on the death of his father,
left fifteen of his body guard, and gave them the
name of warders; and afterwards, in conse-
quence of their attention to the protector, duke
of Somerset, when confined there, he procured
them the honor of wearing the same livery as the
yeomen of the guard.
The Jewel Office.—It is probable that, from
the moment the tower became a royal residence,
it was the place where the regalia were deposited,
though the first evidence on record, of its being
used as a jewel office, is an order made in
the fourteenth year of Henry III., to the bishop
of Carlisle, directing that the four coffers of the
king's jewels should be “laid up in the tower.’
From this time the regalia appear to have been
kept in the White Tower until about the middle
of the seventeenth century, when they were re-
moved to a stone room near the grand store
house, which has since been known by the name
of the Jewel Office. - -
The situation of keeper of the regalia was for-
merly considered an office of great honor and
dignity, as well as trust. In the reign of Edward
III. John Fléte, the first keeper of the jewels,
whose name has been preserved, had an al-
lowance of twelve pence per day, which was, in
succeeding reigns, gradually increased, so that,
in the time of Henry VIII., it was £50 per
L O N D O N.
193
annum. The smallness of this salary might in-
duce an opinion that the office was not of much
importance, did we not find it held by persons
of consideration, among whom was Thomas
Cromwell, the favorite and victim of Henry VIII.
This officer was formerly styled Master and
Treasurer of the Jewel House; and, in addition
to the care of the crown jewels in the tower, he
had the purchasing and custody of the royal
plate—the appointment of the king's goldsmiths
and jewellers—the supplying of plate to ambas-
sadors, &c. His emoluments amounted to £1300
a year in the reign of Charles II., although they
had then undergone considerable reduction.
It was during the time that Mr. Edwards held
this office, that colonel Blood made the daring
attempt to carry off the crown of England, in
which he so nearly succeeded. See BLOOD.
The value of the regalia in the jewel-office in
the tower is estimated at £2,000,000 sterling.
The most prominent and the most costly article
is the new imperial crown, first used on the coro-
nation of his present majesty in 1821. This
splendid crown, which is unrivalled in value and
elegance, is enclosed in a glass globe, which is
made to revolve by some ingenious machinery,
invented by Mr. March, the resident officer of
the board of works in the tower. By this
means, the spectators see every part of it, while
six powerful argand lamps are so disposed as to
throw upon the jewels every hue their prisms can
exhibit. 47
In the jewel office there are four other crowns,
and seven sceptres. One of the sceptres, with a
dove on it, was discovered in 1814 behind a
part of the old wainscotting of the jewel-house,
where it must have remained several years. It
is thought to have been the sceptre made for
queen Mary, who was not only the queen consort
of William III., but also queen regnant con-
jointly with her husband. Here, also, are the
golden orb, which the King holds in his right
hand at his coronation; the swords of mercy and
of justice; the large golden salt cellar, which
forms a model of the white tower; a grand silver
font, used at the baptism of the royal family, and
the banqueting plate used at the coronation
feast; the ampulla, or golden eagle, for the con-
secrated oil with which the king is anointed, and
all the other regalia used at the splendid cere-
monial of a coronation. See CoRoNATION.
The armoury.—Until the last age of chivalric
splendor, the sixteenth century, we read of no
armouries in Europe. Then Henry VIII., Fran-
cis I., Charles V., and Maximilian I., laid the
foundations of four of the best in Europe: yet
their collections were all modern; and Dr. Mey-
rick, in his valuable work on the origin of ar-
mour, has very satisfactorily proved, “that
although in private families a few suits of earlier
date had been preserved in Italy, that of Maxi-
milian, with its steel lamboys, and that of Henry
VII., resembling it, are the oldest specimens in
Germany and England.” Such a declaration is
greatly at variance with all preceding descrip-
tions of the armour in the tower, and most of the
pretensions of such collections: hence the Ambras
collection, now at Vienna, though containing
armour of the same period as the suits in the
Vol. XIII.
tower, has equally with it been asserted to pos-
sess specimens of great antiquity, exhibiting the
suits pretended to have been worn by the Ger-
man emperors from the time of Albert I., em-
peror of the Romans, down to the period when
body armour was principally relinquished.
It appears from a survey made by order of
Charles II. in October, 1660, that the principal
armour now in the tower was then at Greenwich,
whence it has subsequently been removed. Dur-
ing the civil distractions of the preceding reign,
the armoury in the green gallery, at Greenwich,
was despoiled by the soldiers, and what re-
mained was afterwards transferred to the tower.
In this survey, which is signed by Sir John
Robinson, lieutenant of the tower, and other
officers, appointed to make the investigation,
there is not the slightest mention of the Spanish
armoury, or the thumb-screws, racks, and wire-
whips, which now form so attractive a feature in
this exhibition; and yet the surveyors give a
very minute list of every thing found in the
armouries of the tower and Greenwich. The
Spanish armoury must, therefore, have been made
up subsequent to the reign of Charles II., and
its genuineness consequently becomes more than
doubtful. In Burghley's State Papers, a lottery
of foreign armour, probably that of the Armada,
is said to have been drawn in the twenty-ninth
year of Elizabeth, and if the instruments of tor-
ture, and the Catholic banner, now exhibited,
are really spoils of the Armada, they must have
been collected at least a century after they were
dispersed by the lottery. There is, however, so
little reason to believe, that any portion of the
armour, called Spanish, is really so, that little
faith can be placed in the authenticity of the in-
struments of torture which the growing enmity
to the Roman Catholics would readily ascribe to
them. The targets with pistols in them, exhi-
bited as Spanish, were in the tower in the reign
of Edward VI., and therefore could not have
belonged to the Armada; the pikes, shown as
Spanish, were common to the English soldiery,
as well as the Spaniards; and the glaives, bills,
halberds, &c., which principally form this collec-
tion, were used in England in the reign of
Henry VIII. But then there is queen Flizabeth,
in the very armour, we are told, which she wore
when she rode on a steed, richly caparisoned, to
review her forces at Tilbury Fort. Unfortunately,
however, for the correctness of this statement,
there is not the slightest evidence of her majesty
having worn armour on this memorable occa-
sion; and it farther appears, that the fluted
breast-plate, and the guarde-de-reine, in which
her figure is now environed, belonged to her
father, and that they could not have been worn
in a sitting posture; and the armour for her arms
is of the time of Charles I. Nor are the other
parts of the equestrian exhibition of armour in,
the tower more correct: the armour attributed to
William the Conqueror is of Edward VI.'s time,
or of the early part of Elizabeth's reign; the suit
worn by Edward I. in the tower is also of the
reign of the sixth Edward, with the addition of a
martel de fer, of the time of James I., placed in
his hand. Edward III. wears a suit of white
2rmour of Henry VIII.'s time, and Henry IV is .
Q
194
L O N D O N.
encased in another suit of the time of Edward VI.
The armour of Henry V., which we are assured
he wore at the battle of Agincourt, is composed
of various pieces, some of which were not made
until two centuries after this memorable victory:
the upper part of the armour is of the time of
Charles I., while the legs, which, like those of
old Jacob Tonson, are not fellows, are of the reign
of Henry VII. Henry VI, and Edward IV.
have also each borrowed a pair of legs from
Henry VIII., and a suit of body armour from
Charles I. : while Edward V. wears a rich an
highly decorated suit, which appears to have been
made for that promising youth, Henry, prince of
Wales, son of James I. Henry VII., no doubt,
wears his own armour, and it is one of the greatest
curiosities in the tower, for the lamboys, or
puckered petticoat, is so contrived, as to reach
the saddle behind, and then fall on each side:
Henry VIII. wears what may be fairly considered
his own proper armour, the legs perhaps ex-
cepted. Edward VI. wears a suit, which seems
to have been made for prince Henry, son of
James I., but, in compliment to the piety of the
young king, a variety of scriptural subjects are
engraved on it in different compartments. James
I., who would not easily have been induced to
trust himself in a suit of armour, is encased in
one which belonged to the earl of Warwick,
about the time of Elizabeth or Mary. King
Charles I. wears a rich suit of gilt armour, which
was presented to him by the city of London when
prince of Wales. His son and successor, Charles
II., wears a splendid suit, of the time of Edward
VI.; as does William III., while George I. and
George II. wear the armour of the time of Henry
VIII. ; the former having the addition of a
Turkish bridle.
Thus, of the seventeen monarchs who appear
in armour in the tower, only three wear that of
the period in which they lived : and in the small
armoury, the figures which represent king John,
Henry III., Henry V., and Henry VI., are all
in suits of cavaliers' armour, of the time of
Charles I., with flaming swords which are of a
still later date.
De Courcy, the ancestor of the earls of Kin-
sale, of whose strength and prowess so many
anecdotes are related, wears the armour of a
demi-lancer of the time of Edward VI., with a
helmet of Henry VII. ; John of Gaunt, ‘time
honoured Lancaster,’ wears a gigantic suit of
armour, seven feet high, of the time of Henry
VIII.; Charles Brandon, duke of Suffolk, and
the jester, Will. Somers, wear suits of the time
of Charles I. or II. .-r-
But although the armour in the tower is. thus
inappropriately displayed, it is sufficiently rich
and varied to admit of a correct arrangement of
several perfect suits, and it is much to be wished,
that such a classification of it were made.
The tower armoury is highly curious and in-
teresting, not only for these relics of antiquity,
but for the ingenious and tasteful manner in
which 100,000 stand of modern arms are dis-
played. The royal train of artillery, capable of
dealing destruction on all around, is also an ob-
ject of wonder and awe; but the curious will
probably be more gratified in viewing the state
swords of the Pretender, the shield of the earl of
Mar, or the axes with which Anne Boleyn, and
the earl of Essex, Elizabeth's favorite, were be-
headed : but for the authority of which we will
not vouch, since, with respect to Ann Boleyn,
Stowe assures us, that her head was severed from
her body at one blow with a sword.
Tower Hill.—At what period Tower Hill was
first fixed upon as a place for public executions
is by no means certain; but it does not appear to
have been used as such until long after the for-
tress had become a state prison; for we find that,
in the year 1196, William Fitz Osbert, who had
been tried and condemned in the tower, for
* Seditiously moving the common people to seek
liberty,’ was drawn by the heels to the elms at
Smithfield, and there hanged. A similar instance
occurred in the year 1330, when Roger Morti-
mer, earl of March, who had been imprisoned in
the tower, “condemned by his peers, and yet
never brought before them,' was hanged on the
common gallows at Smithfield.
One of the earliest executions on Tower Hill
appears to have been that of the accomplished
Sir Simon de Burley, the tutor of Richard II.,
who was sent to the block in the year 1388.
From this time the quadrangle and green-yard
within the Tower Hill were the places where
state-prisoners generally suffered.
In 1495. Sir William Stanley, chamberlain to
Henry VII, whom he had faithfully served, was
here beheaded for no other crime than that of
having said, that “if he certainly knew Perkin
Warbeck was the undoubted son and heir of
king Edward IV. he would never fight or bear
arms against him.’ -
Henry VIII. had not long been seated on the
throne before the axe on Tower Hill was em-
ployed; nor did he suffer it to rust. Had he,
however, been guilty of no worse act than that of
sending Empson and Dudley to the scaffold, his
name and memory had not been stained with
guiltless blood. They were beheaded on the
18th of August, 1510, for arbitrary exactions and
embezzlement of money; and several of their
agents were set in the pillory here with labels on
their heads relating their crime.
In the same reign were executed here the
duke of Buckingham, sacrificed by cardinal
Wolsey; Fisher, bishop of Rochester, for denying
the king's supremacy; Sir Thomas More; lord
Rochford, the brother of Ann Boleyn, who two
days before had suffered within the tower, and
four alleged accomplices of the queen's guilt.
Several illustrious victims followed in the persons
of the marquis of Exeter, the earl of Devonshire,
lord Montacute, and Sir Edward Nevil.
Lord Leonard Grey, deputy of Ireland, was
executed for having commived at the escape of
his nephew, lord Dazey; Thomas lord Crom-
well, Thomas Seymour lord high admiral, the
protector duke of Somerset, the duke of Suffolk,
father of lady Jane Grey, Sir Thomas Wyat, and
Thomas duke of Norfolk, successively perished
beneath the axe on Tower Hill.
During the reign of James I. the only execu-
tion on Tower Hill was that of Sir Gervas Elwas,
lieutenant of the tower, and one of the accom-
plices in the horrible murder of Sir Thomas
L O N ID O N.
195
Overbury within its walls. Sir Walter Raleigh
did not suffer near the prison, where he had been
confined for nearly fourteen years, but was ex-
ecuted in Old Palace-yard. The infamous earl
of Castlehaven here met a just punishment; and
here perished the earl of Stafford, Sir Alexander
Carew, Sir John Hobbam and his son, arch-
bishop Laud, Mr. Love the minister, and captain
Brown Bushel, who fell victims of the civil and
religious feuds of the times. -
Of the regicide judges, on whom Charles II.
revenged his father's death, Sir Henry Vane was
the only one executed on Tower Hill; but the
accomplished earl of Strafford, and the patriotic
Algernon Sidney, here paid their debt before
nature had demanded it.
The ill-fated duke of Monmouth, when led to
the scaffold on Tower Hill, was attended by a
very strong guard, on account of his known po-
pularity. The executioner seemed to feel dis-
mayed at his office; for, after giving three blows
with his axe, on the neck of the unfortunate
duke, who bore them all without moving any
thing but his eyes, as if reproaching him, he
threw down the fatal weapon, nor did he resume
it until the sheriff by threats urged him to go
on, and twice again, was his strength exerted
ere the head was severed from the body. -
The next individual who suffered on Tower
Hill was Sir John Fenwick, in 1696, who was
detected in a plot to assassinate king William.
Although some of the old maps of London
represent a gallows on Tower Hill, and more
than one historian relates, that there was one
erected there, yet there are considerable doubts
of the fact; for we invariably find that even pri.
soners in the tower, when condemned to be
hanged, were eithertaken to Smithfield or Tyburn;
nor was there ever a permanent scaffold here.
The rebellion of 1715 gave a few of the faith-
ful adherents of the house of Stuart to the block:
although, considering the extent of the treason,
and the daring character of the individuals who
were principals in it, no subdued insurrection
was ever followed with greater clemency. Two
Scottish Peers, who, among several others, had
been taken, suffered on Tower Hill, the earl of
Derwentwater and lord Kenmure. The earl of
Nithisdale, ordered for execution at the same
time, escaped from the tower in female apparel,
through the excellent management of his wife.
Sir Robert Walpole, who has been accused as a
corrupt minister, declared, that £60,000 was
offered to him if he could save the life of the
earl of Derwentwater, but that he refused it.
The last executions were lord Balmerino and
lord Lovat for the rebellion of 1745, and Charles
Ratcliffe, brother to lord Derwentwater, who
suffered by himself on Little Tower Hill.
The military defence of London.—As far back
as the reign of Alfred, the citizens of London
were so imbued with the national spirit, that they
were known amongst their fellow countrymen
by the name of ‘the brave Londoners.’ When
the patriot king was opposing a great body of
the East Anglian Danes, who had thrown off his
authority, and landed in the west of England
from the north; the English army left London,
times every citizen was a soldier.
accompanied by a body of citizens, attacked the
Danes under Hastings who had fortified Bam-
flete, overpowered the garrison, and carried off
the wife and two sons of this celebrated chief.
In the reign of Ethelred the Londoners suc-
cessfully resisted three attacks by the Danes;
and thrice also was Canute repulsed when he
laid siege to the city, nor did he ultimately gain
possession of it, until, by a compromise with his
rival, a division of territory was agreed upon.
With equal spirit did the citizens refuse to admit
William the Conqueror, when his arms had been
victorious over Harold's army, until the clergy
and the men of rank set the example of submis-
sion. It is true that Domesday Book, the oldest
record of military service extant, does not men-
tion the Londoners, but the reason of this is to
be found in the peculiar nature of their civic pri-
vileges. The citizens did not, like other persons
under the feudal system, hold their possessions
by the tenure.of military service; London was
the “king's own chamber,’ where all were free,
and all service was spontaneous. But, though
not bound to furnish any particular quota of
fighting men, the Londoners always mustered in
great force, when an enemy was in the field; in-
deed it would seem from their numerous arrays,
and the indiscriminate manner in which they
turned out at every call to arms, that in early
We know
that playing at bucklers, and practising feats of
arms, was one of the most ancient and favorite
amusements of the London apprentices. The
Ludus Trojae or Troy game, practised by the
Roman youths, so called because it is said to
have been derived from the Trojans, was also a
favorite exercise with the citizens in the reign of
Henry II. “Every Sunday in Lent,’ says Fitz-
stephen, “immediately after dinner, it was cus-
tomary for great crowds of young Londoners
mounted on war horses, well trained, to perform
the requisite turnings and evolutions, to ride into
the fields in distinct bands, armed with shields
and headless lances, where they exhibited the re-
presentation of battles, and went through a variety
of warlike exercises.’ He adds, that young no-
blemen from the king's court, and from the
houses of the barons, often joined the citizens in
the trial of their skill in arms. Numerous ex-
ploits are recorded, which attest the spirit and
promptness with which the skill thus acquired
was, in maturer life, exerted in the defence of
the city and kingdom. During what are called
the Barons' wars, in the reigns of Stephen, John,
and Henry III., Fitzstephen says, that there
went out of the city to a general muster no less
than 20,000 horsemen and 60,000 foot; and
though unquestionably there must have been in-
cluded in these numbers many vassals of the
noblemen, who had then castles and inns within
the city, and of others who had sought the pro-
tection of its walls; yet it is clear, from the pre-
ponderance which the Londoners invariably
gave to the party, whose cause they espoused at
this period, that they must have constituted a
very considerable portion of the force.
Often did the citizens contend in arms against
the power that sought to oppress them in the
196 L O N
D O N.
reign of Henry III, and on one occasion, Stowe
relates, they ‘fortified the city with iron chains,
drawne overthwarte their streets, munited the
cittie, and did marvellous things.’ “
The manufacture of armour must, at this
period, have been very considerable; for when
Louis the Dauphin contended for the crown of
England against Henry III., in the year 1216,
the city of London sent him 600 knights and
60,000 coats of mail.
In the time of Edward II., the queen having
been refused admittance into Leeds Castle, Kent,
the king called to him “the commons of Essex
and London,’ by whose assistance it was speedily
reduced; but, that this demand on the London-
ers for military service might not be construed
into an admission of their ordinary liability to
such requisitions, the king, by his letters patent,
declared ‘ that the circumstance should not be
prejudicial to them, nor drawn into precedent
for time to come.’ Another event, which occurred
shortly after, places the military independence
of the citizens in a still stronger light. In 1326,
when the queen had taken part with the barons,
the king demanded from the citizens a supply of
men and money. The answer they made was,
that “they would not go out of their city to fight,
except they might, according to their liberties,
return home again the same day before the sun-
set.’ * -
During the French wars, in the reign of Ed-
ward III., the quota of troops contributed by
London was comparatively small. In 1346 they
furnished only 100 men at arms, and 500 foot
soldiers; and in 1355 twenty-five men at arms
and 500 archers. Probably more were not re-
quired, for these wars were popular; and, on the
triumphal entry of the Black Prince into London
with the king of France, we are told that the
citizens ‘displayed with peculiar exultation,
from their windows and balconies, the imple-
ments and ornaments of war. ‘ On the break-
ing out of Wat Tyler's rebellion, in the ensuing
reign, we have a remarkable instance of the
strength in which the citizens could instantly
muster, on any emergency. After Wat Tyler
had been struck dead by the hand of Sir William
Walworth, and while the king was amusing the
rebellious multitude, by affecting to fill their
leader's place, Walworth rode into the city, call-
ing out aloud for succour for the king, when im-
mediately 1000 well armed, men obeyed the
summons; and, being led forth in good array,
spread such terror among the rebels, that they
fled in all directions.
It is a singular fact, that, very shortly after the
Londoners had thus distinguished themselves,
their courage should for the first time stand im-
peached. When, in 1385, Charles II. of France
made preparations to invade England, Stowe
alleges that the Londoners ‘trembling like le-
verets, fearful as mice, seek starting holes to
hide themselves in, even as if the citie were
now to be taken, and they that in times past
boasted they would blow all the Frenchmen out
of England, hearing now a vaine rumor of the
enemies’ coming, they run to the walls, break
down the houses adjoining, destroy and lay them
flat, and do all things in great fear, not one
Frenchman yet having set foot on ship-board.
“What would they have done,’ he adds, “if the
battel had been at hand, and the weapons over
their heads? Froissart is supposed to afford
some countenance to Stowe's aspersion, by re-
marking, that, when the French expedition was
abandoned, the citizens, “with a joy unexpres-
sible, began to regale themselves and friends in a
most sumptuous manner.' But is the invasion
of our houses and firesides, by a foreign enemy,
so little to be cared for, that even brave men
should not rejoice at its being relinquished?
During the contest between the rival houses
of York and Lancaster, the military defence of
the capital became an object of great import-
ance, and appears to have been duly appreciated.
When the leaders of each party met in London
in 1458, attended by a great number of their
followers, in order to attempt a reconciliation,
Sir Godfrey Boleyn, the lord mayor, kept watch
daily with a guard of 5000 citizens completely
armed; while three aldermen, with another
body of 2000, continued the watch during the
night.
The conduct of the citizens in the subsequent
affairs of Jack Cade and Falconbridge, as before
related, was such as showed that they had lost
nothing of their ancient spirit.
Henry VII., having been very partial to
archery in his youth, gave it every encourage-
ment when he ascended the throne, in preference
to the cross bow, although he sometimes amused
himself with it, as we find by the following me-
moranda, in an account of his expenditure pre-
served in the Remembrancer's Office. “Lost to .
my lord Morging, at the buttes, 6s. 8d.’ and
‘paid to Sir Edward Boroughe, 13s. 4d., which
the kynge lost at buttes with his cross bow.’
From these entries it would appear that the king
was not so skilful a bowman as his sons, parti-
cularly the eldest, prince Arthur, who frequently
exercised with the society of London bowmen
at Mile End, and was so expert, that the cap-
tain, and every expert shooter, was called by his
name.
The military art, and especially the practice of
archery, continued to be cultivated as much as
ever. At a general muster of ‘the most able
men between the ages of sixteen and sixty,’
which took place twice by order of Henry VIII.
in 1532; and again on the 8th of May, 1539,
when there appeared no less than 15,000,
* all in bright harness:’—‘ Most of the citizens
of any quality or office,” Strype says. ‘were clad
in white satin or white silk coats, with chains of
gold, and some had rich jewels.” The king ex-
pressed himself highly pleased with their martial
appearance. From this period, archery, so long
the pride and glory of the London citizens, fell
into disuse, principally, no doubt, from the in-
troduction of muskets. Hollinshed bewails, that
in this time, we had “given over that kind of ar-
tillery,’ the long bow, in which, in times past,
the chief force of England consisted; and bishop
Latimer equally laments the change that had
taken place. In his sixth sermon, he says, “The
art of shutynge hath been in tymes past much
estemed in this realme, it is a gyft of God, and
he hath given us to excell all other nations wyth-
L O N
D O N. 197
all. It hath bene Godde's instrumente whereby
ne hath gyven us manye victories agaynste oure
enemyes.” He then points out the necessity of
calling upon the justices, and charging them “upon
*heir allegiance, that thys singular benefit of God
may be practised.’
In the popular insurrection of the Kentish
men, under Sir Thomas Wyatt, in the reign of
Mary, the queen requested from the city an aid
of 500 footmen, well harnessed, to go against the
rebels. It was immediately granted, the men
were made ready the same night, and on the
morrow marched into Kent. It soon appeared,
however, that their ardor sprung from another
source than attachment to the queen; for after
joining the royal forces under the duke of Nor-
folk, the Londoners went over in a body to the
rebels, and their example was followed by more
than three parts of the army, not excepting the
queen's guard itself. The city, notwithstanding,
still held out for her majesty, but probably owing
more to its being temporarily placed under the
command of lord William Howard, a devoted
servant of the queen's, than to the loyalty of the
citizens themselves, who participated largely in
the discontent which Mary's marriage to Philip
of Spain had excited. -
In the second year of Elizabeth's reign, there
was a muster of the citizens before her majesty,
and the French and imperial ambassadors in
Greenwich Park; but it seems, from the compa-
ratively small number assembled, to have consist-
ed of some select companies only. There were
* 1400 men, whereof 800 were pikemen, all in
fine corslets, 400 harquebuts in shirts of mail
with merins, and 200 halberdiers in almayne
rivets; they had to every 100 two whifflers
richly apparelled, and twelve wardens of the
best companies, riding in coates of black velvet,
to conduct them, with drums and fifes, and six
ensigns, all in jerkins of white Bruges satin,
cut and lined with black sarsnet, with caps,
hozen, and scarfs according.’ -
When, in 1572, Elizabeth began to be disturb-
ed in her government by machinations, foreign
and domestic, she sent an order to the lord mayor,
sheriffs, and aldermen, recommending to them
renewed diligence in training up the young citi-
zens to the use of arms for the defence of the
capital; and particularly to the use of musketry,
which was now beginning to supersede the bow
and arrow. The order was obeyed with so much
alacrity, that, within two months after a choice
body of 3000 pikemen and gunners, completely
armed and disciplined, mustered before the
queen, in Greenwich Park; and these were in-
dependent of the city archers, who were esti-
mated to amount to 4000 more.
The preparation in the ports of Spain of the
boasted Armada, which was to effect the conquest
of England and the re-establishment of popery
called for still greater exertions on the part of
the citizens of London. From a report of the
arrangements made for the defence of the kingdom
on that occasion, recently compiled from the re-
cords in the tower (printed, but not published), it
appears, that London then contained 20,696 able
householders within the wards, besides 933
strangers fit for service; and that of this number
no less than 10,000 were actually embodied.
Although the lords of the council ordered Ed-
mund York, a brave officer, who had served in
the Low Countries, to point out the best means
of putting the city in a good state of defence, yet
the lord mayor had the Supreme command and
authority to appoint colonels, captains, and other
inferior officers under him. “Such an honor
says York, ‘and such a gracious favor, never
happened to any people, neither was the like
heretofore done unto them.”
York recommended that the city should be
divided into sections, containing 1500 men, “all
inhabitants, which shall be either the householder,
his sonne, or continued servant.' Eyery night
at six o'clock, five companies of different regi-
ments were to assemble in the Exchange, “and
there stand in battell a quarter of an hour.”
After the countersign was given to every officer,
says York, ‘a prayer for her majesty's estate
and kingdome, and the Ford’s prayer, shall be
said.’ Five billets were next to be put into a
hat, which the captains were to draw, to deter-
mine their respective stations for the night. So
much reliance had the queen upon the courage
and attachment of the citizens, that she selected
9000 of them to be her body guard. The re-
ºins 1000 were sent to the camp at Tilbury
Ort.
The usual place of training the city bands at
this period, was the old Artillery Garden or
Ground, the site of which is commemorated by
the names of several streets and lanes on the east
side of Bishopsgate Street, as Artillery Street,
Artillery Lane, Fort Street, &c. 500 of the most
expert, who had ‘experience both abroad and at
home,’ were selected to drill the rest, and we are
told, that ‘very sufficient and skillful they were
to train and teach common soldiers the managing
of their muskets, pikes, and halberds, march,
counter-march, and ring.' These masters of the
art military formed a company by themselves,
of which “every man by turn bore orderly office,
from the corporal to the captain.” Some of
these were sént to the camp at Tilbury, to assist
in drilling the new levies, and were turn known
by the name of the captains of the artillery gar-
den. Such was the rise of that respectable
body, still subsisting at the present day, the Ar-
tillery Company.
The military ardor which the Spanish Ar-
mada called forth, was succeedcd by a long pe-
riod of ease. The whole of the city corps were
disembodied, and the exercises in the artillery
garden entirely discontinued; so that, when
the queen wanted an aid of men from the
city, to send to the relief of Calais in 1596,
she was obliged to resort to the mode of
impressment, and that in a way not attempt-
ted perhaps either before or since. On the
forenoon of Easter Monday, the lord mayor and
aldermen received orders to provide instantly,
for the queen's service, 1000 able bodied men.
The day and hour were conveniently chosen;
the churches, as is usual on this festival, were
filled; and thither the magistrates immediately
repaired with their proper officers, made fast all
the doors, and in a few minutes executed the
required levy on the assembled congregations.
“The men were forthwith furnished with armour,
weapons, and all things necessary,’ and marched
198
L O N D O N.
off to Dover before night. The system of press-
ing, though not in the same indecorous manner,
was afterwards repeatedly resorted to during
Elizabeth's reign. -
A material change in the military exercises of
the London citizens took place at the close
of Elizabeth's reign, with which the use of
the sword and buckler seems to have ended.
Stowe relates that, in his time, ‘the art of defence
and use of weapons was taught by professed
masters,’ and that the young Londoners, after
the evening prayer on holidays, were permitted
to exercise themselves with their wafters and
bucklers before their masters' doors. The wafters
here mentioned were swords with the flat part
placed in the direction of the edge. Shakspeare
and all the writers of his time mention schools
for teaching the use of weapons as common in
London; but when the alarm of outward danger
had been dissipated,” and the pusillanimous
reign of James had commenced, military exercises
were naturally discountenanced by a king, who
had an instinctive horror at the sight of a naked
sword ; and who praised armour, rather because,
as he said, it prevented the wearer from hurting
others, than for the protection it gave him.
The danger which might arise from such an
habitual neglect of military exercises, at length
roused some patriotic spirits to exert themselves
to revive the ancient trainings in the artillery gar-
den. In 1610 Philip Hudson, lieutenant of the
artillery company, and divers, other gentlemen
and citizens of London, considering the inconve-
niences which had been suffered by many ‘late
populous and flourishing neighbour cities, prin-
cipally by reason of their neglect of that most
noble exercise of arms and martiall discipline in
times of wealth and peace; they, like loving
sons to so glorious a city,’ undertook, “at their
own private or particular charge, a weekly exer-
cise of arms and military discipline after the mo-
dern and best fashion and construction then in
use;’ and for their better ease and more conve-
nience, “they erected a strong and well furnished
armoury in the said ground, in which are arms of
several sorts; and of such extraordinary fashion
and goodness for service, as are hard to be
matched elsewhere.’ Four years after, James I.
commanded a general muster of all the horse and
foot soldiers throughout England; and such was
the progress which the citizens of London had by
that time made in their military re-organization,
that no fewer than 6000 of them assembled on
the occasion. They were commanded by twenty
captains, selected of the most active and forward
citizens, and unto every one of them were allot-
ted 300 shot and pikes, being, for the most part,
all householders bravely furnished; and such of
them as were not formerly of the Martial Society,
and practice of the Artillery Garden, became
then admitted of that warlike company.
. Although the reign of James continued to the
last undisturbed by war, the artillery company
laudably persevered in their exercises. In 1638
the common council passed an order ‘that the
trained bands should be made perfect in disci-
pline, and that the greatest care should be taken
that low and indigent persons do not impose
themselves as officers, but that they be selected
from the most respectable gentlemen, and alse
from those who are capable and expert,’
When the civil wars broke out, in the reign of
Charles I., the trained bands of London, as they
were then called, espoused the cause of the peo-
ple, and are universally allowed to have contri-
buted mainly to its ultimate triumph. After
Charles made his rash attempt, in 1642, to seize
on Pym, Hampden, and the other obnoxious
members of the house of commons, whom he had
caused to be accused of high treason; and when
these champions of liberty took refuge in the
city, and the grand committee of parliament it-
self was obliged to transfer its sittings to Guild-
hall, the trained bands placed themselves under
the command of major general Skipton, for the
purpose of protecting them in the exercise of
their parliamentary privileges.
The appeal to arms was at length made, and
Charles advancing towards London, defeated
colonel Hollis's regiment at Brentford, and took'
possession of that town. Every possible exertion
was then made to prevent his entrance into the
capital; “with unspeakable expedition,’ says
Clarendon, “the army, under the earl of Essex,
was drawn together, and the trained bands of
London led out, in their brightest equipage, upon
the heath next Brentford, where they had, indeed,
a full army of horse and foot, fit to have decided
the title of a crown with an equal adversary.’
The parliamentary forces did not amount to less
than 24,000 men, “stout, gallant, proper men,
as well habited and armed, as were ever seen
in any army, and seemed to be in as good cou-
rage to fight the enemy.” “The good wives and
others,’ says Whitelock, “mindful of their hus-
bands and friends, sent many cart loads of pro-
visions, and wines, and good things to Turnham.
Green, with which the soldiers were refreshed
and made merry, and the more, when (after a
short time) they understood that the king and all
his army were retreated.' Next year the citizens
not only repaired and strengthened their walls,
but erected an outer line of trenches, and fortifi-
cations, which included the whole of the suburbs
from the end of Shoreditch on the east, to Hyde
Park Corner and Vauxhall on the west, and from
the end of Kent Street, Deptford Road, on the
south, to Bloomsbury on the north. Nothing
could exceed the ardor with which these fortifi-
cations were prosecuted. Thousands of men,
women, and children, assisted by the train bands,
and headed by several members of the common
council, were constantly at work. The different
trades went out in a body on alternate days, as
appears by the statements in the ‘Diurnals,’ and
other newspapers of the time. One day, between
2000 and 3000 porters gave their labor, another
day 4000 or 5000 shoemakers left their gentle
craft to assist in the new fortifications; and the
tailors, to the number of 6000, lent their willing
and unsolicited aid to the same purpose. The
fortifications consisted of a strong earthen nam-
part, planted with bastions and redoubts. The
expense of these works was defrayed by a general
levy on the inhabitants, and a loan of £60,000
from the city companies.
The king's affairs taking for a time a prosperous
turn, and the city of Gloucester, which had de-
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D O N. 199
clared for the parliament, being hard pressed by
his troops, great exertions were made to send the
earl of Essex with an army to its relief; and to
encourage the recruiting, for this purpose, the
London magistracy had recourse to the vigorous
measures of ordering, that all shops, within their
lines, should “be shut up, and continue so till
Gloucester was relieved.” º
The Londoners accordingly, besides furnishing
two regiments of their trained bands, sent forth
four auxiliary regiments, three of foot and one of
horse. The parliamentary army now marched
towards Gloucester, but the king, hearing of their
approach, raised the siege and advanced to meet.
them. The hostile forces met at Newbury, and
in that sanguinary fight (albeit they were but
keepers of shops), gave signal proof of their here-
ditary resolution and prowess. “The London
trained bands and auxiliary regiments,’ says lord
Clarendon, ‘of whose inexperience of danger
or any kind of service, beyond the easy practice
of their postures in their artillery garden, men
had till then too cheap an estimation, behaved
themselves to wonder, and were, in truth, the
preservation of that army that day; for they stood
as a bulwark and rampire to defend the rest, and,
when their wings of horse were scattered and
dispersed, kept their ground so steadily, that
though prince Rupert himself led up the choice
horse to charge them, and endured their storm
of small shot, he could make no impression upon
their stand of pikes, but was forced to wheel
about.” In the subsequent affair at Cheriton
Downs, the Londoners acquired fresh läurels.
Two of their strongest auxiliary regiments fought
under Sir William Waller, on that occasion, and,
as Whitelock tells us, “ did very brave service;
they drove the enemy from the hedges, which
they had lined with musketeers, and gained the
passage to a wood, which stood the parliamentary
forces in great stead, and shortly after put the
enemy to a rout; which was so total, that scarcely
ten of them were left together.’
The city shortly after increased the number of
troops they had in the field against the king to
8400; four regiments were under the earl of
Essex, and three under Sir William Waller.
Although they continued foremost, in the strug-
gle between the crown and the people, the Lon-
doners, when the parliament and the army quar-
relled, and Cromwell rose on the bucklers of the
latter to supreme power, fell into the background,
and suffered but too many affronts and hardships
at the hands of those whom they had been the
principal means of placing in the seat of royalty.
The works about the city were ordered to be
demolished ; the trained bands were discharged;
the treasuries of different city companies were
robbed, in order to pay arrears due to Cromwell's
soldiers; particularly that of the weavers' com-
pany, from which £20,000 were carried off; and,
when these were found insufficient for the pur-
pose, bands of these satellites were quartered on
the city, not only in the inns, but in private
houses, till the deficiency was made up.
During the quarrel between the army and the
parliament, the services of the London trained
bands were frequently called for to suppress tu-
mults: nor were those of a political nature the
citizens had their revenge.
most dangerous to the existing government. In
April, 1648, a riot was begun in Moorfields, on
account of the infraction of the parliamentary
ordinance against tippling and gaming on the
sabbath, which required all the energy of Fairfax
to suppress. The first party of the trained bands
sent to quell the tumult were overpowered by
the rioters, who seized their arms, drums, and
colors, and daringly beat up for recruits. A
mob in a populous city is like a rolling snow
ball, increasing as it proceeds; and the rioters
were soon so formidable as to be enabled to act
on the offensive. The prisons of Newgate and
Ludgate were surprised during the night; and
next day they attempted to seize Whitehall, but
were repelled by the soldiers. They, however,
were more successful in the city, where they at-
tacked the mansion house, and carried off a piece
of artillery, called a drake. Ammunition was ob-
tained from the magaziné, in Leadenhall Street,
where they made a stand against the only two
regiments then in London, nor did they give way
until several of them were wounded, and others
taken prisoners.
When the question of the restoration came,
after the death of Cromwell, to be agitated, the
The king's restorer,
Monk, found them well disposed to second his
views, and, being appointed major general of
their forces, he speedily re-embodied both the
trained bands and auxiliary regiments, and, at a .
grand review in Hyde Park, appeared at the head
of no fewer than 18,600 “brave Londoners,’ a
greater force than the city had mustered for some
centuries. It was composed of six regiments of
trained bands, six auxiliary regiments, and one
regiment of horse. The mere demonstration of
such a force, on the order of royalty, at this junc-
ture of affairs, was sufficient. The restoration
immediately followed.
Very shortly after, the restored monarch issued
a commission of lieutenancy for the city of
London, which vested the commissioners with
similar powers to those possessed by the lords
lieutenant of counties. The city regiments were
by them new modelled, and augmented, the foot
to 20,000, and the horse to 800.
The insurrection of the fifth-monarchy men,
which took place in the following year, is justly
regarded in history as an act of frenzy in a de-
luded few; but it deserves notice here, as a sort of
frenzy which could only have happened in a com—
munity inured, as we have seen that of London
was, to the use of arms. A body of not more
than sixty men, but all well armed, Sally forth
from a meeting house in Swan Alley, Coleman
Street, under the guidance of one Venner, their
preacher, and a mad colonel of the name of Cox,
to proclaim “King Jesus.’ They encounter a
party of the trained bands, in the interest of
“king Charles, led on by Sir Richard Brown,
the lord mayor, and put them to the rout. They
march triumphantly up and down the city, kill
a headborough by way of exercise, and then,
learning that a body of horse is coming against
them, retire for the night to Caen Wood, near
Hampstead. Here they are attacked at break of
morn; some of them are taken, and the rest dis-
persed. But next day they rally, return into the
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L O N D O N.
city, and fight a severe battle in Wood Street,
with a body of regular horse and a party of the
trained bands; two of their best men are slain,
and Venner, the leader, wounded and made
prisoner; the remainder, under colonel Cox,
retire fighting towards Cripplegate: a party of
ten take post in a neighboring ale house, and
defend it with such resolution, that it is not
carried before seven of them are killed; nor
until twenty of the whole number, being at least
more than the one-half, and twice as many of
their opponents, have apparently bit the dust.
The trained bands, “ of whose inexperience in
danger, or of any kind of service beyond the easy,
practice of the artillery garden, Clarendon
says, “men had too cheap an estimation,’ were
long the favorite force of the metropolis; and on
every occasion, when their services were called
upon, proved themselves worthy of the confi-
dence of their fellow citizens. Previous to the
civil war, as appears by a tract in the Harleian
MSS., containing an account of their musters in
1643, their force, including auxiliaries, exceeded
18,000 men. . This species of force, which was
*eglected during the protectorate, was remodelled
by Charles II., and the trained bands alone aug-
mented to 20,000 men. As the restored govern-
ment found itself secure, this force was reduced,
and may be said to have been almost disorganised,
when the rebellion of 1715 induced the govern-
ment to issue an order for it to muster, and be
in readiness to suppress any tumults that might
arise. The trained bands were still nominally
kept up, although six auxiliary regiments and
some troops of horse were reduced.
The rebellion of 1745 again roused the military
spirit of the metropolis: the trained bands were
kept in readiness, and the militia embodied; two
regiments were raised at the expense of the mer-
chants, and corps of volunteers incorporated. The
lawyers exchanged their briefs for muskets, and
the judges their wigs for helmets; the weavers
of Spitalfields laid aside their shuttle and distaff
for the pike and the bayonet; and even the ma-
nagers of the theatres offered to form a corps of
‘ his majesty's servants, ready to quit the mimic
combats of the stage for the tented field. Large
subscriptions were raised for supplying the troops
with the necessary clothing and the munitions of
war, towards which the corporation of the city
gave £1000, and several of the city companies
contributed liberally. Even the Quakers so far
overcame their religious scruples as to raise a
considerable sum for the purchase of woollen
waistcoats for the soldiers; and, had the danger
Theen more imminent, it is probable they might have
been induced to go farther, and, like the Quakers
of America at the commencement of the revolu-
tion, have subscribed for gunpowder, under the
equivocal denomination of grain, or for muskets,
under the name of fire irons. The approach of
the rebels to Derby increased these preparations:
the city gates were guarded; and a large train of
artillery was sent from the tower to a camp
formed on Finchley Common, where it was de-
termined to raise the royal standard. . This cir-
cumstance gave rise to Hogarth's admirable pic-
ture, the March to Finchley, for which he sought
the royal patronage; but the king, who saw
nothing in the picture but that his soldiers were
ridiculed, expressed great displeasure; and the
print was dedicated to the king of Prussia. .
An age of tranquillity succeeded, and the mi-
litary force of London was kept up more for
parade than service, until the French revolution
broke out. As the danger approached, the ne-
cessary preparations were made with zeal and
alacrity. It was at first proposed, that two
regiments of militia should be raised by ballot,
and placed under the commission of lieutenancy;
but this mode was found inconvenient; and in
1796 a new act of parliament was passed, au-
thorising the city to raise two regiments of 600
men each, by enlistment, the expense of which
was to be defrayed by a small assessment on each
ward. Each regiment was commanded by a
colonel, lieutenant-colonel, major, ten captains,
ten lieutenants, and ten ensigns, all appointed by
the great officers of the city, who formed the
commission of lieutenancy. The authority of
the crown over the two militia regiments was
very limited. His majesty could only order one
regiment to march out of the city, and that not
further than a distance of twelve miles. The
success of the French arms in Italy and Ger-
many, and the threatened invasion of Great
Britain, redoubled the military ardor, and volun-
teer associations were raised in every part of the
kingdom. In London they consisted principally
of citizens, and other respectable tradesmen, who
formed themselves into companies in their re-
spective wards and districts, electing their own
officers, finding their own clothing, arms, and
accoutrements, and devoting their time and their
money to the service of their country. These
military preparations were very actively carried
on in the year 1798.
The anniversary of the birth of his late majesty
was celebrated on the 4th of June, 1799, by one
of those spectacles which a free country could
alone present. His majesty on that day reviewed
15,000 men, of whom upwards of 8000 were
citizen soldiers, who had, from motives of the
purest patriotism, formed themselves into mili-
tary associations, and relinquished for a moment
their peaceful occupations, to learn “the trade
of war,’ at their own expense, for the purpose of
guarding their own and their sovereign's rights,
should they have been attempted to be endan-
gered by the threatened invasion. After the troops
had gone through their evolutions, much to the
satisfaction of his majesty, and the firing was
concluded, the whole line waved their caps in the
air, and gave three hearty huzzas, which were
echoed and re-echoed by upwards of 150,000
persons who attended the review.
The military spirit and patriotism of the city of
London had not yet, however, fully developed
itself. Every year, every month, and we might
say every day, increased the loyal associations,
of which the nucleus only had as yet been found,
In the month of October, 1803, a succession of
reviews took place, in which more than 30,000
volunteer troops were reviewed ; and this num-
ber, large as it was, fell far short of the actual
force of the metropolis, which, including a few of
the adjacent villages within the bills of mortality,
where distinct corps had also been formed,
L O N
D O N 20
amounted to a force of 46,000 men. His royal
highness the duke of York, the commander in
chief, observed, in his general orders, “His ma-
Jesty perceives, with heart-felt satisfaction, that
the spirit of loyalty and patriotism, on which
the system of the armed volunteers throughout
the kingdom was originally founded, had risen
with the exigencies of the times, and at that mo–
ment formed such a bulwark to the constitution
and liberties of the country as will enable us,
under the protection of providence, to bid de-
fiance to the unprovoked malice of our enemies,
and to hurl back, with becoming indignation,
the threats which they have presumed to vent
against our independence.’ At the peace of
1814 the military force of the metropolis was
reduced to the artillery company and the two
regiments of militia which had superseded the
trained bands.
CHURCHES, PUBLIC BUILDINGS, &c.—We
may now advert to the buildings of this great
metropolis, and of these, the churches of the estab-
lishment, necessarily, take the lead, on account
of their magnificence, as well as their antiquity.
The cathedral of St. Paul's is the noblest of
Protestant churches, Some historians endeavour
to prove that it occupies the site of an ancient
temple of Diana: but this Sir Christopher
Wren discredits; observing that “having changed
all the foundation of old St. Paul's, and upon that
occasion rummaged all the ground thereabouts,
being very desirous to find some footsteps of such
a temple, he could not discover any.’ It is not
before the time of Augustine we find any trace
of a structure here. When he found a patron in
Ethelbert, king of Kent, this monarch, in 1619,
first founded the cathedral, dedicated it to St.
Paul, and endowed it with the manor of Tilling-
ham and other lands. It was of wood; but for
the period no mean structure : Dugdale assures
us that, in 1675, Erkenwald, then bishop of
London, “bestowed great cost on the fabric
thereof, augmenting its revenues very much with
his own estate.’ -
During the heptarchy, this church flourished.
Kenred, king of Mercia, declared it to be as free
in all its rights as he himself desired to be at
the day of judgment. Athelstan endowed it with
106 farms, messuages, &c. Edgar gave it
twenty-five mansions, besides a considerable
sum in money; and his wife, Egleflede, two lord-
ships. All these grants were confirmed by the
charters of Ethelred and Canute, which solemnly
denounce curses on all who dare to violate this
place of worship. Edward the Confessor, also,
endowed it liberally, so that “great was the
esteem that this cathedral then had.” On the
landing of William I. he seized on some of the
revenues of St. Paul's; but no sooner was he
seated on the throne than he restored them, and
confirmed all its privileges.
In 1086 the wooden cathedral was laid in
ashes, by a conflagration which destroyed the
greater part of the city; but this event made way
for a more magnificent building than had ever
been raised for the purposes of devotion in this
kingdom. To the pious zeal of the bishops,
Maurice and De Belmeis, London was chiefly
indebted for this few edifice. The latter is said
to have devoted the whole of his revenue to the
undertaking. The steeple, which was of timber,
was finished in 1221 ; the quire in 1240 ; and, in
1283, the cathedral, nearly as it stood in point of
magnitude previous to the great fire, was finally
completed, with the exception of the pavement,
which was not made until the year 1312, when
the whole was paved with ‘good and firm mar-
ble, which cost five-pence the foot.' About this
period an exact survey was made of the church;
and its dimensions, according to Dugdale, were
stupendous. -
In length it measured 690 feet; and in
breadth 130 feet; the height of the body of the
church was 150 feet; and the space of ground
comprehended within the walls was three acres
and a half, one rood and a half, and six perches.
The height of the tower and spire from the level
ground was 520 feet: the ball, above the head
of the spire, was so large, that it would contain
within it ten busheſs of corn; the length of the
cross, above the ball, or pomel, was fifteen feet;
and the traverse of the cross six feet.
Dugdale enumerates no fewer than seventy-six
chantry chapels within this sacred fane, and
sixty endowed anniversary obits: not fewer than
200 priests are supposed to have been required
to perform the various duties of these establish-
mentS.
The building was in the Norman style, and is
supposed to have presented one of the earliest
and finest examples of the use of pointed arches
The decorations within, corresponded in richness
and splendor with the magnificence of the exterior.
The high altar shone all over with precious
stones, and was surrounded with images, ‘beau-
tifully wrought.' . At the right side of it, there
was an oil painting of St. Paul, ‘placed in a
tabernacle of wood,' which is said to have been
a masterly performance, having been executed in
1398, at a cost of £12 6s, Near the altar was the
splendid shrine of St. Erkenwald, which was for
many ages a favorite resort of the pious. Another
shrine, nearly as celebrated, was that of Roger
Niger, who was made bishop in 1229; Matthew
Paris records, that miracles were frequently
wrought at it.
Among the uncanonised, but perhaps not.
less truly eminent personages, to whom monu-
ments were erected in this cathedral, were “old
John of Gaunt, time-honored Lancaster:' the
gallant Sydney, author of the Arcadia; Dean
Colet, the founder of St. Paul's school; and Van-
dyke, the painter. Here too reposed the ashes
of Sir Francis Walsingham, but without a stone
to mark the spot. He died so poor that his
body was buried by stealth, to prevent its being
arrested. The celebration of obsequies for per-
sons of rank once formed a peculiar and a very
profitable privilege of St. Paul's. The ambassa-
dors of foreign princes, and many of our nobility,
according to Dugdale, the knights of the garter,
the lord mayor, and the several companies of
London, all attended with great devotion at
these ceremonies. .
St. Paul's was the place where, in the reign of
Edward III., the flagellants, to the number of
120 men and women, exercised their castigations.
* Each day,’ says Dr. Lingard, “at the appointed
202
L O N Do N.
hour, they assembled, ranged themselves in two
lines, and moved slowly through the streets,
scourging their naked shoulders, and chanting a
hymn. At a known signal, all, with the excep-
tion of the last, threw themselves flat on the
ground. He, as he passed by his companions,
gave each a lash, and then also lay down. The
others followed in succession, till every indivi-
dual, in his turn, had received a stroke from
the whole brotherhood. The citizens gazed and
marvelled, pitied and commended; but they
ventured no farther.’ - tº
After the battle of Bosworth-field, which gave
the crown to the earl of Richmond, the king, on
arriving in London, rode through the city to the
cathedral church of St. Paul (says a MS. in the
Lansdown collection, No. 250), where he offered
three standards.
On the 6th of April, 1592, the nobles, with
the lord mayor and corporation, attended St.
Paul's in great state, when Dr. Morton, arch-
bishop of Canterbury, and lord chancellor,
addressed them in a long oration, on occasion of
the king of Spain having taken Granada from
the Moors. Te Deum was sung and great re-
joicings followed.
Queen Mary seems to have had particular at-
tention paid to her at St. Paul's. On one occa-
sion, when the queen rode through the city to
Westminster, as she passed through the church-
yard, a Dutchman of the name of Peter stood
on the weathercock, holding a streamer in his
hand, five yards long, and, waving it, stood some
time on one foot, at the same time shaking the
other; ‘ and then,’ says Stowe, ‘kneeling on his
knees, to the great marvaill of all the people.’
The city gave him twenty-five marks for his
* cost and paines.’ On her marriage with Philip
of Spain, when the king and queen passed the
churchyard, “a fellow,’ says Stowe, ‘came slip-
É. upon a cord, as an arrow out of a bow, from
aul's steeple to the ground, and lighted with his
head forwards on a sort of feather bed, and after
he climbed up the cord again, and did certain
feats,’ all of which were repeated on the corona-
tion of Edward VI.
Old St. Paul's was the scene, however, of far
more important ceremonies. It was here that the
pusillanimous king John signed the resignation
of his crown and kingdom to the haughty legate
of the pope. Here, too, queen Elizabeth pub-
licly returned thanks to the Deity, for the victory
over the Spanish armada; and the colors taken
from the enemy still stream in triumph, under the
dome of the cathedral.
In the reign of Philip and Mary, we find that
the cathedral was a place of common resort and
thoroughfare; and that, not only porters and
carriers of goods, but beasts of burden were
suffered to pass through it. The dean and chap-
ter, too, instead of checking his concourse,
turned it to their profit, by imposing a toll on
each passenger. The abuse at length became so
flagrant, that an act of common council was
issued to restrain it. Many shops, and houses
too, were built against the outer-walls of the ca-
thedral; and even a playhouse is said to have
been among the erections here.
The Burnynge of Paules Church in London,
an old tract written in the year of our Lord 1561,
points out the different places where business of
various sorts were carried on. ‘The south alley
for usurye and poperye; the north for Simony
and the horse faire; in the middest, for all kind
of bargains, metinges, brawlings, murthers, con-
spiracies; and the font, for ordinary paiements
of money, are so well knowen to all menne, as
the beggar knows his dishe.”
The simony and trading in benefices, carried on
in St. Paul's, appears to have been long known.
Chaucer alludes to them in the prologue to his
Canterbury Tales, and bishop Hall, in one of his
satires, broadly mentions them as notorious. Ad-
vertisements were openly posted on the doors,
for the sale and purchase of benefices, beginning
usually with the words Si quis, a circumstance
thus alluded to by bishop Hall:-
Saw'st thou ever Si quis patch'd on Paul's
church door, ‘.
To seek some vacant vicarage before ?
Who wants a churchman, that can service say,
Read, fast and faire, his monthly homiley,
And wed and bury, and make Christian soules?
Come to the left side alley of Saint Paules,
Thou servile foole.
The description of the satirical bishop has many
illustrations: “I bought him in Paul's,’ says
Falstaff, in speaking of Bardolph. Massinger,
also, in his City Madam, thus alludes to it as a
notorious thieves' sanctuary. i
“Dining with duke Humphrey' was applied
at this time, to persons who walk about for lack
of a dinner to sit down to. “Are they none of
duke Humphrey's furies? Do you think they
devised this plot to get a dinner?’ (Mulco at
Midnight.) That is, one of the aisles of St.
Paul's was called duke Humphrey's Walk, from
a popular notion, that the good duke Humphrey
of Gloucester was buried there ; though the fact
is, that the duke was buried at St. Alban's, and
the monument which the vulgar supposed to be
erected to his memory was one placed over the
remains of Sir John Beauchamp, son of Guy
Beauchamp, earl of Warwick.
We cannot here detail the further history of
the old building. Large sums of money were
collected under king James I. commission, and
considerable quantities of building materials
actually provided for its repair; but the reign of
James elapsed without the work being com-
menced. The duke of Buckingham is said to
have borrowed some of the latter for the erection
of the water gate at York House. On the appoint-
ment of Laud to the see of London, this prelate
exerted himself with great vigor and success in
favor of the neglected building, and set on foot
a new subscription, which produced in a short
time £101,330 4s. 8d. The celebrated Inigo
Jones was employed to superintend the repair;
but, before any thing material was effected, the
great fire came, and reduced it to a heap of
ruins. - =:
The subscriptions for building a new cathedral,
which commenced soon after the fire, amounted,
in the course of ten years, to £126,000; a new
duty was laid on coals for the same purpose,
which produced £5000 a year; and king Charles
I. contributed £1000 annually. Wren was
L O N D O N.
203
ordered to prepare designs for the inspection of
the king, and, fixing upon one of them, his ma—
jesty commanded a model of it in wood to be
prepared on a large scale. Of this model, which
is suffered to remain in a dilapidated state in àn
apartment in the cathedral, where it is exhibited,
a living architect (Mr. Elmes) says, “it possesses
an originality peculiarly striking; copied from
no other building, it exhibits judgment and in-
vention in every turn.'
Excellent as the plan was, it was rejected, on
the ground that it differed too much from the
preconceived notion of cathedral churches; the
Secret appears to have been, that it was not
adapted to the ceremonies of the Roman Catholic
church, which the duke of York hoped to restore,
and therefore he used his influence to get the
plan rejected. It was with the same view that
the duke obtained the addition to the plan that
was adopted, of the side oratories, which so
much broke in upon the design, that the archi-
tect is said to have shed tears when he was com-
pelled to admit them.
. The commission for rebuilding the cathedral
was issued under the great seal, dated November
12th, 1673. The business of taking down the
ruins of the old structure was one of considerable
labor and difficulty. To the middle tower, the
ruins of which were 200 feet high, a blast of
eighteen pounds of gunpowder was applied,
under the direction of the architect; and, com-
paratively small as this force was, it raised the
whole angle of the tower, with several adjoining
arches; visibly lifting the vast mass, which was
not less than 3000 tons in weight, about nine
inches, when, tumbling back again suddenly, it
dropped into a heap of ruins, but with such a
concussion, that the inhabitants in the neighbour-
hood took it for an earthquake. Sir Christopher
also now resorted to that ancient engine of war,
the battering-ram; a beam of timber forty feet
long, well secured with ferrules, and suspended
from a triangle, was vibrated by thirty men for a
whole day against a part of the wall without any
apparent effect, but on the second day the whole
was thrown down.
The first stone of the new cathedral was laid
on the 21st of June, 1675, by the great architect
himself, who lived to see his son, then only a
few months old, thirty-five years afterwards, de-
posit the highest stone of the lantern on the
cupola.
In 1693 the walls of the new choir were
finished, and the scaffolding removed ; and on
the 2d of December, 1697, it was opened for
divine service, on occasion of the thanksgiving
for the peace of Ryswick. . The morning prayer
chapel was opened for divine service the 1st of
February 1699. It is remarkable that this mighty
fabric was begun and finished by one architect,
Sir Christopher Wren; one principal mason, Mr.
Strong; and during one bishopric, that of Dr.
Henry Compton, bishop of London.
The total expense of the building was £736,752
2s. 3d. -
The dimensions of this cathedral, compared
with that of St. Peter's, are, according to the Pa-
Fentalia, as follows:—
&
St. Pag.’s, St. Peter's.
Length within 500 669ft.
Greatest breadth & 223 442
Height . 340 432
In the construction of the edifice, the architect
was forced to observe the general shape of a
cross, and yet it exhibits little or none of the
awkwardness of that form of building. By means
of an additional transept or arm he has given due
breadth to the west end or principal front; the
east end terminates in a projecting semicircle;
and at the extremities of the principal transept
there are also semicircular projections for porti-
cos, while the angles of the cross are occupied
with square appendages, which serve as buttresses
to a magnificent dome or cupola. *
The front of the building on the west presents
a grand portico of the Corinthian and Compo-
site orders, surmounted by a spacious pediment,
with a lofty tower or steeple of great elegance
and richness on each side. In the tympanum, the
conversion of St. Paul has been well sculptured
in basso relievo, by Birt; on the apex is a colos-
sal statue of St. Paul, and on either hand, at dif-
ferent distances along the summit of this front,
are similar statues of St. Peter, St. James, and
the four evangelists. The semicircular porticos
at each end of the principal transept are of the
Corinthian order, and are also crowned by sta-
tues of the apostles. The tympanum of that on
the north side, exhibits a sculpture of the royal
arms and regalia, supported by angels; and that
of the other the phoenix rising from the flames,
as before mentioned. The side walls of Jhe
building present the appearance of a two storied
structure; there being two ranges of pilasters
all round, one of the Corinthian, and the other
of the Composite order; the intervals between
which are occupied with windows. The dome
or cupola is the most striking feature of the whole
edifice. A plain circular basement rises from
the roof of the church to the height of twenty
feet; above that there is a Corinthian colonnade
of thirty-two columns; and every fourth inter-
columniation is filled with masonry, so dispersed
as to form an ornamental niche or recess, while,
at the same time, the projecting buttresses of the
cupola are thus concealed. The entablature of
the peristyle supports a handsome gallery sur-
rounded with a balustrade. Within this rises
an attic story, with pilasters and windows, from
the entablature of which springs the exterior
dome. Round an aperture on the summit of
the dome there is another gallery, from the
centre of which ascends an elegant lantern, Sur-
rounded with Corinthian columns, and sur-
mounted by a ball and cross richly gilt. When
viewed, especially, from any of the heights round
the metropolis, such as Hampstead, or Highgate,
or Shooter's Hill, its dome has a very noble ap-
pearance; though there, perhaps, it is rather to
be regarded as a cupola to the vast metropolis
itself, than to any single edifice. “Considered
in this light,’ as Mr. E. Aikin remarks, “the
coldest critic, the most rigid theorist, could not
wish to subtract a particle from its rich exube-
rance.' - - *
The adoption of the two orders of architecture,
L O N D O N.
it must be remembered, was a matter not of
choice but necessity. The quarries of the Isle of
Portland, from which alone the stones for the
building could be procured, could not furnish
blocks of magnitude enough to enable the archi-
tect to raise his series of pillars all of one order;
that is, to make the lowest order of the necessary
elevation.
On entering the building, there is one discre-
pancy which strikes a stranger more forcibly than
any that can be remarked in the exterior. Con-
trary to what he has been led to expect, from the
division of the walls on the outside, into two sto-
ries, he finds no such corresponding division
within. Although disappointed, however, he is
far from being displeased. The unexpected
loftiness of the vaulting, and of the long range
of columns and piers which burst on the sight,
add still farther to those ideas of vastness and
magnificence which the exterior has inspired.
Sir Christopher chose the hemispherical manner
of vaulting, as being “demonstrably much lighter’
than diagonal cross vaults; and that demonstra-
tion we have here before us. “The whole vault
of St. Paul's consists of twenty-four cupolas, cut
off semicircular with segments to join to the
great arches, one way, and which are cut across
the other way with elliptical cylinders to let in
the upper lights of the nave; but, in the aisles,
the lesser cupolas are both ways cut into semi-
circular sections, altogether making a graceful
geometrical form (distinguished by circular
wreaths.)'—Parentalia.
The great dome over the central area is sup-
ported by eight stupendous piers, four of the
arches formed by which open into the side aisles.
It has been so constructed as to show a spacious
concave every way; and, from the lantern at the
top, the light is poured down with admirable
effect over the whole, as well as through the great
colonnade that encircles its basement. The in-
side is divided into light compartments, in which
there are , as many paintings of subjects from
scripture, by Sir James Thornhill; but, though
originally executed with much animation and
relief, the colors are now so faded, that they pre-
sent to the eye of the observer below only a
confused mass of stains. Sir Christopher Wren
wished to have beautified the inside with the
more durable monument of mosaic work ; but
in this, as in other instances of correct foresight,
he was unhappily over-ruled.
parated from the body of the church by hand-
some iron railings. Over the entrance to it is
the organ gallery, and an organ in it supposed
to be one of the finest in the kingdom. It was
erected in 1694 by Bernard Schmydt, or Smith,
for £2000. On the south side of the choir is a
throne for the bishop; on the north another for
the lord mayor; and, besides these, there is on
each side a long range of stalls. The whole are
richly ornamented with carvings. In the chan-
cel, or semicircular recess at the east end, stands
the communion table. What is called the altar
piece, has four fluted pilasters painted in imita-
tion of lapis lazuli, and is besides ornamented
with a profusion of gilding; but its appearance
is on the whole insignificant. It is due, however,
to the memory of Wren to notice, that he had
The choir is se-
other designs for this part of the building than
those which have been realised. The pulpit and
reading desk are both splendid objects; the for-
met was designed by Mylne, and is richly carved
and gilt; and the latter consists entirely of brass
gilt, and is very light and airy. In the south
end of the western transept there is a chapel for
morning prayers, and in the north the consistory;
both are divided from the aisles by screens of in-
sulated columns, and ornamental carved work.
In the spaces between the great pilasters of
the nave, Sir Christopher Wren has omitted in-
serting, as is usual, the architrave and frieze of
the order, and this apparently for the purpose of
raising the summits of the arches above the level
of the architrave. We learn from the Parentalia,
however, that he did not consider this to be any
deviation from the strict rules of art; he always
insisted that he had the ancients on his side, and
would refer to the Temple of Peace, to the great
halls of the Baths, for proofs that in large struc-
tures of three aisles this is done, and for this
reason, that, in such wide inter-columinations,
‘the architrave is not supposed to be from one
great column to another, but from the column to
the wall of the aisle, so that the end of it only
will appear upon the pillar of the inside of the
great navis.'
In 1773 Sir Joshua Reynolds made an offer
from himself, and a number of other painters of
the first eminence, including West, Barry, Ci-
priani, Kauffman, Dance, &c., to paint various
pictures, free of charge, to adorn the naked
walls; but the offer, so honorable to them, was
declined, on the ground (which, considering the
Protestant riots of a later period, cannot be con-
sidered as altogether fallacious), that popular
clamors would be excited by the idea, that “po-
pery and the saints were again to be admitted
into our churches.’ At a later period, a propo-
sition for the introduction of monumental sculp-
tures was attended with more success; and, con-
sidering that the same objection scarcely applies
to them, it is surprising that it should not have
been made earlier.
The first statue erected in St. Paul's was that
of our great lexicographer, Dr. Johnson. Since
then, about forty other monumental tributes to
the illustrious dead of this country have been
added; and, being all of white marble, and gene-
rally well distributed, they unquestionably con-
tribute greatly to the relief and embellishment
of the architecture. The monuments have in
themselves, however, little to boast of.
It is due, at the same time, to the artists, to
observe, that there is but too much reason to
think that they have not always been allowed the
free exercise of their own judgments, but have
been often obliged to embody the gross concep-
tions of ignorant committees of superintendence
and direction. When the dean and chapter first
came to the resolution of admitting monulments
into the cathedral, they resolved that no monu- .
ment should be erected without the design being
first approved of by a committee of the Royal
Academicians; but it is asserted, that, “from the
influence of some unexplained imperium in im-
perio, the ultimate decision was not intended to
be given to the committee.’ A vindicator of

L O N
D O N 205
*
Chantrey from his share in the allegorical mania,
says, that the design in which it occurs was
made entirely in deference to the powers who
sit in judgment on these occasions, and under
the certain conviction, that without submission
to the prevailing taste his model would have
been thrown aside, as he had before repeatedly
experienced.—Britton's Illustratiens of the Pub-
lic Buildings of London.
But few of the persons to whom monuments
are erected in the cathedral, have been really
buried here. Among the number, the first who
claims our notice is the great architect of the
building, Sir Christophen Wren. Descending
to the vaults by a broad flight of steps, you see
beneath the south-east window, inscribed on a
low tomb, the following simple epitaph: ‘Here
lies Sir Christopher Wren, Knight, builder of this
Cathedral Church of St. Paul, who died in the
year of our Lord MDCCXXIII., and of his age
XCI.’ On the wall, above, there is an additional
inscription in Latin, with which the public are
more familiar, and which may be thus translated:
* Beneath lies Christopher Wren, the builder of
this church, and of this city, who lived upwards
of ninety years, not for himself, but for the pub-
lic good. Reader would'st thou search out his
monument? Look around. He died 25th Fe-
bruary, 1723, aged ninety-one.’
At the suggestion of the late Mr. Mylne, the
architect, it has been repeated on a tablet in
front of the organ gallery in the choir; yet even
there the effect is incomplete. Considering that
Wren was in truth the builder, both “ of this
church and this city,' the reader should be en-
abled, to “look around' on both, to behold ‘ his
monument.’
In these vaults, also, repose the mortal remains
of the immortal Nelson, and of his friend and
companion in victory, lord Collingwood, both of
which were deposited here with all those funeral
honors which a sorrowing country could bestow.
Here too lie interred those eminent masters Rey-
nolds, Barry, and Opie, in contiguous graves;
the eloquent and sagacious Loughborough; the
learned and pious Dr. Newton, bishop of Bris-
tol; Dr. Boyce, the organist and composer; the
eccentric disciple of animal magnetism, Mainan-
dot; and a few others of inferior note.
After examining all that is to be seen in the lower
part of the cathedral, the visitor has still to make
the ascent to the summit, to examine the interior
of the vast dome, and to enjoy the magnificent
views, which the outside galleries furnish of this
vast metropolis. You ascend by a spacious cir-
cular stone staircase, to a gallery which encircles
the lower part of the interior of the dome, and is
called the whispering gallery, from the circum-
stance, that the lowest whisper breathed against
the wall, in any part of this vast circle, may be
accurately distinguished by an attentive ear of
the very opposite side. The paintings within the
dome, you find, even on this nearer inspection,
scarcely distinguishable. All the lower parts
have perished utterly, and the rest are in a state
of rapid obliteration. The subjects were all
chosen from the life of St. Paul, as recorded in
the Scriptures, from his miraculous conversion
near Damascus, to his shipwreck at Melita.
Branching off from the circular staircase, at this
place, there are passages which lead to other
galleries and chambers over the side aisles. One
conducts you to the Library of the chapter, which
is immediately over the consistory. The floor
of this apartment is a great curiosity, being en-
tirely constructed of small pieces of oak, without
either nail or peg, and disposed into various
geometrical figures, with the utmost nicety.
Above the chimney there is a good half length
portrait of the protestant bishop Dr. Compton,
who bequeathed the whole of his books to the
library, which is not however of much value as
a collection. Over the morning prayer chapel,
at the opposite end of the transept, is a room
called the Trophy Room, from being hung round
with various shields and banners used at the ce-
remony of lord Nelson's funeral. In this room
are kept the rejected model, according to which
Sir Christopher Wren first proposed to erect this
cathedral, and also the unexecuted model of the
altar piece. From the whispering gallery, the
visitor ascends to the stone gallery, which sur-
rounds the exterior dome above the colonnade;
and from this elevation, when the atmosphere is
clear, the view around is magnificent. As the
staircase above this becomes very steep, narrow,
and dark, not many visitors can prevail on them—
selves to go higher; and yet there is much to
repay both the trouble and apprehension attend-
ing the ascent. In the crown of the dome there
is a circular opening, from which the superstruc-
ture of the cone and lantern, and cross, rise
nearly 100 feet higher. Around the exterior
base of the cone there is a railed gallery, called
the golden gallery, from which you have a more
extended, and, on account of the increased dimi-
nution of individual objects, a more curious view
of the busy world beneath. If your head is steady
enough to master the feeling of dizziness which
overpowers most people at so great an elevation,
and makes them feel that the only pleasure in
going up is the pleasure of coming down again,
you may even ascend by ladders into the lantern
itself, and, from the bull's eye chamber, extend
your survey far into the country on every side.
Here did a most ingenious and persevering artist,
Mr. Thomas Hornor, pass the whole summer of
1821, in taking a panoramic view of this vast
metropolis and its environs, which he is now un-
derstood to be preparing for public exhibition in
the Regent's Park. -
When the visitor has reached the bull’s eye
chamber, it will not cost him much additional
exertion of courage to mount into the ball which
crowns the lantern. It is six feet two inches in
diameter, and capacious enough to contain eight
persons with ease. The weight of it is stated to
be 5600 lbs. The cross, which is solid, weighs
3360 lbs. tº
In descending from this lofty perambulation,
the visitor, when he reaches the whispering gal-
lery, may return to the lower part of the church
by a different staircase from that by which he
ascended, called the geometrical staircase. It
is, however, seldom used, and is chiefly resorted
to by the curious in architectural matters, on ac-
count of the singularity and skilfulness of its
construction. The stairs go round the concave
206
L O N D O N.
in a spiral direction; and the base is a circle in-
laid with black and white marble, in the form of
a star. The towers or steeples, which have been
before described, as forming part of the western
front, serve, one as the belfry, and the other as
the clock tower. The great bell of St. Paul's,
which is of some celebrity, never being tolled
except at the deaths and funerals of members of
the royal family, or of the bishops and lord
mayors of London, when the sound of it is heard
at a great distance, is stated to weigh four tons
and a quarter. It has these words inscribed on
it, Richard Phelps made me, 1716.
In the area before the west front of the cathe-
dral there is a statue of queen Anne, by Bird,
on a sculptured pedestal, representing Britannia,
Hibernia, America, and France. Neither the
statue nor the pedestal does much credit to the
artist.
Church of Saint Faith.-In early times, there
stood, near the east end of St. Paul's cathedral,
a separate church belonging to St. Faith's parish;
but it was taken down on the rebuilding of the
cathedral, after the fire of 1086, in order to give
greater room for the new fabric; and, in place of
it, the parishioners of St. Faith's had assigned
to them, that part of the crypt or vaults of St.
Paul's situated immediately under the choir,
which was formed into a distinct place of wor-
ship, and called Ecclesia Sanctae Fidei in Cryp-
tis. It became hence a common saying
This church needs no repair at all,
For Faith’s defended by St. Paul.
In the reign of Edward VI. the parishioners
of St. Faith's removed into another place of
worship in the crypt, which had then been sup-
§: called Jesus chapel; and the church of
t. Faith was occupied by the Stationers' com-
pany, as a repository for their goods. After the
great fire of London, the parish of St. Faith was
united to that of St. Augustine; and, on the re-
building of the cathedral, there was allotted to
the parishioners of St. Faith a portion of the
new crypt, for the purpose of interments, as also
a large portion of the outer burial ground.
CHURCHES ERECTED PREVIOUSLY To THE
GREAT FIRE.
In London there are not above twenty churches
which date their erection prior to the great con-
flagration of 1666. This fire destroyed eighty-
nine churches, besides chapels, and threatened
to annihilate every venerable edifice in the me-
tropolis. One of the most ancient of those
buildings which remain is the church of St.
Peter ad Vincula, in the tower, already de-
scribed. Several of the others are entitled to a
brief notice. re
St. John the Baptist.—This church is almost
the only remains of the ancient palace of the
Savoy, in the Strand, which was built in the
year 1245. It does not appear that the chapel
suffered by the riots of the Kentish rebels, al-
ready noticed, but a considerable part of the
palace was demolished, and the whole was re-
paired in 1509, The roof of this church is very
fine, being divided into pannels, on which nu-
merous religiousand heraldic devices are carved.
This church, which was very tastefully repaired
in 1820, contains several ancient monuments of
the Willoughby, Howard, and Compton families,
as well as of other persons.
St. Dunstan's in the West.——No church in
London is perhaps so well known as St. Dun-
stan's, in Fleet Street; not certainly on account
of its external elegance, but for the equivocal
celebrity it has acquired by the two wooden
figures placed on a pediment in front, in 1671,
representing savages, who indicate the hours and
quarters by striking a bell with their clubs.
As they are very visible in the street, “they are,’
says an historian, “more admired by many of the
populace on Sundays, than the most elegant
preacher from the pulpit within.' Charity in-
duces us to hope better, particularly as Dr.
Donne, the celebrated Richard Baxter, and the
pious Romaine, were preachers at St. Dunstan's.
There is no evidence when this church was
erected : Stowe records burials in it so early as
the year 1421. .
St. Giles’, Cripplegate, is one of the best
Gothic buildings in London, and was erected in
1546, on the site of the ancient church, built by
Alfune, the first master of Bartholomew Hospi-
tal in 1090, and burnt down in the year 1545.
It is a light, airy, well-proportioned structure,
which will always be attractive to the antiquary
and the poet, on account of its being the place
where Speed the historian, Fox the martyrologist,
and Milton, were interred. Oliver Cromwell
and his wife, Elizabeth Boucher, were married
in this church. -
St. Bartholomew the Great.—This church,
part of the ancient priory of St. Bartholomew, in
Smithfield, owed its foundation to Raherus, “a
witty gentleman, and therefore in his time the
king's minstrel,' about the year 1202. Matthew
Paris relates a singular rencontre which took
place in this priory, when Boniface archbishop of
Canterbury, in a visitation, thought fit to go out
of his diocese, and visit it. The canons, though
willing to receive him as a guest, would not on this
occasion acknowledge his authority; whereupon
the bishop called the said canons “English trai-
tors,’ and, after striking the sub-prior in the face,
‘the archbishop,' honest Mathew adds, “with
oaths not to be recited, rentin pieces the rich cape
of the sub-prior, and trod it under his feet, and
thrust him against a pillar of the chancel with
such spiritual violence that he had almost killed
him.’ The archbishop was, in his turn, knocked
down; but his men came to his assistance, and
routed the canons, who “ran bloody and miry,
rent and torn, to the bishop of London, to com-
plain.' The church was rebuilt about the year
1410.
St. Bartholomew the Less-This church, which
is entered through Smithfield, appears to be of
considerable antiquity, as there are monuments
in it of as early a date as the year 1438. The
sculpture in the interior, which is in the Saracenic
Gothic style, is very antiquated. -
St. Helen's, Bishopsgate, so called on account
of its being dedicated to the mother of Constan-
time, was originally a priory of black nuns,
founded anterior to the reign of Henry III. The
church, which is a light Gothic structure, with a
L O N D O N.
307
tower, built in 1669, is honored with the
remains of Sir Julius Caesar, Sir Thomas Gresh-
am, Sir John Crosby, Hooke the astronomer,
and other worthies. The parsonage was leased
out by queen Elizabeth, in lieu of a pension, to
captain Nicholas Oseley, who, while in Spain,
gave the first intelligence to the English court of
the fitting out of the Spanish armada.
St. Andrew Undershaft.—This church, which is
situated in Leadenhall Street, is so called on
account of a May-pole, or shaft, having formerly
been raised here every year on the 1st of May,
which was higher than the church-steeple, until
Sir Stephen, a bigot of St. Catherine's church,
preaching at St. Paul's Cross, called it an idol,
when the inhabitants, over whose doors it had
been suspended on iron hooks, returned home,
and cut it to pieces. This church was rebuilt in
the year 1525, at the expense of William Fitz-
william, the founder of the noble house of Went-
worth.
St. Olave, Hart Street, Crutched Friars, is a
church which has nothing but its antiquity to
recommend it. The first record of it is in 1319,
since which time it has neither had external or
internal grandeur to boast of; nor does it
appear that a single individual of note sleeps
within its walls.
Near the tower stood, till 1825, the Church of
St. Catharine's Square, so called to distinguish
it from St. Catharine Cree, already noticed. It
formerly 'belonged to an hospital founded in
1148 by Matilda, consort to king Stephen. The
church, which was collegiate, was a neat Gothic
building, with several very handsome stalls; an
elegant east window, which distributed a flood of
light on all around; an octagonal pulpit, which
represented, on its sides, the ancient building,
and the several gates of the hospital; and an altar,
which was the finest specimen of the Gothic style
in England. The organ, which was erected in
1778, was fine toned and of great power. This
church, after escaping the fangs of Henry VIII.
and the Puritans, had nearly fallen a prey to the
rioters of 1780, who, headed by a soldier of the
name of Macdonald, and two women, were pro-
ceeding to demolish it, on the ground that it was
built in the times of popery. But some of the
members of the London Association arrived in
time to save this venerable pile from destruc-
tion; and Macdonald and the women, who were
afterwards arrested, were executed on Tower
Hill. This church was, however, obliged to be
taken down in the year 1825, to make room for
the new dock, called St. Catharine's Dock.
St. Saviour's, Southwark.—This church, which
was originally founded previous to the arrival of
the Normans in this country, was successively a
house of sisters, a college of priests, and a priory
of canons regular, and was supported by a ferry
across the river. The church, which was formerly,
and is now sometimes, called St. Mary Overy,
was rebuilt in the year 1400. John Gower, the
poet, the friend of Chaucer, and author of the
Confessio Amantis, was a liberal benefactor, and
was interred within its ancient walls. When the
priory had been surrendered to Henry VIII., or
rather seized upon by that monarch, the inhabi-
tants of Southwark purchased it, with a charter
which constituted the churchwardens a cor-
poration. At a subsequent period this corpo-
ration appear to have manifested very little
regard for their purchase, and to have actually
let a part of it out for sixty years as a common
bakehouse. h
This church, which is very spacious, with
three aisles and a cross aisle, like a cathedral, is
of the ancient Gothic order; twenty-six pillars,
in two rows, support the roof of the church; and
the chancel, and the galleries in the walls of the
choir, are adorned with pillars and arches, simi-
lar to Westminster Abbey. The tower, which is
erected on four very strong pillars, with the
spire, is 150 feet high, and contains twelve of the
finest bells in Great Britain. It is memorable
from its being the place whence Hollar took his
views of London. -
Gower is not the only poet who has been
buried in this church, for here sleep, in one
grave, Philip Massinger, and Fletcher. The
celebrated cashier of the Bank, Abraham New-
land, is also interred in an obscure corner of this
church. -
The Church of St. Pancras, which was built in
the fourteenth century, is of small size and rude
architecture; it consists of a nave and chancel,
in which are several monuments; and no church
or church-yard, in or near the metropolis, affords
a last home to such a diversity of characters as
are buried within its precincts. Jeremy Collier,
the non-juror, and Father O'Leary, the amiable

friar of the order of St. Francis; Pascal Paoli,
the Corsican patriot (who has a monument in
Westminster Abbey); Woollet, the engraver;
Cavallo, the Neapolitan philosopher; and Cheva-
lier D'Eon, the knight-errant of the last age,
have all been buried in the church or church-
yard, where a plain square monumental pillar,
with a willow tree on each side, bears an inscrip-
tion which records, that here also lie the remains
of the philosophic Mary Wollstonecraft Godwin.
The church-yard is remarkable for the great
number of Roman Catholics interred in it; and
the church was the last in England where mass
wººl. - -
llhallows, Barking.—This church, which
escaped the fire, was built in 1651, at the corner
of Seething Lane, Great Tower Street. It for-
merly belonged to the abbess and convent of
Barking in Essex, whence its name is derived.
It is a spacious church, and contains a mixture
of Tuscan and modern Gothic architecture.
St. Ethelburga is a small church on the east
side of Bishopsgate. It is supposed to have
been erected in the year 1420; and a charity
was founded here in 1436. It is a Gothic build-
ing, with a small spire; and, among other
monuments, contains one in memory of a person
of the name of Williams, who had attended on
forty-two lord-mayors, and died in 1583.
St. James's, Duke's Place.—This church, which
is very small, and built of brick, was erected in
1622 on the site of the priory of the Holy
Trinity, founded by the empress Maud in 1108
As it was the richest priory in England, it was
one of the first that was dissolved.
208 L O N
D O N.
CHURCIIES BUILT AFTER THE GREAT FIRE BY
SIR CHRISTOPHER WREN.
This great architect erected fifty new churches,
between the years 1668 and 1718, a list of which,
chronologically arranged, is subjoined.
St. Olave, Jewry, formerly called St. Olave,
Upwell; situated in the Old Jewry, and erected
after the fire of 1666.
St. Dunstan's in the East, St. Dunstan's Hill.
—This church was only partially destroyed by
the great fire. The body, which remained, has
since been rebuilt, in 1820, under the direction
of Mr. Laing, who was enabled to preserve the
singularly beautiful tower and spire erected by
Sir Christopher. The spire is raised on four
Gothic arches, and presents a light and airy ap-
pearance.
St. Michael's, Wood Street.—So early as the
year 1359 the church of St. Michael's was libe-
rally endowed: and tradition reports, that the
head of James IV. of Scotland was buried here,
after the battle of Flodden field. The new church,
which is of the Ionic order, was erected in 1669.
The old turret has since been altered into a
clumsy spire. 1.
St. Stephen's, Walbrook.-This church is more
celebrated on the continent than the cathedral of
St. Paul's or Westminster Abbey.—Although
there was a church in this parish so early as the
year 1135, yet the site on which the present
beautiful edifice is erected was not thus occupied
until the year 1429. The first stone of the new
church was laid in 1672, and in 1679 it was com—
pleted. The interior is allowed to be of the most
beautiful and matchless architecture.
St. Mary, Aldermanbury, was erected on the
site of an old church, which appears to have stood
five centuries and a half, when the fire of London
destroyed it. The infamous judge Jefferies was
buried in this church.
St. Nicholas, Cole Abbey, Old Fish Street.—
A plain stone building, with a square tower.
St. George, Botolph Lane,—A small neat
church, of Grecian architecture: indeed, a large
church is quite unnecessary, as the parish, ac-
cording to the census of 1821, only contained
thirty-three houses, two of which were unin-
Thabited, and a population of 101 persons.
St. Bartholemew, Bartholomew Lane.—Rebuilt
in 1670. -
St. Stephen, Coleman Street.—A chapel be-
longing to the deans of St. Paul's; rebuilt in
1670.
St. Michael, Bassishaw, Basinghall Street.—
An ancient rectory, which, in 1140, was in the
presentation of the prior and canons of St. Bar-
tholomew's. The old church, which was taken
down in 1460, is said to have been very beautiful.
Two centuries after it was rebuilt it was destroyed
by the great fire, and succeeded by the present
edifice.
St. Michael, Queenhithe.—Built in 1677.
St. Ann and St. Agnes, St. Anne's Lane.—A
plain edifice with a square tower; built in 1685.
St. Mary-at-Hill, Lower Thames Street, was
only partially destroyed by the great fire. It is
surmounted by a plain square brick tower, built
in 1670,
St. Christopher-le-Stock.—This church, which
was rebuilt by Sir Christopher Wren, was taken
down after the riots of 1780; and its site has since
been occupied by the additional buildings to the
bank of England.
St. Vedust, Foster Lane: dedicated to a bishop
of Arras in 484; rebuilt in 1698.
St. Sepulchre's, Skinner Street.—It is not
known when this church was first erected, but
there are records of its existence in the middle of
the thirteenth century; and it is probable that it
is one of the oldest foundations in London. The
church that was erected in 1440 was not entirely
destroyed by the great fire, but it was almost en-
tirely rebuilt in 1670.
St. Mary Woolnoth, Lombard Street —
Although this church is entered in the MS. of
Sir Christopher Wren, yet it was built by his
pupil, Nicholas Hawksmoor, probably from some
designs by his master, particularly the interior.
The Rev. John Newton, the friend of Cowper the
poet, was rector of this parish.
St. Mildred's, Poultry, 1676.
St. Bennett Fink, Threadneedle Street, 1673.
St. Mary le Bow, Cheapside.—This church,
which is supposed to have been erected in the
reign of William I., was the scene of many in-
teresting events. It was unroofed in 1090 by a
tempest, and in 1271 a great part of the steeple
fell down, when several persons were killed.
Five years afterwards, when Fitz-Osbert, com-
monly called Long Beard, had raised an insurrec-
tion, he sought refuge in this church, and fortified
it. -
When the church had been destroyed, by the
fire of 1666, Sir Christopher Wren, who had in-
tended to raise two arches over the pavement, was
compelled to erect the edifice to range with the
street, when, in digging to the depth of eighteen
feet, he found a Roman causeway four feet thick
on which he laid the foundation. The principal
ornament of this church is its steeple, which
combines the five orders of architecture, and is
considered as one of the chef-d'oeuvres of this
master. It is 225 feet high, and is surmounted
with a gilt ball and dragon. The inside contains
two Corinthian and two semi-pillars in length,
against each of which are two pilasters; and it is
from those that the arches between the nave and
side aisles are turned. Their capitals are foliage,
and the arches have cherubim on the key stones.
They reach to the great cornice of the order con-
tinued round the church, and consequently the
architecture and frieze are confined to the co-
lumns. ‘t
In 1818, a survey having been made of this
church, the steeple was deemed unsafe, and it was
determined that it should be taken down and re-
built, which has since been done, and the church
otherwise substantially repaired. - *
St. Michael's, Cornhill.—This church dates its
origin beyond the year 1133, when it was pre-
sented to the abbot and convent of Evesham.
The present church which is justly admired for
its beautiful Gothic tower, and the admirable
symmetry with which the various orders of archi-
tecture are combined, was erected in 1672.
Fabian the alderman and historian has a monu-
ment in this church. -
º
L O N D O N.
209
St. Magnus, London Bridge, 1676.
St. Edmund, Lombard Street. 1690.
St. Lawrence, Jewry.—Edward I. gave the pa-
tronage of this church to Baliol College, Oxford,
which now possesses it. The church was re-
built in 1677. It is a handsome building, and
the interior has lately been rendered very elegant.
ºnent of archbishop Tillotson adorns this
Cºllll’CI). ~
St. Bride's, Bride Lane, Fleet Street, is ano-
ther of those churches on which Sir Christopher
Wren bestowed the greatest care. The church is
a plain but neat structure; but it is in the lofty
spire that the taste and skill of the architect are
displayed. This spire was much injured by
lightning on the 18th of June, 1764, when seve-
ral large stones were forced from their places,
one of which fell through the roof into the north
gallery, and another was thrown into a house in
Bride Lane. It was, however, soon repaired,
though at an expense of £3000. This spire was
again struck by lightning in 1805, and, in repair-
ing it, the steeple was somewhat lowered. In
1822–3 this church, which the parishioners
guard with just pride, was substantially repaired,
and a rich window of stained glass added. Since
this period advantage has been taken of a fire
to throw open the view of this church from Fleet
Street. Among the eminent persons buried, are
Samuel Richardson, the author of Pamela; Sir
Richard Baker, the author of the Chronicle of
the Kings of England; Pope's Corinna, Mrs.
Elizabeth Thomas; and Wynken de Worde, the
famous printer.
St. Dionis, Back Church, Lime Street, Fen-
church Street, rebuilt 1674-84.
St. James, Garlick Hill, rebuilt in 1683.
St. Peter's, Cornhill.—This church is of very
ancient foundation, and very richly endowed.
The present plain edifice was rebuilt immediately
after the great fire. There is a plain monument
in this church to the memory of seven children,
the whole offspring of James and Mary Wood-
mason, who were burnt to death in a house in
Leadenhall Street, in 1782.
St. Bennet, Paul's Wharf, built in 1181, and
rebuilt in 1682. Inigo Jones is said to have
been buried in this church, but there is no record
of the circumstance.
St. Martin, Ludgate, 1684. -
Allhallows the Great, Thames Street, 1683.
St. Swithin's, Cannon Street.—A small but
elegant church, built in 1680, on the ruins of
one of very ancient foundation. This church is
memorable from the celebrated ‘London Stone'
being placed in front of it.
Christchurch, Newgate Street.—Previous to
the dissolution of the monasteries, this was the
church of Gray Friars, and one of the most
superb conventual houses in the metropolis. It
was built in the beginning of the fourteenth
century, and was consecrated in 1325. The
ancient church, which was burnt down in the
fire of London, was of large dimensions, being
300 feet long, eighty-nine broad, and sixty-four
feet high. The only part that has been rebuilt
is the choir, to which has been added a tower,
not remarkable for its exterior grandeur. It is
an elegant and commodious church, which is
Vol. XIJI.
much frequented on account of the scholars of
Christ's Hospital regularly attending divine ser-
vice here. Weever, in his Funeral Monuments,
relates that the old church was honored with the
sepulture of four queens, nineteen of the nobi-
lity, and thirty-five knights.
Allhallows, Bread Street, 1684.
St. Austin's, or St. Augustine's, Watling Street,
1695.
St. Anthony's, Budge Row, built by Cart- .
wright, from designs by Wren, 1682.
St. Mildred's, Bread Street, 1683.
St. Bennet, Gracechurch Street, of which there
are records as early as the year 1190, was rebuilt
in 1685.
St. Mary, Abchurch Lane, 1686.
St. Mary Magdalen, Old Fish Street, 1685.
St. Matthew, Friday Street, rebuilt 1669.
Dr. Lewis Bayly, author of the Practice of
Piety, and afterwards bishop of Bangor, was
rector of this church in 1647. -
St. Clement's, East Cheap, 1686. -
St. Alban's, Wood Street, was originally
founded by Athelstan, the Saxon king, who is
said to have resided in a house adjoining, and
whose name, somewhat corrupted, and abridged,
is preserved in Addle Street, formerly called
King Adel Street. This church was rebuilt in
1634, destroyed by fire in 1666, and the present
edifice, of the Gothic order, erected in 1685. It
contains a richly ornamented altar piece, and a
pulpit finely carved. &
St. Margaret Pattens, Rood Lane, rebuilt in
1687. Some carvings in the altar piece of this
church are by the celebrated Grinlin Gibbons.
St. Michael's, Crooked Lane.—This church,
which was rebuilt in 1688–98, stands in Miles
Lane. Sir William Walworth, who killed Wat
Tyler, was buried in this church, to which
Walter Warden bequeathed the Boar's Head,
East Cheap; the identical house in which Fal-
staff kept his revels, as recorded by Shakspeare.
St. Margaret, Lothbury, an ancient founda-
tion, rebuilt in 1690. It is a plain but neat
church, with a handsome exterior, and a font
beautifully ornamented with several historical
subjects from the Old and New Testaments.
St. Mary Somerset, Upper Thames Street,
first erected about the year 1335, and rebuilt in
1695.
Allhallows, Lombard Street.—A church was
standing on this site so early as the year 1053;
the present edifice was built in 1694. , #
St. Andrew's Wardrobe, more frequently called
St. Anne's, Blackfriars, built in 1692. There is
a fine monument to the memory of the Rev.
W. Romaine in this church, where he preached
for many years. It is allowed to be one of
Bacon's best performances.
St. Michael Paternoster Royal, College Hill.—
A college was founded here by the celebrated
Sir Richard Whittington, which has since been
converted into alms-houses, for thirteen poor
men. A church was standing here so early as
the year 1285. It was rebuilt by Sir Richard,
who was interred here, and had a splendid mo-
nument, which was violated by the sacrilegious
cupidity of a priest, named Mountain, who,
disappointed of finding money in the tomb,
P .
210 L O N D O N.
carried away the leaden coffin in which the body
was enclosed. -
QUEEN ANNE'S CHURCHES.—A few of these are
entitled to notice, which must, however, be brief,
although they embrace some of the most inter-
esting specimens of ecclesiastical architecture,
from the time of the fire to the commencement
of the nineteenth century.
St. Martin's church, St. Martin's Lane, built
by James Gibbs, between the year 1721 and
1726, is a beautiful edifice, and will be seen to
great advantage, now that the wish of Mr. Ralph,
‘that a view, might be opened from the Mews to
St. Martin's church; will be realised. The west
entrance has a very noble portico of Corinthian
columns, the entrance to which is by an ascent
of a long flight of steps. This church unites
the light and picturesque beauty of the modern
temple with the sober grandeur and solidity of
Grecian architecture, and the spire is light and
elegant. On the 1st of June, 1727, Mr. Volante,
an Italian, descended head foremost by a rope,
with his legs and arms extended, from the top
of the steeple of St. Martin's church, over the
houses in St. Martin's Lane, to the farthest side
of the Mews, a distance of about 300 yards in
half a minute. The crowd was immense, and
the young princesses with several of the nobility
were in the mews. $
St. Paul's, Covent Garden, was erected by
Inigo Jones, at the expense of the earl of Bed-
ford, who, in giving his directions, said, ‘a barn
would do.’ ‘Then,' said Jones, “ you shall
have the most magnificent barn in England.’
On the 17th of September, 1795, this church
was burnt down, but it was rebuilt according to
the plans of Jones. It has a noble massy por-
tico, of the Tuscan order, and the interior boasts
of great neatness and simplicity. Butler, the
admired author of Hudibras, Dr. Wolcot, and a
continual succession of the children of Thespis,
have been buried in the church-yard.
St. Giles's in the Fields.—This church is built
on the site of a hospital, founded by Matilda,
wife of Henry I. The present building was
erected in 1730, the former edifice having
become so ruinous as to render it necessary that
the whole should be taken down. Over the
north-west gate, leading to the church-yard,
there is a representation of the Resurrection
finely sculptured, which belonged to the old
church. Andrew Marvell, the Yorkshire patriot,
Sir Roger L'Estrange, and Richard Pendrell,
the preserver of Charles II., are buried in this
church or church-yard.
St. George's, Bloomsbury.—This church was
built by Hawksmoor, the pupil of Sir Christo-
pher Wren, and so closely did he calculate the
expense that he only exceeded the estimate by
£3. It is a singular, but by no means harmonious,
compound of the Tuscan and Corinthian orders,
with a good portico in the front. The steeple,
which is pyramidical, is surmounted by a statué
of George I., a circumstance that has been
rather happily alluded to, in an epigram which
states, that the pope only made Henry VIII.
head of the church, but that king George's good
people made him head of the steeple.’
St. Mary le Strand.—This church does credit
to the taste and skill of Gibbs, who had just re-
turned from Italy when he was called upon to
erect it. Though somewhat thwarted in his ori-
ginal design, and urged by the commissioners for
building the fifty new churches to spare no pains
in beautifying it, whence he has been lavish of
ornament, yet it is a superb edifice. On the pro-
clamation of peace, in 1802, a serious accident
occurred at this church, when one of the stone
urns, which ornament the railing round the roof,
fell and killed three persons, wounding several
others.
NEw CHURCHES.—Under the head of new
churches we include such as have been erected
since the commencement of the present century,
and these are sufficiently numerous to have given
a character to the architecture of the age, did
they not ‘have no character at all.’
Within little more than a century and a half
three great occasions have occurred to the re-
spective architects of the times—the rebuilding
of London after the fire of 1666, when England
had an architect worthy of so vast a field—the
building of fiftv churches in the reign of queen
Anné; and the numerous and extensive build-
ings in the metropolis during the last twenty
years.
In the year 1818 a commission was appointed
by royal patent, pursuant to a previous act of
parliament for building, and promoting the
building, of additional churches in populous pa-
rishes. The commissioners recommended the
erection of several churches and chapels in Lon-
don and its immediate neighbourhood, and no
time was lost in carrying the proposed measure
into effect. Previous to the parliamentary com-
mission, a chapel of ease had been erected in
the New Road, for the parish of Mary-la-bonne,
which was afterwards enlarged and raised to the
dignity of a parish church; a tower was substi-
tuted for a small cupola, a portico with six Co-
rinthian columns added to its front which was
extended, and several other alterations made,
under the direction of Mr. Hardwicke the archi-
tect. The interior is fitted up with an upper and
lower gallery, but it is decorated in a style much
too gaudy for a place of worship. Mr. West,
the historical painter, presented the church with
a very fine picture of the Nativity, for an altar
piece.
One of the first, and the largest, as well as the
most expensive of the churches erected under
the parliamentary commission, was that of St.
Pancras, which was built at the cost of £70,000,
by Mr. Inwood. The exterior is formed in imi-
tation of the temple of Erectheus, at Athens, so
far as regards its portico of six Ionic columns.
The wings are on the model of the Pandrosium,
which was attached to the temple of Erectheus,
but they are too profusely ornamented. The
eastern end is semicircular—though the original,
whence the building purports to be copied, is
square. The steeple, which is 165 feet high, is
an avowed imitation of the temple of the Winds
—with, this difference, however, that the Athe-
nian temple had no windows, and only four co-
lumns, while that of St. Pancras new church has
fifteen. The interior of this church is tasteful
and elegant; above the communion table are six
L O N
Do N. 2il
splendid antique Seagliola columns, with bases
and capitals of white statuary marble. The
windows are on the Grecian model, and the pul-
pit and reading desk are formed of the celebrated
Fairlop oak.
If economy in the expense, correctness of de-
sign, and elegance of execution, are recommen-
dations in a public building, the church of St.
Paul, Shadwell, built in the year 1820, under
the direction of Mr. John Walters, would stand
at the head of modern edifices, since, although
it only cost £14,000, yet the building is simply
neat and elegantly chaste. The steeple is pecu-
liarly beautiful; and in correctness of design, and
in the simple harmony of its several parts,
scarcely yields to the most admired object of the
kind in the metropolis. Another church, which
boasts some degree of neatness, has been erect-
ed at Hackney: it is of the Doric order, with a
portico and cupola. The interior is fitted up
with taste and simplicity, and the altar of Scag-
liola marble is elegant, though somewhat too
profusely ornamented,
Several other churches have been completed,
but they add so little credit to the architects and
to the age, that the historian who passes them
over will do no injury to the individuals, or to
the national taste. It appears by the reports of
the commissioners, laid before parliament in the
years 1821, 1822, and 1823, that it was intend-
ed to build twenty-four new churches in the
diocese of London, several of which were in
progress.
DISSENTERs' CHAPELS.–In a country where
every person may worship his Creator according
to the dictates of his own conscience, chapels
and meeting houses are necessarily numerous, and
increase in proportion to the growth of the me-
tropolis. In London there are six Jewish syna-
gogues, the chief of which is in Duke's place—
six meeting houses of the Quakers or Friends;
in one of these, in White Hart Court, Grace-
church Street, which was burnt down in 1721,
the great founder of the sect, George Fox, as
well as the no less celebrated William Penn,
preached. There are fifteen Roman Catholic
chapels; one of these erected in Moorfields is
remarkable for the elegance of its interior. Nine-
teen Foreign Protestant churches and chapels
accommodate those who have embraced the re-
formed religion, and wish to attend divine wor-
ship in their respective languages. In one of
these, the Dutch chapel in Austin Friars, several
autograph letters of Calvin and other celebrated
reformers are preserved. -
The chapels of the Whitfieldian and Wesleyan
methodists, and the various classes of protestant
dissenters, exceed 160 in number, and are conti-
nually increasing. Many of these are remark-
able for the popularity of the present, or the
recollection of former eminent ministers. A
building in Zoar Street, Borough, now used
as a national school-room, is the place where
John Bunyan preached, when in town; and
such was his celebrity, that a few hours no-
tice was sufficient to fill the chapel when he
mounted the pulpit, even at seven o'clock in the
dark mornings of winter. The chapel in Bury
Street, St. Mary Axe, was the place where Dr.
Watts officiated; and New Court meeting, in
Carey Street, among other distinguished pastors,
has had the eccentric nonconformist Daniel
Burgess, who preached with an hour glass by his
side, and his no less celebrated or eccentric suc-
cessor, Thomas Bradbury. The methodist chapel
in the City Road was erected by John Wesley;
and the Tabernacle, at a short distance from it,
was built by George Whitfield, Here these cele-
brated and pious men promulgated their respec-
tive tenets, with the zeal of apostles, and the
confidence of martyrs. Providence chapel
Gray's Inn Lane, was built by the well-known
William Huntington. This singular man, in a
sermon which he preached soon after the de-
struction of Drury Lane and Covent Garden
theatres in 1808 or 1809, congratulated his au-
dience that ‘ two of the devil's temples had been
burnt down; when, a few weeks after, his own
chapel fell a prey to the flames. . He was soon,
however, enabled by subscription to build a
much larger edifice in Gray's Inn Lane. Sim-
plicity and neatness are the general characteristics
of the dissenting chapels.
We now come to the chief specimens of civil
and municipal architecture, and here the Man-
sion House, as the abode of Supreme city autho-
rity, takes the lead. It was not until July 1734
that the common council came to the resolution
of appropriating the fines, paid into the chamber
for not serving the office of sheriff, to the pur-
pose of erecting a suitable mansion house, for
the special use of the lord mayor for the time
being. At this period there was not less than
f18,000 in the chamberlain's hands, which had
been derived in this easy way; and it was or—
dered, that this sum should in the mean time be
invested in the three per cent, annuities, and that
the growing interest thereon should be added to
the capital every year, till the money was re-
quired for the proposed building. Previously to
this, his own mansion, or the hall of some of the
large companies hired for the purpose, was the
residence of his lordship.
The site fixed upon was that anciently occu-
pied by the stocks market, a structure for which
the city was indebted to the liberality of Henry
de Walleis, who was lord mayor from 1281 to
1285. It had been selected as a market place,
because of its being in the midst of the city;
and was now on the same account thought the
best site that could be chosen for the residence
of the chief magistrate. Although the corner
stone was laid on the 25th of October, 1739, the
building was not completed till the year 1753,
in the mayoralty of Sir Crisp Gascoyne, who
was the first chief magistrate that made it his
residence. This delay was principally occasion-
ed by its being found necessary to raise the whole
structure upon piles. The total expense of the
erection, including the purchase money of the
old buildings, was £42,638 18s. 8d.
he mansion house, built from a design by
Mr. George Dance, is a spacious and stately edi-
fice, of rather heavy aspect. A bold flight of steps
leads to a fine portico in front, composed of
Corinthian columns, which spring lightly from a
massy rustic basement, and are surmounted by
a pediment; the tympanum of whºse 3.
- 2
212
L O N T) O N.
piece of sculpture in alto relievo, by Taylor, em-
blematic of the dignity and opulence of the city
of London. The general body of the building
presents two tiers of lofty windows, and over
these an attic story surmounted by a balustrade;
the cornices are rich and deep, and supported
by Corinthian pilasters. Were nothing more
presented to the eye than the parts we have now
described, the edifice, though lowly situated and
too closely surrounded with buildings, could
not fail to be pronounced elegant and complete;
but, viewing it from the front, we behold, heaped
as it were on the roof, and stretching crossways
along the front, an ark-like pile of building,
which throws an air of clumsy incongruity over
the whole. Originally, there was a corresponding
erection or hump towards the back of the build-
ing, but it was taken down a few years ago. Its
companion cannot follow it too soon.
The interior is laid out with taste and judg-
neerit. Entering by the great-door, you pass
through a spacious saloon into what is called the
Egyptian hall (for what reason, however, it
would require Egyptian cunning to divine, for
there is nothing of that character about it), a
magnificent banqueting room, about ninety feet
iong from east to west (occupying the entire
width of the house), and sixty broad, with a
lofty concave roof displayed into compartments
and richly ornamented. At the sides of the sa-
loon there are also a justice room, a sword
bearer's room, and a very handsome room called
Wilkes's parlour. The area above the roof of
the Egyptian hall being left open, the apartments
of the upper stories form a surrounding quad-
rangie, with galleries of communication. The
principal of these apartments are the ball room,
which is about the same length as the Egyptian
hall, but considerably narrower; a withdrawing
room, and chief bed room provided with a splen-
did state bed.
The Guildhall, or common hall of the corpora-
tion, is situated at the upper end of King Street,
Cheapside. w
In 1411, during the mayoralty of Sir Thomas
IKnolles, the foundation of this edifice was laid;
but only the great hall was at that time com-
pleted. Other parts of the building were added
at subsequent periods of the fifteenth and six-
teenth centuries, as the liberality of companies or
individuals induced them to advance the means.
At the great fire of 1666 the whole of the inte-
rior and outer offices were destroyed; but the
walls were of such remarkable solidity, that they
survived the fury of the raging element. The
renovation of the interior was completed within
three years after the fire, and at an expense of
not more than £3000. It underwent a consider-
able repair about the beginning of the eighteenth
century; again in 1780, when it received its
present façade, and lastly in 1814.
The ancient front of the building appears,
from the accounts and drawings of it, to have
been in a style of considerable richness and
grandeur. Some traces of its style may yet be
seen in the interior of the present porch, the only
part that has been preserved in its ancient state.
The old front was ornamented by some remarka-
bly fine statues. Engravings of some of them
may be consulted in Carter's Ancient Sculpture
and Painting. " .
The present façade exhibits a tasteless jumble
of the pointed, Grecian, and Oriental styles of
architecture; parts multiplied to infinitude, and
combined without the least relationship. On
a pannel over the porch are the arms of the city
(as represented in our first page), with the motto
beneath them, Domine Dirige Nos, as suitable
an inscription for a place of popular deliberation
as could have been well selected.
The porch conducts us into what is called the
great hall. It is 154 feet in length, and fifty-
two in breadth; two magnificent windows of
painted glass, at the east and west ends, diffuse
over the whole a strong but mellowed light; and
on each side are clusters of tall columns with
gorgèous capitals, surmounted by a correspond-
ing range of double piers, supporting a roof
fifty-five feet high. From 6000 to 7000 persons
may be contained within this hall, and on some
important occasions the numbers we have seen
assembled in it could not be less. The floor is
of stone, furnished originally by the executors of
the celebrated Whittington. The roof is sup-
posed, with great probability, to have consisted,
previously to the fire, of open-worked timber,
similar to the roof of Westminster hall; it is now
flat, and divided into large pannels.
At the east end of the hall there is an enclosed
platform several feet higher than the pavement,
and surrounded with a pannelled wainscotting,
which is set apart for the accommodation of the
lord mayor, aldermen, sheriffs, and other princi-
pal members of the corporation, at the meetings
of the livery, and serves as a hustings at all
elections. The more the great window over this
platform is examined, the more it will be found
deserving of admiration. Its divisions and sub-
divisions are all in the best harmony; their orna-
mental garniture light and elegant. In the
compartments of painted glass there are well
executed representations of the royal arms and
supporters, and the stars and jewels of the Or-
ders of the Garter, Bath, Thistle and St. Patrick.
Passing down the hall, the attention is attract-
ed to a number of statues and pictures which
occupy the spaces between the clusters of co-
lumns on each side, and call many interesting
and appropriate recollections to the mind.
The first is a monument to the memory of the
celebrated Beckford, who was lord mayor in
1763, and 1770. This magistrate is represented
in the erect attitude in which he addressed to the
king his celebrated reply, now known to have
been written by Mr. Horne Tooke.
In another compartment, on the same side of
the hall, is a still more splendid monument, to
the memory of the earl of Chatham : executed by
Bacon, who was paid the very handsome sum of
3000 guineas for his labor.
The sculptor has shown a remarkable degree
of judgment in presenting us with a monumental
groupe, which contradicts, as farasit possibly can,
the notions of political economy conveyed by
the inscription. The illustrious senator is exhi-
bited in a Roman costume, standing upon a
rock; his left hand rests on the helm of state;
his right is energetically placed on the shoulder
Lo N Do N.
213
of Commerce, who is presented to his protection
by a femalé, whose, mural crown bespeaks her
the representative of the city of London; Bri-
tannia, reposing on her lion, occupies the fore-
ground, and near her are four infants, emblematic
of the four quarters of the world, pouring into
her lap the cornucopia of Plenty. No demons,
nor furies, nor dogs of war, figure here ; four
infants denote, as truly as expressively, that it is
by peace and amity among all the nations of the
earth that the horn of plenty is most certain of
pouring its treasures into the lap of England.
Opposite to lord Chatham's monument, on the
other side of the hall, is one to the memory of
his son William Pitt, by Bubb; the sculpture
not so good, the inscription better. The attitude
of Mr. Pitt is appropriately oratorical; but,
viewed with relation to the surrounding objects,
it is an abstract conception, not well harmonized.
From the turn given to the head, the face of the
son seems as if purposely averted from that of
his sire, which frowns on him from the opposite
side in all its characteristic sternness,
At the lower end of the hall, on the north side,
there is a monumental trophy to the immortal
Nelson :-a huge heap of allegory, with a small
profile of the great hero in the middle ; only
rescued from contempt by the admirable inscrip-
tion from the pen of Richard Brinsley Sheridan.
We come now to the statues of those two high
and renowned personages, Gog and Magog,
which are situated at the foot of the hall, at the
sides of the great western window. Each mea-
sures above fourteen feet high; and, being ele-
vated on an octagon stone column, presents a
right gigantic appearance. Which is Gog and
which Magog, antiquarians have not yet been
able to determine, though many and indefatigable
their researches into this curious matter have
been. The points of similarity between them,
however, are so numerous, that we presume no
great injustice can be done to either, should he
chance to be called by his brother's name. Both
are very huge and mishapen; have their brows
encircled with wreaths of laurel, and their feet
bound in Sandals; they have long flowing beards,
and still longer flowing sashes; both have been
alike indebted to the bedauber of pink and blue,
and green and yellow ; each has a spear or pole
in his hand, and a sword by his side; nor could
any thing be more kin-like than the pensive dig-
nity with which they look down on the emmet
gazers beneath them. Who these worthies were,
and why statues of them should have been placed
in the Guildhall, of the corporation of London,
are two points about which the learned have long
been divided in opinion. The author of a cu-
rious little work,in 2 vols. 64mo., entitled, The
Gigantic History of the two famous Giants in
Guildhall, London, 1741 (third edition), follow-
ing the most respected authorities, assures us,
that one represents Corinaeus, a giant of Trojan
descent, who came over with Brutus, the great
grandson of Eneas, and won this country from
the hands of
Those mightie people born of giants’ brood,
That did possess this ocean-bounded land;
and the other Gogmagog, the last of the British
giants. When Philip and Mary made their en-
trance into London, these giants figured conspi-
cuously in the pageant exhibited on the occasion
at London Bridge; and they have occasionally
travelled before or behind a royal or civic dignity
since. Mr. Home, whose researches have thrown
much light on the history of these ancient relics,
assures us, from personal examination, that “they
are made of wood, and hollow within, but too
substantially built for the purpose of being
[often] either carried or drawn, or any way ex-
hibited in a pageant.’ The construction of them
he has also pretty clearly traced to the year
1707, and to a train-band captain of the city,
of the name of Saunders, who received £70 for
the pair.
In 1706 queen Anne made a present to the
city, to be put up in this hall, of twenty-six stand-
ards, sixty-three colors, and a kettle-drum, all
trophies of the memorable victory of Ramillies:
but these have all disappeared. “Had any other
than a cobweb sweeper decided their fate,’ says
a spirited writer, “not one of them would have
been removed while a single tatter remained.’
Opposite to the porch of this hall there is a
flight of steps which leads to a number of sepa-
rate chambers, appropriated to the lord mayor
and aldermen, the common council, the courts
of the lord mayor and common pleas, the court
of king's bench, and the chamberlain. The
common council court is well worthy of a parti-
cular visit. -
Somerset House, in the Strand, is the most
spacious and the most elegant building in the
metropolis, appropriated to public offices. It
occupies the site of an extensive palace, which
was erected about the year 1549, by Edward
Seymour, duke of Somerset, who despoiled seve-
ral churches and chapels in order to furnish ma-
terials for the structure.
This palace was occasionally occupied by
queen Elizabeth, Anne of Denmark queen of
James I., the consort of Charles II., and several
queens dowager; and it has also sometimes
been appropriated as a residence for foreign am-
bassadors. It appears to have been splendidly
fitted up and furnished, for the period, and even
when the building was taken down, about half a
dentury ago, many vestiges of a royal residence
were found. The original palace had received
considerable additions by Inigo Jones, but even
these were compelled to give way to modern
improvement, when, in 1774, it was determined
to erect a large suite of government offices on this
spot. Sir William Chambers was selected as the
architect, and although the economical spirit of
the government, rather than the want of money,
when it was undertaken, prevented him from
completing his design, yet the building is such
as to do credit to himself, and to the age in
which he lived. It consists of a spacious quad-
rangle; the south front, on the banks of the river,
has a very fine terrace, raised fifty feet above the
bed of the river, and fifty feet broad, on arches
of-massive rustic work; the centre arch, or wa-
ter-gate, is ornamented with a colossal mask of
the Thames in alto relievo. The whole building
is nearly 800 feet long, and 340 feet wide; the
quadrangular court is 340 feet long, and 210
feet wide. The north and south fronts of the
214 L O N
D O N.
quadrangle are formed by massive buildings of
rustic work. The centre of the south side is or-
namented with an arcade of four columns, with
two pilasters on each side; on the columns rests
a pediment, in the tympanum of which is a basso
relievo, representing the arms of the royal navy,
supported by a sea nymph. On the corners of
the pediments are military trophies, and above
the columns are very elegant vases. The east
and west are nearly similar, but not so profusely
ornamented. The front in the Strand is only
135 feet long. It consists of a rustic basement,
formed of nine arches, three of which in the
centre, are open, and form the entrance into the
quadrangle. The three arches on each side of
the entrance are filled with windows of the Doric
order, and adorned with pilasters, pediments,
and entablatures. On the key-stones of the arches,
Ocean, and eight of his principal tributary
streams, are exhibited in emblematic masks, in
alto relievo. The basement is surmounted by ten
lofty Corinthian columns (comprising two floors)
on pedestals, with regular entablatures; the
lower windows are surrounded with plain archi-
traves, but the upper ones have a balustrade in
front, and are ornamented with Ionic pillars,
pediments, and entablatures. The three central
windows have large tablets, covering part of the
architrave and frieze, on which, in basso relievo,
are medallions of their late majesties, as well as
of their son, our present sovereign. The attic
extends over three intercolumniations, and is di-
vided into three parts by four colossal statues,
placed over the columns of the order, emblema-
tic of Justice, Truth, Valor, and Moderation.
The whole is surmounted with a group, consist-
ing of the arms of the British Empire, supported
on one side by the genius of England, and on
the other by Fame. The vestibule, which forms
the only entrance, is closed at, night by iron
gates. It is decorated with columns of the
Doric order. Over the side doors in the vesti-
bule, leading to the Royal Academy and the So-
ciety of Antiquaries, are two busts, by Walton:
that over the academy entrance represents Mi-
chael Angelo Buonarotti, and the other is a bust
of Sir Isaac Newton. - -
The principal public office in Somerset Housé
is that of the receiver-general for stamps, one of
the least oppressive and most prolific sources of
revenue, yielding upwards of £6,000,000 an-
nually, Here also are the tax and navy offices,
the offices for the lottery, the duchy of Cornwall,
the privy seal, the surveyor of crown lands, the
victualling office, the signet office, and several
others, in which several hundreds of clerks are
employed. -
We now conduct the reader to the Royal Er-
change—The place where the merchants of Lon-
don commonly met for the transaction of busi-
ness, for some centuries, was in Lombard Street,
in which the Lombard Jews, from whom the
street derives its name, and who were origi-
nally the bankers of all Europe, resided. Here
too they probably kept their benches or banks.
At length, in 1534, Sir Richard Gresham (for
Pennant is more than partial in giving the honor
of the suggestion to his countryman, Clough),
who was agent for Henry VIII., at Antwerp, and
had been much struck with the advantages at-
tending the bourse or exchange of that place,
prevailed with his royal master to send a letter
to the mayor and commonalty of London, re-
commending to them to erect a similar building
on part of their manor of Leadenhall. The court
of common council, however, were of opinion
that such a removal of the seat of business would
be impracticable, and the scheme was therefore
dropped. -
Sir Richard was succeeded in the Antwerp
agency, and in his public spirit, by his son, Sir
Thomas Gresham, who, in 1564, proposed to the
corporation, that, if they would procure a central
and commodious site for an exchange, he would
himself be at the cost of its erection. The cor-
poration met the proposal in a spirit of equal
liberality, and immediately purchased eighty
houses, forming two little alleys leading from
Cornhill into Threadneedle Street, which they
pulled down, and then assigned the space on
which they stood to Sir Thomas, for the erection
of his proposed exchange.
On the 7th of June, 1566, the foundation of
this edifice was laid, and with such activity did
Sir Thomas proceed, that it was wholly com-
pleted before the November of the following
€ 2.I’.
y About two years after the building had been
opened queen Elizabeth signified her intention
of paying it a visit; but so many of the shops
still remained unoccupied, that Sir Thomas found
it necessary, two days before the promised visit,
to go round among the shop-keepers, and beseech
them “to furnish and adorne with wares and wax
lights as many shoppes as they either coulde or
woulde, and they should have all those so fur-
nished rent free for that yeare."—Stowe. Her
majesty was so much pleased at the appearance of
the edifice, that she commanded that instead of
the foreign name bourse, by which the citizens
had begun to call it, it should be styled in plain
English The Royal Exchange.
With those enlightened and humane views
which the mercantile profession is known so often
to inspire, Gresham now determined that what-
ever revenue might arise from the establishment
should be devoted to the support of a free literary
institution, to be denominated Gresham College,
and to the sick and poor of the city. He executed
a deed, by which he assigned for ever to the cor-
poration of London and the Mercers' Company,
in a joint trust, a dwelling-house which he pos-
sessed in Broad Street, for the accommodation of
seven gratis lectures on divinity, astronomy, geo-
metry, music, law, medicine, and rhetoric; and
the whole produce of the Exchange buildings, for
the payment, in the first place, of the salaries of
the lecturers and other expenses of the college;
and, secondly, of certain annual sums to different
hospitals, prisons, and almshouses.
In the great fire of 1666 the Royal Exchange
was among the many proud fabrics which that
calamity reduced to ashes. “What quick work,'
says an eye-witness (the Rev. Samuel Rolle),
can sin and fire make! Hów did that strong
building vanish as of a sudden, as if it had been
but an apparition How quickly was it taken
down, as if it had been but a slight tent, the
Lo N Do N. .
215
cords whereof are presently loosened, and the
stakes removed. So fell that noble structure
condemned by craft and covetousness, and over-
laden with pride and prodigality.’
When this lamentable disaster took place, the
funds in the hands of Sir Thomas Gresham's
trustees amounted to no more than £234 8s. 2d.;
but, with a spirit beyond all praise, they resolved
on making up from their own resources what-
ever might be the sum of money necessary for
rebuilding the Exchange, in a style which might
do honor to the age, and still farther honor
to the name of Gresham. The king gave his
cordial co-operation to the undertaking; and by
an exertion of the royal authority, which deserves
no place among the sins of the house of Stuart,
so controlled the erection of new houses on the
contiguous grounds, as to enable the trustees to
give to the approaches of the new exchange a
breadth and oppenness which the original one
by no means possessed. His majesty, his brother
the duke of York (afterwards James II.), and
prince Rupert, went personally at different times
and laid the foundation stones of the principal
pillars of the building.
On the 28th of September, 1669, it was finally
completed, and opened to the merchants, who
had in the interval been accommodated with
Gresham College as a place of meeting. The
total cost of the building was £58,962, which the
city corporation and the Mercers' Company
defrayed equally between them. In the front of
the building, immediately over the grand en-
trance, the following inscription commemorates
the events we have been relating:—
Hoc GRESHAMII PERISTYLIUM,
GENTIUM CoMMERCIIs SACRUM,
FLAMMIs ExTINCTUM, 1666.
AUGUSTIUS E CINERE RESURREXIT, 1669,
WILLM” TURNERO, MILITE, PREToRE.
The plan of the new exchange is similar to
ihat of the ancient one; and both took that of
Antwerp for their model. An open area, 144
feet long by 117 broad, is enclosed by a quad-
rangle of lofty stone buildings, with a broad
piazza inside and outside, except on the east and
west sides of the exterior. The principal entrance
is by an arched gateway at Cornhill, of magnifi-
cent proportions, and surmounted by a tower,
178 feet high, which has a clock in the middle
story, and terminates in a cupola and globe with
a gilt grasshopper (the crest of the Gresham
family) as a vane. On the north or oppositeside
of the quadrangle there is another arched gate-
way of nearly equal dimensions. The interior
area is neatly paved with small square Turkey
stones, said to have been the gift of a Turkey
merchant; and is divided, as well as the surround-
ing piazza, into what are called walks, to each of
which the merchants of some particular nation,
or branch of business, are in the habit of resort-
ing, so that, though all the world may be said to
meet on the exchange of London, you may
always know where to find, at once, the person
with whom you have business to transact.
In the centre of the area there is a good statue
of Charles II. by Spiller, set up in place of a
former one by Quellin of Antwerp.; and in
niches of the surrounding buildings there are
statues of most of our other monarchs from the
time of Edward I. to George III. The statues
of all the earlier sovereigns, as far as Charles II.,
are from the chisel of Gabriel Cibber; those of
George I. and II. were done by Rysbrach, and
that of George III. by Wilton. Some have been
much, injured by time; and whatever merit any
of them may possess, as pieces of sculpture, it is
sadly obscured by the sable shrouds in which our
sea-coal atmosphere has enveloped them. In two
niches under the piazza there are statues of the
great founder of the building, Sir Thomas Gres-
ham, and of Sir John Barnard, another eminent
citizen, whose merit as a merchant, a magistrate,
and a faithful representative of the city in parlia-
ment, his fellow citizens have thus sought to com-
Imemorate. &
The interior of the exchange buildings, both above
and below, was originally intended to te occupied
as a bazaar, and it was so for a considerable pe-
riod. The piazzas, both on the inside and outside,
were lined with shops, and so also was the upper
gallery. ‘Robin Conscience,' in his progress
through court, city, and country, 1683, tells us.
that after visiting the merchants on the area,
res he got much abused for intruding himself,
€
Did walk upstairs, where on a row,
Brave shops of ware did make a show,
Most sumptuous.
The whole of the shops have now, however,
been entirely removed, except those of the ex-
terior basement of the quadrangle. The upper
part of the buildings, to which there is access by
two spacious flights of steps under the north and
south fronts, are occupied by different public
companies, such as Lloyd's, the Royal Exchange
Assurance, Merchant Seamen's, &c., and by pri-
vate merchants and underwriters of respectability.
The architecture of the exchange is of a mixed
character; it is chiefly of the Corinthian order,
and therefore not without considerable elegance;
but the taste for ornament, which led to its adop-
tion, has in many parts of the building run into
profusion. The interior area is open to the pub-
lic from eight in the morning till four in the
afternoon, at which time precisely the gates are
shut. -
The Bank of England. For the origin of this
all-important establishment, see our article BANK.
The business of the bank of England was car-
ried on at Grocers' Hall until the year 1734,
although the increase of the establishment had
long rendered larger premises desirable. At
length, in 1732, it was determined to erect a new
building of sufficient magnitude, and the site
chosen was the house and garden of Sir John
Houblon, the first governor of the company, in
Threadneedle Street. The original building has
since received so many additions, that it becomes
more difficult to trace the architectural than the
commercial growth of the establishment. Tile
first edifice, which formed but a small portion of
the vast fabric which now constitutes the bank of
England, was raised under the direction, and ac-
cording to the designs, of Mr. George Sampson,
and was opened for business on the 1st of June,
1734. -
216
L O N D O N. *
This building was soon found insufficient for
the increasing business of the company; and,
some adjoining houses and ground having been
obtained, wings were added under the direction
of Sir Robert Taylor. In 1788 Mr. Soane suc-
ceeded as architect to the bank, and to him is the
present building indebted for its principal orna-
ments, particularly the rotunda. He has.recently
added what may justly be considered the most
splendid portion of this noble edifice. This con-
sists of a new wing at the east end of the bank;
the elevation forms a colonnade of six fluted
Corinthian columns, which connect two pavilibns;
the columns do not form a portico, being barely
insulated from the wall. The entablature, which
is surmounted with a very fine parapet, has its
frieze enriched with Vitruvian fret. The whole
possesses much novelty, boldness, and elegant
effect. The building altogether occupies an area
of nearly four acres. The centre of the south
front, erected by Sampson, is eighty feet long, and
is of the Ionic order. The two wings added by
Sir Robert Taylor were copied from a building
by Bramante in the Belvidere gardens at Rome,
and, although meat, did not harmonize with the
centre. The north and west fronts have been
erected by Mr. Soane, who in this, as well as
in several other parts of the bank, has indulged
in his favorite attachment to the Grecian archi-
tecture, which he has introduced in the purest
style.
It is, however, in the interior of the bank that
the skill of the architect is displayed to the
greatest advantage. The rotunda, where the
money-changers daily assemble to traffic in real
or fictitious stock, is a fine octagonal room, fifty-
seven feet in diameter, and covered by a dome;
the whole building being of stone. It was
erected in 1795, under the direction of Mr.
Soane. The court-room, the pay-hall, the offices
for the several kinds of stock, the hall, the apart-
ments for the accommodation of the governor,
the directors, and the cashiers, with the various
offices requisite for the accommodation of 1100
clerks, who are now employed in the bank, are
all admirably suited for the purposes for which
they are constructed, and nothing can exceed the
order and regularity with which the business is
conducted.
Over the hall of the bank there is a curious
clock, which, by communicating rods, indicates
the march of time in sixteen distinct offices,
where dial plates are placed ; thus obviating the
inconvenience which might arise in the transact-
ing of business in the funds by the variation of
different clocks. The affairs of the bank are
managed by a governor, deputy-governor, and
twenty-four directors, who are chosen annually.
The Stock Exchange is in Capel Court, once
the residence of Sir William Capel, lord mayor
in 1504: The first stone of this edifice was laid
on the 18th of May, 1801, and the funds were
raised by subscription: the plate which has been
placed in the first stone bears an inscription,
which after ages may consider as a questionable
preof of national prosperity. Of national good
faith it is certainly an indisputable memorial. It
states that the public funded debt was then up-
wards of £500,000,000. There is nothing in the
building itself to excite particular attention, al-
though it is conveniently and handsomely fitted
up; but there is no place in the world where
money transactions are carried on to such an ex-
tent: an assertion which will scarcely be doubted
by those who consider the fluctuations which
must occur in a funded property of £800,000,000
sterling.
In the stock exchange great pains are taken to
exclude improper persons; and no one is allowed
to transact business unless admitted a member
by ballot. Four days a week the commissioners
for the redemption of the national debt attend to
purchase stock.
A singular custom, worthy only of the cupidity
and intolerance of a barbarous age, is connected
with this house. The number of Jew brokers
admitted is limited to twelve, and these only on
condition of purchasing the privilege by a liberal
gratuity to the lord mayor for the time being.
During the mayoralty of Wilkes, one of the Jew
brokers was taken seriously ill, and his lordship
is said to have calculated pretty openly on the
advantage he would derive from filling up the
expected vacancy. The son of the broker, meet-
ing the lord mayor, reproached him with wishing
his father's death. “My dear fellow,' said Wilkes,
with that sarcastic humor which was peculiar to
him, ‘you are completely in error, for I would
rather all the Jew-brokers were dead than your
father.’
Lloyd's Coffee-House is over the northern piazza
of the royal exchange, and is the centre of British
commerce—the point where it concentrates, and
whence it diverges over the globe. A bank post-
bill does not obtain a readier currency than an
article of intelligence from Lloyd's, and to name
this house as an authority is quite decisive with
every person who knows the means of informa-
tion it possesses, and its accuracy. It is also the
great mart for maritime insurance. tº
The East India House is in Leadenhall Street,
and here the directors hold their courts, and
the chief business of the Company is transacted.
It is a spacious building, a portion of which
was built in 1726, but was not enlarged to its
present dimensions until the year 1799. It
cannot boast of much architectural neatness,
although the front is crowded with ornaments.
It consists of a portico, with six fluted Ionic
columns, and two wings; the latter, which
are extremely plain, are surmounted by a neat
balustrade. The interior is fitted up in a manner
which combines elegance and convenience:
several of the rooms are very spacious. The
museum is rich in oriental curiosities, as the li-
brary is in Asiatic literature: in the former are
numerous trophies of British conquests in India.
The library is frequently visited by oriental
scholars from the continent, who are admitted by
the directors with a liberality and a facility that
shows a strong contrast to the unbending obsti-
nacy with which public buildings are too fre-
quently closed to the public in the metropolis.
The Post Office.—Posts appear to have been
established in England so early as the reign of
Richard III., but they must then have been an
object of comparatively little importance; and,
the first mention we find of a post-master, in
L O N
D O N. - 217
England, is in the year 1581, when Sir Thomas
Randolph, an able diplomatist, who had been
employed in no less than eighteen distinct em-
bassies, filled the office. On the union of Scot-
land with England, in 1710, a general post-office
was established by act of parliament, which in-
cluded not only Great Britain and Ireland, but
our West Indian and American colonies. This
extension increased the revenue of the post-office
to £111,461.
The most remarkable event in the history of
the post-office is the plan first suggested by Mr.
Palmer, in 1784, of sending the letters by the
coaches, instead of the old custom of transmitting
them by post-boys on horseback. From this
moment the prosperity of the post-office com-
menced ; and the revenue which, after the pro-
gress of nearly two centuries, in 1783 only
produced £146,400 annually, thirty years after-
wards yielded a net revenue of nearly £1,700,000.
Nor was it only in increasing the revenue that
Mr. Palmer's plan was beneficial; for, to use the
words of the parliamentary committee on the
subject, “at the same time that the revenue is
augmented, answers are returned to letters in
half the time, and with a degree of punctuality
never experienced before: the expense is at a
less rate per mile than upon the old plan;' and,
when the plan had been so far carried into ef-
fect that the mail-coaches had travelled above
40,000,000 of miles, “not a single robbery had
been committed, or a passenger insulted.’
The post-office consists of three branches; the
general or inland, the foreign, and the two-penny
post-offices. The general post-office is neces-
sarily the most extensive and the most important,
and some idea may be formed of the number of
letters that pass through it, when it is known
that the amount of postage on the letters delivered
in London from this office sometimes exceeds
£2500 in a single morning. Numerous as the
letters are, such is the admirable arrangement
that the whole business of the day is done in
about six hours. On the day that a committee
of the house of commons attended at the general
post-office, to examine the details of the business,
the number of letters amounted to 44,000, the
whole of which were sorted and charged, by 105
persons, in the space of forty-five minutes. As
auxiliaries to the general post-office, there are
sixty receiving-houses, which are kept open until
five o'clock every day. -
The business of the foreign post-office, the in-
land letter-carrier's office for newspapers, and the
ship letter-office in Abchurch Lane, is conducted
in a similar manner, with a difference as to the
days on which letters are made up, and the
hours of attendance, as on foreign post days the
office is open for receiving letters until twelve
o'clock at night.
The two principal offices for the two-penny
post are in Lombard Street and Gerard Street;
there are also upwards of 120 receiving-houses in
various parts of the metropolis, which are con-
tinually adding to their number as new buildings
are erected. The number of letters circulating in
a population of 1,250,000 may readily be con-
ceived to be immense; but there is one day in
the year in which they are increased beyond any
thing that imagination could calculate—this is
St. Valentine's-day; it appears by the official
returns, that on the 14th of February, 1821, the
number of letters which passed through the two-
penny post-office in London exceeded the usual
daily average by 200,000 ! * *
The present situation of the general post-office
in Lombard Street, though possessing the advan-
tage of being in a centrical situation, is incon-
venient for business so extensive ; and more than
ten years ago it was determined to erect a new
office on a larger scale, and more worthy of this
great city, on the site of St. Martin's-le-Grand.
The first money raised was expended in pur-
chasing the leases of the houses, and, after they
were removed, the ground remained unoccu-
pied. The building, however, has been for
some time proceeding on a magnificent scale,
and will be completed probably in the ensuing
year. -
The Ercise Office, established in 1643, was
formerly kept in the Old Jewry, and afterwards
transferred to Broad Street, where a spacious
and plain, but by no means inelegant building,
was erected on the site of Gresham College and
alms-houses in the year 1768. In this office the
superior and local business of the excise is
transacted by nine commissioners, with numer-
ous officers and clerks under them. The gross
amount of the excise in the year 1820 was
£31,714,935 10s. 9d., of which a sum of
£3,092,687 0s. Głd. was paid in drawbacks, dis-
count, and charges of management, leaving a
net revenue to the country of £28,622,248
10s. 2.Éd.
The Mint is a very elegant building of modern
date, which has been erected on Tower Hill, for
the purpose of coining and issuing all monies, so
necessary to the commercial intercourse of every
civilised nation.
The business is conducted by a master and
worker, who has a salary of £3000 a year, a
deputy master and worker, comptrollers, assay
masters, and a number of other officers, whose
aggregate salaries, including that of the master,
amount to upwards of £12,000 a year. The sala-
ries of the officers, which are now liberal, were
formerly very low, making every allowance for the
times: in the reigns of Henry III., and Edward
III., the warden's salary was two shillings a day;
in the reign of Henry VI. it was only two shil-
lings and sixpence, and the engraver had only
£20 a year; now the warden has upwards
of £400, and the engraver £500 per annum.
The new mint on Tower Hill, designed by
Mr. Smirke, and erected under his directions, is
one of the most elegant structures in the eastern
division of the metropolis. The building is of
pure Grecian architecture, combining a modest
grandeur with the convenience of being admi-
rably suited to business. In the interior the
arrangements are so complete as to exhibit one
of the most remarkable proofs of the advanced
state of the fine and mechanical arts to be met
with in any part of the kingdom.
Corn Erchange.—The business of a corn bro-
ker, or factor, is one of modern growth and
doubtful utility. Formerly the farmers of Kent
and Essex used to send their grain up the river,
218 L O N
D O N.
and attend a sort of market at Bear Quay; but,
about the middle of the last century, when grain
was cheap, the farmers often returned home
without selling their grain. Those from Essex
chiefly used the Bull Inn, Whitechapel; and the
landlord, who was of an enterprising spirit, pro-
posed that the samples, with the prices, should
be left with him, in order that he might try
to dispose of the grain'in their absence. This
man, whose name was Johnson, and who was
originally the boots of the inn, soon got so much
business in this way, that he opened an office at
Bear Quay as a corn-factor, and amassed a for-
tune. The business of corn-factors afterwards
increased so much, that they erected a market in
Mark Lane, which is called the corn exchange.
The building, with which two coffee-houses are
connected, is of the Doric order; and the
quadrangle, where the samples of grain are ex-
hibited, is capacious. The brokers at first wished
to render the corn exchange a private market;
but, on an application to parliament, it was
thrown open. Auxiliary to this market is a
much neater though smaller structure, called the
new Exchange for Corn and Seed
The Coal Exchange.—Coals appear to have
been first used in London about the year 1307;
but the smoke was supposed to corrupt the air
so much, that in 1373 the use of them was pro-
hibited by a royal proclamation: the quantity
now consumed is immense, although in the
metropolis they are subject to an impost, from
which nearly every other part of England is ex-
empt. The first duty on coals was 1s. per chal-
dron, which was imposed immediately after the
great fire, in order to raise wharfs along the
river. In 1670 an additional duty of 2s. per
chaldron was laid on all coals entering the port
of London, for the purpose of rebuilding
churches, &c.; and those duties, though for
a specific purpose and a limited period, have
been increased until they amount to 9s. 4d. per
chaldron. Legislative enactments havefrequently
been deemed necessary in order to regulate the
coal trade, and others are still called for. In
1804 it was resolved to erect a regular market
for vending coals, and premises in Thames
Street were purchased for the purpose, where the
present coal exchange, which contains a hand-
Some front and a neat rotunda, was erected.
Since the extensive application of steam-engines
in factories, and the introduction of gas, the con-
Sumption of coals in London has been much
increased. In 1801 the quantity imported into
the port of London was 884,339 chaldrons; and
in 1823 it was nearly double, being 1,437,251,
the duty on which amounted to £670,717 2s. 8d.
Garraway's and the Auction Mart are other
public commercial resorts of immense business,
but of little a 'chitectural importance.
The Inns of Court are important adjuncts to
the metropolis. Fortescue inclines to the opinion,
that they were called so at first, not because the
persons resident there followed the profession of
the law, but simply from their being the inns,
hospitals, or hotels, where young men of family
and other persons attached to the court were
wont to reside. ; 4
. Among the very ancient inns, of which there
is no longer any trace, one called Chester inn is
said to have been situated on the spot where
Somerset House now stands; a second at Dow-
gate; a third in Paternoster Row; and a fourth
somewhere still nearer St. Paul's cathedral,
which in the days of its profanation was the
great place of business for lawyers. Each prac-
titioner had his own pillar in the cathedral,
where he took his stand at stated hours of the
day, with a pen and paper book, ready to
receive the instructions of clients. So perfectly,
indeed, was the practice recognised, that on the
making of a sergeant, it was usual for the whole
body of sergeants to walk in their robes to
St. Paul's, to invest their new brother with his
particular pillar of business.
The number of these inns of court appears in
the reign of Henry III. to have been so much on
the increase, that it was thought nescessary
to restrain them by proclamation. Some which
now exist were however erected after this pro-
hibition. The number remaining is thirteen,
nine of which are within, and five without the
liberties of the city, and all (we believe) extra
parochial.
The inns were anciently of three classes; two
of these might properly have been designated
the outer and inner; the third bore the name of
Serjeants' Inn. The outer were called Inns of
Chancery, from their being places of elementary
instruction, where young men were taught the
nature of chancery writs, which were then con-
sidered as developing the first principles of law.
Such were Clifford's, Thavie's, Barnard's, Staple's,
Clement's, Lyon's, New Inn, and some other
inns now extinct. In the reign of Henry VI.
there were ten of these lesser inns, each of which
contained not less than 100 students. When
persons had made some progress at these inns,
they were then admitted into the superior or inner
courts, where they perfected their degrees. Of
these courts there were four, namely, the Inner
and Middle Temple, Gray's Inn, and Lincolºr's
Inn, which still retain the pre-eminence they
originally possessed. At the period of which
we have spoken none of these inns of court had
less than 200 members.
The Serjeants' Inns, of which formerly there
were three, were of a still higher order than any
of the others, being occupied solely by the law-
yers who had been advanced to the dignity of the
coif, including the judges, who, though promoted
to the bench, still style every serjeant their ‘bro-
ther.' One of these, which was situated about
the middle of Fleet Street, was held on a lease
from the dean and chapter of York; and on the
expiry of the lease it was not thought proper to
renew it. The place, though now differently oc-
cupied, still retains the name. Another inn, for
the use of serjeants only, was situated in Scroop's
court, Holborn, near St. Andrew's church. The
only Serjeants' Inn, at the present day, is situated
at the foot of Chancery Lane. -
College of Doctors of Law.—The doctors of
the civil, canon, and maritime laws, practising in
the ecclesiastical and admiralty courts, have a
college of their own, situated in Knight Rider
Street, usually called Doctors' Commons, from
their commoning together in a collegiate manner,
as in the inns of court. At first the doctors re-
sided in a mean house near PaterHoster Row,
L O N
D O N. 219
which is now a tavern, known by the name of the
Queen's Arms. Afterwards Dr. Henry Harvey,
dean of the arches, purchased an old stone struc-
ture in Knight Rider Street, held on lease by
lord Mountjoy, from the dean and chapter of St.
Paul's, and fitted it up for the accommodation
of the fraternity. Here they resided till its de-
struction by the great fire; when they removed
to Essex House, which they occupied till 1672,
when the present commodious buildings were
erected. -
As yet, the members, though professionally
associated together, were not legally incorpo-
rated; nor was it till 1768 that an act for this
‘purpose was obtained. -
The college has a handsome hall, where the
different courts in which its members officiate hold
their sittings. The doctors or advocates sit on
the same bench with the judge; and each has a
particular seat assigned to him on his admission,
which he always keeps. -
The principal eclesiastical court is the Court
of Arches, said to be so called from its having
been anciently held in the crypt of Bow church,
which was originally built upon the arches. The
thirteen parishes in London, which are peculiars
of the archbishop of Canterbury, are under the
immediate jurisdiction of the judge of this court,
who is hence styled the dean of Arches. The
Prerogative Court is guardian of the various
rights of succession to property. It has a registry
attached to it, in which all original wills are de-
posited: and grants letters of administration to
executors and next of kin. The Office of Fa-
culties and Dispensations empowers any one to do
that which in law he could not otherwise do; as,
for instance, to marry without the publication of
banns, to succeed a father in an ecclesiastical be-
nefice, &c. The Court of Delegates is the highest
of all the ecclesiastical courts of the province of
Canterbury. Appeals lie to it from any of the
other courts, and the decisions are generally con-
sidered final. The king has it in his power, in-
deed, to grant a commission of review under the
broad seal, but this is rarely exercised. The
Court of Admiralty takes cognizance of all of.
fences on the high seas, questions relating to
seamen's wages, right of salvage, &c. It was
erected in the reign of king Edward III. and was
originally held in Southwark. When the causes
before it relate to offences committed at sea, it
does not hold its sittings here, but at the sessions
house in the Old Bailey; and any barrister at
common law may then plead before it. The
doctors of law fiave an excellent library at-
tached to their college.
The Rolls.-The master of the rolls is ex
officio lord of a liberty of itself, exempt from the
power of the sheriff of Middlesex, and of every
other officer, except with leave of the master.
Here he has a splendid house to reside in, from
which he can pass into the court where he of.
ficiates, as from one room into another ; and
behind it there is a large garden, where, in the
midst of a crowded city, he may enjoy some-
thing of the pleasures of rural retirement. Here
also he has a chapel of his own, the minister of
which is of his nomination.
The chapel is an ancient structure, of a mixed
character, and is supposed to have been designed
by Inigo Jones. It contains several monuments
to the memory of persons who have filled the
office of master; one by Torregiano, in honor of
Dr. Young, who died in 1616, is particularly
admired. is
In 1717 Sir Joseph Jekyll, on being appointed
master, found the houses belonging to the liberty
in so ruinous a condition, that he was induced
to rebuild no less than thirty-nine of them at his
own expense; although, by an act of parliament,
the master is restrained from granting leases for a
longer period than forty-one years. The cost of
these erections was not less than £30,000.
The total amount of the rents of houses in the
liberty of the rolls, as charged to the poor rates
Some years ago, was £7282. -
We now turn to the charitable erections of this
great city. Institutions.—In the metropolis there
are thirty-nine principal religious societies form-
ed for the purpose of disseminating religious
instruction to every nation and to every people.
Some idea of the extent of the pious benevolence
of England—for, it is proper to acknowledge that
the whole sum is not collected in London, though
principally so—may beformed from the following
statement of the receipts of the religious charities
in the year 1822:—
i
£ s. d.
British and Foreign Bible society 97,062 11 9
Society for promoting Christian
Knowledge . tº . 57,566 19 5
Church Missionary society. . 35,000 0 0
Wesleyan Missionary society . 31,748 0 0
London Missionary society . . . 31,266 1 11
Moravian Missionary society (in
London) e 2,691 8 3
Home Missionary society . 4,311 1 9
Society for the Convérsion of
Jews . . . . 11,400 9 10
Religious Tract society & . 8,854 9 4
Church of England Tract society. 636 8 8
Female Penitentiary society . 3,219 4 0
Society for the Relief of Pious
Clergymen . ſº º . 2,282 8
Prayer Book and Homily society. 2,082 9
British and Foreign School society 2,053 16 1
Naval and Military Bible society. 1,929 2
Sunday School Union society 1,746 19
Continental society . 1,536 7
African Institution . * . 1,134 2
Society for promoting Religious
Knowledge among the Poor 825 15 7
Society for Encouragement of Fe-
male Servants . e . . 819 18 6
Merchant Seamen's Bible society. 648 10 2
Sunday School society & , 540 4 6
Society for Building Churches and
Chapels, total from commence- . . . .
ment . . . . . 61,913 3 10
Ditto, annual subscriptions 630 14 O
Hibernian society . 8,984 13 6
Hibernian Bible society . . . . 4,343 0 11
Irish Religious Book and Tract •.
society . º e e . 3,750 7 7
Irish Evangelical society . . 2,275 2 3
Sunday School society for Ireland 1,883 17 9
Irish Baptist society . . . . 1,771 0 0
Irish Society of London 403 6 7
£385,302 8 7
220
Lo N Do N.
Nor does this sum, large as it is, include all
the money collected for religious charities, as
there are various other societies, which, like tri-
butary streams, flow into the ocean of benevo-
lence.
tions produced more money than in the year
1822, particularly the Bible society, the receipts
of which, in the year 1821, amounted to £103,802
17s. 1d.
There are twenty-four hospitals for the sick,
the lame, for children, for the cure of particular
complaints, as diseases of the eye, or the ear,
&c.;-numerous alms-houses for the maintenance
of the aged, and upwards of thirty dispensaries
for the gratuitous supply of medicine and medi-
cal aid to the poor, 60,000 of whom are thus
annually relieved. In justice to the medical pro-
fession it ought also to be said, that not only
several apothecaries, but even physicians and
surgeons of the highest rank, give advice gratui-
tously to the poor once or twice a week. Re-
serving for a distinct notice some of the most
prominent of the London charities, it may be
necessary to give a cursory view of the beneficial
influence and effects of others.
Of all the institutions in London, there is not
one more humane or more useful than the So-
ciety for the Discharge and Relief of Persons im-
prisoned for Small Debts, which was established
in 1772, principally through the means of the
unfortunate Dr. Dodd.—Within the first fifteen
months after this society was formed, 986 pri-
soners were liberated through its means; and the
number discharged and relieved in 1818, from
various prisons in London and the country (for
its benefits are not confined to the metropolis),
was 1138 persons, who had 823 wives, and 2187
children. The sum with which so much good
was achieved is comparatively trifling; the ave-
rage expense of the liberation of each prisoner,
including every incidental expenditure relating
to the charity, being only £2 17s. 23d.
The Westminster Hospital, or public in-
firmary, which was established in 1719, was the
first institution of the kind in England, and may
be considered as the parent of all the subscrip-
tion hospitals in the kingdom. Since its forma-
tion it has afforded comfort and relief to more
than 174,000 of the sick and afflicted poor.
The City Dispensary, in Grocers' Hall Court,
Poultry, is an institution of the utmost useful-
mess. Since its establishment, in 1789, 138,302
patients have been admitted. Of these 136,442
have been cured or relieved, 393 discharged for
irregularity, and only 1467 died : 50,346 per-
sons have been attended at their own habitations,
and several thousands relieved without the for-.
mality of a letter of recommendation. The
number of persons who receive medical or sur-
gical assistance from this institution, every year,
is nearly 5000. --
The National Vaccine Establishment is another
institution of extensive utility; many diseases
have their thousands of victims every year, but
the small-pox had its tens of thousands. What
an alteration is there now, not only in the human
countenance, but in the aggregate duration of
human life, which has been increased more than
two-years by vaccination alone! It appears by
In a preceding year some of the institu-
the last report of the vaccine establishment, that,
within the five years ending in 1823, 34,275
persons have been vaccinated in London; and
the total number vaccinated in Great Britain
during the same period was 327,521 persons; .
The Royal Humane Society was instituted in
1774, for the recovery of persons apparently
drowned or dead, by diffusing a knowledge of the
best means to be resorted to in such cases, and
by rewarding.with honorary medals such indi-
viduals as have exerted themselves to save the
life of a fellow creature. One of these medals,
which may be compared to the most honorable
reward the Romans could bestow—the corona
civica, was given to the emperor Alexander of
Russia, who was instrumental in saving the life of
a peasant, and who was more honored by this
mark of distinction, than if “stuck o'er with gar-
ters and hung round with strings.’ The society
has twenty receiving houses in the metropolis,
where persons are in attendance with the neces-
sary apparatus to be employed. Since the com-
mencement of this establishment, it has been the
means of saving the lives of 5500 persons, who
were apparently dead; and more than 21,000
persons have been rewarded for their exertions
in endeavouring to save the lives of others, prin-
cipally in cases of shipwreck.
Fifty institutions, similar to that of the Royal
Humane Society, have been formed in various
parts of Great Britain; and the example is al-
ready adopting in most of the nations of Eu-
TOO6.
ºrie Royal Universal Dispensary for Children,
which is open, in cases of danger, to a first ap-
plication for relief without recommendation, was
instituted in the year 1816; and since that time
60,000 children have been attended, only one in
sixty of whom died. Since this dispensary was
instituted, the number of children in London,
under ten years of age, that have died, is 5000
less than in the preceding seven years. ...
The Royal Infirmary for Diseases of the Eye,
though an infant establishment, has preserved
the sight of thousands. It appears from the
report of this institution, in 1822, that since the
opening of the charity in 1805, 32,400 poor
persons have received the benefit of the charity:
and of this number (which is upwards of 2000
annually) 30,250 have heen discharged, cured,
and relieved ; and 888 deemed incurable.
During the same period 1252 operations, for
the removal of the cataract, had been performed,
1174 of which terminated successfully, although
of this number of cases 122 persons had been
born blind.
There are fourteen hospitals in London, ex-
pressly appropriated to females during a period,
when, of all others, they most require assis-
tance. Some of these are for attending married
women, at their own habitations, gratuitously;
others for affording them pecuniary relief, or the
loan of linen, &c.; and a third class of hospitals
is for admitting in-door patients. The City of Lon–
don Lying-in Hospital, in the City Road, which is
perhaps the largest of these establishments, was
founded in 1750, and Dr. Sherlock was one of
its earliest patrons. From this period, to the
year 1809, 24,902 poor married women were
L () N
D O N. 221
assisted, and 25,196 children oorn within Jhe
walls of the hospital. A singular instance of
the advantage of having all the departments of
a public institution filled with persons duly qua-
lified for their office occurs in the history of t, 's
charity. •º
The British Lying-in Hospital, in Brownlow
Street, was instituted in 1749, and a remarkable
instance of the advancement of medical science
is exhibited in the records of this charity.
During the first ten years after its establishment
one woman in forty-two died; and, in the fifth
ten years, only one in 288. In the first ten
years one child in every fifteen died, but in the
fifth ten years the number of deaths was reduced
to one in seventy-seven, and afterwards to one
in ninety-two. *
The Strangers' Friend Society was formed for
the purpose of relieving the distressed. The
principles on which this truly charitable institu-
tion is founded are the most benevolent and
disinterested. Neither country nor religion is
considered as an obstacle to its relief; and, in car-
rying on this work of mercy, 300 visitors are
employed ‘to enquire the wretched out,’ whe-
ther living in garrets or cellars, and well do
they discharge this painful and laborious duty,
without any other reward than that which arises
from the consciousness of doing good.
| Such are a few of what are considered the
minor benevolent institutions of the metropolis
—to do justice to their history would require
'limits much more extensive than we can assign
to them. *
Alms-Houses.—Independent of the charitable
institutions of the several corporate bodies of
the city of London, they are the guardians or
trustees of several other charities.
There are in London 110 different foundations
of alms-houses, in which upwards of 1500 per-
sons of both sexes are comfortably maintained,
in a degree of comparative independence. The
Drapers' Company, whose charitable donations
are upwards of £4000 a year, have alms-houses
which contain 113 persons, either founded by
themselves, or by individuals who have appointed
them guardians; and among the charities, the
administration of which is vested in the Drapers'
Company, is “queen Elizabeth's College,’ at
Greenwich, which was founded for twenty-four
persons, in 1576, by William Lambarde, the
author of the Perambulation of Kent, and is
said to be the first hospital which was founded
by a protestant. In the parish registry of Green-
wich, there is a singular instance of marriage
and longevity connected with these alms-houses.
It states, that on the 18th of November, 1685,
John Cooper, alms-man, in queen Elizabeth's
College, aged 108, was married to Margaret
Thomas, of Charlton, aged eighty, by leave of
the governors of the drapers. -
Bridewell Hospital. — The recollection of
Mendicity almost involuntarily associates itself
with Bridewell, since the latter was one of the
first institutions formed with a view to relieve
and suppress it. The site on which this hospital
is built was anciently occupied by a royal palace,
which must have been built long anterior to the
time of William the Conqueror, as during the
should give an equal sum.
reign of that monarch it was so much dilapidated
that he gave some of its materials towards the
rebuilding of St. Paul's. Henry I. despoiled it
for the same purpose; but the palace still re-
mained, and was long a royal residence. Car-
dinal Wolsey, who built as well as occupied
royal palaces, resided here in 1552; and, when
the emperor Charles announced his intention of
visiting England, Henry VIII., with a celerity
unusual in those days, had it taken down and
rebuilt for that sovereign's reception, in the
course of six weeks. For some reason, which is
not recorded, his imperial majesty did not reside
in the palace, and it was appropriated to the
officers of his suite. -
Although historians relate that the palace was
rebuilt in a magnificent manner, yet this seems
doubtful, as in the succeeding reign bishop Rid-
ley, in a letter to Sir William Cecil, secretary to
Edward IV., describes it as a wide, large, empty
house, ‘that would wonderfully well serve to
lodge Christ in, if he might find such good
friends in the court to procure in his cause.”
The pious bishop says, many lie in the streets
‘both hungry, naked, and cold,’ that the citizens
were willing to refresh them, but they lacked
lodging; and he adds, as a climax to the misery
he paints, that “in some one house, I dare say,
they are fain to lodge three families under one
roof!” - _ =
The king granted the petition, and the house
from that time has been employed ‘for the cor-
rection and punishment of idle vagrant people,
and for setting them to work, that they might,
in an honest way, take pains to get their own
livelihood.’ Bridewell is one of the royal hos-
pitals which Edward VI. endowed with 700
marks of land, formerly belonging to the Savoy,
which had been suppressed. It is at present
used as a house of correction for the dissolute,
as a refuge for the destitute, and as a manufac-
tory for the industrious. * - - - -
St. Bartholomew's Hospital.—Five hospitals in
London are termed royal on account of their
having been founded or endowed by English
sovereigns; these are St. Bartholomew's, St.
Thomas's, Bethlem, Bridewell, and Christ's
Hospital. St. Bartholomew's, in West Smith-
field, may claim as a benevolent institution an
antiquity of more than seven centuries, it having
been originally founded in 1102, by Raherus,
who is said to have been a minstrel to Henry I.
and established a priory of black canons near it.
The endowment which was for “brethren and
sisters, sick persons, and pregnant women, was
£305, and it received several additional bequests,
which were given previous to the time of
Henry VIII., who, while he suppressed the
monastery, preserved the hospital, and gave 500
marks a year to it, on condition that the city
The citizens re-
paired the ruinous houses the monarch had be-
queathed, at an expense of £1000, and provided
the means of receiving 100 persons into the
hospital so early as the reign of Edward VI.,
who incorporated it. The expenses of the hos-
pital at this period amounted to £795 a year; the
king's endowment, after the repairs made by the
city, produced the 500 marks,—a similar sum was
222
D O N.
L O N
given by the corporation, and the deficit was
raised by the citizens. No sooner did the funds
admit of an increase of patients, than it was
made so, that in the year 1660 the hospital
maintained upwards of 300 sick or lame persons
at an expense of £2000 a year. The hospital
fortunately escaped the dreadful conflagration of
1660, although several houses constituting a
portion of its revenues were destroyed, but they
were almost immediately rebuilt by the citizens,
and then became more productive than ever.
Thus the hospital continued until the year
1730, when it was deemed necessary to rebuild
the whole by a subscription raised for the pur-
OSes
The building forms a quadrangle, with an
inner court of considerable dimensions. The
principal entrance in Smithfield, erected in 1702,
is of the Doric order of architecture, and con-
sists of a large arch, surmounted by a statue of
its nominal founder, Henry VIII. The royal
arms, and two figures representing sickness and
lameness, also ornament the front. The interior
of the hospital is spacious and well arranged.
The hall, which is large, contains several paint-
ings, particularly one, representing St. Bartho-
lomew holding the knife by which he was flayed
alive, a portrait of Henry VIII., and another of
Dr. Ratcliff, who was a great benefactor to the
hospital. The staircase is indebted to the gra-
tuitous pencil of Hogarth, who has enriched it
with a picture of the cripple at the pool of
Bethesda, and another of the good Samaritan, as
well as other paintings, in return for which he
was elected a governor. St. Bartholomew's
Hospital, which formerly had two auxiliary
establishments, in Kingsland Road, and Kent
Street, in Southwark, is open to accidents at all
times, and there is considerable facility given to
the admission of patients, who receive the best
medical and surgical advice. The number of in-
patients is about 5000, and that of out-patients
nearly 6000 annually.
St. Thomas’s Hospital, in Southwark, devoted
to the same objects as that of St. Bartholomew,
under the same government, that of the lord
mayor and aldermen, or a select portion of them,
owes its royal foundation to the same prince,
and extends relief to the same extent; the num-
ber of poor admitted as in or out door patients
in 1820 being 11,451.
This hospital owes its origin to two similar
charities, founded in the early part of the thir-
teenth century—a hospital built in 1207, by the
canons of the priory of St. Mary-over-Rhe, and
an almonry or alms-house, erected by Richard
Prior of Bermondsey, for the reception of indi-
gent children, and necessitous proselytes. In the
year 1538 it was surrendered to the crown; and in
1551, when the mayor and citizens purchased
the manor of Southwark of Edward VI. for the
sum of £647 2s. 1d., they repaired and enlarged
the hospital, so as to render it capable of receiv-
ing 260 poor, sick, and helpless objects.
In 1693 it was deemed necessary to rebuild
the hospital, which was done in three quad-
rangles by subscription. The benevolent Thomas
Guy built three of the wards at his own expense,
and Thomas Frederic, esq., one of the governors,
built three others. Another quadrangular court
with several wards and offices, was added in
1732, which increased the number of wards to
nineteen, containing nearly 500 beds. Sir Robert
Clayton, who was lord mayor in 1680, was a
great benefactor to this excellent charity. --
Though not honored with the appellation of
“royal,' the foundation of Guy's Hospital was an
act of more princely liberality than either of the
preceding. It is one of the most munificent
gifts that an individual ever presented to the
public; and although it may be contended, that
GUY (see that article), gave his money in public
charity out of pique, yet the whole life of this
man was such a scene of continued beneficence,
that it is fair to presume he would, under any
circumstances, have appropriated a considerable
portion of his fortune to works of charity. It has
been seen by his munificence to St. Thomas's
Hospital, that he was an individual by no means
of ordinary benevolence; nor was the hospital,
which bears his name, an act of posthumous
charity, but, on the contrary, erected during his
life, at an expense of £18,793 16s. 1d, although
he did not live to see it finished. The foun-
dation was laid in 1722, and two years after-
wards Mr. Guy died, having endowed the
hospital with the vast sum of £219,499 0s. 4d. ;
he also left a perpetual annuity of £400 a year
to Christ's Hospital, and £1000 for discharging
such poor prisoners as could be released at an
expense of £5, by which above 600 persons were
set at liberty; nor was Guy unmindful of the
claims of kindred, for he bequeathed annuities
for life to them of £870, and legacies to the
amount of £75,589. Guy's Hospital, which
possesses no architectural claims to particular
notice, consists of a centre and two wings, which
includes thirteen wards. The number of in and
out patients admitted annually, varies from be-
tween 4000 and 5000.
The governors of the hospital are incorporated,
and, by an act passed in the year 1808, it is
joined with the royal hospitals, the Foundling,
the Universities, and Colleges of Eton, Winches-
ter, and Westminster, in the clause of exemption
from the tax on servants.
Bethlem Hospital was not originally in Moor-
fields, but was formed out of a priory on the site
of the street in the ward of Bishopsgate, now
called Old Bethlem, built by Simon Fitzmary, a
sheriff of London, in the year 1247. Three cen-
turies afterwards, Henry VIII. granted the lands
and revenues of the priory to the corporation of
London, for the reception and maintenance of
lunatics. The number of these unfortunates in-
creasing considerably, a more spacious building
became requisite, when the corporation appro-
priated a plot of ground in Moorfields for the
purpose, and a new building was erected in
1676 by subscription, at an expense of £17,000,
to which two wings were added in 1733.
The hospital becoming ruinous, and its re-
moval consequently desirable, in order to make
the projected improvements in Moorfields, it
was determined to erect a more magnificent
building for the purpose, on the site of the Dog
and Duck Tavern, in George's Fields. The
building, which was begun in 1812, and com-
Lo N Do N.
223
pleted within a short period, is a very magnifi-
cent structure, extending, the centre and wings
included, to the length of 580 feet in front. The
centre has an Ionic portico of six columns; and
the building is surmounted by a neat dome. The
hospital was designed by Mr. Lewis, and cost
‘upwards of £95,000.
It appears from a return made by the physi-
cians of this hospital to the governor, in Ja-
nuary 1822, that the number of patients in the
hospital was 346; of whom 210 were deemed
curable; seventy-seven incurable, and fifty-nine
criminals who were to be confined for life, among
whom were Margaret Nicholson and Hadfield,
the two individuals who attempted to assassinate
his late majesty. -
Bethlem Hospital does credit to the talents of
the architect, and is an ornament to this part of
the metropolis. The two celebrated statues of
raving and melancholy madness, by Caius Cib-
ber, which formerly stood on each side of the
gates in the hospital in Moorfields, are now
placed in the hall.
St. Luke's Hospital.—So early as the year
1731, in consequence of the insufficiency of
Bethlem Hospital to contain the lunatics for
whom admission was sought, a few benevolent
individuals resolved on erecting a new asylum
for their accommodation. A house was first
built on the north side of Upper Moorfields, and
opened for the reception of patients; but it was
soon found not to meet the number of deserving
applications, and in 1786 a more extensive build-
ing was erected at the corner of Old Street, at an
expense of £55,000. It is a large and well-
built edifice, extending nearly 500 feet in length;
and is capable of holding upwards of 300
patients. In the vicinity of London are several
private asylums for lunatics, on a larger scale
than either Bethlem or St. Luke's; and, although
some of them are respectable and well managed,
yet there is strong reason to believe that there
are others of a very different character. But
this subject is at length before a committee of
the house of commons.
Foundling Hospital.-In London, the proposal
for a foundling hospital, which originated in the
reign of queen Anne, and was strongly recom-
mended by Addison, in the Spectator, was suf-
fered to slumber for many years; nor was it until
the year 1739 that captain Thomas Coram, who
spent the whole of his fortune in the benevolent
object, on presenting a memorial to his majesty,
signed by twenty-one ladies of the first rank, and
several noblemen and gentlemen, obtained a
royal charter for its incorporation.
As the hospital was to be raised and supported
by subscriptions, and a large sum was necessary
in order to commence the charity on a scale suf-
ficiently extensive, some time was necessary in
order to raise the requisite funds. In 1740 the
committee appointed to carry the measure into
effect purchased fifty-six acres of land of the earl
of Salisbury, on the northern side of Ormond
Street, and extending to Gray's Inn, for the
trifling sum of £7000: out of which the earl libe-
rally gave £500 to the charity. On the 16th of
September, 1742, the first stone of the new
building was laid; benefactions continuing to
flow in, a chapel was built, to which Handel
gave an organ, and the benefit of his oratorio of
the Messiah; and, as he conducted the perform-
ance himself, he, in the course of a few years,
produced to the charity £6,700.
Liberal as the subscriptions were, they did not
keep pace with the demands on the hospital,
which, before the end of the year 1752, had re-
ceived 1040 infants, of whom 559 were then
under its protection. Four years afterwards
parliament voted a sum of £10,000 in aid of this
charity, declaring that the enabling the hospital
to receive all the children that should be offered
was the only method to render the charity of
lasting and general utility. The 2d of June was
fixed for the general reception, and on that day
117 children were received ; and the number
increased so rapidly, that, before the 31st of De-
cember in the following year, the number
amounted to 5510, and in 1760 to 6000. The
indiscriminate admission of children, under a
certain age, was found attended by an evil con-
sequence, and in 1760 the law which authorised
it was repealed.
Parliamentary aid still 'continued to be given
to the hospital, until the improvement of its re-
venues, by letting ground on building leases, no
longer rendered this necessary. The annual re-
ceipts of the hospital now amount to upwards
of £13,000 a year, a sum which is considered as
sufficient to maintain 500 children.
The foundling hospital is built of brick, and
consists of two wings, with a chapel in the
centre; the gardens and playground for the
children are very large, and the situation is
altogether as healthy as could be found in the
heart of so large and so populous a city as London.
The Asylum, and London Orphan Asylum.—
The foundling hospital is limited to the reception
of infants—the asylum for female orphans at
Lambeth, and the London orphan asylum for
boys and girls, have been founded for the recep-
tion of destitute children, who are admitted at a
more advanced age. Those of the Lambeth asy-
lum, which originated with Sir John Fielding,
between the age of nine and twelve; and, at the
London orphan asylum, from seven to ten. They
are both excellent institutions. The children
are educated and industriously employed, until
sufficiently old to be apprenticed out, when the
utmost care is taken that they are provided with
suitable situations.
Magdalen Hospital.—This excellent institu-
tion was commenced principally through the
exertions of the Rev. Dr. Dingley, Henry Field-
ing, esq., and the unfortunate Dr. Dodd.
Since the institution of this society, on the
10th of August, 1748, to the 3d of January, 1822,
4986 young women who had strayed from the
paths of virtue have been admitted, of whom
2343 have been restored to their friends, or placed
in service; and it is an invariable rule, that no
female shall be discharged unless at her own de-
sire, or for misconduct, until means have been
provided by which she may obtain an honest
livelihood.
Since the Magdalen, which is situated in
Blackfriars' Road, was instituted, two auxiliary
Societies have been formed in London; the Fe-
224
L O N D O N.
--- º ***** * *
male Penitentiary at Pentonville, which was in-
stituted in 1807, and the Guardian Society, for
the preservation of the public morals, which,
though an infant society, has admitted 681 fe-
males into the asylum in St. George's in the East,
of whom 170 have been placed in service, 166
restored to their friends, and thirty-six sent to
their respective parishes.
Asylum for the Deaf and Dumb-It appears
from medical enquirers on the subject, that in
every country one person in less than 3000 is
born deaf, and consequently grows up dumb.
In France, an institution, under the venerable
abbé l'Epée, had long been formed for the in-
struction of persons in such a state of mental
destitution with the happiest effects, but it was
not until the year 1792 that a similar establish-
ment was formed in London.
The attention of the British public was first
called to the deaf and dumb, by the Rev. John
Townsend, and through his exertions an institu-
tion formed for their relief; and since the esta-
blishment of the deaf and dumb asylum in Kent
Road, between 500 and 600 children have been
instructed in writing, arithmetic, and the prin-
ciples of religion. They have also been taught
some useful manual occupation, by which, when
they leave the asylum, they can earn a livelihood.
School for the Indigent Blind.—Several be-
quests have been made by benevolent indivi-
duals in London for the relief of the blind. Mr.
Came, the gentleman who left annuities for the
deaf and dumb, placed at the disposal of the
Cordwainer's Company a fund for the relief of
the blind; and Mr. Hetherington also left a large
sum “for the relief of blind persons of sober life
and conversation, not receiving alms, nor being
common beggars, nor having any annuity or in-
come of £20, and resident in England.’ To this
fund, which is vested in Christ's Hospital,
other benefactors have contributed, so as to
enable the trustees to relieve 450 persons with
an annuity of £10 each : another humane indi-
vidual bequeathed annuities of the same sum to
175 blind persons, which are distributed by the
Paper-stainers' Company.
The law of the school for the indigent blind,
established in St. George's Fields in 1799,
is to instruct persons, thus deprived of one of
Heaven's best blessings, in a trade by which they
may be able to provide for their existence. The
establishment contains about sixty persons, who
are employed in the manufacture of baskets, mats,
thread, lines, &c., in which they can earn up-
wards of £600 a year, and thus afford a very
essential return to the charity for the benefits they
TeCelve. *
Philanthropic Reform Societies.—The investi-
gations which of late years have taken place, on
the subject of the criminal laws, have led to the
establishment of several institutions in London,
with the view of correcting offences by other
modes than those of direct punishment; and for
giving instruction to the most debased. The so-
ciety for the improvement of Prison Discipline
has in a few years effected a moral reform in
our gaols, and established order and decency
where vice reigned uncontroled. The institu-
tion has also been instrumental in rescuing a
great number of juvenile offenders from the
haunts of crime, and of preventing many dis-
tressed youths from resorting to criminal prac-
tices for support.
The Philanthropic Society, in St. George's
Fields, was established in 1788, for the reform of
discharged juvenile offenders, and the offspring
of criminals, by providing them with suitable
employment, and training them to habits of vir-
tue and industry. Nearly 200 children of both
sexes are admitted into this excellent institution,
and instructed—the boys in printing, book-
binding, shoe-making, &c., and the girls in
needle-work, and other duties, to qualify them
for household situations. -
Another institution, of a similar nature to the
preceding, is the Refuge for the Destitute. Al-
though the object of this establishment is the re-
formation of juvenile offenders, of whom it is
calculated there are 8000 in London, yet adults
are sometimes admitted to its benefits: they are
almost all criminals, who have either been re-
commended by the judges on their trial, or by the
magistrates; or are so young, that it would be
improper to inflict upon them the punishments
annexed by law to their offences. In the early
period of the institution, out of 131 that were
admitted, forty-six proved incorrigible; but a
better system of instruction and discipline has
been adopted; and it appears, by evidence given
before a committee of the house of commons,
that nine-tenths of the criminals admitted are
restored useful members to society.
Marine Society.—This excellent society, for
fitting out boys for sea service, and affording an
asylum to destitute sailors, was established in
1756. A ship is moored off Deptford for the re-
ception of the boys, who are clothed, fed, in-
structed, and qualified for sea service; and so
extensive have been the benefits of this charity,
which was incorporated in 1792, that, since its -
establishment in 1756, 33,171 boys have been
fitted out; and the number of men and boys
who have been clothed and relieved by the insti-
tution is 72,531. The boys, who have the advan-
tage of the instruction of the Marine Society's
School, are invariably the best sailors, whether
employed in the navy, the East India Company's
service, or in merchant ships. i
Institutions devoted to the general promotion
of literature in London are not numerous. At
the west end of the town is the Royal Institution,
formed for the purpose of promoting science,
and no establishment was ever better patronised
in the outset, or more successful in its progress.
It was first projected by count Rumford, in the
year 1799, for the purpose of teaching, by
courses of philosophical lectures and experi-
ments, the principles of science, and their appli-
cation to the improvement of arts and manufac-
tures as well as the common conveniences of life.
The society now possesses a valuable scientific
apparatus, by means of which Sir Humphrey
Davy made those experiments on the nature and
properties of flame, which led to the discovery
of the safety lamp; the library of the institution,
though not large, is very valuable; and the
courses of lectures which are annually deli-
vered on science and literature are well attended,
L O N D O. N.
225
Royal Society of Literature.—Towards the close
of the year 1820, it was suggested to his majesty,
that a society of literature, somewhat similar
to the French Academy of Belles Lettres, might
prove advantageous to the country; the king im-
mediately expressed his approbation, and autho-
rised the establishment of such a society under
his immediate patronage. The objects of this
institution are, to extend and unite the general
interests of literature, to reward literary merit by
patronage, to excite literary talent by premium,
and to promote literary education, by bestowing
exhibitions at the universities and public schools
in cases of distinguished merit. º
The patronage of his majesty has not been
nominal; for, with that munificence which is a
leading feature in his character, he has assigned
to it a sum of 1000 guineas annually, to be di-
vided among the associates distinguished for their
learning, who are to contribute, within the year
after their election, a literary essay to be printed
in the Society's Memoirs of Literature.
London Institution.—Though commerce, like
arts, is a jealous mistress, and requires almost un-
divided attention, yet the London merchants have
not been so absorbed in the pursuit of gain as to
neglect those refinements which have ever been
attendant on commercial prosperity. In the year
1805 a number of gentlemen connected with the
city associated together, for the purpose of form-
ing an institution, calculated to promote science,
literature, and the arts. The number of sub-
scribers was limited to 1000; and the shares
seventy-five guineas each; the subscription list
was soon filled, and the institution opened with
a good library in January, 1806, in a house,
which formerly belonged to Sir Robert Clayton,
in the Old Jewry; the library was afterwards re-
moved to King's Arms Yard, Coleman Street,
where it remained until a new and magnificent
building was erected for the institution in Moor-
fields, under the direction of Mr. Wm. Brooks,
the architect. This building is 108 feet in length,
with two wings of sixteen feet each; the centre
has a handsome portico, with pillars of the Tus-
can and Corinthian orders, surmounted by a neat
pedimént. The interior arrangement is admi-
rable; on the ground floor, in addition to the
entrance halls, there are separate reading rooms
for newspapers, magazines, and reviews, as well
as for meetings of the committee, &c., and a noble
staircase leads to the library on the first floor,
which is ninety-seven feet long by forty-two
wide; and the lecture room is sixty-three feet
by forty-four. The library consists of a very ex-
tensive collection of modern works, and is par-
ticularly rich in topography; several courses of
lectures on a variety of subjects are annually de-
livered, and in general are well attended.
The Russel Institution, in Coram Street, em-
braces the same objects on a smaller scale.
The Red Cross Street Library was founded by
Dr. Daniel Williams, a dissenting minister, who
dying in 1715–16, left it for the use of the mix
nisters of his own persuasion. The library has
been since considerably increased, and now con-
tains nearly 17,000 volumes, comprising many
valuable works on theology. Several interesting
portraits of the nonconformist ministers and
Vol. XIII.
&
curious manuscripts have since been added, to
which persons are admitted under certain limi-
tations, on procuring an order from one of the
trusteeS.
Sion College, London Wall, is both a charitable
and a literary institution. It was originally a
hospital for blind paupers; and, after passing
through various hands, was purchased for the pur.
pose of erecting Sion College, for the use of the
London clergy, who were incorporated by Charles
I. The purchase was made in consequence of the
will of Dr. Thomas White, vicar of St. Dunstan's
in, the West, who left £3000 for the purpose.
The library was the gift of the Rev. John Simp-
son, rector of St. Olave's, Hart Street, one of
Dr. White's executors; but it was afterwards
considerably increased, both before and after the
fire of London, which destroyed a considerable
number of the books.
The College of Physicians was established in
the reign of Henry VIII., when the number of
members was limited to thirty. Charles II, in-
creased the number to forty, and James II. ex-
tended it to eighty. The first charter was granted
by Henry VIII. in the tenth year of his reign,
in order, as the preamble states, to restrain the
boldness of some wicked people, who all profess
physic more for their own covetousness than out
of any good conscience, when many inconve-
niences may arise to the ignorant, credulous, and
common sort. This charter was ratified by an
act of parliament four years afterwards, which
enacted, that “no person of the said political
body and commonalty be suffered to exercise
physic, but only those persons that be profound,
sad, and discreet, roundly learned and deeply
studied in physic.’
Towards the close of the seventeenth century
the College of Physicians established three dis–
pensaries, in many parts of London, for the pur-
pose of supplying the poor with drugs at a low
rate. Two physicians also attended at each of
these dispensaries, in order to give advice to the
poor gratis; but these benevolent views do not
appear to have been long continued.
The College of Physicians was first held in
Knightrider Street, afterwards in Amen Corner;
and, when the latter house was destroyed by the
fire of 1666, they purchased some ground to the
west of Warwick Lane, where Sir Christopher
Wren erected an extensive building in Warwick
Square; here the meetings of the society con-
tinue to be held, although a new college in Pall
Mall East is one of the recent improvements of
the metropolis. -
Royal College of Surgeons.—Although the sur-
geons obtained an act of parliament in 1745, to
separate from the Barbers' Company, with which
they had been incorporated from the reign of
Henry VIII, yet it was not until the year 1800
that they obtained a new charter, erecting them
into a distinct college. The business of the new
society was for some time carried on in the Old
Bailey; but a new hall, of the Ionic order, has
since been erected, on the south side of Lincoln's
Inn Fields, which is enriched with a valuable
museum, library, &c. Among its treasures is
the extensive 'collection of the celebrated John
Hunter.
Q
226 L O N
D O N.
Weterimary College.—Until of late years the,
art of farriery was left to the most ignorant and
vulgar class of society, who, unacquainted with
the principles of the science, or the properties of
medicine, followed the mode of treatment which
had been traditionally handed down to them,
without any attempt at improvement, or enquiry
how far it was proper. In 1791 a college for
farriery was erected at the bottom of Gray's Inn
Lane. The great object of this institution is, to
form a school of veterinary science, in which the
anatomical structure of quadrupeds of all kinds,
horses, cattle, sheep, dogs, and the diseases to
which they are subject, and the remedies proper
to be applied, may be investigated and regularly
taught. Parliament has frequently afforded
liberal support, in order to prosecute this ob-
ject. The building consists of a theatre for
lectures and anatomy; a school, where from
thirty to forty pupils are instructed in the vete-
rinary art; and stables for sixty horses.
EDUCATION.—Independent of endowed schools,
the parish schools, the Sunday schools, and those
on the system of Bell and Lancaster, there are
upwards of 4000 private schools in the metropo-
lis and its immediate viciuity. "The number of
children educated in the last class, though
not easily ascertained, can scarcely be less than
100,000. - -
According to a return, made to parliament in
1819, the proportion of scholars who are edu-
cated gratuitously, and those who pay for their
instruction, in the several schools in Middlesex
(which may be a fair estimate for London, as
Southwark is not included), is 16,130, of whom
480 pay; the number educated in the unendowed
schools is 24,289, of whom 6742 pay. The
total number educated in the endowed and
unendowed schools is 36,419, of whom 32,196
are educated gratuitously. In addition to the
great number of poor children that are thus
educated gratuitously, there are between 40,000
and 50,000 more, who are taught in the Sunday
schools, which belong to almost every church
and chapel, of whatever denomination, in the
metropolis. The teachers of the Sunday schools,
who amount to between 4000 and 5000, are
all gratuitous, and very assiduous in their at-
tendance.
Westminster School is certainly the first in
point of rank in the metropolis. It is supposed
to have been founded towards the close of the
eleventh century, and to have been one of the
public schools alluded to by Fitzstephen. It
appears, however, to have declined; since Eliza-
beth restored or refounded it, in the year 1590,
for the education of forty boys, who, in her
honor, were called Queen's Scholars. From this
period the school has been distinguished for its
masters. See WESTMINSTER. • *
Christ's Hospital.—The foundation of Christ's
Hospital was the last act of Edward VI.'s charity.
It was only two days before his death that he
signed the charter of incorporation for this
school, when, with a sort of prophetic conscious-
ness of its future benefits, he exclaimed, ‘Lord,
I yield thee most hearty thanks that thou hast
given me life thus long to finish this work, to the
glory of thy name.’ It was erected for the
education and maintenance of the poor children
of decayed merchants and tradesmen of the city
of London,’ on the site of a convent of Gray
Friars, which had been annihilated by Henry
VIII. Dobbs, the benevolent lord mayor, and
the pious bishop Ridley, were among the earliest
patrons of the hospital, and had no inconsider-
able share in its formation. º
So active also were the citizens in seconding the
views of the monarch, that in less than six months
the whole monastery of Gray Friars was converted
into a hospital, capable of accommodating 340
boys. From this time the school has been continu-
ally increasing both in size and importance, so
that the 340 scholars have been augmented to the
number of 1150. The establishment will now
accommodate 1156 children, including- eighty
girls who are provided for, without any expense
to their parents or friends, and furnished with
every thing necessary to forward their education.
In the year 1809 there were only 1065 children
upon the foundation, of whom sixty-five were
girls. Of the 1000 boys, 161 were presented by
companies, parishes, &c., 498 were sons of free-
men, 239 were sons of non-freemen, and 102.
sons of clergymen. The hospital was at first
particularly intended for orphans; and, although
their state of destitution is no longer an indis-
pensable qualification, yet it is a strong recom-
mendation; so that, of the 1000 boys in the
school in 1809, there were 360 who were either
orphans or had lost one of their parents. About
a third part of the children, including all the
girls, are educated at an auxiliary branch of
Christ's Hospital, at Hertford, whence the boys,
when sufficiently advanced in their studies, are
transferred to Eondon. - - - -
In 1672 Charles II. founded the mathematical
school, for the instruction of forty boys in navi-
gation, endowing the hospital at the same time
with a sum of £1000 a year, for seven years.
This school has seven exhibitions for Cambridge,
and one for Oxford, in every seven years. -
The government of Christ's Hospital, or the
Blue Coat School, as it is more familiarly called,
is vested in the lord mayor and aldermen, and
twelve common-council-men chosen. by lot;
benefactors to the amount of £400 are also go-
vernors. There are four schools, for grammar,
writing, mathematics, and drawing ; the boys
admitted to the mathematical school are com-
pelled toº go to sea, and, when their educa-
tion is finished, they are placed with commanders
of vessels by the governors, and equipped for
their situation at the expense of the hospital.
The Charter House, situated on the north side
of the square to which it gives its name, occu-
pies the site of an ancient monastery for Car-
thusian monks, called the Grand Chartreux. It
was part of the estate of the hospital of St. John
of Jerusalem. Sir Walter de Manny, of Hai-
nault, one of those gallant Knights who served in
the wars of Edward III., and one of the first
that were honored with the order of the garter,
and Michael de Northburgh, bishop of London,
built and endowed the priory for twenty-four
monks, in the year 1361. The monastery was
suppressed in 1538; notwithstanding the obsti-
nate resistance of the monks... "
L O N D O N.
227
After the dissolution, the house passed into
the hands of the Howard family, who resided at
the house; and James I., on entering his new
capital, on the 1st of May, 1604, paid his visit
here to lord Thomas Howard, who entertained
his majesty and suite for four days. Seven
years afterwards lord Howard, who had been
created earl of Suffolk, sold this estate, for the sum
of £13,000, to Thomas Sutton, esq., citizen, and
girdler, the founder of the present noble establish-
ment. This he effected at the outlay of £20,000,
independent of an endowment of £4493 19s. 10d.
per annum. Mr. Sutton intended to preside as
master of the hospital, but he died on the 12th
of December 1611, six months after he had ob-
tained the charter for its incorporation. The be-
nevolent intentions of the founder were followed
by the governors, who, in 1613, made an order,
that no one should be admitted into the hospital,
but only ‘such poor persons as can bring good
testimony of their good behaviour, and sound-
ness in religion,' and “no children whose parents
have any estate in lands to leave unto them, but
only the children of poor men that want means
to bring them up.’ i
During the civil wars Cromwell was elected
governor, and attended several of the meetings;
since that period no event has occurred to injure
this extensive charity. The number of scholars
educated is seventy-three; of whom forty-four
are on the foundation, and twenty-nine students
at the universities, with an allowance of £20 per
annum for eight years. Boys who give no pro-
mise of getting a living by their education, are
put out apprentices, and have each a sum of £40
on leaving the school. Eighty pensioners are
maintained on the endowment, who live in hand-
some apartments, and have all the necessaries of
life provided for them; in order to enable them
to clothe themselves, they have each an allow-
ance of £14 a year, and a gown. The hospital
is managed by a master and sixteen governors.
The charter house, though a venerable pile,
has few vestiges of the ancient conventual build-
ing: the chapel is built principally of brick, and
lined with wainscot; it has two aisles with Go-
thic windows; two of these, in the north wall,
contain the arms of Mr. Sutton, in painted glass.
There are several monuments in the chapel, par-
ticularly the tomb of the founder, which was
erected at the expense of £400. The old court
room is of the age of Elizabeth, and contains a
profusion of coloring; the hall is spacious, and
the apartments for the master convenient. The
grounds, which are large, and well laid out, afford
a fine promenade, though not one to which the
public have access: and extensive additions are
now making to the buildings of the establish-
ment.
St. Paul's School was founded by Dr. John
Colet, the eloquent dean of St. Paul's cathedral.
So early as the reign of Henry I. there was a
school here, and indeed it appears to have been
an appendage to every cathedral; for, at a general
council held at Rome in 1176, it was decreed
that, “every cathedral church should have its
school-master to teach poor scholars and others,
as had been accustomed, and that no man should
take any reward for license to teach.'
Upon the foundation of this ancient school,
dean Colet erected the present seminary, in 1509,
for the education of 153 boys. He for this
purpose conveyed the whole of his estate in Lon-
don to the Mercers' Company, to whom he left
the perpetual care of the school, and, when asked
the reason of committing such trust to them, he
observed, ‘ that there was no absolute certainty
in human affairs; but, for his mind, he found
less corruption in such a body of citizens than in
any other order or body of mankind.' The com-
pany have always managed this fund most unex-
ceptionably.
The rules for the government of the school,
which are very minute, were drawn up by the
dean himself, who directed that in the gram-
mar school, there should be a high master,
chosen by the warden and assistants in the
Mercers' Company; he was to be “a man hole
in body, honest and vertuous, and learned in
good and cleane Latin, literature, and also in
Greke, as such may be gotten.” If a priest, he
was to be one who had ‘no benefice with cure,
and no service that may lett the due business in
the schole.” Although dean Colet only lived ten
years after he had founded the school, yet he had
the satisfaction of receiving the congratulations
of Sir Thomas More on its prosperity.
The only charge is 1s. On the admission of
each scholar. After a classical education, on the
foundation, the Mercers' Company have an inde-
finite number of exhibitions, of £50 a year to
each, to either of the universities. In addition
to the original fund of the dean, the school has
had also several bequests of considerable amount,
and a donation of £16,000 three per cents., by
viscount Camden, for exhibitions of £100 a year
each, at Trinity College, Cambridge.
The original school was destroyed by the great
fire, and was rebuilt by the Mercers' Company;
but the latter structure has given way to the
mouldering hand of time, and is succeeded by a
more elegant and more convenient building.
St. Paul's school has ranked among its scho-
lars, Camden the antiquary, Milton the poet, the
great duke of Marlborough, the philosophic earl
of Orrery, Strype, the editor of Stowe's London,
Dr. Edmund Halley, the celebrated astronomer;
and several other distinguished persons.
Merchant Taylors' School is one of the most
eminent seminaries of education in England. It
was founded by the company in 1561, on a spot
of ground on the east side of Suffolk Lane,
Thames Street, formerly called the Manor of the
Rose, belonging to the duke of Buckingham.
The statutes of this institution provide that 100
boys shall be taught here at 5s. per quarter, fifty
at 2s. 6d. per quarter, and 100 or upwards for
nothing. The number on the establishment is
seldom less than 300. The boys are instructed
by a master and three ushers, in Latin, Greek,
Hebrew, and other branches of useful and polite
learning.
Sir Thomas White, who was a member of this
company, and lord mayor in 1553, anxious to
make still further provision for the youth edu-
cated at this establishment, founded St. John's
College, Oxford, the scholarships of which are
regularly supplied from merchant taylors' school.
Q 2
228
L O N. D. O. N.
A grand public examination of the scholars is
held for the purpose every year, by the president
and Fellows of St. John's College.
In order to provide, exhibitions for the more
intelligent of the unsuccessful candidates for
these scholarships, an anniversary feast was be-
gun in 1698, by gentlemen who had been edu-
cated at the school, which has, with a short
interruption, been continued to the present time.
The collections on this occasion are often ex-
tremely liberal.
Among the pupils of this school have been
three archbishops, i.e. Juxon, Dawes, and Gil-
bert : eight bishops, several judges, and a host
of physicians, and men of literary eminence.
PRisons. The King's Bench-Besides the four
principal prisons in the metropolis for debtors,
are the King's Bench, Fleet, Whitecross Street,
and Marshalsea (the latter of which is of a mixed
character); there are others belonging to minor
courts, and numerous lock-up houses, which are
a sort of purgatory through which the debtor
passes to prison, unless he either settles with his
creditor, or agrees to remain in the custody of
the sheriff, which he can only do at a ruinous
expense. •
The king's bench prison, Southwark, is prin-
cipally appropriated to the confinement of
debtors, although persons convicted of libels
and misdemeanors are sometimes confined here,
as was the case with lord Cochrane, who con-
trived, however, to scale the walls, and take his
seat in the house of commons.
At what time a prison for the court of king's
bench was first erected in Southwark is unknown;
but it was formerly customary for the court to be
held in different places, and the prisoners to be
confined in the nearest gaol. That there has been
a prison on or near this spot, for some centuries,
we learn from Stowe, who states that, in the reign
of Elizabeth, several persons died there of what
was called “the sickness of the house,' which
was occasioned by a large number of prisoners
being confined in very small apartments.
The king's bench prison, which is surrounded
by a lofty wall, contains 200 rooms, in which
upwards of 500 persons have been confined at
one time. Prisoners, who can give the necessary
security, are permitted, during term, to go out
for one day, and others may purchase the privi-
lege, in a certain limited district, without the
walls, which rules are denominated the rules of
the king's bench; they include a space of nearly
a mile square; it is not always, however, that the
debtor restricts himself to these limits; for, when
an application was made, some years ago, to the
lord chief justice of the court, that the rules
should be extended, he replied, that they were
extensive enough, for that, to his knowledge,
they reached to the West Indies. The emolu-
ment of the marshal of the king's bench prison,
as appears by the Report of the Parliamentary
Committee in 1815, amounted to £3590 a year,
of which £872 arose from the sale of beer in the
prison, and £2823 from the rules.
Fleet Prison.—The earliest record we have of
the Prisona de la Fleet, as it was then called, is
in the year 1169, although it is probable that it
is of greater antiquity. The Fleet was at this
period, and for some centuries after, used as a
state prison. It was long the receptacle for vic-
tims of the court of star chamber, and, when that
odious court was abolished, was appropriated to
debtors and persons committed for contempt of
the court of chancery. In the riots of 1780 the
prison of Fleet was almost wholly demolished.
It has since been rebuilt, and protected in Fleet
Market by a high wall. It consists of four stories
of 180 feet each, containing 109 rooms, and is
calculated, says a very recent historian of London,
‘to hold comfortably 250 persons.”
The most serious evil formerly attending this
prison was the facility with which illicit mar-
riages might be performed here. Complaints
having reached parliament, a committee of en-
quiry was appointed, who, on investigating the
subject, ascertained on evidence that, from the
19th October, 1704, to 12th February, 1705,-
2954 marriages were celebrated in this way in
the Fleet, without either license or certificate of
banns, besides others that were known to be
omitted. Twenty or thirty couple were some-
times joined in one day, and their names con-
cealed by private marks, if they chose to pay an
extra fee. Pennant, at a later period, confirms
this account of the daring manner in which the
nefarious traffic was carried on. He says, in
walking by the prison, in his youth, he has been
often accosted with ‘Sir, will you please to walk
in and be married ?' and he states that painted
signs, containing a male and female hand con-
joined, with the inscription, “Marriages per-
formed within,' were common along the building.
A dirty fellow, outside, generally conducted you
to the parson, a Bardolph looking fellow, in a
tattered night-gown, who, if he could not obtain
more, would marry a couple for a glass of gin or
a roll of tobacco, though he has sometimes been
known to marry twenty or thirty couple at from
10s. to £1 each. This glaring abuse was only
put an end to by the marriage act in 1753.
Marshalsea Prison.—The court of marshalsea
Was at first instituted for determining the causes
of the king's menial servants, and was under the
control of the knight marshal of the household.
It now has a jurisdiction extending twelve miles
round Whitehall (the city of London excepted),
for actions, debts, damages, and trespasses. The
prison is appropriated to pirates and debtors;
but it is small, inconvenient, and unhealthy, on
account of the crowded state it frequently is in.
A benevolent debtor, a Mr. Allnutt, who was
for some time a prisoner in the marshalsea, had
a large estate bequeathed to him during his con-
finement. He had learned sympathy by his suf-
ferings; and, feeling for others' woes, left £100
a year for the discharge of poor debtors from this
prison, by which means, every year, many obtain
their liberation. The average number of debtors
in this prison is stated, in the Parliamentary
Report of 1815, to be about sixty.
Whitecross Street Prison.—When so much hu-
manity has of late years been manifested by the
legislature, in mitigating the severity of the laws
against debtors, it is much to be regretted that
the last prison erected for their confinement
should unfortunately be of a very opposite
description. The committee of the house of
L O N D O N.
229
commons appointed in 1815, to enquire into the
state of the prisons of the metropolis, say “they
have much to regret, that those who have had
the management of this building should have
suffered a prison to be undertaken upon a plan
so little likely to answer its object.’ White-
cross Street is calculated to hold 400 prisoners,
who are separated into different wards, ac-
cordingly as they are city or county prisoners.
Newgate.—So early as the year 1218 Newgate
(so called from its being later built than the rest)
was used as a prison, and continued as such until
finally removed in 1777; but, although the gate
was frequently rebuilt, yet there seems to have
been no attempt at improving the apartments;
and, so late as the year 1750, a pestilential
disorder, called the gaol fever, broke out among
the prisoners, owing to so great a number being
confined in so small a space; the infection ex-
tended from the gaol to the sessions house, when
Sir Samuel Pennant, lord mayor, alderman Sir
Daniel Lambert, the chief justice of the court of
common pleas, Sir Thomas Abney, Mr. Baron
Cierk, Mr. Cox, under sheriff, several barristers,
and nearly the whole of the jury, and several
spectators, fell victims to this pestilential disease.
Notwithstanding this melancholy event, twenty
years elapsed before the first stone of a new
prison was laid by alderman Beckford; and
scarcely was the building finished, when the
whole of the interior was demolished, during
the disgraceful riots of 1780. To repair the
damage that was done in a few days by those
‘lords of misrule,' a London mob, £30,000 was
necessary, which was chiefly supplied by parlia-
Inent. -
Newgate is now a massy and somewhat su-
perb building, and perhaps the exterior appear-
ance of no structure ever better corresponded
with the purpose for which it is intended; there
is a sort of gloomy grandeur and terror-striking
uniformity in its outer walls, which would at
once point it out as the abode of crime or misery.
The interior of the prison is equally suitable to
its objects; the cells for condemned malefactors
are dark as the grave itself; and such is their
impression, even on the most hardened, that Mr.
Howard says, “I was told by those who attend-
ed me, that criminals who had affected an air of
boldness during their trial, and appeared quite
unconcerned at the pronouncing sentence upon
them, were struck with horror, and shed tears
when brought to these darksome solitary abodes.’
Since the debtors have been removed to the
new prison, in Whitecross Street, there is a better
opportunity of classifying the prisoners; but they
are still too numerous to enable the keeper to do
this effectually: the average number of prisoners
in Newgate is 420.
Adjoining the prison is the Sessions House,
where there is a gaol delivery eight times a year,
and yet the prisoners are so numerous that each
session generally continues a fortnight or three
weeks. * .
Giltspur-Street Compter, Newgate, was built
according to a plan suggested by the benevolent
Howard. It is confined solely to the city of
London, and is a prison for offenders before
trial, and a house of correction for such as have
been convicted and sentenced to various terms
of imprisonment, of from one month to two
years. It is also used for persons committed for
assaults, night charges, disorderly persons, va-
grants, and prisoners remanded for future exa-
mination; and numerous indeed are the persons
who run the gauntlet of at least one night's lodg-
ing in Giltspur Street Compter; as it appears
by the evidence of Mr. Teague, the keeper, that
from the 1st of January, to the 31st of Decem-
ber, 1818, inclusive, 4581 persons were commit-
ted to this prison, of whom 1176 were for felonies,
637 for assaults, 1721 for misdemeanors, and
1407 as vagabonds. -
Cold Bath Fields. – This prison, which is
called the house of correction for the county
of Middlesex, was, like Giltspur compter, built
on the suggestions of Mr. Howard, though it is
to be doubted, whether his benevolent objects
have been realized.
It contains nearly 300 sleeping cells, and even
these are sometimes found insufficient ; so that
barracks of wood, in each of which from fifteen
to thirty persons sleep, are erected in the yard.
In the year 1818, 3902 persons were committed
to this prison, of whom 748 were females: and
the average number of prisoners is about 400.
The prison is almost entirely used as a house of
correction; the prisoners were employed in pick-
ing old rope for oakum, until the year 1823,
when a tread-mill capable of working 320 indi-
viduals was introduced. The annual expense
of maintaining this prison is about £7000.
Clerkenwell Prison.—Bridewell was anciently
not only the prison for the city, but for Middle-
sex also, and all offenders were sent there by the
justices; but, says an old historian, ‘These mis-
creants so increased that Bridewell could not
contain them, nor employ them, neither were the
governors willing to receive them.’ It was there-
fore, in the year 1615, found necessary to build
a new prison, and Clerkenwell was fixed upon
as the spot. The building which, together with
the ground, cost £2500 was defrayed by the jus-
tices and the inhabitants. The governors of
Bridewell gave £500, which was principally ex-
pended in furnishing the prison. Previous to
the erecting this prison there had been a sort of
large watch-house called the cage, which was
taken down in 1614.
The present Clerkenwell prison, which is
nearly on the site of the old one, is a sort of aux-
iliary to Newgate, and includes prisoners waiting
the Old Bailey sessions, who are always removed
to Newgate on the Thursday previous to their
commencement—others for petty larcemies who
are detained for the Middlesex sessions, and
prisoners committed for re-examination. The
prison is capable of holding 350 prisoners, and,
in the year 1818, 4012 persons were committed
to the new prison Clerkenwell.
Tothill-fields Bridewell.—Upwards of 3000
persons are annually committed to this prison,
and the average number of inmates is about 100,
who for a day room have only one apartment,
which measures no more than twelve feet by
twelve and a half. This prison is wretchedly de-
ficient in size and means of classification, and
the place where it stands is unhealthy.
230
H, O N E O N.
The Borough Compter is equally defective in
point of classification, as prisoners of all ages,
and of every grade in crime, are compelled to
herd together.
The Surrey County gaol, in Horsemonger
Lane, was built in 1781, and is appropriated to
the confinement of debtors as well as felons.
Adjoining to the prison is the sessions house,
where all misdemeanors are tried, and the assizes
for the county are sometimes held. On the top
of this prison colonel Despard and his associates
were executed in 1803.
The Club Houses belong to the west end of the
town: we can only here find room for a brief
notice of one or two of our older London taverns.
No prince, or even knight, is now found to in-
dulge in open revels, as prince Hal and Falstaff,
and all ‘the merry men of Eastcheap, did at the
Boar's Head; nor would our Raleighs, our
Shakspeares, our Ben Jonsons, Beaumonts,
Fletchers, or Seldens (had we any such) pass
their evenings in taverns in Aldersgate Street,
Fleet Street, or Cornhill, as the worthies we have
just named, were in the habit of doing. Yet
while it is remembered that Shakspeare, Ben
Jonson, Beaumont, and others of their contem-
poraries used to assemble at the Mermaid tavern,
Cornhill, and that under Sir Walter Raleigh an
intellectual and convivial society of the spirits of
the age was formed, called the Mermaid club,
which, says Mr. Gifford, “combined more talent
and genius, perhaps, than ever met together, be-
fore or since, an interest will be attached to
these spots.' Beaumont in a poetic epistle,
from the country to Jonson, has described the
‘wit combats,’ as Fuller calls them, which in
those days took place at the Mermaid tavern.
Ben Jonson was a great frequenter also of the
Devil Tavern, by Temple Bar (now occupied by
Child's Place), and the Swan Tavern, near Char-
ing Cross. “Rare Ben' appears to have owed
much of his inspiration to sack and canary: in a
MS. preserved at Dulwich, and said to be his
journal, he ascribes the failure of some of his
pieces to the death of the ‘honest Ralph,' when
he appears to have left the house; for, says he,
‘I and my boys drink bad wine at the Devil.”
This, however, was not always the case; for in
another memorandum he says, “The first speech
in my Catiline, spoken to Sylla's ghost, was writ
after I had parted with my friends at the Devil
Tavern; I had drank well that night, and had
brave notions.” -
At a later period we find the men of genius
mixing together at a tavern, many allusions to
which are made in the Spectator, the Tatler, and
other essays of the early part of the last century:
Sir Richard Steele was fond of a tavern, and
however ridiculous his uxoriousness may, and
must appear, yet we have always thought a pas-
Sage of one of his letters to his wife, written from
a tavern, particularly expressive, when he assures
her that he will be with her, not in half or a
quarter of an hour, but ‘within half a bottle of
wine.' .
The Kit Cat Club, “the patriots who saved
Britain, as Horace Walpole designates them,
originally met at the house of a pastry cook, in
Shire Lane; yet they soon enabled Christopher
Cat, their host, to accommodate them better at
the Fountain in the Strand, where their principal
meetings were held. :
A more ancient tavern, however, than any of
these, was the Tabard, in the Borough (now
the Talbot) the place whence Chaucer's pilgrims
Set Out. - -
The taverns of the present day can scarcely
boast of any literary associations; and although
professor Porson frequented a house in the
neighbourhood of Covent Garden, which now
displays his portrait, it was rather to indulge his
unfortunate propensities unrestrained than to
seek society.
The first Theatres.—When dramatic repre-
sentations ceased to be founded on religious
subjects, they were no longer performed in
churches, as was the case sometimes with the
mysteries and moralities, and playhouses be-
came necessary. The convenient form of the inns
(still preserved in many of them) in London,
with an open area in the centre, and a gallery
on each side of the quadrangle, presented itself
as a theatre ready made, with the exception of
the stage: this was easily raised, either in the
centre or on one side of the court, and thus many
of our early dramatic pieces were performed.
Even the first theatres were but a very slight
improvement, for the area or pit was generally
exposed to the air.
The first company of players that received the
sanction of a patent was that of James Burbidge
and others, the servants of the earl of Leicester,
to whom queen Elizabeth granted a patent in
1574.
It appears from Stowe that the first players
were ‘ingenious tradesmen and gentlemen's ser–
vants,’ who united in a company of themselves
“to learn interludes, to expose vice, or to repre-
sent the noble actions of our ancestors;' but that
in process of time it became an occupation, when
the players publicly “uttered popular and sedi-
tious matters, and shameful speeches; and, these
plays being commonly acted on Sundays and
festivals, the churches were forsaken, and the
playhouses thronged.’
When the first London theatre was built, or
where it was actually situated, seems doubtful;
but, early in the reign of Elizabeth, the Curtain,
the Red Bull, and the Globe theatres, were all
flourishing. Pennant was so anxious to identify
Shakspeare with the Globe Theatre, that in a
map he has given, purporting to be a plan of Lon–
don and Westminster in the year 1563, he has
introduced the singular anachronism of ‘Shak-
speare's play-house, although the immortal bard
was not born until the following year, nor the
Globe Theatre built on the site of an amphi-
theatre for bear-baiting in Bankside, Southwark,
until the year 1596, 1598. The Globe was
burnt down on St. Peter's day, the 29th of June
1613. The fire originated, according to Win-
wood, with the mimic discharges in Shakspeare's
play of Henry VIII., when the rushes of the
roof caught fire; and he adds, that the attention
of the audience was so much engaged with the
actors, that they did not notice it.
Near the Globe in Southwark, which seems to
have been the first refuge of the regular drama,
L O N D O N.
23|
were the Swan and the Rose, two very, early
theatres, and they appear to have been very at-
tractive, if the assertion of Taylor, the water
poet, can be relied on, that ‘about the year 1596,
the players began to play on the Bankside, and
leave playing in London and Middlesex for the
most part.” There were also either then, or soon
after, six other theatres on the Middlesex side of
the Thames. -
If the Globe was rendered memorable by
Shakspeare's connexion with it, the Curtain
Theatre near Shoreditch, the name of which is
preserved in the Curtain Road, had a similar
distinction, by its being the place where “rare
Ben Jonson’ acted, before he obtained cele-
brity as an author; yet the Curtain Theatre never
appears to have flourished, although it had as an
actor, Dick Tarlton, one of the best comedians
of the time of Elizabeth. We can only further
name the Red Bull in Clerkenwell, the Fortune,
Barbican, the Blackfriars and the Whitefriars, as
early play houses.
The first theatre in Drury Lane was a cock-
pit, which, hoisting a phoenix for a sign, was
sometimes called by that name ; it was not,
however, until after the restoration of Charles
II. that a house suitable for the accommodation
of the public was erected. It soon shared the
too common fate of the London theatres, and
was burnt down in 1671; and three years after-
wards it was rebuilt under the direction of that
great architect, Sir Christopher Wren. This
fabric, which was of considerable dimensions,
and excellent in its internal arrangements, re-
mained undisturbed until the year 1791, when it
was determined to take it down and rebuild
it on a scale better adapted to the increased po-
pulation, and more refined taste of the age. In
building the new theatre, in 1793, the architecture
fell into an opposite extreme ; the house was so
enlarged in its dimensions as to be a theatre
for spectators rather than hearers; and as the
audience lost all those advantages which a con-
yenient distance from the speaker gave in seeing
the expression of his countenance, and hearing
the varied modulations of his voice, the love of
spectacle, which had already manifested itself,
began to predominate. - , ,
As so many theatres had been destroyed by
fire, it was determined to take every precau-
tion against such a calamity in future. An iron
curtain, which resisted the force of a sledge
hammer, was constructed so as to let down in a
moment of danger, and separate the audience
from the stage, while a reservoir was formed on
the top of the house, filled with water sufficient,
as the epilogue spoken at the opening of the
theatre, by Miss Farren, gave assurance, to
* drown the audience in a minute.” On the first
night the iron curtain was let down, and the
stage was filled with water, on which a man rowed
round with a boat; the managers boasted of
their reservoirs, - *
- . . A firm reliance,
Whose streams set conflagration at defiance.
But these were “luckless words,” a “bootless
boast;’ for, fifteen years afterwards, the whole
fabric was burnt to the ground. This calamity
occurred on the 24th of February, 1809, and so
rapid were the flames, that, although the fire did
not break out until 11 o'clock at night, the im-
mense edifice was reduced to a pile of ruins in
less than three hours. - . ".
So various and so conflicting were the interests
in the property of the theatre, that it was long
before they could be reconciled; at length it
was determined to rebuild it on a somewhat
diminished, but more magnificept scale, and Mr.
B. Wyatt was appointed architect for the pur-
pose. From his plan, and under his direction,
the present edifice was raised, and opened to the
public on the 10th of October, 1812.
The rebuilding the interior of the theatre cost
upwards of £14,000, and was executed in the
short period of two months. It is due to the
proprietors to state, that every alteration, while it
adds something to the comfort of the audience,
renders the ornamental decorations more chaste
and elegant, and it is difficult to conceive a more
beautiful structure in its interior than Drury
Lane Theatre. The grand entrance, in Brydges
Street, is through a spacious hall into a rotunda
of great beauty; two noble staircases lead to
the boxes, and to a saloon eighty-six feet in
length, the walls of which are nearly covered
with looking-glasses: the lobbies are spacious,
and the house, which is lighted with gas, is well
aired and ventilated. The exterior of the
theatre is plain, but by no means inelegant.
the front, which is of the Doric order, a portico,
surmounted by a statue of Shakspeare, was added
in 1820, which is infinitely beneath the dignity
of so noble a structure. Both the theatres of
Drury Lane and Covent Garden enjoy the pri-
vilege of a royal patent, which authorises them
to act dramas of every description, from tragedy,
comedy, farce, operas, ballots, or spectacles of
every class, provided they have previously been
submitted to, and authorised by, the lord cham-
berlain.
In its general management, in the character of
the performance, and in the periods at which the
house is opened and closed every season, Covent
Garden Theatre resembles that of Drury Lane;
and while there is an honorable rivalry in the
elegance of their respective structures, in the
spirit with which new pieces are produced, or
new actors of eminence are obtained, the pro-
prietors are mutually accommodating to each
other. -
Covent Garden Theatre possesses a patent,
originally granted to Sir William Davenant, and
under which successive companies acted at the
theatres in Dorset Street and Lincoln's Inn Fields;
nor was it until 1733 that a theatre was built in
Bow Street, Covent Garden, when Mr. Rich,
who had formerly had the direction of Drury
Lane Theatre, and afterwards that of Lincoln's
Inn fields, removed to the new theatre, over
which he presided until the year 1761, having
been for fifty years the manager of a company
under the patent granted by Charles II. In 1767
Mr. Harris, a young man who had not attained
his twenty-first year, became a principal pro-
prietor of this theatre, a considerable share of
which remains in his family. Various im-
provements were made in the interior of this
To .
232. L O N
D O N.
theatre, and in 1792 Mr. Harris expended
£25,000 upon it, when the prices of admission
were raised. For some years Drury Lane had
an advantage over Covent Garden, in possessing
the talents of Mrs. Siddons, and her brother
John Philip Kemble, who did so much to res-
cue the stage from the ridiculous and barbarous
costume which had hitherto disgraced it; but in
the year 1800 this company gained a great
accession of strength in the person of George
Frederick Cooke, whose debut on a humbler
stage has already been noticed, and whose
talents and dissipation made him so long an
object of public admiration and regret.
On the 2d of September, 1808, this theatre,
with all that it contained, was completely burnt
to the ground,-and so rapid were the flames,
that they threatened destruction to the whole
neighbourhood, several houses caught fire, and
were reduced to ruins, and the walls of the the-
atre falling twenty persons were killed. No time
was lost in rebuilding this theatre, the first stone
of which was laid on the 31st of December,
1808, by his present majesty, then prince of
Wales. In ten months this immense edifice was
finished, and opened to the public on the 18th
of September, 1809, when a new danger threat-
ened the proprietors, who, having built the the-
atre at an expense of £150,000, sought an in-
demnity, by raising the price of admission. This
was warmly resisted by the public; and for more
than a month the theatre was a scene of conti-
nued riot and confusion, which is known by the
name of the ‘O. P. (old, prices) war.’ At length
a compromise was effected; but the injury done
to the theatre, and the loss sustained from other
causes, was long felt by the proprietors. This
theatre, like that of Drury Lane, is continually
receiving some new alteration or improvement in
its interior, which is at once elegant and conve-
Inlent.
Ring's Theatre, Haymarket.—The opera had
become so popular early in the last century, that
a theatre was built for it, in the Haymarket by
Sir John Vanburgh, the architect. It was raised
by thirty persons of rank, principally of the whig
party, if we may judge by their inscribing the
first stone with the words ‘Little Whig,” in com-
pliment to lady Sunderland, a celebrated beauty
of the day. The money subscribed was £100
each, and the theatre opened on the 9th of April,
1705, with an Italian opera, which was far from
being successful; it, however, continued under
various managers, and with doubtful success,
until the year 1720, when a sum of £50,000 was
raised by subscription to support the Italian
opera, which has ever since ranked as one of
the favorite amusements of the fashionable
world. --
The Opera House was burnt down on the 17th
of June, 1789; and on the 3d of April, in the
following year, the first stone of the present
structure was laid, by the earl of Buckingham-
shire, with numerous inscriptions, one of which,
“Praevalebit justitia, is excessively common place,
and more applicable to a court of law, than a
theatre erected for singers and dancers. Although
the interior of the “king's theatre,’ as it was now
called, is well constructed, yet in its external ap-
pearance it was one of the most gloomy and
clumsy buildings of the metropolis, until, in the
recent improvements in this part of the town, a
fine colonnade was added to the fronts in Pall
Mall and the Haymarket, and the whole exterior
remodelled, covered with stucco, and embellished
with a relievo, by Mr. Budd.
The interior of the king's theatre is magni-
ficent and extensive. It contains 172 boxes, of
which sixty-eight are said tº be private pro-
erty.
The little theatre in the Haymarket, as this
house was called, to distinguish it from the opera-
house, has long possessed an uninterrupted and
extensive share of public favor. This theatre
owes its rise to a speculating mechanic of
the name of Potter; it was first raised in 1720,
without any specific object beyond that of leas-
ing it to the French players, as the foreign play-
ers and singers were then called, be their country
what it might. It was opened on the 29th of
December in that year. Foote had the old the-
atre taken down, and a new one built; but
whether this was an improvement or not may be
fairly doubted, as a more disagreeable or incon-
venient structure can scarcely be conceived than
the late theatre, opened in May, 1767. In
nothing was the house more disadvantageously
constructed than in the entrances, which were
extremely narrow ; a melancholy proof of this
occurred on the 3d of February, 1794, when, his
majesty having bespoken the play, the rush to
the pit on the opening of the doors was so great,
that fifteen persons were killed, and more than
twenty others dreadfully injured. It has been
severally under the management of Foote, the
two Colmans, and Thomas Dibdin, all gentle-
men of such talents, and so intimately acquaint-
ed with the detail of a theatre, as to ensure
its success.
In 1821 the old theatre was taken down, and
a neat, as well as a more commodious building
was erected, from designs by Mr. Nash. In the
front is a portico, supported by six columns:
above the portico are nine circular columns,
which are ornamented and connected with the .
entablature. The interior of the theatre, though
it is not very conveniently arranged for comfort,
is creditable to the artist, particularly the boxes,
which are capable of little improvement.
English Opera House.—The Lyceum, or, as it
has since been called, the English opera house,
in the Strand, was opened in June, 1809. It
did not at first meet with the patronage to which
so laudable an attempt was entitled, and the
plan has since been extended so as to include
farcical burlettas and serious melo-dramas, as
well as operas. t - -
The lyceum was rebuilt a few years ago under
the directions of Mr. Beazely, an architect
whose talents in this line have been successfully
exercised on several occasions in London, as well
as in Dublin. A neat portico has recently been
erected in the front.
It has of late years been rendered particularly
attractive by the comic talents of Mr. Matthews.
The Surrey Theatre, in Blackfriars' Road, for-
merly called the Royal Circus, was built about the
year 1779 for burlettas and equestrian exercises,
L O N D O N.
233
and was for some time under the direction
of the British Tyrtaeus, Charles Dibdin. In
1805 it was burnt down, but was immediately
rebuilt. It has recently been remodelled in the
interior, and is one of the largest and most ele-
gant of the minor theatres.
Astley's Royal Amphitheatre, Westminster
Bridge (for it will not easily lose its name,
although Astley is no more, and he is succeeded
by Mr. Davis), was first opened about the year
1767 as a riding-school by Mr. Peter Astley,
who had served in the army, and was a remark-
ably good horseman. The skill he displayed in
managing the noblest of all quadrupeds attracted
public attention, and Mr. Astley thought he
might turn it to advantage by receiving money
as an exhibition. An information was soon
lodged against him, when, fortunately for him,
his late majesty was riding over Westminster
Bridge on a spirited horse, which proved restive
and unmanageable even by the king, who was an
excellent horseman. Mr. Astley happened to see
him come up, and soon convinced his majesty of
his skill in the managing of horses; the result
was, that Mr. Astley got rid of the information,
and in a few days obtained a license. The am-
phitheatre is now principally celebrated for its
equestrian spectacles and gymnastic exercises.
The Cobourg Theatre, in Waterloo Bridge
Road, which indicates its recent origin by its
name, is an elegant little theatre, and was built
in 1817. It is more remarkable for the beauty
of the scenery than the merits of the dramas
produced, or the talents of the actors.
Sadler's Wells Theatre was long celebrated
for its Naumachia, which it exhibited by means
of having a large current of water to flow under
the stage. The real water, so long its greatest
attraction, is now very seldom resorted to ; and
melo-dramas, burlettas, and pantomimes, are the
favorite performances: in the latter description
of pieces, Sadler's Wells theatre had, for many
years, the benefit of Grimaldi's talents as clown.
A dreadful occurrence took place at this theatre
on the 15th of October, 1807, when some per-
son, from mere wantonness, it is supposed, called
out “a fight,’ which was mistaken for the word
“fire.” In vain did the manager come forward
to assure the audience of the mistake, they
rushed from the gallery with dread impetuosity;
and many, finding the avenues blocked up,
leaped into the pit; in consequence of which,
eighteen persons were killed, and several others
wounded. The managers granted free benefits
to the relatives of the deceased.
The Adelphi Theatre, formerly the Sans Pareil,
in the Strand, and the Olympic Theatre, in Wych
Street, erected by Mr. Astley in 1806, are
small, but neat theatres, where burlettas and
pantomimes are performed; and such are gene-
rally the amusements of the West London Thea-
tre, in Tottenham Street, Tottenham Court
Road, although it has occasionally been used
for French subscription plays. ,
The Royalty, or East London Theatre, in Well
Street, Wellclose Square, presented many amu-
sing scenes during the war, of real, and not of
mimic life, on account of the company by which
it was frequented being principally sailors,
whose eccentricity could not be restrained by the
decorum of a theatre. This theatre was built in
1787, with a view of performing the regular
drama, which it was supposed the magistrates of
the Tower Hamlets, in whose precincts it was,
could authorise. Mr. John Palmer tried the
experiment, which was only permitted one night.
The performances were then confined to panto-
mimes and pantomimic burlettas, and that very
rigidly. It was burnt down in the course of
last year, and is now rebuilding.
Royal Academy of Music.—Numerous as the
literary and scientific institutions in the metro-
polis are, and highly conducive as they have
been in promoting the objects for which they
were established, one was yet wanting devoted
exclusively to music. Such an institution has
recently been formed under the immediate pa-
tronage of his majesty; and, though yet in its in-
fancy, it promises to rank with the most flourish-
ing institutions in the country. The object of
the institution, which was founded in 1822,
is “to promote the cultivation of the science of
music, and afford facilities for attaining perfec-
tion in it, by assisting in the general instruction
of the natives of this country, and thus enabling
those who pursue this delightful branch of the
fine arts to enter into competition with, and rival
the natives of other countries, and to provide for
themselves the means of an honorable and com—
fortable livelihood.’ -
In order to attain these objects, a number of
pupils, male and female, proportioned to the
funds of the institution, are admitted, between the
ages of ten and fifteen, and instructed by the best
masters. The students pass an examination to
ascertain if they possess a decided aptitude or
disposition for music, before they can be ad-
mitted as candidates, and the election takes place
by ballot; the subscribers voting according to
the amount of their contributions. Each student,
on being admitted, pays fifteen guineas to the
funds, and ten guineas annually; but the fees of
the children of professors of music are somewhat
modified. - -
The noble mansion lately occupied by the
earl of Carnarvon, in Tenterden Street, Hanover
Square, has been fitted up for the purposes of
the Academy. The rooms are of large dimen-
sions, two of them being upwards of seventy feet
each in length, and the other apartments afford
every convenience. The professors, selected to
superintend this establishment, are gentlemen of
acknowledged talent. * '
Concerts.--So great is the love of music among
the British nobility, or so liberal is their pa-
tronage of its professors, that the mansions of
several noblemen are not only thrown open to
their friends, whom they entertain with a con-
cert, but they permit eminent musicians to
take a benefit at their houses, which they cause
to be fitted up for the purpose—a compliment
not paid to any other class of individuals.
Independent of these concerts, and of those
given by subscription at taverns and public
rooms, there are several buildings in London
devoted almost exclusively to musical entertain-
ments; and numerous associations formed to
promote the science. The Argyle Rooms, in
234
L O N D O N.
Regent Street, which were rebuilt in a splendid
manner in 1818, were first appropriated to pub-
lic entertainments by colonel Greville. They
now consist of a grand concert-room, fitted up
with an orchestra at one extremity, and boxes at
the other, a ball-room of large dimensions, a
drawing-room, and ante-room, and other apart-
ments. These rooms are let for balls, concerts,
and masquerades; and here the Royal Harmonic
Institution, which is as much of a trading as a
scientific association, is established. This so-
ciety, which is managed by musical professors,
gives lectures, publishes musical works, and
purchases and disposes of harps, piano fortes,
and other musical instruments. The Philharmonic
Society was established in 1813. Other minor,
but meritorious musical societies, we have not
room to particularise. .
PUBLſc GARDENs.-Vauxhall is the only one
of those once popular places that retains its ori-
ginal character, the others having either entirely
disappeared, and their sites been occupied with
builtlings, or they have sunk into common tea-
gardens, where the humbler classes of society
relax on a Sunday evening in summer, and in-
dulge themselves with a glass of ‘home-brewed
ale,' or their wives and families with a cup of
tea. - . . . * ~ *
The most celebrated of the modern public
gardens was Ranelagh, near Chelsea, once the
seat of a nobleman of that name. On his death,
in 1733, the estate was sold, and fell into the
hands of some speculative gentlemen, who deter-
mined on forming it into a place of public
amusement, similar to Vauxhall, which had just
risen into popularity. In the fitting up the gar-
dens, a magnificent rotunda was erected, 150
feet in diameter, in which was an orchestra, with
numerous boxes and seats for the audience.
The entertainments principally consisted of vocal
and instrumental music. The rotunda was
opened with a public breakfast in April 1742,
which was followed by a concert. The inhabi-
tants of London are, however, too much occu-
pied to assemble in sufficient numbers for enter-
tainments in the day, and the morning concerts
at Ranelagh were soon relinquished for evening
amusements. For some years the tide of fashion
set strong in favor of Ranelagh, which was one
of the most attractive resorts of the gay world;
but afterwards, ceasing to be popular, the pro-
prietors, in 1803, rased the building to the
ground and sold the materials. The price of
admission was half-a-crown. -
Mary-la-Bonne Gardens occupied the site of
Manchester Square; they were not formed into a
place of regular amusement until the year 1737,
when Mr. Gough the proprietor, who had before
kept them gratuitously open, charged a shilling
to each person, who in return received a ticket,
which enabled him to have victuals or liquor to
the full amount of the money paid on entering
the gardens. Charles Dibdin and Charles Bannis-
ter made their debut, when youths, in Mary-la-
Bonne Gardens, where very splendid fêtes were
frequently given, particularly on the birth-day of
his late majesty. Fire-works, and a representa-
tion of Mount HEtna, were among the amuse-
ments. A sort of fair was once held in the gar-
dens, which were on that occasion fitted up with
numerous shops and booths.
Islington was long celebrated for its public
gardens; for, in addition to White Conduit
House, and Bagnigge Wells, now mere tea-gar-
dens, there were the New Tunbridge Wells, or Is-
lington Spa, and Sadler's Wells, which have been
erroneously confounded as the same by most of
the London local historians. The Islington Spa,
a spring of chalybeate water, now in a small
garden in Lloyd's Row, near the New River
Head, was discovered about the year 1690, and
was opened to the poor gratis, provided they did
not go out of mere curiosity, but with a certifi-
cate from a surgeon or an apothecary. A few
years afterwards, as we learn by an advertise-
ment of the year 1700, there was “music for
dancing all day long every Monday and Thurs-
day during the summer season,’ but, with a due
regard to public morals, no masks were admitted.
In 1733 the Islington Spa rose to the very height
of popularity. Their royal highnesses the princes-
ses. Amelia and Caroline, having been recom-
mended the use of chalybeate waters, repaired to
Islington daily during the season of that year.
Their example was soon followed by the nobility
and gentry to such an extent, that the proprietor
frequently took £30 in a single morning.
White Conduit House, where the humbler
class of the inhabitants hie, merry-hearted, on a
Sunday, is one of the most celebrated of all the
tea-gardens, in the neighbourhood of London,
numerous as they are. The house takes its
name from an old stone conduit; erected in the
year 1641, which supplied the charter-house with
water through a leaden pipe. The garden of
White Conduit House is very spacious, and a
neighbouring field was formerly attached to it as
a cricket-ground, where a club of noblemen and
gentlemen assembled to practise that game.
This house was 'some years ago."occupied by a
Mr. Christopher Bartholomew, a gentleman
whose unconquerable passion for gaming in the
lottery reduced him to beggary, notwithstanding
he was at one time worth £50,000, and had
several lucky hits, one of which he celebrated by
a fête champêtre in these gardens, “to comme— ,
morate the smiles of fortune,’ as the tickets of
admission expressed it; it was, however, no
wonder that he was ruined, as he sometimes
spent 2000 guineas a day in insurance in the
lottery, selling his stacks of hay or any thing to
raise the money. The last thirteen years of his
life were passed in great poverty, yet still his
passion never forsook him; and when towards
the close of his life he got about £600 by a new
adventure in the lottery, and had purchased an
annuity with the money, he sold it again to in-
dulge in his fatal propensity. --
There are several other tea-gardens much fre-
quented on Sundays, but they appear rapidly
declining in popularity; and Bagnigge Wells,
once the residence of the celebrated favorite of
Charles II., Nell Gwynne, is by no means res-
pectably attended. : . . . . .
I On the Surrey side of the Thames was for- .
merly the Bermondsey Spa, in Grange Road
Bermondsey. The spring, which was chalybeate,
was discovered in 1770; but, some years previous

L O N D O N.
235
to this time, Mr. Thomas Keyse, the proprietor
of the gardens, a self-taught artist, rendered them
attractive by exhibiting a collection of his own
paintings, principally subjects of still life, which
possessed considerable merit. Keyse afterwards
obtained a license for opening his gardens with
musical entertainments during the summer sea-
son. Burlettas were also sometimes performed
on small temporary stages, erected in the gar-
den. Fire-works were occasionally introduced;
and one season Mr. Keyse constructed an im-
mense model, which covered four acres of ground,
of Gibraltar, in order to represent the memorable
siege of that place in 1782. The height of the
rock was upwards of fifty feet, and the exhibition
was as popular as it was creditable to the mecha-
nical ingenuity of Mr. Keyse, but his talents
were almost thrown away from the unfavorable
situation in which they were exerted. -
Independent of the public gardens in the im-
mediate environs of the metropolis, attempts
have been made to introduce them at some dis-
tance from town; and in the year 1742 Ruckholt
House, Layton, Essex, which is said to have
been once the mansion of queen Elizabeth, was
opened by Mr. Barton, the proprietor, with pub-
lic breakfasts, weekly concerts, and occasional
orations, but the distance from town was unfavor-
able, and the entertainments were not continued
more than four years. - -
Several of the taverns near London have large
gardens, which are much frequented in the sum-
mer season, although they possess no attractions
beyond the sale of refreshments.
Modern improvements.-If during a war, un-
exampled in its duration, and in the expense at
which it was sustained, the British metropolis
continued not merely to add house to house, but
street to street, and to increase in magnificence,
it was to be expected that, “the piping time of
peace' would give a new impulse to improvement.
Such, indeed, is the case; and with the exception
of the west end of the town, where Hyde Park
seems to say, “hitherto shalt thou go, and no
farther,' we see London stretching out its Bria-
rean arms in every direction, swallowing up every
villa in its environs, and making them a part of
the great capital. Islington has long been con-
nected with London, which still, unsatiated,
stretches northward. Somers' Town has no other
division from the rest of the metropolis than a
road, and Kentish Town, and Camden Town, will
soon be closely connected with it. Hackney can
scarcely be called a distinct village; and east-
ward we find a chain of buildings erecting,
which will soon unite the adjacent villas with
‘ enlarged and still increasing London;' if we
turn to the South we shall find the buildings in-
creasing so rapidly, that Greenwich road will
Soon become one continued street. -
Nor is it in the environs of London only that
the spirit of improvement has gone forth, since
it pervades almost every part of the metropolis.
Within a few years Moorfields has been changed
from a barren field to a neat circus; the Bank
has been enlarged ; the only private house re-
maining, built by Sir Christopher Wren, for-
merly the civic palace, restored in a style ap-
propriate to its original grandeur, and numerous
other improvements in hand, and in contempla–
tion. At the west end of the metropolis, the
change is still more manifest. Charing Cross
the only memorial of the affection of Edward I.
for his beloved Eleanor, remaining in London,
still retains its form, as does the equestrian statue
of Charles I., cast by Le Soeur, but the alterations
in the immediate neighbourhood are immense.
Where the royal stables formerly stood (the
Mews) splendid buildings are arising, and the
church of St. Martin's in the fields will no longer
remain like a candle hid under a bushel. Scot-
land Yard (so called from the kings of Scotland
having a palace there, when they visited London)
is now occupied by a fine street stretching towards
the river, and the cathedral of St. Paul's can now
be viewed from the admiralty.
Regent Street, which extends from Carlton
House to Portland. Place, though of varied archi-
tecture, some of which is not in good taste, is
still a noble street, and leads to one of the greatest
ornaments of the metropolis, the Regent's Park,
around which noble terraces are springing up, as
if by magic. This park, which is very spa-
cious, is beautifully laid out; the grounds exhib-
iting a charming variety of lawns, lakes, shrubbe-
ries, &c. Such are a few of the improvements
which have taken place under the auspices of
George IV.; and if it cannot be said of his ma-
jesty, as of the Roman emperor, that he found a
city of brick, and left one of marble, it cannot
be denied that, while he has sustained the na-
tional honor abroad, he has done more to patron-
ize literature, to advance the fine arts, and to
improve the metropolis, than any sovereign that
ever wielded the Bristish sceptre; and should
providence spare his majesty to complete his de-
signs, and preserve the peace of Europe, we may
anticipate that England will continue to be the
first country, and London the first city, in the
world: and in the last words of Paolo Sarpi, in
speaking of his native Venice, we shall say of
London, Esto perpetual
PART IV.
GOVERNMENT OF THE CITY OF LONDON.
The office of lord mayor, as we have seen, was
first recognised about the commencement of the
thirteenth century. - º
According to the charter of king John the right
of electing the mayor was vested in the citizens
at large. After the common council was esta-
blished, they appear for a time to have usurped
the place of the general body of freemen; but,
returning to a juster sense of the rights of their
constituents, they passed, in 1475, a declaratory
act of council, by which the election to the office
was declared to belong to the mayor, aldermen,
and common council, and the masters, wardens,
and liverymen of the city companies, or, in other
words, to the citizens at large, according to the
fair acceptation of the terms, and thus it has ever
since continued. e
This right of election was accompanied with
the discretionary power of continuing the same
individual in office from year to year; the first
lord mayor, Henry Fitz Alwyn, continued in
office twenty-three years. The qualifications for
236
L O N D O N.
shall be free of one of the twelve principal city
companies; have served the office of sheriff
(whence the saying, that such an one will be
mayor before he is sheriff, meaning deridingly
that he is not fit to be either); and be at the time
of election an alderman of one of the wards of
the city.
The election takes place on Michaelmas day,
at a court of hustings held in the Guildhall,
under the presidency of the sheriffs. All the
aldermen who have not passed the chair, but
have served the office of sheriff, are proposed
successively in the order of their seniority, and
the livery testify, by a show of hands, the degree
of favor in which each is held. The sheriffs
make a return to the court of aldermen, of the
two members of their body, who have united the
greatest number of suffrages; and it remains
with that court to determine on which of the two
the election has fallen.
however, absolutely bound by the show of hands,
for it is open to any of them or their friends to
demand a poll; a privilege which has, of late
years, been frequently exercised.
The lord mayor, though elected by the citizens,
must be approved by the king, or as has been
invariably the case since Henry III., in the 7th
of his charters to the city, permitted the alternº-
tive, by the lord chancellor on his majesty's be-
half. Although the crown, however, does possess
this veto, there is no instance of its having exer-
cised it since the revolution. -
The royal approbation having been obtained,
the mayor elect, on the 8th of November, takes
the oath of faithful administration, in presence of
the citizens assembled in the Guildhall; and
next day he is finally installed into office, by the
barons of exchequer at Westminster.
The titles of right honorable, and lord, are
generally believed to have been first given to the
mayor of London by Edward III. in the last
year of his reign, when a general subsidy was
levied, in which individuals were assessed ac-
cording to their rank and condition in life. The
chief magistrate of London was, on this occasion,
styled the Right Honorable the Lord Mayor.
The prerogatives of this office are of great
extent and importance. As the sovereign's im-
mediate representative, the lord mayor takes
precedence of every other subject within the
limits of the city. At a grand entertainment
given about 1463, by the sergeants at law, at
Ely House, Holborn, the lord treasurer, baron
Ruthven, refusing to yield the most honorable
place at table to.the lord mayor, his lordship in-
stantly withdrew, followed by the aldermen,
sheriffs, and all the other citizens present on the
OCC3S1On.
The monarch is, in England, but the first ma-
gistrate of a free people, elected by the people;
and on his demise the lord mayor of London, as
the greatest functionary next to the king, whose
power is derived from the same source—as the
acknowledged representative of a larger portion
of the national will than any other officer of the
state—takes the first place in the privy council,
until the new sovereign is proclaimed, and, at
his coronation, acts as chief butler.
The candidates are not,
the office of lord mayor are, that the nominee
As civil governor of the city, the lord mayor
is the supreme head, without whose concurrence
no act of the corporation is valid. He is, more-
over, within the limits of the city and liberties,
perpetual coloner and escheator, and chief justice
in all commissions for trial of felony and gaol
delivery. He is also judge of all courts of ward-
mote for the election of aldermen; conservator
of the river Thames and Medway; and perpetual
commissioner in all affairs relating to the river
Lea. In the military government of the city,
his lordship is first commissioner of the lieute-
nancy, which is invested with similar powers to
those possessed by the lord lieutenants of coun-
tleS.
The costume of the lord mayor is of a splen-
dor becoming one filling so many high and
dignified functions. His constant badge of office
is a double chain of gold, or rich collar of SS.
with a costly jewel appendant. On state occa-
sions he is habited in a knotted gown, like that
of the lord chancellor, or in one of crimson
velvet. His more usual vesture is, in winter, a
cloth scarlet gown with velvet hood; and, in
summer, one of mazarine blue silk; both richly
furred. In all processions where he is officially
present the city's sword and mace are carried
before him. By a grant of Edward III. the
mace is permitted to be of gold or silver, a dis-
tinction conferred, we believe, on no city of Eng-
land besides, except the archiepiscopal city of
York. When on foot, his lordship's train is sup-
ported by a page. When he rides, it is in a state
coach, of large dimensions and gorgeous appoint-
ments; richly carved and gilt; exhibiting in the
pannels a variety of emblematic pictures, and
drawn by four horses. -
The person of the lord mayor is said to have
been formerly held sacred and inviolable, but the
instance chiefly relied on by historians scarcely
warrants such an inference. It appears that, in the
year 1399, Thomas Haunsart and John le Brewere,
having forcibly resisted the mayor and sheriffs, in
their endeavours to suppress a riot, were appre-
hended, tried at Guildhall, condemned to die, and
beheaded in Cheapside; but it is much more
probable that they were convicted for aiding and
abetting the riot, than for any personal contempt
of the chief magistrate.
A more unequivocal proof of the respect in
which the chief magistrate's person was anciently
held occurred in 1479, when Richard Byfield
was fined £50 for presuming to kneel too close
to his lordship at St. Erkenwald's shrine !
The lord mayor is allowed a numerous suite of
officers, for the support of his state and dignity;
a chaplain, remembrancer, sword bearer, hunts-
man (called the common hunt), serjeant carvers,
serjeants of the chamber, &c. In former times
he had also his poet laureate and merry andrew,
to assist in the productions of pageants on great
occasions; but since these shows have gone out
of fashion, neither poetry nor foolery appears to
be any longer in request in city halls. On the
list of lord mayor's laureates we meet with no
less a name than that of Rare Ben; yet so un-
worthily had his merits been appreciated that, in
a letter of that bard's which is still extant, he
complains of the corporation for withdrawing
H, O N ID O N.
237
from him their “chandlery pension for verjuice
and mustard.’ The pension, however, was not
quite so chandlery, for it amounted to £33 6s. 8d.
a sum which may at least stand comparison with
what has been at any time allowed other laureates
of higher degree. It was much more than was
allowed even to the king's laureate in Ben Jon-
son's days; for, till 1630, the pension was but 100
marks, without a sip of the canary.
Previous to the fifteenth century, the lord
mayor used to proceed by land to Westminster, to
be sworn into office by the king, or, as latterly
ordered, by the barons of exchequer; but in
1453 Sir John Norman introduced the custom of
going by water. That he meant this aquatic ex-
cursion to serve as an emblem of the lord mayor's
sovereignty over the Thames, in the same manner
as the dukes of Venice used to wed the ocean,
though sometimes averred by city poets, we dare
not historically affirm; yet it is certain, that the
mariners of the Thames felt so highly the honor
conferred on their favorite element by Sir John,
that they composed a song of triumph on the
Occasion, in which he thus figures as the hero:—
Row thy boat, Norman,
Row to thy Lemman, &c.
Meaning by “lemman,’ as it would seem, his
fair one or bride the Thames.
In 1501 Sir John Shaw revived the custom of
riding to Westminster Hall; and, for about
two centuries, equestrian cavalcades were the
fashion. In the reign of queen Anne the long-
neglected barges were recalled into use, and ever
since the procession has been by water. In recent
times there was an instance of a lord mayor
choosing to return by land; but such deviations,
unless resorted to occasionally, for the purpose
of showing the mere existence of the right, are
not perhaps to be commended.
After this species of spectacle had fallen almost
for more than half a century into disuse, the
Common council were all at once seized with are–
turning fondness for it; and in 1760 came to a re-
solution, recommending that pageants should be
again exhibited for the entertainment of their
majesties on lord mayor's day. The recommen-
dation does not appear, however, to have been
carried into effect, nor can it well be a subject
of regret, that the city magistrates found then, as
they have ever since done, more rational methods
of manifesting their wealth and spirit.
The manner of celebrating the lord mayor's
day at present is still sufficiently splendid to
make it an object of attraction to the multitude.
About noon, the lord mayor elect, the past lord
mayor, the aldérmen, sheriffs, and other official
dignitaries, after attending divine service at the
parish church of St. Lawrence Jewry, proceed
in their carriages from the Guildhall to the Three
Crane Stairs, where they embark on ‘board a
magnificent state barge, provided for the use of
the chief magistrate; and being joined by the dif-
ferent city companies, in barges of their own, and
all more or less gorgeous, the aquatic procession
moves forward to Westminster, with bands of
music playing, and flags and pendants flying from
every mast. When the ceremony in the court of
exchequer has been gone through, the civic fleet
returns to Blackfriars Bridge, where the mayor
and citizens land, and are received by the Ar-
mourers' Company, which takes the lead in the
procession back to the Guildhall. The armourers
are generally preceded by two or three persons on
horseback, in different sorts of showy armour;
and these form row by far the most attractive
#. of the spectacle. The other companies
ollow on foot; the mayor and sheriffs in their
state coaches; the aldermen and other persons
of distinction in their private carriages; and
these, with their numerous officers and attend-
ants, in their various motley ware, make up what
is now called the lord mayor's show.
At Guildhall a sumptuous dinner is provided
at the expense of the lord mayor and the sheriffs,
which is generally graced with the presence of
some of the princes of the blood and ministers
of the crown, the foreign ambassadors, and a
number of the most distinguished nobility and
gentry. Should it be the first lord mayor's day
after a coronation, it has been customary for the
sovereign himself to honor the banquet by par-
taking of it. The number of persons invited
is seldom less than 1200, and the usual cost of
the feast is about £3000. When the king is pre-
sent the expense is much greater. The entertain-
ment given to George II. cost £4890; and that
to George III., which was of singular magnifi-
cence, £6898. All the companies give besides
sumptuous entertainments at their respective
halls, which are supposed to cost £10,000 more.
The festivities of the day, at Guildhall, are
concluded by a grand ball, at which the lady
mayoress presides. Among the entertainments
anciently provided for this part of the evening,
the lord mayor's fool had a very singular feat to
perform. He was bound by the tenure of his
office, to leap in his motley robes into a large
bowl of custard, a jest so exactly suited to the
taste of former times, that it was not easily made
stale.
In 1810 the regular expenses of the mayoralty
were found to be about £12,000 and his official re-
ceipts, including a sum allowed to him by the
city, and the value of some appointments in his
gift, did not exceed £6500. The common coun-
cil, on receiving this report, voted an additional
allowance of £1500 per annum. -
The city remembrancer is the lord mayor's mo-
nitor; a part of his duty being to remind his
lordship of the days on which he has to proceed
with the aldermen on city business. He is also
a guardian of the city rights, and is appointed
to attend the sittings of parliament, to see that
the privileges of the city are not infringed, or its
interests injured by the proceedings of the legis-
lature.
Sword bearer.—The sword is an emblem of
authority as well as of justice, and is borne
before the lord mayor to express that they are
both united in his office. A writer on armoury,
who distinguishes how swords of state should be
borne before persons of different ranks, says that
‘the city sword bearer must carry the sword
upright, the hilt being holden under his bulk, and
the bladé directly up the midst of his breast, and
between his brows.’ The sword bearer has his
table at the expense of the lord mayor, to whom
238 L O N
D O N.
fiOO0 a year is allowed for the purpose, exclusive
of a sum of money for the residence of the sword
bearer. - . . . .
Aldermen.—The division of the city into wards,
and the appointment of aldermen to govern
them, were undoubtedly, as before observed, of
Saxon origin; but it would seem not to have
been long before the office assumed a character
somewhat foreign to the genius of Alfred's insti-
tutions. So wise a prince could not have in-
tended that an office of this importance should
be filled without any regard to merit or capacity;
and yet almost the first thing we read of the
office is, that it might be acquired by any one,
either by inheritance or purchase. So much, in-
deed, was this the case, that the wards were
called after their respective proprietors, and
changed names as they changed; thus the ward
of Castle Baynard was once called Simon Hade-
stock's Ward; the ward of Cheap, Henry de
Frowycke's Ward; the Tower Ward, William de
Nadestocke's Ward, &c. The abuses whichine-
cessarily arose, from this proprietary system, led
to repeated efforts on the part of the citizens to
change the tenure of the office; and at length,
from one of those coalitions between the crown
and the people which are not uncommon in the
history of revolutions, the right of property was
in the reign of Edward II. wrested from the alder-
men, and the citizens of each ward were declared
to have the power of electing annually the alder-
man who was to preside over it. So frequent an
exercise, however, of the elective privilege, had
also its peculiar inconveniences; and in 1394 it
was ordered by parliament that in future the
alderman should continue in office during life or
good behaviour, and so the law still continues.
In elections for aldermen, the right of voting
is confined to freemen who are resident house-
holders of the ward paying scot and lot, and an
annual rent of not less than £10 a year.
It is not necessary, however, that the person
elected should be a resident of the ward. Citi-
zens of eminence often become candidates for the
aldermanship of wards with which they have
previously had no particular connexion. Should
a person decline the office of alderman when
elected to it (which is, however, rarely the case)
he may be fined; there is even a precedent for
imprisonment. *
Each alderman has the active direction or war-
denship of the affairs of his ward, under the
general superintendence of the lord mayor; and
is assisted by one or more deputies, appointed by
himself from among the common councilmen of
the ward. Every ward, too, has its court of ward-
mote or common hall, with which the alderman
may advise on all matters touching the common
welfare.
The privilege of acting as magistrates in the
city was formerly confined to the lord mayor, the
recorder, the aldermen who had passed the chair,
and the nine senior aldermen below it; but in
the year 1741 George II. by letters patent em-
powered all the aldermen of London, without
distinction, to actin future as justices of the peace
within the city and its liberties. t
The dignity of alderman, like that of the lord
mayor, had once more than ordinary protection,
and in those turbulent times, when personal feel-
ing and resentment;usurped the place of law and
justice, it is recorded that a citizen was impri-
soned and his right hand cut off for assaulting
an alderman. Resistance to the authority of
an alderman was commonly punishable with the
loss of freedom, and imprisonment for a year and
a dav. w 4. 4. --
†. costume of the 'aldermen is a cloth gown
of violet or scarlet, lined with silk or furred ac-
cording to the season. On , one occasion an
alderman, who neglected to line his cloak ac-
cording to the established mode, was condemned
by his brethren to a summary punishment,
amusingly characteristic of the claims of this
respectable body to the character which Shaks-
peare has given of them, as being with fat capon
lined. They decreed that the whole court should
go and breakfast with him. -
Wards.—The city and liberties are divided
into twenty-six wards or aldermanries; which,
considered with respect to the number of mem-
bers they respectively return to the common
council (excepting Bridge Ward without, which
has no representatives), rank in the order in
which we shall here take notice of them. The
number of councillors for each ward is denoted
by the numbers within a parenthesis.
. The wards of Farringdon within and without
formed originally but one ward, the aldermanry
of which was purchased by William Faryngdon,
goldsmith, and sheriff in 1279, and remained in
his family for upwards of eighty years. The
tenure by which it was held was, the presentation
at Easter of a slip of gilliflower, then a flower
of considerable rarity. In consequence of a
great increase in the population of this portion
of the city, it was, in the seventeenth of Richard
II., divided into two wards, and a separate al-
derman assigned to each. Farringdon Within
(seventeen common council-men) comprehends
that part of the city which lay immediately
within the walls on the western side. Its lo-
cality is well marked by a small stone monu-
ment in Pannier. Alley, representing a young
Bacchus seated astride a pannier or basket; with
this inscription underneath, - *
WHEN YE HAVE SOUGHT
THE CITY Round,
YET STILL THIS IS
THE HIGHEST GROUND,
AvgvsT THE 27,
1688.
Farringdon Without (sixteen) includes all
that part of the city which lay without the walls
to the westward, as far as Temple Bar. Till
1484, Serjeants' Inn was called “Faryngdon's
Inn.’ * , , l
Bridge Ward Within (fifteen) is of extensive
limits; and includes the spot ‘Where London's
column, pointing to the skies,’’ does not lie so
utterly as Pope's lines have made it the fashion
to..believe. It was one of those wards entirely
destroyed by the fire; it takes its name from
London bridge, the whole of which from the
Southwark end it includes.
Bishopsgate Ward derives its name from the
L O N Do N.
239
gate which formerly divided it, and which is
supposed to have been constructed by some of
the earlier bishops of London. Though the gate
no longer exists, yet the boundary is still marked
by the appellations of Bishopsgate Within and
Bishopsgate. Without. The buildings in this
ward are among the most ancient of the metro-
polis, the great fire not having extended its ra-
vages far in this direction, and not at all to the
parts without the gate. During the course of
more than a century, every alderman who has
presided over this ward has served the office of
lord mayor. - -
Bread Street Ward (twelve), which is nearly
in the centre of the city, takes its title from the
bread market, which formerly stood on the pre-
sent site of Bread Street: for, in ancient times,
the bakers of London were not allowed to sell
bread in their shops or houses, but only in the
open market. At a still earlier period, this ward
appears to have been the domain of that notable
hero of fable, Gerard the Giant. In Gerard's
Hall (now occupied as an inn) there was kept,
for a long time, an immense fir pole, some thirty
or forty feet long, with which this redoubtable
monster used to sally forth to battle, as also a
ladder by which he occasionally permitted the
pigmy order of mankind to ascend to the top of
his faulchion, to take a bird's-eye view of the
metropolis l Stowe has made sad havoc with
this pretty story. ‘Gerard's Hall,' he says, “is
a corruption of Gisor's Hall, once the property
of John Gisors, mayor of London in 1311; the
giant's faulchion, mothing but an old Maypole;
and the ladder, the same which was used to
deck the said Maypole, when erected on the
green.’ - -
Cheap Ward (twelve) takes its name from the
Saxon word chepe, a market; applied to our
present Cheapside, which was formerly called
‘West Chepe,” to distinguish it from another
market in East Cheap. Before the stream,
called Walbrook, which intersects this ward, was
covered in, it is said, that barges used to be
towed up it, from the Thames, as far as Buck-
lersbury. The Standard or Cross, in Cheap, is
familiar to the readers of history, as the ancient
place for execution within the city.
Tower Street, Broad Street, and Cripplegate,
wards hold the same rank in the city represen-
tation as those of Bread Street and Cheap, each
returning twelve members to the common
council. - - -
Langbourn Ward (ten) takes its name from a
brook which formerly ran from Fenchurch
Street, where it broke out, to the Thames. The
stream spread so much near the head of the
spring that the neighbourhood received the name
of “Fenny-about,’ and this circumstance is still
perpetuated in Fenchurch Street. -
Castle Baynard Ward (ten) takes its title
from the ancient castle of that name, which
stood on the site of the present Cannon Wharf,
and was originally built by William Baynard, a
soldier of fortune, who accompanied the Norman
William to England. It passed afterwards into
the hands of the Fitzwalters, who occupy a pro-
minent part in the early history of London.
They possessed in virtue of this castellary the
honor of being hereditary standard bearers of
the city. When in times of war the banner of
St. Paul was unfurled, it was consigned with
great ceremony by the lord mayor and aldermen
to the hands of the knight of castle Baynard, at
the great west door of St. Paul's, the mayor
addressing him in these word: “We give you,
as to our Banneret of fee in this city, the ban.
ner of this city to bear and govern to the honor
and profit of this city, to your power.’
Castle Baynard was entirely destroyed in the
great fire of 1666, but before that had.become
greatly dilapidated. -
Billingsgate Ward (ten), which “the ladies of
the British fishery,’ as Addison has humorously
designated them, have rendered of such notoriety,
boasts of having had for alderman the patriotic
Beckford. - - -
Vintry Ward (nine) comprises a part of the
north bank of the river Thames, where the mer-
chants of Bourdeaux formerly bonded and sold
their wines. - - -
Dowgate Ward (eight) take its name from
dwyr-gate, the ancient water gate, which is by .
Stowe supposed to have been the Watling Street
ferry across the Thames. The patriotic Sir
John Barnard was alderman of this ward.
Candlewick (now Cannon) Street, the name
of which is preserved in the ward of the city
(eight) was formerly much occupied by wax
and tallow chandlers, trades of some importance
in London, until the year 1548, when, by order
of Henry VIII., the burning of candles in the
church on Candlemas day was ordered to be
discontinued. - -
Cordwainers' Ward (eight) derives its title
from Cordwainers' Street (now Bow Lane),
which formerly was a great mart for curriers,
shoemakers, and other workers in leather,
Walbrook Ward (eight) was so called from
the brook which intersected the city wall at
Dowgate, and flowed into the Thames.
Aldersgate Ward (eight) takes its name from
one of the oldest,gates of the city, and, like that
of Bishopsgate, includes streets and lanes both
within and without the walls.
Cornhill Ward (six) took its title from the
corn market, formerly held in this street, or ra—
ther in the church-yard of St. Michael's, adjacent
to it.
Aldgate Ward (six) consists of a soke, which
was originally attached to the gate of that name,
on the east of the city. When Matilda, or
Maude, the queen of Henry I., founded the
priory of the Holy Trinity, called Christ Church,
on the ruins of which the present St. James's
church, Duke's Place, was erected, she assigned
for its support, with the consent of the king, her
husband, the port and soke of Aldgate. The
priors do not appear, however, to have ever
claimed, or been admitted to a place among the
magistracy of the city, on account of the soke-
manry; but having afterwards obtained a grant
of the Knighten Guilde, a lay corporation, since
better known by the name of Portsöken Ward,
the prior of Christ Church became, in virtue of
that knighten guilde, an alderman of the city.
When he sat or rode with the alderman, he
doffed his spiritual habiliments, and wore the
240
L O N D O N.
costume of his lay brethren. Eustacius, who
was prior in 1264, having some scruples about
this occasional divestiture, appointed Theobald
Fitz Jonis to be the alderman of Portsoken
Ward, under him. It is in allusion to this
duality of office that in the inscription over the
door on the north side of the chancel of St.
James's church, Duke's Place, ‘consecrated,’ as
we are told, ‘to the eternizing the memories' of
the worthies by whom it was erected, the parish
clerk (for who else could pen such strains?) thus
proceeds:—
And, since I touch antiquity so near,
Observe what notes remarkable appear;
An alderman of London was, at first,
The prior of this church; falling to th’ worst,
'Tis new raised by th’ encouragement and care
Of a lord mayor of London, which is rare.
Queenhithe Ward (nine) takes its name from
the harbour of Queenhithe, which was formerly
a principal place for loading and unloading
goods, and was so called because the customs
payable there were assigned by king John to
Eleanor his queen, and to her successors in the
queenly dignity, for their own separate use.
The ground, for a considerable space around the
harbour, formed a soke which was governed by the
queen's bailiffs. In the time of Henry III.it came
into the hands of Richard, earl of Cornwall, who
conveyed it for an annuity to the mayor and com-
monalty of London.
Coleman Street Ward (six) is supposed to
derive its name from a family of the name of
Coleman, who lie buried in the church of St.
Margaret, Lothbury. Stowe and his continu-
ators suppose the first of the Colemans to have
been a builder; but is it not as probable that he
might have purchased the Aldermanry, and given
his name to it, as William Faryngdon did to the
wards of Farringdon ?
Portsoken Ward (five) is situated beyond the
ancient city walls, and is of considerable length,
extending from Aldgate to Whitechapel Bars,
and from Bishopsgate to the river. The origin of
the ward of Portsoken, which signifies “franchise
at the gate,’ is by Stowe ascribed to the age of
king Edgar. He relates that thirteen knights or
soldiers, who were well-beloved by the king for
services they had done, besought from him the
grant of a portion of land on the east of the city,
which had been left desolate and forsaken by the
inhabitants “by reason of too much servitude,”
with ‘the liberty of a guild for ever.’ The king
granted their request, on condition ‘ that each
knight should victoriously accomplish three com-
bats; one above the ground, one under ground,
and the third in the water; and after this, at a
certain day, in East Smithfield, that they should
run with spears against all comers; all which,'
adds Stowe, ‘ was gloriously performed. The
king accordingly incorporated the knights, by the
name of the Knighten Guilde.’ The southern
boundary of the ward was fixed in a manner as
singular as the conditions on which the whole
was granted; it was to extend as far into the
Thames as a horseman, riding into the river at
low water, could throw his spear. This grant of
Edgar to the knights was confirmed by Edward
don.
mon council.
the Confessor, and afterwards by William Rufus,
and Henry I. During the reign of the latter
monarch, in 1115, the brethren of this guild,
who were then called ‘ burgesses of London,'
gave the entire soke and its appurtenances to the
church of the Holy Trinity, within Aldgate; and
the whole possessions of the guild were after-
wards by royal charter confirmed to the brother-
hood of that church, the prior of which was
invested with great ceremony, and allowed to
govern the ward, and exercise the duties and
participate in the honors of an alderman of Lon-
Since the suppression of the monasteries,
however, the ward of Portsoken has had a lay
governor, in the person of its alderman.
Lime Street Ward (four), though without a
church, or a complete street, runs through seve-
ral parishes. It is so small, and used to be
thought of so little account, though now the seat
of as much wealth as any ward of the city, that
in 1371, when the city was assessed in £635 12s.
for the war in France, the proportion required
from Lime Street ward was only £1 14s. It is
generally said to have derived its name from be-
ing a place for ‘the making and selling of lime;’
but the conjecture, we suspect, has no other au-
thority than the identity of the name. The cir-
cumstance of the ward's running stragglingly
through so many parishes is opposed to such an
origin; besides, lime was not a commodity in
such general use, five centuries ago, as to give a
name to a market. May the ward not have had
as sylvan a parentage as the village of Lime-
house, which is a corruption of Limehurst, the
Saxon term for a grove of lime trees It is not
more unlikely that the manor of Leadenhall,
which lay chiefly in this ward, should of old have
boasted of its limes, than that that present sink
of filth and wretchedness, Petticoat Lane, should
once have been, as thus described by Stowe;
with ‘hedge rows and elm trees on both sides,”
and “pleasant fields to walk, insomuch that gen-
tlemen used to have houses there for the air.’
Bassishaw Ward is the smallest ward in the
city; its name is a corruption of Basinges-haugh
or hall, a large mansion, formerly belonging to
the Basinges, a family, as Stowe assures us, of
‘great antiquity and renown.”. In the reign of
Edward III. Basinghall became the residence of
Thomas Bakewell, who gave it his name; and, in
the succeeding reign, it was purchased by the
city, together with another house, two shops, two
gardens, and other appurtenances in the adjoin-
ing parishes of St. Laurence and St. Michael,
for the small sum of £50. It was converted by
the city into an exclusive market for the sale of
woollen cloth, under the name of ‘Blackwell
Hall,' and its privileges secured by severe penal-
ties. The whole of Bassishaw Ward is comprised
in the two precincts of Basinghall Street.
Bridge Ward, without, includes the principal
part of the borough and liberties of Southwark,
and a much larger population than any of the
other wards; it gives also the title of “Father to
the City,' to the alderman who rules over it; and
yet it is totally unrepresented in the court of com-
Southwark, although so long an-
nexed to London, has never been incorporated
with it; its civil government is managed by a

L O N ID O N.
241
t
bailiff appointed by the court of mayor and alder-
men; and the office of alderman, being a mere
titular sinecure, is always given to the senior al-
derman of the city, as the best entitled to enjoy
the otium cum dignitate. -
The court of lord mayor and aldermen, besides
having the power of appointing the recorder and
several other city officers, and suspending them
for misconduct, possesses also a considerable
portion of the executive authority, for by this
court all leases and other instruments that pass
the city seal are executed.
The court of aldermen is not an open court,
but its proceedings on political questions, or any
others of general interest, invariably transpire;
and, indeed, while the press possesses as it does
at present the eyes of Argus, with the hands and
heads of Briareus, it is difficult to conceal any
subject of importance from the public.
According to the institutions of Alfred, the
sheriffs throughout the whole kingdom were
elected annually by the community at large; in
the counties by the freeholders, and in London
by the citizens, without distinction. This privi-
lege however has been often invaded. The free-
holders of Middlesex, for example, were arbi-
trarily deprived of their right of appointing their
own sheriff, when Henry I. transferred it in per-
petuity to the corporation of London; and the
citizens of London themselves paid to king Ste-
phen 100 marks of silver for the right of nomi-
nating the sheriffs for the city and county of
London. But, when the more general usurpation
of Edward II. took place, the sheriffalties of
London and Middlesex were the only ones ex-
empted.
For a considerable time the right of voting for
sheriff remained, as at first, with the general
body of the citizens; but a change to a more
manageable order of things was desired, and the
mayor began accordingly with summoning, to
the meeting for the election of sheriffs, only a
few of the ‘wealthiest' and “ discreetest' men out
of each ward; “sometimes more, sometimes less.’
This select number he was pleased to style “the
commonalty.’ At first the number of select ci-
tizens summoned from each ward was only two;
but, in the sixth of Edward II., we find that it
had been increased to twelve. This increase led,
however, to some apprehensions for the stability
of the system, and the number was again reduced
in most of the wards; in some to ten and eight,
and in the smaller wards to six. The commo-
nalty of London having at length found favor at
court, by the services which they rendered in ele-
vating Edward IV. to the throne, that monarch
so far restored the election of sheriffs to its an-
cient footing as to direct that it should in future
be vested in the mayor, aldermen, common coun-
cil, and liverymen of the different companies;
and thus it has remained to the present day.
A mere freeman of London is excluded from
voting: he must have taken up his livery to be
entitled to the privilege. An unsuccessful effort
was made, in the time of the commonwealth, to
have the election thrown open to all freemen;
but the limitation appears ever since to have had
the sanction of popular approbation. The elec-
tion, as it now stands, is certainly on a broad
Vol. XIII. *
enough basis, for every useful purpose. When
7000 or 8000 resident liverymen cai, he polled,
at a disputed election, the addition of 1000 or
2000 votes of mere freemen might oftener en-
danger than strengthen the popular side of a
question. - 4.
After the mayors had been thus deprived of
the absolute appointment of the sheriffs, the
citizens allowed them, out of courtesy, to nomi-
nate one of the sheriffs. So far did the citizens
carry this courtesy of theirs, that, from the days
of Edward IV. to the year 1641, they appear
never once to have rejected the sheriff nominated,
or, as the fashion was, drunk to, at some previous
city feast, by the lord mayor for the time being.
From so invariably approving for so long a
period of the mayor's nomination, it is not sur-
prising that it should at last have been considered
as a matter of course, that the person drunk to
by his lordship should be one of the sheriffs.
So much was this the case, that, in the time of
queen Elizabeth, there are instances of the
mayor’s nominee signing the usual bonds to hold
the office before he was confirmed by the livery.
When at length, however, the open attempt of
Charles I. to establish despotism in the country
made it of importance to shut up every avenue
to undue influence, the citizens showed that they
had not forgotten that the right of rejecting the
nomination of the mayor was one which they might
still exercise. . From 1641 to 1663 they uni-.
formly rejected the person nominated by the
mayor, and appointed two sheriffs of their own
selection. The Restoration having brought for a
time courtesy again into fashion, the lord mayor's
nominees were for many years, with but one ex-
ception, confirmed by the livery. In 1680
the citizens again made their own choice.
They rejected the nominee of the lord mayor,
and chose Slingsby Bethel and the unfor-
tunate alderman Cornish as sheriffs, both of
them persons distinguished for their oppo-
sition to the court. It was during their
sheriffalty that lord Stafford was condemned
to the block, for his supposed share in the
popish plot; and the sentence ordered to be
executed with all those horrid aggravations,
the stain of which it remained to the present
age to remove from the statute book. The king
thought fit to commute the sentence into be-
heading merely ; the sheriffs Bethel and Üornish
protested against the right of the king to order
any such mitigation of the sentence; and it was
not till the house of commons had declared that
they would be “content' with the head of their
victim, that the sheriffs yielded the point.
The court party having, in the interval be-
tween the election of these sheriffs and the elec-
tion of mayor, mustered in unusual strength,
they succeeded in raising to the mayoralty Sir
John Moore, a person so completely under Mr.
Secretary Jenkins's management, that it was re-
solved to push the old usage about the nomination
of sheriffs to its utmost possible extent. “When
the day came,’ says Burnet, who relates the facts
with great impartiality, * in which the mayor
used to drink to one, and to mark him out for
sheriff, he drank to North, a merchant, that was
brother to the chief justice. Upon that, it was
R.
242
D O N.
L O N.
pretended that this ceremony was not a bare no-
mination which the common hall might receive
or refuse, as they had a mind to it; but that this
made the sheriff, and that the common hall was
bound to receive and confirm him in course as
the king did the mayor. So he claimed it on
Midsummer-day, and said the common hall
were to go and elect one sheriff, and to confirm
the other that had been declared by him. The
hall on the other hand said, that the right of
choosing both was in them. The old sheriffs
(Pilkington and Shute) put it, according to cus-
tom, to a poll; and, it was visible, the much
greater number was against the lord mayor. The
mayor on this adjourned the court, which, they
said, he had no power to do, and went on with
the poll. There was no disorder in the whole
progress of the matter, if that was not to be called
one. But, though the mayor's party carried them-
selves with great insolence to the other party,
yet they showed on this occasion more tempe-
rance than eould have been expected from so
great a body, who thought their rights were now
invaded. The mayor upon this resolved to take
another poll: and it was resolved that his poll
should be that by which the business should be
settled: and, though the sheriff's poll exceeded
his by many hundreds, yet order was given to
return those on the mayor's poll, and that they
should be sworn. Box, who was chosen, how-
ever, had no mind to serve upon so doubtful an
election. So it was necessary to call a new
common hall and to proceed to a new election:
and then, without any proclamation made as
was usual, one in a corner, near the mayor,
named Rich, and about thirty more applauded
it; those in the hall, that was full of people and
of noise, hearing nothing of it. Upon this it was
said that Rich was chosen without contradiction,
and so North and Rich were returned and sworn
sheriffs for the ensuing year.’
The court was not even satisfied with thus
forcibly depriving the citizens of the appoint-
ment of their sheriffs; for, with singular wanton-
ness, they prosecuted Pilkington and Shute, and
twelve aldermen and principal citizens of the
popular party, for opposing the usurpation of
the mayor; and having new juries, as well as
judges, at their command, had them condemned
in large fines. -
One of the earliest victims to this new mode
of appointing sheriffs was the illustrious Russel,
who observed, in his dying moments on the
scaffold, ‘that, from the time of electing sheriffs,
he concluded the heat in that matter would pro-
duce something extraordinary, and was not much
surprised to find it fall upon him.’
The livery recovered entirely the right of elec-
tion, however, at the revolution. Not long after,
indeed, Sir John Parsons, who was mayor in
1704, revived the custom of nominating persons
for the approbation of the livery, and ever since
the election of sheriffs has been thus conducted;
but so abundantly qualified is the power now
conceded to the mayor, that the exercise of it has
become altogether harmless. His lordship usually
nominates not fewer than fourteen respectable
citizens for the office of sheriffs; but the livery
are not bound to approve of one of them, and
have often appointed others of their own selec-
tion. Any person being a freeman of London is
eligible to the office; and whoever is elected is
bound to serve, unless he can swear that he is
not worth £15,000. The penalties for refusal are
£400, to be paid into the city chamber, and £13
6s. 8d. to the ministers of the city prisons. A
citizen, after payment of these fines, is exempted
for three years; but an alderman only for one: no
person, however, after being once drunk to by the
lord mayor, can be drunk to again by any subse-
quent mayor, unless he becomes an alderman.
Whoever serves is obliged to give a bond to the
corporation for £1000.
The election of sheriffs takes place annually on
Midsummer day, and they come into office at
Michaelmas. When chosen, they are sworn into
office at Guildhall, and two days afterwards in
the court of exchequer at Westminster Hall, a
ceremony which, though much ridiculed on ac-
count of the supposed test of the sheriff's talents
in counting hobnails and chopping of sticks, is
solemn and impressive. These services are of
feudal origin, and respect the possession of lands
in St. Clement's Danes. The usual process now
is, when the sheriffs are in attendance at the ex-
chequer to be sworn, the owners of the land are
called to do their suit and service, when an officer
of the court, in the presence of the senior alder-
man, produces six horse shoes and sixty-one
hobnails, which he counts over in form before
the cursitor baron, who on this occasion is the
immediate representative of the sovereign. The
chopping of sticks originated in a similar manner.
The tenants of a manor in Shropshire, held by
the city of London, are called upon to do their
Service, when the senior alderman below the
chair steps forward and chops a single stick, in
token of its having been customary for the
tenants of that manor to supply their lord with
fuel. For the duties of the SHERIFF, see that
article. -
The recorder of the city of London is appointed
by the lord mayor and aldermen for life. The
qualifications declared in the city books to be
essential to the office are, that ‘he shall be, as he
is wont to be, one of the most skilful and virtuous
apprentices of the law of the whole kingdom: a
chief man, endued with wisdom, and eminent for
eloquence.’ He is the first law officer of the city,
chief councillor to the magistracy; himself a jus-
tice of peace for the city, and one in all com-
missions of oyer and terminer. When on the
bench, he delivers the sentences of the court;
he also reads the addresses of the city to the
king, and reports to his maiesty, after éach ses-
sion of the Old Bailey, the number of persons
capitally convicted. In point of rank, he takes
the precedence of all aldermen who have not
passed the civic chair. A singular instance of
the difference in the value of money, and the
salaries of public officers, is exhibited in the pay
of the recorder. In the reign of Edward I. it
was “only £10 sterling, by the year,’ and “twenty
pence for each charter written, and each testa-
ment enrolled.’ It was afterwards raised to 100
marks, and has since gradually advanced to its
present liberal allowance of £2500 a year.
The mayor of the city was originally chamber
L O N D O N.
243
luin, and the office was held of the crown. In
1204 the right of appointing to the chamberlain-
ship was purchased from the crown; and the
office became ever after distinct from that of
mayor. The chamberlain ranks next to the re-
corder in the order of precedence; he is the city
treasurer, and receives all the money belonging
to the corporation; he has also the charge of all
its bonds and securities. The chamberlain is
usually selected from such, aldermen as have
passed the chair. The livery have the appoint-
ment of the office; but, though the chamberlain
is annually chosen on Midsummer-day, yet he
generally continues to hold his situation during
life.
The origin of the common council has been
partly developed in tracing the history of the
sheriffs. The custom of summoning certain of
the discreeter and wealthier men of each ward,
as representatives of the commonalty, which was
at first surreptitiously introduced for the purpose
of restricting the right of electing the sheriffs,
was afterwards continued for better purposes in
the establishment of that body, known by the
name of the common council. However ex-
pedient it might be that the whole body of the
citizens should be convened for the election of
their principal magistrates, the mayor, sheriffs,
chamberlain, &c., and on other extraordinary
occasions, for the manifestation of the general
will, it was obviously not of equal expedience
that they should meet on every matter of ordinary
concern. By an act of council of the 6th October,
1692, it was declared, ‘that it is, and anciently
hath been, the right and privilege of the freemen
of the said city, only being houseltolders paying
scot and bearing lot, and of none other whatso-
ever in their several and respective wards, from
time to time, as often as there was or should be
occasion to nominate aldermen and elect common
councilmen for the same respective wards;' but it
is not affirmed, for that would have been to af-
firm what was contrary to the fact, that the right
and usage had been the same. Neither is it all
householders who have now the privilege of .
voting for common council-men; for, by act of
parliament passed in 1725, it is restricted to those
who occupy a house of the annual value of £10.
When the right of electing the common coun-
cil-men thus reverted to the freemen of the dif-
ferent wards, the rule which the mayors had last
observed with respect to the number summoned
from each, and which, as we have before seen,
had some regard to their relative population,
appears to have been adhered to with but few
variations. The number is at present fixed at
236 for the whole of the wards; in 1209 it was
but thirty-two. Farringdon within, which re-
turns the largest number, has seventeen repre-
sentatives; Lime Street and Bassishaw but four.
The office of common council is annual, and in-
stances of removal are not infrequent. The
election for each ward takes place on St. Thomas's
day; the alderman as presiding officer, decides on
the reception of disputed votes, and declares the
return.
The representatives of the wards, being united
to the lord mayor and aldermen, constitute what
is called the court of common council.
This court has the entire disposal of the funds
of the corporation; makes what bye-laws it thinks
necessary for the better regulation of its concerns;
and possesses the right of nomination to several
of the subordinate city offices. It has no stated
periods of meeting, but is convened by the lord
mayor whenever he sees occasion.
The common serjeant is the second law officer
in the city, and assists the recorder in all legal
questions affecting its interests; he also acts in
a judicial capacity, as an assistant to the recorder,
to whose office his own is generally probation-
ary. He is usually chosen from one of the city
pleaders; but the right of election is vested in the
common council, who have sometimes raised to
the office individuals who had no connexion with
the city. It is the duty of the common serjeant
to attend the lord mayor and court of aldermen,
both in council and on court days, on all oc-
casions, whether within or without the precincts
of the city. To him are committed the general
care and management of the orphans' estates until
they have passed the lord mayor and court of
aldermen.
Common Hall.—In all the earlier charters of
the city of London, the freemen are spoken of in
a general sense; not, as since distinguished, by
the different appellations of freemen, liverymen,
and common council-men, but as the ‘citizens
of London,’ ‘ men of London,’ ‘the common-
alty at large.” Nothing at all is said of councils,
or any thing in the shape of a representative body.
The only public bodies, on the contrary, which
are mentioned in the great confirmatory charter
of Henry I., are the court of hustings, composed
of the mayor, aldermen, sheriffs, and recorder ;
and the folk-mote, or folk-meeting, meaning ob-
viously the people in the aggregate.
The usual mode of electing these folk-motes
was by the tolling of a great bell, which was
hung in a belfry near the east end of St. Paul's
church. The name of folk-mote was subsequently
changed to that of common-hall; and the right
to a vote in it restricted to the livery.
The more usual purposes for which common-
halls are now assembled are the election of the
lord mayors, sheriffs, and other officers, whose
nomination remains with the livery ; but they
are also frequently convened, in order to take
into consideration measures of the government
or parliament, affecting the interests of the
country or of the city in particular; and still, as
of old, the resolutions of the livery of London
continue to have a leading influence in giving a
tone to national opinion.
The city companies, though branches of the
general corporation, have each a distinct govern-
ment, and peculiar liberties and privileges granted
to them by their respective charters. Most of
them have separate halls for their place of meet-
ing, either to transact business or for their ban-
quets; and each company has a master, wardens.
assistants, clerks, and other subordinate officers.
for the general management and government of
its affairs. -
The companies are nearly 100 in number; and
their several rights and privileges would fill a vo-
lume of ample size; we can only here add, ihat
there are twelve which are called the principal
}{.. 2
244 L O N
I) O N.
and sometimes styled honorable, though there
are some of the minor order, such as the Sta-
tioners' Company, which rival them in real im-
portance. The twelve are, the mercers', grocers',
drapers', fishmongers', goldsmiths', skinners', mer-
chant taylors', haberdashers', salters', ironmon-
gers',vintners', and cloth workers'. The lord mayor
elect must always belong to one of these compa-
nies; if not at the time of his election, at least
before he is sworn into office.
There are no less than forty-nine halls belong-
ing to the incorporated companies of traders and
artizans, city of London. Many of these may
be found interesting objects to strangers, either
for their architecture, or their magnitude, and ex-
pression of opulence. Among the best are iron-
mongers’ hall, in Fenchurch Street; merchant
taylors’ hall, in Threadneedle Street; goldsmiths'
hall, in Foster Lane; grocers’ hall, Grocers'
Hall Court, Poultry; drapers' hall, Throgmor-
ton Street; stationers’ hall, Stationers’ Court,
Ludgate Street; and apothecaries’ hall, Black-
friars.
The citizens constituting these societies never
forget, in the midst of their abundance, the wants
of others. The sums distributed annually to the
indigent, by the city companies, from various
funds given for the purpose, amount to above
fºo,000.
EccLESIASTICAL Gover NMENT.—In the list of
ecclesiastics who formed the second general
council held at Arles, in France, in 326, we have
the presence of a bishop of London recorded in
these terms: “Ex Provincia Britanniae Civitate
Londinensi Restitutus Episcopus.' Joceline of
Furnes, in his book of British bishops, says, that
this Restitutus was the twelfth bishop of London;
but little dependence can be placed on the ac-
curacy of his list. In 610 London was, how-
ever, anew erected into a bishop's see, and St.
Paul's cathedral founded.
Of the bishops who filled this see, till the ar-
rival of the Normans, the only one whose name
still lives in the memory of men was the noted
St. Dunstan. No less than three churches in
and around London have been dedicated to him.
William, the first bishop under the Norman
line, was held by the citizens of London in
grateful remembrance for many centuries, for his
good offices in prevailing with William I. to
grant them the ample recognition which he
did of their ancient rights and franchises. His
remains were interred in St. Paul's cathedral,
and a monument erected to his memory by the
corporation, on which they inscribed in warm
terms the obligations which he had conferred on
the city—,
Reddita libertas duce
Te; donataq ; multis,
Te duce, res fuerat
Publica muneribus.
For a long time the corporation made it one of
their principal duties, on lord mayor's day, to do
homage at the shrine of this restorer of their
liberties.
Gilbert Foliot, who succeeded in 1163 to the
bishopric of London, is described as the first
English bishop that was ever canonically trans-
iated from one see to another.
In 1292 there occurred a remarkable instance
of collision between the claims of the bishop of
this diocese and the citizens. The bishopric had
a manor attached to it, situated in the parish of
Stepney, on which there grew ‘two faire woods.’
Richard de Gravesend, the bishop at that period,
wished to enclose these woods for a deer park,
and with that view obtained a grant of free war-
ren from the king. The mayor, aldermen, and
commonalty, however, would not permit the
project to be carried into execution, contending
successfully that time, out of memory, “they had
used to take and hunt within the aforesaid woods
and without, hares, foxes, conies, and other
beasts, where and when they would.’ *
In 1376 Wickliff was, by the command of the
pope, summoned before the archbishop of Can-
terbury and bishop of London, to answer for the
tenets contained in what was called the Lollards'
Creed; he appeared before them, accompanied
by his friends and protectors, the duke of Lan-
caster and earl marshal
The duke is said on this occasion to have
threatened to drag the bishop by the hair of the
head out of the church; when a crowd of citi-
zens interposed, to protect the latter from the
execution of this indecent threat; and the duke
and earl marshal were glad to retreat.
At the council of Constance, in 1414, Robert
Clifford, bishop of London, and several other
eminent ecclesiastics, attended as the represen-
tatives of the Church of England. He was one
of the thirty cardinals-extraordinary created on
that occasion, and was even nominated to the
purple on the deposition of the three rival popes
of that period, but lost the election, which ter-
minated in favor of cardinal Odo Calonna, pope
Martin V.
Henry VIII. gave to this diocese the equally
sanguinary Bonner. On the establishment of the
reformed religion, under Edward VI., he was
displaced by the pious Ridley; but on the re-
storation of popery, under Mary, the ‘high
priest of blood, as he had been well named,
was reinstated in the see, and Ridley exchanged
his mitre for a crown of martyrdom. When
Elizabeth came to the throne, Bonner was among
the bishops who hastened to tender their allegi-
ance to the new queen, as she was on her way
from Hatfield to London; but her majesty,
shocked with the recollection of his cruelties, re-
fused to see him. He was degraded from his
office and thrown into the Marshalsea, where he
perished miserably.
John King, who was promoted to be bishop
of London by James I., was remarkable for his
eloquence in the pulpit, and hence styled by
that facetious monarch the king of preachers.
His successor (George Mountain) was of name
still happier in a punning age; for it is said to
have enabled the king to effect a miracle, by
throwing a mountain into the sea. (see) -
The next bishops of London were Laud and
Jüxon.
In the Catholic reign of James II. Henry
Compton, bishop of London, was styled, by
way of pre-eminence, the Protestant bishop,
on account of the noble stand which he
made in defence of the rights of the Protestant
L O N Do N.
245
church against the encroachments of that prince.
Among the bishops of London, since the resto-
ration, the names of Sherlock, Lowth, and Por-
teus, have been justly distinguished for those
qualities which, in times of domestic peace and
tranquillity, do most honor to the clerical charac-
ter, learning, and piety.
The bishop ranks, in dignity, next to the
archbishop of Canterbury and York. The dio-
cese comprehends not only Middlesex, Essex,
and part of Hertfordshire, but the British plan-
tations in America. The following parishes in the
city are, however, exempt from the bishop's juris-
diction, being peculiars, under the immediate
government of the archbishop of Canterbury: viz.
Allhallows, Bread Street; Allhallows, Lombard
Street; St. Dionis, Back church; St. Duristan
in the East; St. John the Baptist; St. Leonard,
Eastcheap; St. Mary Aldermary; St. Mary
Bothau; St. Mary le Bow; St. Michael Royal;
St. Pancras, Soper Lane; and St. Vedast, Fös–
ter Lane. The chapter consists of the bishop, a
dean, a precentor, or chanter, a chancellor, a
treasurer, five archdeacons (styled of London,
Middlesex, Essex, Colchester, and St. Albans),
thirty canons or prebendaries, twelve minor
canons, six vicars choral, a sub-dean, and other
inferior officers.
The election to the bishopric, in cases of va-
cancy, is vested in the dean and chapter; but
the right is now reduced to a mere matter of form,
the person recommended by the king's writ of
congé d'elire being invariably chosen. The
sum at which the see is entered in the king's
books is £1000; but it is estimated to be worth,
at least, f12,000 per annum.
St. Paul's Cross stood in the midst of the
church yard, on the north side towards the east
end. Of the period of its erection we have no
account; Stowe says, it was of “unknown anti-
quity.’ The first mention made of it is in 1259,
when a folkmote was assembled at Paul’s cross,
to hear the complaints that had been made to the
king against the mayor and rulers of the city.
It appears to have consisted of a hexagonal pul-
pit of wood, raised upon a flight of stone steps
with a leaden canopy surmounted by a large
cross. In the picture, in the Society of Antiqua-
ries, mentioned in the preceding article, it is re-
presented as enclosed by a low brick wall, with-
in which there are people taking notes of the
sermon. The greater part of the audience sat
or stood in the open air: but there were pro-
bably, as on the occasion of king James's visit,
covered galleries for the accommodation of more
distinguished auditors, such as, the members of
the royal family, the nobility, the lord mayor and
aldermen. At the side of the church there was
a covered space, called the shrouds, to which the
preacher and congregation both resorted in in-
clement weather.
The cross was demolished in 1643, by an or-
der of parliament, and was never after restored.
PART V.
COMMERCE, MANUFACTURES, POLICE, &c.
At what period London became celebrated for
its commerce is uncertain; Tacitus says, in his
time it was “a famous mart of foreign and do-
mestic trade;’ and, as the Romans were no encou-
ragers of trade; it is not improbable that an
active intercourse with the Phoenicians, and the
Greek colony at Marseilles, might have been
carried on by the Londoners long before. With
the arrival of the Romans, the foreign commerce
of London appears to have fallen, and we have
scarcely any record of its existence for some
centuries afterwards. In the middle of the
fourth century, however, its trade must have
become pretty extensive, as 800 vessels were
employed in the exportation of corn only.
After the Romans had quitted it, the foreign
trade was for some time almost wholly sus-
pended; nor was it until some time after the
Norman invasion that it was revived. Fitzste-
phen, assures us, however, that in his day ‘no
city in the world exported its merchandise to
such a distance.”
Previous to 1268 the Cologne merchants had
established themselves in London; and in 1296 a
regular commercial company, under the title of
merchant adventurers, "was incorporated by Ed-
ward I. This company, obtaining permission from
the duke of Brabant, joined an establishment at
Antwerp, where they carried on an extensive
manufacture of cloth from wool imported from
this country. Edward III., with true national
feeling, seeing that England derived but half the
advantage from her industry, caused manufacto-
ries to be established here, prohibited the expor-
tation of wool, and, producing finer cloths than
were to be met with elsewhere, monopolised the
principal woollen trade of Europe. -
The merchants of London now became too
formidable to be kept down by the jealousies of
the Genoese and Hanseatic associations, although,
in the year 1412, the former had the audacity to
seize a quantity of wool and other goods to the
value of £24,000, which had been shipped on
board several vessels for the Mediterranean.
The whole was sold at Genoa; but no sooner
was this outrage known than our Henry IV.
issued a proclamation, in which he prohibited all
commercial intercourse with Genoa, until the mer-
chants, to whom he had granted letters of marque,
should capture a sufficient number of Genoese
vessels to reimburse them the £24,000 they had
lost, and £10,000 more for damages.
The commerce of England had long before
this period been of sufficient importance to
tempt the Jews to settle here in large numbers;
and they were treated with a degree of cruelty
which marked the illiberal spirit of the age.
The Hanse merchants, who had an establishment
in London at a very early period, were scarcely
less popular, and encountered various persecu-
tions, until they were finally extinguished as a
company in the reign of queen Elizabeth.
The spirit of commercial enterprise had, pre-
vious to this period, been awakened among
the Londoners, and several trading companies
formed. One of these, consisting of 240 share-
holders, who subscribed a sum of £6000, em-
ployed the celebrated navigator, Sebastian Cabot,
to superintend the fitting out of three vessels for
the purpose of making new discoveries. These
ships were the means of opening a maritime in-
246 *
L O N D O N.
tercourse with Russia, and in the succeeding
reign the English obtained an exclusive grant of
the whole trade of that country. This inter-
course led the way to the association of the
Muscovy merchants; and several others were
afterwards formed, particularly the Eastland
Company, the Spanish Company, and the Levant
Company; the latter undeceived the grand seig-
nior, who had hitherto considered England a
province of France.
That the merchants of London must have
been wealthy at this period may be inferred from
their fitting out thirty-nine ships, all amply fur-
nished, to repel the threatened invasion of the
invincible armada; and at the same time they
had 135 ships of 500 tons and upwards engaged
in trade. In the following reign, in 1613, we
find that the city paid three-fourths of the whole
customs of the country. The discoveries of a
Drake, a Raleigh, a Hawkins, a Cavendish, and
a Frobisher, in the reign of Elizabeth, opened
new sources of commerce, which the pacific
though inglorious reign of James in some degree
improved; and a more active intercourse was
also opened with Spain, Portugal, and France.
Howe, in his edition of Stowe, enumerates the
various countries with which London traded at
this period, and the articles imported, adding,
that it was “one of the best governed, most
richest, and flourishing cities in Europe, plen-
teously abounding in free trade and commerce
with all nations.”
The reign of our first James was also favorable
to commerce; Virginia, the Bermudas, Barba-
does, and Newfoundland, which had become
colonies of Britain, opened new markets to the
London merchants, and to the honor of the king
it must be said, that he gave them every encou-
ragement. He abolished monopolies,which in the
preceding reign had been so injurious, and issued
a commission for establishing a board of trade,
with a view to the extension of commerce and
the forming of a better code of navigation laws.
With the increase of foreign trade the naval
strength of the country improved. While our com-
merce was limited to the neighbouring shores of
Europe, small vessels were found sufficient; but
the discovery of the East and West Indies soon
suggested the necessity of having larger ships for
long voyages, that would require provisions in
proportion to the period it would require to per-
form them. The Portuguese, who were the first to
form European settlements in India, introduced
into the trade carracks of 1600 and 1700 tons; and
our own East India Company, following the ex-
ample, built two vessels, the James of 1000 tons,
and the Trade's Increase of 1100 tons, which
were larger than any ships at that time employed
in the royal navy.
During the early part of the reign of Charles
I. peace continued to promote the growth of
commerce ; and when the necessities of the mis-
guided monarch urged him to make illegal re-
quisitions on his subjects, the London merchants
were called upon to fit out seven ships of war,
and in addition to this the city, now becoming
affluent, afterwards agreed, in 1643, to make a
weekly payment of £10,000 for the use of par-
liament. The establishment of posts, the com-
COImmer Ce.
mencement of price currents, or ‘weekly bills
of the prices of all commodities in the principal
cities of Christendom,’ which had long been
customary abroad, and the formation of banking
houses, are all evidence of the growing com—
merce of the reign of Charles I. It is true that
this monarch afterwards, in revenge for the re-
sistance which the city offered to his arbitrary
conduct, endeavoured to destroy what he had
assisted to raise, and issued a proclamation, de-
claring all persons traitors who had any dealings
with the citizens; but the decree proved, as might
be expected, a dead letter.
The reduction of the rate of interest from ten
to eight per cent, in the year 1625, had proved
highly beneficial to trade; and Sir Josiah Child
relates, that ten years afterwards “there were
more merchants to be found upon 'change, worth
each £1000 and upwards, than were formerly,
that is, before 1600, to be found worth £100 each.”
This rate of interest continued till the year 1651,
when Cromwell, who, having firmly established
his power, found leisure to apply his mind to
civil affairs, and enforce those plans from which
the commerce of England drew such great ad-
vantages, lowered the interest to six per cent.
One of the first measures of the reign of Charles
II., on his restoration, was to confirm this act of
Cromwell, and with every reduction of interest
commerce improved so much that the writer al-
ready quoted says, “Now, since interest has been
for twenty years at six per cent, notwithstanding
our long civil wars, and the great complaints of .
the dullness of trade, there are more men to be
found on the exchange now worth £10,000 than
were then of £1000;" and Sir Josiah adds, “our
customs are much improved, I believe above the
proportion of six to one, which is not so much
by an advance of the rate of goods as by the
increase of the bulk of trade.” -
The navigation act, which had been proposed
by James I., but was not passed into a law until
the protectorate, was also of signal advantage to
Trade rapidly advanced, nor did
the great plague, and the equally destructive fire
in the following year, do more than give it a tem-
porary check, from which it recovered in a
few years, increasing more than ever, until the
wars of William III. with France. That our
trade was then extensive is evident from the
losses it was capable of sustaining, the French
having, in the course of two years, captured 3000
sail of trading vessels belonging to this country.
So much was commerce depressed during this
eight years' war, that the tonnage of the shipping
cleared outwards from the port or London was
96,766 tons less in 1696 than it was in 1688;
and the value of the merchandise exported had
fallen in the same period from £4,086,087 to
f2,729,520. The restoration of peace, by the
treaty of Ryswick, gave back to London its
former trade, which generally formed three-
fourths of that of the whole kingdom. In the year
1711 it appears to have been more, the amount
of the customs in London being £1,268,995,
while those of all the out-ports were only
f343,381.
The South Sea bubble, the 'Scottish rébellion
of 1715, and the Spanish war three years after
L O N D O N.
247
wards, were all so many checks on the progress
of commerce during the reign of George I, and
the same maybe said of the wars of his successor,
and the unhappy struggle in the reign of his late
majesty, which terminated in the independence
of our flourishing colonies in North America.
Commerce, however, can scarcely be said to have
suffered by the change; for in the year 1784 the
value of the exports to America amounted to
£3,397,500. Being nearly £332,000 more than
they were in any year previous to the war.
From this period, to the commencement of the
revolutionary war with France, the trade of the
metropolis increased most rapidly; and the ex-
ports, which in 1784 were little more than
£3,000,000, were in 1792, £16,762,516 13s. 4d.
In commerce there is an elasticity which over-
comes all depression; and, although the exports
were £2,000,000 less during the first year of the
war with France, yet no sooner was the continent
embroiled in the contest, than the trade of Lon–
don was augmented so much, that in the year
1726 the exports were nearly £18,500,000, and
the imports nearly £15,000,000. Large as this
sum may appear, it has since been more than
quadrupled.
During the war our vessels had nearly the whole
carrying trade of Europe, and Great Britain
became the entrepôt of all the products from
beyond sea, destined for the consumption of
Europe. Hence our imports in 1811 amounted
*
to £80,232,767, and our exports to £77,392,056,
but on the return of peace, when this country
ceased to be the route for the conveyance of fo-
reign productions to continental Europe, the
amount of exports and imports became consider-
ably less. Ceasing then to be a channel for dis-
tributing the productions of other countries, and
of scanty resources for export, Britain depends
more than ever for commerce on the skill and
ingenuity of her inhabitants in the useful and
elegant arts, and in all that can give dignity to
trade, and comfort to the people. , ‘It is on her
manufactures,’ as an able writer observes, ‘that
the great commercial importance of the country
rests; on that technical talent, possessed by its
inhabitants, of working up rude produce; of ya-
rying the wrought commodity in every imaginable
form; of giving beauty, brilliancy, and durability
of color, to every diversity of texture, and com-
bination of material; this labor is the source of
all that is enjoyed of elegance and convenience
in life.”
It is true that our exports are less than during
the war, yet our commerce has assumed a more
healthy and a more permanent character. Qur
foreign trade is increasing in the most satisfaç-
tory manner; as also the export of our domestic
manufactures. The following official document
exhibits the state of our commerce at a recent
period :—
Abstract of Accounts of the TRADE and Navigation of the UNITED KINGDOM, during each of
the three years ending the 5th of January, 1821, 1822, 1823.

Þ Value of Value of Exports from the United Kingdom, calculated º Value of
3 Imports into the the Official Rates of Waluation. º: Produce and
;: & * anufactures of
§ º Vº º the United King-
3-5 C3, º at I'roduce dom exported
> *o Offici f and Foreign and TOTAL therefrom, accord-
sº C13. f rateS Manufactures Colonial EXPORTS ing to the real
# valian of the Merchandise. & and declared value
QX g United Kingdom. * thereof.
f S. d. f S. d. f s. d. f S. d. f s. d.
1821|32,438,650 17 338,395,555 7. 210,555,912 10 348,951,467 17 536,424,652 13 11
1822|30,792,743 4 10|40,831,744 17 5|10,629,689 5 8||51,461,434 3 1 36,659,681 3 0
1823|30,500,094 17. 444,236,533 2 4 9,227,589 7 1153,461,122 9 336,968,964 9 9
The actual exports and imports, to and from
the port of London alone were many years ago
estimated at £70,000,000 sterling annually; and
the number of vessels which every year entered
the port was not less than 15,000, allowing for the
several voyages made by the same vessels. In
the foreign trade alone the number employed
was, during the last year, 3587, amounting, in
tonnage, to 635,799 tons. The following state-
ment exhibits the relative proportion of the com-
merce of the port of London with foreign coun-
tries, and our own colonies, independent of the
coasting trade, which is necessarily immense —
248 L O N
D O N.
The NUMBER and Ton NAGE of all ships that have
arrived during the year 1823, at the port of
LoNDoN, distinguishing British from foreign
ships. ºf
No. of ships
Countries. —|Tonnage
Brit. |For.
France º 114 59 | 18,428
Russia * . . 320 — | 66,434
Prussia, Denmark, Norway,
and Sweden © . 144310 |110,744
Holland, Germany, &c. 208173 || 51,632
Italy, Sicily, and other
places in the Mediter-
Tânearl º e 204 1| 28,675
Spain, including the Ca-
nary Islands te . 220 15 27,432
Portugal, includiug the
Azores e º . 275; 11 || 27,704
Turkey tº & o 50 — ; 8,187
East Indies . - • 85| – || 46,472
China . . 19| – || 25,000
West Indies . . 419 — 120,682
United States of America 19| 40 | 16,900
South America º 55] 2 9,944
Canada . . . . . 225 — 71,505
Cape of Good Hope,Sierra
Leone, New S.Wales, &c. 78 — 15,148
Ireland . º e . . 460 — 42,280
Guernsey, Jersey, &c. 27] — 2,465}
Total 2922| 611689,632
London has always been, and must be, from
its situation, the centre of British commerce;
and although the liberal spirit of the age, in
throwing more open the portals of the trade, may
bring other ports into competition, yet the London
citizen may always exclaim with pride, in the
words of Cowper,
Where has commerce such a mart,
So rich, so thronged, so drained, and so supplied,
As London 7 *
The Custom House.—The whole produce of
the customs, on the exports and imports of Eng-
land, were for many years farmed at £20,000.
In the year ending the 5th of January, 1823,
they amounted to £10,662,847. Such has been
, the growth of British commerce during a period
of less than two centuries and a half. The
levying of duties on ships and merchandise is
generally attributed to Ethelred, and is said to
have been first resorted to by that king in 979,
when all vessels trading to London paid certain
duties at Billingsgate, or Belin's gate, as it was
then called.
The principles upon which the revenue of the
customs, which were originally on exports only,
were vested in the king were, first, because the
king was bound of common right to maintain
and keep up the ports and havens, and to pro-
tect the merchants from pirates; and, secondly,
because he gave the subject leave to depart the
kingdom, and to carry his goods along with him.
In 1274 the custom duties were sanctioned, as
a source of revenue, by the parliament of Ed-
ward I., but the fees must have been very small
for more than three centuries afterwards, for in
the year 1590 queen Elizabeth farmed them to
one Thomas Smith for £20,000 a year. The
queen was induced to do this in consequence of
the representations of a person of the name of
Caermarthen to her majesty, that she had lost
fg6,720 3s. 7d. in the customs, during the pre-
ceding eight years. Smith, who had been a
collector of the customs, well knew their value,
for he gained upwards of £10,000 by the con-
tract.
In the year 1613 the customs amounted to
£148,075 7s. 8d., of which London alone paid
£100,572 18s. 4d. In 1666 they were farmed at
f390,000; and in 1692 they amounted to
£897,551. During the first half of the last cen-
tury the customs remained nearly stationary,
although commerce had greatly increased. The
late reign was one, however, in which great skill
and ingenuity were displayed in inventing means
to increase the revenue: and although the “offi-
cial value of the goods’ is still computed, with
reference, not to the prices they bear in the
current year, but to a standard fixed so long ago
as 1696, yet in 1798 a duty of two per cent. was
levied on our exports, the value of which was
taken, not by the official standard, but by the
declaration of the exporting merchants.
The first house for the “receipt of custom’ in
London was built in 1385, by John Churchman,
one of the sheriffs. This building appears to
have been succeeded by another, which was
destroyed in the great fire of 1666; a new cus.
tom-house on a large scale was erected in
1668, at an expense of £10,000, which was also
burnt down by fire in Thames Street, in 1715.
Three years afterwards, another custom-house,
more spacions in its dimensions, and more regu.
lar in its structure, was raised, in which the busi-
ness was conducted, until a fire which broke out
on the morning of the 12th of February, 1814,
laid the whole building in ashes, destroying
several documents relating to the customs, as
well as property to an immense amount. Two
poor orphan girls, servants to the house-keeper,
perished in the flames, and one man was killed
by an explosion of some barrels of gunpowder
in the vaults, which occasioned a shock similar
to that of an earthquake. Previous to the de-
struction of the custom-house, which had be-
come very inadequate to the increased business
required to be transacted in it, the lords of the
treasury had determined on erecting an edifice
on a larger scale, and had actually adopted a
plan, submitted by Mr. David Laing, the archi-
tect, under whose direction the present custom-
house was erected.
The new custom-house, which is situated on
the banks of the Thames, east of London Bridge,
extends in length 489 feet, and in breadth 107
feet; the grand front facing the river, from
which it is separated by a terrace, is of Portland
stone. The centre is quite plain to the height
of the ground floor of the building; but above
the windows there is an entablature, divided into
two compartments, ornamented with figures in
alto relievo. In one compartment the commerce
and industry of the country, and the arts and
sciences connected with them, are allegorically
represented; and in the other the costume and
character of the various nations with which we

L O N
D O N. 249
traffic are delineated. These groups are boldly
executed; and, the height of the figures being
nearly five feet, they can easily be distinguished
from the terrace. Between the entablatures is an
inscription recording the date of the erection,
surmounted by a large sun-dial, which is sus-
tained by two recumbent figures of Industry and
Plenty. Each wing has six columns of the
Ionic order; these give a grandeur to the
edifice, which, on so extended a scale, might
appear as carrying the simplicity of architecture
too far. There is one great disadvantage in
viewing the custom-house from the terrace,
because it is much too narrow to include the
whole building in one coup d'oeil; and it can
only be seen to advantage from the river.
The interior of the building is admirably con-
structed. There are necessarily several entrances
to this noble pile; the two principal ones are in
Thames Street. They lead through halls rather
commodious than large to the grand staircase,
which, by a double flight of steps, leads to lob-
bies at each end of the long room. This room,
which is in the centre, is 190 feet in length, and
sixty-six in width; it is divided into three
quadrangular compartments by eight piers, sur-
mounted by three domes, through which the
rooms are ventilated. In addition to the long
room there are upwards of 100 offices, ap-
propriated to distinct branches of the business
of the customs, as well as several private rooms.
All the passages, lobbies, and the floor of the
long room, except where the clerks sit, are of
stone groined in brick. They are lighted by
vertical lantern lights; and the communication
between the most important parts of the house is
by iron doors, which slide into a groove in the
wall, and are closed at night, when they afford a
good barrier against accidental fire. The whole
building is well ventilated, and in winter is
warmed by means of air-stoves. Several fire-
proof rooms have been constructed, into which
the books and most valuable papers are every
night placed.
The first stone of the new custom-house was
laid by the earl of Liverpool, the first lord of the
treasury, and the Right Hon. Nicholas Vansit-
tart, chancellor of the exchequer, on the 25th of
October, 1813; and the whole was finished, and
opened for public business, on the 12th of May,
1817, at an expense of nearly £200,000. Its
foundations have, we are sorry to add, since
given way, and it is now in a state of general
repair. -
The business of the customs is under the di-
rection of thirteen commissioners, two of whom
fill the offices of chairman and deputy chair-
man; a secretary,
officers.
Connected with the commerce of London, in-
deed of the whole country, is the noble institution
of the Trinity House. This society was first
incorporated by a royal charter of Henry VIII.
the 20th of May, 1514, granting to the shipmen
and mariners of the realm authority to erect and
establish a guild or fraternity, as well of men as of
women, in the parish church of Deptford Strond,
in the county of Kent, under the name and title of
* the master, wardens, and assistants of the guild
clerks, and a great number of
or fraternity of the most glorious and undivided
Trinity.’ They were empowered to make laws
and statutes among themselves, for the relief,
increase, and augmentation of the shipping of
England ; to levy fines or subsidies on offend-
ers; to acquire lands and tenements to a cer-
tain amount; to maintain a chaplain, and to do
and perform other acts of piety, and to enjoy all
the franchises and privileges shipmen and mari-
ners of the realm have used and enjoyed.
This charter was successively confirmed by
Edward VI., queen Mary, and queen Elizabeth.
The act of Elizabeth, after confirming to the
society the general supervision of the buoys,
beacons, and ballastage, enacts, that the corpora-
tion of the Trinity House may at their own cost
make, erect, and set up any beacons and signs
for the sea, on such places of the sea shore, or
uplands near the coast, or forelands of the sea,
only for sea-marks, as to them shall seem meet.
The same act declares it penal to disturb those
marks; and further authorises the master of the
Trinity house to licence mariners to row on the
Thames. By another act, in the 36th of the
same reign, the queen granted to the corporation
the lastage and ballastage of all vessels upon the
river, which was then held by the lord high
admiral, lord Howard, who surrendered it for the
purpose. Some defects in the preceding patents
and acts induced James I. to grant a mew charter
to the corporation of the Trinity House, giving
them more ample powers for their government.
Few chartered companies in the metropolis
are of more importance to the commerce and
naval power of the country than the corporation
of the master and wardens of the Trinity House;
to whom is entrusted, in addition to the authority
over the beacons and sea-marks, the examination
of the masters of the navy, the appointment of
pilots for the river Thames, with power to fine,
in the penalty of £20, every person who shall
act as pilot without their approbation,-the set-
tling the rates of pilotage, the preventing of
aliens from serving on board British ships with-
out their license, the punishing of seamen in the
merchant-service for mutiny or desertion,-the
hearing and determining of all complaints of
officers and seamen in the merchant-service,
subject to an appeal to the high court of ad-
miralty,+the granting of licenses to poor seamen,
who are not freemen of the city, to row on
the river Thames; and the examination of the
mathematical pupils in Christ's Hospital. Such
are the duties of this society, which is also
charged with the clearing and deepening of the
river Thames, in which service sixty barges are
employed ; and the supplying all ships that re-
quire it with ballast.
The revenues of the corporation are dispensed
in charity. Independent of their alms-houses,
upwards of 3000 decayed seamen, their widows
and orphans, are annually relieved by this soci-
ety, and the alms-houses of the corporation are
twenty-eight in number. There are also two
hospitals at Deptford belonging to the society.
Its business is transacted in an elegant struc-
ture on Great Tower Hill, built of Portland
stone. It consists of a rustic basement, but the
general order of architecture is Ionic. The
250
L O N D O N.
interior displays much good taste and character-
istic neatness, particularly the court-room, which
is neat and spacious. It was built under the
direction of Mr. Samuel Wyatt; the first stone
was laid September 12th, 1793, and it was
opened for business two years afterwards. The
master of the Trinity House is usually one of his
majesty's ministers, and not unfrequently the
premier.
Breweries.—In no article of general consump-
tion does London maintain so great a monopoly
and supremacy as in the brewing of porter,
which is not only forwarded to the most remote
parts of the kingdom, but exported to our colo-
nies,—to the United States of America, and
many of the continental states. So early as the
reign of Elizabeth, the consumption of beer
must have been very considerable; for in 1580
Sir Thomas Gorges, in applying for the office of
gauger, stated to lord treasurer Burleigh that
‘there was a deceit to the buyer of beer and ale,
both in the assise of the vessels, and in the not
filling them up; and that the buyers taken
altogether were deceived hereby £30,000 a year.’
There is also evidence of the quantity of beer
brewed in London, in a calculation made in the
year 1585 by order of lord Burleigh. It appears
from this account, that there were at that time
twenty-six brewers in the metropolis, of whom
one-half were stated to be foreigners. They
generally brewed six times a week, and the
whole quantity brewed in London in one year,
in small and strong beer, was 648,960 barrels.
Before we quit the ‘olden time,’ we may ob-
serve that the charge of adulteration, now so
frequently made, was also urged against the
brewers of the sixteenth century, who are said to
have put “darnel, resin, lime, and chalk, into the
ale or beer, which making the drinkers thirsty,
they might drink the more;’ and that, when hops
were dear, “they put into their drink broom, bay-
berries, ivy-berries, and such like things.’ It is
due, however, to the brewers to say, that these
charges were never verified by the surveyors.
Although the excise duties, and the general
introduction of tea and coffee, as a substitute for
malt liquor at breakfast, must have operated for
some time as a drawback on the consumption,
yet it seems lately to have received a new
impulse. In 1761 the quantity of porter made
in London, by fifty-two brewers, was only 975,217
barrels, of thirty-six gallons each; now a single
firm, that of Barclay and Co., brews upwards of
330,000 barrels in a year; and the quantity
made by the twelve principal breweries has
amounted, in one year, to the astonishing num-
ber of 1,500,000 barrels. What proportion of
this quantity is consumed in London it would
be difficult to ascertain.
Some of the principal breweries are among
the curiosities of London, which every stranger
should see. That known by the name of Whit-
bread's brewery, in Chiswell Street, the plant of
which was a few years ago sold for nearly
£1,000,000, was deemed worthy of a royal visit
at a time that its business was not so extensive,
nor its arrangements so complete, as at present.
On the 28th of May, 1787, his late majesty,
George III., accompanied by his illustrious con-
sort and the three princesses, and attended
by several lords and ladies in waiting, visited
this brewery. That of Messrs. Barclay is on an
equally magnificent scale. See BREWING.
The ale and small beer breweries, and the dis-
tilleries in London, are on a great scale, though
inferior to the porter breweries.
The manufactures of London are scarcely in
proportion to its commerce. In the silk trade
alone, however, 50,000 persons, or one-sixtieth
of the whole population, are said to be employed;
and in most of the light manufactures the num-
ber is proportionably great. . It is no disparage-
ment to the rest of the country, that London
excels in its manufactures, since where the best
price is paid the best workmen will be attracted;
and it is due to the country to say, that to it
London is constantly indebted for a succession of
artists and mechanics, by whose ingenuity she
is not only rendered celebrated but enriched.
See SILK.
Many years ago, Sheffield, justly celebrated for
its cutlery, challenged London to a trial of skill,
by sending a knife of a very curious construc-
tion to the cutlers' company, with an insertion
on one of the blades, defying competition. The
London cutlers, ambitious for the honor of their
trade, made a pen-knife, containing one well-
tempered blade, in which was introduced a
piece of straw. On the blade were some lines,
stating the fact; and the Sheffield cutlers, who
might well feel incredulous, broke the blade,
and found the straw entire and unsinged,—
a piece of ingenious art for which they acknow-
ledged themselves unable to account; and yet
Sheffield was celebrated for its cutlery so far
back as the time of Chaucer, whose monk
* a Sheffield whittle bore he in his hose.”
In the more scientific manufactures, such as
machinery, optical and mathematical instru-
ments, London has always been celebrated. It
was in the metropolis that Mr. Penn made his
celebrated burning-glass, of such power, that
iron, steel, flint stone, and even the diamond
itself, yielded to its almost magic power; and
here Dollond carried into effect, if he did not
originate, that most important scientific discovery
the achromatic glasses; and a Mudge, an Ar-
nold, and a Brockbank, made chronometers,
which seem to have approached perfection, as far
as it can possibly be attained.
It is highly honorable to the operative me-
chanics and artists of the metropolis, that amidst
all the fluctuation of trade, “such a thing as
a journeyman, tradesman, or any of his family,
begging is almost unknown, and may with cer-
tainty be pronounced as one of the rarest of
contingent events.’
Retail Traders.-A foreigner, in looking over
a London Directory, and finding a list of be-
tween 30,000 or 40,000 trading firms, will be
apt to consider the assertion of Buonaparte, that
we are ‘a nation of shop-keepers,' true to the let-
ter; and if he is informed that this list, numerous
as it seems, does not contain more than one-third
of the shopkeepers in the metropolis, he will
suspect that there are almost as many sellers as
buyers. Still more would a stranger be astonish-
ed at learning how lucrative a business shop-
2°
L O N D O N.
251
keeping is in London—where a pastry-cook has
been known to die worth £100,000, and a dealer
in shell fish, who spent the best years of his life
in selling oysters in public houses, has left to his
heirs a sum of £40,000. Yet such is the case;
nor are these solitary instances of success in life.
The list of individuals, who have risen from po-
verty and obscurity to high rank and splendid
fortunes, would “stretch to the crack o'doom,”
and it is unnecessary to quote instances to show’
that in London the road to preferment, honor,
and fortune, is open to the humblest aspirant.
That such fortunes are amassed in London is
the more astonishing, when we consider the
great expense with which large establishments
are maintained; that the rent and taxes of many
a retail trader amount to more than £1000 a year,
and that the smallest house, if in a great thorough-
fare, will let at the most extravagant rate. A
shop, not more than three yards square, with a
room above it of the same dimensions, has been
known to be let as a snuff shop at a rental of
i. a year, and several other houses equally
€3. I’.
Of all the retail traders, the Haberdashers,
though dealing in such small wares, seem to carry
on business to the greatest extent. One single
house in the city is known to take, on an average,
£1,500,000 sterling a year, or more than 4000
guineas a day—one-half of this vast sum is re-
ceived in cash for goods sold at the counter, and
the other wholesale at a short credit. There are
at least two other houses in the same business
whose returns are £1000 a day. The proprietor
of one of these establishments, which is necessa-
rily large on account of the business being almost
wholly retail, always gives the persons in his
employment an extra allowance for supper when
the receipts of the day amount to £1000; thus
expressing his own gratitude, and rewarding and
encouraging the exertions of those around him.
Nor are haberdashers the only tradesmen who
carry on extensive business, or amass large for-
tunes; there is Exeter Change, long celebrated
for its cutlery and hardwares, &c., where the
prince of retail dealers, the eccentric Thomas
Clark, amassed £1,000,000 sterling, and while
he paid £7000 a year to government as income
tax, spent only a shilling on his own dinner.
About ten or a dozen years ago a number of es-
tablishments somewhat similar to Exeter Change,
which is not confined to any one particular
branch of trade, sprung up in London, to which
the oriental term of bazaar was given, which li-
terally means a market. Of these, only two re-
main—the western bazaar, in Bond Street, and
that of Mr. Trotter, in Soho Square. The latter
is a very extensive and well regulated establish-
ment. Several large rooms are fitted up with
counters, drawers, shelves, &c., for the sale of
almost every species of light articles, where be-
tween 500 and 600 females attend and trade on
their own account in the various articles of do-
mestic manufacture. The price paid is in pro-
portion to the space occupied. The utmost care
is taken that none but persons of the strictest
moral character are admitted, and that they shall
not be subject to any insult from the idle and
dissolute loungers of the other sex,
Two other marts for retail trade have been
formed, the Burlington Arcade, in Piccadilly,
and the Royal Arcade, in Pall Mall; both are
elegant architectural improvements, but they are
too recently established to enable us to speak
decisively of their success.
The streets most celebrated for retail trade are
Fleet Street, Ludgate Hill, St. Paul's church-
yard, Cheapside, the Poultry, and Cornhill, in
the city; in the Strand, King Street, and Hen-
rietta Street, Covent Garden; Cockspur Street,
Pall Mall, St. James's Street, Piccadilly, Oxford
Street, and Bond Street, at the west end of the
town. The recent improvement, in opening a
communication from Carlton House to the Re-
gent's Park, has created a new and spacious
street for retail business, called Regent Street
and the Regent's quadrant, which has on each
side a grand colonade.
Markets and supply of Provisions —Smithfield
is the grand mart for the sale of live stock, w ich
is held on Mondays and Fridays. Newgate and
Leadenhall markets take the lead for butc :er's
meat, poultry, &c., although there are se eral
other markets in various parts of the metropolis,
where the business is equally respectable though
not so extensive. Covent Garden market is ce-
lebrated for the early and abundant supply of
fruits, vegetables, herbs, and flowers. The only
fish-market in London is that of Billingsgate,
which is supposed to have derived its name from
Belinus, the son of Dunwallo, who built a gate
here, which he ordered to be surmounted with
an urn containing his ashes, after his death. It
has long been a matter of regret that the sale of
fish should be confined to one market, as, owing
to the monopoly thus established, the supply of
that article is neither so abundant nor so reason-
able as it would otherwise be. In the mackarel
season, if that fish is very plentiful, the dealers
will rather throw their cargo over-board, or sell
it for manure, than, by bringing it to town, re-
duce the price. Salmon, which is often very
plentiful, and sold as cheap as at Berwick, or in
Yorkshire, and Durham, whence it is supplied,
is brought to London packed in ice. Turbot,
though caught in great quantities on the York-
shire coast, and sold there at about 4d. a pound,
is always extravagantly dear in London—so dear,
indeed, as to render it a luxury attainable only
by the wealthy.
The fruits and vegetables consumed in the
metropolis are principally produced in the en-
virons; and it is calculated that there are up-
wards of 6000 acres of ground cultivated as gar-
dens within twelve miles of the metropolis,
giving employment to 30,000 persons in winter,
and three times that number in summer. It is
the opinion of the intelligent author of the Poma-
rium Britannicum, that gardening has conferred
a great blessing on the metropolis, in the pre-
vention of pestilential diseases, by making clean-
liness a matter of profit, and giving a ready sale
and liberal price for the soil, which might
otherwise be suffered to accumulate.
Numerous calculations have been made of the
annual consumption of food in the metropolis,
but this is not easily ascertained, as, although we
may know the number of cattle and sheep, yet
252
L O N D O N.
we have no means of learning their weight,
which, by the modern improvement in feeding,
has been considerably increased.
Of the quantity of cattle sold in Smithfield
market there are however accurate returns; and
we find that, in the year 1822, the numbers were
149,885 beasts, 24,609 calves, 1,507,096 sheep,
and 20,020 pigs. But this does not by any
means form the total consumed in London, as
large quantities of meat in carcases, particularly
pork, are almost daily brought from the counties
around the metropolis. It would appear that the
inhabitants of London have become more par-
tial to mutton than formerly, for the quantity of
cattle consumed has not increased in proportion
to that of sheep; the quantity of cattle sold at
Smithfield in the year 1701, being 88,304, or
more than half the number sold in 1822, while
the number of sheep was 480,000, or less than a
third sold in the latter year. The total value of
the cattle sold in Smithfield is calculated at
fö,500,000. It is supposed that £1,000,000 a
year is expended in fruit and vegetables; the
consumption of wheat amounts to 1,000,000 of
quarters annually; of this four-fifths are sup-
posed to be made into bread, being a consump-
tion of 64,000,000 of quartern loaves every year
in the metropolis alone. Until within the last
few years the price of bread was regulated by
assize, and it may afford some idea of the vast
amount of money paid for this “staff of life,’
when it is stated, that an advance of one farthing
on the quartern loaf formed an aggregate in-
crease in expense for this article alone, in Lon–
don, of upwards of £13,000 a week.
The annual consumption of butter in Lon-
don amounts to 11,000, and that of cheese to
13,000 tons. The money paid annually for
milk is supposed to amount to £1,250,000, al-
though the number of cows kept in the neigh-
bourhood of the metropolis does not exceed
10,000. Orie grazier at Islington keeps between
600 and 700 cows, and another between 400 and
500.
The quantity of poultry annually consumed
in London is supposed to cost between £70,000
and £80,000; that of game depends on the
fruitfulness of the season and the kindness of
country friends. There is nothing, however,
more surprising than the sale of rabbits. One
salesman in Leadenhall market, during a consi-
derable portion of the year, is said to sell 14,000
rabbits weekly. The way in which he disposes
of them is, by employing between 150 and 200
men and women, who hawk them through the
Streets.
It appears, from the Northumberland House
book, that, in the early part of the sixteenth cen-
tury, the stores for the household for a whole
year were usually purchased at fairs. Far dif-
ferent, however, are the fairs held in the metro-
polis and its neighbourhood, where
—raree shows are seen, and Punch’s feats,
And pockets picked in crowds, and various cheats.
Three of these fairs were formerly held in the
metropolis, Bartholomew fair, Southwark fair,
and Mayfair; the two latter have been abolished,
and the former shorn of much of its ancient
glory. Southwark fair commenced on the 8th
of September, on which day the lord mayor and
sheriffs were wont to ride in their scarlet gowns,
after dinner, at two o'clock, to St. Magnus's
church, where they were met by the aldermen.
After evening prayer, they all rode through the
fair as far as Newington bridge, and then retiring
to the bridge house they “refreshed themselves
With a banquet.'
Plays were enacted at St. Bartholemew fair,
and Rich is said to have met with Walker, the
original Macheath, at this fair, playing in a booth:
upon being struck with his talents, he engaged
him for the Lincoln's Inn theatre. This fair used
to continue for upwards of a week; but in Sep-
tember, 1743 it was limited to three days, on
which the proprietors of booths, who usually
made a collection for the prisoners in the Mar-
shalsea, declared they could no longer afford it.
This so incensed the prisoners, that they pulled
up the pavement, and threw stones over the wall
on the bowling-green adjoining the prison, by
which a child was killed and several persons
wounded. The high constables and magistrates
now determined on putting down the fair; but
proprietors of booths and stalls removed to the
Mint, a place that had long claimed peculiar
privileges on account of the palace which for-
merly stood there, built by Charles Brandon,
duke of Suffolk. Here the fair was held for
some time, until, in the year 1763, it was entirely
suppressed.
May Fair, which commenced on the 1st of
May and continued for sixteen days, was held
near Piccadilly and Park Lane, on the site now
occupied by May Fair Chapel and the adjacent
mansions, formerly called Brook Fields.
Bartholomew Fair, that annual scene of dis-
order, is still continued, though reduced in du-
ration from a fortnight, to which it had extended,
to three days, the time originally fixed; and it is
declining so rapidly that, in a few years, it will
probably be discontinued altogether without any
positive suppression, as has been the case with
the fairs in the environs of London. Indeed
Some doubts are entertained of the legality of
suppressing the fair, as it is held under a charter
granted by Henry II. to the priory of Bartholo-
mew, and confirmed by succeeding monarchs.
Two other fairs were held in London, in Tot-
hill Fields, and at Stepney; but these have been
suppressed, as have those of Bow, Edmonton,
Brook Green, and West End, all in the imme-
diate neighbourhood of London. There is an-
other fair which, though at some distance from
town, claims a notice on account of its popularity
with almost all ranks in the metropolis. This is
Fairlop fair, which is held on the first Friday of
July, in Hainault forest. This fair was founded
by Daniel Day, an eminent block-maker in
Wapping, who, having an estate in Essex, used
to assemble a few friends around him on the 1st
of July, under a huge oak in the forest, to dine
on beans and bacon. Public curiosity was at
length attracted to the spot from this circum-
stance, and a fair established which, in fine wea-
ther, is frequented by thousands from the
metropolis.
The Police.—In a large metropolis, such as
L O N
D O N. 253
London, the subordinate branch of the civil
government, the police, is of the utmost import-
ance; and, where this is not well organised, the
inhabitants go unprotected, and crimes pass
unpunished. In France the police system is
supposed to have attained its greatest perfection;
but the domiciliary visits and the espionage that
are there practised would not be permitted in
this country, where it is the proud boast of every
man, that “his house is his castle,’ and that “he
cannot be punished but by the laws.’
Of the municipal regulations of the city of
London, from the time of Alfred to that of the
conquest, historians are not very communicative;
but we learn that, when Henry I. had abolished
the obnoxious curfew, robbery and murders be-
came frequent in the night. Howeden, and
Walter of Coventry, give us a lamentable picture
of the metropolis at a period somewhat later.
“From these accurate historians we learn that, in
1175, a brother of the earl Ferrers was not only
privily slain in London during the night, but that
“it was then a common practice in the city, that
100 or more in a company of young and old
would make nightly invasions upon the houses
of the wealthy, to the intent to rob them; and, if
they found any man stirring in the city within
the night, they would presently murder him, in
so much that, when night was come, no man
durst venture to walk in the streets.” From the
same historians we learn that, among the burglars
and assassins of this period, there was “a certain
citizen of great consequence, credit, and wealth,
surnamed John the Olde, who, when he could
not acquit himself by the water ordeal, offered the
king 500 marks for his life.’
Intoxication also appears to have been an
early vice in the metropolis; for Fitzstephen, a
native of London, who was not disposed to
slander his fellow citizens, after stating that
“there is no city that hath more approved cus-
toms, either in frequenting churches, honoring
God's ordinances, observing holidays, giving
alms, entertaining strangers, and fulfilling con—
tracts,’ adds, “the only plagues are the intem—
º drinking of foolish people, and the frequent
TeS.
But, frequent as robbery and other outrages had
become in the metropolis, it was not until the
year 1253 that the protection of a nightly watch
was thought of. To Henry III. we are indebted
for this institution, and it was this monarch also
who revived an old Saxon law, which is still
partially in force, so far as relates to injuries
committed by riotous assemblages, ‘that if any
man chanced to be robbed, or by any means
damnified by any thief or robber, he to whom
the charge of keeping that county, city, or bo-
rough, chiefly appertained, where the robbery
was done, should competently restore the loss.’
The pageant or cavalcade of setting the “march-
ing watch', in addition to the standing watches
was an imposing spectacle. It was dressed ‘all in
bright harness,' and traversed the principal streets
in the city, to the extent of “3200 taylor's yards.’
The marching watch amounted to 2000 men; but
in course of time it got so relaxed in discipline,
and so expensive to the city, that it was abolished
by Henry VIII.; and, though afterwards revived
by Edward VI., it soon sunk into disuse.
Elizabeth took the advantage of some riots
* to appoint a provost martial, with sufficient
authority to apprehend all such as should not
be readily reformed and corrected by the or—
dinary officers of justice; and, then without de-
lay, to be executed upon the gallows, by order
of martial law.” Nothing could be more sum-
mary than the process of the provost martial,
Sir Thomas Welford, who rode through the city
with a number of armed men, arrested all va-
grants and idle persons, and five of these who
were accused of a riot on Tower Hill, were con-
demned and executed on the spot where they had
offended. The martial law of Elizabeth was not
long in force, and the police of the metropolis,
without undergoing any very violent change, has
ever since been improving, until it has attained
its present state: which is so far from being con-
sidered perfect, that new regulations have very
recently been made. The subject has of late
years occupied much of the attention of parlia-
ment, and, in the session of 1822, a select com-
mittee was appointed to enquire into the state of
the police of the metropolis.
In the metropolis there are eight police offices,
independent of those of guildhall and the man-
Sion-house in the city. At the mansion-house
the lord mayor presides; the aldermen attend in
rotation at guildhall. In order to the conve-
nience of the magistrates, the city is divided into
two districts. All cases which occur eastward
of King Street are taken to the lord mayor,
and all cases to the westward are referred to the
sitting alderman at guildhall. The officers ap-
pointed to conduct the business of the police of
the city, under the lord mayor and aldermen, are
two marshals, at salaries of £500 and £450 a
year; six marshal men receiving £130 a year, each;
and 1099 patrols, watchmen, constables, &c.,
the expenses of which, in the year ending 1822,
were £28,004 per annum; but, as the returns were
not complete, it is probable that it considerably
exceeds that sum.
The number of parish constables, patrols,
watchmen, &c., in the several parishes in the city
of Westminster, and the counties of Middlesex
and Surrey, within a circuit of five miles, is
2945; and the expense, so far as it was made
out in the return to parliament, in 1822, was
f66,700 5s., making the whole number of local
police in the metropolis 4044, independent of
the horse and foot patrol, and the officers under
the direction of the magistrates at the several
police offices.
At each of these offices, of which that at Bow
Street takes the precedence, there are three magis-
trates, two clerks, and eight officers, with the ex-
ception of the Thames police office, where, in-
stead of the eight officers, there are seventeen
surveyors, six land constables, and forty-five
river constables, with six river surveyors, and
twenty watermen employed above bridge, and at
Blackwall.
Under the superintendance of the chief ma-
gistrate, at Bow Street, there are the horse patrol,
mounted and dismounted; the foot patrol, and a
day patrol. The horse patrol was formed in the
year 1805, in consequence of the frequency of
highway robberies. It is stationed on the prin-
cipal roads leading to the metropolis, and within
254 L O N
D O N.
a distance of twenty miles. The foot patrol was
established in the time of Sir John Fielding, on
account of the great number of footpad robbe-
ries: they were originally employed in traversing
the principal roads within a distance of four
miles from the metropolis; but, in consequence
of the great number of street robberies in 1821,
it was deemed necessary to confine the exertions
of the foot patrol within narrower limits, and to
employ them in the streets of the metropolis,
while a body of what is called “ the dismounted
patrol’ was employed in the suburbs. Since
that time, an active day patrol has been estab-
lished, at the suggestion of the parliamentary
committee, which has already proved of great
service in preventing and detecting the more open
depredations committed in this great city.
Numerous as the various branches of the police
are, and great as the expense is at which it is
maintained, it is yet susceptible of improvement;
not only in its general constitution, but in its de-
tails. In consequence of its being under the
control of different and unconnected authorities,
there is a want of that union which is necessary
to a well regulated or complete system of police.
It is also desirable that the watchmen should be
more efficient than they are at present. They
are principally old men, or men who, on account
of the small allowance for their nightly duties,
are compelled to work in the day; and thus they
doze when they should possess the eyes of Argus,
for
Weariness
Can snore upon the flint, when resty sloth
Finds the down pillow hard.
Coaches and sedans.—We read of whirlicotes or
open chariots at an early period of ancient his-
tory; but the covered coach, which is a luxury
of modern invention, was not known in England
before the reign of queen Elizabeth.
In 1625 captain Bailey, an old sea officer, first
set up coaches to ply for hire, which were hence
styled hackney coaches, and not as some have
supposed from their having been chiefly employ-
ed in conveying the citizens to their villas at
Hackney. He began with four, whose customary
station was at the Maypole in the Strand, where
the new church now stands. The drivers were
dressed in elegant liveries, and left in this respect
an example which their successors might do well
not so entirely to disdain. '
In 1635 the number of hackney coaches had
so much increased as to be regarded in the light
of a nuisance by the court. In that year there
was an order passed by the king in the star
chamber which proceeds in these terms:—“His
majesty, perceiving that of late the great number
of hackney coaches was grown a great disturb-
ance to the king, queen, and nobility, through
the streets of the said city, so as the common
passage thereby was hindered and made danger-
..ous, and the rates and prices of hay and provender
and other provisions of the stable thereby made
exceeding dear, hath thought fit, with the advice
of his privy council, to publish his royal pleasure
for reformation therein.’ His majesty then com-
mands that “none should be used therein except
they be to travel at the least three miles out of
town, and that no person should go in them ex-
cept the owner constantly keep, within the cities
or suburbs, four sufficient able horses or geldings
fit for his majesty's service, whensoever his occa-
sion shall require them.’
Two years after, however, Charles had so far
changed his views that he granted a special com-
mission to the marquis of Hamilton, master of
the horse, to license fifty hackney coachmen in
and about London and Westminster, with liberty
to each to keep twelve, but not more, good
horses for the purpose of their business. The
number of hackney coaches required at this time
would seem, from the number of horses allowed
to each coachman, to have been about 300. At
present, for the regulating of hackney coaches
and chairs in London, there are several statutes,
viz.: 9 Ann. c. 23, made perpetual by 3 Geo. I.
c. 7, and enlarged as to the number of coaches
by 11 Geo. III. c. 24: 42 Geo. III. c. 78, so as
to make the whole number to be licensed 1100,
and enlarged also as to chairs by 10 Ann. c. 19.
and 12 Geo. I. c. 12, making the whole number
of those 400. By 48 Geo.III., c. 87, the fares were
increased.
By 54 Geo. III., c. 147, 200 hackney chariots
were allowed to be licensed as part of the 1100;
and, by 55 Geo. III. c. 159, 200 additional
hackney chariots were allowed, and several regu-
lations made as to the fares. The other statutes
now in force are, 12 Ann. stat. 1, c. 14: 1 Geo.
I. c. 57: 30 Geo. II. c. 22 (see CARTs): 4 Geo.
III. c. 36: 7 Geo. III. c. 44 : 10 Geo. III. c.
44: 11 Geo. III. c. 24, 28: 12 Geo. III. c. 49:
24 Geo. III. stat. 2, c. 27: 26 Geo. III. c. 72:
32 Geo. III. c. 47.
Population.—Until the general census of the po-
pulation was taken, in 1801, political economists
differed widely in their estimates of the number
of inhabitants the metropolis contained, and of
the progressive ratio of increase. In the year
1377 London is said to have contained about
35,000 inhabitants. Howell, in his Londinopo-
lis, says that, when Charles I. wished to ascertain
the number of papists and strangers resident in
the city, he sent a precept, in 1636–7, to Sir
Edward Bromfield, then lord mayor, who caused
a census to be taken of the whole population
within the city walls, which at that time is said,
though erroneously no doubt, to have amounted
to 700,000. Howell, having no suspicion of the
inaccuracy of this calculation, and inferring that
the population had increased one-third, during
the twenty years that had elapsed before he pub-
lished his work—and adding to this the popula-
tion of the city of Westminster and the suburbs,
estimates the whole to amount to 1,500,000 of
men, women, and children.
Sir William Petty, whose knowledge of poli-
tical economy must ever entitle him to respect,
formed an equally fallacious opinion as to the
increase of population in London. In 1682 he
calculated the number of houses at 84,000; and
that there were eight persons in each house,
which would give a population of 672,000. Sir
William expected that London would go on in-
creasing until the year 1800, when he thought
the population would amount to 5,359,000 per-
sons !
An historian, who wrote in 1746, calculated
LO N D ON MISSION A R Y S OC I ETY.
255
the number of houses at 124,000, and the popu-
lation at 992,000; but Dr. Brakenbridge, eight
years after, fixed it at only 751,812 persons, and
there is strong reason to believe that this estimate
was nearly correct.
But, to come to more certain data, we find
that, according to the census of 1801, London at
that time contained 121,229 houses, inhabited by
216,073 families, making 864,845 persons. In
1811 it had increased to 1,099,104; and, in
1821 to 1,225,960 persons. The last census is
very minute in its details, and perhaps as accu-
rate as it can well be made. It states that the
city of London, within the walls, contains 7938
houses, inhabited by 11,571 families, or 56,174
persons, of whom 27,506 are males and 28,668
females. Two families are stated to be employed
in agriculture; 9609 in trade or manufactures,
&c.; and 1960 families not comprised in either
of these two classes. Thirty-two houses were
building, and 560 uninhabited.
The city without the walls, including the inns
of court and chancery, comprises 9232 houses,
inhabited by 16,497 families, of whom fifty-five
are employed in agriculture, 11,592 in trade,
&c., and 4850 families in neither trade nor agri-
culture. The number of males is 34,441, and of
females 34,819, making a total of 69,260. Se—
venty-three houses are returned as building, and
455 as uninhabited. *
The city and liberties of Westminster contain
18,500 inhabited houses, 382 uninhabited, and
391 building. The population consists of 41,558
families, or 182,085 persons, of whom 85,082
are males and 97,003 females. . Of the families,
308 are engaged in agriculture, 25,126 in trade,
and 16,120 in neither the one nor the other.
The borough of Southwark contains a popu-
lation of 85,905 persons, of whom 41,690 are
males and 44,215 are females. The number of
houses inhabited is 12,477; the families 21,207,
of whom 272 are employed in agriculture,
15,075 in trade, and 5860 are not comprised in
either of these classes. In 1821 there were 208
houses building, and 502 uninhabited.
A considerable portion of the population of
the metropolis does not; however, come under
any of these divisions, but belongs to what may
be called the suburbs in the hundred of Ossul-
stone, which is classed into four divisions: Fins-
bury, Holborn, Kensington, and the Tower.
These parts of the town are every year rapidly
increasing; and, at the time the last census was
taken, not fewer than 2260 houses were building
in this hundred, of which upwards of 1000 were
in the Tower division alone. While the popula-
tion rapidly increases, in every other part of
London, it decreases in the city. In 1701 it
amounted to 139,300, in 1750 to 87,000, and at
the last census did not exceed 56,174 persons
LoNDoN MISSIONARY SocIETY.—The forma-
tion of this religious institution, whose object
is the dissemination of Christianity through-
out the world, may be dated about the year
1794. The extensive plan of benevolent ex-
ertion proposed might have impressed many
minds, and occupied many hearts at the same
moment; but it is the province of the historian
to collect and present to the reader those facts
and events which made known to the world the
grand design of the projectors, and called the
attention of the people at large to the moral
necessities of their fellow-beings. In this view
the public voice has given to the late Rev.
David Bogue, an independent dissenting minis-
ter at Gosport, the proud and honorable title of
the Founder of the London Missionary Society.
Three years before the rise of this institution Mr.
Bogue made a vigorous effort to gain attention
to this benevolent object; for in a discourse
which he preached at Salters' Hall, London, in
1792, before the correspondent board of the
society in Scotland, incorporated by royal char-
ter for Propagating Christian Knowledge in the
Highlands and Islands, we have a most perfect
specimen of a missionary sermon. About this
time a conversation with one of his hearers, the
widow of his predecessor the Rev. Mr. Williams,
was followed up on her part by sending a small
sum as her first contribution towards this object,
which she pressed him immediately to undertake.
The daughter of this lady, who wrote some of
the first missionary hymns, used to exult in say—
ing that if Mr. Bogue was the father, Mrs. Wil-
liams was the mother of the Missionary Society.
But a visit made by Mr. Bogue to Bristol, in
August 1794, to preach at the tabernacle, erected
there by the celebrated Whitefield, gave rise to the
actual determination to unite the various bodies
of Christians in the grand and benevolent
scheme. There Mr. Hey, pastor of the independ-
ent congregation at Castle Green, Bristol,
joined with Mr. Bogue and Mr. Steven, minister
of the Scotch church at Covent Garden, London,
who was Mr. Bogue's colleague in the taber-
nacle pulpit at this time, to attempt to rouse the
public mind to the neglected duty. In pursu-
ance of this object Mr. Bogue inserted in the
Evangelical Magazine for September, 1794, an
address to those evangelical Dissenters who prac-
tise infant baptism; which produced a powerful
effect, and the attention of Christians was kept
alive by constant reference to the subject in the
same magazine. The associated ministers of
Warwickshire, through their organ, Dr. Edward
Williams, then minister at Carr's Lane, Birming-
ham, and afterwards president of the independent
college at Rotherham in Yorkshire, were among
the first echoes to this awakening voice. Dr.
W. had previously made an effort to gain the co-
operation of his brethren in the grand cause.
But a meeting had been held in London, at the
Dissenters' Library, Red Cross Street, where a
conversation took place between the Rev. J.
Eyre, of Homerton, and several Scotch ministers
in London, Messrs. Waugh, Love, and Steven,
on a publication by the Rev. Melville Horne, to
rouse attention to missions. Mr. Eyre, on his
return from the library, called on the Rev. Mat-
thew Wilks, minister of the Tabernacle, Moor-
fields, and communicated to him the conversa-
tion. These two ministers resolved to meet again
256
LOND ON MISSION A R Y S O C 1 ETY.
and each to bring a friend with him. Their
number having augmented to seven or nine per-
sons, they agreed to meet once a fortnight at the
Castle and Falcon in Aldersgate Street, for
prayer and reading of the Scriptures on this sub-
ject. After several meetings they gave publicity
to the affair; addressed Mr. Bogue on the subject,
and invited leading men in the several counties
of the kingdom to co-operate.
In the month of July 1795 the Evangelical
Magazine announced that a meeting would be
held in London, in September, to form a mis-
sionary society; and a circular letter was exten-
sively dispersed among ministers both in town
and country. - .
On Monday morning, September the 21st,
several ministers met at the Castle and Falcon,
Aldersgate Street, to make preparatory arrange-
ments. They opened a subscription, amongst
themselves, amounting to £740. In the evening
a general meeting was held in the same place; at
which Sir Egerton Leigh, Bart., presided ; and,
cordial co-operation being tendered from all
quarters, the formation of the society was deter-
mined. On Tuesday morning, September 22d,
a numerous assembly, including about 200 mi-
nisters of different denominations, met at Spa
Fields chapel, where Mr. Haweis, rector of Ald-
winkle, préached from Mark xvi. 15, 16. After
the service a kind of constituent assembly was
held in the area of the chapel. Mr. Kingsbury,
of Southampton, was chosen moderator, and a
committee, consisting of Messrs. Bogue, Eyre,
Greathead, Haweis, Hay, Hill, Kingsbury, Lam-
bert, Love, Reynolds, Saltern, Steven, and
Waugh, were appointed to bring forward the
plan of the new society. In the evening Mr.
Burder of Coventry preached in the Scotch
church, Crown Court, Covent Garden, from
Jonah iii. 2. The next morning Mr. Great-
head, of Newport Pagnel, preached at Haber-
dashers' Hall, on the question “Who is my
neighbour?” In the evening Mr. Hey of Bristol
on Ephesians i. 10. On Thursday morning
Mr. Rowland Hill preached at Surrey Chapel
on Matthew xxi. 14; and the last public ser-
vice was at Tottenham Court Chapel, on Thurs-
day evening, when Mr. Bogue preached from
Haggai i. 2. In the afternoon of Friday,
September 25th, the general meeting took place,
for the last time, at the Castle and Falcon. The
Rev. Mr. Percy having been called to the chair,
and the blessing of the Almighty solemnly in-
voked, Joseph Hardcastle, esq., a merchant of
London, was nominated treasurer. The meeting
then proceeded to the election of twenty-five
directors, and the following gentlemen were
unanimously chosen:—The Rev. Messrs. Bogue,
Boden, Brooksbank, Burder, Eyre, Greathead,
Haweis, Hey, Hill, Lambert, Leigh, Love,
Mends, Parsons, Platt, Reynolds, Steven,
Waugh, and Wilks; also, Messrs. Foyster, Neal,
Stokes, West, John Wilson, and Thomas Wil-
son. The following gentlemen were afterwards
added, with the entire approbation of the society.
Rev. Messrs. Audley and Saltern, and Messrs.
Alday, Campbell, Cowie, Steven, and Taylor.
The Rev. Mr. Love and Mr. Shrubsole were
elected secretaries. At the first meeting of the
members of the society it was resolved to recom-
mend and countenance public meetings for
prayer, to be held on the evening of the first
Monday in every month. This recommendation
has been received and practised to a great ex-
tent; and to maintain these monthly meetings
has become the usage of Christians in almost
every part of the British empire, in various parts
of the continents of Europe, Asia, Africa, and
America, and in many islands of the sea.
The admirable simplicity which characterised
the constitution of this society was adapted to
render it popular: as its object was to send the
gospel to the heathen, and the ultimate end pro-
posed the conversion of the world to God by
the diffusion of the truths of Christianity, the
code of laws for the regulation of its members
and affairs was considered as made by the great
head of the church, and contained in the New
Testament: it therefore recognised no worldly
alliances, it placed the members of the society
under no president but him who is head of the
church, and anxiously avoided every political
and ecclesiastical party in the kingdom, while
from the catholicity of its fundamental principles
it opened the door and invited the co-operation
of the wise and wealthy of every communion.
When such a scheme was proposed it was
not only natural but right that persons should
hesitate and enquire before they decided, when
it is considered how far the different denomina-
tions had previously stood from each other, how
frequently they spoke of the defects of each
other's system, and how warmly they eulogized
the excellencies of their own, how little inter-
course had existed between them, and how per-
fectly novel was the experiment of uniting
Episcopalians, Presbyterians, Independents, and
others, in one active and harmonious society,
without acknowledging the peculiarities or supe-
riority of any of them : it is indeed no matter
of surprise that such a scheme should to the
minds of some have appeared absurd and im–
practicable; but the experience of the Society
has confirmed the reasonable expectations of its
projectors, and it has long enrolled upon its lists
active and zealous Christians of nearly all com-
munions. As it became generally known, aux-
iliary societies were formed in different parts of
the kingdom, and thus by tributary streams the
tide of life flows onward and forward to fer-
tilize the desert and solitary place. After a
series of years had elapsed, during which the
society had become thoroughly aware of the
difficultiès which were presented to the success
of its labors by the language, manners, and pe-
culiarities of heathen nations, it was determined
to establish a seminary or college for the pur-
pose of qualifying young men for the special
work of missionaries. At first the directors
cheerfully received and sent out those pious
men whose zeal constrained them to offer their
services to the cause; but time and reflection
produced an almost unanimous opinion that a
seminary was absolutely requisite for the credit
and success of their labors. Gosport was
chosen as the appropriate spot whereon to com-
merce this institution; and in selecting the
Rev. Dr. Bogue, as the first tutor, the conduct
L O N DO N M I S S I O N A R Y S O C IET Y.
257
of the directors was marked by equal wisdom
and kindness; his capacious mind, sound judg-
ment, religious heart, and ardent zeal, rendered
him eminently valuable in such a station. For
nearly thirty years he presided over the seminary;
and at his death it was removed to Hoxton, and
is now under the superintendence of the Rev.
Dr. Henderson, whose labors for the British and
Foreign Bible Society, in Russia, form so con- .
spicuous a part of the history of that institution.
The society thus formed, and prepared for use-
ful service, selected the South Sea Islands as the
first scene of its benevolent labors, amongst a
race of people in the most deplorable state of
ignorance, and whose beautiful country was
filled with habitations of cruelty; subscriptions
to a considerable amount were raised for this
purpose, a committee of examination formed;
and, a number of zealous persons having ten-
dered their services, on the 16th of August,
1796, thirty missionaries, with six women, and
three children, embarked from London on board
the Duff, a vessel purchased by the society for
f5000, commanded by captain Wilson. After
yarious delays and disappointments they sailed
from England on the 25th of September, and
arrived at the harbour of Rio Janeiro: here
they refitted, and procured a variety of seeds
and plants which it was supposed would be use-
ful for cultivation at Otaheite. The latter part
of the voyage was attended with considerable
danger. At length, however, on Saturday, the
4th of March, the island of Otaheite was dis-
covered at a considerable distance, and by seven
o'clock the next morning they got abreast of the
district of Ataboroo. They were received by
the inhabitants with astonishment and apparent
delight. A solemn service of thanksgiving was
performed, at which the natives behaved with
great quietness and attention. The Duff then
proceeded to anchorage in Matavai Bay; and a
few days after their arrival captain Wilson ob-
tained an interview with Otto, the king, and
stated to him the object for which they had
visited his island. A house was now given to
the missionaries, and as much land as they
thought proper; the next day they went ashore
with their beds, chests, &c., and took possession.
On the following Sunday the brethren directed
the attention of the people to the object of their
mission, and Mr. Jefferson addressed them
through the medium of an interpreter; some of
them enquired whether the messages of God
were sent to the servants as well as the king and
chiefs. They replied in the affirmative. Otto
the king was present on the occasion, but the
discourse did not appear to make any impres-
sion upon him. The next Sunday Kelso and
Harris, who had chosen the islands of Ton-
gatoboo and Christinia, were solemnly set apart
to their work at the mission house, and the sa-
crament of the Lord’s supper administered, the
bread fruit of Otaheite being used as the symbol
of the body of Christ.
The first effort of the brethren was made to
prevent the destruction of new born infants, by
proposing to take every child that had been born
amongst a society called Arroies, where this habit
prevailed, into their own care, and provide a
Vol. XIII.
- * -
house for the mothers during confinement. They
succeeded in some degree. Anxious to impart
the blessings of civilisation, the missionaries
began early to initiate the Otaheitans in the most
useful arts: they therefore constructed a saw-pit,
and in the month of April completed the erection
of a forge. This caused great astonishment and
some fear. Pomarre, the king's son, who was pre-
sent, was so completely charmed, that he caught the
blacksmith in his arms and joined noses with
him, as a sign of his highest satisfaction. Cap-
tain Wilson having conveyed some of the mis-
sionaries to the islands of Tongatoboo and
Christinia now returned to Otaheite, and, finding
the brethren most hospitably treated, bade them
farewell and arrived in England in the beginning
of July, 1798.
On receiving the gratifying intelligence of the
first successful voyage, the directors, at a special
general meeting, resolved to employ a ship be-
longing to the society in another voyage to the
Pacific Ocean, to supply the brethren with assis-
tance in their arduous undertaking; they in
consequence sent ten married couples, seven chil-
dren, and 419 single brethren. On this occasion
captain Robson commanded; they embarked in
October, and were detained at Portsmouth several
weeks by contrary winds; at length on the 20th of
December they weighed anchor, and sailed under
convoy of the Amphion frigate. On the 2d of
January, 1799, they lost their convoy, and the fol-
lowing day were alarmed by the appearance of a
strange sail; this proved to be an American brig.
On the 19th of February when they came insightof
Cape Frio, and expected to anchor in a short
time at Rio Janeiro, a strange vessel which had
been rapidly approaching fired a gun to bring
them to. This shot was soon succeeded by a
second; and the result was a communication to
the captain of the Duff, that his vessel was a
prize, and that all her men must instantly quit
her, and place themselves at the disposal of the
enemy; the vessel in which they were now con-
fined was a French privateer, and they soon learnt
that the Duff could not be ransomed, as she was
to be taken to the Spanish port of Monte Video
in South America : a second and third prize
captured, they sailed immediately and entered
the Rio de Plata on the morning of the 12th of
March. Here they met their several fami-
lies who had been brought thither in the Duff.
During these detentions they were treated with
every possible civility; until a passage was pro-
cured for them to Rio Janeiro ; whither, after the
lapse of a month, they had nearly arrived, when
they were doomed to suffer a second capture,
owing to the Portuguese vessel in which they
sailed, having been purchased without having
been regularly condemned. There they suffered
considerable hardships, being divided into two
parties, those on board the Amazon were treated
with great humanity, while the brethren on board
the Medusa were at the mercy of unfeeling and
brutal tyrants. After some severe gales, and giving
chace to several strange vessels, they arrived at
Lisbon on the 22nd of September obtained their
liberty, and with the exception of one female, who
died and was buried there, they all returned to
their native land safely. - S
258
We now revert to the affairs of Otaheite, where
a circumstance had occurred which induced
most of the brethren to abandon the scene of their
labors. Early in the month of March, 1798, the
ship Nautilus anchored in the Matavai Bay to
undergo repairs and take in water, when two of
the seamen and five natives of Owyhee who hap-
pened to be on board escaped, and concealed
themselves on the shore. The brethren were
prevailed upon to send a deputation to the king
that the fugitives might be delivered up. On
this occasion they were surrounded by about
thirty natives, and some of them stripped and
maltreated: one marrowly escaped assassination.
They however arrived in the evening of the day
at the Lission house, to the great joy of the
. brethren who had heard of the outrage: the next
day an offering of atonement was presented with
a promise to restore the articles of which they
had been plundered; eleven of the missionaries,
however, conceiving their lives to be in imminent
danger, had agreed with captain Bishop of the
Nautilus to convey them to Port Jackson, whi-
ther they arrived after six weeks voyage. Here,
however, more severe trials awaited some of them;
one was robbed and dangerously wounded, ano-
ther inhumanly murdered in the vicinity of Syd-
ney. Thus was the aspect of the Otaheitan mis-
sion rendered extremely gloomy; but, notwith-
standing the departure of their brethren, seven of
the missionaries continued at their post.
Twelve new missionaries were sent out in the
Royal Post Admiral, a ship with convicts for Port
Jackson; during the voyage a putrid fever broke
out amongst them, to which about forty persons,
including Mr. Taylor the surgeon, and one of the
brethren, fell untimely victims; the rest arrived
in safety at Otaheite on the 10th of July 1801.
In the beginning of the year 1802 the mission-
aries were able to preach in the language of the
country, but at first without apparent effect; on
the 3d of September, 1803, Pomarre died almost
suddenly, and the death of so powerful a pro-
tector excited many apprehensions; they, how-
ever, received the assurances of the new king
and his mother of every protection. During
1804 and 1805 the missionaries continued to
preach the gospel: they also began to form a
regular Otaheitan vocabulary, comprising up-
wards of 2000 words, and applied themselves to
the instruction of the native children; the king,
who on the demise of his father assumed the
name of Pomarre, under the instruction of the
missionaries learnt the art of writing, and in 1807
composed a letter to the Missionary Society in
London.
The most interesting results followed the la-
bors of the missionaries in this island, notwith-
standing the repulsive and discouraging circum-
stances which attended the commencement of
their labors. A rebellion having broken out in
Ma'avai, in November 1808, six of the mission-
aries with their families retired to Huahine in a
brig which happened to touch at Otaheite, and
the remaining four, Hayward, Nott, Scott, and
Wilson, continued with the king; they all, how-
ever, excepting Nott and Hayward, subsequently
retired to New South Wales; and the mission to
the South Sea Islands was to all outward appear-
L O N DO N M I SS I O N A R Y S O C IET Y.
ance finally given up; but, during their residence
in New South Wales, Pomarre wrote repeatedly
entreating them to return; which, tranquillity
being restored between him and his subjects, they
accordingly did. This was the dawn of that
bright day, which was to shed the light of
Christianity on these benighted people. On
their return they found that the king had cast
away his idols and observed the Christian sab-
bath; that he entertained clear views of the
gospel; expressed great contrition for his former
errors; exerted his influence to convince his
relatives of the error of their superstitions, and
was extremely anxious to erect,an edifice for the
worship of the true God. He moreover was very
desirous to make his public profession of faith
by receiving Christian baptism: this, however, was
prudently deferred for some time that he might
be more perfectly instructed in the truths of reve-
lation. During the years 1813, 1814, more than
fifty nations renounced their idols and desired to
be considered as worshippers of Jehovah. Messrs.
Nott and Hayward now visited the islands Hua-
hine, Raitea, and Taha, and at the former place
a young chief abjured his false gods and professed
his faith.
In 1815 the congregation at Gimeo was in-
creased to about 300; conversions to the Chris–
tian faith, and the destruction of idols, went
on rapidly at Gimeo, Otaheite, Raitea, Huahine,
and Tapua Manu, and at the commencement of
the year 1818 fifty places of worship had been
erected. On the 13th of May, 1818, a general
meeting was convened in the district of Papetoia,
Eimeo, in imitation of the meeting held in Lon-
don, when about 2000 of the natives assem-
bled and formed an Otaheitan Auxiliary Mission-
ary Society; shortly after this interesting meeting
the brethren, who had recently arrived from
England, were conveyed to their several stations
in the Windward and Leeward Islands.
The month of May 1819 was a season replete.
with pleasure at Otaheite; the king had erected
a very extensive building at Papara, in the district
of Para, and devoted it to the meeting of the
Missionary society; it was called the Royal Mis-
sion Chapel: it is 712 feet long, and fifty-four
wide; the middle is supported by thirty-six massy
pillars of the bread fruit tree, and the outside
pillars are 280; it has 133 windows with sliding
shutters, and twenty-nine doors, the ends are
circular; there are three square pulpits about
200 feet distant from each other; it is filled with
forms, except an area before each pulpit, and laid
with clean grass : the rafters are covered with a
fine kind of fringed matting, which is neatly
bound with cords of various colors; the whole
building is surrounded with a strong fence of
wood; the space between it and the building
being filled up with gravel. After a preparatory
meeting on the 10th, the Royal Chapel was
opened on the 11th by three services at the same
time; the king was present; the whole congrega-
tion stood up and sang. On Thursday the 12th
the new laws were publicly promulgated in the .
centre of this chapel by the king in person, and
unanimously approved by the raising up the right
hand. On Friday, the 13th, the new Missionary
Society met in the chapel:—the king as pre-
L O N D O N M I SS I O N A R Y S O C I ET Y.
259
sident, and all the governors, officers, and mem-
bers. On Sunday, the 16th, the congregations as-
sembled again for divine service, and the king was
publicly baptised, and received an address en-
treating him to walk worthy of his high profes-
sion. After the service, Pomarre shook hands
affectionately with all the missionaries, who were
stationed by his desire on his right and left hand;
he then returned to his camp.
In May, 1821, the Rev. D. Tyerman and
George Bennet esq., were deputed to visit these
islands and ascertain the state of the mission;
and on the 21st of Sepember they arrived safely
at Otaheite. Their report was of the most favor-
able kind ; civilisation, instruction, and transla-
tions were all going on admirably: but during
, their visit king Pomarre was taken ill, and on
the 7th of December Mr. Crook one of the bre-
thren was sent for, and arrived in time to speak
a few words, witness his departure, and listen to his
last words. He reminded the king that Christ was
a great Saviour, and could alone support in the
article of death. The king replied emphatically,
“Jesus alone,’ and sunk into a stupor, which ter-
minated his life in a few hours.
Tongatoboo.—After the first missionaries were
landed at Otaheite captain Wilson sailed for the
Friendly Isles, and on the 10th of April, 1797,
the Duff was moored in the harbour of this is-
land; and on the 12th ten missionaries took up
their residence in a house prepared for their re-
ception : here, however, three were murdered
by the natives, the remainder departed to Port
Jackson in January 1800, and with one excep-
tion subsequently arrived in England. After
captain Wilson had settled the missionaries at
Tongatoboo, in 1797, he sailed for St. Christina
one of the Marquesa Islands, with two of the
brethren who had chosen it as the scene of la-
bor; one however, disgusted with the people
and place, refused to remain, and Mr. Crook a
devoted and vilified missionary was left alone to
pursue his work in this island. He remained
seven months and returned to England in May
1799, thinking that he might render the best ser–
vice to these islands by representing their real
state to the directors.
It may here be worthy of observation that,
at the commencement of the operations of the
society, the directors expressed their intention
of sending the tidings of salvation to the inhabi-
tants of the Sandwich Isles; but the probability
of so doing was precluded till the visit of the
deputation to the South Seas, where those who
had been appointed to a different station were
irresistibly led to this scene of usefulness. Mr.
Ellis communicated these particulars in his let-
ters to the directors in London: he went to reside
there at the earnest invitation of the king and
chiefs, as well as some American brethren, who
were already settled in this extensive field of la-
bor. This took place in February 1823: in the
autumn of the same year the king, Tamehameha,
resolved to visit his Britannie majesty, and em-
barked in November being accompanied by his
queen Kamehamara, a chief named Boki and his
wife with others. Previously to their introduc-
tion to the king, however, both Tamehameha
and his consort were seized with the measles,
and died within five days of each other: their
bodies received a temporary interment in St
Martin's church, but were afterwards conveyed
by the Blonde to their native land.
South Africa and its adjacent islands.—Encou-
raged by their success, in the islands of the Pa-
cific, the London Missionary Society were led to
direct their attention in the next place to the
continent of Africa; notwithstanding the failure
of an attempt in conjunction with other societies
to establish a mission in the country of the Fou-
lahs, and the colony of Sierra Leone. The sub-
sequent conquest of the Cape of Good Hope
by the arms of his Brittannic majesty seemed to
present a favorable opportunity of access to the
extensive regions of South Africa; but the natu-
ral obstructions to their success were very nume-
rous and great. The number of nations and
tribes into which the whole population is divided
—their perpetual variances and wars—their in-
dolent and wandering habits—the sterility of vast
districts—the uncertainty of the climate—and
the frequent and long continued droughts, all
combined to impede the establishment of Chris-
tian churches, and their advancement in civili-
sation. Much, however, was done in the dis-
covery of what is necessary to be done; and
when the number of direct instances of useful-
ness are collected and brought into one view it
will appear very satisfactory and encouraging.
Dr. Vanderkemp, the son of a worthy minister
of the Dutch church, in Rotterdam, being con-
verted and called to the work of the ministry,
was induced to offer his services to the society,
and in company with the Rev. Messrs. Hickerer
Edmonds, and Edwards, sailed for the Cape of
Good Hope in the month of December, 1798, on
board a transportvesselladen with convicts for New
South Wales. It was the choice of the brethren
to go in this vessel that they might commence
their benevolent labors amongst the most miser-
able and abandoned of their fellow creatures;
they were during the voyage exposed to great
personal danger from the refractory character of
the prisoners; but they became instrumental in .
doing much spiritual good to these wretched
victims of depravity and crime: their lives also
were in great jeopardy from a violent storm, but
they arrived safely at the Cape and were received
with great cordiality. A favorable opening soon
occurred to introduce the gospel among the
Boschmen, a savage and cruel nation of Hotten–
tots, and Messrs. Hickerer and Edwards were
dep'.ted to this walk, while Dr. Vanderkemp and
Mr. Edmonds should pursue their original plan
of endeavouring to plant the standard of the cross
in Caffraria. Dr. Vanderkemp and his colleague
left Cape Town on the 29th of May, and being
furnished with letters of recommendation to the
landrost proceeded to Graaf Reinet. There they
remained a few days, then resumed their journey
to the frontier of Caffraria, and after a toilsome
and dangerous route reached the residence of
Geitha the king, on the 20th of September: after
some disputes relative to their continuance the
king granted them a tract of land on the other
side of the river Keiskamina, and on the 20th of .
October they took possession. In December,
however, not considering themselves safe in Caf-
* S 2
x *
260
fraria, the colonists resolved to escape, and Dr.
Vanderkemp accompanied them; they arrived
on the 14th of May 1801 at Graaf Reinet, where
two new missionaries were anxiously awaiting
the arrival of Dr. Vanderkemp to whose assist.
ance they had been sent out: here they remained
till fresh outrages and internal commotions led
them to quit Graaf Reinet in February 1802, and
they proceeded with 109 Hottentots under the
escort of major Sherlock, to Bota Place in the
vicinity of Algoa Bay, where they had appa-
rently reason to hope for a permanent settlement.
But hence also they were obliged to flee, and
they removed to Fort Frederick. The Cape be-
ing now restored to the Dutch, they waited here
till the new government should assign some other
spot for their residence; and on a visit from the
new governor, in April 1803, he kindly assigned
them a tract of land for a settlement about seven
miles northward of Fort Frederick in the vicinity
of a small river, which the Hottentots call Kooboo.
On their arrival at this new station Dr. Van-
derkemp gave it the name of Bethelsdorp, or the
village of Bethel; here they planted gardens,
erected a temporary church, and houses for their
own accommodation; and, in the beginning of
July, commenced public worship and opened a
school. Their labors were rendered successful in
general, and especially in the conversion of Cu-
pido, Boezak, and Sampson: but, in the month
of April 1805, in consequence of false represen-
tations and unfounded charges made against the
missionaries by the Dutch boors, the governor
sent for Dr. Vanderkemp, and he and Mr. Read
repaired to Cape Town, and were detained there
till January 1806, when the British once more
took possession of the colony. Sir D. Baird now
sent for Dr. Vanderkemp, and treated him with
marked respect: he soon afterwards gave the
Dr. permission to return by sea to Bethels-
dorp, and both himself and Mr. Read were re-
ceived by their people with every demonstra-
tion of joy. In April 1811 Dr. Vanderkemp and
Mr. Read were summoned before an extraordi-
nary commission, appointed by the governor at
Cape Town; and communicated to the commis-
sioners more than 100 cases of Hottentots said to
have been murdered. On the 13th of Septem-
ber five German brethren, with a converted black
from Demerara, arrived in safety at the Cape,
and were gladly received. They were considering
on an arrangement for the disposal of the mis-
sionaries, when they were visited with the dis-
tressing loss of their venerable and apostolic
friend Dr. Vanderkemp, who died on the 15th
of December, 1811.
In consequence of this event, and the in-
creasing importance of these stations, the society
deputed one of their own body, the Rev. John
Campbell of Kingsland, to visit the Cape, where
he arrived on the 24th of October, 1812; and,
on the 20th of March in the ensuing year, at
Bethelsdorp, he found that civilisation had made
considerable progress; that the natives exercised
the various businesses of smiths, carpenters, saw-
yers, basket-makers, brush-makers, thatchers,coo-
pers, lime-burners, &c.; he also saw cultivated
fields two miles in length, on both sides of a river,
and was informed that their cattle had increased
L O N D O N M I SS I O N A R Y S O C I ET Y.
from 218 to 2206. The beneficial effects of
Christianity were apparent in this despised spot
in a variety of excellent institutions formed by
the Hottentots; and they had contributed, during
the preceding twelve months, the sum of seventy-
six dollars, in aid of the London Missionary So-
ciety. When, on his second visit to these parts,
Mr. Campbell, with Dr. Philip, called at Bethels-
dorp in June 1819, they were much gratified at
finding that the Hottentots had erected a substan-
tial place of worship and several good houses.
In 1822 and 1823 very considerable improve-
ments were made in the erection of superior
habitations: a public store was opened to pre-
clude the necessity of the natives going to dis-
tant places to purchase goods; and, in the report
communicated to the general meeting in London,
in May, 1824, the accounts of their progress in
industry and instruction were highly satisfactory,
On the 28th of December, 1823, his majesty's
commissioners of enquiry arrived at Bethelsdorp,
accompanied by their secretary: they attended
divine service at the mission chapel, when Mr.
Ketchingman preached from Psalm crxvi. 3.
After the sermon about twenty Hottentots read
the third chapter of St. John's Gospel, and were
examined as to their knowledge of the scriptures:
the children read a chapter, and were catechised.
The English class then read a few easy lessons;
when all was finished the object of the visitors was
announced, and some of the old men belonging
to the institution rose up to thank the king of
England and them, for the interest they took in
the poor Hottentots at Bethelsdorp : the honorable
commissioners expressed their high satisfaction
with the progress of the people, both in civilisation
and the knowledge of the truths of Christianity.
Having given this sketch of the proceedings
of the missionaries in the colony, near the Cape,
we may observe that those beyond it, among the
Caffres, Geogiras, Bushmen, Bootchuanas, and
Namaquas, and in the African Islands, Mada-
gascar and Mauritius, exhibit great patience
and perseverance; an examination of the pub-
lished accounts of their proceedings and labors
will furnish the reader with many instances of
gratifying success. The remarkable conversion,
the honorable life, and the happy death of the
Caffre chief, Africaner; the formation of Chris-
tian churches in seven or eight stations within
the colony; and the establishment of an auxiliary
missionary society at the Cape; are encouraging
proofs of the utility and efficiency of such be-
nevolent exertions: they establish, beyond the
power of contradiction, that there is not a natural
incapacity in the minds of Hottentots for civil,
moral, and religious improvement. Much re-
mains to induce deep and painful commiseration,
but much may be anticipated to justify the as-
surance of hope. The other principal settle-
ments in South Africa are Bethany, situated in
Great Namaqua Land, about fifty-five miles
north of the Orange River, where a mission was
commenced in 1815; Steinkopff, in Little Na-
maqua Land, where the gospel was introduced
in 1817; the Pearl, in the district of Stellen-
bosch, first occupied in 1819; and Cape Town,
where a number of heathens attend the ministry
of Dr. Phillip. -
LO N Do N MISSION A R Y so CIETY.
26}
º
We next direct the attention of the reader to
the labors of the society in Asia, including the
East India Islands, with the extensive country
of China. In the month of February, 1804,
some missionaries sailed from England to com-
mence their work on the coast of Coromandel;
they selected Vizagapatam, the capital of one of
the five districts into which the northern circars
are divided. In 1808 they were joined by a
converted brahmin, named Ananderayer, who, in
the October following, went on a missionary tour
to the southward, and preached the gospel to
many hundreds of his countrymen. In 1809
the Rev. George Cran, one of the missionaries,
died; and two, Messrs. Gordon and Lee, arrived
by way of America, to join Mr. Des Grayes,
who by the decease of his coadjutor had been
left alone. Mr. Rengletaube, who sailed to
India in 1804, selected the Tinivelly country as
the scene of labor; but being precluded from
going thither till February, 1806, he extended
his labors into Travancore, and made that king-
dom the principal seat of the mission. After
laboring faithfully at this station for several
years, ill-health compelled him to relinquish it;
in 1816 other persons succeeded him, and in
1818 and 1819 nearly 3000 of the natives placed
thémselves under religious instruction. In the
spring of 1810 the Rev. J. Hands arrived in
India with the hope of commencing a mission
to Seringapatam; but, as he could not gain access,
he was induced to direct his attention to Bellary,
in the northern part of the province of Mysore.
In 1816 he was joined by Mr. Reeve; many
additions were made to the church. In January,
1819, a Juvenile Bible Society was formed in
this place; and during the year the gospel was
carried several hundred miles through the dark
villages, and several thousand tracts were dis-
tributed. Messrs Hands and Reeve are ad-
vancing with the Canara version of the Old
Testament; and Mr. Reeve has undertaken a
compilation of a Canarese and English Dic-
tionary. Besides these stations, others have been
established in various parts of the East Indies,
as at Chinsurah, Madras, Surat, Calcutta, Ban-
galore, Benares, Belgaum, Quilon, Cuddapat,
and Seringapatam.
China.-In order to convey the glad tidings
of the Christian salvation to this populous and
benighted empire, the London Society resolved
to attempt a translation of the Holy Scriptures;
the Rev. Robert Morrison was selected for this
arduous work, and was assisted in London by a
native of China in learning the language and
transcribing a harmony of the gospels and other
parts of the New Testament from a MS. copy
in the British Museum. His attention was also
directed to mathematics and astronomy. In the
month of January, 1807, Mr. Morrison sailed
from England, and arrived in safety at Canton,
where he remained till, from a misunderstanding
between the European residents at Canton and
the Chinese government, all intercourse with
foreigners was prohibited, Mr. Morrison, there-
fore, retired in the beginning of November to
Macao, where he applied himself unremittingly
to the study of the language. Matters being
amicably arranged, our missionary returned to
Canton, and in 1809 was appointed Chinese
translator to the English factory. He found the
ideas of the Chinese exceedingly obscure with
respect to the nature of the true and living God.
In September, 1810, Mr. Morrison sent the
Acts of the Apostles carefully revised with the
Greek text to a Chinese printer, and agreed
to pay him 521 dollars for 1000 copies, in-
cluding the cutting of 30,000 characters, the
wood on which they were to be cut, the paper,
printing, and binding. When this little work
was completed, three ambassadors from the Le-
ki-yo islands, coming to China with tribute,
arrived just in time to be presented with some
copies. The vernacular tongue of these islands
is a dialect of the Chinese language, which is
read by the literati. In April, 1812, Mr. Mor-
rison, who had previously forwarded a transla–
tion of the Gospel by St. Luke, and a Chinese
tract on the way of salvation, now sent a trans-
lation of a Chinese edict, declaring the printing
of books on the Christian religion in China a
capital crime. In the summer of 1814 Mr.
Morrison travelled, in the suite of the British
embassy, through six provinces of China. This
occupied about six months; the embassy arrived
at Canton on its return in January, 1817. In
September, of the same year, Mr. Morrison says,
in a letter to the society, “I have translated the
morning and evening prayers of the church of
England, as helps for devotion. The church of
Scotland supplied us with a catechism : the
congregational churches with a form for Chris-
tian assembly. We are of no party; we recog-
nize but two divisions of our fellow-creatures,
the righteous and the wicked, those who love
our Lord Jesus Christ, and those who do not.’
In a letter dated March, 1819, Dr. Morrison ob-
serves, that he had recently written a small book,
called A Voyage Round the World, to this he
added a map of the world; but the printer, in
copying that part in which Judea was mentioned
as the place where Jesus the Saviour was
born, obliterated the name of Jesus, probably
through fear. In 1820 Dr. Morrison opened at
Macao a dispensary for the Chinese sick poor;
it became very popular; but, after the return of
his family from Europe, our missionary found
his time inadequate to its continuance. From
the year 1813 the gospel has been more or less
regularly preached both in English and Chinese
'at Macao or Canton; and, besides the advantages
derived by European or American residents,
these services have not been destitute of bene-
ficial results to some Chinese themselves. In
1823, on the 9th of December, Dr. Morrison
embarked for England, where he arrived in
safety on the 20th of March; he was presented
to the king by the president of the Board of
Control, and permitted to lay before his majesty
the Chinese version of the Holy Scriptures, made
by himself and the late Dr. Milne, and an ac-
count of the Anglo-Chinese College at Singa-
pore. His majesty was pleased to convey the
expression of his marked approbation. Dr.
Morrison had intended to return to China about
the latter end of 1824, but consented to remain
in England for the purpose of communicating
elementary instructions in the Chinese language.
262
LONDON MISSIONARY SOCIETY.
and conferring with those who might be desirous
of becoming acquainted with it for sacred pur-
poses, or objects of general knowledge and liter-
ature.
Malacca.—In the autumn of 1812 the Rev.
W. Milne sailed from England to assist Dr.
Morrison in his missionary labors in China: he
was, however, through the influence of some
Catholic priests, obliged to retire from Macao
to Canton. He afterwards visited Java, and,
having distributed books in great numbers in
Batavia, he made a tour through the east of Java
and the island of Madura. On his return to
China he determined, with the concurrence of
Dr. Morrison, to settle at Malacca; accordingly
he and Mrs. Milne embarked in April 1815, and,
on the 22nd of May, arrived at his destination;
he commenced his labors with a charity school
for poor Chinese boys, who were instructed in
the elementary books common in China, together
with writing and arithmetic according to the
Chinese method. In January Mr. Milne paid a
visit to Penang, or Prince of Wales’ Island, and,
during his stay, distributed tracts, testaments,
&c. On his return to Malacca, in February,
he opened two new schools, containing about
eighty boys, and introduced the method of writ-
ing in sand. In April Mr. Milne distributed
Some tracts and testaments on board some junks
from Siam and Cochin China; in November a
Chinese, named Leang Kung Fah, was baptised;
in the course of the same month he opened a
Thursday evening lecture in the temple Ta-pek-
Kung. On the 11th of November, 1818, major
Farquhar, commandant of Malacca, laid the
foundation stone of an institution called the
Anglo-Chinese College, in the presence of the
governor of the colony; the chief objects of this
institution are the cultivation of Chinese and
English literature, and the diffusion of Chris-
tianity in the countries and islands eastward of
Penang: it owes its origin to Dr. Morrison,
who generously devoted the sum of £1000 ster-
ling to the erection of the building, and promised
an additional sum of £100 annually, for the first
five years, commencing from the opening of the
college. This establishment is to be known in
future by the name of the Singapore Institution;
and in that promising seat of learning the five
principal languages of the inhabitants of that
part of the globe are to be taught, spoken by not
fewer than 300,000,000 of the human race. In
March, 1819, Mr. Milne lost his amiable and
pious wife; and in 1822, at the beginning of
the year, the society sustained the severe loss of
his own death. In the month of January, 1819,
Mr. Medhurst, who had previously assisted Dr.
Milne at Malacca, embarked for Penang; and
in 1823 a chapel was erected by subscription
for Chinese, Malay, and English worship; the
estimated expense was 6000 Spanish dollars:
nearly half the sum was raised on the spot, in-
cluding a donation of 400 dollars from his
excellency governor Phillips. The foundation
stone was laid on the 11th of June; and, in the
course of the summer, the chapel was attended
by large and respectable congregations.
Java.-The society, anxious to circulate Dr.
Morrison's translations of the Holy Scriptures,
and extend the knowledge of Christianity through
the island of Java, the residence of about 100,000
Chinese, sent out missionaries to Batavia, the
principal city, and they embarked accordingly
on the 31st of December, 1813: these mis-
sionaries saw the fruit of the books circulated by
Mr. Milne; and here, as well as in the island
of Amboyna, prosperity followed their labors.
In October, 1819, Mr. Milton removed from
Malacca to Singapore, the town and principality
of which were originally founded by some ad-
venturers from the island of Sumatra, but which
had recently been ceded to the English. Here
Mr. Milton established a Christian mission, and
his design received the patronage of Sir Stamford
Raffles, and W. Farquhar,esq., who gave a piece
of land for the object. In 1822 Mr. Thomson
removed to this station to take charge of the
Malay department, and a place of worship was
commenced for services both in the Chinese and
Malay languages. In January, 1823, Dr. Mor-
rison visited this station in his way to Malacca,
and had several interviews with Sir S. Raffles,
who expressed an earnest desire for the removal
of the Anglo-Chinese College to Singapore, and
that it should be united with a Malayan college
to be founded in the settlement, which was
eventually done; and the Singapore institution
thus formed was to consist of the following de-
partments: 1. A scientific department for the
common advantage of the several colleges that
may be established; 2. A literary and moral
department for the Chinese; and, 3. A literary
and moral department for the Siamese, Malay,
&c. In the same year Mr. Milton went to Cal-
cutta to purchase presses and other articles for
printing; and, on his return, the printing of a
Siamese version of Genesis was immediately
commenced. About this time the government
ordered 200 acres of land to be enclosed for
settling and employing such persons as might be
desirous of receiving Christian instruction; and
directed that converts to Christianity should be
admitted to burial in the European cemetery.
The mission to Demerara commenced in De-
cember, 1807; that to Madagascar in 1818.
A few particulars may be stated respecting
each. The success which attended the preaching
of the gospel in Demerara, during the year 1808,
continued to increase and abound; so that, early
in the ensuing spring, the number of slaves ad-
mitted into the church by baptism amounted to
twenty-four. Mr. Wray had been sent hither at
the solicitation of Mr. Post, a respectable and
pious Dutch planter, who resided on the east
coast of the colony; this excellent man died on
the 29th of April, deeply mourned, and de-
servedly lamented. Mr. Wray says, “a more
affecting scene was perhaps never presented;
more than 500 negroes of his own, and from
other estates, bitterly lamenting his loss.’ Mr.
Post secured to the use of this mission the
chapel and dwelling house of the minister; and
assigned the sum of £100 sterling toward the
minister's support, so long as the London Society
shall continue to provide a missionary for that
station who shall preach the doctrine of the re-
formed church. On the 25th of May the colonial
government issued a proclamation prohibiting
* L O N D O N
263
M ISS I O N A R Y S O C I ET Y.
the slaves, under severe penalties, from as-
sembling together before sun-rise or after sun-set;
this regulation had an injurious influence in cir-
cumscribing the usefulness of the missionary, and
Mr. Wray paid a visit to England that a respect-
ful representation of this grievance might be laid
before his majesty's government; an official letter
was in consequence transmitted to the governor
of Demerara, signifying the determination of
‘the government at home that slaves should be
allowed to meet every Sunday for worship and
instruction, from five in the morning to nine in
the evening; and, on other days, from seven to
nine in the evening, provided they had permis-
sion of their respective masters. This interpo-
sition was immediately and readily attended to
by the governor, who expressed himself very
favorable to the missionaries and their exertions,
and it was followed by very salutary effects
among the slaves. Mr. Wray, with the consent
of the directors, afterwards removed to Berbice;
and in January, 1817, Mr. John Smith was sent
out by the directors to fill the vacant station,
which he continued to occupy, with much useful-
mess and prosperity, till May 1823, when cir-
cumstances arose, of a very painful nature, which
have been before the public in all their affecting
details, and which led to the termination of his
valuable services and life, in the month of Febru-
ary, 1824. The sensation occasioned by this
event was communicated to the whole British
nation, and it occupied the consideration of the
British parliament; and, from the opinions ex-
pressed by the leading members of government
on that occasion, it is believed the cause of
Christian missions will derive important and
lasting benefits.
The mission to Madagascar was commenced
by Bevan and Jones in 1818. They opened a
school at Tamatave, and every thing appeared
promising and auspicious; but, in the space of
a few months, five individuals were carried to an
untimely grave, and Mr. Jones, after a partial
recovery from the Malaegache fever, was com-
pelled to return to the Mauritius. In September,
1820, Mr. Jones returned in company with Mr.
Hastie, a gentleman sent by the governor to ne-
gociate with king Radama for the abolition of the
slave trade in his dominions. He consented to
the proposed treaty, on condition that he should
be allowed to send some of his people to the
Mauritius and England for instruction, and that
artificers should be sent over to him; this request
was repeated, and he finally determined to agree
in all respects, on condition that Mr. Hastie
would take twenty of his subjects for instruction,
ten to proceed to Mauritius, and ten to England,
and thus a wide door was opened to civilisation
and Christianity in Madagascar. His majesty
addressed a letter to the directors of the London
Missionary Society, to solicit missionaries and
artisans; and at the annual meeting in London,
in May 1821, the directors and members had
the gratification of seeing among them prince
Rataffe, the brother-in-law and prime minister
of Radama, who had been previously presented
to his Britannic majesty at the drawing room.
He was attended, on this occasion, by his secre-
tary and interpreter, and four of the youths who
allotted to their use.
had been sent to England for instruction. These
youths were subsequently placed, at the expense
of government, in the British and Foreign School,
with a view to their learning to read and write
the English language. On the 6th of August, in
the same year, prince Rataffe, accompanied by
the Rev. J. Jefferies and four artisans, sailed to
Madagascar. On the 6th of May following they
landed at Tamatave, and proceeded, on the 21st,
to the interior, where they were received by the
king in the most gracious manner, and land was
Of the Malagache youths,
one died in England in 1824, leaving behind
pleasing evidence of conversion, and three left
England for their own country, of whom two
were in ill health, which rendered their return
indispensable; one was baptised previously to his
embarkation; and the remaining three are dili-
gently employed in acquiring a knowledge of
their respective trades.
In addition to various stations already noticed
the society has sent out laborers to many other
parts of the globe: it has devoted missionaries at
St. Petersburg and Selinginsk, in Russia; at
Corfu and Malta, in the Mediterranean ; at
George Town, in Demerara; at New Amster-
dam, in Berbice; and at the island of Mauritius.
The present state of the missions, considered
as a whole, is highly satisfactory. According to
the returns received from the South Sea Islands
the number of baptised, for the year ending May
1827, was upwards of 300, and the additions to
the churches between 300 and 400. Pomarre III.,
and two native distinguished warriors, died dur-
ing the year, converts to the Christian faith. The
gospel by Mark has been printed; also the
epistles to the Galatians, Philemon, and Hebrews,
and of James and John. The book of Revelation
is in the press; the Book of Judges, and the
two Books of Samuel, have been revised. Isaiah,
the Psalms, and some other epistles, are under
revision.
From the islands of Raivavai, Harvey Islands,
Marquesas, Friendly Islands, &c., the intelli-
gence is satisfactory and encouraging.
Sandwich Islands.--The mission in this groupe
continues to flourish greatly. The labors of
the Tahitian teachers are very useful, and meet
the approbation of the American missionaries.
New South Wales.—Considerable progress is
made in the language of the aborigines; but the
great expense, unless aid can be obtained from
the local government, renders its continuance
doubtful.
ULTRA GANGES. China.--Dr. Morrison has
arrived safely at Macao. During his absence
Leangafa had composed notes on the Epistle to
the Hebrews; an Essay on the true Principles of
the World's Salvation; and An Account of In-
teresting Conversations with his Countrymen.
Malacca.-Native Schools are seven, containing
about 250 boys, who make good progress. The
number of students in the Anglo-Chinese Col-
lege, in June 1826, was nearly thirty. Java has
three Chinese schools. The Chinese, Malayan,
and English, services are continued. The sub-
jects of the mission publications are now dis-
cussed by the Chinese themselves in the absence
of the missionary. Amboyna. —Seven native
264
L O N D O N T E R R Y.
seachers have been lately sent hence to dif-
ferent islands of the Malayan Archipelago. Mr.
Kam's translation of the first volume of Mr.
Burder's Village Sermons is in circulation.
EAST INDIES. Calcutta.-In the Christian
Seminary, which has been restricted to the de-
scendants of native Christians, three youths are
under instruction, and a speedy addition to their
number is expected. In Bengal the mission
schools make encouraging progress; the stated
native services are continued in the towns, and
occasional preaching in surrounding villages.
Mr Mundy has composed, in Bengalee, a con-
cise View of the Christian Religion, and a Cate-
chetical Exposition of the Gospel by St. Mark.
Berkampore.—Here are inveterate prejudices to
overcome. There are eight schools; six for boys,
containing 280, and two for girls, containing forty.
About thirty persons have become converts, and
a Christian church has been formed. Benares.—
Here are four native schools, containing 206
boys, all in a prosperous state : a substan-
tial mission-house has been erected. Surat.—
Six native schools; boys under instruction about
350. A society has been formed at Bombay
called the Bombay Missionary Union; the re-
maining stations are Madras, Vizagapatam, Com-
booconum, Cuddapah, Chitoor, Belgaum, Bel-
iary, and Bangalore in South Travancore, Nager-
coil, and Quilon.
AFRICA.—The Rev. Dr. Phillip still remains
in this country. Mr. Miles has visited several
missionary stations in the interior, and extended
his journey to Caffreland, and the country of
Tambookies. Caffraria presents a promising
field for missionary enterprise. At Bethelsdorp
the amount of subscriptions to the auxiliary
society, for the year ending May 1826, was 260
rix dollars. The stations here are numerous:–
Paarl, Tulbach, Roschefield, Pacaltsdorp, Han-
key, Bethelsdorp, Theopolis, Caffraria, Griqua
Town, Campbell, Philippolis, Lattakoo, Afri-
camer's Kraal, Bethany, Steinkopf, Pella, and the
Islands of Mauritius and Madagascar. In the
latter island his majesty Radama continues to
take a lively interest in the mission; and the
rapidly advancing importance of this station has
induced the directors to accept the services of the
Rev. J. J. Freeman, late minister of the Gospel at
Kidderminster, on the principle of limitedservice.
WEST INDIES.—At Demerara the labors of
Mr. Davies, lately deceased, were attended with
success: the average attendance at his chapel in
George Town was about 400 negroes, the num-
ber in church fellowship 130, and in the school
300 adults and 100 children. At Berbice the num-
ber of adults baptised during 1826 was forty-one;
the number in the school, at the close of 1826,
was 230, and many have since been admitted.
The total number of children in the native
schools, in connexion with the several missionary
stations, besides numerous adults, is upwards of
12,000.
LoNDON, NEw, a county of Connecticut, in
the United States. Its population is 34,707. Its
chief towns are New London and Norwich; the
former situated on the west bank of the Thames,
three miles above its mouth. It has an excel-
loamy.
lent harbour defended by two forts, and is one
of the most commercial towns in Connecticut.
It is fifty-four miles east of Newhaven, and 237
north-east by east of Philadelphia.
Also a post town of the United States, in Rock-
kingham county, New Hampshire, containing a
respectable and well endowed academy. It is
twenty-five miles S. S. E. of Concord, and
thirty-five W. S. W. of Portsmouth.
LONDONDERRY, a county of Ireland, is
bounded on the south by Tyrone; on the west
by Donegal; on the north by the Scottish Sea;
and on the east by Antrim, from which it is sé-
parated by Lough Neagh, and the river Bann.
Its figure is that of an irregular triangle about
forty English miles from north to south, and
about thirty-one in breadth, including an area of
511,688 English acres, and 798 square miles.
It is divided into four baronies, Teerkerin, Ke-
naught, Loughlinsholin, and Coleraine, and
thirty-one parishes. About a fourth part of the
county is bleak mountains and glens; and even
half the remainder is mountainous, a range of
mountains running from the northern coast the
whole length of the country southwards. But
fertile plains and valleys are interspersed be-
tween the mountains, composed of rich loams,
and gravels, clay, marl, and moor. The moun-
tainous region is diversified by many alpine
tracts, interspersed with spots of peat, many of
which are reclaimable. There are schistose
ridges on the western side of the Roe, near the
bed of which marly flats run along almost the
whole. length of the river. Near Lough Foyle
and Lough Neagh they are in general sandy or
These are much occupied as rabbit
warrens, which yield, on an average, about
36,000 rabbits annually, the sale of whose skins
produces a large revenue. Good pasturage has
been produced by the burning of the heathy soils
in some places; and excellent crops of oats are
raised on the low lands, by the same practice.
The principal mountains are, in the north,
Benyevenagh, which is 1250 feet high; Sawel,
towards the south, 1600 feet in height; Benbro-
dah, in the centre of the county, 1300 feet in
height; Alt English, at some miles distance, of
the same height; Slieve Gallen, 1250 feet in
height; Donald’s hill, 1200 feet.
The system here adopted of letting land on
short leases is not calculated to promote agricul-
tural improvement. The arable land is divided
and subdivided into the smallest portions, from
250 to a single acre. The great proportion of it
is let in parcels containing from three to thirty
acres Irish. Potatoes is the principal crop; but
on some of the clay grounds wheat is raised, and
oats, barley, flax, and rye, occasionally appear.
The land is every where destitute of fences, but
small plantations are met with in many places.
The minerals of this county deserve attention.
Basaltic layers, with veins of white lime, clays,
zeolite, &c., are found to the east of the river
Roe ; granite is often found, and in the interior
of the county freestone and sandstone; also the
beautiful rock crystals, called Irish diamonds.
Iron is also in great abundance throughout the
county; but the only work ever established for
à
LON
LON
265.
- j
smelting it was afterwards abandoned. Small
quantities of copper and lead have been also
found, and coal seems to appear in various
parts. The linen manufacture is the staple of
the county; and woollen cloth is manufactured
at home by the poorer part of the peasantry,
The principal rivers are the Foyle or Green
River: it is a wide and deep stream; and, after
having divided the counties of Tyrone and
Donegal, enters this county, a little above the
city of Londonderry, and, passing it, expands
into the large lake known by the name of Lough
Foyle. The Bann, or the White River, flows
from Lough Neagh towards the town of Cole-
raine, four miles below which it meets the sea,
over a shallow bar. The Faughan and Roe,
which rise in the Cairntogher Mountains, flow
into Lough Foyle. Among the streams which
join the Bann in its course, or increase the waters
of Lough Neagh, is the Mayola. Lough Foyle
affords a tolerably good harbour, though there is
some difficulty of entering it when a strong wind
blows from the west. It is a large oval basin,
twelve miles long, and nearly seven broad in the
widest part, but it has only one deep channel in
the middle, between long banks of sand. The
Bann affords a harbour for small vessels up to
Coleraine; but Portrush, four miles below it, is
generally preferred for vessels of burden. The
chief towns, besides Londonderry, are Coleraine,
Newton-limavady, Magherafelt Dungiven, Mo-
neymore, Castle-Bawson, Maghera, Garvagh,
Desartmartin, &c.
LONDONDERRY, the capital of the above coun-
ty, is situated on the west bank of the Foyle, and
contains four main streets, which cross at right
angles within the walls, and form, with the smaller
streets and lanes, a sort of parallelogram, ex-
tending 1273 feet by 635. The streets issue from
the exchange, and terminate at a gate denomi-
nated from them. The ground on which the
town stands is hilly and uneven; but great at-
tention has been paid to the paving and lighting
of the streets. The old walls, which were built
in the year 1614, still remain. On the top of the
rampart is a platform covered wth a noble
parapet. The cathedral is a Gothic structure,
built in the year 1633. The tower was lately or-
namented, or at least surmounted, with a spire;
it has an organ which is esteemed valuable.
There are, beside the cathedral, a chapel of ease,
two presbyterian meeting houses, and a Roman
Catholic chapel.
town hall, was built in 1692, over which were
the courts of justice; but it has been superseded
by a spacious and handsome architectural struc-
ture, recently erected for these purposes. The
new gaol is esteemed one of the best in the north
of Ireland; and the episcopal palace is spacious.
Schools for the education of the lower classes
have been recently built, and an infirmary has
been lately erected on a very large scale. There
is a small theatre and linen hall. The chief
wharfs and quays, with a good portion of the
city, are without the walls. In 1790 a very
handsome wooden bridge, upwards of 1000
feet in length, and forty in breadth, was here
thrown across the Foyle, a great part of which
was thrown down by the ice in 1813. An ex-
The central market house, or
tensive commercial intercourse is carried on be
tween Londonderry, the West Indies, and Ame-
rica. The imports are West India produce,
hardware, earthenware, flax seed, iron, and
timber: the exports yarn, linen, &c. In the
harbour there is at all times fourteen fathoms of
water.
Both the abbey and town of Londonderry are
of great antiquity; and are said to have been
burned by the Danes in the year 783. In 1153
it was made an episcopal see; and the cathedraſ
was erected six years afterwards. In 1515 its
charter was granted to the London Company. In
1608 it was burned by an Irish chieftain, but
the walls were soon re-erected; and in 1641 it was
besieged and rescued from the Irish, by whom,
however; it was taken in 1649. In 1688 it sus-
tained from the Irish forces, under king James, a
siege, which lasted from the month of December
1688 till August 1689; and it was on the eve of
being surrendered by the governor, when the in-
habitants chose for their governors the Rev.
George Walker, an episcopal clergyman, and
major Baker. Under these intrepid chiefs the
town resisted to the last, and until all the efforts
of king James's forces proved abortive. The cor-
poration consists of aldermen, a mayor, twenty-
four burgesses, one chamberlain, and two sheriffs.
It is 115 miles N. N. W. of Dublin, and fifty-
eight W. N.W. of Belfast.
LONE, adj. From ALONE, Solitary;
LONE'LINESS, n. s. A single ; unfrequented :
LONE'LY, adj. loneliness and loneness
LONE'NESS, n. s. A mean solitude; solitary
LONE'SoME, adj. J disposition : lonely, soli-
tary, or addicted to solitude : lonesome, dreary;
dismal.
I go alone, -
Like to a lonely dragon; that his fen
Makes feared and talked of more than seen.
- Shakspeare.
* I see
The mystery of your loneliness, and find
Your salt tears’ head. Id.
If of court-life you knew the good,
You would leave loneness. Donne.
Why thus close up the stars
That nature hung in heaven, and filled their lamps
With everlasting oil, to give due light
To the misled and lonely traveller 3 Milton.
The huge and sportful assembly grew to him a
tedious loneliness, esteeming nobody since Daiphan-
tus was lost. . Sidney.
Time has made you dote, and vainly tell
Of arms imagined in your lonely cell. Dryden-
When, fairest princess,
You lonely thus from the full court retire,
Love and the graces follow to your solitude.
Rowe.
You either must the earth from rest disturb,
Or roll around the heavens the solar orb;
Else what a dreadful face will nature wear !
How horrid wilk these lonesome seats appear !
- Blackmore.
Here the lone hour a blank of life displays.
- Savage.
Thus vanish sceptres, coronets, and balls,
And leave you in lone woods, or empty wall;
." ope.
There is a pleasure in the pathless woods,
There is a rapture on the lonely shore,
LON
LON
266
There is society, where none intrudes,
By the deep sea, and music in its roar. Byron.
That man of loneliness and mystery,
Scarce seen to smile, and seldom heard to sigh;
Whose name appals the fiercest of his crew,
And tints each swarthy cheek with sallower hue;
Still sways their souls with that commanding art
That dazzles, leads, yet chills the vulgar heart. Id.
LONG, adv. , Sax. gelang, a fault. By the
fault; by the failure. Obsolete, but a “truly
English’ word, says Dr. Johnson. -
Respective and wary men had rather seek quietly
their own, and wish that the world may go well, so
it be not long of them, than with pains and hazard
make themselves advisers for the common good.
Hooker
Mainé Blois, Poictiers, and Tours are won away
Long all of Somerset, and his delay. , Shakspeare.
Mistress, all this coil is long of you. Id.
If we owe it to him that we know so much, it is
hº long of his fond adorers that we know so
ittle more. Glanville.
LONG, adj. & adv. Y Sax. long ;
LoNGANIM'ITY, m. s. Gothic, lang;
LoNG-BOAT, n. S. Fr. long; Ital.
LONGEv'ITY, m. s. longe ; Latin,
LONGIM'ANOUs, adj. longus. Pro-
LoNGIM'ETRY, n. s. tracted ; of
LONG'soME, adj. considerable
LoNG-SUF'FERING, adj. & n.s. length in
LONG'TAIL, n.s. space, time, or
LoNG'wAYS, adv. measurement;
LONG-win D'ED, adj. not SOOn ter-
LONG'wiSE, adv. J minating or
ceasing; hence dilatory, tedious; as an adverb,
to a great length; not soon; at a distant point
of time; continuously, throughout: longanimity
and long-suffering mean forbearance; patience of
offence, or suffering: longevity (Lat. longaevus),
length of life: longimanous (Lat. longimanus),
long-handed: longimetry, the art of measuring
lengths or distances: longsome, tedious: long-
tail, in Shakspeare, ‘cut and long-tail', a cant
term for one or another. ‘A phrase, I believe,
taken from dogs, which, belonging to men not
qualified to hunt, had their tails cut.”—Johnson.
Longways and longwise, in a longitudinal direc-
tion: long-winded, long-breathed; dilatory;
tedious; wordy. - -
But I seie as longe tyme as the eyr is a littel
child, he diuersith no thing fro a seruaunt whanne
he is lord of alle thingis. Wiclif. Gal. iv.
He fed me all my life long to this day.
Genesis xlviii. 15.
When she could not longer hide him, she took for
him an ark of bullrushes. Erodus ii. 3.
When the trumpet soundeth long, they shall come
up to the mount. Id. xix. 13.
Honour thy father and thy mother, that thy days
may be long upon the land. Id. xx. 12.
Forty years long was I grieved with this gene-
ration. Psalms:
Women eat their children of a span long.
Lam. ii. 20.
He talked a long while, even till break of day.
Acts xx.’
.Not long after there arose against it a tempestuous
wind. Id. xxvii. 14.
For here I may no longir now abide,
But I must follow the grete company
That ye may se yondir before you ride.
Chaucer.
** Them among
. There sat a man of ripe and perfect age,
Who did them meditate all his life long.
Fuerie Queene.
Some say, that ever 'gainst that season comes,
Wherein our Saviour's birth is celebrated,
The bird of dawning singeth all night long,
And then, they say, no spirit walks abroad.
Shakspeare.
He will maintain you like a gentlewoman.
— Aye, that I will, come cut and longtail under the
degree of a squire. Id. Merry Wives of Windsor.
They found the war so churlish and longsome, as
they grew then to a resolution, that, as long as Eng-
land stood in state to succour those countries, they
should but consume themselves in an endless war.
Bacon's War with Spain.
With mighty barres of long-enduring brass.
Fairfax.
Doubts and fears are the sharpest passions:
through these false opticks all that you seeis like the
evening shadows, disproportionable to the truth, and
strangely longer than the true substance. Suckling.
He was laid upon two beds, the one joined long-
wise unto the other, both which he filled with his
length. Hahewill.
Certainly, God is wonderfully gracious, as he is
also infinitely just, even to those that will needs
incur damnation, having tendered unto them many
powerful helps to their repentance; which he hath
with much patience and longanimity expected.
* Bp. Hall.
That innocent and holy matron had rather go clad
in the snowy white robes of meekness and longan-
imity, than in the purple mantle of blood.
- Howel's England's Tears.
These, as a line, their long dimensions drew,
Streaking the ground with sinuous trace. Milton.
They open to themselves at length a way
Up hither, under long obedience tryed. Id.
Long and ceaseless hiss. Id.
But first a long succession must ensue. Milton.
It had overcome the patience of Job, as it did the
meekness of Moses, and surely had mastered any but
the longanimity and lasting sufferance of God.
- Browne's Vulgar Errours.
The villainy of this Christian exceeded the perse-
cution of heathens, whose malice was never so longi-
nanous as to reach the soul of their enemies, or to
extend into the exile of their elysiums. Browne.
We made the trial in a long-necked phial left open
at the top. Boyle.
If the world had been eternal, those would have
been found in it, and generally spread long ago, and
beyond the memory of all ages. Tillotson.
And long it was ere he the rest could raise,
Whose heavy eyelids yet were full of night.
+ Dryden.
The martial Ancus
Furbished the rusty sword again, r
Resumed the long-forgotten'shield. Id.
No man has complained that you have discoursed
too long on any subject, for you leave us in an ea-
gerness of learning more. *
They first betray their masters, and then, when
they find the vessel sinking, save themselves in the
longboat. L’Estrange.
It may help to put an end to that long-agitated
and unreasonable question, whether man's will be
free or no? . Locke.
Eldest parents signifies either the eldest men and
women that have had children, or those who have
longest had issue. Id.
LON
7 LON
26
That those are countries suitable to the nature of
man, and convenient to live in, appears from the
longevity of the natives. Ray on the Creation.
Say, that you once were virtuous long ago?
A frugal, hardy people. Philip's Briton.
This island stands as a vast mole, which lies long-
ways, almost in a parallel line to Naples.
Addison on Italy.
Reduce, my muse, the wandering song;
A tale should never be too long. Prior.
When chilled by adverse snows and beating rain,
We tread with wearied steps the longsome plain.
At the first descent on shore, he did countenance
the landing in his longboat. Wottom.
We infer from the mercy and longsuffering of God,
that they were themselves sufficiently secure of his
favour. - - Rogers.
The instances of longevity are chiefly amongst the
abstemious. -Arbuthnot on Aliments.
Our two eyes are like two different stations in
longimetry, by the assistance of which the distance
between two objects is neasured.
Cheyne's Philosophical Principles.
A ponderous mace,
Full twenty cubits long, he swings around. Pope.
Heaven restores
To thy fond wish the long-expected shores. Id.
My simile you minded,
Which, I confess, is too long winded. Swift.
Long sentences in a short composition are like large
rooms in a little house. Shenstone.
Absurd longevity / More, more, it cries:
More life, more wealth, more trash of every kind.
i Young.
But Beatoun had enjoyed powers too long to be a
favourite of the nation.
Robertson’s History of Scotland.
Fain would I hide what I fear to discover,
Yet long, long too well have I, known:
All that has caused this wreck in my bosom,
Is Jenny, fair Jenny alone. IBurns.
Another consequence of such a hill would be a
tonger residence of the bishops in their several dio-
CèSèS. -- Bp. Watson.
And if we do but watch the hour,
There never yet was human power
Which could evade, if unforgiven,
The patient search and vigil long
Of him who treasures up a wrong. Byron.
LONG, v. n. & adj. Sax. languan, of Germ.
LONG'ING, n. s. gelangen, to ask; beg.—
LONG'INGLY, adv. (Skinner, Ex Gal. loing,
LONG'LY, adv. i. e. longinquam. —Min-
sheu. To desire eagerly or earnestly, taking
..for or after before the object: as an adjective
it signifies desiring; eager. Longly is used for
longing by Shakspeare.
And thine eyes shall look and fail with longing for
them. - Deut. xxviii. 32.
The great master perceived that Rhodes was the
place the Turkish tyrant longed after. Knolles.
Master, you looked so longly on the maid,
Perhaps, you mark not what's the pith of all.
Shakspeare.
Fresh expectation troubled not the land
With any longed for change, or better state. Id.
I have a woman’s longing,
An appetite that I am sick withal,
To see great Hector in the weeds of peace. Id.
If the report be good, it causeth love,
And longing hope, and well-assured joy.
* Daries.
When within short time I came to the degree of
uncertain wishes, and that those wishes grew to un-
quiet longings, when I would fix my thoughts upon
nothing, but that within little varying they should
end with Philoclea. Sidney,
Praying for him, and casting a longing look that
way, he saw the galley leave the pursuit. ' Id.
His sons, who seek the tyrant to sustain,
And long for arbitrary lords again,
He dooms to death deserved. Dryden’s ACneid.
To his first bias longingly he leans, -
And rather would be great by wicked means.
-- Dryden.
The will is left to the pursuit of nearer satisfac-
tions, and to the removal of those uneasinesses which
it then feels in its want of, and longings after them.
Locke.
There's the tie that binds you;
You long to call him father: Marcia's charms
Work in your heart unseen, and plead for Cato.
Addison's Cato.
Else whence this pleasing hope, this fond desire,
This longing after immortality? Id.
Nicomedes longing for herrings, was supplied with
fresh ones by his cook, at a great distance from the
Sea, - Arbuthnot.
To thee my soul shall pour its prayer,
And ere the dawn has streaked the sky,
To thee direct its longing eye.
Merrick’s Psalms.
—then, even then, -
I longed, and was resolved to speak;
But on my lips they died again,
The accents tremulous and weak, w
Until one hour. Byron.
LONG (Roger), D. D., a native of Norfolk,
was educated at Cambridge; where he became
master of Pembroke Hall, and Lowndes pro-
fessor of astrongmy. He was also rector of
Cherryhinton in Huntingdonshire, and of Brad-
well in Essex; and was author of a Treatise of
Astronomy, and the inventor of a very curious
astronomical machine, thus described by him-
self:—‘I have, in a room lately built in Pem-
broke Hall, erected a sphere of eighteen feet
diameter, wherein above thirty persons may sit
eonveniently; the entrance into it is over the
south pole by six steps; the frame of the sphere
consists of a number of iron meridians, not com-
plete semi-circles, the northern ends of which
are screwed to a large round plate of brass,
with a hole in the centre of it; through this
hole, from a beam in the ceiling, comes the
north pole, a round iron rod about three inches
long, and supports the upper parts of the sphere
to its proper elevation for the latitude of Cam-
bridge; the lower part of the sphere, so much
of it as is invisible in England, is cut off; and
the lower or southern ends of the meridians, or
truncated semi-circles, terminate on, and are
screwed down to, a strong circle of oak, of about
thirteen feet diameter; which, when the sphere
is put into motion, runs upon large rollers of
lignum vitae, in the manner that the tops of
some windmills are made to turn round. Upon
the iron meridians is fixed a zodiac of tin
painted blue, whereon the ecliptic and heliocen-
tric orbits of the planets are drawn, and the
constellations and stars traced ; the Great and
Little Bear and Draco are already painted in
their places round the north pole; the rest of
the constellations are proposed to follow; the
LON
LON
268
whole is turned round with a small winch, with
as little labor as it takes to wind up a jack,
though the weight of the iron, tin, and wooden
circle, is about 1000 lbs. When made use of, a
planetarium will be placed in the middle. The
whole, with the floor, is well supported by a
frame of large timber. All the constellations
and stars of the northern hemisphere, visible at
Cambridge, are painted in their proper places
upon plates of iron joined together, which form
one concave surface.” Dr. Long published a
Commencement Sermon in 1728; and an
answer to Dr. Galley's Pamphlet on Greek
Accents. He died December 16th 1770, aged
ninety-one.
Long (Edward), the historian of Jamaica,
was born at St. Blaize in Cornwall, in 1734,
being the son of a gentleman who possessed
estates in that island. He was brought up to the
law; and on the death of his father, in 1757,
proceeeded to Jamaica, where he became secre-
tary to Sir Henry Moore his brother-in-law, and
lieutenant governor of the island. In 1769 he
was obliged to return to England for his health,
where he devoted the remainder of his life to
literary pursuits, and particularly to the comple-
tion of his History of Jamaica, published in
1774, in 3 vols. 4to. In 1797 he resigned his
office, and died March 13th, 1813, at the house
of his son-in-law, Henry Howard Molyneux,
esq., of Arundel Park, Sussex. Mr. Long also
wrote a collection of essays, entitled The Pra-
ter; a novel called The Antigallican; Letters on
the Colonies; and various minor pieces.
Long (James Le), a French writer of the
seventeenth century, born in Paris in 1665. He
was a priest of the oratory, and librarian of St.
Honore. He published, 1. Bibliotheca Sacra, 2
vols. folio, 1723; 2. Bibliotheque de la France,
folio; 3. A Historical discourse on Polyglott
Bibles. He died at Paris in 1721.
LoNg Island, an island in Penobscot Bay, on
the coast of Maine; twelve miles long, and two
broad. Also a small island near the coast of
Virginia, at the mouth of York River. Long.
76° 35' W., lat. 37° 16' N.
LoNG ISLAND, an island belonging to the state
of New York, extending east from the city of
New York 140 miles. It is not more than ten
miles in breadth on a medium, and is separated
from Connecticut by Long Island Sound. The
island is divided into three counties; King's,
Queen's, and Suffolk. Long. 72° to 74° W.,
lat. 40° 50' N. Population 48,751. Sag-Har-
bour is the principal port. The south side of
the island is flat land, of a light sandy soil, bor-
dered on the sea coast with large tracts of salt
meadow. The soil, however, is well calculated
for raising grain, especially Indian corn. The
north side of the island is hilly, and of a strong
soil, adapted to the culture of grain, hay, and
fruits, and the eastern partis remarkably adapted
to the growth of wood, and supplies, in great
#. the city of New York with this article.
The principal towns and villages on the island
are Brooklyn, Jamaica, Sag-Harbour, Flatbush,
Tlushing, Satauket, and Huntingdon.
LoNG ISLAND, or HAMOTE, an island on the
coast of New Zealand, in Queen Charlotte's
Sound, about forty miles long. It has much
wood and large flocks of sea and other fowl, are
also seen about the cliffs. Nine miles south of
Port Jackson.—Also an island about forty
miles with current on the coast of Papua or
New Guinea. -
LONG ISLAND Sound, a kind of inland sea,
from three to twenty-five miles broad, and about
140 long, extending the whole length of the
island, and dividing it from Connecticut. . It
communicates with the ocean at both ends.
LONGEv1TY. Immediately after the creation,
when the world was to be peopled by one man
and one woman, the ordinary age was 900 and
upwards. See ANTEDILUv1ANs. Immediately
after the flood, when there were three persons to
people the world, their age was shortened, and
none of those patriarchs, but Shem, arrived at
500. In the second century we find none that
reached 240: in the third none but Terah that
came to 200 years: the world, at least a part of
it, by that time being so well peopled, that they
had built cities, and were cantoned out into
distant nations. By degrees, as the number of
people increased, their longevity dwindled, till it
came down to seventy or eighty years; and
there it has continued to stand ever since the
time of Moses. -
That the common duration of man's life has
been the same in all ages, since the above period,
is plain both from sacred and profane history.
Yet instances of lives greatly exceeding that
period are not only to be found in the history
of all ages and countries, but even in our own
country and in the present age. Mr. Whitehurst,
in his Enquiry into the Origin and Strata of the
Earth, has given a list (since enlarged by Dr.
Fothergill) of thirty-two persons, who died
between 1635 and 1781, all of whom had lived
above a century, most of them considerably
longer, and one who was living in 1780 had
attained the astonishing age of 175 ! Lord
Bacon assures us, from the most incontestable
evidence, that in A. D. 76, when a general taxa-
tion was made over the Roman empire, by Ves-
pasian, there were found living in Italy, between
the Appennines and the Po, no fewer than 124
persons aged 100 and upwards. Of these fifty-
four were 100 years old, fifty-seven were 110,
two 125, four 130, four 136, and three 140 years
old each; besides nineteen others in Parma,
Placentia, Faventia, Rimino, &c., of whom six
were 110 years old, seven 120, one 125, two
130, one 131, one 132, and one 150. And, in
our own age and country, Sir John Sinclair's
Statistical Account affords numerous and au-
thentic evidences, that longevity is far from being
uncommon. In proof of this, we might, if room
permitted, give quotations from above 400 of the
938 parochial accounts in that work; but we
shall content ourselves with only one from that of
Crossmichael in Galloway:- “Within these
twenty years,’ says the Rev. J. Johnstone, “at
least twelve persons have died in the lower parts
of Galloway, from 100 to 115 years old. Wil-
liam Marshal, a tinker in this place, is now 118.
He might pass for sixty. His faculties are un-
impaired, and he walks through the country with
ease.’ From the various instances of longevity
given by Mr. Whitehurst and others, we shall
only select a few of the most remarkable.
LON 269 LON
Names. Ages. Places of birth or abode. Living or dead
abot it
Hippocrates 104 | Isle of Coos 358 A. A. C.
Democritus 109 || Abdera 361
Galen t 140 | Pergamus 271 A. D.
Marcus Aponius 150 | Rimino . e -
Titus Fullonius 150 | Bononia .
Mark Albuna 150 Ethiopia .
Lewis Cornaro 100 | Venice 1566
Thomas Parre 152 | Shropshire 1635
James Bowles 152 || Killingworth 1656
Henry Jenkins 169 | Yorkshire 1670
Robert Montgomery 126 Yorkshire 1670
James Sands * 140 | Staffordshire i
Countess of Desmond 140 Ireland
Countess of Eccleston 143 Ireland 1691
Margaret Scott 125 | Dalkeith .
R. Blakeney, esq. . 114 Armagh
Marquis of Winchester 106 || Hampshire
Katharine M'Kenzie 117 | Fowlis, Ross-shire
Colonel T. Winslow 146 | Ireland w & 1766
John Mount 136 Scotland . tº , \ 1766
Francis Consist 150 | Yorkshire 1768
Francis Bons . 121 | France 1769
C. J. Drakenberg - * 146 | Norway . - * 1770
Kenneth Munro of Inveran 100 || Kiltearn, Ross-shire. 1775
Margaret Patton , 138 | Lochwinnoch .
Mary Yates 128 || Shropshire 1776
A. Goldsmith 140 | France 1776
Countess of Loudoun 100 | Loudoun 1779
M. Laurence 140 | Orkney -
Janet Taylor - 108 || Fintray e º . 1780
Louisa Truxo, a negress . 175 Tucomea, South America . 1780
Jane Reeves 103 || Essex 4- 1781
Evan Williams 145 | Caermarthenshire 1782
John Wilson . 116 | Suffolk 1782
J. Brown, esq. 107 || Fowlis Ross-shire 1782
Alexander Ewart 104 | Dumfries-shire 1789
John Jacobs 121 || Mount Jura 1790
Helen Gray 105 || Fifeshire . 1791
Matthew Tait 123 || Ayrshire . 1792
Donald M'Leod 104 || Isle of Sky 1792
| Thomas Garrick 108 || Fifeshire . 1792
LONGFORD, an inland county in the pro-
vince of Leinster, and kingdom of Ireland,
bounded on the north by the counties of Lei-
trim and Cavan: on the south and east by West-
meath county: and on the west by Roscommon.
It extends about twenty-six miles in length, and
measures about twenty-four in breadth. Its su-
perficial contents are 134,152 acres, which are
subdivided into twenty-three parishes, and six
baronies, the latter called Longford, Granard, Ar-
dagh, Moydoe, Rathcline, and Abbeyshruel.
Longford is rather a level country, much inter-
mixed with bog, the northern angle alone being
occupied by hills, which are bleak and barren. In
the townland of Lisardowling is a small hill or
moat called the centre of Ireland.
The chief rivers are, the Shannon, which forms
its western boundary, the Inny, the Camiin, and
the Faller; the swellings of these, besides the in-
undations of Lough Gawnagh, lay great parts of
the country occasionally under water, and con-
siderably obstruct tillage. The articles of manu-
facture produced here are yarn, and good brown
linen; and the agricultural export consists
chiefly of oats. The chief towns are Longford,
Granard, Lawsborough, Johnstown, and Edge-
worthtown, near which is the residence of that
elegant and moral writer, Miss Edgeworth.
Longford formed part of the ancient district of
Annaly or Angalia, the country of the O'Ferrals,
who were dispossessed by the English settlers,
the Delamares, and Tuites. -
LoNGFord, the chief or assizes town of the
county of the same name in Ireland, is situated
on the river Camlin, in the barony of Longford,
at the distance of about seventy English miles
from the city of Dublin. It is a market, post,
and fair town, consisting of one principal street,
with a market-house, new gaol, court house, in-
firmary, diocesan school, permanent barrack, a
good inn, and brewery. The situation is flat,
exposed, marshy, and unhealthy; the only ele-
vated ground in the vicinity is the hill of Fenagh-
fadd, which rises to a height of about 200 feet
only. The trade of this little town, as well as the
salubrity of its climate, would derive material
*
270
L O N G IT U D E.
benefit, by a branch from hence to the canal at
Killashee, only four miles distant. The family
of Pakenham derive the title of earls from this
place.
LoNGING is a preternatural appetite in preg-
nant women, and in some sick persons when
about to recover. It is called pica, from the
bird of that name, which is said to be subject to
the same disorder. It consists of a desire of un-
usual things to eat and drink, and in being soon
tired of one and wanting another. It is called
malacia, from Haxakoç, weakness. Chlorotic girls,
and men who labor under suppressed hemor-
rhoids, are very subject. to this complaint, and
are relieved by promoting the respective evacua-
tions. In general, whether this disorder is ob-
served in pregnant women, in persons recovering
from an acute fever, or in those who labor under
obstructions of the natural evacuations, this
craving of the appetite should be moderately in-
dulged. º
LONGINUS (Dionysius), a celebrated Greek
critic of the third century, by some said to have
been born in Athens, by others in Syria. His
father's name is unknown, but by his mother he
was allied to the celebrated Plutarch. His youth
was spent in travelling with his parents, which
afforded him an opportunity of collecting know-
ledge, and of improving his taste. After his
travels, he fixed his residence at Athens, and
with the greatest assiduity applied to study.
Here he published his Treatise on the Sublime;
which raised his reputation to such a height, and
gave the Athenians such an opinion of his judg-
ment and taste, that every work was received or
rejected by the public, according to his decisions
He seems to have staid in Athens a long time;
here he taught the academic philosophy, and
among others had the famous Porphyry for his
pupil. But it was at length his fortune to be
drawn from Athens, and to mix in more active
scenes; to train up young princes to virtue and
glory; to guide the busy passions of the great
to noble objects; and at last to die in the cause
of liberty. Zenobia, queen of the east, pre-
vailed on him to take the education of her sons;
and he soon gained a great share in her esteem.
That princess was at war with Aurelian: and
being defeated by him near Antioch, was com-
pelled to shut hersalf up in Palmyra, her capital
city. The emperor wrote her a letter, in which
he ordered her to surrender; to which she re-
turned an answer, drawn up by Longinus, which
filled him with resentment. The emperor laid
siege to the city; and the Palmyrians were at
length obliged to surrender. The queen and
Longinus endeavoured to fly into Persia; but
were overtaken and made prisoners when on the
point of crossing the Euphrates. The queen,
intimidated, weakly laid the blame of vindica-
ting the liberty of her country on its true author;
and the brave Longinus, to the disgrace of the
conqueror, was immediately executed. The wri-
tings of Longinus were numerous, some on philo-
sophical, but the greater part on critical subjects.
Dr. Pearce has collected the titles of twenty-five
treatises, none of which have escaped the depre-
dations of time and barbarians. The best edition
of his works is that of Tollius, printed at Utrecht,
in 1694, cum notis variorum. It has been trans-
lated into English by Mr. Smith.
L O N G. I. T. U D E.
LON’GITUDE, n. s. 2 Fr. longitude ; Lat.
LoNGITU'DINAL, adj. $ longitudo. Length; the
greatest dimension; the earth's circumference
measured from a given meridian; the distance
of any part of the earth east or west of any other
given place. - -
To conclude;
Of longitudes, what other way have we,
But to mark when and where the dark eclipses be?
- Donne.
The ancients did determine the longitude of all
rooms, which were longer than broad, by the double
of their latitude. t Wotton.
Some of Magellanus's company were the first that
did compass the world through all the degrees of lon-
gitude. Abbot.
The longitude of a star is its distance from the first
point of numeration towards the east, which first
point, unto the ancients, was the vernal equinox.
Browne's Vulgar Errours.
His was the method of discovering the longitude
by bomb-vessels.
r Arbuthnot and Pope's Martin Scriblerius.
The variety of the alphabet was in mere longitude
only, but the thousand parts of our bodies may be
diversified by situation in all the dimensions of solid
bodies; which multiplies all over and over again,
and overwhelms the fancy in a new abyss of unfa-
thomable number. Bentley.
Longitudinal is opposed to transverse; these vesi-
cula are distended, and their longitudinal diameters
straightened, and so the length of the whole muscle
shortened. Cheyne.
LoNGITUDE, in geography and navigation, is
the angle at the pole, included between the me-
ridian of any place, and the first meridian ; and
it is generally measured on the equator; though,
considered in itself, it may with equal propriety
be measured on any parallel of latitude; but,
when difference of latitude and difference of lon-
gitude are to be composed, it is éxpedient that
they should be estimated on circles of equal radii,
therefore in navigation longitude is measured on
the equator. -
The method of finding the longitude is a pro-
blem of such importance and such difficulty,
and has occupied so large a space in the applica-
tion of science to the business of practical life,
that an account of the circumstances which have
contributed to bring its solution to the state in
which we now have it, cannot fail to be in a high
degree interesting. We shall therefore give a
brief sketch of the various methods which have
been proposed for discovering it, the principles
on which they depend, with directions for putting
in practice such of them as have been found
useful, and illustrate the whole with appropriat
examples. -
L O N G i T U D E.
271
HISTORY OF THE ATTEMPTS which HAVE BEEN
MADE TO DIscover THE LONGITUDE AT SEA.
No sooner had navigators ventured out of sight
of land, than the importance of some method of
finding the longitude as well as the latitude by
observation began to be felt. In 1598 Philip
III. of Spain offered a reward of 1000 crowns
to any one who could give a solution adequate to
the wants of seamen; and soon after the states
general offered a reward of 10,000 florins. The
British parliament passed an act in 1714, empow-
ering certain commissioners to make such expe-
riments as they might deem necessary to facili-
tate the solution of this problem, and assigned
£2000 to defray any expenses that might attend
the experiments: and further granting a reward
to the person who might make any progress
in the solution, proportionable to the degree of
accuracy which might arise by the solution in
practice; £10,000, £15,000, and £20,000, being
the rewards offered, if the proposed solution
should be capable of determining the longitude
to a degree of a great circle, two-thirds of a de-
gree, or half a degree respectively.
The improvements in nautical science which
the preceding munificent rewards induced phi-
losophers, mathematicians, and artists, to labor
at accomplishing, having ultimately been so far
successful, that the highest reward was adjudged
to one individual; it was represented to parlia-
ment, in 1818, that the longitude could now by
at least two separate methods be found at sea
within the limits which had been previously spe-
cified, a new act was passed empowering the
commissioners for the discovery of the longitude
to propose from time to time to his majesty in
council, to establish three scales of proportionate
rewards to be paid to any one who shall by any
principle not yet made public, ascertain the longi-
tude within three new corresponding scales of limit
and condition, those rewards not respectively ex-
ceeding £5000, £7500, and £10,000; and giving
also to the board of longitude very liberal
powers to reward any discovery tending to benefit
navigation; and finally permitting the board to
recompense any person who may propose or con-
trive anything ingenious in itself and useful in
science, and which may deserve encouragement,
even though the results which it furnishes may
not come within the limits of that exactness to
which his majesty may berecommended, to adhere
in adjudging the preceding rewards.
Encouraged by such offers, the talent which
has been employed on this problem is not to be
wondered at. In 1635 John Morin, professor of
mathematics at Paris, , proposed a method of
sólving it to cardinal Rićhelieu; and though, from
the then imperfect state of the lunar tables, the
commissioners employed to examine this method.
judged it insufficient, Cardinal Mazarin in
1645 procured a pension of 2000 livres for the
author.
The many attempts that have been made at the
solution of this problem may all be said to de-
pend on the same principle, the determining the
difference of time between two meridians; for this
time is the same part of twenty-four hours, that
the angle included between those meridians is of
four right angles. Hence one hour of difference
in time corresponds to a difference of 15° of ion-
gitude. . -
The time at the place of observation can gene-
rally be obtained with great ease and exactness,
so that the chief difficulty in the solution of this
problem lies in finding the time at the first me-
ridian. -
Gemma Frisius in 1530 seems first to have
suggested the method of finding the longitude
at sea by means of watches or time keepers,
which machines he says were then but lately in-
vented.
Such a machine being regulated, to Greenwich
time, for example, would always show the time of
day at Greenwich wherever it might be carried to,
and the difference between this time and that
at the place found by observation would give, as
we have shown above, the longitude of the place
from Greenwich. -
The same method was soon after attempted by
Metius, and some others, but the art of watch-
making was at that time too imperfect to enable
them to succeed. Dr. Hook and Mr. Huygens,
about the year 1664, applied the pendulum
spring to watches which were employed for the
purpose of discovering the longitude at sea. Dr.
Hooke's indeed, from his having quarrelled with
the ministry, were never put on trial at sea, but
many experiments were made with those con-
structed by Huygens. Major Holmes in particular,
in a voyage from the coast of Guinea in 1665,
predicted, by the aid of one of these watches, the
longitude of the island of Fuego to a conside-
rable degree of accuracy. Experience however
soon convinced Huygens that unless some method
could be found of correcting the irregularities
caused in the going of these watches by the
effects of heat and cold, they could be but of
little practical use in finding the longitude.
A method of finding the longitude was pro-
posed by Whiston and Ditton, which, though
perfectly useless for determining the longitude at
sea, has been successfully practised for finding it
on land. In the improved method of putting it
in practice, rockets are fired perpendicularly at
some intermediate place between those whose
difference of longitude it is proposed to deter-
mine, and the time at each place, when the rocket
is seen to explode in the air, being noted, the dif-
ference of those times gives the element required.
The relative situations with respect to longitude,
of some of the observatories on the continent,
have been determined by this method, and very
recently a series of experiments of this kind have
been successfully concluded for determining the
difference of longitude between the observatories
of Greenwich and Paris. -
In 1714 Henry Sully, an Englishman, print-
ed a small tract at Vienna, upon the subject of
watch-making. Having afterwards removed to
Paris, he applied himself to the improvement of
time-keepers for the discovery of the longitude.
He taught the famous Julian de Roy; and this
gentleman, with his son, and M. Berthoud, are
the only persons, who, since the days of Sully,
have turned their thoughts this way. But, though
experiments were made at sea with some of their
watches, they were not able to accomplish any
thing of importance with regard to the principal
point. -
*
272
L O N G IT U D E.
The first who succeeded in any considerable
degree was Mr. John Harrison; who, in 1726
produced a watch which went so exactly, that
for ten years together it did not err above one-
second in a month. In 1736 it was tried in a
voyage to Lisbon and back again, on board one
of his majesty's ships; during which it corrected
an error of a degree and a half in the computa-
tion of the ship's reckoning. In consequence of
this he received public encouragement to go on;
and, by the year 1761, had finished three time-
keepers, each of them more accurate than the
former. See HARRIson. -
The last turned out so much to his satisfaction
that he now applied to the commissioners of
longitude for leave to make an experiment with
his watch in a voyage to the West Indies. Per-
mission being granted his son Mr. William Har-
rison to set out in his majesty's ship the Dept-
ford for Jamaica in the month of November 1761,
this trial was attended with all imaginable suc-
cess. The longitude of the island, as determined
by the time-keeper, differed from that found by
astronomical observations only one minute and
a quarter of the equator; the longitude of places
seen by the way being also determined with
great exactness. On the ship's return to Eng-
land, it was found to have erred no more during
the whole voyage than 1’ 54}” in time, little more
than twenty-eight miles in distance; which be-
ing within the limits prescribed by the act, the
inventor claimed the £20,000 offered by govern-
ment. Objections, however, were started.
Doubts were pretended about the real longitude
of Jamaica, as well as the manner in which the
time had been found both there and at Ports-
mouth. It was alleged also that although the
time-keeper happened to be right at Jamaica,
and after its return to England, this was by no
means a proof that it had always been so in the
intermediate times; in consequence of which
allegations another trial was appointed in a voy-
age to Barbadoes. -
Precautions were now taken to obviate as many
of these objections as possible. The commis-
sioners sent out proper persons to make astrono-
mical observations at that island; which, when
compared with others in England, would ascer-
tain beyond a doubt its true situation. In 1764,
then, Mr. Harrison junior set sail for Barbadoes;
and the result of the experiment was, that the
difference of longitude betwixt Portsmouth and
Barbadoes, was shown by the time-keeper to
be 3h. 55m.3s; and by astronomical observations
to be 3h. 54m. 20s; the error being now only 43"
of time, or 10'45" of longitude. In consequence
of this and the former trials Mr. Harrison receiv-
ed one-half of the reward promised, upon making
a discovery of the principles upon which his
time-keepers were constructed. He was likewise
promised the other half of the reward as soon as
time-keepers should be constructed by other ar-
tists, which should answer the purpose as well as
those of Mr. Harrison himself. At this time he
delivered up all his time keepers, the last of
which was sent to Greenwich to be tried by Mr.
Nevil Maskelyne the astronomer royal. On
trial, however, it was found to go with much less
regularity than had been expected; but Mr.
Harrison attributed this to his having made some
experiments with it which he had not time to
finish when he was ordered to deliver up the
watch. Soon after this an agreement was made
by the commissioners with Mr. Kendall to con-
struct a watch upon Mr. Harrison's principles;
and this upon trial was found to answer the pur-
pose even better than any that Harrison himself
had constructed. This watch was sent out with
captain Cook in 1772; and during all the time
of his voyage round the world in 1772, 1773,
1774, and 1775, never erred quite 14}" per day:
in consequence of which the house of commons,
in 1774, ordered the other £10,000 to be paid to
Mr. Harrison, Mr. Harrison had also at differ-
ent times received other sums of money as en-
couragement to continue his endeavours, from
the Board of Longitude, the East India Company,
and from many private individuals, Mr. Arnold,
Mr. Mudye, Mr. Ernshaw, and many others have
since made many good watches for the same pur-
pose. In 1821 government directed the astro-
nomer royal to receive on trial whatever chro-
nometers might be sent to him for that purpose,
and agreed to purchase at a liberal price, every
year the three best, provided their going was
within certain assigned limits of exactness. In
consequence there are always now at the obser-
vatory a great number of chronometers sent by
the makers on trial, many of which perform
most admirably; and indeed it may be said that
the great price of chronometers is now the only
obstacle to their introduction into general use.
Several astronomical methods have been pro-
posed for finding the time at the first meridian;
and any celestial phenomenon, whose times of
happening can be predicted, may theoretically
be made subservient to that purpose. But, in
actual practice, the phenomenon must be such
as can without extraordinary difficulty be observ-
ed with sufficient nicety; and those depending
on the motions of the moon, and,the rotation of
the satellites of Jupiter round their primary, have
been found to be the only ones of any practical
value. 4
The principle on which all astronomical me-
thods of finding the longitude rest is, that the
difference between the time of day at meridian,
and the time of day at the place of observation,
is the longitude of the meridian of that place in
time. Now apparent time signifies, or is mea-
sured by the angle at the pole included between
the meridian of any place and the meridian on
which the sun is at that instant. Mean time is
the angle included between the meridian of the
place, and the meridian on which the mean place
of the sun might at the instant be conceived to
be. Siderial time is the angle included between the
meridian of any place, and the meridian on which
the first point of Aries is at the instant. -
Let A in the annexed figure represent the first
point of Aries; S and S', the true and mean
places of the sun ; G Greenwich, and B, C, any
other two places, P being the pole. Then GPA,
GPS, and GPS, are respectively the siderial,
apparent, and mean time at Greenwich; BPA,
BPS, and BPS', the siderial, apparent, and
mean time at B; CPA, CPS, and CPS',
the siderial, apparent and mean time at C.
Now GPA— B PA, or GPS–BPS, or
GPS'—BPS,- BP G the longitude of B, or
L O N G I T U D E.
273
of any place on the meridian PB, westery. And
C PA-GPA, or CPS–GPS, or CPS'—
GPS,-G PC, the longitude of C, or of any
place on the meridian PC, and easterly. Hence
it appears that the difference between the siderial
time at the first meridian and the siderial time at
any other meridian is the longitude of that me-
ridian ; and that the difference between the
mean times, or between the apparent times at the
first meridian and that of any other place is the
longitude of that other meridian; easterly when
the time at the first meridian is behind, and
westerly when before the time at the meridian
whose longitude it is proposed to find.
If eclipses of the moon happened more fre-
quently they would afford one of the easiest
methods of finding the longitude that can be con-
ceived. For the time at the place of observation
being noted when the eclipse begins or ends,
and compared with the Greenwich time of the
corresponding phenomenon as given in the Nau-
tical Almanac, the difference of the times gives
the required longitude. It must, however, be
observed on this method, that the beginning or
end of a lunar eclipse can seldom be determined
by observation, to nearer than two or three mi-
nutes of time, owing to the gradual shading off
of the shadow ; and therefore in any single ob-
servation the longitude cannot be depended on to
nearer than half or three-quarters of a degree.
The eclipses of Jupiter's satellites have been
of great use in settling within reasonable limits
of exactness the longitudes of places on land; but
at sea it has been found impracticable to manage
telescopes of sufficient power to note the times
at which the eclipses happen. Mr. Irvin
invented what he called a marine chair, in which
he conceived that even on ship-board a telescope
adequate to making such observations might be
used, with success; but Dr. Maskelyne, who
tried it in a voyage to Barbadoes, found that he
could derive no benefit from the use of it.
The first and second satellites of Jupiter, as they
eirculate most rapidly round their primary, are
best adapted to the purpose of finding the longi-
tude, but the tables even of their motions are not
sufficiently accurate to satisfy the wants of the
present state of science. From the observations
of the late colonel Beaufoy it appears that the
predicted and actual times of an eclipse of the
first satellite sometimes differ more than two
minutes, though they generally differ less than
twenty seconds of time; and with respect to
the second satellite the difference in some cases
Vol. XIII.
•
has been found to amount to nearly three mi-
nutes. The method of finding the longitude,
from the eclipses of Jupiter's satellites, may there-
fore be characterised as one which, though easy
of application, cannot be depended on as afford-
ing results of any very great degree of exactness.
Of course the utility of the method will be in-
creased by every improvement in the tables of
the motions of the satellites, and every advance
that is made in perfecting the construction of
telescopes. -
The time of the moon's transit over the meri-
dian has also been made subservient to finding
the longitude of that meridian. It appears to
have been first mentioned by Purchas in his ac-
count of Hall's discovery of Greenland; and
soon after (in 1635) it was clearly explained in
Carpenter's Geography. It is mentioned by Dr.
Maskelyne, in his instructions relative to the
transit of Venus in 1769; by Bernoulli, and
by the abbe Toaldo, in a pamphlet published in
1784; and lastly by Mr. Pigott, who, without
knowing that the method had been thought of
before, recommended it very strongly to the
public, in a paper published in the Philosophical
Transactions. -
On land, the time of the moon's transit may
be determined with great precision with the aid
of a transit instrument fixed in the plane of the
meridian, and this method is always practised in
regular observations. It may also be deter-
mined with tolerable accuracy by observing
equal altitudes of the moon with a sextant and
an artificial horizon, making allowance in the
time of the transit, deduced from equal alti-
tudes, for the change of declination in the in-
terval between the observations. *
Bclipses of the sun, and the analogous phe-
nomena of occultations of stars by the moon,
have also been applied to the finding the time at
the first meridian. Mr. F. Baily, in a recent
volume of the Memoirs of the Astronomical
Society of London, has brought forward, in a
new and greatly improved form, the method of
finding the longitude from the moon's meridian
transit. We merely notice it here as con-
nected with one department of the history of
this important problem; and shall recur to it
again in a subsequent part of this article.
We have purposely omitted till now, in this
historical sketch, to refer to by far the most in-
genious and useful method that has ever been
proposed for solving this important problem,
the method of deducing the longitude from the
moon's observed distance from the sun or a star,
with the altitudes of both objects. This is com-
monly called a lunar observation, and from the
improvements that have been made in the lunar
tables, and in instruments for observing the dis-
tance and altitudes, it has been brought to a de-
gree of perfection which fifty years ago could
not have been anticipated.
The method consists simply in deducing
from the altitudes of the objects, and their dis-
tance, with their parrallaxes, and the refractions
corresponding to their altitudes, what their dis-
tance would have been if the observer had been
at the centre of the earth; and this distance,
compared with those computed and given for

274
L O N G I T U D E.
Greenwich time in the Nautical Almanac, enables
the computer to find the instant at Greenwich
when his observation was made; and this time,
compared with the time at the place at which he
is, gives the required longitude.
John Werner, of Nuremberg, appears to have
been the first who proposed this method of find-
ing the longitude in his annotations on the first
book of Ptolemy's Geography, printed in 1514.
It was recommended by Oronce Fine of Brian-
gon, and again by Gemma Frisius in 1545; and
the celebrated Kepler was fully persuaded of its
utility. Almost every writer on astronomy down
to the time of Flamsteed adverted to it; but
even in his day, setting aside the imperfections
of the instruments of observation, such was the
state of the lunar tables, that he says, “we find
the best tables extant erring sometimes twelve
minutes or more from the moon's apparent place,
which would cause a fault of half an hour, or
7° 30' in the longitude, deduced by comparing
her place in the heavens with that given by the
tables.’ This method, therefore, though it ap-
peared to be the only one likely to be applied
successfully at sea, was at that time abandoned
as impracticable.
But, when Dr. Maskelyne succeeded to the
situation of astronomer royal in 1765, such
advances had been made in astronomical science,
that under his auspices this method of finding
the longitude was again brought forward, and
after devoting a great portion of his long and
valuable life to bring the method to perfection,
and to introduce it into practice at sea, he had
the satisfaction of seeing his meritorious exer-
tions crowned with almost complete success.
One of the great obstacles to its introduction
into general practice was the difficulty in making
the necessary calculations from the tables and
formulae which the labors of astronomers had
supplied; but this formidable objection was
completely obviated by the publication of the
Nautical Almanac, which, on Dr. Maskelyne's
suggestion, was undertaken by the board of
longitude in 1766, and it has ever since been
continued annually, and is generally published
three or four years in advance for the conve-
nience of mariners going on long voyages.
Similar publications have since been brought
out in several countries in Europe, under the
patronage of their respective governments. The
French Connaisance de Tems, the Jar Book of
Vienna, and the Coimbra Ephemeris, are all
similar, and valuable compendiums; and two
separate and large editions of the English Nau-
tical Almanac are annually published in Ame-
T1Cal.
But before mariners in general could be ma-
terially benefited, by all these efforts for their
advantage, it was requisite that they should be
furnished with such instruments for observing
as they could use with readiness, and depend
upon with confidence; and with simple as well
as appropriate rules for making the necessary com-
putations after their observations were completed.
The artists of this country answered well to
the call which this consideration made upon
their talents, and devised such improvements in
the construction and graduation of quadrants,
sextants, and circles, for nautical observations,
that little appears left to be desired on the sub-
ject; and, in all the useful problems of nautical
astronomy, the methods of calculation have been
so simplified that it is not easy to conceive for
what situation, connected with the navigation of
a ship, the person is fitted who is incapable of
applying them.
PRACTICAL DIRECTIONS For FINDING THE
LONGITUDE.
1. By a chronometer.—The error of the chro-
nometer must be found for some known meri-
dian, and its rate or its daily gain, or loss. Call
this error e, the rate r, and the number of days
from the time that the chronometer had the
error e, till it is used for finding the longitude, d,
and call the longitude of the place for which the
error e was found, l; then the true mean time
T at the meridian of Greenwich may be found
from t, the time shown by the chronometer, by
the following formula: T = t + e + d r + ,
e being negative when the watch is fast, r nega-
tive when the watch is gaining, and l negative
in east longitude. And this time, being com-
pared with the mean time at the place as de-
duced from observation, will give the longitude
of the place; west, if the Greenwich time is be-
fore, but east if the Greenwich time is behind
the time at the place of observation.
Example. If at sea, on October 11th, I find
by observation that the mean time is 4h. 2m. 4Cs.
when a chronometer (which on September 14th
was 30m. 2s. fast for mean time at Constanti-
nople, and gaining 4s. per day) showed 7h. 2m.
12s., required the longitude here d = 27, r =
— 4s., e = — 30m. 2s., and l = 12° 35', E = —
50m. 20s. Hence T = 7h. 2m. 12s. – 30m. 2s.
— im. 40s. – 50m.12s. = 6h. 40m. 18s; and
6h. 40m. 18s. – 4h. 2m. 40s. = 2h. 37m. 38s. =:
39°24' 30", the required longitude west. w
2. By the eclipses of Jupiter's satellites.—Let
the Greenwich time of the expected immersion
or emersion be looked for in the Nautical Al-
manac, and subtract the supposed longitude of
the place of observation from this time, if west,
but add it if east, and the result will give the
time about which the phenomenon expected
ought to be looked for. Let the observer then
be settled to his telescope a few minutes before
this time, and wait attentively for the instant in
which the satellite either enters the shadow, or
emerges from it; note the precise instant in
mean time at the place when the immersion or
emersion is observed; and the difference be-
tween that time, and the Greenwich time of the
observation as given in the Almanac, will be the
longitude of the place of observation in time.
Or if at any time afterwards the time at
which the eclipse was observed at Greenwich
should happen to be known, the difference be-
tween that time and the time of the place of ob-
servation will give the longitude more exactly
than it can be expected to be obtained from a
comparison with the computed times in the
Nautical Almanac. The eclipses, which in
favorable weather may be observed at Green-
wich, are marked in the Nautical Almanac with
an asterisk.
L O N G I T U D E.
Erample.—On April 11th I observed by the
Nauticai Almanac, that the first satellite of Jupiter
would emerge from his shadow at 11h. 28m. 45.
Greenwich mean time; I conceived my longi-
tude to be about 9° west, and therefore at about
1Oh. 45m. Isat down to the telescope, and waited
till 10h. 53m. 1s., when I saw the satellite emerge,
I therefore concluded that my longitude was
11h. 28m.4s. – 10h. 53m. 1s. = 35h 38. = 8°
4534 west.
3. By the moon's transit over the meridian-
If the meridian of a given place, say that of
Greenwich, produced to the heavens, were to pass
through the sun, the moon, and a fixed star, in
the next instant the sun by its motion in right
ascension will separate itself from the star, and
the moon by her greater motion in right ascen-
sion will separate herself still further from the
star; or, in other words, at any time after these
objects were on themeridian, the star will be the
most west of the meridian, the moon least, and
the sun in an intermediate position.
The meridian after quitting these bodies will
again pass through the star after describing 360°
in 23h. 56m. 4.09s., through the sun, after descri-
bing 360° 59'8'3", in 24h., and through the moon
in an interval greater than 24h., depending on
the daily increase of the moon's right ascension.
A spectator on a different meridian would note
similar effects; but less in degree as his distance
from the first meridian is less. He will note an
increase of the sun's right ascension or a sepa-
ration of the sun from the fixed star, but less
than 59m, 8-3s., an increase in the moon's right
ascension, but less than its increase between two
successive transits; and consequently an excess
of the increase of the moon's right ascension
above that of the sun's, but less than the excess
in the interval between two successive transits
of the moon over the first meridian.
Hence, if the increase of the sun or moon's
right ascension were known in the interval be-
tween two successive transits (and from the
Nautical Almanac they can readily be obtained),
an observer who could by actual observation
determine their right ascensions at the time at
which they passed his meridian, might by simple
proportion find his longitude, either by com-
paring the sun and star, the moon and star, or
the moon and sun. But, on account of the slow
motion of the sun, the first of these methods is of
no use in practice; we shall therefore consider
only the two latter. #
Let A, a, be the respéctive increases of the
right ascensions of the sun and moon in 24h. :
then the interval between two successive transits
of the moon over any given meridian is 24h.
A — a A — a v2 aA — a v3
{1 + 24 + ( 24 ) + 24 ) &c.,
and the retardation in 24h. is A — a +
(A — a)* , (A – g)”
24 + 24?
of A due to her retardation is #(A-9) +
(A — a)' , (A – d.)”
==H + -ā-
+ &c., and the increase
242 &c., and consequently E,
the increase of her right ascension between two
; A – a
successive transits, is A + A.; 24
A — a N*. Z.A — a
( 24 ) + ( +*) +&c.;
Hence, if e be the observed increase of the
moon's right ascension between her passing the
first meridian and that of the place of observa-
tion, then the longitude of that place is 24 e -- A.
A — a /A — a \? /A–avs
{1 + 24 +( 24 )"# (*= )'s...}
In the case of the sun F.' E A — a +
(A — a)* . (A — a)*
24 T T242
representing the star's acceleration proportional
to the time corresponding to the difference of
+
&c.; and e' = e – s, s
meridians. Herº the loºd E 24 A62 — 8
tº- — as * —as *
+AFa $1+ sit- (*#)-(**)
&c. :
The moon's right ascension is given in the
Nautical Almanac for every 12h.; we may there-
A — a
fore employ , the difference of the increases
of right ascension in 12h., instead of A — a, the
difference for 24h., using accordingly in the for-
mulae 12h. instead of 24h.
Though the above divisors in the formulae for
the longitude are infinite series, it will be suffi-
ciently accurate in practice to take the sum of
three of their terms.
Example.—If, on April 8th 1800, the right
ascension be observed when on the meridian of
Greenwich to be 12h. 36m. 26.6s., and on a me-
ridian to the west of Greenwich 12h. 47m. 56-7s.
required the longitude of that meridian.
Here 12h. 36m. 26.6s. V 12h. 47m. 56-7s. -
11m. 30.1s. E e, and by the Nautical Almanac
we have A = 52m. 6s., and a = 3m. 39'3s.,
whence A – a – 48m. 26.7s. ; and time of
moon's describing A — a = 50m. 7-8s, for
which time the proportional increase of 52m. 6s.
is 1m. 48.8s. ; hence E = 52m. 6s. -- 17m. 48.8s.
= 53m. 54.8s. ; and consequently 53m. 54.8s. :
11m. 30.1s. :: 24h. : 5 - 1200h. = 5h. 7m. 12:25s.,
the required longitude in time.
Mr. Francis Baily, a gentleman who stands at
the head of astronomical science in this country,
has, in part H. vol. 2 of the Memoirs of the As-
tronomical Society of London, greatly improved
the method of finding the longitude, by the
method now under consideration. This method
consists in observing with a transit instrument
the difference of right ascension between the
border of the moon and certain fixed stars pre-
viously agreed upon; restricting the observations
to such stars as differ very little from the moon
in declination. “It is evident,’ he observes,
‘ that this method is quite independent of the
errors of the lunar tables, except as far as the
horary motion of the moon in right ascension is
concerned, and which in the present case may be
depended on with sufficient confidence: that it
does not involve any question respecting the
compression of the earth: that a knowledge of
the correct position of the star is not at all
T 2
276 [.. O N G I T U D E.
required; and finally that an error, even of seve-
ral seconds, in the state of the clock, is of no
consequence. Consequently a vast mass of un-
satisfactory computation is avoided.”
Since the publication of Mr. Baily's memoir,
lists of stars proper to observe with the moon for
this purpose have been published in Schu-
macher's Astronomia Nachrichten, and Mr. Baily
himself has also published some in this country,
the last of which was for the first six months of
1823. These stars have been called moon cul-
minating stars, and several distinguished astro-
nomers have determined the longitude of their
observatories by means of them; and lieutenant
Forster, the astronomer employed by govern-
ment in captain Parry's second voyage, applied
the method successfully in determining the longi-
tude of Port Bowen.
Let the difference between the time of the
transit of the moon's limb and of the fixed star
previously agreed on, at the observatory situated
most westerly, be denoted by t, and at the obser-
vatory situated most easterly by r. These values
will be positive when the transit of the star pre-
cedes that of the moon; otherwise they will be
negative. Then t — r will denote the increase
in the right ascension of the moon's limb, in the
interval between the observations. s
Let us denote, for the apparent time of the
moon's culmination at the western observatory,
her true radius as seen from the earth by r ;
her true declination by d, and let those quan-
tities at the time of her culmination at the east-
ern observatory be respectively denoted by p and
{ 1 / r 9 \ —
3. Then (t — r) =E T5 (:: d cos. i) = A
will be the true difference of right ascension of
the moon's centre for the two instants of obser-
vation; the upper sign being used when the
western border of the moon is observed ; and the
lower sign when the eastern border is observed.
But when the difference of meridians is not
great we may use the formula in the simple form
t—ºr = A. The semi-diameter and declination
S
= (#55 i.
of the moon above alluded to are such as they are
supposed to be if seen from the centre of the earth.
In all cases the longitude required may be
supposed to be approximately known ; to say
within a minute of time. Call this approximate
longitude l, and the true longitude A. Let the
apparent time (at the meridian for which the
ephemeris employed is computed) of the culmi-
nation at the western observatory be denoted by
c, and the moon's true, right ascension at that
time by a ; and let the corresponding time and
right ascension at the culmination observed at the
eastern observatory be denoted respectively by x
and a ; then a – a c — X :: A : the angle in
time described by the western meridian in the
interval of the observations; that is equal to the
difference of longitude added to A. Whence
; ºsmºs 3. &== 1) A ; or expressing
a – w in time instead of one, we have X =
(15 tº *— 1) A. Or to reduce the time
(º, s- º' -
c — ar, which is apparent, into siderial time, let
we have A = (
C —
# represent the value of a solar day in siderial
. c – a
(I - ſº
time, and then A =(xii. • 15 — 1) A
. c – a
–1) A; or resuming the
value of A we have finally A =
1
[F4-#(#1–sº)] ×
s c – a
5760 a - 4:
be remarked that when more stars than one have
been observed on any given might, t – T must
be taken equal to the mean of áll the compari-
sons made at the same culmination of the moon.
Example.—M. Nicolai at Manheim, and M.
Strucer at Dorpat, observed the culmination of
the first border of the moon on the 3d of March,
1822; the observations are as under :-
— 1]. on which formula it may
Stars. Manheim. Dorpat. T)iff.
t =
T = £ — tº C
1822. 309 Mayer, -i- 13m. 18.30s. -- 10m. 17°56s. 3m. 0.71s.
March 3d, 82 Gemin, + 8
9-43 : + 5 8.25 3 0-88
p! Cancri, - 9 41-11 – 12 41-89 3 0.78
As the times of the moon's culmination are
not here given, we must deduce them from an
ephemeris. In the Con. des Tems we find that
the moon passed the meridian of Paris on that day
at 8h. 51m. Consequently the Paris time of her
culmination at Manheim, (in longitude by esti-
mation Oh. 24m. 31s, east from Paris), and at
Dorpat (in longitude by estimation 1h. 37m. 28s.
east from Paris) will respectively to the nearest
minute of time be: . .
Manheim. Dorpat. Diff.
1822 C - £ L. C – º –
March 3d, 8h. 26m. 7h. — 10m. 1h. -- 16m.
The true semidiameter and declination of the
moon at Manheim and Dorpat, at the above
hours, Paris time, will be :
Mean – 3 O'80 - 180-8s.
Dorpat.
p = 15m. 44-8s.
3 = 24° 2' 18"
Manheim.
y = 15m 44-4s.
d - 23° 51° 42”
lv-1 (— * \ ––
And consequent yT5 \cos, d → ;) sº
O-123s. whence A = + 1808s. – 0-123s. F
180°677.
To find the values of a and a we must Com-
pute by means of second differences the true
right ascension of the moon, for the apparent
times denoted by c and a ; and the difference
between them will be the true motion of the
moon in the interval cº-ºr. The following are
the values deduced from the Con. des Tems:—
L O N G I T U D E.
277
a = 116° 49' 24'4”
* - 116 4 7°6
c. — r = 1 16 a — a = 45, 16-8
The length of a solar day, or the value of s
was 86623.4s. ; hence we have,
86623-4
X = 180 67. ( 5750 × 4 creas 1) E 1h.
12m, 59:45s, the difference of longitude between
Manheim and Dorpat.
By occultations.—The observations requisite
in this method are of the simplest possible cha-
racter, and, through the skill of modern astro-
nomers, the computations have been greatly
simplified. All that is requisite in making the
observation is an ordinary telescope, with a
watch, or chronometer, and an instrument to
find its error for time at the place of obser-
vation. Mr. Galbraith of Edinburgh, in his truly
valuable Mathematical and Astronomical Tables,
has given the following rules for making the com-
putations, being, with a few alterations, the same
as those given by Dr. Inman in his Navigation.
From the time at the place of observation, and
the estimated longitude, find the estimated
Greenwich time; and for that time taken from the
Nautical Almanac, the true right ascension of
the sun and moon, the moon's true declination,
with its change for 10s., for the purpose of re-
peating the observations if necessary; and the
moon's semi-diameter, as well as her horizontal
parallax, corrected for the figure of the earth.
Take also the moon's true right ascension for 3h.
after the first estimated time; and take from the
Nautical Almanac, or other tables, the apparent
right ascension and declination of the star, and
correct the latitude for the figure of the earth,
and find in the usual way the star's meridian
distance, which is equal, apparent time + sun's
R. A. — sk's R. A.
Make four columns and number them (1) (2)
(3) (4), and under each write the proportional
logarithm of the reduced horizontal parallax.
Under (1) and (2) put the secant of the reduced
latitude; under (3) the cosecant of the same;
under (1) the cosecant of the star's meridian
distance (a), and take the sum of the numbers
now under (1). Below that sum put the con-
stant logarithm 1:17609 and the cosine of the
star's declination; at the same time put under
(2) the cosecant, and under (8) the secant of the
same; the sum of the three logarithms under
(1) will be the proportional logarithm of one
first, or the parallax in R. A. in time nearly, one
half of which (b) is to be subtracted from (a)
giving (a-b) the corrected hour angle.
Under (2) put the secant of the hour angle
thus correeted. The sum of the logarithms
under (3) will be the proportional logarithm of
the first part of the parallax in declination, and
that under (2) the second part. The first part
must be applied with such a sign as to diminish
the star's distance from the elevated pole: the
second must be applied with the same sign as
the first when the hour angle and polar distance
are of different affections, otherwise with a con-
trary sign; and the result will be the true decli-
nation of the observed point of the moon's
c = 8h, 26m.
a F 7 10
limbs. Take the difference between this true
declination of the observed point and the decli-
nation of the moon's centre, found from the
Nautical Almanac; under which put the moon's
semi-diameter properly corrected, and take the
sum and difference. Add together the propor-
tional logarithms of this sum and difference, and
to half the sum add the cosine of the mean be-
tween the moon's true declination and that just
found, and the sum will be the proportional
logarithm of the moon's semi-diameter in right
ascension nearly.
Under (4) put 1:17609, the first sum under(1)
and the cosine of the declination of the observed
point, and the sums will be the proportional lo-
garithm of the exact parallax of R.A. in time,
which being added to the star's R. A. when west
of the meridian, but subtracted if east, will give
the true R. A. of the point observed. To the
true R. A. thus obtained add the moon’s semi-
diameter in R.A. or subtractit according as the re-
appearance or disappearance of the star has been
observed, and the result will be the true right
ascension of the moon's centre deduced from the
observation. If this differs considerably from
the R. A. taken from the Nautical Almanac, alter
the moon's declination by as many seconds as
will make a corresponding variation in the first
R. A. such as the Nautical Almanac would give
for the same alteration in the declination. Re-
péat the operation till this is the case, and the
last R. A. will be that required.
Under this put the moon's (1) R. A. taken
from the Nautical Almanac for the Greenwich
time, and then the moon’s R. A. three hours
afterwards. Take the difference between the
second and each of the others, and, from the pro-
portional logarithm of the less difference, subtract
the proportional logarithm of the greater, and the
remainder will be the proportional; logarithm of
a portion of time which must be added to the
Greenwich time when the first right ascension
is greater than the second ; otherwise subtracted,
and the result will be the Greenwich apparent
time; the difference between which and the ap-
parent time at the place of observation, will be
the longitude of that place in time. *
Erample.—On March 3d, 1823, at Bahia, in
latitude 12°57' 17” S., longitude by estimation
38° 30' W., the re-appearance of Antores from
the dark limb of the moon, was observed at
15h. 30m. 0-3s. ; required the true longitude?
Bahia, March 3d 15h. 30m.
Longitude in time 2 34
Greenwich estimated time 18 4
To this time we have the sun's R. A. 22h.
56m. 58.64s., xk R. A. 16h. 18m. 35'8s., xk's
declination 26° 1' 50-1” S., ) 's R. A. 244° 27'
29.75", declination 25° 55' 15-6" S., variation
for 10s. 0.63" S., semidiameter 14' 50" reduced
parallax 54; 26"; ) 's R. A. 3h. after 246° 6'
1682”; reduced latitude of Bahia 12° 52' 17" S.
Hence sk’s meridian distance = apparent
time + G)'s R. A. — k's R. A. = 22h. 8m.
23.12s., which taken from 24h. leaves 1h. 51m.
36'88s. – 27° 54° 13'2" = a. -
278 L O N G
I T U D E.
Calculation (1)
C’s hor, pº 0°54' 26" P. L.O.5.1941
Red. lat. 12 52 17 sect. O'01104-k’s Declin. S.
26° 1' 50-1”
>k mer. dist.27 54 13'2 cost. O-32976
— cosect.
0-86021
>k's declin. 26 1 50:1 cosine 9,95345 (2) 10: 53.7° S.
Const. log. 1:17609
Arc (1), Oh. 1m. 50-6s. P. L. 1.98975
Half 55-3 (b)
Difſ. 41-6 (a—b = 27° 40' 24”
(3)
0 0
1 50
)'s true declin.
) 's reduced declin.
Lieutenant Drinkwater of the royal navy has
lately communicated to the astronomical society
of London another method of making the preli-
minary computations for deducing the longitude
from an occultation. In his method the sun's
right ascension, the moon's declination, horizon-
tal parallax, and semidiameter are taken as in the
above method from the Nautical Almanac, for
the approximate Greenwich time; the star's me-
ridian distance found, and the latitude and pa-
rallax corrected for the earth's ellipticity. Then
calling the reduced horizontal parallax P, the
star's meridian distance M, its polar distance p,
and the latitude l; he computes arc A, from tan.
A = cos. M. cot. l ; arc B from B = p + A ; C
the principal effect of parallax in polar distance,
from C = P sin l sin B. sect A (–when it is
less than p, otherwise +, unless when M exceeds
six hours, when it is always —); D the parallax
in right ascension, from D = P. cos. l. sin. M.
cosect p, (–when the star is east of the meri-
dian, otherwise +); and E, the final correction
D° sin 2 p
of declination from E=- */
Sin 1
always—.
25 52 6-3
25 55 15.6 (4)
(2) 3) (4)
P. L. O'51941 P. L. O'51941 C. L. 1-17609
0-01.104 coSec. O'65216
} 0.35768 Sect. 0-04645
86021
1-21802
26° 12 43-8
0-05276
O 20 37.5 N. 0-94089 P. L.
9°945.15
Oh. 1m. 50s. 4 P. L. 199045
Diff. 3 9-3 Sk’s R. A. 16 18 35.8
) 's semid. 14 50-0 ... — -
- — T.R. A. 16 16 45.4 = 244°11'21”.
1.00028 P. L. 17 59-3 -*-
1, 18790 P. L. 11 40-7 (5) 16 7
2-18818 Semi. T. R. A. P's centre 244 27 28
1st. R. A. 244 27 30
1°09409 half 2nd R. A. 246 6 16
) 's true declin. 25° 52' 6-3 -
) 's red. declin. 25 55 15-6 3-73239 P. L. 1st. diff. O O 2
Mean 25 53 41-0 coS. 9°95405 0.26066 P. L. 2nd diff. 1 38 46
(5) 16' 67" P. L. 1.04814 3:47173 P. L. O O 3-7
a Estimated time 18 4 0
Greenwich time 18 3 56.3
Bahia time 15 30 0-3
r—- Longitude time 2 23 56 Ol
In degrees W. 38°29' 0"
gºmº-
And, having thus found the declination of the
point of occultation, the difference between it
and that of the moon's centre is known; and,
from this difference, the moon's semidiameter,
and the declinations of both objects, the differ-
ence between the right ascension of the point of
occultation, and that of the moon's centre is found
exactly in the same way as in the method given
above. Hence the right ascension of the moon's
centre is known, and thence, by interpolating in
the Nautical Almanac, the Greenwich time of
occultation is found. The methods above given
for finding the longitude astronomically, require
fixed instruments, and particular conjunctions for
putting them in practice; we have now to ex-
plain the method of finding the longitude by
means of the moon's distance from the sun or a
star, a method in which neither the observer nor his
instrument is required of necessity to be steady,
but may be practised under almost any conceiv-
able circumstances of difficulty, and in the ab-
sence of clouds may be resorted to whenever the
moon is above the horizon, except for two or
three days before and after her change.
L O N G I T U D E.
273
We have already remarked that the Nautical
Almanac was formerly intended to facilitate the
finding of the longitude by this particular me-
thod; and that in its pages are found the distance
of the moon from the sun and certain stars, for
every three hours of Greenwich time. It is evi-
dent, therefore, that if by any means what-
ever, instrumental or computative, an observer
could determine at any instant the distance of
the moon from the sun, or any of the stars for
which the Greenwich times, corresponding to
her distances, are on the day of observation
given in the Nautical Almanac; he may, by re-
ferring to that publication, find either at once, or
by simple proportion, the precise instant of
Greenwich time; and he might thus make the
moon serve as the pointer of a Greenwich clock
whose face was contained in the pages of the
Nautical Almanac. But the distances given in
the Nautical Almanac are such as the objects
would appear to have if the observer were at the
centre of the world; and, as all observations
must of necessity be made on the surface, we
must determine by computation what they would
have been if observed at the centre, before any
comparison can be instituted between them and
those given in the Nautical Almanac, for the pur-
pose of determining the Greenwich time. This
computation is what is known in nautical astro-
nomy by the problem of clearing the lunar dis-
tance. •.
All celestial objects are elevated by refraction
above the place in which they would appear if
refraction had no existence, and those at which
the radius of the earth subtends any sensible an-
gle appear lower, on that account, when observed
at the surface, than they would do if they could
be viewed from the centre of the earth; this latter
deviation of the apparent place of a celestial ob-
ject from its true place is called the parallax of
the object, and varies, as does also the refraction,
with the altitude of the object, both vanishing
when the object is in the zenith. The moon's
parallax varies from a little less than 54 to a
little more than 61', according to her distance
from the earth. The sun's parallax fluctuates a
small fraction of a second above or below 8.75",
and may, for the purposes of computation in this
problem, be taken equal to 9". The parallaxes
of the planets vary according to their distances:
that of Venus when nearest the earth is about
30", and when most remote is about 5”; Mars's
varies from 21” to about 5”; Jupiter's from 2"
to about 1”; and Saturn's from 1' to about 8",
and that of the fixed stars is altogether insensible.
The moon's, which is by far the largest, as well
as the most variable, is given with her semidia-
meter in the Nautical Almanac for every twelve
hours of Greenwich time. -
The parallax of an object, when it appears in
the horizon, is called its horizontal parallax, and
it is that which is meant in the above statement
of the parallax of the leading planets in the solar
system. When a celestial object is above the
horizon, the angle which the radius of the earth
on which an observation may be made, subtends
at the object, is called the parallax of the object
in altitude. In R}
the annexed fi-
gure, let C be
the object in the
horizon, D its
place at the al-
titude D A C,
and B the cen: 9
tre of the earth,
then C is the ho- B
rizontal paral-
lax, and D the
parallax in alti-
tude. Now, as with the same planet C B and
B D are equal, we have C B : B A : : B D :
B A ; but C B : B A :: rad.: sin. C, and B D
: B A : : sim. B A D, or cos. C A D : sin. D ;
hence rad. : sin. C. : : cos. CAD : sin. D; or as
radius is to sine of the horizontal parallax ; so is
cosine of the apparent altitude to the sine of the
parallax in altitude, To this proportion the pa-
rallax in altitude may be computed when the
horizontal parallax is obtained from the Nautical
Almanac, or any similar publication.
The difference between the refraction and pa-
rallax of a celestial object is called its correction
of altitude; and, the parallax of the moon at any
altitude being greater than the refraction at the
same altitude, her correction of altitude is addi-
tive to her apparent altitude to obtain her true
altitude. But, with respect to the sun or any
planet, the parallax at any altitude is less than
the corresponding refraction, and, therefore, for
the sun or a planet, the correction of altitude
is subtractive from the apparent to obtain the
true altitude. And, as the fixed stars have no
sensible parallax, the refraction is the sole cor-
rection of their altitudes, and subtractive. From
what has just been said, we may infer generally
that the true place of the moon is above her ap-
parent place, and that the true place of any other
celestial object is below its apparent place.
Now the distance of the moon from the Sun
or a star, being measured with a sectant circle,
or other appropriate instrument, the apparent
altitudes of the objects musteither be taken at the
same instant, or determined by calculation, and
the problem then occurs to determine from the
apparent altitudes and distance (the parallaxes
of the objects and the refractions corresponding
to the altitudes being also known), what their
true distances would be if viewed from the cen-
tre of the earth.
In the first place we may remark that the true
and apparent places are always in the same yer-
tical circle; and, therefore, that the two spherical
triangles formed one by the apparent distance of
the objects and their apparent distances from the
zenith, and the other by the true distance of the
objects and their true distances from the zenith,
have the angle included between the vertical cir-
cles on which the objects are observed common
to both triangles.
Let Z, in the annexed figure, be the zenith, A
the apparent place of the moon; M its true place;
B the apparent place of the sun or a star; and
Sits true place; and let C D be the are of the

280
H, O N G I T U D E.
horizon, included between
the vertical circles Z C and
Z D ; then A C is the
moon's apparent altitude,
B D the sun's or star's a
parent altitude, M C the
moon's, and S D the sun's
or star's true altitude, A M
the moon's, and B S the
sun's or star's correction of
altitude, or the difference
between the parallax and C
refraction; A Z is the moon's
apparent, and M Z her true zenith distance; and
B Z, S.Z, are respectively the true and apparent
Zenith distance of the sun or star.
The computation of M S from the given data
is therefore exceedingly simple; for we have
only with the apparent zenith distance A Z and
B Z (the complements of A C and B D) and the
apparent distance A B, to find the angle Z; and
then, in the spherical triangle M Z S, we have
given the angle Z, and the true zenith distances
M. Z and S Z, to find the true distance M.S.
Much time and talent have been applied to
2.
Then in the triangle SZM, cos. Z =
simplify the computations of this very simple
problem, The time occupied in taking propor-
tional parts for seconds, in the simple and obvious
solution above pointed out, it has been thought
might be well spared; and the risk of error in a
problem, where seconds of one are important,
ought by all practicable means to be diminished.
It would be needless to attempt a sketch of
many of the expedients which have been devised
for this purpose. We shall content ourselves
with giving the investigation of two or three
of the most practical, and refer to works pro-
fessedly treating on navigation and nautical
astronomy, those who may be desirous of farther
information on the subject.
The first which we shall give is that of the
chevalier Bonda, which requires no tables ex-
cept the common one of logarithmic sines and
CQS11 leS. -
Let D = the true distance MS (see the above
figure); d = the opponent distance AB, A, a,
90° – Z M, 90° — ZS), the true altitudes; and
, h, (90° —ZA, 90°–ZB), the apparent al-
titudes.
COS. D *º-º-º: sin. A g sin. (!
z – cos. D-sin. H. sin. h
gº cos. H. cos. h
cos. A . cos. a
7 e sº
& — sin. H. sin. h
) cos. H. cos. h.
cos. A . cos. a
E 2. COS.
cos. A. . cos. a
s. H + had cos. A . Cos. a
; and in the triangle AZ B, cos.
; and by equating these two expressions we have cos. D = (cos.
+ sin. A. sin, a - (cos. d -- cos. H + h – cos. H. cos. h.)
H + h + d
cos. H. cos. h. 2 • CO
A . sin.
since 1 — cos. D = 1 sin. #. and 1 + cos. A + a E 2 cos.
2 cos. H. cos. h
a). But the last term = cos. A + a subtract both sides of the equation from 1; then,
– (cos. A . cos. a - sin.
2 A
“; we have, after dividing
- A cos. a 2 D 2 A + a H + h + d
d = ** . -- ~ 'COS. - - - COS. –
by 2, and putting F cos. H. cos. h’ COS 2 - “. 2 . COS.
- - H + h + d H + h od
* tº 24x F = cos *** ( cos." He cost tº * -
2 - ~~~~ 2 1 — 2 A + a F). And if we take
COS, -–
. ſ 2
... it; +?....H.” 2 D 2 A+
* * 0.
*– 2 A + a E sin. *0, we shall have sin. -ā-- cos. -a-, cos. *0, or
cos—:
3. D — A + a *
SII. 2 - COS. 2 * COS. 6. -
The method which J. de Mendoza Rios selected, and which he compiled his extensive and most
valuable collection of tables to facilitate, depends on the same principles as the preceding.
Equating as above, the two expressions for cos. Z, we have
cos. d – sin. H. sin. h
T--—
cos. H. cos. h.
cos. H. cos. h cos. d – sin. H. sin. h.
; adding to each, we have
cos. D— sin. A . sin. a =
cos. A cos. a
cos. D — sin. A . sin. a
cos. A . cos. a
cos. d – cos. H + h .
cos. A . cos. a
cos. A . cos. a
cos. H. cos. h cos. H. cos. h
whence, cos. D = (cos. d – cos. H-E h)
*
2 cos. N3 or let cos. N
- 2 rad. 3
r cos. D + cos. A + a_
5
cos. A .
cos. H .
— cos. A cos. a. sect. H. sect. h
cos. H. cos. h y
cos. A . Cos. a
Put gº
cos. H. cos. h. T
cos. A . cos. a
COS. O.
. — cos. A + a.
cos. h
; then we have cos. D = (cos. d –
°s. H + F)2 cos. N – cos. A + d = 2 cos. d. cos. N – 2 cos. HET. cos. N — cos. A-E a
= cos. d -- N + cos. do N + cos. (HTT h + N) + cos. (H + h on N) — cos. A + a or

L O N G. I T U D E.
281
* -- cos. D = 1 + cos. A + a - cos. d -- N - cos. d do N — cos. (H + h + N) — cos.
(H+ hoo N), or, vers. D = scos. A + a -cos.7-FN – cos. do N — cos. (H+ h + N) –
cos. (H+ h on N). Or adding 4, to reduce the cosines to versed sines, and deducting 4 from
the same, vers. D = scos. A + a + vers. d -- N + vers. d o N + vers. (H + h + N) + vers.
(H + h on N) – 4 —, an expression which requires only the addition of five versed sines.
The simplification in this solution depends
chiefly on having the auxiliary arc N computed
and tabulated, which has been done in a very
convenient form.—See Rio's Nautical Tables,
Inman's Tables, and Riddle's Navigation and
Nautical Astronomy. º -
The true distance being computed by the me-
thods pointed out above, or by any other of the
many formulae that have been contrived for the
purpose, seek in the Nautical Almanac for the
distances of the moon from the object whose dis-
tance from her has been computed, between
which that distance falls, call the first distance
a, and the second, or that three hours after, b,
and the time of the first distance t; then the time
corresponding to the true distance D will be
3” a dº
# -H ao D.
a do b
second part of this theorem is greatly facilitated
by the use of proportional logarithms. See Lo-
GARITHM's in this work.
After this account of the various methods by
which the time at the first meridian may be
found, we shall add an account of the chief me-
thods which may be employed for finding the
time at the place of observation.
With a transit instrument, which moves in the
plane of the meridian, we have simply to notice
the time at which a known star comes to theme-
ridian, and the difference between that time and
the star's right ascension is the error of the chro-
nometer for siderial time. Call the time by the
clock at which the star passes the meridian T,
the star's right ascension r, and the sun's right
ascension R, and the equation of time e, then
Two r, T on roo R, and T 00 (r on R + e) are
the errors of the clock for siderial, apparent, and
mean time respectively. This observation being re-
peated on several stars, the error of the clock and
its rate may be ascertained with great precision.
a + l + p
2
The numerical result from the
sº, 2 H sect. l. cosect. p. sin.
Slſl. –3––
... sin. (*###f º- a)
If the time of the sun's passing the meridian
be noted, the error of the clock, either for mean
or apparent time, will be known.
But it is in few places, whose longitude it is
required to determine, that the observer has time
to make the delicate adjustments which a transit
instrument requires before it can be applied with
any advantage in determining the times. Re-
course must therefore in general be had to other
methods. One of the simplest and best is to
take equal altitudes of the same star, east and
west of the meridian, noting the times by the
clock when each altitude is observed, and half
the sum of those times will be the time by the
clock when the star is on the meridian; hence
the error of the clock is known; and conse-
quently the true time may be known by it, at
any given instant, by allowing for the known
error, on the time which it shows.
The time may also be found from equal alti-
tudes of the sun observed east and west of the
meridian; but, the declination of the sun being
variable, a correction on that account, called the
equation of equal altitudes, must be applied to
the middle time, to obtain the time at which the
sun was on the meridian. This correction de-
pends both on the sun's declination, its change
in the interval, and the latitude of the place of
observation, whereas the two preceding methods
are independent of them all. But considerable
accuracy in the result will be obtained, without
any very exact knowledge either of the latitude
or declination, if the change of declination in the
interval be exactly known.
If the latitude of the place has been correctly
ascertained, the time may be deduced from the
altitude of any known celestial object. Let l =
the latitude, a the altitude of the object, r its
right ascension, R the sun's right ascension, and
H the object's meridian distance, then
and r + H= siderial
º
5
7, 2
time; the upper sign being used when the object
is westward of the meridian, or when the altitude
is decreasing, and the lower sign when the object
is eastward of the meridian, or when the altitude
is increasing. Further, we have r + H — R. E.
the apparent time, and this corrected for the
equation of time, gives mean time when the alti-
tude was observed.
ON THE METHOD or ADJUSTING THE SExtANT.
The adjustments of which this instrument ad-
mits are, to make the index and horizon mirrors
perpendicular to the plane of the instrument,
and the telescope parallel to the same plane; and
it is also necessary, previous to making any de-
ductions from observations made with the instru-
ment, to ascertain its index error, that is the
tached to the index by
C, D, and E. The mirror
ment when the image of
point on the limb at which the zero division of
the index stands when the mirrors are parallel.
The index mirror is generally fixed by the
maker firmly in its proper position, and in some
instruments there are no direct means of adjust-
ing it if it should happen to get out of order.
A B in the annexed figure represents a section
of the mirror, and AFB the
plane, by which it is at- A.
means of the three screws
is known to be in adjust-
the limb of the instrument,
seen in it by reflection, is
in the same plane with the
limb itself; the index

282
Lo N G IT U D E.
being placed any where on the arch. If the re-
flected image of the limb appears to incline
downward from the plane of the limb, the plane
of the limb inclines backward; and, if the instru-
ment has no other means of adjustment, the
screws C, D, and E, must be slackened, and a
piece of paper, or other thin compressible matter,
put below the plane AF B at F, and the screws
so tightened that the reflected image of the limb
and the limb itself may appear as one continuous
plane. If the reflected image appears too high,
then a slip of paper must be put below A B, and
the screws tightened so that the adjustment may
be perfect. -
In some instruments the screw E is not a fast-
ening but an adjusting screw, P. on the
plane of the index when screwed in, and conse-
quently giving the plane of the mirror an incli-
nation forward; and the converse when it is
slackened. In other instruments the adjustment
is effected by a screw acting on a spring, against
which the top part of the mirror rests.
The best method of examining the adjustment
of the horizon mirror is (having previously ad-
justed the index reflector) to look at the sun,
and, moving the index slowly backwards and
forwards, to observe whether the sun, as seen
directly, is exactly covered by his reflected image,
in passing. If it does the instrument is ad-
justed,
In the annexed figure let A represent the sun
as seen directly, and let
B, C, D, be the image of
the sun as passing A, from . . ; º
the motion of the index. B. #
If the instrument were in '...
exact adjustment,C would 2”
completely cover A. If aff
it does not, the screw,
which gives vertical mo- *:
tion to the glass, with A “s,
reference to the plane of
the instrument, must be
turned till C and A ex-
actly concide. - -
This screw is differently A.
placed, according to the le_LI
• * * * *
* * * -
**... -.'"
* * * * * *
I
r
fancy of the maker. For
example: A B represent-
ing the plane of the mirror;
CD FE the apparatus by
which it is attached to the C
plane of the instrument; |
then the vertical adjustment #
is made by means of a !
screw placed as at G, H, I, I&
or K indifferently.
To make the telescope parallel to the plane of
the instrument, turn its eye piece till the wires
in the focus of it are parallel to the plane of the
instrument; then bring the sun and moon, when
at a great distance from each other, in apparent
contact on the wire nearest the instrument, and
immediately bring them on the opposite wire,
on which, if they also appear in apparent con-
tact, the line of collimation, or the axis of the
telescope, is properly adjusted. If the images
should appear to separate or overlap, slacken
one of the sunk screws in the collar into which
in contact alter-
the telescope is screwed, and lighten the other
till the contact of the images is perfect on both
wires, when the adjustment will be perfect.
It remains now only to ascertain the index
error of the instrument, or the position of the
zero of the index, when the index and horizon
mirrors are parallel. This may be done in va-
rious ways: 1st, Move forward the index till the
direct and reflected images of the distant horizon.
appear as one line; then, if the zero of the index
stands on the left of the zero on the limb, what
it does so stand to the ieft is the index error, sub-
tractive. If on the contrary, the index error is
additive, 2dly, Make the direct and reflected
images of the sun coincide, and the position of
the zero will, as above, show the index error.
The same may also be effected by making the
direct and reflected images of the moon or a
bright star coincide. 3dly,
Move the index forward, .
till the reflected image of B
the sun, as B, exactly
touch the limb of the
sum, A, as at C; then the
difference between the position of the zero of the
index and the sun's' diameter, as given in the
Nautical Almanac, will be the index error;--
additive when the diameter is the greater, but
otherwise subtractive, 4thly, Bring the limbs of
the sun and his
reflected image
* - - - - *
• * * *s a
• * **
nately right and i
left, as at D and *. .** ->
E in the annexed ---..."
figure, and half the difference of the reading:
will be the index error, when the zero of the
index stands on different sides of zero on the
limb; otherwise half the sum of the readings
will be the index error; and additive when the
greater reading is on the right of the zero on the
limb, but subtractive when the greater reading
is on the left.
This last is by far the best and most indepen-
dent method of ascertaining'the index error, and
it besides affords the observer an excellent op-
portunity of judging of his skill in estimating a
contact; for the distance of the two points at
which the index stands, when the reflected image
of the sun is in contact with his limb, is double
the sun's diameter; hence, by comparing this
difference with the known diameter of the sun,
an observer may readily discover whether there
is any peculiarity or defect in his method of
estimating a contact, and he may accordingly
endeavour to correct any faulty habit of observ-
ing, which such an experiment may show him to
have acquired.
The instrument being adjusted, the next object.
is to take the requisite observations for obtaining
the data necessary in the solution of the problem.
These are generally the distance of the moon from
the sun or a star, with the altitudes of both objects
at the same instant. The altitudes are taken in
the usual way, either with a quadrant or sextant;
the most important element, the distance, requires
to be taken with the utmost nicety. Look in the
Nautical Almanac for the distance in a rough
way between the moon and the required object



I.ON
LON
283
at the time of observation, and set the index any
way not far from that distance; then look through
the telescope at the dimmer object, and turn
round the instrument till its plane coincides with
one passing through the eye, and the two objects
whose distance it is required to measure, and the
reflected image of the brighter object will readily
be found. Then turn down such screens as may
appear necessary, and bring the limbs in contact
in the centre of the field of view of the telescope,
and the observation will be completed; and the
altitudes with the time of observation, as noted
by an assistant observer, being read and entered,
the observations may be repeated, till half a
dozen or more sets are obtained ; and the mean
of the whole maybe taken as a single observation.
If the dimmer object is to the right of the
brighter one, there are many persons who find
it extremely difficult to hold the instrument in
the manner in which it must be then held, if the
telescope be pointed as above directed to the
dimmer object. Let then the contact be nearly
completed, and screw down the telescope towards
the plane of the instrument, turn down the proper
screens before the horizon glass, and remove
them before the index glass; then look toward
the brighter object, and turn the instrument
round till the image of the dimmer one is seen,
and complete the contact; which, in this position
of the instrument, can be done with much greater
€3Sé.
It may be observed, however, that this method
cannot be satisfactorily practised if the dimmer
object is very dim ; as the moon during the day
at three days old; or as a Arietis near the moon
at full. But it is of great importance that what-
ever difficulties may attend taking this delicate
observation should not be increased by mechan-
ical difficulties attending any particular manner
of holding the instrument, when these difficulties
may be avoided. -
For practical examples on the methods of
finding the longitudes by observation at sea, see
the article NAVIGATION.
LONGLAND, or LANGLANDE (Robert), a se-
cular priest, fellow of Oriel College, Oxford, in
the fourteenth century, supposed to have been
the author of The Vision of Pierce Plowman,
and Pierce Plowman's Crede. He is said to
have been a disciple of Wycliffe, his poems being
satires on the vice and luxury of the Romish
clergy. He hazarded such remarkable prophe-
cies of an impending reformation, in the church,
that Warton declares he should have supposed
them to have been foisted into the copies, since
the suppression of monasteries in England, if he
had not seen them in MSS. as old as the begin-
ning of the fifteenth century.
LONGOMONTANUS (Christian), a learned
astronomer, born in a village of Denmark in
1562. He was the son of a ploughman, and was
obliged to suffer during his studies many hard-
ships, dividing his time, like the philosopher
Cleanthes, between the cultivation of the earth
and the lessons he received from the minister of
the place. At last, when he was fifteen, he left
his family, and went to Wiburg, where there
was a college, in which he spent eleven years;
and, though he was obliged to earn a livelihood,
he studied with such ardor that he learned the
mathematics in great perfection. He afterwards
went to Copenhagen; where the professors of
that university recommended him to the cele-
brated Tycho Brahe. He lived eight years with
that famous astronomer, and was of great service
to him in his observations and calculations. AJ
length, being extremely desirous of obtaining a
professor's chair in Denmark, Tycho Brahe con-
sented to part with him, and furnished him with
money for the expense of his journey. He ob-
tained a professorship of mathematics in the
university of Copenhagen in 1605; and dis-
charged the duty of it worthily till his death, in
1647. He wrote many learned works: the chief
of which is his Astronomia Danica; 1640, folio.
He also endeavoured to square the circle, and
thought he had made that discovery: but Dr.
John Pell, an English mathematician, proved
that he was mistaken in his calculations.
LONGUEIL (Christopher de), a learned
writer, born at Malines in 1490. He was much
in favor with several princes. He was employed
by pope Leo X, to write against Luther. He
wrote also Commentaries on Pliny's book of
Plants; and Observations on the Civil Law. He
died in 1522. -
LONGUERUE (Louis de), a learned French
divine, born at Charleville in 1652. He wrote,
1. A Latin dissertation on Tatian; 2. La De-
scription Historique de la France; 3. Annales
Arsacidarum; 4. A Discourse on Transubstantia-
tion; and 5. Remarks on the Life of Cardinal
Wolsey. -
LONGUS, a Greek sophist, author of a book
entitled IIoavenºka, or Pastorals; and a romance
containing the loves of Daphnis and Chloe.
Huetius, bishop of Avranches, speaks very highly
of this work, but censures some passages as ob-
scene. As no ancient author mentions Longus,
the time when he lived cannot be ascertained. J.
Craggs, esq., secretary of state, translated his
work into English. - -
LONICERA, honeysuckle, in botany, a genus
of the monogynia order, and pentandria class of
plants: Cor. monopetalous and irregular: BERRY
polyspermous, bilocular, and inferior.
L. alpigena, the upright red-berried honey-
suckle, rises with a shrubby, short, thick, upright
stem, branching strongly and erectly four or five
feet high; largish, spear-shaped, leaves, in pairs,
opposite; and from the sides of the branches
many red flowers by twos on long foot-stalks,
each succeeded by two red berries, joined toge-
ther at their base: it flowers in August, and the
berries ripen in autumn. -
L. caerulea, the blue-berried upright honey-
suckle, rises with a shrubby upright stem,
branching moderately three or four feet high,
with many white flowers proceeding from the
sides of the branches; appearing in May, and
succeeded by blue berries joined together at their
base. Tº - - - -
L. caprifolium, the Italian honeysuckle, rises
with shrubby declinated stalks, sending out long
284
L O O C H O O I S L A N D S.
slender trailing branches, terminated by verti-
cillate or whorled bunches of close-sitting flowers,
very fragrant; and white, red, and yellow,
colors. *
L. periclymenum, the common climbing
honeysuckle, has two principal varieties, viz. the
English wild honeysuckle, or woodbine of our
woods and hedges; and the Dutch or German
honeysuckle. The former rises with shrubby,
weak, very long, slender stalks, and branches
trailing on the ground, or climbing round a sup-
port; all terminated by oval imbricated heads,
furnishing smallish flowers of white or red colors,
and appearing from June or July till autumn.
The latter rises with a shrubby declinated stalk,
and long trailing purplish branches, terminated
by oval imbricated heads, furnishing large beau-
tiful red flowers of a fragrant odor, appearing in
June and July.
L. sempervirens, the evergreen trumpet-flower-
ed honeysucklé, rises with a shrubby declinated
stalk, sending out long slender trailing branches,
terminated by naked verticillate spikes, of long,
unreflexed, deep scarlet, flowers, very beautiful,
but of little fragrance.
L. xylosteum, the fly honeysuckle, rises with a
strong shrubby stem, branching erect to the
height of seven or eight feet; with erect white
flowers, proceeding from the sides of the branch-
es; each succeeded by large double red berries,
joined together at their base. The flowers appear
in June, and the berries ripen in September. The
easiest method of propagating all these plants is
by layers and cuttings. In both cases they rea-
dily emit roots, and form plants in one year fit
for transplantation. . Some sorts are also propa-
gated by suckers and seed.
LONS LE SAULNIER, a large town of France,
the capital of the department of the Jura. It is
agreeably situated on the river Solvan; and has
salt springs which ebb and flow, and which have
given rise to salt works of considerable extent in
the neighbourhood. Here is also a silver mine.
Population 7000. Sixty-two miles south-east of
T)ijon, and 269 south-east of Paris.
LONTAR PULO ISLE, an island in the Indian
Ocean, separated by a narrow strait from the
peninsula of Malacca. Its inhabitants derive
their subsistence from the sea, and appear wholly
ignorant of agriculture: the rice they use is pro-
cured from the Malays in exchange for fish.
Long. 99° 0' E., lat. 70°30' N.
LOO, n. s. From the French palace of Loo,
probably. A game at cards.
A secret indignation, that all those affections of
the mind should be thus vilely thrown away upon a
hand at loo. ddison.
In the fights of loo. Pope.
LOO'BY, n. s. A Welsh llabe.—Junius. Or
Loo BILY, adv. 5 see LoB. A stupid, clumsy
fellow. t
The plot of the farce was a grammar school, the
master setting his boys their lessons, and a loobily
country fellow putting in for a part among the scho-
lars. - L’Estrange.
The vices trace
From the father's scoundrel race.
Who could give the looby such airs?
Were they masons, were they butchers?
; Sulift.
LOOCHOO, LEwcHEw, LIQUEO, or LIEoU-
KIOU ISLANDs, are a group of islands in the
Eastern Ocean, to the south of Japan, and about
400 or 500 miles east of China. They consist; ac-
cording to the accounts of Mr. M'Leod and cap-
tain Hall, of thirty-six islands, of which the one
called the Great Loochoo is of considerable di-
mensions, being about fifty miles long, and from
twelve to fifteen broad. Its existence was scarcely
known to Europeans till it was visited by cap-
tains Maxwell and Hall, in their return with
lord Amherst from the embassy to China. The
part visited by the ships is called Napa-kiang or
Napafoo, and is only five miles from Kin-tohing,
the capital and residence of the king. Towards
the northern extremity of the island is one of the
finest harbours in the world, somewhat similar,
but far superior, to port Mahon. It was surveyed
by captain Hall, and named by him port Mel-
ville. Captain Maxwell used every means that
prudence would allow to obtain an interview
with the king, but this could not be granted, as
he did not come in any official character. The
king, however, wrote a letter to the prince regent
in the Chinese character, which was unfortu-
nately lost when the Alceste was wrecked. It
was written in a tone of great humility; hoping
that the attentions which had been shown to the
ships—‘the great ship and her little child,’—
would be satisfactory to the king of the En-
gelees.
The whole island exhibited a gentle ascent
from the sea, on which “the grounds were dis-
posed more like the finest country-seats in Eng-
land than those of an island so remote from the
civilised world.” They anchored in front of a
town. The climate and soil are among the hap-
piest on the globe. The sea breezes, blowing
continually over it, preserve it from the extremes
of heat and cold; while its configuration sup-
plies it with rivers and streamlets of excellent
water. The fruits and vegetables are consequently
of the most exquisite kind ; and those of distinct
regions are found in a flourishing state. The
orange and the lime, the banyan of India, and
the Norwegian fir, all thrive here: but the chief
object of cultivation is rice. They have also a
very nourishing species of sweet potatoe: our
ships left them some English ones. The animal
creation is of diminutive size, their bullocks sel-
dom weighing more than 350lbs. though plump
and well conditioned, and the beef excellent;
their goats and pigs are also diminutive, but the
poultry large and excellent. The bull is used
in agriculture. Few wild animals are seen. The
whole coast is surrounded with coral reefs, but
abounds in good harbours.
The inhabitants present, however, the most
interesting feature of contemplation. They are
a small race, the average height of the men not
exceeding five feet two inches: but, though small,
they are sturdy, well-built, and athletic. . They
are as fair as the southern Europeans, and have
no trace either of Indian or Chinese features.
Captain Hall tells as that numerous parties
came off from the shore, and that the deport-
ment of all was modest, polite, timid, and re-
spectful. They had the address however to amuse
their visitors a whole fortnight, parrying with
L O O C H O O
I S L A N D S. 285
considerable ingenuity every proposal that was
made to go on shore, and setting aside with great
adroitness every allusion to that subject; giving
them at the same time every thing they could
possibly want in the way of provisions, and even
anticipating their wishes. At length, however,
a greater number of boats than usual were ob-
served coming off in a kind of procession, and
it was soon discovered that a great man was in
one of them. He appeared to be about sixty,
‘ and had a cheerfulness of expression and a live-
liness of manner remarkable for a man of that
age; his manners were graceful and elegant, and
from the first moment he seemed to be quite at
his ease; every thing about him indicated good
breeding, and a familiarity with good society.”
He examined every part of the Alceste with the
greatest attention, and seemed to be highly enter-
tained with what he saw. Still, however, there
was a strong jealousy exhibited of any attempt
to land.
The departure of the Lyra, however, to examine
the coast, produced the desired effect; the chiefs
hastened on board the Alceste to enquire what
was become of the little ship. Captain Maxwell
told them that they had trifled with him so long,
and refused to let him land his casks and stores
with such obstinacy, that he found it necessary
to look out for some more favorable place at
which to refit. On hearing this they entreated
that he would not think of moving from Napa-
kiang; adding that he should have store-rooms
on shore for whatever he desired; and that he
and his officers might land where they pleased,
and walk to the top of the hill without being
guarded. In short they now assigned for their
immediate use an oblong enclosure, sixty yards
by forty, surrounded by a wall twelve feet high.
Of this prison (for such it might be considered)
they kept undivided possession during the re-
mainder of their stay, which was about a month.
Into the interior of their town, however, the
English were never admitted, and even their
walks were limited to a certain space. When
any attempt was made to pass these bounds, the
sentinels interposed by a polite request, and by
representing the reproach which would fall upon
themselves if the orders of the court were trans-
gressed. Some overtures were made for an audi-
ence with the king; but this was declined, on
the ground that no embassy or letters were
brought from the kind of England. When cap-
tain Maxwell toasted the king of Loochoo, they
appeared gratified, and in return gave the king
of England, whom they appeared to consider as
at least his equal. They appeared to live with
each other in a very social manner, holding fre-
quent pic-nic parties in the fields; the dinner being
carried aboutin littlejapanned boxes, with sliding
drawers, fastened to the end of a bamboo. A re-
past to which the English were invited consisted
of hard boiled eggs, colored and sliced, fish dried
in butter, sliced pork smoked, sliced pig's liver;-
then tea, which, being new, tasted like an infu-
sion of hay. A dish consisting of a mass of
coarse, soft, black sugar, wrapped up in unbaked
dough, and powdered over with rice flour, dyed
yellow, was the only unpalatable one; the inter-
vals were filled up with sackee, pipes and tobac-
co; and every thing passed off with the greatest
good humor. The English saw also specimens
of their dancing, which might rather be called
hopping, as they jump about on one foot, keeping
the other up, clapping their hands, and making
a number of extravagant motions; at the same
time singing a tune.
Not a single instance of theft occurred during
the whole stay of the ships: one striking pecul
liarity, which may perhaps in part account for
this, consists in their being apparently quite
strangers to the use of fire-arms, so that the mus-
quetry and shot of the English were objects of
great wonder and awe. They appear to have
been shocked, however, to see them shooting the
birds, but merely requested that they would desist,
saying, that they were glad to see them flying
about their houses, and offering at the same time
a larger supply of fowls. They appeared also to .
have no money.
Among three or four persons who constantly
attended them there was an individual of the
name of Mädera, whose character is drawn with
great ability by captain Hall.
‘Two of the natives,' he says, “have been stu-
dying English with great assiduity and with con-
siderable success. One is called Mädera, the
other Anya. They carry note books, in imita-
tion of Mr. Clifford, in which they record in
their own characters every word they learn.
They are both keen fellows, and are always
among the strangers. From the respect occa-
sionally paid to them it is suspected that their
rank is higher than they give out, and that their
object in pretending to be people of ordinary
rank is to obtain a more free intercourse with all
classes on board the ships. Mädera, by his
liveliness and propriety of manners, has made
himself a great favorite; he adopts our customs
with a sort of intuitive readiness, sits down to
table, uses a knife and fork, converses and walks
with us; in short, does every thing that we do,
quite as a matter of course, without any appa-
rent effort or study. He is further recommended
to us by the free way in which he communicates
everything relating to his country; so that as he
advances in English, and we in Loo-choo, he
may be the means of giving us much information.
As an instance of his progress in English, it may
be mentioned that one day he came on board the
Lyra, and said, ‘The Ta-yin speak me, you go
ship, John come shore;’ by which we understood
that captain Maxwell had sent him on board the
brig for the interpreter. This was about three
weeks after our arrival.’ - -
We cannot resist the temptation of adding this
further extract. “Mädera has made great im-
provement in English, and his character is alto-
gether more developed. He is quite at his ease
in our company, and seems to take the most ex-
traordinary interest in every thing belonging to
us; but his ardent desire to inform himself on
all subjects sometimes distresses him a good
deal; he observes the facility with which we do
some things, and his enterprising mind suggests
to him the possibility of his imitating us; but,
when he is made sensible of the number of steps
by which alone the knowledge he admires is to
be attained, his despair is strongly marked. He
c286 L O O C H O O
I S L A N D S.
sometimes asks us to read English aloud to him
to which he always listens with the deepest at-
tention. One day, on shore, he saw me with a
book in my hand: he begged me to sit down
under a tree and read: 'Jeeroo was the only
chief present, but there were several of the pea-
sants in attendance upon him; they all lay down
on the grass, and listened with an attention and
interest which are natural enough: every one ex-
pressed himself pleased and satisfied except Má-
dera, whose anxiety was to read in the same
:manner himself. From the earnest way in
which he enquired into every subject, we were
sometimes inclined to think that he must have
been directed by the government to inform him-
self on these topics; and certainly a fitter per-
son could not have been selected; for he adapted
himself so readily to all ranks, that he became at
once a favorite, and every person took pleasure
in obliging him. -
“Jeeroo is esteemed in another way ; he is
uniformly good humored and obliging, and not
without curiosity; but he is not clever, and has
none of the fire and enthusiasm of Mädera. We
all think kindly of Jeeroo, and shake him cordi-
ally by the hand when we meet him; but Má-
dera is admired and respected, as well as es-
teemed, and his society is courted for his own
sake.
* Mädera is about twenty-eight years of age,
of a slender figure, and very active; his upper
teeth project in front over the lower ones, giving
his face a remarkable, but not a disagreeable
expression. He is always cheerful, and often
lively and playful, but his good sense prevents
his eyer going beyond the line of strict propriety.
When required by etiquette to be grave, no one
is so immoveably; serious as Mädera, and, when
mirth rules the hour, he is the gayest of the gay :
such indeed is his taste on these occasions, that
he not only catches the outward tone of his
company, but really appears to think and feel as
they do. His enterprising spirit and versatility
of talent have led him to engage in a number
of pursuits; his success, however, is the most
remarkable in his acquisition of English. About
a month after our arrival, he was asked what had
become of his companion Anya; he replied,
“Anya, him mother sick, he go him mother
house;’ and when asked if he would return, he
said, “Two, three day time, him mother no sick,
he come ship.' With all these endowments and
attainments he is unaffectedly modest, and never
seems aware of his being superior to the rest of
his countrymen. We were a long time in
doubt what was his real rank; for at first he
kept himself back, so that he was well known to
the midshipmen before the officers were at all
acquainted with him; he gradually came for-
ward, and, though he always wore the dress of
the ordinary respectable natives, his manners
evidently belonged to a higher rank, but he
never associated with the chiefs, and disclaimed
having any pretensions to an equality with them.
Notwithstanding all this, there were occasional
circumstances, which, by showing his authority,
almost betrayed his secret. One morning a
difficulty arose about some supplies which the
chiefs. had engaged to procure, but which they
to.
had neglected to send : as soon as Mädera was
told of the circumstance, he went to captain
Maxwell, and undertook to arrange it to his
satisfaction, at the same time begging that if any
difficulty occurred in future, he might be applied
Whatever may be Mädera's rank in his
own society, it is highly curious to discover, in a
country so circumstanced, the same politeness,
self-denial, and gracefulness of behaviour which
the experience of civilised nations has pointed
out as constituting the most pleasing and ad-
vantageous form of intercourse.
“The great interest which Mádera took in the
English, and the curiosity he always expressed
about our customs at home, suggested the idea
of taking him with us to England, where he
would have been an interesting specimen of a
people so little known; and he also might have
carried back knowledge of the greatest use to
his country. When it was proposed to him, he
paused for some minutes, and then, shaking his
head, said, ‘I go Injeree,_father, mother, childs,
wife, house, all cry ! not go ; no, no, all cry !’
This interesting individual they afterwards
found to be a chief of considerable rank.
A few days before they sailed the prince of
Loo-choo, about fifty years old, and heir to the
throne, paid a visit to the Alceste, and invited
the officers to an entertainment on shore. The
bidding a last farewell to this interesting and
amiable people was an affecting event.
‘Sunday, 27th of October.—At day-break we
unmoored, and the natives, on-seeing us take up
one of our anchors, thought we were going to
get under weigh immediately, and give them the
slip, which was not at all intended. This alarm,
however, brought the chiefs off in a great hurry;
not in a body in their usual formal way, but one
by one, in separate canoes. Old Jeema called
on board the Lyra on his way to the frigate; he
was a good deal agitated, and the tears came into
his eyes when I put a ring on his finger. He
gave me in return his knife.
“The other chiefs called alongside on their
way to the frigate, but went on when I told
them that I was just going to the Alceste myself.
In the mean time Mädera came on board, with
the sextant in his hand; he was in such distress
that he scarcely knew what he was about. In
this distracted state he sat down to breakfast
with us, during which he continued lighting his
pipe and smoking as fast as he could ; drinking
and eating whatever was placed before him.
After he had a little recovered himself, he asked
what books it would be necessary to read to
enable him to make use of the sextant; I gave
him a nautical almanac, and told him that he
must understand that in the first instance: he
opened it, and, looking at the figures, held up his
hands in despair, and was at last forced to con-
fess that it was a hopeless business. He there-
fore put the sextant up and bade us farewell.
Before he left the Lyra he gave Mr. Clifford his
pipe, tobacco pouch, and a crystal ornament;
saying, as he held out the last, “You go Ingeree,
you give this to your childs.’ -
“Mr. Clifford gave him a few presents in re-
turn, and expressed his anxiety to be considered
his friend. Mädera, with the tears streaming
LOO
LO69
287
down his cheeks, placed his hand several times
upon his heart, and cried, Eedooshee, edoo-
shee!’ My friend, my friend 1
“To me he gave a fan and a picture of an old
man looking up at the sun, drawn, he said, by
himself; he probably meant in his picture some
allusion to my usual occupation at the observa-
tory. After he had put off in his boat, he called
out, “Ingeree moo choo sibittee yootoosha,' I
shall ever remember the English people. When
he went to the Alceste, one of the chiefs remarked
that he had neither his hatchee-matchee on
nor his robes, and told him that it was not
respectful to wait upon captain Maxwell, for
the last time, in his ordinary dress; particu-
larly as all the others were in full array. Mädera,
who, poor fellow, had been too much concerned
about other matters to think of dress, was shocked
at this apparent want of politeness, and went im–
mediately to apologise to captain Maxwell, who
took him by the hand, and gave him a present,
telling him, at the same time, that he was always
too happy to see him to notice what dress he
had on. -
‘On going into the cabin, I found the chiefs
seated in a row, all very disconsolate, and appa-
rently trying to conceal emotions different, in all
probability, from any which they had ever before
experienced. Captain Maxwell had made them
his parting present, and I, therefore, gave to each
chief some trifle, receiving from them in return,
their knives, pipes, pouches, and fans. . In the
mean time the anchor was hove up, and, every
thing being ready for making sail, the chiefs rose
to take leave. Ookooma wished to say some-
thing, but was too much affected to speak, and
before they reached their boats they were all in
tearS.
* Mádera cried bitterly as he shook hands with
his numerous friends, who were loading him
with presents.
“The chiefs, as well as the people in the nu-
merous canoes which had assembled round the
ships, stood up, and continued waving their fans
and handkerchiefs till we were beyond the reefs,
and could see them no longer.’
“Polygamy,” says captain Hall, “is not al-
lowed in Loo-choo as in China; they invariably
spoke with horror of the Chinese practice, which
allows a plurality of wives, and were much gra-
tified on learning that the English customs in
this respect were similar to those of Loo-choo.”
Su-poa-quang asserts, on the contrary, that poly-
gamy is allowed as in China; but that the young
men and women see each other before marriage,
and choose for themselves. The complete state
of degradation in which the females are, from
both accounts, indeed, placed, detracts not a
little from the many good qualities of these
islanders. -
LOOE, EAST, or EAST Low, an ancient bo-
rough of Cornwall, incorporated by charter from
queen Elizabeth, twelve miles west of Plymouth
and 2333 W. S.W. of London. It has two fairs,
and a battery of four guns; and is connected
with West Looe by a large stone bridge of fifteen
arches. It is governed by a mayor, recorder,
aidermen, and nine burgesses. It sends two
members to parliament, who are chosen by the
mayor, burgesses, and freemen, in number about
fifty. The corporation has the toll of the market,
and holds the manor of the town of the duchy of
Cornwall, at a fee-farm rent of 20s. per annum.
The surrounding country is well furnished with
gentlemen's seats, and a little higher up the tin
works begin. Market on Saturday.
Looe, WEST, or WEST Low, a borough of
Cornwall, opposite to East Looe. It has a fair.
Jt is a borough, and sends two members to par-
liament, the right of election being in the mayor,
burgesses, and freemen, in number about fifty-
five. West Looe has sent members to parlia-
ment ever since the 6th of Edward VI. The
corporation, by Elizabeth's charter, consists of a
mayor, twelve burgesses, &c. West Looe is also
called Port Pigham. The manor anciently
belonged to the crown, and was annexed by
Henry III. to the duchy of Cornwall, of which it
is now held by the corporation. Although the
harbour is not large, it is commodious, and is
defended by a strong battery; the river is navi-
gable for vessels of 100 tons.
LOOFED', adj. From aloof. Gone to a dis-
tance.
She once being looft, Antony
Claps on his sea-wings, like a doating mallard,
Leaving the fight.
Shakspeare. Antony and Cleopatra.
Sax loc, locan ;
Look’ER, n. s. Teut, lug, lugen ;
LOOK'ING-GLASS. Belg. louken. To
see; have the power of vision; seem ; have or
assume any kind of appearance, air, mien, or
manner; to direct the mind's eye or expecta-
tion ; to watch; take care: as an active verb, to
seek; search; regard ; influence by looks. It
takes almost any of the prepositions after it.
The so-called interjection look is clearly the im-
perative mood of the verb. Look, as a substan-
tive, means air or contour, particularly of the
face; the act or exercise of looking or vision. A
looker, one who is practising it; a ‘looker on ;’
a mere spectator.
LOOK, v. n., v. 4. & n. s. }
And Jhesus answeride and seide to hem, loke ye
that no man disceyve you. Wiclif. Matt. 24.
Abimelech looked out at a window, and saw Isaac.
- Genesis.
He was ruddy, and of a beautiful countenance,
and goodly to look to. 1 Sam. xvi. 12.
Let us look one another in the face.
- 2 Kings, xiv. 8.
Thou wilt save the afflicted people, but wilt bring
down high looks. PsulmTxviii. 27.
He had looked round about on them with anger.
Mark iii.
If we sin wilfully, after that we have received the
knowledge of the truth, there remaineth no more sa-
crifice for sins, but a certain fearful looking for of
judgment. Heb. x.
Looking my love, I go from place to place,
Like a young fawn that late had lost the hind,
And seek each where. Spenser.
Being a labour of so great difficulty, the exact
performance thereof we may rather wish than look
for, Hooker.
Such labour is then more necessary than pleasant,
both to them which undertake it, and for the lookers
07?s
LO() 288 LOO
She looks as clear -
As morning roses newly washed with dew.
Shakspeare.
Nay, look not big, nor stamp, nor stare, nor fret,
I will be master of what is mine own. Ja.
Your queen died, she was more worth such gazes
Than what you look on now. Id. Winter's Tale.
The gods look down, and the unnatural scene
They laugh at. Id. Coriolanus.
What haste looks through his eyes º Shakspeare.
His nephew's levies to him appeared
To be a preparation against the Polack;
But, better looked into, he truly found
It was against your highness. Id. Hamlet.
Thou
Shalt feel our justice, in whose easiest passage
Look for no less than death. Id. Winter’s Tale.
Let this fellow be looked to: let some of my people
have a special care of him. Shakspeare.
Thou cream-faced loon |
Where got'st thou that goose look 2
Shakspeare.
My business in this state
Made me a looker on here in Vienna ;
Where I have seen corruption boil and bubble
Till it o'er-run the stew.
Id. Measure for Measure.
Command a mirror hither straight,
That it may shew me what a face I have,
—Go some of you and fetch a looking-glass.
Shakspeare.
The state would cast the eye, at a look about to see
whether there were any head under whom it might
unite. Bacon.
In regard of our deliverance past, and our danger
present and to come, let us look up to God, and every
Id. New Atlantis.
man reform his own ways.
In dealing with cunning persons, it is good to say
little to them, and that which they least look for.
Id. Essays.
Some come to meet their friends, and to make
merry ; others come only to look on. Bacon.
Look, when the world hath fewest barbarous people,
but such as will not marry, except they know means
to live, as it is almost every where at this day, ex-
cept Tartary, there is no danger of inundations of
people. Id. Essays.
Can these, or such, be any aids to us?
Look they as they were built to shake the world,
Or be a moment to our enterprize? Ben Jomson.
Did not this fatal war affront thy coast,
Yet sattest thou an idle looker on ? Fairfax.
It will import those men who dwell careless to
look about them; to enter into serious consulta-
tion, how they may avert that ruin.
- Decay of Piety.
Pride ever looks at the highest. Bp. Hall.
If you find a wasting of your flesh, then look about
you, especially if troubled with a cough.
Harvey on Consumptions.
Inordinate anxiety, and unnecessary scruples in
confession, instead of setting you free, which is the
benefit to be looked for by confession, perplex you the
In Ore., Taylor.
Each seemed to act that part he came to see,
And none was more a looker-on than he. Denham.
If he long deferred the march, he must look to fight
another battle before he could reach Oxford.
Clarendon.
This mistake was not such as they looked for ; and,
though the error in form seemed to be consented to,
yet the substance of the accusation might be still in-
sisted on. Id.
That which was the worst now least afflicts me;
Blindness, for had I sight, confused with shame,
How could I once look up, or heave the head 3
Milton.
Look now for no enchanting voice, nor fear
The bait of honied words. . Id.
Casting my eye upon so many of the general bills
as next came to hand, I found encouragement from
them to look out all the bills I could. Graunt.
Shepherds your pipe, when his harsh sound testifies
anguish, into the fair looker on, pastime not passion
enters. § Sidney.
Do we not all profess to be of this excellent re-
ligion ? but who will believe that we do so, that shall
look upon the actions, and consider the lives of the
greatest part of Christians? Tillotson.
We are not only to look at the bare action, but at
the reason of it. Stillingfleet.
Piety, as it is thought a way to the favour of God;
and fortune, as it looks like the effect either of that,
or at least of prudence and courage, beget authority.
* Temple.
Fate sees thy life lodged in a brittle glass,
And looks it through, but to it cannot pass.
- Dryden.
Thus pondering, he looked under with his eyes,
And saw the woman's tears. Id. Knight’s Tale.
Bertran l if thou darest, look out
Upon yon slaughtered host.
º Id. Spanish Fryar.
Cowards are offensive to my sight;
Nor shall they see me do an act that looks
Below the courage of a Spartan king.
- * Triſden.
I must with patience all the terms attend,
Till mine is called; and that long looked for day
Is still encumbered with some new delay. Id.
Look o'er the present and the former time,
If no example of so vile a crime
Appears, then mourn. Id. Juvenal.
Such a spirit must be left behind
A spirit fit to start into an empire,
And look the world to law. Id. Cleomenes.
Then on the croud he cast a furious look,
And withered all their strength. Dryden.
Them gracious Heaven for nobler ends designed,
Their looks erected, and their clay refined.
J. Dryden, jun.
They'll rather wait the running of the river dry,
than take pains to look about for a bridge.
\
L’Estrange.
The dog's running away with the flesh, bids the
cook look better to it another time. Id.
We should make no other use of our neighbour's
faults, than as a looking-glass to mend our own man-
ners by. 3. Id.
They will not look beyond the received notions
of the place and age, nor have so presumptuous
a thought as to be wiser than their neighbours.
Locke.
Intellectual beings, in their constant endeavours
after true felicity, can suspend this prosecution in
particular cases, till they have looked before them,
and informed themselves, whether that particular
thing lie in their way to their main end. Id.
Every one, if he would look into himself, woul
find some defect of his particular genius. tº
He that gathered a hundred bushels of apples,
had thereby a property in them : he was only to look
that he used them before they spoiled, else he robbed
others. ld.
Politeness of manners, and knowledge of the world,
should principally be looked after in a tutor.
- Id. on Education.
LOO 289 LOO
To complain of want, and yet refuse all offers of a
supply, looks very sullen. Burnet.
He looked upon it as morally impossible, for per-
sons infinitely proud to frame their minds to an im-
partial consideration of a religion that taught nothing
but self-denial and the cross. South.
There is none so homely but loves a looking-glass.
Id.
A solid and substantial greatness of soul looks
down with a generous neglect on the censures and
applauses of the multitude. Addison.
Should I publish any favours done me by your
lordship, I am afraid it would look more like vanity
than gratitude. Id.
He wished he had indeed been gone,
And only to have stood a looker on.
Id. Ovid.
If a harmless maid -
Should ere a wife become a nurse,
Her friends would look on her the worse.
Prior.
Though I cannot tell what a man says; if he
will be sincere, I may easily know what he looks.
Collier.
Is a man bound to look out sharp to plague him-
self? Id.
Look you! we that pretend to be subject to a con-
stitution, must not carve out our own quality; for at
this rate a cobler may make himself a lord.
Id. on Pride.
The optick nerves of such animals as look the same
way with both eyes, as of men, meet before they
come into the brain; but the optick nerves of such
animals as do not look the same way with both eyes,
as of fishes, do not meet. Newton’s Opticks.
It will be his lot to look singular, in loose and
licentious times, and to become a by-word.
" ; Atterbury.
The more frequently and narrowly we look into the
works of nature, the more occasion we shall have to
admire their beauty. Id.
John's cause was a good milch cow, and many a
man subsisted his family out of it; however, John
began to think it high time to look about him.
Arbuthnot's History of John Bull.
Those prayers you make for your recovery are to
be looked upon as best heard by God, if they move
him to a longer continuance of your sickness.
f Wake's Preparation for Death.
Where a foreign tongue is elegant, expressive, and
compact, we must look out for words as beautiful and
comprehensive as can be found. P
Felton on the Classics.
This makes it look the more like truth, nature being
frugal in her principles, but various in the effects
thence arising. Cheyne.
Late, a sad spectacle of woe, he trod
The desart sands, and now he looks a god.
Pope.
The curious are looking out, some for flattery, some
for ironies, in that poem, the sour folks think they
have found out some. Swift.
From the vices and follies of others, observe how
such a practice looks in another person, and re-
member that it looks as ill, or worse, in yourself.
Watts.
Look out of your door—take notice of that man;
see what disquieting, intriguing, and shifting, he is
content to go through, merely to be thought a man of
lain dealing; three grains of honesty would save
#. all his trouble:—alas! he has them not.
- ./ Sterne.
The present life is a state of trial, wherein virtue
or holiness is necessary, not only to entitle us to that
salvation which, through the mercy of God and the
VoI. XIII.
merits of his Son, Christians are taught to look for;
but also to prepare us, by habits of piety and bene-
volence, for a reward, which none but the pure in
heart can receive, or could relish. Beattie.
The sick penitent, therefore, should be often re-
minded of this:—that nothing will be looked upon as
true repentance, but what would terminate in a holy
life. Paley.
Shakespeare paints so very close to nature, and
with such marking touches, that he gives the very
look an actor ought to wear when he is on his scene.
Cumberland.
I've looked on Ida with a Trojan's eye.
Athos, Olympus, AEtna, Atlas, made
These hills seems things of lesser dignity.
- Byron.
Look ouT. There is always a look-out kept
on a ship's forecastle at sea, to watch for any
dangerous objects lying near her track, and to
which she makes a gradual approach as she ad-
vances: the mate of the watch accordingly calls
often from the quarter-deck, ‘Look out afore
there!' to the person appointed for this service.
LookING-GLASSES. See GLASS.
LOOL, in metallurgy, a vessel made to re-
ceive the washings of ores of metals. The
heavier or more metalline part of the ores remain
in the trough in which they are washed; the
lighter and more earthy run off with the water,
but settle in the lool. **
Loom, n. s. Swed. lom ; Dan, loom ; French
lumma. A sea-fowl.
A loom is as big as a goose; of a dark color, dap-
pled with white spots on the neck, back, and wings;
each feather marked near the point with two spots:
they breed in Farr Island. Grew.
LOOM, n.s. Sax. loma ; Goth. lom, which
also signify LIMB, see that word. A jointed
frame or instrument of weaving.
Minerva, studies to compose
Her twisted threads, the web she strung,
And o'er a loom of marble hung. Addison.
A thousand maidens ply the purple loom,
To weave the bed, and deck the regal room.
Prior.
He must leave no uneven thread in his loom, or by
indulging to any one sort of reproveable discourse
himself, defeat all his endeavours against the rest.
Government of the Tongue.
Breathe still softer, or be chid ;
And other worlds send odours, sauce, and song,
And robes, and notions, framed in foreign looms.
Young.
These men never destroyed their looms till they
were become useless, worse than useless; till they
were become actual impediments to their exertions in
obtaining their daily bread. Byron.
LooM, in weaving, is a machine whereby
many distinct threads are woven into one piece.
Looms are of various structures, accommodated
to the various kinds of materials to be woven,
and the various manner of weaving them: viz.
for woollens, silks, linens, cottons, cloths of
gold; and other works, as tapestry, ribands,
stockings, &c., which will be found under their
proper heads. See WEAving. The weaver's
loom-engine, otherwise called the Dutch loom-
engine, was brought into use from Holland to
London, in or about 1676. U
LOO
LOO
290
LOON, n.s. Sax. lun, lean; Goth. laun;
Teut. lohn (hire); Scot. loun. A servant; a
country fellow ; a low fellow.
Thou cream-faced loom *
Where got'st thou that goose look?
Shakspeare. Macbeth.
The false loon, who could not work his will
By open force, employed his flattering skill:
I hope, my lord, said he, I not offend ;
Are you afraid of me that are your friend? Dryden.
This young lord had an old cunning rogue, or, as
the Scots call it, a false loon of a grandfather, that
one might call a Jack of all trades.
Arbuthnot's History of John Bull.
LOONGHEE, a town of the Burmese empire,
on the Irrawaddy river, across which is a remark-
able ridge of rocks that the natives have a tradi-
tion is a petrified cable. The neighbourhood is
famous for its fine cattle. Long. 91° 55' E., lat.
19° 41' N.
LOOP, n.s.
Loop ED', adj. loopen, to run. A running
Loop'Hole, n.s. (knot, or noose; the doubled
LOOP'Holed, adj. ) part of a string : hence any
ornamental double, or fringe consisting of dou-
bles: loophole, an aperture, or hole to give pas-
sage: hence evasion; shift; mental doubling.
Fifty loops shalt thou make in the one curtain, and
fifty loops shalt thou make in the edge of the curtain
that is in the coupling of the second, that the loops
may take hold one of another. Evod. xxvi. 5.
Nor anie skil'd in workmanship embossed
Nor anie skil’d in loupes of fingering fine,
Might with their diverse cunning ever dare,
With this so curious net-worke to compare.
Spenser.
Make me to see’t, or at least so prove it,
That the probation bear no hinge, nor loop,
To hang a doubt on. Shakspeare. Othello.
Poor naked wretches, wheresoe'er you are,
That 'bide the pelting of this pitiless storm 1
How shall your houseless heads and unfed sides,
Your looped and windowed raggedness, defend you
From seasons such as these ? Id. King Lear.
The Indian herdsman, shunning heat,
Shelters in cool, and tends his pasturing herds,
At loopholes cut through thickest shades. Milton.
Ere the blabbing eastern scout,
The nice morn on the Indian steep,
From her cabined loophole peep. Id.
This uneasy loopholed gaol,
In which y’ are hampered by the fetlock,
Cannot but put y' in mind of wedlock.
Hudibras.
Walk not near yon corner house by night; for
there are blunderbusses planted in every loophole, that
go off at the squeaking of a fiddle.
Dryden's Spanish Fryar.
An old fellow shall wear this or that sort of cut
in his cloaths with great integrity, while all the rest
of the world are degenerated into buttons, pockets,
and loops. Addison.
LOOP, in the iron works, is a part of a sow or
block of cast iron broken or melted off from the
rest, and prepared for the forge or hammer. The
usual º is, to break off the loop of about
three-fourths of a hundred weight. This loop
they take up with their slinging tongs, and beat
it with iron sledges upon an iron plate near the
fire, that so it may not fall to pieces, but be in a
condition to be carried under the hammer.
It is then placed under the hammer, and, a
Goth, laup ; Belg. loop,
little water being drawn to make the hammer
move but softly, it is beaten very gently, and by
this means the dross and foulness are forced off;
and after this they draw more and more water
by degrees, and beat it more and more till they
bring it to a sáuare mass, of about two feet long,
which they call a bloom.
LOOPING, in metallurgy, a word used by the
miners of some counties of England to express
the running together the matter of an ore into a
mass, in the roasting or first burning, intended
only to calcine it so far as to make it fit for pow-
dering. This accident, which gives the miners
some trouble, is generally owing to the continu-
ing the fire too long in this process.
LOORD, m. s. Belg. and Teut. loerd; Fr.
lourdant; Erse. lurdan. A heavy, stupid, or
witess fellow: obsolete. Spenser's Scholiast
says, loord was wont, among the old Britons, to
signify a lord; and therefore the Danes, that
usurped their tyranny here in Britain, were
called, for more dread than dignity, lurdant, i.e.
lord Danes, whose insolence and pride was so
outrageous in this realm, that if it fortuned a
Briton to be going over a bridge, and to see the
Dane set foot upon the same, he must return
back till the Dame was clean over, else he must
abide no less than present death; but, being
afterwards expelled, the name of lurdane became
so odious unto the people whom they had long
oppressed, that, even at this day, they use for
more reproach to call the quartan ague the fever
lurdane. So far the Scholiast, but erroneously.
From Spenser's own words, it signifies stupid
dulness rather than magisterial arrogance. A
drone.
Siker, thou's but a lazy loord,
And rekes much of thy swinke,
That with fond terms and witless words.
To bleer mine eyes do'st think.
Spenser's Pastorals.
LOOSA, in botany, a genus of the monogynia
order, in the polyandria class of plants: CAL.
pentaphyllous, superior; there are five subovate,
cucullated, and large petals; the nectarium con-
sists of five leaves, gathered into a conical figure,
each termanated by two filaments: CAPS. is tur-
binated, unilocular, and trivalved at top; the
seeds are very numerous; and there are three
linear and longitudinal sinuses.
LOOSE, v. a., v.m., adj., & n.s. Sax. leag,
LOOSE'LY, adv. leran; Goth.
Loos'EN, v. n., v. a., & adj. (laus ; Swed.
Loos ENESS, n.s. Teut. and
Belg, los ; Dan. loes; Gr. Avoic, Avgo. To make
or set free; unbind; untie; detach; disengage:
hence, to deliver from obligation, perplexity, or
trouble: as a neuter verb, to set sail or depart
by loosing anchor: as an adjective, unshackled;
unbound; detached; not fast, fixed, tied, or
close: unconnected; hence, free in any sense,
not rigid, or accurate; not enslaved or bound
to; not strict in expression; vague, indetermi-
nate, or immoral; unchaste; wanton : to break
loose is to obtain liberty with more or less of
violence; to set loose; to place in a state of
liberty or freedom from restraint of some kind:
loose as a substantive is a barbarous synonyme
of liberty; Bacon uses it for dismission from:
LOO
LOO
29]
restraint: to loosen is to separate, part asunder,
or lead to separation; also, as a verb active, to
relax; make less compact or coherent; free from
restraint; make less costive: the adverb and
moun substantive, looseness, follow these senses.
And let the living bird loose into the open field.
Lev. xiv.
Canst thou loose the bands of Orion? Job.
Lo! I see four men loose walking.
Dam. iii. 25.
The captive hasteneth that he may be loosed. Isaiah.
Loose him, and bring him to me. Luke.
The shoes of his feet I am not worthy to loose.
- Acts.
Ye should have hearkened, and not have loosed
from Crete. - - Id.
Art thou loosed from a wife? seek not a wife.
1 Corinthians.
Who is worthy to loose the seals thereof.”
- Rev. v. 2.
‘Courtly court he made still to his dame,
Poured out in looseness on the grassy ground,
Both careless of his health and of his fame.
Spenser.
Fair Venus seemed unto his bed to bring
Her, whom he waking evermore did ween
To be the chasted flower that ay did spring
On earthly branch, the daughter of a king,
Now a loose leman to vile'service bound.
- Id. Faerie Queene.
Her golden locks for haste were loosely shed
About her ears. Id.
Because conspience, and the fear of swerving from
that which is right, maketh them diligent observers
of circumstances, the loose regard whereof is the nurse
of vulgar folly. Hooker.
We have not loosely through silence permitted
things to pass away as in a dream.
The emperor loosing from Barcelona, came to the
port of Mago, in the island of Minorca. Knolles.
But in what habit will you go along?
— Not like a woman; for I would prevent the loose
encounters of lascivious men. Shakspeare.
If he should intend his voyage towards my wife,
I would turn her loose to him ; and, what he gets
more of her than sharp words, let it lie on my head.
--- - ld.
A prince should not be so loosely studied, as to
remember so weak a composition. ld.
Loosing thence by night, they were driven by con-
trary winds back into his port. Raleigh.
A bishop, living loosely, was charged that his con-
versation was not according to the apostles' lives.
Camden.
It is but a loose thing to speak of possibilities,
without the particular designs; so is it to speak of
lawfulness without the particular cases. Bacon.
Air at large maketh no noise, except it be sharply
percussed; as in the sound of a string, where air is
percussed by a hard and stiff body, and with a sharp
loose. Id.
Fear looseneth the belly; because, the heat retiring
towards the heart, the guts are relaxed in the same
manner as fear also causeth trembling.
Id. Natural History.
The cause of the casting of skin and shell should
seem to be the looseness of the skin or shell, that
sticketh not close to the flesh. Id.
He endeavoured to win the common people, both
by strained curtesy and by looseness of life.
. . Hayward.
He leesed and set at liberty four or five kings of the
people of that country that Berok kept in chains.
. Abbot.
I account this body nothing but a close prison to
my soul; and the earth a larger prison to my body.
I may not break prison, till I be loosed by death:
but I will leave it not unwillingly when I am loosed.
Bp. Hall.
We ourselves make our fortunes good or bad, and
when God lets loose a tyrant upon us, or a sickness,
if we fear to die or know not to be patient, the
calamity sits heavy upon us. Taylor.
With extended wings a host might pass,
With horse and chariots ranked in loose array.
Milton.
From their foundation loosing to and fro,
They plucked the seated hills with all their load.
Id.
Part loosely wing the region, part more wise
In common, ranged in figure, wedge their way. Id.
When loose epistles violate chaste eyes,
She half consents who silently denies.
Dryden's Ovid.
Ay; there's the man, who, loosed from lust and
elf,
Less tº: pretor owes than to himself. Id.
She breaks her back, the loosened sides give way,
And plunge the Tuscan soldiers in the sea. Id.
Like two black storms on either hand,
Our Spanish army and the Indians stand ;
This only space betwixt the clouds is clear,
Where you, like day, broke loose from both arº,
- d.
Come, and forsake thy cloying store,
And all the busy pageantry º
That wise men scorn, and fools adore :
Come give thy soul a loose, and taste the pleasures
of the poor. Id. Horace.
The chiming of some particular words in the ,
memory, and making a noise in the head, seldom
happens but when the mind is lazy, or very loosely
and negligently employed. Locke.
If to break loose from the conduct of reason, and
to want that restraint of examination which keeps us
from chusing the worse, be liberty, madmen and fools
are the only freemen. Id.
If improvement cannot be made a recreation, they
must be let loose to the childish play they fancy;
which they should be weaned from, by being made
surfeit of it. Id.
What hath a great influence upon the health, is
going to stool regularly: people that are very loose
have seldom strong thoughts, or strong bodies.
§ Id. On Education.
He has within himself all degrees of perfection
that exist loosely and separately in all second beings.
- Norris.
This is to cut the knot, when we cannot loose it.
Burnet.
Fame, makes the mind loose and gayish, scatters
the spirits, and leaves a kind of dissolution upon all
the faculties. South.
Now I stand
Loose of my vow; but who knows Cato's thoughts 2
Addison’s Catw.
Lucia, might my big swoln heart
Vent all its griefs, and give a loose to sorrow,
Marcia could answer thee in sighs. Id.
The fiery Pegasus disdains
To mind the rider’s voice, or hear the reins !
When glorious fields and opening camps he views,
He runs with an unbounded loose. Prior.
A general looseness of principles and manners hath
seized on us like a pestilence, that walketh not in
darkness, but wasteth at noon-day. Atterbury.
Fat meats, in phlegmatick stomachs, procure
looseness and hinder retention.
- Arbuthnot on Aliments.
U 2
LOP •, 2
LOP
When the polypus appears in the throat, extract
at that way, it being more ready to loosen when pulled
in that direction than by the nose. Sharp's Surgery.
If an author be loose and diffuse in his style, the
translator needs only regard the propriety of the
language. Felton.
Those few that clashed might rebound after the
collision; or, if they cohered, yet by the next conflict
might be separated again, and so on in an eternal
vicissitude of fast and loose, though without ever con-
sociating into the bodies of planets. Bentley.
The stage how loosely does Astraea tread,
Who fairly puts all characters to bed! Pope.
Vario spends whole mornings in running, over
loose and unconnected pages, and with fresh curiosity
is ever glancing over new words and ideas, and yet
treasures up but little knowledge.
Watts on the Mind.
Oye, to Pleasure who resign the day,
As loose in Luxury's clasping arms you lie,
O yet let pity in your breast bear sway,
And learn to melt at Misery's moving cry.
Beattie.
Loose waved behind her golden train of hair,
Her sapphire mantle swam diffused in air.
Darwin.
Though slight was the grasp so mortal cold,
He could not loose him from its hold. Byron.
The treacherous current works its noiseless way,
The fibres loosen, and the roots decay ;
Prostrate the beauteous ruin lies; and all
That shared its shelter, perish in its fall. Canning.
LOP, v. a. & n.s. Goth, leipa ; Swed. lopa,
from Teut. laub, a leaf, as Skinner thinks : but
Sax. lopa is “any sudden manner of cutting,'
Thomson. To cut off the branches of trees; to
cut off abruptly in any way or respect: that
which is lopped off.
Or siker thy head very tottie is,
So on thy corbe shoulder it leans amiss;
Now thyself hath lost both lop and top,
As my budding branch thou would'st crop.
Spenser.
Gentle niece, what stern ungentle hands
Have lopped and hewed, and made thy body bare
Of her two branches, those sweet ornaments
- : Shakspeare.
The gardener may lop religion as he pleases.
Howell.
The plants whose luxury was lopped,
Or age with crutches underpropped.
Cleaveland.
. Like two pillars,
Or hollowed bodies, made of oak or fir,
With branches lopped in wood, or mountain felled.
Milton.
So long as there’s a head, 's
Hither will all the mountain spirits fly;
Lop that bud off. Dryden’s Spanish Fryar.
The oak growing from a plant to a great tree, and
then lopped, is still the same oak. Locke.
Nor should the boughs grow too big, because they
give opportunity to the rain to soak into the tree,
which will quickly cause it to decay, so that you
must cut it down, or else both body and lop will be
of little value. Mortimer.
Rhyme sure in needless bonds the poet ties,
Procrustes like, the ax or wheel applies,
To lop the mangled sense, or stretch it into size.
. Smith.
All that denominated it paradise was lopped off by
the deluge, and that only left which it enjoyed in
common with its neighbour countries.
Woodward's Natural History.
The hook she bore, instead of Cynthia's spear,
To lop the growth of the luxuriant year. Pope.
The stoical scheme of supplying our wants, by lop-
ping off our desires, is like cutting off our feet when
we want shoes. Swift.
You call these men a mob, desperate, dangerous,
and ignorant; and seem to think that the only way
to quiet the “Bellua multorum capitum,’ is to lop off
a few of its superfluous heads. Byron.
LOP, a lake and city of Central Asia, on the
great road from Cashgar to China. It is situated
on the west side of the desert of Shamo, or Cobi.
Marco Polo described the caravans as usually
stopping here, in his time, to prepare for cross-
ing that extensive tract.
LOPE, pret. of leap. Obsolete.
With that sprang forth a naked swain,
With spotted wings like peacock's train,
And laughing lope to a tree.
Spenser's Pastorals.
LOPHUS, or LoPHIUs, fishing-frog, toad-fish,
or sea-devil; a genus of the branchiostegous order
of fishes, whose head is in size equal to all the
rest of the body. The most remarkable species is
L. piscatorius, the common fishing-frog, an in-
habitant of the British seas. This singular fish
was called by the ancients Barpaxoc, and rana,
for the same reason that we call it the fishing-
frog; because it resembles the frog in a tadpole
state. Pliny takes notice of the artifice used by
it to take its prey: “It puts forth the slender
horns it has beneath its eyes, enticing by that
means the smaller fish to play round, till they
come within reach, when it springs on them.'
The fishing-frog grows to a large size, some be-
ing between four and five feet long. The fisher-
men on that coast have a great regard for this
fish, from a supposition that it is a great enemy
to the dog-fish; and, whenever they take it with
their lines, set it at fiberty. It is a fish of very
great deformity: the head is much bigger than
the whole body; is round at the circumference,
and flat above, the mouth of a prodigious wide-
ness. Mr. Pennant mentions one taken near
Scarborough, whose mouth was a yard wide.
The under jaw is much longer than the upper:
the jaws are full of slender sharp teeth; in the
roof of the mouth are two or three rows of the
same : at the root of the tongue, opposite each
other, are two bones of an elliptical form, thick
set with very strong sharp teeth. The nostrils do
not appear externally, but in the upper part of
the mouth are two large orifices that serve instead
of them. On each side the upper jaw are two
sharp spines, and others are scattered about the
upper part of the head. Immediately above the
nose are two long tough filaments, and on the
back three others; these are what Pliny calls
cornicula. Along the edges of the head and
body are a multitude of short fringed skins,
placed at equal distances. The aperture to the
gills is placed behind; each of these is very
wide, so that some writers have imagined it to
be a receptacle for the young in time of danger.
The body grows slender near the tail, the end of
which is quite even. The color of the upper
part of this fish is dusky, the lower part white;
the skin smooth.
LOR
LOR
293
LOQUA’CIOUS, adj. R. Lat. loquar, loqua-
Loquac'ITY, n.s. ; citas. Full of talk or
tongue.
Why loquacity is to be avoided, the wise man gives
sufficient reason: for in the multitude of words there
wanteth not sin. Ray.
To whom sad Eve,
Confessing soon ; yet not before her judge
Bold, or loquacious, thus abashed, replied.
Milton.
In council she gives licence to her tongue,
Loquacious, brawling, ever in the wrong.
- Dryden.
Blind British bards, with volant touch
Traverse loquacious strings, whose solemn notes
Provoke to harmless revels. Philips.
Too great loquacity, and too great taciturnity by
fits. Arbuthnot.
LORANTHUS, in botany, a genus of the mo-
nogynia order, in the hexandria class of plants:
natural order forty-eighth, aggregatae : germen
inferior : CAL. none: cor. Sexfid and revoluted;
the stamina are at the tops of the petals: BERRY
monospermous. There is only one species, a
native of America, discovered by F. Plumier,
and found growing naturally at LaVera Cruz b
I)r. Houston. It rises with a shrubby stalk,
eight or ten feet high, dividing into several
branches, having at their ends clusters of small
scarlet-colored flowers, succeeded by oval berries
with a pulpy covering, and a hard shell with one
cell, enclosing several compressed seeds. It is
propagated by seeds, which should be sown soon
after they are ripe; otherwise they are very apt
to miscarry, or lie a year in the ground without
germinating. The plants require always to be
kept in a bark stove.
LORARII, among the Romans, officers whose
business it was, with whips and scourges to com-
pel the gladiators to engage. They also punished
slaves for disobedience. -
LORCA, a large town of Murcia, Spain, di-
vided into the Upper and Lower towns, the latter
of which is tolerably regular and well built. It
has nine churches and several monasteries. The
convents worthy of attention are those of St.
Jago and St. Domingo. The front of the great
church is also elegant. The inhabitants are
descendants of the converted Moors. The
manufactures, of saltpetre are of great extent:
and the public walks are considered beautiful.
In 1802 this town suffered materially from the
bursting of a reservoir in the neighbourhood. It
is forty miles S.S.W. of Murcia, and forty-seven
west of Carthagena. Long. 1922' W., lat. 37°
25° N.
LORD, n.s. & v. n.
LORD'ING, n. s.
Saxon plapono,
laveono, of loplan,
LORD'LING, to exalt, and ward,
LORD'LINGNESS, or weorth, dignity.
LoRD'LY, adj. & adv. W Superior ruler;
LoRD'SHIP. governor; monarch;
the Supreme Being : a nobleman; a tyrant; a
husband; an honorary title of various offices and
dignitaries: to lord is to domineer; assume
excessive or despotic authority: lording and
lordling are diminutives of lord, used in ridicule
or contempt: lordliness, dignity; elevated sta-
tion; pride; hauteur: lordly, befitting or aping
a lord: lordship, power; dominion; superiority;
seignority; a title of the British and other peer-
ages, and a compellation of judges; the mayors
of London and York, &c.
The Lord said unto my Lord, sit thou at my right
hand. Psalm cz.
What euer seruauntis ben undir ghoke deme thei
her lordis worthe al onour lest the name of the Lord
and the doctrine be blasfemed. Wiclif. 1 Tymo. 6.
The seruaunt is not grettere than his lord.
- Id. Jon. 13.
They which are accounted to rule over the Gen-
tiles, exercise lordship over them, and their great ones
exercise authority upon them. Mark x. 42.
Thinke on the woman Cananee, that saide
That whelpes eten som of the cromes alle
That from her lordes table been yfalle. ,
Chaucer. The Second Nonnes Tale, v. 15528.
Grant harvest lord more by a penny or two,
To call on his fellows the better to do. Tusser.
Unrighteous lord of love what law is this,
That me thou makest thus tormented be 2
The whiles she lordeth in licentious bliss
Of her free will, scorning both thee and me.
Spenser.
How can those grants of the kings be avoided,
without wronging of those lords which had those
lands and lordships given them? Id. On Ireland.
I’ll question you
Of my lord's tricks, and yours, when you were
OWS.
You wººty lordings then.
Shakspeare. Winter's Tale.
Thou vouchsafest here to visit me,
Doing the honour of thy lordliness
To one so weak. Id. Antony and Cleopatra.
Bad as yourself, my lord;
An’t like your lordly lord protectorship !
- Shakspeare.
Now being assembled into one company, rather
without a lord than at liberty to accomplish their
misery, they fall to division. Hayward.
Needs must the lordship there from virtue slide.
- - Fairfax.
I assure your lordship,
The extreme horrour of it almost turned me
To air, when first I heard it. Ben Jonson.
There is lordship of the fee, wherein the master
doth much joy, when he walketh about his own pos-
sessions. Wotton.
Nor were the crimes objected against him so clear,
as to give convincing satisfaction to the major part of
both houses, especially that of the lords.
- King Charles.
What a little lord hast thou made over this great
earth. Bp. Hall.
Those huge tracts of ground they lorded over, begat
wealth, wealth ushered in pride. Howel.
They had by this possessed the towers of Gath,
And lorded over them whom they now serve.
Milton.
Man over man
He made not lord. : Id.
Of me as of a common enemy,
So dreaded once, may now exasperate them,
I know not; lords are lordliest in their wine. ld.
It being set upon such an insensible rising of the
ground, it gives the eye lordship over a good large
circuit. Sidney.
He was confounded and disanimated at his pre-
sence, and added, How can the servant of my lord
talk with my lord? Boyle's Seraphic Love.
'Tis death to fight, but kingly to controul
Lord-like at ease, with arbitrary power,
To peel the chiefs, the people to devour. Dryden.
LOR
LOR
294
But if thy passion lord it in thy breast,
Art thou not still a slave 3 Id. Persius.
So when a tyger sucks the bullock's blood,
A famished lion, issuing from the wood,
Roars loudly fierce, and challenges the food.
Dryden.
What lands and lordskips for their owner know
My quondam barber, but his worship now. Id.
We have our author's only arguments to prove,
that heirs are lords over their brethren. Locke.
The valour of one man the afflicted throne
Imperial, that once lorded o'er the world,
Sustained. Philips.
I should choose rather to be tumbled into the dust
in blood, bearing witness to any known truth of our
Lord, than by a denial of truths, through blood and
perjury wade to a sceptre, and lord it in a throne.
South.
Lordly sins require lordly estates to support *;
They called their lord Actaeon to the game,
He shook his head in answer to the name.
Addison.
I oft in bitterness of soul deplored
My absent daughter, and my dearer lord.
Pope.
To lordlings proud I tune my lay,
Who feast in bower or hall;
Though dukes they be, to dukes I say,
That pride will have a fall.
Traulus, of amphibious breed,
By the dam from lordlings sprung,
By the fire exhaled from dung.
O'er love, o'er fear, extends his wide domain,
Unconquered lord of pleasure and of pain.
t Vanity of Human Wishes.
All hail inexorable lord 1
At whose destruction-breathing word
The mightiest empires fall!
Thy cruel, woe-delighted train,
The ministers of grief and pain,
Swift.
Id.
A sullen welcome, all! Burns.
The sun that overhangs yon moors,
Out-spreading far and wide,
Where hundreds labour to support I
- ld.
A haughty lordling's pride.
LoRD is a title of honor given to those who
are noble, eithér by birth or creation, amounting
to much the same as peer of the realm. The
title is by courtesy also given to all the sons of
dukes and marquises, and to the eldest sons of
earls. The Saxon word, hlaford, is abbreviated
from illaford to laford and lord. “The etymology
of the word,” says J. Coates, ‘is well worth ob-
serving; for it was composed of illaf, a loaf of
bread, and ford, to give or afford; so that illa-
ford implied a giver of bread; because, in those
ages, such great men kept extraordinary houses,
and fed all the poor; for which reason they
were called givers of bread, a thing now much
out of date, great men being fond of retaining the
title, but few regarding the practice for which it
was first given.’
LORDs, House of, one of the three estates of
parliament, composed of the lords spiritual and
temporal. The following are among the pecu-
liar privileges of the house of lords:–1. One
Very ancient privilege is declared by the charter
of the forest, confirmed in parliament by 9 Hen.
III. : viz. that every lord, spiritual or temporal,
summoned to parliament, and passing through
the king's forests, may, both in going and
returning, kill one or two of the king's deer
without warrant; in view of the forester if he be
present, or on blowing a horn if he be absent;
that he may not seem to take the king's venison
by stealth. 2. They have a right to be attended,
and constantly are, by the judges of the court of
king's bench and common pleas, and such of the
barons of the exchequer as are of the degree of the
coif, or have been made serjeants at law; also by
the king's learned counsel, being serjeants; and
by the masters of the court of chancery, for their
advice in point of law, and for the greater dignity
of their proceedings. The secretaries of state,
with the attorney and solicitor general, also used
to attend the house of peers, and have to this
day (together with the judges, &c.) their regular
writs of summons issued out at the beginning of
every parliament, ad tractandum et consilium
impendendum, though not ad consentiendum :
but whenever, of late years, they have been
members of the house of commons, their attend-
ance in the house of lords has fallen into disuse.
3. Every peer, by license obtained from the king,
may make another lord of parliament his proxy,
to vote for him in his absence; a privilege which
a member of the other house can by no means
have, as he himself is but a proxy for a multitude
of other people. 4. Each peer has a right, by
leave of the house, when a vote passes contrary
to his sentiments, to enter his dissent on the
journal of the house, with the reasons for such
dissent; which is usually styled his protest. 5.
All bills, that may in their consequences in any
way affect the rights of the peerage, are by the
custom of parliament to have their first rise in
the house of peers, and to suffer no changes or
amendments in the house of commons. 6. There
is also one statute peculiarly relative to the house
of lords, 6 Ann. c. 13, which regulates the election
of the sixteen representative peers of North Britain
in consequence of the twenty-second and twenty-
third articles of the union: and for that purpose
prescribes the oaths, &c., to be taken by the elec-
tors; directs the mode of balloting; prohibits the
peers electing from being attended in an unusual
manner; and expressly provides that no other
matter shall be treated of, in that assembly, save
only the election, on pain of incurring a prae-
munire; and a similar act was passed in 1800,
regulating the elections of the Irish peers. See
PEERs of ENGLAND, and GREAT BRITAIN, and
LAw. -
LORE, n.s. Saxon lan, laenan, to learn;
Goth. laer. Learning; doctrine; lesson; in-
struction.
This markis yet his wife to tempten more
To the uttereste presse of hire corage,
Fully to have experience and lore
If that she were as stedfast as before. -
- - Chaucer. Cant. Tales.
And, for the modest lore of maidenhood,
Bids me not sojourn with these armed men,
Oh whither shall I fly? Fairfar.
The law of nations, or the lore of war. Id.
Calm regions once,
And full of peace; now tost, and turbulent!
For understanding ruled not; and the will
Heard not her lore 1 but in subjection now
To sensual appetite. Milton’s Paradise Ltist.
LOR
LOR
295
Lo; Rome herself, proud mistress now no more
Of arts, but thundering against heathen lore. Pope.
But why should foresight thy fond heart alarm!
Perish the lore that deadens young desire | Beattie.
LOR'EL, n.s. Sax. leonan. An abandoned
scoundrel. Obsolete.
Silker thou speakest like a lewd lorell
Of heaven to deemen so :
How be I am but rude and borrel,
Yet nearer ways I know. Spenser's Pastorals.
Thus sayst thou, lorel, whan thou gost to bed,
And that no wise man nedeth for to wed.
Chaucer. Cant. Tales.
LORENZO, SAN, a town of Mexico, in New
Biscay, termed the vineyard of Cohahuila, the
whole population (about 600) pursuing no other
occupation than the cultivation of the grape. Its
gardens are delightfully interspersed with figs,
vines, apricots, and a variety of other fruits.
LORETTO, a remarkable town of Italy, in
the papal states, near the mouth of the river Mu-
Sone. It is situated on the Adriatic, on a com-
manding eminence, and is surrounded with a
rampart and deep ditch, defended by towers.
The principal street is a double row of mean
shops; and the other edifices are little worth
notice. It owes its celebrity entirely to the
Santa Casa, or house said to have been inhabited
by the Virgin Mary of Nazareth, conveyed
hither, as tradition reports, in 1221, by a band
of angels. In the journey from Galilee the same
authority gives these distinguished carriers a rest-
ing place in Dalmatia. The precious relic now
occupies a conspicuous situation in the cathedral,
and is surrounded with a case of the finest mar-
ble, ornamented-with beautiful bas reliefs. The
Casa also contains an image of the Virgin, pro-
fusely adorned with precious stones. On the
invasion of Italy, the French republicans
despoiled this church of its treasures; and even
the image of the Virgin was removed to Paris,
but restored in 1802. The town has, it is said,
of late fallen greatly into decay. Population
6000. Twelve miles S. S. E. of Ancona, and 115
of Rome.
LORICA, in Roman antiquity, was a cuirass,
brigantine, or coat of mail, in use among the
soldiers. It was generally made of leather, and
its name is supposed to be derived from lorum,
a thong. The lorica were set with plates of
metal in various forms; sometimes in hooks or
rings like a chain, sometimes like feathers, and
sometimes like the scales of serpents or fishes, to
which plates of gold were often added. There
were many other lighter cuirasses, consisting
only of many folds of linen cloth, or of flax
made strong enough to resist weapons. Such
soldiers as were rated under 1000 drachms, in-
stead of the lorica now described, wore a pecto-
rale. The Roman lorica was made like a shirt,
and defended the wearer both before and behind,
but was so contrived that the back part could be
occasionally separated from the front. Some
of the lorica were made of cords of hemp or
flax, closely set together; whence they are
called thoraces, bilices, trilices, &c., from the
number of the cords fixed one upon another;
but these were used rather in hunting than in
battle. º &
LOR/ICATE, ºv.a. Lat. lorica, a crust or
layer of plaster. To plate or plaster over.
Nature hath loricated, or plaistered over, the sides
of the tympanum in animals with ear-wax, to stop
and entangle any insects that should attempt to creep
in there. Ray,
LORME (Philibert de), one of the most cele-
brated architects in the sixteenth century, was
born at Lyons. Queen Catherine de Medicis
gave him the superintendance of buildings; and
he had the direction of those of the Louvre, the
Thuilleries, the castle of St. Anet, St. Germains,
and other edifices erected by her orders. He
wrote séveral books of architecture, which are
esteemed : and died about 1577.
L'ORIENT, a fortified modern sea-port of the
north-west of France, and department of the
Morbihan, situated on the bay of Port Louis, at
the influx of the Scorf. It is built with consider-
able regularity, and the streets are both long and
wide; the public squares spacious and hand-
some; and the harbour large and secure. Ships
of war anchor here in safety, and the trade
of the town was very flourishing under the
French East India Company, who at one time
made it the exclusive entrepôt of their imported
goods. It was declared a free port in 1784, a
privilege which, however, was abrogated at the
revolution. It is still a place of importance, on
account of its magazines for the use of the navy.
Salt is the principal manufacture. An unsuccess-
ful attack was made on it by some British ships,
under general Sinclair and admiral Lestock, in
1746. Population 18,000: 340 miles west by
south of Paris. -
LORN, adj. Sax. lone, lonian; Belg. lior,
Swed. lora. Distressed; forsaken; lost.
Thus hath the kite my love in hire service,
And I am lorn withouten remedy.
Chaucer. Cant. Tales.
Who after that he had fair Una lorn,
Through light misdeeming of her loyalty.
Faerie Queene.
LORRAIN (Henry de), third duke of Guise,
was the son of duke Francis, and grandson of
Claude, the first duke of Guise; and born in
1550. He was a great general, but of an ambi-
tious and turbulent disposition. He formed the
rebellious association called the league, first
planned by his uncle, the cardinal of Lorrain.
Under pretence of defending the Catholic faith,
he acted in open rebellion against Henry III.,
who at last had him assassinated at Blois, whither
he had summoned the duke to appear before
him on the 23d of December 1587. See FRANCE.
LORRAIN (Robert de), an eminent sculptor,
born at Paris in 1666. He made so rapid a
progress in the art of designing, that, at the age
of eighteen, the celebrated Girardon intrusted
him with the care of teaching his children and
correcting his disciples. He committed to him
also, in conjunction with Noulisson, the execu-
tion of the famous tomb of cardinal Richelieu in
the Sorbonne, and his own tomb at St. Landreu
in Paris. On his return from Rome, he finished
several pieces at Marseilles, which had been left
imperfect by the death of Mr. Puget, He was
received into the academy of sculpture in 1701.
LOS
LOS
296 ;
His masterpiece is Galatea, a work universally
admired. He afterwards made a Bacchus for
the gardens at Versailles, a Faun for those of
Marly, and several bronzes, among which is an
Andromeda. This artist succeeded chiefly in
heads; particularly in those of young girls, which
he performed with incomparable delicacy and
truth. He died governor of the academy in
1742.
LORRAINE, an extensive district of the
north-east of France, between Champagne and
Alsace, and divided into the four departments of
LA MEUSE, TA MoselLE, LA MEURTHE, and
LES Vosges. See these articles. Č
LOS ESTERos BAY, a bay of the coast of New
California, of which the shores fall back about
five miles from the ocean. Its north point, Porto
del Esteros, is about thirteen miles distant from
its southern, which is formed by steep cliffs.
Long. of the north point 239° 22' E., lat. 35°
31' N. *
LOSE, v. a. Y Sax. leorian, lorian; Goth.
Los E'ABLE, adj. | licesan ; Swed. lisa. To
Lo's EL, n.s. miss; part with ; expend;
LOS'SER, n.s. be deprived of; forfeit; alien-
LOSS, ſº ; abandon: as a neuter
Lost, part. adj. J verb, not to win; to fail; de-
cline: loseable is subject to loss or privation:
losel is an äbandoned worthless fellow: loss is
privation; detriment; diminution, or forfeiture
of good; particularly the shipwreck of a vessel;
uselessness; fault or puzzle, as in the phrase “at
a loss:’ lost, abandoned; imperceptible.
If salt have lost its savour, wherewith shall it be
salted? Matthew.
The fear of the lord goeth before obtaining of au-
thority; but roughness and pride is the losing thereof.
, Ecclus. x. 21.
He that wole make his lyf Saafschal leese it, and
he that schal leese his lyf for me schal fynde it.
Wielif. Matt. xvi.
By Cambridge a towne I do know,
Whose losses by lossels doth shew
More heere then is needful to tell. g
Tusser's Husbandry.
A losel wandering by the way,
One that to bounty never cast his mind,
Ne thought of honour ever did assay
His baser breast. Faerie Queene.
The only gain he purchased was to be capable of
loss and detriment for the good of others. Hooker.
Be not with work of losels wit defamed,
Ne let such verses poetry be named.
Hubberd’s Tale.
He lost his right hand with a shot, and, instead
thereof, ever after, used a hand of iron. Knolles.
I will go lose myself
And wander up and down to view the city.
Shakspeare.
We’ll hear poor rogues
Talk of court news, and we’ll talk with them too,
Who loses, and who wins; who's in, who's out. Id.
A gross hag!
And, losel, thou art worthy to be hanged,
That wilt not stay her tongue.
With the losers let it sympathize,
For nothing can seem foul to those that win. Id.
There succeeded an absolute victory for the Eng-
Yish, with the slaughter of above two thousand of
the enemy, with the loss but of one man, though not
a few hurt. Bacon.
to retire.
Nor are constant forms of prayer more likely to
flat and hinder the spirit of prayer and devotion, than
unpremeditated and confused variety to distract and
ose it. King Charles.
I am impoverished with ‘losses; that was never
thoroughly good that may be lost. Bp. Hall.
If thou hast lost thy land, do not also lose thy
constancy; and, if thou must die a little sooner, yet
do not die impatiently. tº
Taylor's Rule of Living Holy.
No man can be provident of his time that is not .
prudent in the choice of his company; and if one of .
the speakers be vain, tedious, and trifling, he that
hears, and he that answers, are equal losers of their
time. Id.
These sharp encounters, where always many more
men are lost than are killed or taken prisoners, put
such a stop to Middleton's march, that he was glad
Clarendon.
Although indeed man was by his fault a great
loser, and became deprived of great advantages, yet
the mercy of God did leave him in no very deplorable
estate, simply considered, as to his life here.
- Barrow.
The passages through which spirits are conveyed to
the members, being almost infinite, and each of them
drawn through so many meanders, it is wonderful
that they should perform their regular destinations
without losing their way. Glanville.
By them
I lost not what I lost, rather by them
I gained what I have gained, and with them dwell
Copartner in these regions of the world,
If not disposer.
Wisdom in discourse with her
Loses discountenanced, and like folly shews.
They have lost their trade of woollen drapery.
- Graunt.
Consider whether motion, or a propensity to it, be
an inherent quality belonging to atoms in general,
and not loseable by them. Boyle.
It cannot last, because that act seems to have been
carried on rather by the interest of particular coun-
tries, than by that of the whole, which must be a
loser by it. - Temple.
How should you go about to lose him a wife he
loves with so much passion ? Id.
The lightened coursers ran ;
They rushed, and won by turns, and lost the day.
Dryden.
Who conquered him, and in what fatal strife
The youth, without a wound, could lose his life. .
Id.
Milton.
Id.
Her fellow ships from far her loss descried :
But only she was sunk, and all were safe beside.
Reason is always striving, and always at a loss,
while it is exercised about that which is not its proper
object. Id.
When the mind pursues the idea of infinity, it uses
the ideas and repetition of numbers, which are so
many distinct ideas, kept best by number from run-
ning into a confused heap, wherein the mind loses
itself. Locke.
The abatement of price of any of the land-holder's
commodities, lessens his income, and is a clear *:
d.
Losers and malcontents, whose portion and inhe-
ritance is a freedom to speak. South.
Not the least transaction of sense and motion in
man, but philosophers are at a loss to comprehend.
South's Sermons.
His seely back the bunch has got
Which Edwin lost before.
Parnel.
LOT
LOT
297
We should never lose sight of the country, though
sometimes entertained with a distant prospect of it.
Addison.
In spite of all the virtue we can boast,
The woman that deliberates is lost. Id.
It would be loss of time to explain any further our
superiority to the enemy in numbers of men and horse.
Id.
The coast
Where first my shipwrecked heart was lost.
- Prior.
To lose these years which worthier thoughts re-
quire,
To lose that health which should those thoughts in-
spire. Savage.
Fame—few, alas ! the casual blessing boast,
So hard to gain, so easy to be lost 1 Pope.
But if to honour lost, 'tis still decreed
For you my bowl shall flow, my flocks shall bleed;
Judge and assert my right, impartial Jove. Pope.
Like following life in creatures we dissect,
We lose it in the moment we detect. Id.
He has merit, good-nature, and integrity, that are
too often lost upon great men, or at least are not all
three a match for flattery. Pope's Letters.
But rebel with deserts thee oft in vain,
Lost in the maze of words he turns again. Id.
º I do more complain,
Time, health, and fortune are not lost in vain. Id.
Oft in the passions' wild rotation tost,
Our spring of actions to ourselves is lost. Id.
In seventeen days appeared your pleasing coast,
And woody mountains, half in vapours lost. Pope.
When men are openly abandoned, and lost to all
shame, they have no reason to think it hard, if their
memory be reproached. Swift.
Of lost to virtue, lost to manly thought
Lost to the noble sallies of the soul!
Who think it solitude to be alone. Young.
A man may sometimes be at a loss which side to
close with. Baker on Learning.
When you have started a good thought, pursue it;
do not presently lose sight of it, or suffer any trifling
suggestion that may intervene to divert you from it.
Mason.
These pleasures, by repetition, lose their relish. .
Paley.
Is this man as much overjoyed with gain, and mor-
tified by losses, as he was the first day he opened his
shop. Id.
He made no wars, and did not gain.
New realms to lose them back again.
LOT, n. S. & v. a.
Lot'TERY. $ Fr. loterie ; Belg. and Fr.
lot ; Swed. lott; Ital, lotto, all signifying chance.
See LIGHT. Portion ; fortune; fate or property
assigned : a die, or anything by which chances
are determined" see the quotation from the book,
of Proverbs. Shakspeare uses it for a good or
wished-for chance: lot, as a verb, means to dis-
pose of by chances or lot: lottery is a game or
adventure decided by real or supposed chances.
Byron.
Aaron shall cast, lots upon the two goats: one lot
for the Lord, and the other lot for the scape-goat.
Lev. xvi. 8.
The lot is castinto the lap, but the whole disposal
thereof is of the Lord. Proverbs.
If you have heard your general talk of Rome,
And of his friends there, it is lots to blanks
My name hath touched your ears; it is Menenius.
- Shakspeare."
Sax. plot; Goth. lut; .
Let high-sighted tyranny range on,
Till each man drop by lottery. . Id.
The lottery that he hath devised in these three
chests of gold, silver, and lead, will never he chosen
by any but whom you shall rightly love. Id.
Every warrior may be said to be a soldier of for-
tune, and the best commanders to have a lottery for
their work. South.
Kala at length concludes my lingering lot :
Disdain me not, although I be not fair.
Who is an heir of many hundred sheep,
Doth beauty keep which never sun can burn,
Nor storms do turn. Sidney.
Their tasks in equal portions she divides,
And, where unequal, there by lots decides.
Dryden.
Fortune, that with malicious joy
Does man, her slave, oppress,
Still various and inconstant still,
Promotes, degrades, delights in strife,
And makes a lottery of life. Id. Horace.
Our own lot is best; and, by aiming at what we
have not, we lose what we have already.
- L’Estrange.
Prepared I stand; he was but born to try
The lot of man, to suffer and to die. -
Pope's Odyssey.
Ulysses bids his friends to cast lots, to shew that
he would not voluntarily expose them to soimminent
danger. - Broome.
In a like comparative sense, compared, that is, with
the general lot of mankind, we call a man happy
who possesses health and competency. Paley.
Poland! o'er which the avenging anger past,
But left thee as he found thee, still a waste,
Forgetting all thy still-enduring claim,
Thy lotted people and extinguished name,
Thy sigh for freedom, thy long flowing tear,
That sound that crashes in the tyrant's ear.—
Byron.
And here and there a chestnut stood,
The strong oak, and the hardy pine;
But far apart—and well it were,
Or else a different lot were mine.— Id.
Lot, toº, Heb. i. e. joined together, the son
of Haran, nephew of Abraham, and progenitor
of the Moabites and Ammonites. His separa-
tion from Abraham, his captivity by Chedorlao-
mer, his restoration by the bravery of his uncle,
his extraordinary hospitality, his deliverance
from the destruction of Sodom, his wife's meta-
morphosis, with his fatal intoxication, and invo-
luntary incest, are recorded in Genesis xiii. xiv.
and xix. His righteous character is particularly
taken notice of by the apostle Peter: 2 Ephe-
sians ii. 7, 8. Some trace the immodest worship
of Baal-peor, the god of the Moabites and Am-
monites, to the involuntary incest of their an-
cestor. See BAAL-PEor.
Lot, a department of France, consists of the an-
cient Quercy, a dependency of the former pro-
vince of Guienne, and takes its name from the
river Lot, which crosses it from east to west.
The principal place of this prefecture is Cahors;
it contains three arrondissements or sub-prefec-
tures; Cahors having 113,110 inhabitants, Figeac
85,473, and Gourdon 76,713; making a total
population of 275,296 souls, on an area of 5058
square miles. It is subdivided into twenty-nine
cantons and 440 communes; yields a territorial
298
L O T.
revenue of 11,306,000 francs; forms the twen-
tieth military division, having a royal court at
Agen, and a bishopric at Cahors; and is divided
into four electoral arrondissements, which send
five members to the chamber of deputies. .
This department is bounded on the north
by that of Correze; on the east by those of
Cantal and of Aveyron; on the south by that of
Tarn-et-Garonne, and on the west by those of
Lot-et-Garonne and Dordogne. It is very hilly;
some of the hills are bare, but others are covered
with wood and vines, that produce very excellent.
wine: the plains and valleys yield abundance of
corn, hemp, tobacco, and highly esteemed fruits.
The pastures feed numerous flocks of sheep,
which constitute a great part of the commerce.
Game, poultry, and fish, are very plentiful.
Part of the wine of the country is made into
brandy. The climate is healthy but rather cold.
The soil, consisting of fat and rich earth, is cul-
tivated with horses, and yields more than suffi-
cient for its population. There are about 23,000
hectars of forests, and 47,000 of vineyards; pro-
ducing eighteen francs, fifty-seven cent, for each
hectar of arable land.
Iron and coal mines are found here, as well as
quarries of marble of every color, granite, ala-
baster, graystone, mill-stones, lithographic stones,
calcareous spar, fullers' earth, and clay for glass-
house crucibles. At Mien there are mineral
waters. The manufactures are ratteens, coarse
serges, hats, cotton stuffs, linen for veils, and
lace. The trade consists in corn, flour, wine,
brandy, walnut oil, hemp, linens, woollen stuffs,
cattle, leather, salt, iron, plank timber, haber-
dashery, grocery, &c.
This department is watered by the Lot and the
Dordogne, which are here navigable, and the
medium of great maritime commerce, the Selly,
the Tarn, the Averyron, the Cere, and the Azou.
It is crossed by the great roads of Toulouse and
Limoges.
LoT, THE, a river in France, which rises in the
Cevennes Mountains, near the village of Bley-
mard, arrondissement of Mende, in the depart-
ment of Lozere. It passes by Bleymard, Bag-
nois-les-Bains, Mende, Chanac, St. Geniez, St.
Cosme, Espalion, Estaing, Entraygues, Livignac,
Bouillac, Capdenac, Cajarc, St. Cirq, Cahors,
St. Vincent, Luzech, Puy-L'evèque, Duravel
Libos, Villeneuve-d'Agen, St. Livrade, Castel-
moron, Clairac, and Aiguillon, below which it
falls into the Garonne. The Lot is navigable for
timber rafts from St. Laurent-de-Rivedolt to St.
Geniez in the department of Aveyron, and navi-
gable from Entraygues to its mouth. In its
course, which is about 180 miles, it receives the
Truyere, the Dourdon, the Cellé, the Almance,
and several other smaller rivers,
LoT-ET-GARONNE, a department of France, is
formed out of the Agenais, a dependency of the
former province of Guienne, and derives its name
from the rivers Garonne and Lot, which flow
through it, the first from south to north-east, and
the second from north-west to west. The chief
place of the prefecture is Agen; it contains four
arrondissements or subprefectures, Agen having
84,210 inhabitants; Marmande 99,240; Nerac
57,878; and Villeneuve-d'Agen 92,789, com-
prising a total population of 330,121 souls, on a
superficies of 2565 square miles. It is further
subdivided into thirty-eight cantons and 369
communes, yielding a revenue of 20,943,000
francs. It forms a part of the twentieth military
division, has a royal court and bishopric at Agen,
and contains three electoral arrondissements .
which send five members to the chamber of
deputies. •
This department is bounded on the north by
that of Dordogne; on the east by those of Tarn-
et-Garonne and Lot; on the south by that of
Gers, and on the west by those of Landes and
the Gironde. It is intersected by cultivated
plains, barren hills, uncultivated lands, marshes,
and fine fruitful valleys, watered by the Lot and
the Garonne. These valleys overlooked by
pleasant elevations planted with fruit trees and
vines, which yield tolerably good wines, produce
corn in abundance, fruits of all kinds, hemp of
an extraordinary tall growth, and the best to-
bacco in France. Its pastures are but indifferent,
and artificial meadows are little known. To-
wards the south, at a little distance from the
Garonne and on the banks of the Lot, the hills
become very rugged and utterly incapable of
cultivation ; in fine, the landes or deserts, which
amount to one-eighth part of the whole depart-
ment, consist of scarcely any thing else than
moveable sands, or a scanty vegetation, of rye
and panic, produced by means of enriching the
earth with manure. -
The climate of this department is rather tem-
perate, and the air generally healthy, except in
the neighbourhood of the marshes. Although
the sky here is regarded as the most delightful in
France, it is subject to great varieties of rain
and drought, which often derange the course of
the seasons, and very much injure the harvests.
A sort of meteor, called brouillard, is frequently
the pest and destruction of the crops. The land
being much covered with heath is cultivated with
oxen, yielding not quite sufficient for the inha-
bitants. There are about 26,026 hectars of fo–
rests, chiefly oaks, elms, and pines, and 60,000 of
vineyards, producing on an average about thirty-
four francs sixty centimes per hectar of arableland.
There is here also abundance of great and
small game (wild boars, hares, red partridges,
&c.), plenty of fresh water fish (salmon, lampreys,
shad, and salmon trout); a nursery for the de-
partment at Agen; a royal depôt of standard
measures at Villeneuve and quarries of freestone,
plaster, marl, potter's clay, &c. The inhabitants
carry on extensive manufactures of linen cloth
for veils, table linen, cotton goods, printed cot–
tons, and serges; they have also cotton-spinning
factories, brandy distilleries, blast furnaces,
forges, foundries, flatting-mills, lime-kilns, glass-
houses, many paper-mills, tan-yards, currying-
shops, dye-houses, &c. Their trade consists
in excellent flour, brandy, tobacco, flax, hemp,
Agen prunes, bundles of cork, caulking stuff,
and tar. The principal rivers that water this
department are the Garonne, the Lot, and the
the Bayse navigable; the Dropt, the Barguelone
the Auvignon, the Avance, the Almance, the Lède,
L O T H 1 A. N.
299
the Gelise, the Gers, the Seine, and the Garonne.
It is crossed by the great roads of Mantauban,
Auch, and Bourdeaux.
LOTE, LOTOs TREE, or nettle tree, n.s. A
plant. -
The leaves of the lote tree are like those of the
nettle. The fruit of this tree is not so tempting to
us, as it was to the companions of Ulysses: the
wood is durable, and used to make pipes for wind
instruments: the root is proper for hafts of knives,
and was highly esteemed by the Romans for its
beauty and use. Miller.
The trees around them all their food produce,
Lotos, the name divine, nectareous juice. Pope.
LOTHIAN, a name common to the three
counties of Scotland, otherwise called Hadding-
ton, Edinburgh, and Linlithgow shires; or East,
Mid, and West Lothian.
LoTHIAN, EAST, or Haddingtonshire, is bound-
ed on the north-west by the Frith of Forth; on
the east by the German Sea; on the south-east
by Berwickshire; and on the west by the county
of Edinburgh. It extends about twenty-five
miles from east to west, and, where broadest,
nearly fifteen from north to south. The coast,
advancing northward into the Frith, forms an ir-
regular curve. This is one of the most fruitful
counties in Scotland, producing great quantities
of wheat, and all sorts of grain; and being well
watered, and plentifully supplied with fish, fowl,
fuel, and all the necessaries of life. It is inter-
sected by numerous streams, but the Tyne is the
principal river, which falls into the German
Ocean between Berwick and Dunbar. It abounds
with towns, villages, and farms, interspersed with
a great number of elegant houses belonging to
persons of rank and fortune. For cultivation,
populousness, and fertility, this shire may vie
with any tract of land in Great Britain. The in-
habitants on the sea-coast employ themselves in
the fishery, salt-making, and foreign trade; and
the more inland inhabitants in the linen and
woollen manufactures. Great numbers of sheep
are fed on the hills of Lammermuir. Preston-
pans has a considerable manufacture of oil of
vitriol, and sal-ammoniac. It abounds with ex-
cellent coal, free-stone, and lime-stone, and pro-
duces also some iron and lead. -
LoTHIAN, MID, or Edinburghshire, is about
thirty-five miles long, but varies in its breadth,
in different places, from five to sixteen miles. It
is bounded on the east by East Lothian; on the
south by the county of Peebles; on the west by
that of Linlithgow; and on the north by part of
West Lothian and the Frith of Forth. The aspect
of the country is in general level and pleasant,
interspered with a few hills. It is well watered
with rivers, and shaded with woods; and pro-
duces coal and lime stone in abundance, a soft
black marble, and some copper ore. The soil,
naturally fertile, is finely cultivated, and yields
as plentiful harvests of excellent wheat as are
found in any part of North Britain. The whole
county is interspered with houses and plantations,
belonging to noblemen and gentlemen of fortune;
and the farmers are successful agriculturists.
The land is generally occupied by tenants on
leases for a term of years, excepting the com-
paratively small portion possessed by the pro-
prietors themselves, or let for the season in grass.
Round Edinburgh the cultivation of farms is
conducted with a view to the wants of that mar-
ket; and potatoes, turnips, and clovers, are found
more profitable than grain. The manure for
raising them is amply supplied by the streets
and stables of the city, which sells at 3s. a cubic
yard, or more. The street soil, a few years ago,
was let out to one individual, and brought the
city a clear revenue of £2000 a year. The rent
of farms, of from 50 to 100 acres, within a mile
of the city, is in some instances so high as £8 or
fiO an acre. Beyond this circle the system of
cultivation is nearly the same as in the other Scot-
tish counties. The extent of the natural wood has
been estimated at 3000 acres, and of plantations
about 14,000. The manufactures of the county,
inclusive of..those of the metropolis and Leith, are
not considerable. Distilleries and paper-mills
on the Esk, iron-works at tºnſ, potteries
and salt-pans at Inveresk, and gunpowder works
at Temple, on the South Esk, are the principal.
The communication between Edinburgh and
Glasgow, by means of the Union Canal, promises
to be of great utility to this county. The canal
itself is five feet deep, and at the surface thirty-
seven feet wide, contracting to twenty-two feet
at the bottom. It begins at the Lothian Road,
west of Edinburgh, and, crossing the Water of
Leith at Slateford, passes the villages of Ratho,
Broxburn, and Winchburgh, and the towns of
Linlithgow and Falkirk, and joins the Forth and
Clyde Canal at Lock No. 16, near the village of
Camelon, after a course of thirty miles. The
aqueducts are, one over the Water of Leith, at
Slateford, 500 feet long and fifty feet high; and
another of twelve arches of fifty feet span, over
the river Avon, two miles above Linlithgow
Bridge, 835 feet long, and ninety feet in height
above the bed of the river.
The places worthy of note in this county (for
it has no town beside Edinburgh of any conse-
quence) are the villages of Mid-Calder, Corstor-
phine, and Cramond, north-west; Pennicuik,
Dalkeith, Laswade, Loanhead, and Gilmerton,
east and south; and Musselburgh (sometimes
called the Montpelier of Scotland), including the
villages of Inveresk and Fisherrow, Portobello
and Newhaven, on the Frith of Forth. Porto-
bello is a pleasant bathing village, lately built.
Hot and cold baths have been constructed upon
an elegant plan. Dalkeith, the most populous
of these places, is distinguished for its great
weekly grain market.
Lothi AN, WEST, or Linlithgowshire, is bounded
on the north by the Frith of Forth; by the Almond,
which divides it from Mid-Lothian, on the east
On the south-west it joins the county of Lanark;
and on the west it is separated from Stirlingshire
by the Avon. Its form, though irregular, ap-
proaches to a parallelogram. It measures from
north-east to south-west nearly twenty miles.
Its breadth, except on the shore of the Frith,
does not exceed twelve: its contents are taken at
112 square miles, or 51,006 acres. The country
is pleasant and fertile, abounding in corn and
pasturage: in the reign of James VI. it had a
rich silver mine. Linlithgow contains two royal
burghs, viz. Linlithgow and Queensferry; and
LOT
LOT
300
the towns of Borrowstounness, Whitburn, Bath-
gate, and Kirklistoun. It is divided into thirteen
parochial districts. The shire is but scantily
supplied with running water, the Avon and Al-
mond being the only streams which deserve no-
tice. It abounds, however, with mineral riches,
particularly coal, limestone, and lead ore. Iron-
stone is found in almost every parish; and
wrought to a great extent in that of Bathgate.
The chief articles of commerce are lime, free-
stone, salt, and coal. There are volcanic ap-
pearances in many places, especially in Dundas
Hill, in Dalmeny, where there is a bold front of
basaltic rocks, and various regular basaltic
columns. -
LOTION, n.s.
medicinal wash.
A lotion is a form of medicine compounded of
aqueous liquids, used to wash any part with.
Quincy.
In lotions in women's cases, he orders two portions
of hellebore macerated in two cotylae of water.
• Arbuthnot on Coins.
A LOTION is, strictly speaking, such a wash-
ing as beautifies the skin, by cleansing it of those
deformities which a distempered blood throws
upon it. Medicines of this kind, however, are
for the most part insignificant, and sometimes
very dangerous ; the only proper method of
treating these disorders is, by administering such
medicines as tend to correct that morbid state of
the constitution whence they arise. -
LOTOPHAGI, in ancient geography, a peo-
ple of the Regio Syrtica, so called from their liv-
ing on the lotus; inhabiting between the two
Syrtes, from the Cinyphus to the Triton. The
lotus was said to be a food so luscious, as to
make strangers forget their native country. A
sweet wine, according to Pliny, was expressed
from it, which did not keep above ten days. See
MENINx.
The LottERY, or the STATE LOTTERY, a kind
of public game at hazard, formerly frequent in
Britain, as well as France and Holland; to raise
money for the service of the state. It was appointed
with us by the authority of parliament, and ma-
naged by commissioners appointed by the lords
of the treasury for that purpose. It consisted of
great numbers of blanks and prizes, which were
drawn out of wheels, one of which contained the
numbers, and the other the corresponding blanks
or prizes. The Romans invented lotteries to
enliven their Saturnalia. This festival began by
the distribution of tickets which gained some
prize. Augustus made lotteries which con-
sisted of things of little value; but Nero esta-
blished some for the people, in which 1000
tickets were distributed daily, and several of
those who were favored by fortune, got rich
by them. . Heliogabalus invented some very sin-
gular lotteries; the prizes were either of great
Value, or of none at all; one gained a prize of
six slaves, and another of six flies; some got
valuable vases, and others vases of common
earth. A lottery of this kind exhibited an excel-
lent picture of the inequality with which Fortune
distributes her favors. The first English lottery
we find mentioned in history was drawn A.D,
1569. It consisted of 400,000 lots, at 10s. each
lot: the prizes were plate; and the profits were
Fr. lotion ; Lat. lotio. A
to go towards repairing the havens of this king-
dom. It was drawn at the west door of St.
Paul's cathedral. The drawing began on the
11th of January 1569, and continued incessantly
drawing, day and night, till the 6th of May fol-
lowing; as Maitland informs us in his History
vol. i. p. 257. There were then only three lottery
offices in London. The proposals for this lottery.
were published in 1567 and 1568. It was first
intended to have been drawn at the house of Mr.
Dericke, her majesty's servant (i.e. her jeweller),
but was afterwards drawn as above mentioned.
Dr. Rawlinson showed the Antiquarian Society,
in 1748, one of the original proposals for this
state lottery, printed by Henry Bynneyman, in
1568. In 1612 king James, in favor of the
plantation of English colonies in Virginia, grant-
ed a lottery, to be held at the west end of St.
Paul's; whereof one Thomas Sharplys, a taylor
of London, had the chief prize, which was 4000
crowns in plate.
In the reign of queen Anne it was thought
necessary to suppress lotteries, as nuisances to
the public. After that time, however, they were
again licensed by an act of parliament, under
various regulations. The act passed in 1778
restrains any person from keeping an office for
the sale of tickets, shares, or chances, or for buy-
ing, selling, insuring, or registering, without a
license; for which licence each office keeper
must pay £50, to continue in force for one year,
and the produce to be applied towards defray-
ing the expenses of the lottery. And no person
is allowed to sell any share or chance less than
a sixteenth, on the penalty of £50. All tickets
divided into shares or chances are to be deposit-
ed in an office, to be established in London by
the commissioners of the treasury, who are to
appoint a person to conduct the business thereof;
and all shares are to be stamped by the said of.
ficer, who is to give a receipt for every ticket de-
posited with him. The numbers of all tickets
so deposited are to be entered in a book with
the names of the owners, and the numbers of
shares into which they are divided; and 2d. for
each share is to be paid to the officer on deposit-
ing such tickets, who is therewith to pay all
expenses incident to the office. All tickets de-
posited in the office are to remain there three
days after the drawing. And any person keeping
an office, or selling shares, or who shall publish
any scheme for receiving moneys in considera-
tion of any interest to be granted in any ticket
in the said lottery, &c., without being in posses-
sion of such ticket, shall forfeit £500 and suffer
three months' imprisonment. And no business
is to be transacted at any of the offices after
eight in the evening, except on the evening of
the Saturday preceding the drawing. No person
is to keep any office for the sale of tickets, &c.,
in Oxford or Cambridge, on penalty of £20.
Within these few years, however, the immoral
tendency of this species of state gambling has
been so strongly urged upon the ministers that
in 1824 they thought proper to abandon it, and
lotteries are now therefore discontinued.
LOTUS, or bird's foot trefoil, in botany, a
genus of the decandria order, and diadelphia
class of plants; natural order thirty-second, papi-
lionaceae: legume cylindrical and very erect:
LOT
LOT
301
the alae closing upwards longitudinally: CAL.
tubulated. There are many species, but only
six are usually cultivated in our gardens; viz.
L. Creticus, the Cretan silvery lotus, with slen-
der under shrubby stalk, rising by support three
or four feet high, ornamented with trifoliate,
bright, silvery leaves; and branches terminated
by several yellow flowers succeeded by subter-
nate pods.
L. dorcynium, white Austrian lotus, or shrub
trefoil of Montpelier, has under shrubby smooth
stalks, branching three or four feet high, and the
branches terminated by aphyllous heads of small
white flowers, appearing in June, succeeded by
small pods.
L. edulis, sends forth several trailing stalks
about a foot long, furnished at their joints with
trifoliate, roundish, smooth leaves, having oval
stipulae. The flowers come singly from the
sides of the stalks, on long peduncles, with three
oval floral leaves, the length of the flower: the
latter is small, yellow; and is succeeded by a
thick arched pod, having a deep furrow on its
outside. This species is an annual, and a native
of Italy, where the pods are eaten, like kidney
beans.
L. hirsutus, the hairy Italian lotus, has upright
hairy stalks branching a yard high ; and termi-
nated by heads of whitish hoary-cupped flowers
appearing in June, and succeeded by oval pods
full of seed, which ripen in autumn.
L. Jacobaeus, the lotus of St. James's Island,
with upright herbaceous stalks, branching two
or three feet high; and, from the upper part of
the branches, long slender foot-stalks, terminated
each by three or five yellowish purple flowers,
and succeeded by subternate pods filled with
plenty of seeds. These five species may be
propagated either by seeds or cuttings, but re-
quire to be kept in pots in the green-house du-
ring winter. -
L. tetragomolobus, or the winged pea, has
trailing, slender, branchy stalks, about a foot
long, garnished with trifoliate oval leaves ; and,
from the axillas of the branches, large, papiliona-
ceous red flowers, one on each foot-stalk; suc-
ceeded by tetragonous solitary pods, having a
membranous wing or lobe running longitudinally
at each corner. It flowers in June and July,
and they ripen in autumn. It is a hardy annual,
and is easily raised from seed sown between
February and May; requiring only to be kept
from weeds. It was formerly cultivated here
as an esculent; for its young green seed-pods
may be dressed and eaten like peas, or kidney
beans; and are used so still in the north of
England.
LoTUs, the lote tree. See CELTIs.
LOTUS, in mythology, a name generally ap-
propriated to the Egyptian nymphoea lotus, but
also applied to the Kvapog or sacred bean of
India, to some African tree on which certain
people have chiefly depended for their support,
and also to several herbaceous plants essential to
the maintenance of domestic cattle in countries
sparingly furnished with grass. The origin of
this word uas been much disputed. Those who .
have sought for its etymology in the Greek
language, have derived it from Aw, to will or de-
sire, alluding to its being greatly esteemed.
Others have thought that both the Xwrog of the
Greeks and the lotus of the Latins had one com-
mon Egyptian origin inscrutable to us.
This plant is thus noticed by Herodotus.
“When the river Nile is become full, and all the
grounds round it are a perfect sea, there grow a
vast quantity of lilies, which the Egyptians call
lotus, in the water. After they have cut them,
they dry them in the sun; then having parched
the seed within the lotus, which is most like the
poppy, they make bread of it, baking it with
fire. The root also of the lotus is eatable, easily
becoming sweet, being round, and of the size of
an apple.’ M. Savary mentions it as growing in
the rivulets and on the sides of the lakes; and
there are two sorts or varieties of the plant, the
one with a white, the other with a bluish flower.
‘The calyx,’ he says, “blows like a large tulip,
and diffuses a sweet smell, resembling that of
the lily. The first sort produces around root like
that of a potatoe; and the inhabitants of the
banks of the lake Menzel feed upon it. The ri-
vulets in the environs of Damietta are covered
with this majestic flower, which rises upwards
of two feet above the water.’
It is not improbable that this flower became
Sacred to superstitious veneration, in that coun-
try, in consequence of its resemblance to the
East India lotus, a kind of bean. The latter,
from the mode of its vegetation, was adopted, in
the most remote ages, to serve as an emblem of
fertility; but the nymphaea lotus exhibits nothing
which could originally have excited such an idea.
It seems therefore a sort of substitute or type;
and perhaps strengthens, the theory of the my-
thology of Egypt having migrated thither from
India. Among the Brahmins, and enthusiastic
Hindoos, no object in nature is looked on with
more superstition than the lotus; and their books
abound with mystical allusions to this lovely
aquatic. In the northern parts of India the pe-
tals of the lotus are blue, as well as red and
white; while in the southern provinces the blue
flower is not seen: the poets have hence feigned
that the crimson hue was imparted to it by the
blood of Siva issuing from the wound made by
the arrow of Kama, when the god of love da-
ringly endeavoured to inspire the “king of dread’
with an amorous passion, for which presumption
he was reduced to ashes, or, as some say, to a
mental essence, by the fire which issued from
the forehead of the “three-eyed god.’ The ſol-
lowing extract from the curious and learned dis-
sertation of major Wilford, On the sacred Isles
of the West, will serve to show the wild extra-
vagance of Hindoo mythologists: “The nymphaea,
or lotus, floating on the water, is an emblem of
the world; the whole plant signifies both the
earth and its two principles of fecundation. The
stalk originates from the navel of Vishnu, sleep-
ing at the bottom of the ocean; and the flower
is the cradle of Brama, or mankind. The germ
is both Meru and the Linga; the petals and fila-
ments are the mountains which encircle Meru,
and are also the type of the Yoni.” (Asiatic
Researches, vol. viii.) g
LoTUs GLYCYCALAMUs, a name given by the
ancient Greeks to an Egyptian plant according to
some, and, according to others, to a rare plant,
found only occasionally. . The whole account
LOW
LOV
302
given of it, by the earliest writers, is no more
- than that it was of a very sweet and pleasant taste.
Myreſsus uses the term frequently, and his in-
terpreters understand him to mean the cassia fis-
tula by it. But Homerasserts that the followers of
Ulysses were detained by éating the lotus gly-
cycalamus; and it is not at all probable that the
cassia fistula could be the thing meant by the
word in this place. The cassia fistula is the
fruit of a tree: but this glycycalamus, we find
in Homer himself, was an herbaceous plant.
Quintilian calls it expressly a kind of grass,
gramen ; and from the other accounts of its
growing in the form of reeds, and in wet places, it
seems probable that it was the sugar-came that
they called by this name. See DIOSPYROS.
LOUD, adj. R Sax. luo; Goth. lud, of
Loud'LY, adv. Goth.hlyda, to hear; Swed.
Loud'NESS, n. s. $ ind ; Teut. laut. Sound-
ing ; remarkable for force or vehemence of
sound; noisy ; clamorous: the adverb and
substantive corresponding.
She is loud and stubborn ; her feet abide not in
her house. Proverbs.
The soldier that philosopher well blamed,
Who long and loudly in the schools declaimed.
Denham.
Children may be frighted into compliance by loud
and severe increpations, but men are to be allured
by rational persuasion backed with courteous usage.
Barrow.
Had any disaster made room for grief, it would
have moved according to prudence, and the propor-
tions of the provocations; it would not have sallied
out into complaint or loudness. South.
The numbers soft and clear,
Gently steal upon the ear;
Now louder, and yet louder rise,
And fill with spreading sounds the skies. Id.
I read above fifty pamphlets, written by as many
presbyterian divines, loudly disclaiming toleration.
Swift.
| Sir, when I flew to seize the bird
In spite of your command,
A louder voice than yours I heard,
And harder to withstand. Cowper.
Like a scarce awakened ocean,
Then with stronger shock and louder
Till the rocks are crushed to powder.
LOVE, v. a. & n. s. Y Sax. lupa, lupian;
LovE'HooD, n. s. Goth, love, liub ;
LovE'LETTER, n. s. Belg. lief; Swed.
LovE'LILY, adv. luif; Teuton. leebe.
LovE'LINESS, n.s. The affection be-
LovELORN, adj. tween the sexes;
LovE'LY, courtship ; tender-
LovE'Mong ER, n. 8. | ness; liking or af.
Lov'ÉR, | fection of any kind;
LovE'SEEMLY, good will; friend-
Love's ICK, adj. }ship; an endearing
LovE’soME, compellation; an
Tove'song, n.s. | object beloved ; a
love'suit, | picturesque repre-
IlovETALE, sentation of love:
LovE'THoughts, | as a verb it signi-
LovE'Toy, | fies to regard with
LovE'TR1ck, sexual passion or
affection; regard or
be pleased with in
a general sense, and
in varying degrees
Lov'ING, part. adj.
Lov'INGKIND'NEss, n.s.
Lov'INGLY, adv.
X.ov'INGNESS, n. s.
£e
Byron.
of attachment, esteem, or reverence, according to
the object. Lovely means amiable; exciting
love; beautiful. Lovesome is used in the same
sense by Dryden. Loving is fond; kind ; affec-
tionate. Lovingkindness, favor; tenderness;
mercy: applied particularly to that of the
Divine Being. The other compounds are suffi-
ciently explained by the extracts.
This is my commaundement, that ghe loue togidre
as I lovyde ghou : no man hath more loue than this
that a man putte his lyf for hise frendis.
* Wiclif, Jon xv.
Love the Lord thy God with all thine heart.
Deut. vi. 5.
Saul and Jonathan were lovely and pleasant in
their lives, and in their death they were not divided.
2 Samuel.
Remember, O Lord, thy tender mercies, and thy
lovingkindnesses. Psalm xxv. 6.
God brought Daniel into favour and tender love
with the prince. Daniel i. 9.
The king took her in his arms till she came to
herself, and comforted her with loving words.
Esther xv. 8.
Shall I come unto you with a rod, or in love, and
in the spirit of meekness? 1 Cor. iv. 21.
The one preach Christ of contention, but the other
of love. Phil. i. 17.
Great pity was it, as it thought hem alle,
That ever swiche a chance shulde befalle,
For gentilmen they wer of grit estat,
And nothing but for love was this debat.
Chaucer. Cant. Tales.
Hearken to the birds love-learned song,
The dewie leaves among ! Spenser's Epithalamium.
Good shepherd, tell this youth what 'tis to love.
—It is to be made all of sighs and tears;
It is to be made all of faith and service ;
It is to be all made of fantasy,
All made of passion, and all made of wishes,
All adoration, duty, and obedience;
All humbleness, all patience, all impatience,
All purity, all trial, all observance. Shakspeare.
Demetrius
Made love to Nedar's daughter.Helena,
And won her soul. Id. Mids. Night's Dream
If you will marry, make your loves to me,
My lady is bespoke. Id. King Lear.
He is not lolling on a lewd love bed,
But on his knees at meditation. Shakspeare.
Come, love and health to all ! 3.
Then I’ll sit down : give me some wine; fill full.
Id
Lovers say, the heart hath treble wrong,
When it is barred the aidance of the tongue. Id.
Have I escaped loveletters in the holyday time of
my beauty, and am I now a subject for them? Id.
The breast of Hecuba,
When she did suckle Hector, looked not lovelier
Than Hector’s fore head. Id. Coriolanus.
Thou art an old lovemonger, and speakest skilfully.
Shakspeare.
Poor Romeo is already dead
Stabbed with a white wench's black eye,
Run through the ear with a lovesong. Id.
His lovesuit hath been to me
As fearful as a siege. Id. Cymbeline.
Away to sweet beds of flowers,
Lovethoughts lie rich when canopied with bowers.
; Shakspeare.
So loving to my mother,
That he would not let even the winds of heaven
Visit her face too roughly. Id. Hamlet.
LOV 3(
3
/
* Fish used to salt water delight more in fresh ; we
see that salmon and smelts love to get into rivers,
though against the stream. -
- Bacon’s Natural History.
The enquiry of truth, which is the love-making or
wooing of it; the knowledge of truth, the preference
of it; and the belief of truth, the enjoying of it, is
the sovereign good of human nature. Bacon.
This earl was of great courage, and much loved of
his soldiers, to whom he was no less loving again.
Hayward.
Lovesong weeds and satyrick thorns are grown,
Where seeds of better arts were early sown. Donne.
Other disports than dancing jollities;
Other lovetricks than glancing with the eyes. Id.
A love-sick brain adores, in romantic strains, the
lovely idol of his heart, or sighs in real misery at her
fancied frowns. •4 Burton.
All earthly love supposeth some kind of equality,
or proportion at least, betwixt the person that loves,
and is loved. Bp. Hall.
The good wife is none of our dainty dames, who
love to appear in a variety of suits every day new ; as
if a good gown, like a stratagem in warre, were to
be used but once. Fuller.
I could not love, I’m sure, --
One who in love were wise. Cowley.
Wit, eloquence, and poetry,
Arts which I loved. Id.
The love to sin makes a man sin against his own
Tea,SOI!, - Taylor.
The love of God makes a man chaste without the
laborious arts of fasting, and exterior disciplines; he
reaches at glory without any other arms but those of
love. ld.
It is no great matter to live lovingly with good-na-
tured and meek persons; but he that can do so with
the froward and perverse, he only hath true chang
d.
Ilove is of two sorts, of friendship and of desire;
the one betwixt friends, the other betwixt lovers;
the one a rational, the other a sensitive love ; so our
love of God consists of two parts, an esteeming of
God, and desiring of him. Hammond.
The flowers which it had pressed
Appeared to my view,
More fresh and lovely than the rest,
That in the meadows grew. Denham.
What need a vermil-tinctured lip for that,
Love-darting eyes, or tresses like the morn ?
- Milton.
Love-quarrels oft in pleasing concord end,
Not wedlock treachery, endangering life.
When I approached
Her loveliness, so absolute she seems,'
That what she wills to do, or say,
Seems wisest, virtuousest, discreetest, best. Id.
The love-lorn nightingale
Nightly to thee her sad song mourneth well. Id.
The lovetale
Infected Sion's daughters with like heat;
Whose wanton passions in the sacred porch
Ezekiel saw. - Id. Paradise Lost.
True love is nothing else but goodness exerting
itself, in direction toward objects capable of its in-
fluence. Barrow.
Carrying, thus in one person the only two bands
of good-will, loveliness and lovingness. Sidney.
The new king, having no less lovingly performed
all duties to him dead than alive, pursued on the
siege of his unnatural brother, as much for the re-
venge of his father, as for the establishing of his
own quiet. Id.
id.
Thou lookest tº
Lovelily dreadful. Otway's Venice Preserved.
LOW
This leaf held near the eye, and obverted to the
light, appeared so full of pores, with such a trans-
parency as that of a sieve, a piece of cypress, or love-
hood. Boyle on Colours.
No religion that ever was, so fully represents the
goodness of God, and his tender love to mankind,
which is the most powerful argument to the love of
God. Tillotson.
The Christian religion gives us a more lovely cha-
racter of God than any religion ever did. Id.
You know y' are in my power by making love.
- Dryden.
ld.
The banished never hopes his love to see.
The lovely babe was born with every grace;
Such was his form, as painters, when they show
Their utmost art, on naked loves bestow. Id.
'Tis no dishonour, trust me, love, ’tis none;
I would die for thee. Id. Don Sebastian.
Let it be never said, that he whose breast
Is filled with love, should break a lover’s rest.
- Dryden.
What danger, Armant, is this your fear?
Or what lovesecret which I must not hear? Id.
To the dear mistress of my lovesick mind,
Her swain a pretty present has designed. Id.
Nothing new can spring -
Without thy warmth, without thy influence bear,
Or beautiful or lovesome can appear. Id.
Men in love with their opinions may not only sup-
pose what is in question, but allege wrong matter of
fact. Locke.
To be good and gracious, and a lover of know-
ledge, are suitable things. -
- Burnet’s Theory of the Earth.
Love is the great instrument of nature, the bond
and cement of society, the spirit and spring of the
universe: love is such an affection as cannot so
properly be said to be in the soul, as the soul to be
in that: it is the whole man wrapt up into one de-
sire. South.
The jealous man wishes himself a kind of deity to
the person he loves ; he would be the only employ-
ment of her thoughts. Addison.
The children are educated in the different notions
of their parents; the sons follow the father, while
the daughters read loveletters and romances to their
mother. - Id. Spectator.
If there is such a native loveliness in the sex, as to
make them victorious when in the wrong, how resist-
less is their power when they are on the side of º 2
d.
Cato's a proper person to entrust
A lovetale with. -
The fair
With cleanly powder dry their hair;
And round their lovely breast and head
Fresh flowers their mingled odours shed.
- Prior,
A love potion works more by the strength of charm
than nature. Collier on Popularity.
He has adapted the arguments of obedience to the
imperfection of our understanding, requiring us to
consider him only under the amiable attributes of
goodness and lovingkindness, and to adore him as our
friend and patron. Rogers.
In youth, of patrimonial wealth possest,
The love of science faintly warmed his breast.
- Fenton.
Now I behold the steed curvet and bound,
And paw with restless hoof the smoking ground,
The dew lapped bull now chaſes, along the plain,
While burning love ferments in every vein. Gay.
Has this amorous gentleman presented himself
with any lovetoys, such as gold snuff-boxes:
Arbuthnot and Pope.
Id
304
L O U I S.
Let mutual joys our mutual trust combine,
And love, and love-born confidence be thine.
Pope.
The lover and the love of human kind. Id.
Sae wistfully she gazed on me, -
And lovelier was than ever:
Quo' she, a sodger ance I loe'd,
Forget him shall I never.
What is life when wanting love?
Night without a morning:
Love's the cloudless summer sun,
Nature gay adorning. ld.
That love of praise can never be criminal, that ex-
cites and enables a man to do a great deal more good
than he could do without it. Mason.
Love is not pedlar's trumpery bought and sold :
He will give freely, or he will withhold;
His soul abhors a mercenary thought,
And him as deeply who abhors it not.
Prospects, however lovely, may be seen
Till half their beauties fade.
Oh! ever loving, lovely, and beloved;
How selfish sorrow ponders on the past,
And clings to thoughts now better far removed
But Time shall tear thy shadow from me last.
Byron.
Burns.
Cowper.
Id.
Thou lovedst me
Too much, as I loved thee: we were not made
To torture thus each other, though it were
The deadliest sin to love as we have loved.
Here is a loveliness in death,
That parts not quite with parting breath :
But beauty with that fearful bloom,
That hue which haunts it to the tomb ;
Expression's last receding ray,
A gilded halo hovering round decay;
The farewell beam of feeling past away! Id.
LOUGH, n.s. Sax. luh, lazu; Goth. laug;
Teut. luch ; Irish loch. A lake or body of stand-
.ng water. .
A people near the northern pole that won,
Whom Ireland sent from loughes and forests hore,
Divided far by sea from Europe's shore. Fairfax.
Lough Ness never freezes.
Philosophical Transactions.
LOUGHBOROUGH, a market town of Lei-
cestershire, the second in the county. In the time
of the Saxons it was a royal village. The chief
manufactures are stockings, and cotton-spinning.
The district of Charnwood Forest, westward of
the town, extends ten miles in length, and six in
breadth. It is full of hills, woods, and rocks,
and was disforested by Henry III. Its market
is on Thursday ; and its fairs are on April 25th,
May 28th, August 1st, and November 2d. It
has a large church, a free school, and two charity
Schools for eighty boys, and twenty girls. It has
been much reduced by fires; but is still a very
agreeable town, and is seated on the Fosse, which
runs almost parallel with the Soar. The new
Canal has made its coal trade very extensive. It
is eleven miles north of Leicester, and 109 north-
west by west of London. --
Lough EARNE. See EARNE.
Lough NEAGH. See NEAGH.
Lough STRANGFord. See STRANgford.
.LOUIS, or Lewis, the name of eighteen
kings of France. See FRANCE. Of these we
shall here only take notice of the following:—
Louis VII, A.D. 1137, was the first who had
the courage to oppose the encroachments of the
popes on the regal authority: pope Innocent II.
Id.
\
excommunicated him for appointing an arch-
bishop of Bourges; but Louis defended his pre-
rogatives, and put the priests to death who had
been the authors of the quarrel. In 1147 he
marched with an army of 80,000 men against
the Saracens, but was defeated; and, returning
by sea, was taken by the Greeks, but rescued
by Roger king of Sicily. He died in 1180, aged
sixty. -
#vis IX., or St. Louis, one of the greatest
monarchs of France; equally memorable for
his valor and his virtues, but unfortunately, mis-
led by the superstition of the times, he sacrificed
his own repose, and the welfare of his kingdom,
to the folly of crusading. He succeeded his
father in 1226. In 1248, leaving France to the
care of his mother, he embarked for Egypt,
attended by his queen, his three brothers, and
the flower of the French nobility. At first his
victories were rapid; he took Damietta in 1249;
but in 1250 was defeated and taken prisoner by
the Turks, with all his nobles, and the greatest
part of his army. The sultan demanded an ex-
orbitant sum for his ransom, and his answer de-
serves to be, recorded : “Tell the sultan, that a
king of France is not to be ransomed with
money; I will give the sum required for my
people, and Damietta for myself.’ These terms
were accepted, and a peace of ten years ensued.
Upon his return to France, he diminished the
taxes, revoked those which the financiers had in-
troduced; issued several salutary edicts; found-
ed several churches and hospitals; and effec-
tually overturned the ecclesiastical jurisdiction
of the court of Rome, by his Pragmatic sanction
in 1269, which established the independency of
the Gallican church. Thirteen years residence
in his capital indemnified his subjects for his ab-
sence; but his pious zeal prevented the enjoy-
ment of this happiness: he embarked for the
sixth crusade in 1270; and died the same year,
at the siege of Tunis, aged fifty-five.
Louis XII. A. D. 1492, styled the Just, and
the father of his people, is memorable for his
valor in the field, and his wisdom in the cabinet.
He was undoubtedly a great general, though un-
fortunate towards the end of his reign, when he
did not command his troops in person: his
orders transmitted from home were misunder-
stood, or wilfully disobeyed; and he had the
mortification, before he died, to see the total ex-
pulsion of the French from the possessions he
had acquired for them by his personal bravery.
At fifty-three years of age he married the prin-
cess Mary of England, sister of Henry VIII.
and died about two months after his nuptials, in
1515. * -
Louis XIII., A. D. 1610, increased the mili-
tary reputation of his country, and made consi-
derable additions to its domains. The beginning
of his reign was occupied in civil wars with his
mother and his protestant subjects; which he
was excited to continue by his celebrated minis-
ter cardinal Richelieu, who attended him to the
siege of Rochelle, the bulwark of the Hugonot
party; which surrendered in 1628, after a siege
of more than a year. Upon this and other oc-
casions the king gave proofs of great personal
bravery. His attachment to his ally the duke de
L O U I S.
305
Nevers, who succeeded to the duchy of Mantua,
but was refused the investiture by Charles VI.
emperor of Germany, involved him in a war with
that prince, the Spaniards, and the duke of Sa-
voy; in which Louis was victorious; and ob-
tained a treaty of peace, by which the duke of
Mantua was guaranteed in the possession of his
dominions. In 1635 a new war broke out be-
tween France and Spain, and the emperor took
part with the latter: it lasted thirteen years
against the emperor, and twenty-five against
Spain, with various success; and the military
experience acquired by the different armies in
the Low Countries, on the frontiers of France,
and in Italy, paved the way for the successes of
Louis XIV. Louis XIII. died in 1643, aged
forty-one. -
LOUIS XIV., falsely styled the Great, became
king at five years of age, in 1643. He was at
first styled Dieu-donne, the French considering
him as the gift of heaven, granted to their
prayers after the queen had been barren twenty-
two years. This princess (Anne of Austria) was
declared regent by Louis XIII., and saw herself
under necessity of continuing the war against
lection, and undaunted fortitude. On the 21st
of January, 1793, this unfortunate monarch fell
by the guillotine, a sacrifice to that democratic jea-
lousy, that popular fury, which only exhausted
its rage by destroying many of the greatest men
in France. -
Louis XVIII. (Stanislaus Xavier de France),
second son of the dauphin, the son of Louis XV.,
and brother of the unfortunate Louis XVI., was
born at Versailles, November 17th, 1755. He
is said as a boy to have manifested a timid and
reserved disposition, united with a more decided
turn for literary pursuits than either of his bro-
thers. On the accession of his elder brother to
the throne, he presented him with a pamphlet of
his own writing, entitled Mes Pensées; which
appears to have given but little satisfaction to
that prince. The count de Provence, as Louis
was then styled, fled from Paris to Coblentz, on
the 20th of June 1791, and took a principal
share in the organisation of the emigration.
The progress of the revolution afterwards com-
pelled him to retire to Turin, and subsequently
to Verona, under the name of the count de Lille,
a title which he long retained. In 1796 he
Philip IV. king of Spain, her brother. The duke , joined the army of Condé, then at Reigal, and
d'Enghien was made general of the French ar-
mies; and so signal was the success of this re-
nowned warrior (afterwards prince of Condé),
that his victories brought on the advantageous
treaty of Munster in 1648, between France, the
emperor Ferdinand III. and Christina queen of
Sweden: the basis of the aggrandisement of
France in this reign, the principal events of
which, and of the next, will be found related:
under the articles GREAT BRITAIN, FRANCE, &c.
Louis XIV. died in 1715, aged seventy-seven.
Louis XV., great-grandson of the preceding,
succeeded in 1715. He was styled, in the course
of his reign, the well beloved, which he lost some
years before he died, and was destested and
despised by his subjects for his shameful attach-
ment to Madame Pompadour, the wife of M.
D'Etoiles, who, by the ministry of her patron the
duke d'Aiguillon, governed the kingdom, and in-
vaded the rights of the people. He died in 1774,
in the sixty-fourth year of his age, and fifty-ninth
of his reign. -
Louis XVI., one of the most unfortunate, and
yet one of the most deserving of the French mo-
narchs of the race of Capet, and house of Bour-
bon, succeeded his grandfather in 1774. The
principal events of this reign are related under
the article FRANCE. His character is univer-
sally allowed to have been such as, in times of
less disturbance, would have insured him a high
degree of popularity to the end of his life. He
was naturally of a mild and humane disposition;
and had the merit of having been the first who
instituted a society for the instruction and em-
ployment of the blind; an example of benevo-
lence which has been since successfully followed
in this and other, countries. He was also an au-
thor, and translated 5 vols. of Gibbon's History,
and Walpole's Historical Doubts, into French.
His last will and testament, written by himself,
exhibits a strong picture of his piety, resigna-
tion, and affection for his relations. At his trial
he showed an uncommon degree of spirit, recol-
Vol. XIII.
two years afterwards was acknowledged as king
of France by the emperor Paul of Russia, at
whose invitation he took up his residence in the
ducal castle of Mittau in Courland. Soon how-
ever he received orders to quit the Russian terri-
tories in a week, and took refuge at Warsaw,
whence the king of Prussia finally compelled
him to retire, as a last resource, to England.
Here he was hospitably received and provided for
at Hartwell, a seat belonging to the marquis of
Buckingham, where he remained till the fall of
Napoleon in 1814; when he was publicly re-
ceived in London as king of France. Again
driven from his throne, by the return of Buona-
parte from Elba, he retired into the Netherlands,
till the battle of Waterloo. He survived this
second elevation nine years, and died in his sixty-
ninth year, on the 16th of September, 1824. For
a considerable time previously, a dry erysipelas
in his legs had deprived him of the power of
walking, and, together with a natural tendency to
corpulency, produced a paralysis of the lower
extremities which became the immediate cause
of his dissolution. This prince acted with great
temper and policy on his second return to
France, when it required no small skill to render
the intrusion of the foreign armies palatable to
the people. Besides the pamphlet already men-
tioned, he was the author of Le Marriage Secret,
a comedy in three acts, in which he is reported
to have been assisted by his secretary Ducis, the
imitator of Shakspeare. Two operas also were
the offspring of his pen, Panurge, and the Cara-
vane du Caire, to which Gretry composed the
music. His other writings are an account of his
journey to Coblentz, and a few political articles
in the Journal de Paris, during the year 1814.
Louis (St.), a city of Brasil, South America,
the chief town of the island of Maranham. It
is the see of a bishop, and built upon very un-
equal ground, extending from the water's edge,
to the distance of about a mile and a half. It
comprises some broad streets and squares, but is
X
LOU
LOU
306
a very straggling place. This, however, gives it
an airy appearance in so warm a climate; the
streets are mostly paved, and the houses are many
of them neat, but in the smaller streets the win-
dows are not glazed. The churches are nume-
rous, and gaudily decorated; there are also
Carmelite and Franciscan convents. The gover-
nor's palace stands upon rising ground, fronting
the town, and is a long stone building, like most
of the rest, of one story only in height. The
western end joins the town-hall and prison, and
the oblong piece of ground in its front, covered
with grass, gives to it on the whole a handsome
and striking appearance. There is a fort in the
adjoining hollow close to the water; the other
extremity is nearly closed by the cathedral. The
ground upon which the whole place stands is
said to be composed of a soft red stone. This
city also contains a custom-house and treasury.
The harbour is formed by a creek in the island,
and entered from the bay of St. Marcos. The
channel is narrow but of sufficient depth for
common sized merchant ships. Population, in-
cluding negroes, about 12,000. Long. 43°37'
W., lat. 2° 30' S.
Louis (St.), a lake of North America, twelve
miles long, by six broad; formed at the junction
of the Ottawa with the St. Lawrence.
Louis (St.), a river of North America, navig-
able 150 miles, which has its source near the
head waters of the Mississippi, and falls into
Lake Superior, on the west shore. Long. 91°
52' W., lat. 46° 44' N. -
Louis (St.), a river of Lower Canada, which
falls into the St. Lawrence, where its waters form
Lake St. Louis.
Louis D'OR, a French coin first struck in the
reign of Louis XIII. in 1640, but laid aside at
the revolution. Its original value was twenty-
four francs, 20s. English. A new Louis d'or of
twenty francs is now current, and its value, at
par, is 16s. 8d. English.
Louis, FoRT, a barrier fortress in the north-
east of France, in Alsace. It is situated on the
island of Giessenheim, on the Rhine, and was
constructed by the famous Vauban. In Novem-
ber 1793 it was taken by the Austrians, who blew
up the works: but the French soon after restored
them. Twelve miles east of Haguenau.
Louis, FoRT, a French settlement near the
mouth of the Coza in Florida, sixty miles north-
east of the mouth of the Mississippi. It was the
residence of the governor of Louisiana, till the
peace in 1673.
Louis, KNIGHTS of ST., a military order in
France, instituted by Louis
XIV. in 1693. The an-
nexed diagram represents
the cross of this order; the
king was their grand mas-
ter; and there were in it
eight great crosses, and
twenty-four commanders;
the number of knights was
not limited. At their in-
stitution, the king charged
his revenue with a fund of
300,000 livres for the pen-
sions of the commanders and knights.
LOUISA, a county in the centre of Virginia,
North America, bounded north by Orange and
Spotsylvania counties, east by Hanover county,
south by Goochland and Fluvanna counties, and
west by Albemarle county: 116 miles from
Washington. is
Louisa, LoANGo, a large river of Loango, in
Western Africa, which falls into the Atlantic, in
lat. 5° 30' S. Captain Tuckey found only
one river here bearing this name, though two
have been generally laid down in the maps.
LOUISBURG, the capital of Cape Breton,
is situated on a point of land on the south-east
side of that island. Its streets consist for the
most part of stone houses, regularly built, with a
large parade at a little distance from the citadel;
the inside of which is a fine square, whose sides
measure 200 feet. The town is about half an
English mile in length, and two in circuit. It
has an excellent harbour, four leagues deep, and
fit for the largest fleets, but it is closed by ice
from November to May. The entrance is but
400 yards wide, between two islands, one of
which is fortified, and its fires cross with those of
batteries on the main. In the north-east part is
a fine careening wharf to heave down; and very
secure from all winds. On the opposite side are
fishing stages, for 2000 boats to cure fish. Some-
times the frosts set in soon, and are more in-
tense; as particularly in 1745, when by the
middle of October a great part of the harbour was
frozen. t
The principal trade here is the cod fishery, which
may in general be continued from April to the end
of theyear. Louisburg was taken from the French
by the English under Sir Peter Warren and
our American forces, commanded by Sir William
Pepperel, in the year 1745; but afterwards re-
stored to France by the treaty of Aix-la-Cha-
pelle. It was retaken by the English, under
admiral Boscawen and lieutenant-general Am-
herst, on the 27th of July 1758, and its fortifi-
cations demolished. Long. 59° 50' W., lat. 45°
55' N.
LOUISIADE, an archipelago of islands in
the Eastern Seas, lying to the south-east of New
Guinea, and about 400 miles in length, by 160
in extreme breadth. The centre of them is nearly
under 10° of S. lat. and 152° 25 E. long. They
are interspersed with dangerous shoals and reefs,
the principal of which received names from the
French in 1793, in the voyage in quest of La
Perouse. Some of the islands are fertile and
populous, the inhabitants being of a deep copper
color, with woolly hair; and wearing a cord
wound several times round their middle. Many
smear their faces with charcoal, and use personal
ornaments. They are fond of war, and fight
with slings, darts, tomahawks, and a large wooden
shield. There seems reason to conclude that
they are cannibals; and the French found them
of a perfidious disposition; their canoes. have
both outriggers and sails. Their huts stand six
or eight feet from the ground on posts; one of
their canoes was thought by the navigators who
visited them to be fifty feet long. They appear to
set little value on iron. None of the islands
composing this archipelago exceed thirty-five
miles in length.

L O U 1 S I A N A.
307
LOUISIANA, a country ceded to the United
States of America by France in 1805, for
15,000,000 dollars, is bounded north by unset-
tled country. The northern part of the eastern
boundary is formed by Red River, a branch of the
Assiniboin, which rises near the sources of the Mis-
sissippi. he boundary line, proceeding south
to the sources of the Mississipi, follows that river
down to lat. 31° N., thence proceeds due east to the
Perdido, thence down that stream to its mouth.
The gulf of Mexico forms the south boundary;
the Spanish provinces form a part of the west
and south-west, and the Pacific Ocean the north
part of the west boundary. Long. 89° to 126°
30' W., lat. 26° to 49° 37' N. From north to
south, about 1380 miles, and from east to west
1680; containing about 1,500,000 square miles.
The boundaries of this country are not accu-
rately defined, and its extent not well ascertained.
Spain maintains that it extends no farther east
than the outlet of Lake Pontchartrain, and no
farther west on the gulf of Mexico than the Sa-
bine River; but the government of the United
States claims to the Del Norte, including the pro-
vince of the Texas. The claim of the United
States to the country watered by the Columbia
and its branches, lying between the Rocky
Mountains and the Pacific Ocean has also been
contested.
A small portion of this country is incorporated
into the state of Mississippi, the south-east part
forms the state of Louisiana, and the remainder
is formed into a government by the name of
Missouri Territory. But a very small part of
this immense territory is yet purchased of the
natives. It embraces a great variety of climate,
soil, and productions. The face of the country
is very various; towards the south it is level, and
in many parts overflown; towards the north ele-
vated and hilly; and towards the west abounding
in lofty mountains. The principal mountains are
the Rocky Mountains. -
West of the Rocky Mountains the principal
rivers are the Columbia and its branches, the
Multnomah, Lewis's River, and Clark's River.
The principal rivers east of the Rocky Moun-
tains are Missouri, Osage, Bighorn, La Platte,
Kansas, Yellowstone, Arkansaw, Ked River,
White River, St. Francis, Ouachitta, Moines, St.
Peter's, Sabine, Brassos de Dios, Colorado, Gua-
daloupe, and Del Norte. See Missouri and
TEXAs.
Louisian A, one of the United States formed
in 1812, is bounded north by Missouri Territory;
east by the state of Mississippi and the gulf of
Mexico. The boundary line is formed by
the river Mississippi from lat. 33° to 31° N.,
thence by the parallel of 31° to Pearl River,
thence by that stream to its mouth. The gulf of
Mexico forms the southern boundary, and Sabine
River the western, from its mouth to lat. 32° N.;
thence the boundary line proceeds due north to
lat, 33°, thence due east to the Mississippi, Long.
89° to 94° 5' W, lat. 29° to 33° N.; 340 miles
long from north to south, and 210 broad, con-
taining 48,220 square miles. The number of
militia in 1817 amounted to 9233.
At the time of the census, in 1810, this state
was styled the territory of Orleans, and contained
twelve districts, and 75,556 inhabitants, of whom
34,660 were slaves. Since that time it has been
erected into a state, with the annexation of a part
of West Florida, containing the parishes of New
Feliciana, East Baton Rouge, St. Helena, and
St. Tammany.
The parishes, square miles, and population, in
1810, are exhibited in the following Table:—

g Square Po ula.
Parishes. . º
Ascension 350 2219
Assumption - 500 24.72
Avoyelles º º 700 1109
Baton Rouge, (West) 850 || 1463
Concordia - - 2100 2875
Iberville . º º 350 2679
Interior of La Fourche 2500 1995
Natchitoches 10600 2870
Quachitta 4000 1077
Ocatahoola 2000 1164
Orleans 1300 24,552
Plaquemines 1 500 1549
Point Coupee 600 4539
Rapides 2300 2300
St. Bernard 400 1020
St. Charles 300 3291
St. James ty 170 3955
St. John Baptiste 150 2990
St. Landre, Opelousas 7600 5048
St. Mary's and St. Martin's, ; 5100 7369||
Attacapas tº º -
Baton Rouge, (East) . 500
New Feliciana º 1050
St. Helena 1300 10,000
St. Tammany 2000
Total 48,220 gºal
New Orleans is the capital, and the only large
town. The most considerable towns west of the
Mississippi, are Natchitoches, St. Martinsville,
and Alexandria. There are five banks in this
state, all at New Orleans. The legislature is com-
posed of a senate of seventeen members, and a
house of representatives, of thirty-four members,
In 1818 eight of the senators, and twenty-one of
the représentatives were French: and the others
Americans. A large proportion of the inhabi:
tants are French and Spanish. The principal
rivers are the Mississippi, Red, Quachitta, Black,
Tensaw, Sabine, Calcasiu, Mermentau, Vermil:
lion, Atchafalaya, Teche, Pearl, Amite, and ...”
Iberville. The largest lakes are Pontchartrain,
Maurepas, Borgne, Chetimaches, Mermentau,
Calcasiu, Sabine, Bisteneau, Bodcau, and Oca-
tahoola. f • a
All the southern part of this state is of warm
temperature, and a vast alluvial tract of low
champaign country, extending from Lake Borgne
to Sabine River, and from the gulf of Mexico to
Baton Rouge and Red River, about 250 miles
long, and from seventy to 140 wide. This ex-
tensive tract is intersected by numerous rivers,
bays, creeks, and lakes, dividing the country into
a great number of islands. The º about
LOU
LOU
308
the Balize is one continued swamp, destitute of
trees, and covered with a species of coarse reeds,
from four to five feet high. Nothing can be more
dreary than a prospect from a ship's mast while
passing this immense waste.
A large extent of country in this state, is an-
nually overflowed by the Mississippi. Accord-
ing to Mr. Darby, the average width of overflown
lands above Red River, from lat. 31° to 32° N.,
may be assumed at twenty miles, equal to 2770
square miles. Below lat. 31° to the efflux of the
La Fourche, about eighty miles in extent, the
inundation is about forty miles in width; equal to
3200 square miles. All the country below the
efflux of the La Fourche is liable to be inundated
equal to 2370 square miles. From this calcula-
tion it appears that 8340 square miles are liable
to be inundated by the overflowing of the Mis-
sissippi; and if to this be added 2550 square
miles, for the inundated lands on Red River, the
whole surface of the state, liable to inundation,
will amount to 10,890 square miles. Of this
extent, not one-half is actually covered annuall
with water. The immediate banks of all the
streams are seldom, and many of them never, in-
undated; and they afford strips of rich tillable
land, from a mile to a mile and a half wide.
The country between the Mississippi, Iber-
ville, and Pearl Rivers, is an important part of
the state. The southern half is a level country,
yet highly productive in cotton, Sugar, rice, corn,
and indigo. The northern part, presents an un-
dulating surface, covered with a heavy growth of
timber, consisting of white, red, and yellow oak,
hickory, black walnut, Sassafras, magnolia, and
poplar. The district of New Feliciana has been
considered by some as the garden of Louisiana.
The south-western part of the state, compris-
ing the districts of ôniº and Attacapas,
consists mostly of extensive prairies. Some of
these prairies are detached, but the lines of woods
between them are generally very narrow; and they
may be considered as forming one immense mea-
dow. A large portion of these tracts are barren;
but some parts, particularly that bordering on the
Teche, are very fertile, and contain flourishing
settlements. It has been estimated, that the
prairie lands in the state, including the swamps
along the gulf of Mexico, constitute one-fifth of
its whole surface. -
The country on both sides of Red River, from
its mouth to the limits of the state, is intersected
with lakes, which are more than forty in number,
and all communicate with the river. The bot-
toms on the river are from one to ten miles wide,
and of very fertile soil. The timber on the
bottoms is willow, cotton woods, honey locust,
&c.; on the rich uplands, elm, ash, hickory, mul-
berry, walnut, and grape-vine; on the sandy up-
lands are pitch and yellow pines, and oak. The
staple productions are cotton, sugar, and rice.
LOUISVILLE, a town of Kentucky, United-
States, the capital of Jefferson county; it is
pleasantly situated on the Ohio, at the head of
the Rapids, being built on an eminence seventy
feet high, and gently descending to a narrow
plain. The principal streets run parallel with
the river. A company has been corporated here
by the legislature, for the purpose of opening a
canal on the Kentucky side of the Rapids. An
extensive commerce is now carried on from this
town with Natchez, New Orleans, and St. Louis.
It is a flourishing town, and has two banks, an
academy, and excellent rope walks : 122 miles
from Cincinnati, and fifty-two west ef Frankfort.
Inhabitants about 6000. ...”
LOUNGE, v. n. 2 Belg. lunderen ; Teut.
Loun'GER, n.s. 5 lungeren. To linger; idle
away time; live or behave lazily.
The loungers are satisfied with being merely part of
the number of mankind, without distinguishing them-
selves from amongst them. They may be said rather
to suffer their time to pass than to spend, it without
regard to the past, or prospect of the future.
Spectator.
LOUR, or Belg. looren; Teut.
Low'ER, v. n. &n. º to frown. To
Low'ERINGLY, adv. ) look dark or gloomy;
applied to the appearance of the sky as well as
countenance; to pout; look sullen: as a sub-
stantive, gloominess; sourness of look.
Now is the winter of our discontent
Made glorious summer by this sun of York,
And all the clouds that lowered upon our house,
In the deep bosom of the ocean buried.
Shakspeare.
There was Diana when Actaeon saw her, and one
of her foolish nymphs, who weeping, and withal
lowering, one might see the workman meant to set
forth tears of anger. Sidney.
Philoclea was jealous for Zelmane, not without so
mighty a lower as that face could yield. Id.
He mounts the throne, and Juno took her place,
But sullen discontent sat lowering on her face;
Then impotent of tongue, her silence broke,
Thus turbulent in rattling tone she spoke.
Dryden.
The lowering spring, with lavish rain,
Beats down the slender stem and bearded grain.
I
When the heavens are filled with clouds, and all
nature wears a lowering countenance, I withdraw
myself from these uncomfortable scenes. Addison.
If on Swithin's feast the welkin lours,
And every penthouse streams with hasty showers,
Twice twenty days shall clouds their fleeces drain.
&ay.
Their lowering and pouring,
. The storm no more I dread;
Though thickening and blackening
Round my devoted head. Burns.
Ask what is human life—the sage replies,
With disappointment louring in his eyes,
A painful passage o'er a restless flood,
A vain pursuit of fugitive false good,
A scene of fancied bliss and heart-felt care,
Closing at last in darkness and despair. Cowper.
Above, the frequent feudal towers
Through green leaves lift their walls of grey
And many a rock which steeply lours,
And noble arch in proud decay,
Look o'er this vale of vintage-bowers. Byron.
LOURISTAN, a mountainous but fertile dis-
trict of Irak, in Persia, bordering upon Khu-
sistan. It is abundantly watered, and this pasture
is most luxuriant; but agriculture is quite neg-
lected. The pastoral tribes of the country trace
their origin to a remote antiquity, though they
admit that their ancestors have become mingled
with several Turkish hordes. They are savage,
fearless, and nearly independent. They reside
LOU 309' LOU
even through the winter in black tents. The
only town is Korumabad.
LOUSE, n.s. & v. a.
Lous’ILY, adv.
Plural lice. Saxon
lur; Goth. lus; Teut.
Lous’INESS, n. S. laus : Belg. luys. Min-
Lous'Y, adj. sheu traces it into more
learned company; a Gr. Ava, Avow, he says, i.e.
solvo, nati enim in cute eam erodunt. A body
insect of the genus pediculus: to louse is, oddly.
enough, used by some of our quainter writers for
to free from lice : lousy, for mean; low-born:
in a mean, paltry way.
There were lice upon man and beast.
* Erod. viii. 18.
As for all other good women, that love to do but
little work, how handsome it is to louse themselves in
the sunshine, they that have been but a while in
Ireland can well witness. Spenser on Ireland.
I pray you now, remembrance on the lousy knave,
mine host.
—A lousy knave, to have his gibes and his mockeries.
Shakspeare.
Frogs, lice, and flies, must all his palace fill
With loathed intrusion. Milton.
Let him be daubed with lace, live high and whore,
Sometimes be lousy, but be never poor. Dryden.
Sweetbriar and gooseberry are only lousy in dry
times, or very hot places. Mortimer’s Husbandry.
It is beyond even an atheist's credulity and impru-
dence to affirm, that the first men might proceed out
of the tumours of trees, as maggots and flies are sup-
ſº to do now, or might grow upon trees; or per-
aps might be the lice of some prodigious animals,
whose species is now extinct. Bentley.
Not that I value the money the fourth part of
the skip of a louse. Swift.
You sat and loused him all the sun-shine day,
d
Louse, in zoology. See PEDICULUs.
LOUT, v. n., v. a. & n. *R Saxon plucan, to
LouT'ISH, - bend; Belg, and
LouT'ISHLY, adv. $ Leut, loese, a clown.
To bow ; to stoop; stoop awkwardly : hence a
low servile, clownish fellow. Shakspeare uses
the active verb for to overpower or over-influ-
ence, or perhaps, circumvent.
He fond this holy old Urban anon
Among the saintes buriels louting.
Chaucer. Cant. Tales.
He fair the knight saluted, louting low,
Who fair him quitted, as that courteous was.
Spenser.
This lowt, as he exceeds our lords, the odds
Is that we scarce are men, and you are gods.
Shakspeare.
I have need of such a youth,
That can with some discretion do my business;
For ’tis no trusting to yon foolish lout. Id.
I am lowted by a traitor villain,
And cannot help the noble chevalier. Id.
The palmer, grey with age, with countenance lowt-
ing low,
His head even to the earth before the king did bow.
Drayton.
Under the sand bag he was seen,
Louting low, like a forester green.
,- Ben Jonson.
Pamela, whose noble heart doth disdain, that the
trust of her virtue is reposed in such a lout’s hands,
and yet, to shew an obedience, taken in shepherdish
apparel. Sidney.
This loutish clown is such, that you never saw so
*
illfavoured a visor; his behaviour such, that he is be-
yond the degree of ridiculous. Sidney.
Thus wailed the louts in melancholy strain.
Gay.
If after all some headstrong hardy lout
Would disobey, though sure to be shut out,
Could he with reason murmur at his case,
Himself sole author of his own disgrace 2
Cowper.
LOUTH, a market town of Lincolnshire, one
of the handsomest in the county. It contains
about 4000 inhabitants; and has a canal to the
sea at Tilney, about eight miles long, a charity
school for forty children, and a free school
founded by Edward IV., together with a large
church, and a fine steeple, 288 feet high. The
other public buildings are the town-hall, the
mansion-house, the assembly room, the theatre,
and several dissenting meeting-houses. The
principal manufactures are those of carpets and
blankets. The town is incorporated under a
warden and six assistants. It has markets on
Wednesday and Saturday, and fairs on May
24th and August 16th. It is twenty-seven miles
north-east of Lincoln, and 148 north of London.
LouTH, a county in the province of Leinster,
and kingdom of Ireland, bounded on the north
by the counties of Monaghan and Armagh, on
the south by Meath, on the east by the Irish
Channel, and on the west by Cavan. It extends
twenty-three miles in length, and sixteen in
breadth. Its area contains 110,750 acres, which
are divided amongst sixty-one parishes, and five
baronies, these are called Ardee, Dundalk Ba-
ronies, Upper and Lower Ferrand, and Louth.
Its chief towns are Dundalk, the Assizes town,
Ardee, Carlingford, remarkable for its beds of
excellent oysters; Dunleer; Castle-Bellingham,
famous for its malt liquor; Louth; and Callon,
the beautiful and improved residence of the
right honorable lord Oriel, to whom it owes its
origin, as well as its present condition. Besides
these, part of the county of the town of Drog-
heda is properly in this county (see DROGHEDA),
the Boyne being the natural boundary between
Meath and Louth.
The surface of Louth is singularly undulating
and well watered, and the soil remarkably fer-
tile. Much corn is grown here, for which there
is an immediate sale at Drogheda; and good
coarse linen was formerly manufactured through-
out the county, but this trade has passed out of
this district into Yorkshire. This county abounds
in military and ecclesiastic antiquities; and
many ancient raths or artificial mounts, generally
attributed to the Danes, exist here (vide Wright's
Louthiana), besides numerous beautiful monas-
tic ruins. The sea-coast affords some advantages
of exportation, but might be made to yield still.
greater. Carlingford Bay is more serviceable
to the adjacent county than to Louth. Dun-
dalk Bay is much in want of improvement; and
the trade of Drogheda would be multiplied ten-
fold, by a small expense in deepening the mouth
of the river. The town of Louth, in the same
county, contains only a population of 600 per-
sons. Here are the ruins of an ancient abbey,
founded by St. Patrick; the possessions of which,
at the general dissolution, were granted to Sir
LOU
LOU
310
Oliver Plunket, whose descendants now enjoy
the title of barons of Louth. -
LOUVAIN, a city of the Netherlands, on the
river Dyle, in the old province of Austrian Bra-
bant. The walls are nine miles in circumfer-
ence, but not above a third part of the ground is
built on, the rest being laid out in gardens, fields,
and vineyards. The castle stands on a high
hill, surrounded with fine gardens, and has a
charming prospect. The town contains, nine
market places, 126 streets, sixteen stone bridges,
numerous water mills, and several handsome pa-
laces. The town-house is a venerable Gothic
building, adorned with statues on the outside;
and the churches, are handsome, particularly the
collegiate church of St. Peter; but the principal
ornament is the university, founded in 1426
by John IV. duke of Brabant. It contains
about forty colleges, among which are four called
Paedagogia; and an English college of friars,
preachers, established by cardinal Howard, bro-
ther to the duke of Norfolk, who was originally
confided to hirn the command of a division of
the French army, destined to oppose the English,
and from this period he appears to have con-
ceived a project of becoming independent. He
expelled from the island the French commissary
Santhonax, and proceeded with great artifice to-
wards the execution of his designs. In 1799 the
colony became the prey of intestine divisions,
and a civil war took place between Toussaint
and the mulatto general Rigaud, in which the
former proved triumphant. On the accession of
Buonaparte, this negro chief, by alternate sub-
mission and hostility, endeavoured to secure his
authority, until, at length, general Leclerc, with
a French fleet and army, in February 1801, put
an end to his temporising policy: after a short
but brave resistance, he was compelled to sub-
mit. He was now transported to France, and
confined, first in the temple at Paris, and then
in the fortress of Joux, where he died in 1803,
not without suspicion of violence being used.
LOUVET (John Baptist), a celebrated French
chaplain to queen Catharine, consort to Charles, senator, and literary character, a considerable
II. The Irish have likewise a seminary. erected
in part under the care of Eugenius Matthaeus,
titular archbishop of Dublin, 1623. In 1743
the inhabitants amounted to 12,000. At the
beginning of the fourteenth century, under John
III., Louvain had a flourishing manufacture of
woollen cloth: 400 houses being occupied by sub-
stantial clothiers, who employed an incredible
number of weavers. In 1382 these weavers took
up arms, and rebelled against duke Wenceslaus,
throwing from the windows of the town-hall
seventeen of the aldermen and counsellors, and
afterwards proceeded to lay waste great part of
Brabant; but being besieged, and reduced to
great extremities, they implored mercy, which
was granted after the execution of several of the
ring-leaders. But the greater part took refuge
in England; where they introduced, or at least
improved, the woollen manufacture. From that
period the manufacture declined, and little or no
cloth of any account is now made. Upon the
ruins of these looms was also formed the cloth
manufacture of Limbourg, which is still carried
on with advantage. The old draper's hall is
now converted into public schools, where lec-
tures in divinity, philosophy, law, and physic,
and the public acts are made. Adjoining to
these is the university library.
Louvain was anciently the capital of the pro-
vince. It has often been besieged, but seldom
taken. In 1542 it was besieged by the Guel-
dians; in 1572 by William, prince of Orange;
in 1635 by the Dutch and French united; and
in 1710 by the French; but on all these occa-
sions the enemy were obliged to retire with loss.
In 1746, however, it was taken by the French;
and again in 1792 by the French republicans
under Dumourier, but evacuated on the 22d of
March, 1793. It was at last retaken and long
annexed to the republic in 1794. Population
25,000. It lies fourteen miles north-east of
Brussels, and twenty-one south-east of Antwerp.
LOUVERTURE (Toussaint), a negro chief,
sufferer during the course of the most bloody
part of the French revolution. From an in-
teresting sketch of his life, written by himself
in the caverns of Jura in 1794, and published
in 1795, our limits permit us only to select the
few following particulars:–He passed most of
his time in the country, composing works of li-
terature; and his love of independence had led
him to banish luxury so completely, that 800
francs per annum (about £34 sterling) sufficed
for his maintenance. The first seven volumes of
his first work, The Adventures of the Chev. de
Faublas, increased his income ; and the publica-
tion of six more, in spring 1789, added to it
still farther. But the profits of his next novel
were diminished by the revolution, which, by
the demand it occasioned for political writings,
stifled the taste for frivolous pieces. Mounier
having in October, 1789, published a pamphlet,
accusing the Parisians of the crimes of the Or.
leans faction, Louvet wrote an answer, entitled,
Paris Justified; which was so well received, that
he was immediately admitted a member of the
Jacobin club, which, however, he but seldom at-
tended. He soon after produced two comedies.
In the one, of five acts, entitled L’Anobli Con-
spirateur, ou le Bourgeois Gentilhomme du
18me siecle, he attacked the prejudices concern-
ing nobility. The other was a pointed satire on
the mummeries of the court of Rome, entitled
L' Election et L' Audience du Grand Lama
Sispi. These, however, being thought too bold,
were not performed; but his farce entitled La
Grande Revue des armees noires et blanches,
written in ridicule of the army of Coblentz, was
represented twenty-five times. In December,
1791, Louvet presented a petition against the
princess to the legislative assembly; which, with
other two of his petitions, were printed by order
of the assembly. In 1792, in the debate re-
specting a war with Austria, which gave rise to
the schism between the Brissotines and Robes-
pierre's faction, Louvet joined the former, re-
who by his intelligence, bravery, and activity, , duced Robespierre himself to silence, and from
had nearly accomplished the independence of that moment was proscribed by him. Mean
St. Domingo. In 1796 general Rochambeau
time Louvet became editor of the paper called
LOW
LOW
311
the Sentinel, of which 20,000 copies were some-
times printed, and in one number of which he
attacked the conduct of Dumourier. After the
oloody 2d of September he denounced Robes-
pierre, and, had he been supported by Petion,
would have prevented the rise of that tyrant's
power and the horrors that followed. He, how-
ever, published a letter addressed to Maximilian,
Robespierre, and his Royalists. On this occasion
he was expelled the Jacobin club, together with
Roland and other eminent Brissotines. At the
trial of Louis XVI. he supported the motion of
Salle for an appeal to the people; and not long
after was proscribed. After providing for the
safety of Lodoiska his wife, and being five weeks
secreted by two friends, he left Paris June 24th;
and after passing sometimes for a smuggler,
Sometimes for a soldier, at other times for a
deserter, and at all times for a violent, Jaco-
bin, or Maratist, and running a thousand risks
of being detected, he at last obtained a safe
and impenetrable asylum in one of the ca-
verns of Mount Jura; where he remained till
the end of July, 1794, when his wife brought
him the news of the Thermidorean revolution;
soon after which he returned to Paris, was wel-
comed to his seat by the convention, and not
long after elected president. After this he com-
menced bookseller, but died in 1797.
LOUYS, or Louis (John), an eminent en-
graver, who flourished about the middle of the
sixteenth century. According to Basin, he was
a native of Flanders. He learned the art from
Peter Southman, at the time that Suyderhoef
studied under him; and his usual style of en-
graving bears some resemblance to that of his
master. One of his best prints is Diana, with
her nymphs, reposing after the chase; a mid-
dling-sized plate, from Rubens.
LOW, adj., adv. & v.a. Y Sax. legp; Goth.
Low'ER, v. a., v. n. & n.s. legh; Swed. Teut.
Low'LAND, and Belgic lag,
Low'LILY, Dan. law, are con-
Low'LINESS, nected, probably,
Low'LY, adj. & adv. ſwith the Goth, la,
Low N, n.s. leggia. To lay or
Low'NESS, deposit. See LAY.
Low'sPIRITED, Near the ground;
Low'THoughTED, adj. J under the ground;
deep; depressed; not high or elevated on any
scale of admeasurement, rank, price, honor,
time, intellect, or sound : hence subdued; im-
potent; humble; submissive: it is used adver-
bially in the same variety of signification: the
phrases “low water, low ebb,” clearly relate to
the depth of the surface of the water, from the
land or some given plane, and not to its shallow-
ness, as Dr. Johnson supposes by defining low,
in this sense, “as not deep.’ Swift uses lowed for
lowered, barbarously: to lower is to make or
bring low; lessen; grow less: lowland is flat,
marshy land: lowly and lowliness are used me-
taphorically only, i.e. for humbly or meanly;
humility or meanness: lown, is an obsolete
name of a vessel, or low fellow : lowness is ap-
flied both literally and metaphorically in one or
, ther of the senses noted above.
For each that enhaunseth him schal be maad low,
and he that mekith him Schal be enhaunsed.
TViclif. I uk xviii.
It became a spreading vine of low stature.
Ezek. xvii. 6.
Take my yoke upon you, and learn of me; for I am
meek and lowly in heart. Matt. xi. 29.
For who can fain in under lowlyhede
Ne failith not to find in grace and spede.
- Chaucer.
Loe, unto the time of Constantine, by the space of
above three hundred yeerse after our Saviour Christ,
when the Christian religion was most pure, and in-
deed golden, Christians had but low poore conventi-
cles, and simple oratories, yeacaves under the ground,
called cryptae, where they for feare of persecution as-
sembled secretly together. -
Homilies. The third Part of Sermon against Idolatry.
A noble heart is like the sun, sheweth its greatest
countenance in its lowest estate. Sir P. Sidney.
Long tost with storms, and beat with bitter winds,
High over hills, and low adown the dale,
She wandered many a wood, and measured many a
vale. Faerie Queene.
They continued in that lowkness until the division
between the two houses of Lancaster and York arose.
Spenser.
O mighty Caesar! dost thou lye so low !
Are all thy conquests, glories, triumphs, spoils,
Shrunk to this little measure ?
Shakspeare. Julius Cæsar,
To be worst,
The lowest, most dejected thing of fortune,
Stands still in esperance. Shakspeare.
King Stephen was a worthy peer,
His breeches cost him but a crown,
He thought them sixpence all too dear,
And therefore called the tailor lown.
They know
By the height, the lowness, or the mean, if dearth
Or foizon follow. Id. Antony and Cleopatra.
Now I must
To the young man send humble treaties,
And palter in the shift of lowness, Shakspeare.
This is the prettiest low-born lass, that ever
Ran the greensord. Id. Winter’s Tale.
The present pleasure,
By revolution lowering, does become
The opposite of itself.
Id. Antony and Cleopatra.
The king-becoming graces,
As justice, verity, temperance, stableness,
Bounty, perseverance, mercy, lowliness,
Devotion, patience, courage, fortitude; -
I have no relish of them. {d. Macbeth.
'Tis better to be lowly born,
And range with humble livers in content,
Than to be perked up in a glistering grief.
And wear a golden sorrow. Id. Henry VIII.
The lowness of the bough where the fruit cometh,
maketh the fruit greater, and to ripen better; for you
shall even see, in apricots upon a wall, the greatest
fruits towards the bottom. Bacon.
Plants have their seminal parts uppermost, living
creatures have them lowermost.
. Id. Natural History.
He did bend to us a little, and put up his arms
abroad : we of our parts saluted him in a very lowly
and submissive manner, as looking that from him we
should receive sentence of life or death. Bacon.
They take their course either high to the north,
or low to the south.
Abbot's Description of the World.
Moses was a meek man but a severe master; his
face did not more shine in God’s aspect upon him
than it lowered in his aspect to men. Bp. Hall.
Id.
LOW
LOW
312
Vast yellow offsprings are the German's pride }
But hotter climates narrower frames obtain,
And low-built bodies are the growth of Spain.
e Creech.
It will also happen, that the same part of the pipe
which was now lowermost will presently become
higher, so that the water does ascend by descending;
ascending in comparison to the whole instrument,
and descending in respect of its several parts.
* Wilkins.
Equal in days and nights, except to those
Beyond the polar circles; to them day
Had unbenighted shone, while the low sun,
To recompense his distance, in their sight
Had rounded still the horizon, and not known
Or east or west. Milton.
The lowest bottom shook of Erebus. Id.
So high as heaved the tumid hills, so low,
Down sunk a hollow bottom, broad and deep,
Capacious bed of waters. Id
His volant touch
Instinct through all proportions low and high
Fled and pursued transverse the resonant fugue.
Yet sometimes nations will decline so low
From virtue, which is reason, that no wrong
But justice, and some fatal course annexed,
Deprives them of their outward liberty,
Their inward lost. Id.
Heaven is for thee too high
To know what passes there; be lowly wise:
Think only what concerns thee, and thy being.
Id.
Above the smoak and stir of this dim spot,
Which men call earth, and with lowthoughted care,
Strive to keep up a frail and feverish being. Id.
From the tree her step she turned,
But first low reverence done, as to the power
That dwelt within. e
There under Ebon shades and low-browed rocks,
As ragged as thy locks, -
In dark Cimmerian desert ever dwell. Id.
* Eve,
With lowliness majestick, from her seat,
And grace, that won who saw to wish her stay,
Rose. Id. Paradise Lost.
To keep them all quiet, he must keep them in
greater awe and less splendor; which power he will
use to keep them as low as he pleases, and at no
more cost than makes for his own pleasure.
& Graunt.
Never the earth on his round shoulders bare,
A maid trained up from high or low degree,
That in her doings better could compare
Mirth with respect, few words with curtesy.
Sidney.
As when in open air we blow,
The breath, though strained, sounds flat and low:
But if a trumpet take the blast,
It lifts it high, and makes it last. Waller.
Some people know it is for their advantage to lower
their interest. Child on Trade.
His spirits are so low his voice is drowned,
He hears as from afar, or in a swoon,
Like the deaf murmur of a distant sound.
Dryden.
His stile is accommodated to his subject, either
high or low; ºf his fault be too much lowness, that of
Persius is the hardness of his metaphors. Id.
My eyes no object met
But low-hung clouds, that dipt themselves in rain,
To shake their fleeces on the earth again. Id.
What a devil is he?
His errand was to draw the lowland damps,
And noisome vapours, from the foggy ſens, -
Then breathe the baleful stench with all his *
The lowliness of my fortune has not brought me to
flatter vice; it is my duty to give testimony to wº
With cries they filled the holy fane;
Then thus with lowly voice Ilioneus began. Id. .
As two men were walking by the sea-side, at low
water, they saw an oyster, and both pointed at it
together. L’Estrange.
The blessings of fortune are the lowest : the next
are the bodily advantages of strength and health;
but the superlative blessings, in fine, are those of the
mind. . f Id.
Try in men of low and mean education, who have
never elevated their thoughts above the spade.
- Locke.
In that part of the world which was first inhabited,
even as low down as Abraham's time, they wandered
with their flocks and herds. Id.
The kingdom will lose by this lowering of interest,
if it makes foreigners withdraw any of their mº -
d
Severity, carried to the highest pitch, breaks the
mind; and then, in the place of a disorderly young
fellow, you have a lowspirited moped creature. Id.
Who can imagine that in sixteen or seventeen
hundred years time, taking the lower chronology that
the earth had then stood, mankind should be propa-
gated no farther than Judaea: Burmet.
The name of servants has of old been reckoned to
imply a certain meanness of mind, as well as lowness
of condition. South.
Lucia, speak low, he is retired to rest. Addison.
He has not so many thoughts that are low and
vulgar, but, at the same time, has not so many
thoughts that are sublime and noble. Id.
The theatre is so well contrived, that, from the
very deep of the stage, the lowest sound may be heard
distinctly to the farthest part of the audience; and
yet, if you raise your voice as high as you please,
there is nothing like an echo to cause confusion.
Id. on Italy.
In Gothick cathedrals, the narrowness of the arch
makes it rise in height, the lowness opens it in
breadth. Addison.
Though he before had gall and rage,
Which death or conquest must assuage;
He grows dispirited and low,
He hates the fight, and shuns the foe. Prior.
As our high vessels pass their watery way,;
Let all the naval world due homage pay;
With hasty reverence their top-honours lower,
Confessing the asserted power. Id.
When water issues out of the apertures with more
than ordinary rapidity, it bears along with it such
particles of loose matter as it met with in its passage
through the stone, and it sustains those particles till
its motion begins to remit, when by degrees it lowers
them, and lets them fall. : Woodward.
The heavens are not pure in his sight, and he
charges even his angels with folly; with how lowly
a reverence must we bow down our souls before so
excellent a Being, and adore a Nature so much su-
perior to our own Rogers.
It is low ebb sure with his accuser, when such pec-
cadillos are put in to swell the charge. Atterbury.
If with a true Christian lowliness of heart, and a
devout fervency of soul, we perform them, we shall
find that they will turn to a greater account to us,
than all the warlike preparations in which we º:
In comparison of these divine writers, the noblest
wits of the heathen world are low and dull. Felton.
LOW
LOW
313
Another crowd
Preferred the same request, and lowly bowed.
Pope.
Oh grace serene! Oh virtue heavenly fair!
Divine oblation of lowthoughted care
Fresh blooming hope, gay daughter of the sky,
And faith our early immortality! Id
Corruption, like a general flood,
Shall deluge all; and avarice creeping on,
Spread like a low-born mist, and blot the sun.
For from the natal hour distinctive names,
One common right the great and lowly claims.
I
Whenever I am turned out, my lodge descends
upon a low-spirited creeping family. Swift.
The value of guineas was lowered from one-and-
twenty shillings and sixpence to one-and-twenty
shillings. - Id.
O, had she but been of lower degree,
I then might hae hoped she wad smiled upon me!
O, how past describing had then been my bliss,
As now my distraction no words can express!
z Burns.
Without a stone to mark the spot,
And say, what Truth might well have said,
By all, save one, perchance forgot,
Ah wherefore art thou lowly laid? Byron.
LOW, v. n. Sax. blonan; Belg, loegen, of
old Goth. loa, to sound. To bellow as an ox.
Doth the wild ass bray when he has grass; or
loweth the ox over his fodder ? Job vi. 5.
The maids of Argos, who, with frantick cries,
And imitated lowings filled the skies. Roscommon.
Fair Iö graced his shield, but IG now,
With horns exalted stands, and seems to low.
Dryden.
Had he been born some simple shepherd's heir,
The lowing herd, or fleecy sheep his care. Prior.
The curfew tolls the knell of parting day,
The lowing herds wind slowly o'er the lea,
The ploughman homeward plods his weary way,
And leaves the world to darkness and to me.
Gray’s Elegy.
LOW-BELL is a name given to a bell, by
means of which they take birds in the night, in
open champaign countries, and among stubble,
in October. The method is to go out about nine
o'clock in a still evening, when the air is mild,
and the moon does not shine. The low-bell
should be of a deep and hollow sound, and of
such a size that a man may conveniently carry it
in one hand. The person who carries it is to
make it toll all the way he goes, as nearly as
possible, in that manner in which the bell on the
neck of a sheep tolls as it goes on and feeds.
There must also be a box made like a large lan-
tern, about a foot square, and lined with tin,
but with one side open. Two or three great
lights are to be set in this: and the box is to be
fixed to the person's breast, with the open side
forwards, so that the light may be cast forward
to a great distance, and distinctly show to the
person that carries it, whatever birds roost upon
the ground in the large space over which it ex-
tends. Two persons must follow him who car-
ries the box and bell, one on each side, so as not
to be within the reach of the light to show them-
selves. Each of these is to have a hand net of
about three or four feet square, fastened to a
long pole; and on which ever side any bird is
seen at roost, the person who is nearest is to lay
his net over it, and take it with as little noise as
possible. When the net is over the bird, the
person who laid it is not to be in a hurry to take
the bird, but must stay till he who carries the
light is got beyond it, that his motions may not
be discovered, The blaze of the light, and the
noise of the bell, terrify and amaze the birds in
such a manner that they remain still to be taken;
but the people must be very quiet. Some people
go on this scheme alone. The person then fixes
the light box to his breast, and carries the bell in
one hand, and the net in the other; the net in
this case may be somewhat smaller, and the
handle shorter. When more than one are out at
a time it is always proper to carry a gun; as it
is no uncommon thing to see a hare when on
this expedition. is
Lower (Richard), M.D., an eminent Eng-
lish physician in the seventeenth century, born
in Cornwall, and educated at Westminster and
Oxford. He practised physic under Dr. Thomas
Willis, and in 1674 they discovered the medi-
cinal waters at Astrop in Northamptonshire;
which, upon their recommendations, became
very much frequented. In 1666 he followed
Dr. Willis to London; practised physic under
him; and became fellow of the Royal Society,
and of the college of physicians. In 1669 he
published Tractatus de Corde; also de Motu
et Dolore Sanguinis, et Chyli in eum Transitu.
After the death of Dr. Willis, in 1765, he was
esteemed the most eminent physician in London.
He died in 1691.
LOWERING, among distillers, a term used
to express the debasing the strength of any spi-
rituous liquor, by mixing water with it. The
standard and marketable price of these liquors is
fixed, in regard to a certain strength in them,
called proof; this is that strength which makes
them, when shaken in a phial, or poured from on
high into a glass, retain a froth for some time.
In this state, spirits consist of about half pure or
totally inflammable spirit, and half water; and
if any foreign or home spirits are to be exposed
to sale, and are found to have that proof wanting,
scarcely any body will buy it, till it has been dis-
tilled again, and brought to that strength; and,
if it is above that strength, the proprietor usually
adds water to it, to bring it down to that stand-
ard. There is another kind of lowering among
the retailers of spirituous liquors, by reducing it
under the standard proof. Whoever has the
art of doing this, without destroying the bubble
proof, which is easily done, by means of some
addition that gives a greater tenacity to the parts
of the spirits, will deceive all that judge by this
proof alone. In this case, the best way to judge
of liquors is by the eye and tongue, and the hy-
grometer.
LOWRIE (Wilson), F.R.S., an engraver of
great skill and intelligence, was the son of Mr.
Strickland Lowrie, a portrait painter of White-
haven, and born there January 24th, 1762. At the
age of fifteen he displayed a decided partiality
for his future profession, although circumstances
prevented his immediately acting upon his deter-
mination to follow it. After a youthful freak,
which induced him to quit his paternal roof in
company with a friend, he wandered up to Lon-
314
L O W T H.
don, both supporting themselves on the road by
acting occasionally as house-painters. He, how-
ever, returned to his friends, and commenced, in
the neighbourhood of Worcester, an acquaint-
ance with Mr. Ross, an engraver of some inge-
nuity, from whom he received his first instruc-
tions. Again visiting London, in his eighteenth
year, he was fortunate enough to obtain the no-
tice of the late alderman Boydell, by whom he
was employed and introduced to Sir William
Blizard. The latter finding, as he thought, a
strong predilection in Lowrie for medical studies,
procured him gratuitous access to the best ama-
tomical lectures; but, after several years attend-
ance at the hospitals, &c., Mr. Lowrie took a dis-
taste to the profession, and returned with great
ardor to engraving. He soon distinguished him-
self for his skill in drawing the human figure,
and made a rapid progress, at the Royal Aca-
demy, in his art. Among other inventions with
which he benefited, may be reckoned a ruling
machine for engraving successive lines, either
equidistant or in just gradation, from the greatest
required distance to the nearest possible. Upon
this instrument, invented in 1790, he made vari-
ous improvements, and constructed one capable
of drawing lines to a point, and of forming con-
centric circles. He introduced, in 1798, the use
of diamond points for etching, and was the first
Terson who succeeded in what is technically
termed ‘biting steel in' well. Mr. Lowrie, hav-
ing now attained the highest rank in his peculiar
line of art, was employed in 1800 on Dr. Rees's
Cyclopædia, which, for nearly twenty years, occu-
pied a large portion of his attention; Wilkins's
Vitruvius, and Magna Graecia; Nicholson's Ar-
chitectural Dictionary, &c. His chef-d'oeuvre is
considered to be an engraving from the Doric
Portico at Athens, in Nicholson's Architecture.
Of his engravings of machinery that of Rams-
den's Sextant, given gratuitously with the instru-
ment, is the best. Mr. Lowrie, who was elected
a fellow of the Royal Society in 1812, was a
favorer of the Berkeleyan system, and published
in the Imperial Magazine, January 1820, an in-
genious letter on the Mosaic account of the de-
luge. He died July 1824.
LOWTH (Dr. William), a learned divine,
born in London in 1661, was the son of an apo-
thecary, and took his degree of D.D. at Oxford.
His learning recommended him to Dr. Mew,
bishop of Winchester, who made him his chap-
lain, gave him two livings in Hampshire, and con-
ferred on him a prebend in the cathedral of Win-
chester. Few were more deeply versed in critical
learning; there being scarcely any ancient author,
Greek or Latin, profane or ecclesiastical, that he
had not read, constantly accompanying his read-
ing with critical and philosophical remarks.
Of his collections in this way, he was upon all
occasions very communicative: hence his notes
on Clemens Alexandrinus, inserted in Potter's
edition; his remarks on Josephus, communicated
to Hudson for his edition; and those numerous
annotations on the Ecclesiastical Historians,
inserted in Reading's edition of them at Cam-
bridge. He also assisted the author of Biblio-
theca Biblica; and Dr. Chandler, late bishop of
Durham, in his Defence of Christianity. His
piety, diligence, hospitality, and beneficence,
rendered his life highly exemplary, and enforced
his public exhortations. He married Margaret,
daughter of Robert Pitt, esq., of Blandford, by
whom he had two sons and three daughters. He
died in 1732. He published, 1. A Vindication
of the Divine Authority and Inspiration of the
Old and New Testament: 2. Directions for the
Profitable Reading of the Holy Scriptures; 3.
Commentaries on the Prophets; and other works.
LowTH (Robert), D.D. and F. R. S., son of
the preceding, and bishop successively of St.
TXavid's, Oxford, and London, was born on the
29th of November, 1710. He studied at Win-
chester College, where his exercises were distin-
guished by their elegance; and in 1730 he went
to New College, Oxford, where he continued his
studies, and took the degree of M. A. June 8th,
1737. In 1741 he was elected by the university
professor of Hebrew poetry, re-elected in 1743,
and, whilst he held that office, he read his admi-
rable lectures De Sacra poesi Hebræorum. In
1744 bishop Hoadley appointed him rector of
Ovington in Hants; in 1750 archdeacon of
Winchester, and rector of East Weedhay in 1753.
In 1754 the university created him D. D. b
diploma. Having, in 1749, travelled with lord
George and lord Frederick Cavendish, the duke
being, in 1755, lord lieutenant of Ireland, Dr.
Lowth went to that kingdom as his grace's first
chaplain. Soon after this, he was offered the
bishopric of Limerick; but, preferring a less dig-
nified station in his own country, he exchanged
it with Dr. Leslie, prebendary of Durham and
rector of Sedgefield, for these preferments. In
November, 1765, he was chosen F.R.S. In
June, 1766, he was, on the death of Dr. Squire,
raised to the see of St. David's; and in October
translated to that of Oxford. In April 1777 he
was translated to the see of London, on the
death of bishop Terrick; and in 1783 he declined
the offer of the archbishopric of Canterbury.
After having been long afflicted with the stone,
he died at Fulham, November 3d, 1787. He
had married, in 1752, Mary, daughter of Law-
rence Jackson of Christ Church, Hants, esq., by
whom he had two sons and five daughters; of
whom two and his lady survived him. His
literary character may be estimated from the
value and the importance of his works. Besides
his Prelections on the Hebrew Poetry, which
have been read with applause abroad and at
home, he published, in 1751, The Life of Wil-
liam of Wykeham, Bishop of Winchester, with a
dedication to bishop Hoadley; which involved
him in a dispute concerning a decision which
that bishop had made respecting the wardenship
of Winchester College. In 1762 was first pub-
lished his Short Introduction to English Gram-
mar, which has since gone through many editions.
In 1778 he published his last great work, A
Translation of Isaiah. Several occasional dis-
courses were also published by himself, worthy of
their author. Of his poetical pieces, none dis-
play greater merit than Verses on the Genealogy
of Christ, and The Choice of Hercules, both
written very early in his life. He wrote a spi-
rited Imitation of an Ode of Horace, applied to
the alarming situation of Britain in 1745; and
L O X I A.
315
some Verses on the Death of Frederick Prince of
Wales, with a few smaller poems. Learning and
taste, however, did not constitute bishop Lowth's
highest excellence. His amiable manners ren-
dered him an ornament to his station, whilst they
endeared him to all with whom he conversed;
and his zeal for the interest of religion made him
promote to places of trust and dignity such
clergymen as he knew were best qualified to fill
them; and, whilst virtue and learning are es-
teemed, the memory of Lowth will be respected.
LOXA, a large town of Spain, in Granada,
situated in a romantic position on the Xenil,
at the foot of the mountains which enclose the
plain of Granada. Its streets rise above one an-
other on the side of the mountain; crowned by
a Moorish castle. It has some salt-works, and
manufactures of copper. Inhabitants 9000.
Thirty miles west of Granada, and eighteen
S. S. E. of Cordova.
LoxA, a province and town of Quito, South
America, abounding in bark and grain, cows and
mules. Cochineal is also plentiful here. It
abuts northward on Guayaquil. The town was
founded in 1546, and is 237 miles south of
Quito. Inhabitants 10,000.
LOXIA, in zoology, a genus of birds of the
order of passeres: the distinguishing characters
are these: the bill is strong, convex above and
below, and very thick at the base; the nostrils
are small and round; the tongue is as if cut off
at the end ; the toes are four, placed three before
and one behind; excepting in one species, which
has only two toes before and one behind. There
are ninety-three species, besides many varieties.
The following are among the most remarkable:
L. Abyssinica, the Abyssinian grossbeak, is
about the size of the hawfinch; the bill is black;
the irides are red; the top and sides of the head,
throat, and breast, are black; the upper parts of
the body, belly, and thighs, pale yellow, inclin-
ing to brown where the two colors divide: the
scapulars are blackish; the wing-coverts brown,
bordered with gray; the quills and tail brown,
edged with yellow: the legs are of a reddish-
gray. This bird is found in Abyssinia, and
makes a curious nest of a pyramidal shape,
which hangs from the ends of branches. The
opening is on one side, facing the east; the
cavity is separated in the middle by a partition,
up which the bird rises perpendicularly about
half-way, when descending, the nest is within
the cavity, on one side. The brood is thus de-
fended from snakes, squirrels, monkeys, and
other mischievous animals, besides being secure
from rain, which in that country sometimes lasts
for six months together.
L. Bengalensis, the Bengal grossbeak, is a
trifle bigger than a house-sparrow; the bill is of
a flesh-color; the irides are whitish ; the top of
the head is of a golden yellow; the upper parts
of the body are brown, with paler edges; the
sides of the head and under parts rufous white;
across the breast is a brown band, uniting to, and
of the same color with, the upper parts of the
body; the legs are of a pale yellow, the claws
gray. This bird is exceedingly common in Hin-
dostan; he is astonishingly sensible, faithful, and
docile, never voluntarily deserting the place
where his young were hatched, but not averse,
like most other birds, to the society of mankind,
and easily taught to perch on the hand of his
master. In a state of nature he generally builds
his nest on the highest tree that he can find,
especially on the palmyra, or on the Indian fig-
tree. He makes it of grass, which he weaves like
cloth, and shapes like a large bottle, suspending
it firmly on the branches, but so as to rock with
the wind, and placing it with its entrance down-
wards to secure it from birds of prey. His nest
usually consists of two or three chambers; and
it is the popular belief that he lights them with
fire-flies, which he catches alive at night, and
confines with moist clay or with cow-dung.
That such flies are often found in his nest, where
pieces of cow-dung are also stuck, is indubitable;
but, as their light could be of little use to him, it
seems probable that he only feeds on them. He
may be taught with ease to fetch any small thing
that his master points out to him. The young
Hindoo women at Benares, and in other places,
wear very thin plates of gold, called ticas,
slightly fixed by way of ornament between their
eye-brows; and when they pass through the
streets it is not uncommon for the youthful
libertimes, who amuse themselves with training
bayas, to give them a signal, which they under-
stand, and send them to pluck the pieces of gold
from the foreheads of their mistresses, which they
bring in triumph to the lovers. The baya feeds
naturally on grasshoppers and other insects; but
will subsist, when tame, on pulse macerated in
Water.
L. caerulea, the blue grossbeak, is the size
of the bullfinch: the bill is strong, brown, and
the base of it surrounded with black feathers,
which reach on each side as far as the eye: the
plumage is in general a deep blue, except the
quills and tail, which are brown, with a mixture
of green, and across the wing-coverts a band of
red: the legs are dusky. They inhabit South
America, but are sometimes found in Carolina,
where they are seen only in pairs, but disappear
in winter. Their song consists only of a single
note.
L. cardinalis, the cardinal grossbeak, is nearly
eight inches in length. The bill is stout, and o
a pale red color; the irides are hazel; the head
is finely crested, the feathers rising up to a
point when erect; round the bill, and on the
throat, the color is black; the rest of the bird is
of a fine red; the quills and tail duller than the
rest, and brownish within ; the legs are the color
of the bill. The female differs from the male,
being mostly of a reddish-brown. This species
is met with in several parts of North America;
and has attained the name of nightingale, from the
sweetness of its song, which resembles that
of the nightingale. In spring, and for the greater
part of the summer, it sits on the tops of the
highest trees, singing early in the morning, and
piercing the ear with its loud pipe. They are
fond of maize and buck-wheat; and will collect
together large hoards of these, often as much as
a bushel, which they artfully cover with leaves
and small twigs, leaving only a small hole for
entrance into the magazine. They are also fond
of bees They come in the beginning of April
316
L O X I A.
into New York and the Jerseys: in autumn they
depart towards Carolina. They are pretty tame,
frequently hopping along the road before the
traveller; but are not gregarious, scarcely ever
more than three or four being met with together.
L. chloris, the green finch, is a well known
bird : the general color is a yellowish-green,
palest on the rump,and breast, and inclining to
white on the belly; the quills are edged with
yellow, and the four outer tail-feathers are yel-
low from the middle to the base; the bill is
pale brown and stout; and the legs are of
a flesh color. This species is common in Britain,
and flies in troops during winter. They make
their nests in some low bush or hedge, composed
of dry grass, and lined with hair, wool, &c.,
laying five or six greenish eggs, marked at the
larger end with red-brown; and the male takes
his turn in sitting. These birds soon become
tame; even old ones being familiar almost as
soon as caught; they live five or six years.
Like the chaffinch, they grow blind if exposed to
the sun. This species is also pretty common
every where on the continent, but not very
frequent in Russia; and is not at all found
in Siberia, though it has been met with in
Kamtschatka.
L. coccothraustes, the hawfinch, is in length
about seven inches, breadth thirteen : the bill is
funnel-shaped, strong, thick, and of a dull pale
pink color; the breast and whole under side are
of a dirty flesh-color; the neck ash-colored; the
back and coverts of the wings of a deep brown,
those of the tail of a yellowish bay; the greater
quill-feathers are black, marked with white on
their inner webs; the tail is short, spotted with
white on the inner sides; and the legs are of a
flesh-color. This species is ranked among the
British birds; but they only visit these king-
doms occasionally, for the most part in winter,
and never breed here. They abound more in
France, coming into Burgundy in small flocks
about the beginning of April; and soon after
making their nests between the bifurcation
of the branches of trees, of small dry fibres, in-
termixed with liverwort, and lined with finer
materials. The eggs are of a roundish shape, of
a bluish-green spotted with olive-brown, with a
few irregular black markings interspersed. They
are also common in Italy, Germany, Sweden,
and the west and south parts of Russia, where
the wild fruits grow. They feed on berries, ker-
nels, &c., and, from the great strength of its
bill, crack the stones of the fruit of the haws,
cherries, &c., with the greatest ease.
L. curvirestra, the common cross-bill, is about
the size of a lark, and is known by the singularity
of its bill, both mandibles of which gurve oppo-
site ways and cross each other. The general
color of the plumage in the male is of a red-
lead, inclining to rose color, and more or less
mixed with brown ; the wings and tail are
brown; the legs black. The female is of a green
color, more or less mixed with brown in those
parts where the male is red. This species inha-
bits Sweden, Germany, Poland, Switzerland,
Russia, and Siberia, where it breeds; but
migrates sometimes in vast flocks into Britain
and other countries; for, though in some years
few are met with, yet in others they have visited
us by thousands, fixing on such spots as are
planted with pines, for the sake of the seeds,
which are their natural food. They hold the
cone in one claw like the parrot. They also visit
North America and Greenland; and make their
nests in the highest parts of fir-trees, fastening
them to the branches with the resinous matter
which exudes from the trees.
L. enucleator, the pine grossbeak, is about
nine inches long. The bill is strong, dusky, and
forked at the end; the head, back, neck, and
breast, are of a rich crimson; the bottoms of
the feathers ash-color; the quill-feathers and tail
dusky, their exterior edges of a dirty white; the
legs are black. This species frequents the most
northern parts of this kingdom, being only met
with in Scotland, especially the Highlands,
where they breed, and inhabit the pine-forests,
feeding on the seeds, like the cross-bill. They
also abound in the pine-forests of Siberia, Lap-
land, and the north of Russia; and are common
about St. Petersburgh in autumn, where they are
caught in great plenty for the table. They
return north in spring. They are likewise com-
mon in the north parts of America, appearing at
Hudson's Bay in May, and feeding on the buds
of the willow.
I. orix, the grenadier grossbeak, is about the
size of a house sparrow. The forehead, sides of
the head, and chin, the breast and belly, are
black; the wings are brown, with pale edges;
and the rest of the body is of a beautiful
red color; the legs are pale. These birds inhabit
St. Helena, and the Cape of Good Hope; fre-
quenting watery places that abound with reeds,
among which they are supposed to make their
nest. These birds, among the green reeds, from
the brightness of their colors, appear like so
many scarlet lilies.
L. pensilis, the pensile grossbeak, the toddy
bird of Fryer, is about the size of the house spar-
row : the bill is black, the irides are yellow; the
head, throat, and fore part of the neck, the same;
from the nostrils springs a dull green stripe,
which passes through the eye and beyond it,
where it is broader; the hind part of the head
and neck, the back, rump, and wing coverts,
are of the same color; the quills are black,
edged with green; the belly is deep gray, and
the tail and legs are black. This species is
found at Madagascar, and fabricates a nest of a
curious construction, composed of straw and
reeds interwoven in shape of a bag, the open-
ing beneath. It is fastened above to a twig of
some tree; mostly to those growing on the bor-
ders of streams. On one side of this, within, is
the true nest. The bird does not form a new nest
every year, but fastens a new one to the end of
the last; and often as many as five in number,
one hanging from another. These build in
society like rooks, 500 or 600 being often seen
On One tree.
L. Philippina, the Philippine grossbeak, is
about the size of a sparrow : the top of the head,
the hind part of the neck and back, and the
scapulars, are yellow, the middle of the feathers
brown; the lower part of the back is brown,
with whitish margins; the fore part of the neck
L O, X I A.
317
and breast are yellow; and thence to the
want yellowish white; the wing coverts brown,
edged with white; the quills are brown, with
pale rufous, or whitish edges; and the tail
the same; the legs are yellowish. These birds
inhabit the Philippine Islands, and are noted for
making a most curious nest, in form of a long
cylinder, swelling out into a globose form in the
middle. This is composed of the fine fibres of
Heaves, &c., and fastened by the upper part to
the extreme branch of a tree.
is from beneath; and after ascending the cylin-
der, as far as the globular cavity, the true nest is
placed on one side of it; where this little archi-
tect lays her eggs, and hatches her brood in
perfect security. A variety of this species, the
baglafechat, an inhabitant of Abyssinia, makes a
very curious nest like the former, but a little
different in shape, which is said to have some-
what of a spiral form, not unlike that of a nau-
tilus. It suspends it, like the other, on the
extreme twig of some tree, chiefly one that hangs
over some still water; and always turns the
opening towards that quarter whence least rain
may be expected. •
L. pyrrhula, the bullfinch, is well known.
The head, wings, and tail, are black; the breast
and belly red; the upper tail coverts and vent
white; and the breast ash-color. The female
differs in having the under parts of a reddish
brown. This species is common in most parts
of the continent, and throughout Russia and
Siberia, where it is caught for the table. They
are pretty common in England, and build
in bushes, five or six feet from the ground.
The nest is composed chiefly of moss; and the
eggs, which are five or six in number, are dirty
bluish white, marked at the large end with dark
spots. The time of breeding is about the end of
May, or beginning of June. In summer they
frequent woods and retired places. In winter
they approach gardens and orchards, and make
havock among the buds of trees. The bullfinch,
in its wild state, has only a plain note, but
when tamed it becomes remarkably docile, and
may be taught any tune after a pipe, or to whistle
any notes in the justest manner; it seldom for-
gets what it has learned ; and will become
so tame as to come at call, perch on its master's
shoulders, and, at command, go through a diffi-
cult musical lesson. They may be also taught
to speak, and some thus instructed are annually
brought to London from Germany.
L. socia, the sociable grossbeak, is about the
size of a bullfinch: the general color of the body
above is rufous brown, the under parts yellow-
ish; the beak and muzzle are black; the legs
brown, and the tail is short. It inhabits the in-
terior country at the Cape of Good Hope.
These birds live together in large societies, and
their mode of nidification is extremely uncom-
mon. They build in a species of mimosa, which
grows to an uncommon size, and which they
seem to select for that purpose, as well on
account of its ample head, and the great strength
of its branches, calculated to admit and to sup-
port the extensive buildings which they have to
erect, as for the tallness and smoothness of
its trunk, which their great enemies, the serpent
The entrance .
tribe, are unable to climb. The method in which
the nests themselves are fabricated is highly
curious. In one described by Mr. Paterson
there could be no less a number, he says, than
from 800 to 1000 residing under the same roof.
He calls it a roof, because it perfectly resembles
that of a thatched house; and the ridge forms an
angle so acute and so smooth, projecting over
the entrance of the nest below, that it is impossi.
ble for any reptile to approach them. The
industry of these birds ‘seems almost equal,’
says our author, “to that of the bee; throughout
the day they appear to be busily employed
in carrying a fine species of grass, which is the
principal material they employ for the purpose
of erecting this extraordinary work, as well as for
additions and repairs. Many trees I have seen
borne down with the weight, and others I have
observed with their boughs completely covered
over. One of the deserted nests I had the
curiosity to break down, so as to inform myself
of the internal structure of it, and found it
equally ingenious with that of the external.
There are many entrances, each of which forms
a regular street, with nests on both sides, at
about two inches distance from each other. The
grass with which they build is called the bosh-
man's grass; and I believe the seed of it to be
their principal food; though, on examining their
nests, I found the wings and legs of different
insects.’
L. tridactyla, the three-toed grossbeak, the
guisso balito of Buffon, has only three toes, two
before and one behind. The bill is toothed on
the edges: the head, throat, and forepart of the
neck, are of a beautiful red, which is prolonged
in a narrow band quite to the vent; the upper
part of the neck, back, and tail, are black; the
wing coverts brown edged with white; quills
brown, with greenish edges; and legs a dull
red : the wings reach half way on the tail. This
species inhabits Abyssinia; where it frequents
woods, and is a solitary species. It feeds on
kernels of seeds, which it breaks with ease with
its bill.
LOXODROM'ICK, m. s. Gr. Aogóc, oblique
and ºpéuoc, a course. Oblique sailing.
Lotodromich is the art of oblique sailing by the
rhomb, which always makes an equal angle with
every meridian ; that is, when you sail neither di-
rectly under the equator, nor under one and the
same meridian, but across them : hence the table of
rhombs, or the transverse table of miles, with the
table of longitudes and latitudes, by which the
sailor may practically find his course, distance, lati-
tude, or longitude, is called locodromick. Harris.
LOY'AL, adj. Fr. loyal, loi (law) ; Ital.
Lox’ALIST, n. s. (leale (le); Span. leal (le).
Loy’ALLY, adv. (Strictly, attached or obe-
Loy’ALTY, n. s. D dient to the laws of one's
country, and hence to the sovereign; faithful to
vows or engagements of any kind. A loyalist
is an adherent to the king or sovereign power.
Loyalty (Fr. loiauté), fidelity to prince or coun-
try; or any object of vows or attachment.
The regard of duty in that most loyal nation over-
came all other difficulties. Knolles.
LOZ
3.18 LOZ w
Of Gloster's treachery,
And of the loyal service of his son,
When 'I informed him, then he called me sot.
- Shakspeare.
Though loyalty, well held, to fools does make
Our faith mere folly; yet he that can endure
To follow with allegiance a fallen lord,
Does conquer him that did his master conquer. Id.
What though you be loyal to earthly kings and
their crowns and kingdoms, yet if you be traitors and
rebels against the King of his church, Jesus Christ,
and the sceptre of his kingdom ; not suffering him
by his laws and officers to reign over you, shall
your loyalty towards men excuse your treasons
against the Lord. Bp. Hall.
The cedar, by the instigation of the loyalists, fell
out with the homebians. Howel's Vocal Forest.
He had never any veneration for the court, but
only such loyalty to the king as the law required.
Clarendon.
Hail wedded love by thee
Founded in reason loyal, just, and pure. Milton.
Abdiel faithful found
Unshaken, unseduced, unterrified,
His loyalty he kept. Id.
For loyalty is still the same,
Whether it win or lose the game;
True as the dial to the sun,
Although it be not shone upon. Hudibras.
There Laodamia with Evadne moves,
Unhappy both, but loyal in their loves. Dryden.
Loyal subjects often seize their prince,
Yet mean his sacred person not the least º
d.
The circling year I wait, with ampler stores,
And fitter pomp, to hail my native shores;
Then by my realms due homage would be paid,
For wealthy kings are loyally obeyed.
Pope's Odyssey.
The most inviolable attachment to the laws of our
country is every where acknowledged a capital vir-
tue; and, where the people are not so happy as to
have any legislature but a single person, the strictest
loyalty is, in that case, the truest patriotism.
- Hume.
We too are friends to loyalty. We love
The being, who loves the law, espects his bounds,
And reigns content within them. Cowper.
LOYOLA (Ignatius), the founder of the order
of the Jesuits, was born at the castle of Loyola,
in Giupuscoa, in 1491; and became first page to
Ferdinand V., king of Spain, and then an officer
in his army. In this last capacity he signa-
Kised himself by his valor; and had his right leg
broken by a cannon ball, at the siege of Pam-
peluna, in 1521. While confined by his wound,
a Life of the Saints was put into his hands,
which determined him to forsake the military
for the ecclesiastical profession. His first de-
vout exercise was to dedicate himself to the
Blessed Virgin as her knight. He then prac-
tised the most severe mortifications for above a
year; after which he went a pilgrimage to the
Holy Land; and, on his return to Europe, he
continued his theological studies in the univer-
sities of Spain, though he was then thirty-three
years of age. In 1526, , upon commencing
preacher, he was imprisoned at Alcara and Sala-
manca, and impeached before the inquisition.
After this he went to Paris, and laid the founda-
tion of his new order; the institutes of which he
presented to pope Paul III., who made many
objections to them, but at last confirmed the in-
stitution in 1540. He died in Rome, July 31st
1556, aged sixty-six; and left his disciples two
celebrated works; 1. Spiritual Exercises; 2.
Constitutions, or Rules of the Order. But, though
these avowed institutes contain many privileges
obnoxious to the welfare of society, the most ob-
jectionable are contained in the private rules
entitled Monita Secreta, which were not disco-
vered till the close of the seventeenth century;
and most writers attribute these, and even the
Constitutions, to Laynez, the second general of
the order.
LOZ'ENGE, n. s. Fr. losenge, Gr. Aoãoc,
oblique. A rhomb; a preserved fruit, or medici-
nal cake, of this form.
Not icladde in silke was he,
But all in flowris and flowrettes,
I painted all with amorettes,
And with losingis and scochons, f
With birdis, liberdes, and lions,
And othir bestis wrought ful well.
Chaucer. Romaunt of the Rose,
The best builders resolve upon rectangular squares,
as a mean between too few and too many angles;
and, through the equal inclination of the sides, they
are stronger than the rhomb or losenge.
Wotton’s Architecture.
They are of two sorts, square and lozenge: the
first is used in cutting very broad strokes, the other
for fainter and more delicate lines.
Imison's Elements.
LozENGE, in heraldry. See HERALDRY.
Though all heralds agree that ladies are to place
their arms on lozenges, yet they differ with re-
spect to the causes that gave rise to it. Plutarch
says, in the life of Theseus, that in Megara, an
ancient town of Greece, the tomb-stones, under
which the bodies of the Amazons lay, were of that
form. S. Petra Sancta says, this shield repre-
sents a cushion, on which women used to sit and
spin. Sir J. Ferne thinks it is formed from the
shield called Tesra, which the Romans finding
unfit for war, allowed women to place their en-
signs upon, with one of its angles always upper-
In OSt.
LozENGES, among jewellers, are common te
brilliant and rose diamonds. In brilliants they
are formed by the meeting of the skill and star
facets on the bezil; in the latter by the meeting
of the facets in the horizontal ribs of the crown.
See FACET. -
LOZERE, a department of France, is formed
of the ancient district of the Gevaudan and part
of the Cevennes dependent on the former pro-
vince of Languedoc, and takes its name from a
small chain of mountains, being part of those
called the Cevennes mountains. The chief place
is Mende; it consists of three arrondissements
or 'subprefectures, Mende containing 43,821 in-
habitants; Florac 39,453; Marvejols 50,660;
making a total population of 133,934 souls, on
an area of 2421 square miles. It is subdivided
into twenty-four cantons, and 191 communes,
yielding a territorial revenue of 5,904,000 francs,
is in the ninth military division, with two elec-
toral arrondissements, which send two members
to the chamber of deputies. It has a royal court
at Nismes, and a bishopric at Mende. This de-
partment is bounded on the north by those of
Cantal and the Upper Loire; on the east by
LUB *
IUB * ,
319
those of Ardeche and the Gard; on the south by
the Gard, and on the west by that of the Avey-
ron. It is intersected by mountains, on which
are many lakes abounding in fish, and by valleys
and plains of moderate extent and not very fer-
tile. It is divided by nature into three parts,
known by their respective names of Montagnes,
Causses, and Cevennes; the first of which pro-
duces rye, a small quantity of barley and oats
and forage; the second, which is the most fer-
tile, yields wheat, small grain, forage, and fruits;
the third produces a little rye, chestnuts, and a
great quantity of potatoes. The Cevennes moun-
tains extend over part of this department, from
one of the peaks of which, the mountain of Lo-
zère, it derives its name; they are covered with
snow during a part of the year. Among the
plants which grow spontaneously in these moun-
tains, are many that are useful in pharmacy.
Great flocks of sheep are reared here, and a great
number of mules; during the summer also they
receive flocks from Lower Languedoc. In some
parts the mulberry tree is cultivated with toler-
able success. The temperature of the atmosphere
is very variable; at some periods, and at certain
degrees of altitude, two or three different tempe-
ratures are experienced in the same day. In the
north the winter lasts for six months, and in some .
years even nine; but towards the south it
scarcely continues four months. The height of
the sun and the numerous waters render this
country cold and damp, and this is the common
temperature of the department; the winters are
usually severe, the spring seasons rainy, the
summers often stormy, and the autumns fine only
towards the end. This mountainous country is
cultivated with oxen, and does not yield a suffi-
cient supply for its inhabitants. There are 21,681
hectars of forests and very few vineyards; the
mean produce of every hectar of arable land is
ten francs ninety-four centimes.
Here are also mines of iron, lead, antimony,
silver, and copper, and quarries of marble, gra-
nite, porphyry, and plaster. At Bagnols there
are mineral waters. The manufacture of serges,
and cotton spinning, is carried on successfully;
mines of copper and lead are worked, and vari-
ous foundries. A number of workmen annually
emigrate to the south, to attend the cultivation
of the silk-worm, and at the same time to labor
at the hay making and the harvest. The people
trade in wine, chestnuts, oil, coarse cloths, serges,
and cotton yarn.
The principal rivers are the Tarn, the Lot, the
Allier, the Gardon, the Chassezat, the Truyere,
the Bez, the Tarnon, the Mimente, the Jaute and
the Cologne. It is crossed by none of the great
royal roads; but fourteen different cross roads
serve to promote the communication; goods are
chiefly conveyed on mules. \
LozERE, THE, a high mountain in the Ce-
vennes, situated at the eastern extremity of the
department, to which it gives its name. It is
about 1473 metres above the level of the sea, and
has a plat of granite on the top, in shape bearing
resemblance to the back of an ass, about ten or
twelve miles long, covered with fine pastures and
thick forests.
LH, n. s. A game at cards. See Loo.
LUBBARD, n.s. Perhaps from LoB,
LUB'BER, }: see. There
LUP'BERLY, adj. & adv. ) are also Belg. lobben,
emasculated, and luyard, a lout, probable deri-
vations. A sturdy, lazy fellow. Lubberly is
awkward ; clownish.
For tempests and showers deceiveth a many,
And lingering lubbers loose many a penie. Tusser.
They clap the lubber Ajax on the shoulder,
As if his feet were on brave Hector's breast,
And great Troy shrinking.
Shakspeare. Troilus and Cressida.
A notable lubber thou reportest him to be.
Shakspeare.
I came to Eaton to marry Mrs. Anne Page; and
she’s a great lubberly boy. Id.
These chase the smaller shoals of fish from the
main sea into the havens, leaping up and down puf-
fing like a fat lubber out of breath. Carew.
'ell how the drudging goblin sweat ;
His shadowy flail hath threshed the corn,
That ten day labourers could not end;
Then lies him down the lubber fend. Milton.
Merry Andrew on the low rope copies lubberly the
same tricks which his master is so dexterously per-
forming on the high. Dryden.
Venetians do not more uncouthly ride,
Than did your lubber state mankind bestride.
How can you name that superannuated lubber?
Congreve.
Yet their wine and their victuals those curmudgeon
lubbards
Lock up from my sight in cellars and cupboards.
Swift.
LUBEC, or LUBECK, a city and port of Ger-
many, in Lower Saxony. It is seated at the
conflux of the Trave with the Steckenitz, the
Elbe, the Wackenitz, &c., twelve miles from the
Baltic, where it has a fine harbour. By the
Steckenitz and the Elbe it communicates with
the German Ocean. The city lies on the side of
a hill, with the Trave, increased by the Stecke-
nitz on the one side, and the Wackenitz on the
other; and is strongly fortified with bastions,
walls, and ramparts; the last of which are planted
with trees, and for man agreeable walk. Lubec,
being formerly the chief of the Hanse Towns was
very powerful, but a great part of its trade is
now transferred to Hamburg: however, it still
employs 100 ships, and has a fair share of the
Baltic trade. It is about two miles long, and
more than one broad. The houses are of stone.
Several of the streets have on each side rows of
lime trees, with canals in the middle. The
chief public structures are the cathedral, the
church of St. Mary's, several Lutheran churches,
a nunnery with an abbess, and prioress; a poor's
house, an alms-house, orphan house, a hospital
dedicated to the Holy Ghost, a house in which
poor travellers are entertained three days, and
then sent forward with a pass, or provided with
medicine if ill; a Calvinistic church, and Ca-
tholic Chapel. The deputies of the Hanse
Towns used to meet in the town house of Lu-
bec. Inhabitants 55,000. It is forty miles
north-east of Hamburg. In 1802 Lubec had
seventy to eighty merchant vessels of burthen,
and in the same year there entered 1368 vessels,
and cleared out 1234. It has manufactories of
cordage and sail-cloth, sugar refineries and to-
LUB
LUC
320
bacco manufactories, and builds merchant ves-
sels. Travemunde is a village of fishermen and
pilots, on the north bank of the river; it has a
fortress mounting forty cannons. Its port,
where vessels above 200 tons lighten to ascend
to Lubec, can hold sixty sail. A packet sails
between this place and Petersburg. -
LUBIENITSKI (Stanislaus), a Polish gentle-
man, born at Cracow in 1623, and educated by
his father. He became a celebrated Socinian
minister; and endeavoured to obtain toleration
from the German princes for his brethren. His
labors, however, were ineffectual; being himself
persecuted by the Lutheran ministers and ba-
nished from place to place, until at length, in 1675,
he was poisoned with his two daughters, his wife
narrowly escaping. He wrote, 1. A History of
the Reformation in Poland; 2. A History of
Comets, from the Flood to 1665 : and other
works in Latin.
LUBIN (Augustin), according to Dr. Wat-
kins, or Nicholas Lubin according to others, geo-
grapher to Louis XIV., and an Augustine monk,
was born in 1624. He wrote a description of
Lapland; Sacred Geography; and several other
works. He died in 1695, aged seventy-one.
LUBIN (Elihard), a Protestant divine, born at
Westersted in Germany, and educated at Leip-
sic. He became professor of poetry in the uni-
versity of Rostock, in 1595: and in 1605 pro-
fessor of divinity. He wrote notes on Anacreon,
Juvenal, Persius, &c., and several other works;
but his most celebrated production is a treatise
on the nature and origin of evil, entitled Phos-
phorus de Causa primâ et Naturâ Mali, printed at
Rostock in 1596; in which we have a curious
hypothesis to account for the origin of moral evil.
He supposed two co-eternal principles; not
matter and vacuum, as Epicurus did : but God,
and Nihilum or Nothing.
LUBLIN, a considerable town of Poland, ca-
pital of the palatinate of the same name, with a
citadel, a bishop's see, a university, a Jewish sy-
nagogue, and judicial courts. It has three fairs,
frequented by merchants from all nations. It is
seated on the Bystrzna. Long. 22° 31' E., lat.
51° 26 N *
LU'BRICATE, v.a. D Lat. lubricus. To
LUBRrc'ITY, n. s. make smooth, slippe-
LU'BRIC, adj. {ry, or of easy move-
LU'BRIcous, ſment. Lubricity is
LUBRIFICATION, n. s. smoothness; aptness
LUBRIFAc'TION. J to move or glide ea-
sily ; slipperiness; uncertainty; wantonness.
Lubric and lubricous are, smooth; slippery;
loose ; unsteady; wanton. Lubrification and
lubrifaction, the act of making smooth or lubri-
COUIS.
The cause is lubrifaction and relaxation, as in me-
dicines emollient; such as milk, honey, and mallows.
Bacon.
I will deduce nim from his cradle through the
deep and lubrick waves of state, till he is swallowed
in the gulph of fatality. Wottom.
- A throng
Of short thick sobs, whose thundering volleys float
...And roll themselves over her lubrick throat
In panting murmurs. Crashaw.
He that enjoyed crowns, and knew their worth,
excepted them not out of the charge of universal
vanity; and yet the politician is not discouraged at
the inconstancy of human affairs, and the lubricity
of his subject. Glanville's Apology.
The judgment being the leading power, if it be
stored with lubricous opinions instead of clearly con-
ceived truths, and peremptorily resolved in them,
the practice will be as irregular as the conceptions.
Id. Scepsis.
The manifold impossibilities and lubricities of
matter cannot have the same conveniencies in any
modification. More.
From the letchery of these fauns, he thinks that
satyr is derived from them, as if wantonness and
lubricity were essential to that poem which ought in
all to be avoided. Dryden.
Why were we hurried down J
This lubrick and adulterate age;
Nay, added fat pollutions of our own,
Tº increase the steaming ordures of the stage Id.
A state of tranquillity is never to be attained, but
by keeping perpetually in our thoughts the cer-
tainty of death and the lubricity of fortune.
L’ Estrange.
Both the ingredients are of a lubricating nature;
the mucilage adds to the lubricity of the oil, and the
oil preserves the mucilage from inspissation.
Ray on Creation.
A twofold liquor is prepared for the inunction and
lubrification of the heads of the bones; an oily one,
furnished by the marrow ; a mucilaginous, supplied
by certain glandules seated in the articulations.
Id.
The parts of water being voluble and lubricous, as
well as fine, it easily insinuates itself into the tubes
of vegetables, and by that means introduces into
them the matter it bears along with it.
Woodward's Natural History.
There are aliments which, besides this lubricating
quality, stimulate in a small degree.
- - Arbuthnot on Aliments.
The patient is relieved by the mucilaginous and
the saponaceous remedies, some of which lubricate,
and others both lubricate and stimulate. Sharp.
To trace in Nature's most minute design
The signature and stamp of power divine,
Contrivance intricate, expressed with ease,
Where unassisted sight no beauty sees ;
The shapely limb and lubricated joint,
Within the small dimensions of a point,
Muscle and nerve miraculously spun ;
His mighty work, who speaks and it is done.
Cowper.
LUCANIA, a country of Italy, and a part of
Magna Graecia; bounded on the north by the
Silarus, by which it is separated from the Picen-
tini, and by the river Bradanus, by which it is
parted from the Apuli Peucetii; on the south by
the Laus, which separated it from the Bruttii;
on the east by the Sinus Tarentinus; and on the
west by the Tuscan Sea.
LUCANUS (Marcus Annæus), a Latin poet,
born at Corduba in Spain, about A. D. 39. He
was the son of Annæus Mela, the youngest bro-
ther of Seneca; and was conveyed to Rome at
the age of eight months. At Rome he was edu-
cated under the Stoic Cornutus, so warmly cele-
brated by his disciple Persius the satirist, who
was the intimate friend of Lucan. In the close
of his education, Lucan is said to have passed
some time at Athens. On his return to Rºme
he rose to the office of questor, before he had at-
tained the legal age. He was afterwards enrol-
led among the augurs; and married a lady of
LUC
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321
roble birth. Lucan had for some time been
admitted to familiarity with Nero, when the em-
peror chose to contend with him for poetical
honors by the public recital of a poem he had
composed on Niobe. Lucan had the hardiness to
repeat a poem on Orpheus, in competition with
that of Nero; and the judges of the contest were
just and bold enough to decide against the empe-
ror. Hence Nero became the persecutor of his
successful rival, and prohibited him to produce
any poetry in public. The well known conspi-
racy of Piso against the tyrant soon followed;
and Tacitus concludes that Lucan engaged in the
enterprise from the poetical injuries he had re-
ceived. His firmness and intrepidity are very
forcibly displayed in the picture of his death
which Tacitus has given us." He was condemned
to have his veins opened, as his uncle Seneca
had before him; and, “while his blood issued
in streams, perceiving his feet and hands to grow
cold and stiffen, and life to retire by little and
little from the extremities, while his heart was
still beating with vital warmth, and his faculties
nowise impaired, he recollected some lines of his
own, which described a wounded soldier expir-
ing in a manner that resembled this. These lines
he rehearsed; and they were the last words he
ever uttered.’ The critics differ concerning the
verses of the Pharsalia which the author repeat-
ed. Some think the verses were v. 810 to 814,
.ib. ix., but Lipsius contends, that the passage
occurs in lib. iii. v. 635–638; thus translated
sy Mr. Rowe : *
No single wound the gaping rupture seems,
Where trickling crimson swells in slender streams;
But, from an op'ning horrible and wide,
A thousand vessels pour the bursting tide :
At once the winding channel’s course was broke;
Where wandering life her mazy journey took ;
At once the currents all forgot their way,
And lost their purple in the azure sea.
Such was the death of Lucan, before he had
completed his twenty-seventh year. His wife,
Polla Argentaria, is said to have transcribed and
corrected the first three books of his Pharsalia
after his death. Quintilian disputes the title of
Lucan to be classed among the poets; and Sca-
liger says, that he seems rather to bark than to
sing. But the most elevated poetic spirits have
been his warmest admirers; in France he was
idolised by Corneille, and in England translated
by Rowe. The severest censures on Lucan have
proceeded from those who have “unfairly com-
pared his language to that of Virgil; but how
unjust is such a comparison! How differently
should we think of Virgil as a poet, if we pos-
sessed only the verses which he wrote at that
period of life when Lucan composed his Phar-
salia! In the disposition of his subject, in the
propriety and elegance of diction, he is un-
doubtedly far inferior to Virgil: but if we attend
to the bold originality of his design, and to the
vigor of his sentiments; if we consider the
Pharsalia as the rapid and uncorrected sketch of
a young poet, executed.in an age when the spirit
of his countrymen was broken, and their taste
in literature corrupted; it may be justly esteem-
ed one of the most noble and most wonderful
productions of the human mind. Lucan wrote
Vol. XIII. -
several poems, but none remain besides his
Pharsalia. *
LUCANUS, the stag-beetle, in zoology, a genus of
insects of the order coleoptera. The antennae end
in a club or knob, which is compressed or flat-
tened on one side, and divided into short laminae
resembling the teeth of a comb; the jaws are
porrected or advanced before the head, and are
dentated. See ENToMoLogy.
L. cervus is the largest as well as the most sin-
gular species. It has two large moveable max-
illae, resembling the horns of a stag, which pro-
ject from its head, and have acquired it the
appellation of stag-beetle. Those maxillae, broad
and flat, equal to one-third of its length, have in
the middle, towards their inner part, a small
branch, and at their extremity are forked. They
have also several small teeth throughout their
length. The head that bears these maxillae is
irregular, very broad, and short. The thorax is
something narrower than the head and body, and
margined round. The elytra are very plain,
without either streaks or lines. The whole ani-
mal is of a deep brown color. It is commonly
found upon the oak, but is scarce in the neigh-
bourhood of London; and, though the largest of
coleopterous insects to be met with in this part
of the world, it is much smaller than those of
the same species that are found in woody coun-
tries. It is strong and vigorous, and its horns,
with which it pinches severely, are carefully to
be avoided. The jaws are sometimes as red as
coral, which gives this insect a very beautiful ap-
pearance; the female is distinguished by the
shortness of the jaws, which are not half so long
as those of the male. The females deposit their
eggs in trunks of decayed trees, such as the oak
and the ash. The larvae lodge under the bark,
and in the hollow of old trees, which they eat
into and reduce into fine powder, and there
transform themselves into chrysalids. They are
common in Kent and Sussex, and are sometimes
met with in other parts of England. The por-
rected jaws are particularly useful to these ani-
mals, in stripping off the bark from trees, and
affixing themselves thereby to the tree, while
they suck with their trunk the juice that oozes
from it.
LUCARIA, from Lat. lucus, a grove, a feast
celebrated at Rome, on the 18th of July, in me-
mory of the flight of the Romans into a wood,
where they found an asylum from the Gauls.
This wood was situated between the Tiber and
the Via Salaria. On this festival, Plutarch in-
forms us, it was customary to pay the actors with
the money arising from the felling of wood. This
money was called lucar. ,
LUCAS (Richard), D.D., a learned English
divine, born in 1648, and educated at Oxford;
after which he took orders, and was for some
time master of the free school at Abergavenny.
Being esteemed an excellent preacher, he be-
came vicar of St. Stephen's Coleman Street, and
lecturer of St. Olave's in Southwark. . In 1696
he was installed prebendary of Westminster.
His sight began to fail in his youth, and he to-
tally lost it in his middle age. He was greatly
esteemed for his piety and learning; and pub-
lished several works, particularly; 1. Practical
- Y
LU C
LUC
322
Christianity; 2. An Enquiry after Happiness;
3. Several Sermons; 4. A Latin translation of the
whole Duty of Man. He died in 1715.
LUCAS JAcOBs, or LUCAS WAN LEYDEN, an
eminent artist, called also Hugense, was born at
Leyden in 1494. He received his first instruc-
tions in painting from his father Hugues Jacobs :
but completed his studies under Cornelius En-
gelbrecht. A few years before his death, it is
said that during a journey through Zealand and
Brabant a painter of Flushing, envious of his
great abilities, gave him poison at an entertain-
ment, which, though slow, was fatal in its ef-
fects, and put an end to his life, after six years
languishing under its cruel influence. Others,
however, attribute his death to his incessant in-
dustry. The superiority of his genius manifest-
ed itself very early; for his works, even when but
nine years of age, were so excellent as to excite
the admiration of all contemporary artists; and,
when he was about fifteen, he painted a St. Hu-
bert which gained him great applause. His
tone of coloring, Mr. Pilkington observes, is
good; his attitudes are well chosen; his figures
have a considerable expression in their faces; and
his pictures are very highly finished. He en-
deavoured to proportion the strength of his co-
loring to the different degrees of distance in
which his objects were placed: for, in that early
time, the true principles of perspective were but
little known. In the town-hall at Leyden his
finest picture, the Last Judgment, is preserved
with great care; the magistrates having refused
very large sums for it. Lucas painted not only
in oil, but also in distemper and upon glass.
-Nor was he less eminent for his engraving. The
strokes are as delicate upon the objects in the
front, as upon those in the distances; and this
want of variety, joined with the feebleness of
the masses of shadow, gives his engravings, with
all their neatness, an unfinished appearance. He
was attentive to the minutiae of his art. He gave
great expression to the heads of his figures; but
in his works the same heads are too often re-
peated. The hands and feet are rather mannered
than correct; and, when he attempted to draw
the naked figure, he succeeded but indifferently.
He made the folds of his draperies long and
flowing; but his female figures are too often ex-
cessively loaded with girdles, bandages, and other
ornamental trappings. He engraved on wood,
as well as on copper; but his works on the for-
mer are not numerous. They are, however, very
spirited; though not equal, upon the whole, to
those of his friend Albert. Lucas's prints are
pretty numerous, but seldom met with complete.
The following are among the principal : 1. Ma-
homet sleeping, with a priest murdered by his
side, and another figure stealing his sword; a
middling-sized upright plate, 1508. 2. An ecce
homo, a large plate, lengthwise, 1510. 3. The
crucifixion on Mount Calvary, 1510. 4. The
wise men's offering, on Mount Calvary, 1513.
5. Return of the prodigal son, middling-sized,
lengthwise, 1518. 6. The dance of Magdalen,
large, lengthwise, 1519. 7. His own portrait,
small, upright, 1525. 8. Javid playing before
Saul, a middling-sized, upright, very fine print.
9. A print called Ulespiegle, which is the scarcest
of all his works. It was in the collection of
the king of France; and said by Marolles to be
unique; but Mariette had also an impression of
it. It represents a travelling bag-piper with his
family, consisting of his wife, seven children, a
little dog, &c., in a singular group. This rare
print is dated 1520, and has been sold for sixteen
louis d'ors. It is nearly seven inches and a half
high by four and three-quarters broad; and has
been twice copied.
LUCCA, Duchy of, is a small principality
created a duchy by the congress of Vienna in
1815, and given in full sovereignty to her ma-
jesty the Infanta Maria Louisa of Spain, and
her descendants in the direct male line. It is
encompassed by Tnscany, Modena, and the
Mediterranean, and contains about 430 square
miles. Much of it is mountainous, and its
scenery is picturesque and beautiful, while the
industry of the inhabitants has covered numerous
hills to their very summits with vines, olives,
chestnuts, and mulberry trees. The atmosphere
has all the mildness aud serenity of Italy, and
the delightful plain on which the capital stands,
and the valleys in other parts of the duchy, are
composed of black alluvial soil, abounding with
rich pasturage. Some grain is produced, but
wine, oil, and silk, are the chief products. In-
habitants 124,000.
Lucca, the capital, is situated near the southern
confines, on the river Serchio. It is about three
miles in circumference. Its ramparts are planted
with trees. Several of the Čhurches are built of
Carrara marble. The cathedral and St. Mighael's
are the most elegant. The princess's palace is
a large structure surrounded with trees, and
many of the nobility have elegant mansions in
the vicinity. Here are a university, an academy
of arts and sciences, and a celebrated establish-
ment for the education of females of noble
birth. There are likewise manufactures of cloth
and silk, but the principal trade is in oil. The
baths of Lucca are on the banks of the Serchio,
near the town and much frequented. The reli-
gion is Catholic, the army about 800, and the
yearly income of the duchy nearly £65,000.
The inhabitants, who are a moral and industrious
race, amount to about 18,000.
LUCE, n.s. Lat. lupus. A pike full grown.
Ful many a fat partrich had he in mewe,
And many a breme and many a luce in stew.
Chaucer. Cant. Tales.
They give the dozen white luces in their coat.
Shakspeare.
LUCE, in ichthyology. See Esox.
LUCENA, a large inland town of Cordova,
in the south of Spain. It contains three in-
firmaries a foundling hospital, and eleven poor
houses; and it has manufactures of linen, cloth,
and soap, besides the adjacent Salt works of
Jarales. Population 12,000: thirty-two miles
S. S. E. of Cordova. Long. 4°29'W., lat. 37° .
32° N. There are two other small towns of this
name in Andalusia, and Valencia.
LU'CENT, adj. Lat. lucens, lucidus; Fr.
LU'GID, lucide. Bright; shining;
LucID'ITY, n.s. resplendent; clear; pel-
LucIF'eRous, adj. A lucid : applied metapho-
LUCIF'Ic. rically to clearness or
LU C
H.UC
323
brightness of intellect as opposed to insanity:
luciferous is giving light: lucific, making or
creating light.
The long dissensions of the two houses, which, al-
though they had had lucid intervals and happy
pauses, yet they did ever hang over the kingdom,
ready to break forth. (LC072.
I meant the day-star should not brighter rise,
Nor lend like influence from his lucent seat.
Ben Jonson.
A spot like which perhaps
Astronomer in the sun’s lucent orb,
Through his glazed optick tube yet never saw.
Milton,
Over his lucid arms
A military vest of purple flowed;
Livelier than Maliboean. Id.
On the fertile banks
Of Abana and Pharpar, lucid streams. Id.
The experiment is not ignoble, and luciferous
enough, as shewing a new way to produce a volatile
salt. Boyle.
Some beams of wit on other souls may fall,
Strike through and make a lucid interval;
But Shadwell's genuine night admits no ray,
His rising fogs prevail upon the day. Dryden.
It contracts it, preserving the eye from being in-
jured by too vehement and lucid an object, and again
dilates it for the apprehending objects more remote in
a fainter light. Ray.
When made to converge, and so mixed together;
though their lucifick motion be continued, yet by in-
terfering, that equal motion, which is the colorifick,
is interrupted. Grew.
I believed him in a lucid interval, and desired he
would please to let me see his book. Tatler.
A few sensual and voluptuous persons may, for a
season, eclipse this native light of the soul; but can
never so wholly smother and extinguish it, but that,
at some lucid intervals, it will recover itself again,
and shine forth to the conviction of their conscience.
Bentley.
The pearly shell its lucid globe unfold,
And Phoebus warm the ripening ore to gold.
ope.
On the transparent side of a globe, half silver
and half of a transparent metal, we saw certain
strange figures circularly drawn, and thought we
could touch them, till we found our fingers stopped
by that lucid substance. Gulliver’s Travels.
Beneath the hedge or near the stream,
A worm is known to stray,
That shows by night a lucid beam,
Which disappears by day. Cowper.
Nymphs 1 on that day ye shed from lucid eyes,
Celestial tears, and breathed ethereal sighs!
When Richman reared, by fearless haste betrayed,
The wiry rod in Nieva's fatal shade. Darwin.
The sun-born blood suffused her neck, and threw
O'er her clear nut-brown skin a lucid hue, º
£ike coral reddening through the darkened wave,
Which draws the diver to the crimson cave. Byron.
LUCERA, an inland town of Naples, in the
Capitanata. Strabo says, “It had lost much of
its splendor in the time of Augustus.” The only
relic of Roman architecture now to be seen is a
tower in the middle of the castle; but medals
are frequently found. It is the see of a bishop.
Population 8400: thirty-two miles north-east of
Benevento.
LUCERES, in Roman antiquity, the third in
order of the three tribes into which Romulus
divided the people, including foreigners; so
Entlibuch, Willisau,
called from the lucus or grove where Romulus
opened an asylum.
LUCERIA, in ancient geography, a town of
Italy, in Apulia; which in Strabo's time still ex-
hibited marks of Diomed’s sovereignty in those
parts. It is called by Ptolemy Nuceria; now
Nocera de Pagani, in Naples.
LUCERNA, a small town and citadel of Pied-
mont. Population 1200; six miles south of
Pinerolo.
LUCERNE, a canton in the heart of Switzer-
land, adjacent to those of Zurich, Schweitz, and
Unterwalden. Its superficial, extent is about
740 square miles. It is one of the flattest por-
tions of Switzerland, the north consisting of
large plains, while the south, though less level,
contains only a part of the mountains that border
on the lake of Lucerne. Both the soil and cli-
mate are favorable to agriculture, and it is
watered by the Reuss, Emme, Entlen, Weger,
Wyna, Sur, and Eschenbach. It contains several
small lakes, such as Sempach, Mauen, Rei-
chen, and the Red Lake. Cattle, horses, goats,
sheep, and hogs are reared, as well as corn, in
abundance; as also flax and hemp, vines, &c.
Several of the towns drive a good carrying trade.
Lucerne is the most powerful of the Catholic
cantons, and a papal nuncio has resided at the
capital ever since the reformation. The canton
is divided into the five districts of Lucerne,
Sursee, and Hochdorf;
each district is subdivided into four quarters.
Population 87,000.
LUCERNE, the capital of the canton of that
name, is situated on the Reuss, where it issues
from the lake of Lucerne. The town stands on
both sides of the river, over which are four
bridges. The view from these bridges is very
picturesque. ... The town stands on a gentle
eminence, at the foot of Mount Pilate, surrounded
by a wall and towers, and contains several hand-
some edifices, and meat groups of houses on the
lake. The chief public buildings are the town-
hall, watch-tower, and arsenal, in all of which
there are curious antiquities. The churches are
of Gothic architecture; and there are in the
town several monasteries and convents. Here
is also a college or high school, belonging form-
erly to the Jesuits, who were restored in the year
1819, contrary to the wishes of many of the in-
habitants. There are various collections of
books, paintings, and curiosities in Lucerne; but
the most remarkable is the model or map en
relief of Switzerland, by general Pfyffer. Its
commerce is chiefly in corn, and a transit busi-
ness. Population nearly 7000: forty-two miles
east of Berne, and sixteen west by north of
Schweitz. 4.
LUCERNE, called also the lake of Waldstadte,
a lake of Switzerland, between the cantons of
Underwalden, Lucerne, Schweitz, and Uri. Its
length is about twenty-five English miles, but its
breadth is unequal, as it consists of a number of
detached parts, some of them of considerable
size, and forming in a manner separate lakes.
The largest of them take their names from the
chief places on their banks; thus the lake of
Lucerne Proper, the lake of Alpnach, the lake of
Stanz, and the lake of Uri. Its general breadth
Y 2
LUC 3
*)
4 LUC
*
is two, three, or four miles; the elevation of its
surface above that of the sea 1380 feet; and its
depth is in some places 600 feet. It is the
largest lake in the interior of Switzerland, and,
though its banks are not enlivened by towns or
luxuriant vegetation, the scenery is striking.
From different spots on the surface of the lake
may be counted more than twenty-five moun-
tains, comprising some of the highest of the
Alps, such as the Pilatusberg, Mount Righi, and
the Furca. While these form promontories and
cliffs, which increase the beauties of the scenery,
they give rise to blasts, which sometimes render
it dangerous to navigate the lake.
LUCIA (St.), or ST. ALOUSIE, one of the
Caribbee Islands, is about twenty-two miles
long and twelve broad; Carenage, the chief
town, being in lat. 13°57' N., and long. 61° 7'
W. It was first settled by the French in 1650;
but was reduced by the English in 1664, who
evacuated it in 1666. The French immediately
resettled the island, but were again driven away
by the Caribs. As soon as the savages were
gone, the former inhabitants returned for a short
time; but, being afraid of falling a prey to
the first privateer that should visit their coasts,
they removed to other French settlements that
were stronger, or might be better defended.
There was then no regular colony at St. Lucia;
it was only frequented by the inhabitants of
Martinico, who came thither to cut wood, and to
build canoes, and who had considerable docks
on the island. In 1718 it was again settled by
the French; but four years after it was given by
the British court to the duke of Montagu, who
was sent to take possession of it. This occasioned
some disturbance between the two courts; which
was settled, however, by an agreement made in
1731, that, till the respective claims should
be finally adjusted, the island should be evacu-
ated by both nations, but that both should have
wood and water there. This agreement furnished
an opportunity for private interest to exert itself.
The English no longer molested the French
in their habitations; but employed them as
their assistants in carrying on with richer colo-
nies a smuggling trade, which the subjects of
both governments thought equally advantageous.
This trade continued more or less considerable
till the treaty of 1763, when St. Lucia was ceded
to the crown of France. After that time the
colony flourished. In the beginning of 1772 the
number of white people amounted to 2018 souls,
men, women, and children; that of the blacks
to 663 freemen, and 12,795 slaves. The cattle
consisted of 928 horses and mules, 2070 horned
cattle, and 3184 sheep and goats. There were
thirty-eight sugar plantations, which occupied
978 pieces of land ; 5,395,889 coffee-trees;
1,321,600 cocoa plants; and 367 plots of cotton.
There were 706 dwelling places. The annual
revenue at that time was about £175,000, which,
according to the abbe Raynal, must have in-
creased one-eighth yearly for some time. It was
taken by the British fleet, under admirals Byron
and Barrington, in 1779, but restored to France
at the peace of 1783. It was again taken by the
British troops, under Sir Charles Grey and Sir
John Jervis, in 1794; but in 1795 the French,
negroes, and mulattoes rose, and were so suc-
cessful, that in April, 1795, they were in possés-
sion of the whole island, except Morne Fortune
which surrendered in May. But on the 26th of
May, 1796, that fort and the whole island were
recovered by general Abercrombie, after an
obstinate resistance; and 2000 men taken prison-
ers. It was ceded to the French by the treaty
of peace in 1801-2, and retaken in the late war,
which began the year after. The soil of St.
Lucia is tolerably good, even at the sea side;
and is much better further up the country. The
whole of it is capable of cultivation, except some
high and craggy mountains, which bear evident
marks of volcanoes. In one deep valley there
are still eight or ten ponds, the water of which
boils up, and retains some of its heat at the dis-
tance of 6000 toises from its reservoirs. The air
in the inland parts is unwholesome; but becomes
less noxious as the woods are cleared. On
some parts of the coast the air is still more un-
healthy, by the waters of the rivers, which spring
from the foot of the mountains, not having
sufficient slope to wash down the sands with
which the ocean stops up their mouths.
Le Carenage, the chief place of the island, is
about the middle of the west side. Nature has
here formed a spacious and secure harbour,
in which thirty sail of the line may lay in
perfect safety during the hurricane months, and
the largest ships may heave down by the shore.
The entrance is so narrow that but one ship can
enter at a time, and, the wind blowing constantly
out, she must be towed or warped in.
LucIA (St.), one of the Cape de Verd Islands,
is three leagues from St. Vincent, the two islands
having three or four rocky inlets between them,
is twenty-four miles long, mountainous, and un-
inhabited. On the south-east is a good road
within two small islands called Round and
White Islands. On the west side there is no
water. It abounds with goats, sea and land
fowl, tortoises, &c.
LUCIAN, or LUCIANUs, a celebrated Greek
author in the first century, born at Samosata, in
the reign of Trajan. He studied law, and prac-
tised some time as an advocate ; but afterwards
commenced rhetorician. He lived to the time
of Marcus Aurelius, who made him register of
Alexandria in Egypt; and, according to Suidas,
he was at last worried by dogs, in his ninetieth
year, A. D. 180. His Dialogues and other works
are written in elegant Greek. In these he has
joined the useful to the agreeable, instruction to
satire, and erudition to elegance. He has been
censured as an impious scoffer at religion; but
surely religion consists neither in the theology of
the Pagan poets, nor in the extravagant opinions
of philosophers, which he justly ridicules. -
LUCLANISTS, or LUCANISTs, a religious sect
so called from Lucianus, or Lucanus, a heretic
of the second century, a disciple of Marcion,
whose errors he followed. Epiphanius, says he,
abondoned Marcion, teaching that people ought
not to marry, and yet other authors mention that
he held this error in common with Marcion and
other Gnostics. He denied the immortality of
the soul, asserting it to be material.
LUCIFER, in astronomy, is the bright planet
LUC
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325
Venus, which either goes before the sun in the
morning, and is our morning star, or in the even-
ing follows the sun, and then is called Hesperus,
or the evening star. -
. . LucIFER, in ecclesiastical history, a celebrated
bishop of Cagliari, in Sardinia, who gave rise to
a schism, by not admitting the decree of the
council of Alexandria, A. D. 362, for receiving
the Arian bishops, who recanted their errors.
He was banished by Constantius for defending
the Nicene doctrine concerning the Trinity. He
died A. D. 370. His works were published at
Venice.
LUCIFERA, in mythology, a surname given
to Diana, under which title she was invoked by
the Greeks in childbed. She was represented
as covered with a large veil, interspersed with
stars, bearing a crescent on her head, and holding
in her hand a lighted flambeau.
LUCIFERIANS, a religious sect, who ad-
hered to the schism of Lucifer. See LUCIFER.
St. Augustine intimates that they believed the
soul, which they considered as of a material na-
ture, to be transmitted to the children from their
fathers. They increased greatly in Gaul, Spain,
Egypt, &c.
bishops, but a great number of priests and dea-
cons. They bore a great aversion to the Arians.
LUCILIUS (Caius), a Roman knight and
Latin poet, was born at Suessa in Italy, about
140 B.C. He served under Scipio Africanus,
in the war with the Numantines, and was in
great favor with that celebrated general, and with
Laelius. He wrote thirty books of satires, and
some learned men ascribe the invention of Šatire
to him; but M. Dacier insists, that Lucilius only
gave a more elegant turn to that kind of poetry,
than his predecessors Ennius and Pacuvius had
done. From Horace, who refers to them several
times in his own satires, it appears that he imi-
tated the old Greek comedians in marking out
by his censure individuals notorious for their
vices, even those of the very highest rank.
Though superior to his poetical predecessors at
Rome; and though he wrote with great roughness
and inelegance, he gained many admirers. By
Horace he is compared to a river which rolls
upon its waters precious sand, accompanied with
mire and dirt. Of his thirty books of verses only
a few scattered fragments are come down to mo–
dern times. His fragments have been carefully
collected by Francis Douza at Leyden, in 1599,
with notes. -
LUCINA, a goddess among the Romans, who
presided over women in labor. Some take her
to be Diana, others Juno, others make her a dis-
tinct goddess, daughter of Jupiter and Juno.
She is called Lucino, because she brought chil-
dren to light; from the Latin lux, light. The
Greeks called her Ilithyia.
LUCK, n.s. Sax. luc; Goth. lucka ;
LUCK'ILY, adv. W. Belg. luk ; Teut. gluch,
Luck'INESS, n.s.)>glucke : a Gr. YAvkv, dulce,
LUCK'LESS, adj. W. Minsheu. Fortune, par-
LUck'Y. J ticularly good fortune;
chance; accident: luckily is happily; by good
hap or fortune; luckiness, happiness ; happy
hit; luckless, unhappy, unfortunate: lucky, fortu-
nate, ‘happy by chance,' if such luck there be.
There were but two Luciferian
Glad of such luck, the luckless lucky maid
A long time with that savage people staid,
To gather breath in many miseries. Spenser.
But I more fearful, or more lucky wight,
Dismayed with that deformed, dismal sight,
Fled fast away. Faerie Queene.
Farewel, good luck go with thee.
- Shakspeare.
I did demand what news from Shrewsbury,
He told me that rebellion had ill luck,
And that young Harry Percy's spur was cold.
. . - ld.
Never shall my thoughts be base,
Though luckless, yet without disgrace.
Suckling.
He forced his neck into a noose,
To shew his play at fast and loose ;
And, when he chanced to escape, mistook,
For art and subtlety, his luck. Hudibras.
Some such method may be found by human in-
dustry or luck, by which compound bodies may be
resolved into other substances than they are divided
into by the fire. - Boyle.
That part of mankind who have had the justice,
or the luck, to pass, in common opinion, for the
wisest have followed a very different scent.
Temple.
It is the pencil thrown luckily full upon the horse's ,
mouth, to express the foam, which the painter with
all his skill could not form. Dryden's Dufresnoy.
What else but his immoderate lust of power,
Prayers made and granted in a luckless hour.
Dryden.
He who sometimes lights on truth, is in the right
but by chance; and I know not whether the luckiness
of the accident will excuse the irregularity of his
proceeding. - Locke.
The guests are found too numerous for the treat,
But all, it seems, who had the luck to eat,
Swear they ne'er tasted more delicious meat. Tate.
Such, how highly soever they may have the luck
to be thought of, are far from being Israelites indeed.
Sowth.
Perhaps some arm more lucky than the rest,
May reach his heart, and free the world from bon-
dage. Addison’s Cato.
It happens luckily for the establishment of a new
race of kings upon the British throne, that the
first of this royal line has all high qualifications.
- - Addison.
As little reckt I sorrow’s power,
Until the flowery snare
O’ witching love, in luckless hour,
Made me the thrall o' care, Burns.
Patron of all those luckless brains,
That to the wrong side leaning,
Indite much metre with much pains,
And little or no meaning. Cowper.
LUCKNOW, a district of the province of
Oude, Hindostan, situated between the twenty-
sixth and twenty-seventh degrees of north lati-
tude. The soil, though in general sandy, when
well watered, is very productive, and yields cot-
ton, and all the grains of India except rice.
Here also abound excellent vines, mulberries,
and oranges. The inhabitants are intelligent,
and considerably cultivated.
IUCKNow, a city of Hindostan, capital of the
province of Oude, is situated on the south bank
of the Goomty, which falls into the Ganges be-
tween Binaras and Ghazypore, and is navigable
for middling-sized boats at all seasons of the
year. It is an ancient city, but, after being for 7
LUC
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326
longtime the residence of the nabobs of Oude, was
abandoned by Shujau ad Dowleh, after the battle
of Baxar, for Fyzabad, which he made his capital.
On his death, however, in 1774, his successor
returned to Lucknow, and expended large sums
on his palace and the other public buildings.
He also added an iron bridge across the river.
The streets are still marrow and very irregular.
In the vicinity, however, is the dwelling of the
British resident, and other European inhabitants;
and adjoining to the palace is the cantonment of
one of the East India Company’s regiments.
The gilt domes of the mosques, and the mauso-
leum of Asoph ad Dowleh, give it a showy ap-
pearance; but the situation of the place is bad,
and the soil is a white Sand, which, in the hot
weather, is driven about by the wind, and pene-
trates every thing. The nabob's gardens are
handsome. His army has been much reduced;
but few princes can make a greater display of
pomp on state occasions; and his repositories
and library contain a number of curiosities. In
the vicinity are numerous Hindoo and Mahom-
medan sacred tombs. Population about 300,000.
Long. 80° 55' E., lat. 26°24' N.
LUCKNOWTY. See Goup.
LUCKPUT BUNDER, a town of Hindostan,
province of Cutch. It is situated about thirty
miles up the Lory River, which is only navigable
by small vessels. It is defended by a good fort,
and belongs to the Ameers of Sinde. Long. 68°
58' E., lat. 23° 47' N.
LUCKY BAY, a bay on the south coast of
New Holland, in the Archipelago de Recherche.
LUCKYPORE, a town of Bengal, in the dis-
trict of Tipperah, is situated inland from the east
Bank of the Megna, with which it communicates
by a small river. The East India Company
have an extensive factory here, for the manufac-
ture or purchase of baftahs and other coarse cot-
ton cloths.
LUCON, or Lucon IA, the most considerable
of the Philippine Islands, in the Indian Seas, is
so called from a native word luson, written luçon
by the Spaniards, the name of a kind of pestle
used by the natives to free their rice from
the husk, and which the first discoverers took for
a war club. The Indians, or Malays, of the
Philippines are divided into many nations, the
two principal of which are the Tagalls, in Luco-
nia, and the Bissayas, in the central islands.
The Tagalls believe themselves to be descended
from a colony of Bornean Malays: one writer
makes the Malay population of Luconia, subject
to the Spaniards, 1,500,000.
The island is of very irregular shape, the
southern extremity being formed of a number of
peninsulas, making two great bays, that of Ma-
nilla on the west, and of Lampoon on the east.
A great portion of the tract between these bays
is occupied by the lake of the bay, forty-five
leagues in circuit, and which is formed by the
waters of fifty to sixty rivers and rivulets, and
empties itself into Manilla Bay, by the river
Passig. . The lake is navigable by large boats,
and in it is an island nine leagues in circuit,
which, though very fertile, is uninhabited. . It
would appear that the lake has a communication
with some of the volcanoes that surround it, its
waters being at times strongly impregnated with
sulphur, which destroys the fish. There are
also many hot springs in its vicinity. The shoreº
of the lake to the feet of the mountains are well
cultivated, producing abundance of rice, indigo
of a superior quality, pepper, cocoa, and areca
nuts, and logwood. The uncultivated plains
abound in wild buffaloes, deer, and hogs.
Lucónia produces iron, copper, and gold, of
which the latter only is collected in small mor-
sels. The east coast is very mountainous and
little productive, the strong easterly winds and
atmosphere of the sea destroying vegetation.
The mountains on this side are chiefly occupied
by the natives, who have fled from the Spanish
dominion. The north-east point of the island
is Cape Engano, and the north-west Cape Boja-
dor. Manilla, the chief city of the island, and
of the Spanish possessions, is situated near the
mouth of the Passig, which issues from the lake
of the bay. See MANILLA and PHILIPPINEs.
LU'CRE, n.s. Latin lucrum. Gain;
LU'CRATIVE, º ; pecuniary emolu-
LUCRIF'ERous. y ment: generally used in
a bad sense: yet lucrative (of which lucriferous
is an obsolete synonyme) does not partake this
character; as it is quite clear that being lucrative
is not the least recommendation of numerous pur-
SultS. -
Taking the oversight thereof, not by constraint,
but willingly; not for filthy lucre, but of a ready
mind. 1 Pet. v. 2,
Malice and lucre in them
Have laid this woe here.
Shakspeare. Cymbeline.
The trade of merchandize, being the most lucrative,
may bear'usury at a good rate ; other contracts not
S0. Bacon.
Should we not farther, honestly comparing things,
easily discern, that it is no such indispensable busi-
ness, but rather indeed some base dotage on lucre,
some inveigling bait of pleasure, some bewitching
transport of fancy, that crosseth our devotion.
- Barrow.
They all the sacred mysteries of Heaven,
To their own vile advantages shall turn
Of lucre and ambition. Milton's Paradise Lost.
Silver was afterwards separated fiom the gold, but
in so small a quantity, that the experiment, the
costs and pains considered, was not infºrm; le
: oyle.
A soul supreme in each hard instance tried,
Above all pain, all anger, and all pride,
The rage of power, the blast of publick breath;
The lust of lucre, and the dread of death. Pope.
The disposition of Ulysses inclined him to pursue
the more dangerous way of living by war, than the
more lucrative method of life by agriculture. Broome.
Her lucrative task she pursues,
And pilfers with so much address,
That none of their odour they lose,
Nor charm by their beauty the less. Cowper-
LUCRETIA, a celebrated Roman lady, the
wife of Tarquinius Collatinus. Being ravished
by Sextus, the eldest son of Tarquin II., she
stabbed herself, A.A.C. 509. Her dead body,
with the bloody poniard, exposed to the Senate,
was the signal of Roman liberty; the expulsion
of the Tarquins, and abolition of the regal dig-
nity, was instantly resolved on, and carried into
execution. See RomE.
LUC
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327
LUCRETIUS CARUs (Titus), a celebrated
Latin poet, descended of an ancient and noble
Roman family. He studied at Athens, where
he become an Epicurean, and acquired great
reputation by his learning and eloquence; but
in the flower of his age fell into a frenzy, occa-
sioned by a philtre given him by his wife, who
was distractedly fond of him. Lucretius, during
the intervals of his madness, versified the doc-
trines of Epicurus, and composed his six books
De Rerum Natură, which are still extant. It is
said that he killed himself in a fit of madness,
A. A. C. 54, when fifty-one years old. The most
correct edition of Lucretius is that of Simon de
Coline. His celebrated poem De Naturâ Re-
rum, though among the earliest classics given to
the world by the invention of printing, though
published by many successive editors, and though
translated into all the modern languages of Eu-
rope, has not, till very recently, been purified
with much success from innumerable corrupt
readings which had accumulated through time
and ignorance, to the obscurity and essential in-
jury of the text. This was the more to be
lamented, since the originality and superlative
beauty of this poet are not the only attractions
he possesses. It is a fact, says the late Dr. Ma-
son Good, no less remarkable than true, that the
inductive method of Bacon, part of the sublime
physics of Newton, and various of the chemical
discoveries of our own days, were to a surprising
degree anticipated, as to their principles and
many important results, by the philosophical
poet of Rome. The principal editions of Lucre-
tius are,
Ferrandus Brixiaº : fol.
Fridenberger . Veronae fol. 1486.
Aldus Venet 4to. 1500.
Ibid . Ibid 8vo. 1515.
Baptistae Pii . Bonon . fol 1511, &c.
Lambini Paris 4to. 1563, &c.
Ibid Ibid 8vo. 1565, &c.
Gisarmii . Antwerp 8vo. 1563, &c.
Ibid Lug. Bat. 8vo. 1595.
Fabri Salmur . 4to... 1662.
Creechii Oxon 8vo. 1695.
Tonson . Lond. fol. 1712.
Havercalapi . Lug. Bat. 4to. 1725:
Bipont . 8vo, 1782.
Wakefieldi Lond. 4to. 1796.
Eichstadtii Lipsiae : 8vo. 1801.
Of these editions we would particularly spe-
cify those of Tomson, Havercamp, and Wake-
field. The latter is a very beautiful and correct
work, in 3 vols. 4to. The small paper copies sold
at £5.5s. ; and the large paper, of which only fifty
copies were taken off for subscribers, at £20
each. This is now an extremely scarce work;
as the principal part of the edition was consumed
by fire. This circumstance greatly enhances the
value of the translation of Lucretius by Dr.
Good, published in 2 vols. 4to. in 1805; for in
this edition the translator printed the Latin text
of his author from Wakefield's edition, on cor-
responding pages to his version. Dr. Good far-
ther enriched his work with an interesting pre-
face, and many valuable notes.
LUCRINUS Lacus, a lake of Campania, be-
tween Baiae and Puteoli, famous for oysters.-
Horace, Martial, Juvenal. ‘A long neck of
land,’ says Dr. Clarke, ‘prevents the waves from
washing into a sedgy pool the poor remnant of
the Lucrine Lake, once so renowned for the abun-
dance and flavor of its shell fish, of which large
beds lined the shallows, while a deep channel in
the middle afforded riding and anchorage for
vessels, and a passage into the inner basin of
Avernus; a small canal now serves to discharge
the superabundant waters. I suppose that ori-
ginally the Lucrine was only a marsh overflowed
by the sea, till Hercules gave it extent and
depth, by rising a mound across, and damming
out the salt water; that afterwards Augustus
formed the Julian port, by raising this wear to a
sufficient level, and thereby procuring depth of
water for a navy to float in.”
LU'CUBRATE, v. a.) Lat. lucubror, lucu-
LUCUBRATION, n. s. }; To watch or
LU'cuBRATORY, adj. ) study by night: lucu-
bration is nocturnal study; any thing composed
by night : lucubratory, composed by candle-
light. -
Thy lucubrations have been perused by several of
our friends. Tatler.
You must have a dish of coffee, and a solitary
candle at your side, to write an epistle lucubratory
to your friend. Pope.
LU'CULENT, adj. luculentus. Clear; trans-
parent; lucid : hence certain; evident.
They are against the obstinate incredulity of the
Jews, the most luculent testimonies that Christian
religion hath. Hooker.
And luculent along *
The purer rivers flow.
Thomson’s Winter.
LUCULLUS (Lucius Licinius), a Roman
general, celebrated for his eloquence, his victo-
ries, and his riches. In his youth he pleaded at
the bar; and being afterwards made quaestor in
Asia, and praetor in Africa, governed those pro-
vinces with great moderation and justice,
Scarcely was he known as a military man, when
he twice conquered the fleet of Hamilcar, and
gained two great victories over him. Being made
consul with Aurelius Cotta, during the third war
with Mithridates, king of Pontus, he was sent
against this prince; and this expedition was at-
tended with a series of victories, which did him
less honor than an act of generosity towards his
colleague; who, willing to take advantage of his
absence to signalise himself by some greatexploit,
hastened to fight Mithridates; but was defeated
and shut up in Calcedonia; where he must have
perished, if Lucullus, sacrificing his resentment
to his patriotism, had not flown to his assistance,
and disengaged him. All Pontus then submitted
to Lucullus; who, being continued in his go-
vernment of Asia, entered the territories of
Tigranes, the most powerful king in Asia. That
prince marched with a formidable army against
Lucullus: who defeated him with a handful of
men, and killed great numbers of his forces; took
Tigranocertes, the capital of his kingdom ; and
was ready to put an end to the war, when the
intrigues of a tribune got him deposed, and
Pompey nominated in his room. , Lucullus,
having brought home prodigious riches, pow
LUD
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328
gave himself up to excessive luxury; and his
table was served with a profusion till that time
unknown. He brought from the east a great
number of books, which he formed into a li-
brary, and gave admittance to all men of learn-
ing, who frequented it in great numbers. To-
ward the end of his life he fell into a kind of
madness; and Lucullus his brother was ap-
pointed his guardian. He is said to have been
the first who introduced cherries into Europe,
having brought the grafts from Pontus.
LUCUS, a wood, or grove, sacred to a deity,
so called a lucendo, because a great number of
lights were usually burning in honor to the god;
a practise common with idolaters, as we learn
from Scripture: hence Homer's aykaow axgog.
LUD, a British king mentioned in old chron-
icles, and said to have reigned about A.M. 3878.
He is reported to have enlarged and built walls
about Troynovant, or New Troy, where he kept his
court, andmade ithis capital. The name of London
is hence derived from Lud's town; and Ludgate,
from his being buried near it: but other deriva-
tions are at least as probable. See LONDON.
LUDAMAR, a country of Central Africa,
bounded by Kaarta and Bambarra on the south,
and by the Sahara or Great Desert on the north.
The inhabitants are Moors of the most bigoted
character, who murdered major Houghton, and
kept Mr. Park in long captivity. They are al-
most entirely strangers to agriculture, and depend
for subsistance on their cattle, and the women
weave cloth from goat's hair, and transform the
skins of the cattle into saddles, bridles, pouches,
&c. They likewise make up the native iron into
spears and knives: but import their muskets and
ammunition from Europe. Each soldier furnishes
his own horse and equipments, which consist in a
large sabre, a double barrelled gun, a small red
leather bag for balls, and a powder-horn. He
supports himself entirely by plunder. Though
rigid Musselmans they have no mosques, but
perform their devotions in an enclosure of mats.
The priests officiate as school-masters, so far as to
teach the males reading and writing, but the edu-
cation of the women is entirely neglected. Their
idea of a fine form is, like the Hottentots, that of
extreme corpulence. The king, who personally
administers justice, is only distinguished by a
finer cloth and larger tent: but he will be seen
eating out of the same bowl, and sleeping in the
same bed with his camel driver. He defrays his
expenses by a tax on his subjects, and duties
. the merchandise passing through the king-
OII].
LUDEHAUNAT, a town and fortress of Hin-
dostan, situated in the Seik country, on the north-
west boundary of the province of Delhi, and on
the south bank of the Suttelege. It is the most
remote British military station in Hindostan. It
is a post of defence against the Afghauns, and
has a cold climate for four months; but, during
the summer, the winds are hot. It is 180 miles
N. N.W. of Delhi.
LUDICROUS, adj. Lat. ludicer. Laugh-
LU'DICROUSLY, adv. } able; or exciting
LU'DICROUSNESs, m. s.) laughter; burlesque ;
sportive.
Plutarch quotes this instance of Homer's judg-
ment, in closing a ludicrous scene with decency and
instruction. Broome.
A gentleman solicited Pope to endeavour a recon-
ciliation by a ludicrous poem. Johnson.
I have been at a loss, in all the pictures I have
seen of hell, whether the painter did not intend some-
thing ludicrous. Burke on the Sublime.
Me oft has fancy ludicrous and wild
Soothed with a waking dream of houses, tower
Trees, churches, and strange visages expressed
In the red cinders, while with poring eye
I gazed, myself creating what I saw. Cowper
LUDIUS, a celebrated painter, who lived in
the reign of Augustus, and excelled in large com-
positions. He was the first who painted the
fronts of houses in the streets of Rome; which
he beautified with great variety of landscapes,
and other subjects.
LUDLOW (Edmund), son of Sir Henry Lud-
low, was born at Maidenhead, and educated in
Trinity College, Oxford. His father opposing
king Charles I.'s interests, he joined the same
party, and was present at the battle of Edgehill,
as a volunteer under the earl of Essex. Upon
the death of his father he was chosen M. P. for
Wilts, and obtained the command of a regiment
of horse for the defence of that county. He
was one of the king's judges; after whose death
he was sent by parliament into Ireland, in quality
of lieutenant-general of the horse; which em-
ployment he discharged with diligence and suc-
cess till the death of the lord deputy Ireton, when
he acted for some time as general, though with-
out that title: Cromwell, who knew him to be
sincerely in the interest of the commonwealth,
contriving to prevent the parliament from con-
ferring on him that title, The last stroke had
been given by Ludlow to the Irish rebellion, if
the usurpation of Cromwell had not prevented
it. Under him he never acted; and, though
Cromwell used his utmost efforts, he remained
inflexible. After Cromwell's death he endea-
voured to restore the commonwealth; but, Charles
II. being recalled, he concealed himself, and
escaped into Switzerland, where he settled at
Vevay. After the revolution he came over into
England, to be employed in Ireland against king
James; but, appearing publicly in London, an
address was presented by Sir Edward Seymour
to king William III: for a proclamation in order
to apprehend colonel Ludlow, attainted for the
murder of king Charles I. Upon this he returned
to Vevay, where he died in 1693. During his
retirement in Switzerland he wrote his Memoirs,
.." were published in 3 vols. 8vo., and 1 vol.
olio. -
LUDLow, a market and borough town of
Shropshire, at the conflux of the Tame and the
Corve, twenty-nine miles from Shrewsbury, and ,
142 from London. The president of the council
of the marshes, established by Henry VIII., gene-
rally kept his courts in it, by which the town
was much benefited. But these courts were
abolished in 1688. Its neighbourhood to Wales
makes it a great thoroughfare. It was incorpo-
rated by Edward IV. and has the privilege of
trying and executing criminals. It is one of the
neatest towns in England; and has walls and
seven gates. It is divided into four wards, and
is governed by two bailiffs, twelve aldermen,
LUD
LUG
323
twenty-five common council-men, a recorder,
town-clerk, steward, chamberlain, coroner, &c.
From the castle, on the top of the hill on which
the town stands, is a most delightful prospect.
In an apartment of the outer gatehouse Butler is
said to have written the first part of his Hudi-
bras. This castle was besieged and taken by
king Stephen. Some of the offices are fallen
down, and great part of it turned into a bowling-
green; but part of the royal apartments and the
sword of state are still left. The battlements are
very high and thick, and adorned with towers.
It has a neat chapel, where are the coats of arms
-of many Welsh gentry, and over the stable doors
are the arms of queen Elizabeth, the earls of
Pembroke, &c. This castle was a palace of the
prince of Wales. The Tame has a good bridge,
several wears, and turns many mills. The town-
house is an elegant building of hewn stone. The
church is an ancient and venerable structure,
built of stone, standing in the upper part of the
town. It is in the Gothic style, with large and
lofty windows of painted glass, and has a high
tower and spire, with eight bells. In the choir
is an inscription relating to prince Arthur, elder
brother to Henry VIII., who died here. In the
market place is a conduit, with a long stone cross
on it, and a niche wherein is the image of St.
Laurence, to whom the , church was dedicated.
It has an alms-house for thirty poor people, and
two charity schools for fifty boys and thirty girls.
Its principal market is on Monday. The country
round is exceedingly pleasant, fruitful, and popu-
lous, especially that part called the Corvesdale,
being the vale on the banks of the Corve. Lud-
low sends two members to parliament.
LUDOLPH (Job), a very learned writer of the
seventeenth century, born at Erfurt in Thuringia,
15th June 1624. His merit raised him to the
rank of counsellor of state, and, after eighteen
years service, to that of honorary counsellor.
He died at Frankfort, in 1704, aged eighty.
He published A History of Ethiopia, in 1681,
folio; an Ethiopic Grammar, and many other
valuable works.
LUDoIPH (Henry William), nephew of Job, was
born at Erfurt in 1655. He came over to England
as secretary to M. Lenthe, envoy from the court of
Copenhagen to that of London; and, being re-
commended to prince George of Denmark, was
received as his secretary. He enjoyed this office
for some years, until he was incapacitated by
ill health ; when he was discharged with a hand-
some pension; after he recovered, he travelled
into Russia where he was well received by the
czar, and where he was supposed by the Russian
priests to be a conjuror. On his return to Lon-
don, in 1694, he wrote a grammar of the Russian
language. He then travelled into the east,
to inform himself of the state of the Christian
church in the Levant; the deplorable condition
of which induced him after his return, with the
aid of the bishop of Worcester, to print an edition
of the New Testament in the Romaic or vulgar
Greek, to present to the Greek church. In 1709,
when great numbers of Palatines came over to
England, Mr. Ludolph was appointed by queen
Anne one of the commissioners to manage the
charities raised for them ; but he died early in
1710. His collected works were published in 1712.
LUDWIGIA, in botany, a genus of the mo-
monogynia order, and tetrandria class of plants;
natural order seventeenth, calycanthemae: coR.
tetrapetalous: CAL. quadripartite, superior:
CAPs. tetragonal, quadrilocular, inferior and po-
lyspermous. -
LUDWIGSBURG, a well-built town of Wir-
temberg, on the left bank of the Neckar, the
chief place of the department of the Enz. It is
situated mostly on a rising ground, with gardens
below; and has a charitable institution for the
education of young children, with which the
workhouse and a woollen manufactory have been
connected. It was founded in 1715; the court
removed to it in 1727, and it rapidly increased;
but in 1733, on the death of the reigning duke,
the public offices were brought back to Stuttgard,
and Ludwigsburg has since been only an occa-
sional residence of the court. Its population is
little more than 5000. The palace and opera-
house are both fine buildings. Seven miles north
of Stuttgard.
LUES, in medicine, is in general used for a
disease of any kind; but in a more particular
sense is restrained to contagious and pestilential
diseases: thus the lues Gallica, or venerea,
signifies the venereal disease. See MEDICINE,
LUFF, or Loof, v. n. Sax. lupt; Dan, luft ;
the wind. To keep close to the wind. A sea
term. -
Contract your swelling sails, and luff to wind.
*. Dryden.
To LUFF signifies to put the helm towards the
lee side of the ship, in order to make the ship
sail nearer the direction of the wind. Hence the
pilot's orders to the steersman, luff round, or
luff a-lee, is the excess of this movement, by
which it is intended to throw the ship's head up
in the wind, in order to tack her, &c. A ship
is accordingly said to spring her luff when she
yields to the effort of the helm, by sailing nearer
to the line of the wind than she had done before.
LUFF TACKLE, a name given by Sailors to any
large tackle that is not destined for a particular
place, but may be variously employed as occa-
sion requires. It is generally somewhat larger
than the jigger tackle, although smaller than
those which serve to hoist the heavier materials
into and out of the vessel, which latter are the
main and fore tackles, the stay and quarter tack-
les, &c. -
! LUG, v. a. & v. n. Sax. aluccan, luggian, to
pull; Swed. lugga; Dan. luge. To hale or drag s
to pull with violence; to come along heavily.
You gods ! why this • -
Will lug your priests and servants from your side.
Shakspeare.
Thy bear is safe, and out of peril, -
Though lugged indeed, and wounded very ill.
Hudibras.
When savage bears agree with bears,
Shall secret ones lug saints by the ears?
My flagging soul flies under her own pitch,
..ike fowl in air, too damp, and lugs along,
As if she were a body in a body. Dryden.
Either every single animal spirit must convey, a
whole representation, or else they must divide the
image amongst them, and so lug off every one his
share. Collier.
Id.
LUG
LUK
330
LUG, n. s. Belg. log; Scot. lug. A small
kind of fish ; a small worm ; also a land mea-
sure of about a pole or perch in length.
That ample pit, yet far renowned *
For the large leap which Debon did compel
Ceaulin to make, being eight lugs of ground.
Spenser.
They feed on salt unmerchantable pilchards, tag
worms, lugs, and little crabs. Carew.
LUG, n. s. Scot. lug. The ear.
An anxious ee I never throws
Behint my lug, or by my nose;
I jouk beneath misfortune's blows
As weel's I may ;
Sworn foe to sorrow, care, and prose,
I rhyme away. Burns.
LUGANO, or LAUIs, a trading town of Swit-
zerland, the capital of the canton of the Ticino,
stands on the north side of the lake of Lugano,
and has an extensive traffic in silk, and some
much-frequented fairs. Population 4350. Six-
teen miles north-west of Como.
LUGANo, a lake in the canton of Ticino, south
of Switzerland, is twenty-five miles in length,
from three to six in breadth, and of great depth.
The elevation of its surface above the Mediter-
ranean is computed at 930 feet. It communi-
cates with the lake Maggiore by the Tresa, and
the lake Piano by the Canale Nuovo. The
banks, at the base of two mountain ranges, are
steep and craggy, displaying a scene of uncom
mon magnificence. In the bay near Lugano
they slope down to the edge of the water, and
discover the town surrounded by meadows, corn-
fields, and vineyards, while the Alps form a grand
semicircular boundary to the landscape.
LUGDUNUM, in ancient geography, the
capital of the Segusiani, in Gallia Celtica, situ-
ated at the conflux of the Arar and Rhodanus,
on an eminence, as the Celtic term dune signi-
fies; built by Manucius Plancus, while com-
manding under Augustus in that part of Gaul;
and whither he led a colony. It is now called
Lyons.
LUGDUNUM BATAvor UM, in ancient geography,
a town of the Batavi in Gallia Belgica; now
called Leyden.
LUGDUNUM CoNVEN ARUM, in ancient geogra-
phy, a town of Gallia Narbonensis, in Aquitania,
at the foot of the Pyrenees. Now called St.
Bertrand.
LUGEUS LAcus, in ancient geography, a
lake of Japydia, in Illyricum, south of the Save,
near the head of the Arsia. -
LUG'GAGE, n. s. Either from lug, to pull;
or a corruption of loadage. Any thing cunibrous
or heavy; any thing of more weight than value.
Come, bring your luggage nobly on your back.
Shakspeare.
What do you mean
To doat thus on such luggage?
Id. Tempest.
Think not thou to find me slack, or need
Thy politick maxims, or that cumbersome
Luggage of war there shewn me.
- Milton’s Paradise Regained.
How durst thou with that sullen luggage
O' th' self, old ir'n, and other baggage,
Tº oppose thy lumber against us? Hudibras.
The mind of man is too light to bear much cer-
tainty among the ruffling winds of passion and opi-
nion; and, if the luggage be prized equally with the
jewels, none will be cast out till all be shipwrecked.
- Glanville.
A lively faith will bear aloft the mind,
And leave the luggage of good works behind.
Dryden.
I am gathering up my luggage, and preparing for
my journey. Swift to Pope.
LUGO, a neat city of Galicia, Spain, near
the Minho. It stands on an eminence, and is
more than three miles in circuit. It is of great
antiquity, having been the capital of a conventus
or district, under the Romans, who knew it as
Lucus Augusti. It is now a bishop's see, and
has a cathedral of Gothic architecture, with seve-
ral other churches and convents. The walls are
in good preservation; and it has some small
woollen manufactures. Inhabitants 5000. Fifty-
one miles east of Santiago.
LUGo, a town of Italy, in the ecclesiastical
state, province of Ferrara, on the river Senio. In
1796 it was pillaged by the French. Inhabitants
5000. Fifteen miles south of Ferrara.
LUGO (John), a learned Jesuit, born in
Madrid, and educated at Salamanca. He was
professor of divinity at Valladolid, and after-
wards in Rome, where Urban VIII. made him
a cardinal. He was the first who introduced the
Jesuits’ bark into France, in 1650. He died in
Rome in 1660. His works on theology were
printed in Rome in 7 vols. folio.
LUG-SAIL, a square sail hoisted occasionally
on the mast of a boat or small vessel, upon a
yard which hangs nearly at right angles with the
mast. These are more particularly used in the
barca longas, navigated by the Spaniards in the
Mediterranean.
LUGU'BRIOUS, adj. Fr. lugubre; Lat. lu-
gubris. Mournful; sorrowful.
A demure, or rather a lugubrious look, and a whın-
ing tone, make up the sum of many men's humilia-
tions. - Decay of Piety.
LUITPRAND, a celebrated Lombard histo-
rian of the tenth century, born in Pavia. He
was secretary to Berengarius, who, in 948, sent
him ambassador to Constantine VIII. ; but,
having afterwards disgraced him, Otho I. drove
Berengarius from the throne, and made Luitprand
bishop of Cremona. In 968 he was sent ambas-
sador to the emperor Nicephorus Phocas. He
died in Italy. His history was printed at Antwerp
in 1640, in folio.
LUKE (St.), the evangelist, and the disciple of
the apostles, was originally of Antioch in Syria,
and by profession a physician. He particularly
attached himself to St. Paul, and was his faithful
companion in his travels and labors. He went
with him to Troas in Macedonia, about A. D.
51. He wrote his Gospel in Achaia about 53;
and, in 63, the Acts of the Apostles, which con-
tains a history of thirty years. Of all the in-
spired writers of the New Testament, his works
are written in the most elegant Greek. It is
believed that St. Luke died at Rome, or in
Achaia.
LUKE (St.) THE GoSPEL of, a canonical book
of the New Testament. Some think that it was
properly St. Paul's Gospel; and that, when the
apostle speaks of his gospel, he means what is
LUL
LUL
331
called St. Luke's. Irenaeus says, that St. Luke
digested in writing what St. Paul preached to
the Gentiles; and Gregory Nazianzen tells us,
that St. Luke wrote with the assistance of St.
Paul.
LUKEWARM, adj. Sax. blac; Dan.
LUKE'WARMLY, adv. }; ; Belg, loau ;
LUKE'w ARMN Ess, n. s. 5 Teut. lew; Scot. lew.
As Mr. Thomson suggests, perhaps breathwarm.
Moderately warm ; hence indifferent; wanting
zeal or decision.
. A dreary corse, whose life away did pass,
All wallowed in his own yet lukewarm blood,
That from his wound yet welled fresh alas !
Faerie Queene.
May you a better feast meyer behold,
You knot of mouth friends ! smoke and lukewarm
Water
Is your perfection. Shakspeare. Timon of Athens.
Some kind of zeal counts all merciful moderation
lukewarmness. - Ring Charles.
God loves this heat of zeal, in all the carriages of his
servants; and if it transport us too far, he pardoneth
the errors of our fervency, rather than the indiffe-
rer:ces of lukewarmness. Bp. Hall.
I consider further, that, without the superinducing
a contrary state of good to the former state of evil,
we cannot return, or go off from that evil condition
that God hates, I mean the middle state, or the state
of lukewarmness. Bp. Taylor.
If some few continue stedfast, it is an obedience so
Iukewarm and languishing, that it merits not the
name of passion. Dryden.
This sober conduct is a mighty virtue
In lukewarm patriots. Addison's Cato.
The defect of zeal is lukewarmness, or coldness in
religion; the excess is inordinate heat and spiritual
fury. - Spratt.
Whence is it but from this attractive power, that
water, which alone distils with a gentle lukewarm
heat, will not distil from salt of tartar without a great
heat 3 Newton’s Opticks.
Bathing the body in lukewarm wateris of great ad-
vantage to contemperate hot and sharp humours.
- - Wiseman’s Surgery.
Go dry your chaff and stubble, give fire to the zeal
of your faction, and reproach them with lukewarm-
71638S, Swift.
Shall heaven which gave us ardour, and has shewn
Her own for man so strongly, not disdain
What smooth emollients in theology,
Recumbent Virtue’s downy doctors, preach,
That prose of piety, a lukewarm praise
Rise odours sweet from incense uninflamed ?
Devotion when lukewarm is undevout. Young.
Moderation is a great and important Christian
virtue, very different from that bad quality of the
mind under which it is often misrepresented and dis-
guised, viz. lukewarmness and indifference about the
truth. The former is very consistent with a regular
and well-corrected zeal; the latter consists in the
total want of it. Mason.
LULL, v. a. Dam. lulle; Swed, lulla ;
LU L'LABY, n. S.
To soothe or compose to sleep by pleasing
sounds; compose or beguile in any way: lullaby
is a song to still or compose babes.
And in her barme this litil child she leid
With ful sad face, and gan the child to blisse,
And lulled it, and aftir gan it kiss.
Chaucer. Cant. Tales.
There trickled softly down -
A gentle stream, whose murmuring wave did play
Ital, lolla; Lat, lallo, lallus.
Amongst the pumy stones, and made a sound
To lull him soft asleep, that by it lay.
- Faerie Queene.
Philomel with melody, -
Sing in your sweet lullaby;
Lulla, lulla, lullaby; lulla, lullu, lullaby.
- Shakspeare.
—Marry, Sir, lullaby to your bounty till I com
again. Id.
Only that noise heaven's rolling circles kest,
Sung lullaby, to bring the world to rest. ... Fairfar.
Such sweet compulsion doth in musick lie,
To lull the daughters of necessity. . . Milton.
To find a foe it shall not be his hap,
And peace shall lull him in her flowery lap. Id.
How hard soe'er it be to bridle wit, -
Yet memory oft no less requires the bit
How many hurried by its force away,
For ever in the land of gossips stray!
Usurp the province of the nurse to lull,
Without her privilege of being dull
Stillingfleet.
Drinking is the lullaby used by nurses to still cry-
ing children. Locke on Education.
No more these scenes my meditations aid,
Or lull to rest the visionary maid. Pope.
By the vocal woods and waters lulled, -
And lost in lonely musing in a dream.
- Thomson.
To the silent hours
How often I repeat their rage divine,
To lull my griefs, and steal my heart from woe,
Young.
What neither yields us profit nor delight
Is like a nurse's lullaby at night;
Guy Earl of Warwick and fair Eleanore,
Orgiant-killing Jack, would please me more.
Cowper.
Deep in the silent vale, unseen,
Beside a lulling stream,
A pensive youth, of placid mien, -
Indulged this tender theme. Beattie.
Or my guitar, which still thou lovest to hear,
Shall sooth or lull—or, should it vex thine ear,
We’ll turn the tale, by Ariosto told,
Of fair Olympia loved and left of old.
LULLI (John Baptist), the most celebrated
musician that has appeared in France since the
revival of learning, was born at Florence. He
was taken to France when very young, and he
carried the art of playing on the violin to the
highest perfection. Louis XIV, made him su-
perintendant of music. Some time after, Perinna
having introduced operas into France, and quar-
relling with his company, he resigned his privi-
lege to Lulli. Operas were then carried to the
utmost perfection by him, and were attended
with continual applause. Lulli gave a piece of
his own composition annually till his death, in
1687.
LULLY (Raymond), a celebrated writer, sur-
named the Enlightened Doctor, was born in
Majorca in 1225. He applied himself with in-
defatigable labor to the study of the Arabian
philosophy, to chemistry, physic, and divinity ;
and acquired great reputation by his works. He
at length went to preach the gospel in Africa;
and was stoned to death in Mauritania, at the
age of eighty. He is honored as a martyr in
Majorca, whither his body was carried. . He
wrote many treatises on the sciences, in which
he shows much study and subtilty, but little
Byron.
LUM
LUM
332
judgment or solidity. A complete edition of his
works has been printed at Mentz. ,
LUMBA'GO, n.s. Lat.lumbi, the loins. Pain
of the loins. -
Lumbagos are pains very troublesome about the
loins, and small of the back, such as precede ague
fits and fevers : they are most commonly from fulness
and acrimony, in common with a disposition to
yawnings, shudderings, and erratick pains in other
parts, and go off with evacuation, generally by sweat,
and other critical discharges of fevers. Quincy.
LUMBAGo. See MEDICINE, Index.
LUM'BER, n.s., v. a. & v. n. Sax. loma, 3e-
loma, household-stuff; Belg. and Teut. lomp,
lump. Any thing useless, cumbersome, or un-
sorted: any thing of more bulk than value: to
heap things irregularly; to move in a heavy,
sluggish, or noisy manner. s
The very bed was violated
By the coarse hands of filthy dungeon villains,
And thrown amongst the common lumber. Otway.
One son at home
Concerns thee more than many guests to come.
If to some useful art he be not bred,
He grows mere lumber, and is worse than dead.
- Dryden.
First let them run at large,
Nor lumber o'er the meads, nor cross the wood. Id."
If God intended not the precise use of every single
atom, that atom had been no better than a piece of
lumber. - Grew.
In Rollo we must have so much stuff lumbered
together, that not the least beauty of tragedy can
appear. Rymer.
The poring scholiasts mark;
Wits, who, like owls, see only in the dark;
A lumber-house of books in every head.
And gods and goddesses discarded long,
Like useless lumber or a stroller's song,
Are bringing into vogue their heathen train,
And Jupiter bids fair to rule again. Cowper.
A man that knows himself will have a regard to
Pope.
the furniture of his memory; not to load it with trash
and lumber, a set of useless notions or low conceits,
which he will be ashamed to produce before persons
of taste and judgment. Mason.
LUMBRICUS, the worm, in zoology, a genus
of insects belonging to the order of vermes in-
testina. The body is cylindrical, annulated,
with an elevated belt near the middle, and a vent-
hole on its side. There are sixteen species of
this animal. - e
L. marinus, the marine worm, or lug, is of a
pale red color, and the body is composed of a
number of annular joints; the skin is scabrous,
and all the rings or joints are covered with lit-
tle prominences, which render it extremely rough
to the touch. It is an inhabitant of the mud
about the sea shores, and serves for food to
many kinds of fish : very large ones are to be met
with about the Bognor rocks in Sussex. The
fishermen bait their hooks and nets with them.
L. terrestris, the earth or dew worm, Mr. Bar-
but observes, differs extremely in color and ex-
ternal appearance in the different periods of its
growth, which has occasioned people little ac-
quainted with the variations of this kind of ani-
mals to make four or five different species of
them: The general color is a dusky red. They
live under ground, never quitting the earth but
after heavy rains or at the approach of storms,
and in, the season of their amours. The method
to force them out is, either to water the ground
with infusions of bitter plants, or to trample on
it. . The bare motion on the surface of the soil
drives them up, in fear of being surprised by their
formidable enemy the mole. The winding pro-
gression of the worm is facilitated by the ine-
qualities of its body, armed with small, stiff,
sharp-pointed bristles; when it means to insi-
nuate itself into the earth, there oozes from its
body a clammy liquor, by means of which it
slides down. It never damages the roots of
vegetables. Its food is a small portion of earth,
which it has the faculty of digesting. The su-
perfluity is ejected by way of excrement. Earth
worms are hermaphrodites, and have the parts of
generation placed near the neck; their copula-
tion is performed on the ground; nothing being
more usual than to see it full of holes, which
holes are thought to be made by those kind of
worms coming to the surface in quest of females.
LU'MINARY, m. s. Fr. luminaire ; Lat.lu-
LUMINATION, n.s. }: lumen. A body
LU'MINous, adj. emitting light; any
thing or person that affords mental light, intelli-
gence, or instruction: lumination is emission of
light: luminous, shining;..bright with light; en-
lightened.
Fire burneth wood, making it first luminous, then
black and brittle; and, lastly, broken and incinerate.
Bacon.
Sir John Graham, I know not upon what lumi-
naries he espied in his face, dissuaded him from mar-
riage. Wotton.
The great luminary
Dispenses light from far. . . . Milton.
Earth may, industrious of herself, fetch day,
Travelling east; and, with her part averse
From the sun’s beam, meet night; her other part
Still luminous by his ray. Id. Paradise Lost.
The most luminous of the prismatick colours are
the yellow and orange; these affect the senses more
strongly than all the rest together. Newton.
The circulation of the blood, and the weight and
spring of the air, had been reserved for a late happy
discovery by two great luminaries of this island.
Bentley.
How came the sun to be luminous? Not from the
necessity of natural causes. ld.
Not all these luminaries, quenched at once,
Were half so sad as one benighted mind,
Which gropes for happiness, and meets despair.
Young.
The state of the possessor of humble virtues, to
the affecter of great excellencies, is that of a small
cottage of stone, to the palace raised with ice by the
empress of Russia; it was for a time splendid and
luminous, but the first sunshine melted it to nothing.
Johnson.
O! what a fund of genius, pent
In narrow space, is here!
This volume's method and intent
How luminous and clear! Cowper.
LUMISDEN (Andrew), esq., a late eminent
antiquarian and man of letters, born in Aber-
deen in 1720. He was of the family of Cushnie,
in Aberdeenshire, and, in the early period of his
life, travelled into Italy, and resided a consider-
able time at Rome; during which he wrote a
work, entitled Remarks on the Antiquities of
Rome and its environs; wherein he describes
the venerable antiquities of that ci-devant metro-
polis of the world with equal fidelity and elegance
LUM
LUN
333
He afterwards spent many year in Paris, but
died in his native town in 1801.
LUMP, n. S. & v. a. Belg. lomp, klomp. A
LUMP'ING, adj. mass; an unformed or
LUMP'ISH, adj. undistinguished body
LUMP'ISHLY, adv. or collection of things;
LUMP'ISHNESS, n.s. D the whole system : to
lump is to take in the gross or wholesale:
lumping and lumpish, gross; massy; heavy; in-
active; inert: lumpy, abounding in lumps or
excrescencies.
And Isaiah said, Take a lump of figs.
2 Kings xx. 7.
Hence, heap of wrath, foul indigested lump';
As crooked in thy manners as thy shape.
- , Shakspeare.
All men's honours
Lie like one lump before him to be fashioned
Into what pinch he please. Id. Henry VIII.
Sylvia is lumpish, heavy, melancholy."
- Shakspeare.
Out of the earth was formed the flesh of man, and
therefore heavy and lumpish. Raleigh.
The weed kal is by the Egyptians used first for
fuel, and then they crush the ashes into lumps like a
stone, and so sell them to the Venetians. Bacon.
Love is all spirit: fairies sooner may
e taken tardy, when they night-tricks play,
Than we ; we are too dull and lumpish.
- Suckling.
Without this various agitation of the water, how
eould lumps of sugar or salt cast into it be so per-
fectly dissolved in it, that the lumps themselves totally
disappear ! . Boyle.
Every fragrant flower, and odorous green,
Were sorted well, with lumps of amber laid between.
- - Dryden.
How dull and how insensible a beast
Is man, who yet would lord it o'er the rest
Philosophers and poets vainly strove
In every age the lumpish mass to move. Id.
To conceive thus of the soul's intimate union with
an infinite being, and by that union receiving of ideas,
leads one into as gross thoughts, as a country-maid
would have of an infinite butter-print, the several
#. whereof being applied to her lump of butter,
eft on it the figure or idea there was present need of.
Locke.
One of the best spades to dig hard lumpy clays,
but too small for light garden mould. Mortimer.
Little terrestrial particles swimming in it after the
grossest were sunk down, which, by their heaviness
and lumpish figure, made their way more speedily.
- Burnet.
Why might there not have been, in this great mass,
huge lumps of solid matter, which, without any form
or order, might be jumbled together?
- - Keil against Burnet.
A wretch is prisoner made
Whose flesh torn off by lumps, the ravenous foe
In morsels cut. *. Tate.
If my readers will not go to the price of buying
my papers by retail, they may buy them in the lump.
- - - Addison.
The expences ought to be lumped together.
Ayliffe's Parergon.
It is rare to find any of these metals pure : but
copper, iron, gold, silver, lead, and tin, all promis-
cuously in one lump. Woodward's Natural History.
Nick, thou shalt have a lumping pennyworth.
-. Arbuthnot.
Other epidemical vices are rife and predominant
only for a season, and must not be ascribed to human
nature in the lump. - - Bentley.
In malice to proud wits, some proudly lull
Their peevish reason, vain of being dull;
When some home Joke has stung their solemn souls,
In vengeance they determine—to be fools;
Thro’ spleen, that little nature gave, make less,
Quite zealous in the ways of heaviness;
To lumps inanimate a fondness take,
And disinherit sons that are awake. Young.
LUMPFISH. See CYCLOPTERUS.
LUNA, in astronomy, the moon. See ASTRo-
NOMY. ,
LUNA, in alchemy, signifies silver; from the
supposed influence of the moon upon that metal.
LUNA, in ancient geography, a forest of Ger-
many, near the Hercynia; below which were the,
Boemi; it was therefore in Moravia near the
springs of the Marus, now March, which runs
into the Danube over against Carnutum.
LUNA, a town and port of Liguria, at the
mouth of the Macra. The town was but small,
but the port large and beautiful, according to
Strabo. Its ruins are called Luna distrutta. It
was famous for its quarries of white marble,
thence called Lunense; and for its large cheeses,
each weighing 1000lbs. It lies two miles south
of Sarzana.
LUNA (Alvaro, or Alvares de), the favorite
of John II. king of Castile, was natural son of
Don Alvaro de Luna, lord of Canete, in Arragon,
by a woman infamous for unbounded lust. He
was born in 1388, was introduced into court in
1408, and made agentleman of the bed-chamber to
king John, with whom he grew into high favor.
In 1427 he was obliged to retire; the courtiers
complaining that a man of no military skill or
virtue should be advanced to the highest autho-
rity. Accordingly Alvaro was banished from
court eighteen months; but this was the greatest
affliction imaginable to the king; who showed
every mark of distress upon his removal, and
spoke of nothing but Alvaro. He was therefore
recalled; and, being invested with his usual au-
thority, revenged himself upon his enemies, by
persuading the king to banish them. Of the
forty-five years he spent at court, he enjoyed for
thirty of them so entire an ascendancy over the
king, that nothing could be done without his or-.
ders. In short, he wanted nothing but the name
of king; he had all the places in the kingdom at
his disposal; he was master of the treasury, and
by bounties had so gained the hearts of the sub-
jects, that the king, though his eyes were now
opened, and his affections sufficiently turned
against him, durst not complain. At last, how-
ever, he was seized and imprisoned. During his
confinement he made several attempts to speak
to the king 'in person; but, not being able to
effect this, he sent a letter to the king, which
however produced no effect in his favor, for he
was tried and condemned to lose his head.
LUNA CoRNEA. See CHEMISTRY and SILVER.
LU'NACY, n.s. Y From luna the moon.
LU'NAR, adj. A kind of madness in-
LU'NARy, adj. & m. s. fluenced by the moon;
LU'NATED, U madness in general.
LU'NATIc, adj. & n.s. ſ Lunar and lunary, as
LUNA'TION, n, s. adjectives, signify re-
LUNE, n. s. lating to, or under the
LUNETTE'. | influence of the moon:
334 L U N
A C Y.
*
as a substantive lunary is moon-wort, a plant.
Lunated, horned, as the moon. Lunatic, mad;
a madman. Lunation is the revolution of the
moon. Lune, any thing of the shape of a half-
moon. Lunette, a small half-moon.
Herbes coude I tell eke many on,
As egremoine, valerian, and lunarie,
And other swiche. Chaucer. Cant. Tales.
Then sprinkles she the juice of rue
With nine drops of the midnight dew,
From lunary distilling. Drayton's Nymphid.
Love is merely madness, and deserves as well a
dark house and a whip as madmen do ; and the rea-
son why they are not so punished and cured is, that
the lunacy is so ordinary, that the whippers are in
love too. Shakspeare. As You Like It.
Bedlam beggars, from low farms,
Sometimes with lunatick bans,
prayers,
Enforce their charity. Shakspeare.
The lunatick, the lover, and the poet,
Are of imagination all compact :
One sees more devils than vast hell can hold :'
The madman. Id. Midsummer Night’s Dream.
These dangerous unsafe lunes o' the king ! be-
shrew them |
He must be told on’t, and he shall : the office
Becomes a woman best. Id. Winter’s Tale.
They that have resolved that these years were but
lunary years, viz. of a month, or Egyptian years, are
easily confuted. Raleigh.
They have denominated some herbs solar and
some lunar, and such like toys put into great words.
Bacon's Natural History.
There is a difference of lunacy: I had rather be
mad with him, that, when he had nothing, thought
all the ships that came into the haven his, than with
you, who, when you have so much coming in, think
you have nothing. Suckling.
I dare ensure any man well in his wits, for one in
the thousand, that he shall not die a lunatick in bed-
iam within these seven years; because not above one
in about one thousand five hundred have done so.
Graunt’s Bills.
He restored lunatic persons to their right wits,
and dispossessed evil spirits. Barrow.
The figure of its seed much resembles a horse-
shoe, which Baptista Porta hath thought too low a
signification, and raised the same into a lunary re-
presentation. Browne's Vulgar Errours.
If the lunations be observed for a cycle of nineteen
years, which is the cycle of the moon, the same ob-
servations will be verified for succeeding cycles for
years. Holder on Time.
Then we upon our globe's last verge shall go,
And view the ocean leaning on the sky;
From hence our rolling neighbours we shall know,
And on the lunar world securely pry. Dryden.
Lunette is a covered place made before the cour-
tine, which consists of two faces that form an angle
inwards, and is commonly raised in fosses full of
water, to serve instead of a fausse braye, and to dis-
pute the enemy’s passage : it is six toises in extent,
of which the parapet is four. Trevour.
The ordinary method of making a tragic hero is
to clap a huge plume of feathers upon his head,
which rises so very high, that there is often a greater
length from his chin to the top of his head, than to the
sole of his foot. For my part, when I see a man
uttering his complaints under such a mountain of
feathers, I am apt to look upon him rather as an un-
fortunate lunatic than a distressed hero. Addison.
See the blind beggar dance, the cripple sing,
The sot a hero, lunatick a king. Pope.
sometimes with
The residue of the yearly profits shall be laid out
in purchasing a piece of land, and in building
thereon an hospital for the reception of ideots and
lunaticks. Swift.
A troop of Janizaries strewed the field,
Fallen in just ranks or wedges, lumes, or squares,
Firm as they stood. Watts.
Ye train Pierian to the lunar sphere,
In silent hour, address your ardent call
For aid immortal, less her brother's right.
- Young.
LUNAcy, in law. If a man in his sound me-
mory commits a capital offence, and before ar-
raignment for it he becomes mad, he ought not
to be arraigned for it: because he is not able to
plead it with that advice and caution that he
ought. And if, after he has pleaded, the pri-
soner becomes mad, he shall not be tried ; for
how can he make his defence? If, after he be
tried and found guilty, he loses his senses before
judgment, judgment shall not be pronounced ;
and if, after judgment, he becomes of nonsane
memory, execution shall be stayed : for, perad-
venture, says the humanity of the English law,
had the prisoner been of sound memory, he
might have alleged something in stay of judg-
ment or execution. Indeed, in the bloody reign
of Henry VIII., a statute was made, which
enacted, that if a person, being compos mentis,
should commit high treason, and after fall into
madness, he might be tried in his absence, and
should suffer death, as if he were of perfect me-
mory. But this savage and inhuman law was
repealed by the statute 1 & 2 Philip and Mary
c. 10. For, as is observed by Sir Edward
Coke, ‘the execution of an offender is for exam-
ple, ut paena ad paucos metus ad omnes perve-
niat; but so it is not when a madman is executed:
but would be a miserable spectacle, both against
law, and of extreme inhumanity and cruelty,
and can be no example to others.' But if there
be any doubt whether the party be compos or
not, this shall be tried by a jury. And if he be
so found a total idiocy, or absolute insanity, ex-
cuses from the guilt, and of course from the
punishment, of any criminal action committed
under such deprivation of the senses; but, if a
lunatic has lucid intervals of understanding, he
shall answer for what he does in those intervals,
as if he had no deficiency. Yet, in the case of
absolute madmen, as they are not answerable for
their actions, they should not be permitted the
liberty of acting unless under proper control,
and, in particular, they ought not to be suffered
to go loose, to the terror of the king's subjects.
It was the doctrine of our ancient law, that per-
sons deprived of their reason might be confined
till they recovered their senses, without waiting
for the forms of a commission or other special
authority from the crown; and now, by the va-
grant acts, a method is chalked out for imprison-
ing, chaining, and sending them to their proper
homes. The matrimonial contract likewise can-
not take place in a state of idiocy. It was for-
merly adjudged, that the issue of an idiot was
legitimate, and his marriage valid. A strange
determination 1 since consent is absolutely re-
quisite to matrimony, and neither idiots nor lu-
natics are capable of consenting to any thing.
L U N A C Y.
335
his grants or other acts.
And therefore the civil law judged much more
sensibly, when it made such deprivations of rea-
son a previous impediment, though not a cause
of divorcé if they happened after marriage. And
modern resolutions have adhered to the sense of
the civil law, by determining that the marriage
of a lunatic, not being in a lucid interval, was
absolutely void. But as it might be difficult to
prove the exact state of the party's mind at the
actual celebration of the nuptials, upon this ac-
count (concurring with some private family rea-
sons), the statute 15 Geo. II. c. 30, has provided,
that the marriage of lunatics and persons under
phrenzies (if found lunatics under a commission
or committed to the care of trustees under any
act of parliament) before they are declared of
sound mind by the lord chancellor, or the majo-
rity of such trustees, shall be totally void.
and persons of nonsane memory, as well as in-
fants and persons under duress, are not totally
disabled either to convey or purchase, but sub
modo only. For their conveyances and pur-
chases are voidable, but not actually void. The
king, indeed, on behalf of an idiot, may avoid
But it has been said
that a mon compos himself, though he be after-
wards brought to a right mind, shall not be per-
mitted to allege his own insanity in order to
avoid such grant : for that no man shall beal-
lowed to stupify himself, or plead his own disa-
bility. The progress of this notion is somewhat
curious. In the time of Edward I. non compos
was a sufficient plea to avoid a man's own bond;
and there is a writ in the register for the alienor
himself to recover lands aliened by him during
his insanity; dum fuit non compos mentis suae,
ut dicit, &c. But under Edward III. a scruple
began to arise, whether a man should be per-
mitted to blemish himself, by pleading his own
insanity; and, afterwards, a defendant in assize
having pleaded a release by the plaintiff since
the last continuance, to which the plaintiff re-
plied (ore tenus, as the manner then was) that he
was out of his mind when he gave it, the court
adjourned the assize; doubting, whether, as the
plaintiff was sane both then and at the com-
mencement of the suit, he should be permitted
to plead an intermediate deprivation of reason;
and the question was asked, how he came to re-
member to release, if out of his senses when he
gave it?. Under Henry VI., this way of reason-
ing (that a man shall not be allowed to disable
himself, by pleading his own incapacity, because
he cannot know what he did under such a situa-
tion) was seriously adopted by the judges in ar-
gument, upon a question, whether the heir was
barred of his right of entry by the feoffment of
his insane ancestor? And from these loose au-
thorities, which Fitzherbert does not scruple to
reject as being contrary to reason, the maxim,
that a man shall not stultify himself, has been
handed down as settled law : though later opi-
nions, feeling the inconvenience of the rule, have
in many points endeavoured to restrain it. And,
clearly, the next heir, or other person interested,
may, after the death of the idiot or non compos,
take advantage of his incapacity, and avoid the
grant. And so too, if he purchases under this
disability, and does not afterwards, upon reco-
Idiots.
vering his senses, agree to the purchase, his heir
may either waive or accept the estate at his op-
tion. In like manner, an infant may waive such
purchase or conveyance, when he comes to full
age; or, if he does not then actually agree to it,
his heirs may waive it after him. Persons, also,
who purchase or convey under duress, may affirm
or avoid such transaction whenever the duress has
ceased. For all these are under the protection
of the law.; which will not suffer them to be im–
posed upon through the imbecility of their pre-
sent condition; so that their acts are only bind-
ing, in case they be afterwards agreed to when
such imbecility ceases. Yet the guards or com-
mittees of a lunatic, by the statute 11 Geo. III.-
c. 20, are empowered to renew in his right,
under the directions of the court of chancery,
any lease for lives or years, ānd apply the profits
of such renewal for the benefit of such lunatic,
his heirs, or executors.
LUNAE Mons, in ancient geography, a pro-
montory of Lusitania, now called the rock of
Lisbon.
LUNE Mons, a mountain of Ethiopia, from
which the Nile was supposed to take its rise.
LUNE PORTUS, a very extensive port, or rather
a bay of Liguria, between Portus Veneris and
Portus Ericis, twenty miles in compass; now
called the Gulph of Spezia, on the east coast of
Liguria.
LUNAR CAUSTIC. See CHEMISTRY.
LUNAR IRIS, or LUNAR RAINBow, a rainbow
formed by the reflection of the rays of light from
the moon. This phenomenon is seldom observ-
ed. Aristotle is said to have been the first who
observed a lunar iris, and says they are never
seen but at full moon. They never appear un-
less the moon be near the opposition. See
RAINBow.
LUNAR MonTH. See
MonTH.
A LUNAR YEAR consists of 354 days, or twelve
synodical months. See YEAR.
LUNARE Os, in anatomy, the second bone
in the first row of the carpus; so named be-
cause one of its sides is in form of a crescent.
LUNARIA, satin flower, honesty, or moon-
wort, in botany, a genus of the siliculosa order,
and tetradynamia class of plants: natural order
thirty-ninth, siliquosae: silicula entire, elliptical
compressed, plane, and pedicellated with the
valves equal to the partition, parallel and plane:
CAL. leaves alternately fritted at the base. This
plant is famous in many places for its medicinal
virtues, though it is not received in the shops.
The people in the north of England dry the
whole plant in the over, and give as much as
will lie on a shilling for a dose twice a day in
hemorrhages of all kinds, particularly in the
too abundant flowing of the menses, and with
great success. The Welsh, among whom it is
common, make an ointment of it, which they use
externally, in dysenteries.
LUNARIUM, in ancient geography, a pro-
montory of Hispania Citra, between Blanda
and Baetulo; commonly called the Cape of Pa-
lafugel, or of Tosa, in Catalonia, on the Medi-
terranean.
A LUNAT1c is properly one that has lucid in-
CHRONoLogy and
LUN
. . . LUN
336
tervals; sometimes enjoying his senses, and
sometimes not; and that supposed to depend on
the influence of the moon.
LUNATIC, in law. Under the general term of
non compos mentis (which Sir Edward Coke
says is the most legal name) are comprised not
only lunatics, but persons under frenzies, or who
lose their intellects by disease; those that grow
deaf, dumb, and blind, not being born so; or
such, in short, as are judged by the court of
chancery incapable of conducting their own af-
fairs. To these also, as well as idiots, the king
is guardian, but to a very different purpose. For
the law always imagines, that these accidental
misfortunes may be removed; and therefore
only constitutes the crown a trustee for the
unfortunate persons, to protect their property,
and to account to them for all profits received,
if they recover, or, after their decease, to their re-
presentatives. And therefore it is declared by
stat. 17 Edw. II. c. 10, that the king shall pro-
vide for the custody and sustentation of lunatics,
and preserve their lands, and the profits of them
for their use when they come to their right
mind; and the king shall take nothing to his
own use; and, if the parties die in such estate,
the residue shall be distributed for their souls by
the advice of their ordinary, and of course (by
the subsequent amendment of the law of ad-
ministrations) shall now go to their executors or
administrators. On the first attack of lunacy,
or other occasional insanity, when there may
be hopes of a speedy restitution of reason,
it is usual to confine the unhappy objects in
private custody, under the direction of their
nearest friends and relations: and the legislature,
to prevent all abuses incident to such private
custody, has interposed its authority, by 14
Geo. III. c. 49, for regulating private mad-
houses. But when the disorder is grown per-
manent, and the circumstances of the party will
bear such additional expense, it is thought pro-
per to apply to the royal authority to warrant a
lasting confinement. The method of proving a
person non compos is very similar to that of
proving him an ideot. The lord chancellor, to
whom, by special authority from the king, the
custody of idiots and lunatics is intrusted, upon
petition or information, grants a commission in
the nature of the writ de idiota inquirendo, to en-
quire into the party's state of mind; and, if he be
found non compos, he usually commits the care
of his person, with a suitable allowance for his
maintenance, to some friend, who is then called
the committee. However, to prevent sinister
practices, the next heir is seldom permitted to be
of this committee of the person; because it is
his interest that the party should die. But, it
has been said, there lies not the same objection
against his next of kin, provided he be not his
heir; for it is his interest to preserve the lunatic's
life, in order to increase the personal estate by
Savings, which he or his family may hereafter
be entitled to enjoy. The heir is generally made
the manager or committee of the estate, it being
clearly his interest by good management to keep
it in condition: accountable, however, to the
court of chancery, and to the non compos himself,
if he recovers; or otherwise to his administra.
tors. See LUNACY. -
LUNCH, n. s., or Span. lonja a long-tu-
LUN'CHEON. ; dine.—Minsheu. A hand-
ful; or small quantity of food.
When hungry thou stood'st staring, like an oaf,
I sliced the luncheon from the barley loaf;
With crumbled bread I thickened well the *:
(171.
LUND, or LUNDEN, a town in the province
of Scania, or Schonen, Sweden; five miles from
the Baltic. A university was founded here in
1666 by Charles XI, which is still attended by
above 300 students, and has fifteen professors.
It has a library of above 20,000 volumes. The
celebrated Puffendorf was a professor here. Po-
pulation 3300: twenty-one miles east of Copen-
hagen, and thirty-eight south-west of Christian-
stadt.
LUNDY, an island of England, fifty miles off
the north-west coast of Devonshire, five miles
long and two broad, but so encompassed with
inaccessible rocks that it has but one entrance,
so narrow that two men can scarcely go abreast.
It is reckoned in the hundred of Branton. It had
anciently a fort and a chapel. The soil on the
south is pretty good, but barren on the north,
where it has a high pyramidical rock called the
Constable. Horses, kine, hogs, goats, sheep,
and rabbits, abound in it; but the chief commo-
dity is fowls, and their eggs are very thick on the
ground at the season of breeding. In the reign
of Henry VIII. one William Morisco, who had
conspired to murder him at Woodstock, fled to
this island, which he fortified, turned pirate, and
did much damage to this coast, but was at last
taken, with sixteen of his gang, and put to
death. º -
LUNEBURG, a north-east province of Han-
over, once a separate principality of the empire,
lies chiefly along the left bank of the Elbe. A
small part on the right bank now belongs to
Denmark.
Hanoverian Luneburg has a territorial extent of
4236 square miles, and has several rivers besides
the Elbe, viz. the Aller, Ilmenau, Oker, Jeetze,
Fuhse, &c. Its shape is rectangular and nearly
square : it may be said indeed to form a great
plain, sloping insensibly on one side towards the
Elbe, on the other towards the Aller. It has no
mountains; but in the centre is an elevation
forming a largeheath, called, from its barrenness,
the Arabia of Germany. Here, however, sheep
are fed, and bees reared; which are in such num-
bers as to produce honey and wax for export, to
the annual value of £30,000. Here also are pro-
duced juniper berries, and even bilberries, both
in such quantities as to form articles of export.
Wherever the soil has any elevation it is sandy,
and apt to run into heath; but on the banks of
the rivers there are many fertile districts. These
low grounds produce corn, particularly buck-
wheat, hops, and good pasturage, on which horses
of large size are reared. The manufactures are
chiefly of woollens, linen, and wax. For these
the vicinity of Hamburgh affords a ready de-
mand. Luneburg is governed by its own states
and courts of justice. At Zell there is a court of
appeal for the whole Hanoverian states. Inha-
bitants 246,000.
LUNEBURG, a town of Hanover, the capital
of the province of this name, stands on the Il-
L U N G S.
337
\
menau, here navigable. The town is not attrac-
tive to a stranger, having dark and narrow streets,
and old fashioned houses, surrounded by walls
of no great strength, and six gates. Here are
also four churches, with an equal number of hos-
pitals, an orphan house, gymnasium, a military
school, in which young men of family and others
receive their education. In the market place is
the palace of the prince, a good building; and
opposite to it the church of St. Michael, where
many of the dukes of Luneburg are buried.
Luneburg formerly held a leading rank among
the Hanse towns, and is, after Embden, the most
busy place at present in the Hanoverian states.
It carries on a considerable trade in horses, above
70,000 being brought here annually; and it has
also a fine salt spring. On the west side of the
town is a hill, called the Kalkberg, from which
above 20,000 tons of lime are procured annu-
ally. One quarter of the town, called the Sulze,
is surrounded by a distinct wall and governed by
its own magistracy. Population 10,000.
LUNENBURG, a post town of Worcester
county, Massachusetts, twenty-five miles N. N. E.
of Worcester, and forty-five north-west of Bos-
ton. Population 1371. -
LUNENBURG, a county in the south part of
Virginia, bounded north by Prince Edward and
Nottoway counties, east by Brunswick county,
south by Mecklenburg county, and west by
Charlotte, and Prince Edward counties. Popu-
lation 12,265.
LUNENSE MARMoR, in the natural history of
the ancients, a species of white marble, now
called Carrara marble, and distinguished from
the statuary kind by its greater hardness and less
splendor. It is, and always was, much esteemed
in building and ornamental works. It is of a
very close and fine texture, of a very pure white,
and much more transparent than any other of the
white marbles. It is still found in great quanti-
ties in Italy. See IUNA. -
LUNETTE, in the manege, is a half horse-shoe,
or such a shoe as wants the sponge, i.e. that part
of the branch which runs towards the quarters of
the foot. - .
LUNETTE is also the name of two small pieces
of felt, made round and hollow, to clap upon the
eyes of a vicious horse that is apt to bite and
strike with his fore feet, or that will not suffer
his rider to mount him.
LUNEVILLE, a large and populous town of
France, in the department of the Meurthe, and
ci-devant duchy of Lorrain, seated in a plain be-
tween the Meurthe and Vezoul, which unite
below it. It has an ancient castle, converted
into barracks, where the dukes of Lorrain kept
their court; as did afterwards king Stanislaus,
who founded a military academy, an hospital,
and a large library in it. In this town the con-
vention was held, and treaty of peace concluded,
be.ween the emperor Francis II. and the French
republic, in October 1801. In the centre of the
town is the large and handsome church of St.
• James's, ornamented by Stanislaus, and the Ho-
tel de Valor. The town has also flourishing ma-
nufactures of lace, muslims, stockings, gloves,
and pottery. Population 10,000. Twelve miles
E.S. E. of Nantz, and eighty west of Strasburg.
Vol. XIII.
Sax. lungen; Teut. and
LUNGED, adj. K Dan. lunge; Belgic long.
LUNG'-GRowN, ) The organs of breathing.
Lunged, furnished with or having the nature of
lungs. Lung-grown is explained in the extract.
, More would I, but my lungs are wasted so,
That strength of speech is utterly denied me.
Shakspeare.
The lungs sometimes grow fast to the skin that
lines the breast within ; whence such as are detained
with that accident are lung-grown. Harvey.
As a man coming into a pestilential air, does not
suck in death at every motion of his lungs, but by
little and little, the spirits are poysoned, and at last
enter into their portion of death; so it is in a vicious
Custom. Bp. Taylor.
The bellows of his lungs begin to swell,
Nor can the good receive, norbad expel.
Dryden.
Had I a hundred mouths, a hundred tongues,
And throats of brass inspired with iron lungs;
I could not half those horrid crimes repeat,
Nor half the punishments those crimes have *.
The smith prepares his hammer for the stroke,
While the lunged bellows hissing fire provoke. Id.
LUNGS. See ANATOMY. 4.
LUNGS, INFLATIONs of. Various have been
the instruments contrived with a view to restore
the action of the lungs of drowned persons; and
in a country like our own, surrounded by the
ocean and intersected by rivers and canals, acci-
dents are but too frequently happening which
call them into use. A very useful instrument of
this sort was invented by M. Goncy, physician
to the military hospital, New Busack, which is
thus described in the Journal de Medecine:—
This instrument consists of a double pair of bel-
lows, BCLM, in the diagram, the two different
parts of which have no communication with each
other. In the lower side, BM, is an aperture, A,
for a valve constructed on the principles of those
of Nairne's air-pump. It consists of a rim of cop-
per, closed at one end by a plate of the same
metal, in which plate are seven small holes
placed at equal distances. This plate is covered
with a piece of silk coated with elastic gum, in
which are six transverse incisions of two or three
lines in length. Each incision is so made as to
be situated between two of the holes, and at an
equal distance from each. The silk must be
made very secure, by a thread passing several
times round the rim. A stream of air, applied
to that side of the plate which is opposite the
silk, will pass through the holes, and, lifting up
the silk, escape through the incisions. On the
contrary, a stream of air applied to the other
side will press the silk upon the plate, and thus
close the holes, so that it will be impossible for
it to pass through them. This valve opensin-
ternally, so as to admit the air from without.
At B is another valve, on the same construction,
but opening in a contrary direction, thus per-
mitting the air to escape out of the lower part
into the tube EF, but preventing its entrance.”
At C is another valve, opéning internally to
admit the air from the tube EF: and at D there
is a fourth opening externally, to discharge the
air from the upper part. The flexible tube EF,
screwed on at the end CB, being introduced into
- Z
LUNGS, n. s. }
338 L U N G S.
one of the nostrils, whilst the mouth and the
other nostril are closed by an assistant, if we
Separate the two handles L., M, which were close
together at the introduction of the tube, it is evi-
dent that the air in the lungs will rush into the
upper part through the valve C, whilst the exter-
nal air will fill the lower part through the valve
A : the two handles being again brought into
contact, the atmospheric air will be forced into
the lungs through the valve B, and at the same
time the air in the upper part will be discharged
at the valve D. . Thus, by the alternate play of the
double bellows, the lungs will be alternately
filled and emptied as in respiration. In using
the instrument care should be taken not to be
too violent; as the more perfectly the natural
motion of respiration is imitated the better.
There is a handle, K, to the partition in the
middle, in order that, if it be at any time neces-
sary to use either of the divisions alone, the
other may be confined from acting.
The best instrument of this kind, however, is
that of Mr. Murray, of which the following ac-
count, communicated by himself to the Edin-
burgh Philosophical Transactions, may not be
unacceptable to our readers. -
The diagram, fig. 1, represents the apparatus
as it appears externally; in which A is a stop-
cock for the efflux of heated water contained
between the concentric cylinders, when the ope-
ration has closed. B is a stop-cock, with index,
attached to the flexible pipe, which extends to
the larynx to renew the air when required.
When the index points in the direction of the
lungs, or parallel with the pipe, the communica-
tion between the lungs and cylinder is open;
and, when at right angles, that with the lungs is
shut, and the cylinder then communicates only
with the free atmosphere. Hence, when the
piston-rod is raised, and the index points to the
lungs, the canal being open, the air reposing on
the lungs passes to the cylinder; and when the
index is moved the quadrant of a circle, or at
right angles with the former position, the aper-
ture which leads to the lungs is closed, and that
which conducts into the free atmosphere un-
covered; consequently, on the descent of the
piston-rod, the air drawn from the lungs is ex-
pelled into the atmosphere, while a fresh supply
is received on elevating the piston; and, the in-
dex being turned into its former position, the
descending piston propels it into the lungs, and
the alternations of its movements assimilate to
the beautiful isochronism of natural respiration.
To the lateral aperture is attached a concave
pan, C, somewhat resembling that of a musket,
to receive a drop of ether, which, entering into
the cylinder along with the ingress of atmos-
pheric air, expands and diffuses itself therein on
the elevation of the piston, and thus operates on .
the lungs with all the stimulus of nitrous oxide.
In cases of asphyxia, by carbonic acid gas, a
drop of ammonia may be serviceable; while, in
that of the septic poison, sulphureted hydrogen,
a solution of chlorine might prove of benefit.
D is the orifice by which the partition is sup-
plied with heated water.
Fig. 2 exhibits a section of the apparatus,
where A is the piston-rod, accurately adapted to
the cylinder in which it moves. This inner-cy-
linder has one concentric with it which forms a
partition, the recipient of the heated water; and
the base, which limits the descent of the solid
plunger, has a simple aperture without any valve.
B is a toothed quadrant attached to a lever, and
moving on a fulcrum, for the purpose of elevat-
ing and depressing the piston. , C is a check
which regulates the altitude of the piston; and
thus apportions its elevation to the capacity of
the lungs, whether the subject be an adult or of
tender age. D is a partition surrounding the
inner cylinder, and supplied with water at a
temperature sufficient to maintain the air pro-
pelled into the lungs at the usual animal tem-
perature, of 98° Fahrenheit. E represents a
thermometer for more accurate adjustment, and
F a pipe communicating with theinterior cylin-
der, and to which the flexible tube is attached.
Fig. 1. Fig. 2.
Hig
º:
- B A.
#. 4.
a fil Fl F | £- = §
Fal • * \
, a * * * - :-
ºrº----
LUNG-wort, in botany. See PULMonARIA.
LUNG-wort, Cow's. See VERBASCUM.
LUNG-wort, GoLDEN. See HIERAcIUM.
LUNISOLAR YEAR, in chronology, is the
space of 532 common years; found by multiply-
ing the cycle of the sun by that of the moon.
See CHRONoLogy. -
LUPERCALIA, feasts instituted in ancient
Rome, in honor of Pan. They were celebrated
on the fifteenth of the kalends of March. They
are supposed to have been established by Evan-
der. On the morning of this festival the luperci,
or priests of Pan, ran naked through the streets
of Rome, striking the married women they met
on the hands and stomach with a strap of goat's


LUR
LUR.
339
leather, which was held an omen promising them
fecundity and happy deliveries. See LUPERc1.
This feast was abolished in the time of Augustus,
but afterwards restored, and continued in the
time of the emperor Anastasius. Baronius says
it was abolished by pope Anastasius in 496.
LUPERCI, the priests of the god Pan. See
LUPERCAI IA. They were the most ancient
order of priests in Rome; they were divided
into two colleges, called Fabii and Quintilii. To
these Caesar added a third, called Julii. -
LU'PINE, n. s. Fr. lupin ; Lat. lupinus. A
kind of pulse.
When Protogenes would have undertaken any ex-
cellent piece, he used to diet himself with peas and
lupines, that his invention might be quick and refined.
Peacham on Drawing.
Some antiquity of traditions hath dieted St. Peter
with lupines. Bp. Hall.
Where stalks of lupines grew,
The ensuing season in return, may hear
The bearded product of the golden year. Dryden.
It has a papilionaceous flower, out of whose em-
palement rises the pale, which afterwards turns into
a pod filled with either plain or spherical seeds : the
Heaves grow like fingers upon the foot stalks.
- Miller.
LUPINE, or LUPIN US, in botany, a genus of
the decandria order, and diadelphia class of
plants: natural order thirty-second, papilio-
naceae: CAL. bilabiated: there are five oblong
and five roundish antherae: the legumen is coria-
ceous. . There are several species; all easily
raised from seed; and succeeding in any open
borders, where they make a fine variety. The
seeds of the white lupine have a leguminous taste
accompanied with a disagreeable bitter, and are
said to be anthelmintic, both internally taken,
and applied externally. Caspar Hoffman cau-
tions against their external use, and tells us that
they have sometimes occasioned death: and
Simon Pauli says, that he saw a boy of eight or
ten years of age, after taking a dram of them in
powder, seized with exquisite pains in the abdo-
men, a difficulty of respiration, and almost total
loss of voice; and that he was relieved by a
glyster of milk and sugar, which brought away a
vast quantity of worms. But M. Geoffroy justly
observes, that either these symptoms were owing
to the worms, or that the seeds, if they have any
noxious quality, lose it, with their bitterness, in
boiling; as they were used among the Greeks as
food, and recommended by Galen as very whole-
some. - º
LUPUS, the wolf. See CANIs.
LUPUs, in astronomy. See ASTRONoMY.
LURCH, n.s., v. n. & R Derived by Skin-
LUR'CHER, n.s. ſp. a. 3. from l'ourche, a
game of draughts, much used, as he says, among
the Dutch; but the Belgic language has loeren,
to shift or play falsely at any game: also loer,
Teut. loertsch, to miss or lose in a game of
chance. To leave in the lurch, is to leave aloser;
or in a forlorn or deserted condition; to leave
without help : to lurch is to shift; play tricks;
deceive; disappoint: a lurcher, man or dog
that watches for his game or prey.
I myself, sometimes leaying goodness on my left
hand, and hiding mine honour in my necessity, am
fain to shuffle, to hedge, and to lurch. Shakspeare.
• He waxed like a sea,
And, in the brunt of seventeen battles since,
He lurcht all swords o' th' garland. If..
Will you now to peace incline,
And languish in the main design,
And ieave us in the lurch? Denham.
But though thou’rt of a different church,
I will not leave thee in the lurch. Hudibras.
It is indeed hard for a man without charity, not
to be worse than an innocent beast; not at least to
be as a fox, or a wolf; either cunningly lurching
or violently ravening for prey. Barrow.
While the one was upon wing, the other stood
lurching upon the ground, and flew away, with the
fish. - & L’Estrange.
Have a care how you keep company with those
that, when they find themselves upon a pinch, will
leave their friends in the lurch. ld.
I cannot represent those worthies more naturally
than under the shadow of a pack of dogs, made up
of finders, lurchers, and setters. Tatler.
This is a sure rule, that will never deceive or lurch
the sincere communicant. t South.
Flirts about town had a design to cast us out of
the fashionable world, and leave us in the lurch, by
some of their late refinements.
Addison's Guardian.
His thefts some tradesman spies,
Swift from his play the scudding lurcher flies:
Whilst every honest tongue stop thief resounds.
- Gau.
Can you break your word with three of àe
honestest best meaning persons in the world ! It is
base to take advantage of their simplicity and cre-
dulity, and leave them in the lurch at last.
- Arbuthnot.
Shaggy, and lean, and shrewd, with pointed ears
And tail cropped short, half lurcher and half cur,
His dog attends him. Cowper.
There was no light in heaven but a few stars,
The boats put off o'ercrowded with their crews ;
She gave a heel, and then a lurch to port,
And going down head foremost—sunk, in short.
Byron.
LURCH, v. a. Lat, lurcor. To devour; to
swallow greedily.
Too far off from great cities may hinder business;
or too near lurcheth all provisions, and maketh every
thing dear. Bacon.
LURCHER, a kind of hunting dog much like a
mongrel greyhound, with pricked ears, a shagged
coat, and generally of a yellowish-white color:
they are very swift runners, so that if they get
between the burrows and the conies they seldom
miss; and this is their common practice in
hunting: yet they use other subtleties, as the
tumbler does, some of them bringing in their
game and those are the best. A lurcher will run
down a hare at stretch. They are supposed to be
mules produced from a cross between the shep-
herd's dog and the greyhound, which, from
breeding in and in with the latter, has so refined
upon the original cross, that very little of the
shepherd's dog is retained in its stock, its do-
cility and fidelity excepted. They are the fa-
vorite dogs of small farmers, since they can both
act the part of a sheep dog, and occasionally trip
up the heels of a leveret three parts grown. They
are also the constant companions of professed
and motorious poachers, being admirably adapted
to such a kind of service: they equal, if not ex-
ceed, any other kind of dog in sº ; and
2
LUR
LUS
340
description can acquire. Some of them are very
little inferior in speed to well bred greyhounds:
hares they frequently run up to : rabbits they kill
to a certainty, if the latter be at any distance
from home: if near a warren, the dog invariably
runs for the burrow, by doing which, he seldom
fails in his attempt to secure his aim. His qua-
lifications go still farther: in the nocturnal ex-
cursions of poachers, he will easily pull down a
fallow deer, as soon as the signal is given for the
pursuit; which done, he will explore his way to
his master, and conduct him to the game, where-
ever he may have left it. . . .
LURE, n, s., v. m. & v. a. Belg. loore; Teut.
leurre; Fr. leurre. A bait or enticement; par-
ticularly applied to the enticement of hawks: to
call a hawk; and generally to entice; draw;
enveigle.
With empty hond men may no haukes lure.
- Chaucer’s Cant. Tales.
My faulcon now is sharp and passing empty,
And, till she stoop, she must not be full gorged,
For then she never looks upon her lure.
Shakspeare.
A great estate to an heir is a lure to all the birds
of prey round about to seize on him. Bacon.
Standing near one that lured loud and shrill, I
had suddenly an offence, as if somewhat had bro-
ken, or been dislocated in my ear, and immediately
after a loud ringing. tº
This stiffnecked pride, nor art nor force can bend,
Nor high-flown hopes to reason's lure descend.
Denham.
How many have with a smile made small account
Of beauty and her lures, easily scorned
All her assaults, on worthier things intent
- Milton.
A man spent one day in labour, that he might
pass the other at ease; and, lured'on by the pleasure
of this bait, when he was in vigour he would pro-
vide for as many days as he could. Temple.
- A falc'ner Henry is, when Emma hawks;
With her of tarsels and of lures he talks. Prior.
Volumes on sheltered'stalls expounded lie,
And various science lures the learned eye. Gay.
Should you lure
From his dark haunt, beneath the tangled roots
Of pendant trees, the monarch of the brook,
Behove you then to ply your finest art.
Thomson.
- Luxury
Held out her lure to his superior eye,
And grieved to see him pass contemptuous by.
* Madden.
Some minds by nature are averse to noise,
And hate the tumult half the world enjoys,
The lure of avarice, or the pompous prize,
That courts display before ambitious eyes;
The fruits that hang on Pleasure's flowery stem,
Whate'er enchants them, are no snares to them.
Cowper.
Wain, then, the enlivening sound of Fame’s
alarms,
- For hope's exulting impulse prompts no more :
Vain even the joys that lure to pleasure's arms,
The throb of transport is for ever o’er. Beattie.
And leads him on from flower to flower,
A weary chase and wasted hour;
Then leaves him, as it soars on high,
With panting heart and tearful eye :
‘So beauty lures the full-grown child,
With hue as bright, and wing as wild. Byron.
are easily taught any thing that an animal of this
A LURE, in falconry, a device of leather in the
shape of two wings, stuck with feathers, and
baited with a piece of flesh, to call back a hawk
when at a Śonsiderable distance. See FALconRY.
LU'RID, adj. Lat. luridus. Gloomy; dis-
mal.
Slow settling o'er the lurid grove,
Unusual darkness broods. Thomson's Summer.
LURK, v. m. Fieri potest à Greek
LURK'ER, (Aopóow, curvo, inflecto,
LURK'ING-PLACE, (says Minsheu. More
or AMBUSH. . ) probably from LURCH,
which see. To lie in wait.
Take knowledge of all the lurking-places where he
hideth himself. 1 Sam. xxiii. 23.
If sinners entice thee, consent not; if they say,
let us lay wait for blood, let us lurk privily for the
innocent. * Prov. i. 11.
They lay not to live by their worke,
But theevishly loiter and lurke.
. Tusser's Husbandry.
Far in land a savage nation dwelt,
That never tasted grace, nor goodness felt;
But like wild beasts, lurking in loathsome den,
And flying fast as roebuck through the fen,
All naked. Faerie Queene.
Milbrook lurketh between two hills, a village of
some eighty houses, and borrowing his name from
a mill and little brook running there through.
- Carew's Survey of Cornwall.
The wife, when danger or dishonour lurks,
Safest and seemliest by her husband stays.
Milton.
Doth not in every corner a Momus lurk, from the
venom of whose . or petulant tongue no emi-
nency of rank, dignity of place, or sacredness of
office, can protect any person.
- See
The lurking gold upon the fatal tree.
Dryden's AEneid.
Barrow.
The king unseen
Lurked in her hand, and mourned his captive queen;
He springs to vengeance. - Pope.
I do not lurk in the dark.: I am not wholly un-
known to the world: I have set my name at length.
-. Swift.
Seeds of Imerciless disease
Lwrk in all that we enjoy;
Some that waste us by degrees,
Some that suddenly destroy. Cowper.
But one fair night, some lurking spies
Surprised and seized us both. Byron.
LUS, a district of Persia, in the eastern part of
the province of Mekran. It is of a circular form,
bounded on three sides by immense mountains.
The face of the country is flat and sandy, but
fertile in every species of grain. There are four
passes through the mountains, two of which lead
into Sinde, one into Mekran, and one into Ba-
louchistan. The chief can bring into the field
4000 irregular troops, and draws a revenue of
50,000 rupees. The towns and districts are go-
verned by petty independent chiefs, owning the
supremacy of the khan of Lus. The capital is
Bayla; the chief maritime port is Sommeany.
Lus is supposed to be the ancient Oritae.
LUSAN, a town of the province and govern-
ment of Buenos Ayres, situate on the great road
from Buenos Ayres to Cordova, about thirty
miles west from the former city. Long. 59° 20'
W., lat. 34° 36' S. :
LUS
LUS
341
LUSATIA, a margraviate large province of the
German empire, lying between the Elbe and the
Oder, and surrounded by Brandenburg, Bohemia,
Silesia, and part of Saxony. It is divided into
Upper and Lower Lusatia, formerly two distinct
states, but which became subject to Saxony, since
1815. The superficial area of the whole is about
4250 square miles. Population 465,000.
Upper Lusatia is the southern and larger part,
and consists in great part of a sandy plain; but
a mountain ridge, called the Wohlische Kamm, runs
along its south frontier. All the rivers here have
their rise in these mountains, flow northward, and
fall into the Oder or Elbe. The principal here are
the Black Elster, which receives the Schwarz-
wasser, the Spree, and the Neisse; the Pulsnitz,
which divides Upper Lusatia from Misnia; and
the Queiss, which divides it from Silesia. Upper
Lusatia supplies hardly the half of what is con-
sumed by its inhabitants. Flax is cultivated,
but it is necessary also to import a certain quan-
tity for the use of the manufactures. The cattle
are good, and the sheep have been improved of
late by the introduction of merino rams; horses
likewise are reared. Other objects of care are
the rearing of poultry, particularly geese, and the
breeding of bees; in the forests of the north,
resin, pitch, and tar, are manufactured. The
only mines are a few of iron in this part; but
there are quarries of granite, basalt, lime, and
freestone.
The wealth of this country is in its manufac-
tures; of these, woollens are an important
branch, and those of linen have improved, as well
as those of cotton, leather, stockings, gloves, hats,
wax, and tobacco. The government of Lusatia
has been hitherto a limited monarchy, with a re-
presentative body, consisting of the four great
lords called dynasts, the prelates, nobles, and depu-
ties from free towns; but there is every reason to
believe that this will not be continued. By the
treaty of Vienna, the half of this province was
annexed to Prussia, and is subjected to the new
organisation of that monarchy, being included in
the government of Liegnitz in Silesia. The part
remaining to Saxony is computed only at 1170
square miles, and the population at 170,000.
Lower Lusatia, the northern part of the mar-
graviate, now belongs entirely to Prussia. Its
surface is computed at 1940 square miles. A
great part of it is covered with sands; and on
the sides of the rivers are a number of marshes.
The principal rivers are the Oder, the Spree, and
the Neisse. Some wheat, barley, millet, and
buck-wheat are exported, and the culture of to-
bacco, flax, and hops, is considerable; but agri-
culture is considered in a backward state. The
number of horses and cattle is small. Bees are
reared in abundance; and there is no want of
wood, the Spreewald being a forest of some note.
The minerals are iron, clay, and chalk; the prin-
cipal manufactures linen and woollen; of the
two, the former is the more considerable.
LUS’CIOUS, adj. Skinner says, from
LUS'croUSLY, adv. : lururious, ‘corruptly
LusciousNESS, n. s. 2 pronounced.” Others
more probably from Gr. YAvrvc, sweet. Sweet
in a great or immoderate degree.
The food that to him now is as luscious as loches,
shall shortly be as bitter as coloquintida.
Shakspeare.
Can there be a greater indulgence in God, than
to imbitter sensualities whose lusciousness intoxicates
us, and to clip wings which carry us from him
Decay of Piety.
With brandished blade rush on him, break his
glass,
And shed the luscious liquor on the ground.
Milton.
Blown roses hold their sweetness to the last,
And raisins keep their luscious native taste.
Dryden.
Peas breed worms by reason of the lusciousness and
sweetness of the grain. Mortimer’s Husbandry.
He will bait him in with the luscious proposal of
some gainful purchase. South.
. See Louvet, patriot, pamphleteer, and sage;
Tempering with amorous fire his virtuous rage,
Formed for all tasks, his various talents see,
The luscious novel, the severe decree. Camng.
LUSH, adj. Ital. liscuo. Of a dark, deep,
full color, opposite to pale and faint.
How lush and lusty the grass 10oks; how green'
Shakspeare.
LUSK, adj. R Goth. losk; Fr. lasche.
LUSK'ISH, Lazy; 1dle; worthless.
LUsk'ISHN ESS, n. s. $ Obsolete.
LUSO’RIOUS, adj. Lat. lusorius.
LU'SoRY, adj. } in play.
Things more open to exception, yet unjustly con-
demned as unlawful ; such as the lusorious lots, danc-
ing, and stage-plays. Bishop Sanderson.
There might be many entertaining contrivances for
the instruction of children in geometry, and geogra-
phy, in such alluring and lusory methods, as would
make a most agreeable and lasting impression.
Watts on the Mind.
LUST, n. S. & v. n.) Sax. lure; Swed. lust;
LUST'FUL, adj. Goth. lost. Desire; car-
LUST'FULLY, adv. nal desire; any irregular
LUST'FULNESS, n. s. or vehement desire; vi-
LUST'IHED, or {gor; power: as a verb,
LUST'IHooD, ſto desire ardently, car-
LUST'ILY, adv. nally, or irregularly; to
LUST'INESS, n.s. like: lustful is, apt or
LUSTLESS, adj. provoking to lust; libi-
LUST'y. J dinous: lustihed and
lustihood, vigor : bodily strength or ability;
sprightliness: iustily, stoutly; strongly; with un-
usual vigor or strength: lustiness, stoutness,
sturdiness; corporal vigor: lustless, destitute
of such strength or vigor: lusty, strong in health;
stout; vigorous.
I will divide the spoil; my lust shall be satisfied
upon them. Eaodus xv. 9.
The mixed multitude fell a lusting; and the child-
ren of Israel also wept, and said, Who shall give us
flesh to eat? - Numbers.
Their eyes swell with fatness; and they do even
what they lust. Psalm lxxiii. 7.
The spirit that dwelleth in us lusteth to envy.
James iv. 5.
Used
At the last out of a grove evin by
That was right godely and pleasant to sight
Ise where there came singing lustily
A world of ladies, but to tell aright
Ther beauty grete lyith not in my might.
Chaucer.
For he, whiche had his full paunche
Of all lustes at borde,
.LUS
LUS
342
Ne deigneth not to speake a word,
Onliche acromime for to yeue,
Whereof this poure might leue
Upon the yeſte of his aimésse. * - .
Gower. Conf. Am., book vi. fol. 134.
Turning wrathful fire to lustful heat,
With beastly sin thought her to have defiled.
Faerie Queene.
A goodly personage,
Now in his freshest flower of lustyhed,
Fit to inflame fair lady with love's rage.
Spenser.
Fresh Clarion being ready dight,
He with good speed began to take his flight
Over the fields in his frank lustiness. Id.
This lusty lady came from Persia late,
She with the Christians had encountered oft. Id.
The Christian captives in chains could no way
move themselves, if they should unadvisedly lust after
liberty. Knolles.
Barbarossa took upon him that painful journey,
which the old king lustily performed. Id.
This our court, infected with their manners,
Shews like a riotous inn; epicurism and lust
Make it more like a tavernor a brothel,
Than a graced palace. Shakspeare. King Lear.
Reason and respect §
Make livers pale and lustihood dejected.
- - Shakspeare.
I determine to fight lustily for him. Id.
If lusty love should go in quest of beauty,
Where should he find it fairer than in Biº
d.
Where there is so great a prevention of the ordi-
nary time, it is the lustuness of the child; but when
it is less, it is some indisposition of the mother.
Bacon’s Natural History.
Trees will grow greater, and bear better fruit, if
you put salt, or lees of wine, or blood, to the root;
the cause may be, the increasing the lust or spirit of
the root. Bacon.
Virtue was represented by Hercules: he is drawn
offering to strike a dragon; by the dragon are meant
all manner of lusts. Peacham on Drawing.
They are immoderately given to the lust of the flesh,
making no conscience to get bastards. Abbot.
Eve saw, andl wsted, so did they ; this also was a for-
bidden fruit (mixed marriage), they lusted, tasted,
sinned, died. Bp. Hall.
When a temptation of lust assaults thee, do not
resist it by disputing with it, but fly from it, that is,
think not at all of it. Taylor's Holy Living.
Thence his lustful orgies he enlarged.
Milton.
To have subdued their lusts, and mastered their
possions, would have proved far more difficult, than
to get advantage in scuffles with armed men.
Barrow.
Giving sometimes prodigally ; not because he
loved them to whom he gave, but because he lusted
to give. - Sidney.
Inconstant man, that loved all he saw,
And lusted after all that he did love.
Roscommon.
We yet may see the old man in a morning,
Lusty as health, come ruddy to the field,
And there pursue the chace. Otway.
There is no man that is intemperate or lustful, but
besides the guilt likewise stains and obscures his
soul. Tillotson.
All weigh our acts, and whate'er seems unjust,
Impute not to necessity, but lust. Dryden.
Cappadocian slaves were famous for their lustiness,
and being in good liking, were set on a stall to shew
the good habit of their body, and made to play tricks
before the buyèrs, to shëw their activity and strength.
$ . . Id. Persius.
He has fought lustily for her, and deserves her.
Sotitherne.
The lust of lucre. - Pope.
Yet, pure from lust of blood their fire,
And from ambition’s wild desire,
They triumphed but to save. Beattie.
Last noon beheld them full of lusty life,
Last eve in Beauty's circle proudly gay,
The midnight brought the signal-sound of strife,
The morn the marshalling in arms, the day
Battle's magnificently stern array ! Byron.
LUSTRAL, adj. Lat. lustralis. Used for
LUSTRATION, n.s. 5 purifying: purification by
water.
Job’s religious care
His sons assembles, whose united prayer,
Like sweet perfumes, from golden censers rise;
He with divine lustrations sanctifies. Sandys.
That spirits are corporeal seems a conceit deroga-
tive unto himself, and such as he should rather la-
bour to overthrow ; yet thereby he establisheth the
doctrine of lustrations, amulets, and charms.
Browne’s Vulgar Errours.
Should Io's priest command
A pilgrimage to Meroe's burning sand;
Through deserts they would seek the secret spring,
And holy water for lustration bring.
Dryden's Juvenal.
What were all their lustrations but so many solemn
purifyings, to render both themselves and their sacri-
fices acceptable to their gods? . South.
His better parts by lustral waves refined,
More pure, and nearer to aethereal mind. Garth.
By ardent prayer, and clear lustration, ,
Purge the contagious spots of human weakness;
Impure no mortal can behold Apollo. Prior.
LUSTRAL DAY (dies lustricus), in antiquity,
the day on which the lustrations were performed
for a child, and its name given; usually the
ninth day from the birth oft the boy, and the
eighth from that of a girl. Over this festival the
goddess Nundina was supposed to preside; the .
midwives, nurses, and domestics, handed the
child backwards and forwards, around a fire
burning on the altars of the gods, after which they
sprinkled it with water; hence this feast had the
name of amphidromia. The old women mixed
saliva and dust with the water. The whole ended
with a sumptuous entertainment. The parents
received gifts from their friends on this occasion.
If the child was a male the, door was decked
with an olive garland; if a female with wool,
denoting the work about which women were to
be employed.
LUSTRAL WATER was used by the ancients in
their ceremonies to sprinkle and purify the peo-
ple. From them the Roman Catholics pre-
bably borrowed the holy water used in their
churches. *
LUSTRATIONS, in antiquity, were ceremonies by
which the ancients purified their cities, fields,
armies, or people, defiled by any crime or impu-
rity. Some of these were public, others private.
There were three methods of performing lustra-
tion, viz. by fire and sulphur, by water, and by
air; which last was done by fanning and agi-
tating the air round the thing to be purified.
Some of these could not be dispensed with ; as:
lustrations of houses in the time of a plague, or
LUS
LüT
343
ºr ºr
-º- upon the death of any person: others were done
at pleasure. The public lustrations at Rome
were celebrated every fifth year; when they led
a victim thrice Sºund the place to be purified,
and in the mean time burnt a great quantity of
perfumes. Their country lustrations, which they
called ambarvalia, were celebrated before they
began to reap their corn: in those of the armies,
which they called armilustria, some chosen sol-
diers, crowned with laurel, led the victims, which
were a cow, a sheep, and a bull, thrice round the
army ranged in battle array, in the field of Mars,
to whom the victims were afterwards sacrificed,
after pouring out many imprecations upon the
enemies of the Romans. The lustrations of their
flocks were performed thus: the shepherd
sprinkled them with pure water, and thrice sur-
rounded his sheepfold with a composition of
Savin, laurel, and brimstone set on fire; and
afterwards sacrificed to the goddess Pales an
offering of milk boiled, wine, a cake, and millet.
Private .houses were lustrated with water, a
fumigation of laurel, juniper, olive tree, savin;
and the victim commonly was a pig. Lustrations
made for particular persons were commonly
called expiations, and the victims piacula. In
their lustratory sacrifices, the Athenians sacrificed
two men, one for the men of their city, and the
other for the women. They cast into the river,
or at least out of the city, the animals, &c., that
had served for a lustration or sacrifice of atone-
ment; and thought themselves threatened with
some great misfortune when by chance they trod
upon them. Part of these ceremonies were
abolished by Constantine and his successors; the
rest subsisted till the Gothic kings were masters
of Rome; under whom they expired.
IUSTRE, n. s. Fr. lustre. Splendor;
LUSTROUs, adj. łºńº glare; glitter:
hence a sconce bright with lights, or designed to
hold them : eminence; renown.
You have one eye left to see some mischief on him,
—Lest it see more, prevent it ; out, vile jelly
Where is thy lustre now? | Shakspeare. King Lear.
Noble heroes, my sword and yours are kin, good
sparks and lustrous. Shakspeare.
The more lustrous the imagination is, it filleth and
fixeth the better. Bacon’s Natural History.
To the soul time doth perfection give,
And adds fresh lustre to her beauty still. Davies.
Neither doubt I, but that, as metals receive the
more lustre with often rubbing, this truth, the more
agitation it undergoes, shall appear every day more
glorious. tº ºr - Bp. Hall.
Charity hath a good eye, which is not offended or
dazzled with the lustre of its neighbour's virtue, or with
the splendour of his fortune, but vieweth either of them
steadily with pleasure, as a very delightful spectacle.
Barrow.
The scorching sun was mounted high,
In all its lustre, to the noon-day sky.
Addison's Ovid.
His ancestors continued about four hundred years,
rather without obscurity than with any great lustre.
th Wottom.
Pass but some fleeting years, and these poor eyes,
Where now without a boast some lustre lies,
No longer shall their little honours keep,
But only be of use to read or weep. Prior.
All nature laughs, the groves are fresh and fair,
The sun's mild lustre warms the vital air. Pope.
Ridotta sips, and dances till she see
The doubling lustres dance as quick as she.
I used to wonder how a man of birth and spirit
could endure to be wholly insignificant and obscure
in a foreign country, when he might live with lustre
in his own. Swift.
With various lustres these light up the world,
Which death puts out, and darkens human race.
Young.
Their proficiency will make your defects the more
obvious to yourself: and by the lustre of their virtues
you will better see the deformity of your vices.
Mason.
Before the eastern flame
Rose crimson, and deposed the stars,
And called the radiance from their cars,
And filled the earth, from his deep throne,
With lonely lustre all his own. Byron.
. Unheeding, unthankful, we bask in the blaze,
While the beams of the sun in full majesty shine;
When he sinks into twilight, with fondness we gaze,
And mark the mild lustre that gilds his decline.
- Canning.
LUSTRE, in commerce, denotes the gloss on
anything, particularly on manufactures of silk,
wool, or stuff. It is likewise used to denote the
•composition or manner of giving that gloss. The
lustre of silks is given them by washing in soap,
then clear water, and dipping them in alum water
cold. To give stuffs a beautiful lustre: for
every 8 lbs. of stuff allow 3 lb. of linseed; boil
it half an hour, and then strain it through a cloth,
and let it stand till it is turned almost to a jelly:
afterwards put 1% oz. of gum to dissolve twenty-
four hours; then mix the liquor, and put the
cloth into this mixture, take it out, dry it in the
shade, and press it. If once doing is not suffici-
ent, repeat the operation. Curriers give a lustre
to black leather, first with juice of barberries,
then with gum arabic, ale, vinegar, and Flanders
glue, boiled together. For colored leather, they
use the white of an egg beaten in water. Mo-
roccoes have their lustre from juice of barberries,
and lemon or orange. For hats, the lustre is
frequently given with common water; some-
times a little black dye is added; the same lustre
serves for furs; except that for very black furs
they sometimes prepare a lustre of galls, cop-
peras, Roman alum, ox's marrow, and other in-
gredients,
LUSTRUM, in Roman antiquity, a general
muster and review of all the citizens and their
goods, which was performed by the censors
every fifth year, who afterwards made a solemn
lustration. See LUSTRATION. This custom was
first instituted by Servius Tullius, about A. U.C.
180.
LUTA'RIOUS, adj. Lat. lutarius. Living in
mud; of the color of mud.
A scaly tortoise-shell of the lutarious kind.
Grew.
LUTE, n. s. & v. a. ; Fr. luth, lut. Astringed
LU'TANIST. instrument of music.
And before them went minstrels many,
As harpis, pipes, lutis, and Sautry,
Al in grene. Chaucer.
Orpheus with his lute made trees,
And the mountain tops that freeze,
Bow themselves when he did sing. . .
- Shakspeare.
344 L U T H E R.
May must be drawn with a sweet countenance,
upon his head a garland of roses, in one hand a lute.
Peacham.
A lute string will bear a hundred weight without
rupture, but at the same time cannot exert its elas-
ticity. Arbuthnot.
In a sadly pleasing strain,
Let the warbling lute complain.
Pope's St Caecilia.
Lands of singing or of dancing slaves,
Love-whispering woods, and lute-resounding waves.
Lunciad.
LUTE, n.s. & v.a. Fr. lut; Lat. lutum. A com-
position like clay, with which chemists close
their vessels: to close up vessels with luting.
Take a vessel of iron, and let it have a cover of
iron well luted, after the manner of the chemists.
~ Bacon's Natural History.
Iron may be so heated, that, being closely luted in
a glass, it shall constantly retain the fire.
- Wilkins's Mathematical Magick.
Some temper lute, some spacious vessels move,
These furnaces erect, and those approve. Garth.
Glaziers' putty is a very good lute for all the com-
mon purposes of a laboratory.
Parkes's Chemical Catechism.
The LUTE consists of four parts, viz. the table,
the body or belly, which has nine or ten sides;
the neck, which has nine or ten stops or divisions,
marked with strings; and the head or cross,
where the screw for raising and lowering the
strings to a proper pitch of tone are fixed. In
the middle of the table there is a rose or passage
for the sound ; there is also a bridge that the
strings are fastened to, and a piece of ivory be-
tween the head and the neck, to which the other
extremities of the strings are fitted. In playing
the strings are struck with the right hand, and
with the left the stops are pressed.
LUTETIA, or LUTETIA PARISIoRUM, in an-
cient geography, a town of the Parisii, in Gallia
Celtica, situated in an island in the Sequana, or
Seine. It received its name, as some suppose,
from the great quantity of clay (lutum) in its
neighbourhood. Julius Caesar fortified and em-
bellished it, from which circumstance some
authors call it Julii Civitas. Julian the apostate
resided there for some time: it is now Paris.
LUTHER (Martin), one of the most intrepid
and most successful of reformers, was the son
of a German miner, and born at Eisleben in
Saxony, November 10th, 1484. He was edu-
cated at the university of Erfurt, for the legal
profession, but he suddenly imbibed a distaste
for the world, and entered a convent of Augus-
tine friars. He here distinguished himself by his
zeal for the established faith ; and is said to have
declared that he would have brought the first
faggot to burn Erasmus, who had written against
ecclesiastical celibacy, the invocation of saints,
and other of the Romish superstitions. A jour-
ney which he himself, however, made in 1510 to
Rome, as a delegate from the friars of his order,
is said to have convinced him of the prevailing
corruptions of the church; and this appears to
have been increased by his becoming acquainted
with the writings of Huss. In 1512 Luther was
made professor of divinity in the newly established
university of Wittemberg; and he began to propa-
gate his opinions in his public lectures. His per-
sonal character had no slight influence in the
great revolution which he was instrumental in ac:
complishing. Of a bold natural temper, animated
and supported by a primitive faith, he possessed
also an ardent imagination, good eloquence, an
unwearied pen, and a perseverance of disposition
which on all great occasions, set opposition at
defiance. Thus qualified, his lectures procured
him very extensive influence, more especially as
the purity of his life was in entire correspondence
with his instructions, so that many excellent men
were thus strongly pre-disposed to comply with
the changes which he soon after suggested.
While Luther was thus engaged, a Dominican
friar of the name of Tetzel came into the neigh-
bourhood of Wittemberg, publishing indulgen-
cies. There appears to be no just foundation for
the surmise that has been thrown out by some
writers, that he was influenced in this conduct
by a petty jealousy for the credit of his order, the
sale of indulgencies having been in this instance
entrusted to the Dominican friars, of whom Tetzel
was one, rather than to the Augustinians; neither
is there any decided evidence that these latter were
accustomed to have the sale of indulgencies com-
mitted to them. The truth is, that this business
was conducted in the most flagrant and shameful
manner, and Luther had by this time too full an
acquaintance with the Holy Scriptures, not to
perceive the antichristian character and immoral
tendency of these practices. He did not rest
satisfied with preaching against them; he pub-
lished twenty-five theses, expressive of his views
on the subject, stating them as matters of dispu-
tation and enquiry, and inviting the learned to
disprove them either by personal conference or
writing. At first no opponent appeared, but a
host of champions soon arose to defend those
opinions, in favor of which the wealth and power
of the church were united. Tetzel assembled his
monks to aid him in writing against Luther, pub-
licly denounced him as a heretic, and committed
his propositions to the flames; threatening their au-
thor with a like fate. These proceedings, however,
did not serve his cause; the intrepid reformer
only now found himself compelled to enter more
fully into the matters of dispute, and though he as
yet did not suspect the change that was about to be
effected, he was provoked by his adversaries to
discuss net only the subject of indulgencies, but
the sacraments, the distinction between divine
and human laws, the nature of vows, &c. In
addition to this Eckius, in order to expose him to
the full tide of ecclesiastical wrath, brought for-
ward the question of the pope's supremacy. The
people too began to discuss the authority of the
canon law, and even that of the pope himself.
The court of Rome at first despised these new
doctrines, and considered the whole contest as
nothing else than the squabbles of monks. It
was not long, however, before Leo X. was roused
from his lethargy, and Luther was summoned to
appear before him at Rome; but, Frederick the
elector of Saxony interposing in his behalf, the
pope referred the matter to the judgment of car-
dinal Cajetan, then the papal legate at Augsburg.
It was during the conferences that were held at
this place, that Luther wrote to Melancthon in the
following terms, at once illustrative of the true
L U T H E R.
345
motives which actuated him, and the courage with
which he was endowed. “There is nothing new
or remarkable here, unless it be that the whole
city is full of the rumor of my name, and every
one is desirous of seeing this modern Erostratus,
this new incendiary. Persevere manfully in what
you are doing for the right instruction of youth;
for my part I am ready, if such be the will of
God, to suffer any thing for you, and for them.
I would rather die than recant any part of the
truth that I have spoken, or furnish those with an
occasion of disparaging the most useful studies,
who are both the silliest and bitterest enemies of
sound learning. Italy is plunged in the pro-
foundest Egyptian darkness; all are ignorant of
Christ, and the things that are Christ's. Yet
these are the lords and masters of our faith and
morals! Thus the anger of God is evinced in
the accomplishment of that prediction, ‘I will
give children to be their princes, and women shall
rule over them.” Farewell, my dear Philip, and
pray fervently, that the divine displeasure may be
averted.’
The endeavours of Cajetan to reconcile Luther
to the Roman see were unsuccessful; but Miltitz,
who succeeded him in his mission, prevailed on
the reformer to write to the pope in submissive
terms. The violence, however, of the papists
frustated these endeavours, and led Luther to
proceed in the investigation of truth, and to re-
double his efforts in its propagation. At this
time he seems not to have entertained a doubt
of the authority of the pope; but the haughty
conduct of Cajetan, and the arrogant requisition
that Luther should retract what he had uttered
against indulgencies, made the friends of the
latter very fearful about his safety; they therefore
prevailed on him suddenly to withdraw from
Augsburg to Wittemberg. Before his departure
he appealed from the pope ill informed at that
time concerning his cause, to the pope when he
should be better informed : and soon after from
the pope himself to a general council. Incensed
at Luther's departure, and at the appeal which he
had published, Cajetan called upon the elector
to send him prisoner to Rome, or to drive him
from his dominions; but Frederick declined sub-
mitting to this injunction, and openly testified
his concern for the safety of the reformer. Leo
in the mean time fulminated his anathemas,
against all who should teach any doctrines oppo-
site to the virtue of indulgencies, and the refor-
mer might have fallen a victim to the rage of his
enemies, had not the death of the emperor Maxi-
milian turned off their attention to a subject of
much greater importance at present, the election
of his successor. During the discussions and
negociations which took place on this occasion,
Luther had so many opportunities of observing
the corrupt state of the Romish court, that he
soon began to suggest doubts of the divine origin
of the pope's authority, and of the very foundations
of the wealth and power of the clergy. It was
then that Leo, perceiving there was no longer any
hope of reclaiming so incorrigible a heretic, pro-
ceeded with the assistance of his cardinals to
prepare the sentence of excommunication against
him, which was published on the 15th of June,
1520. Forty-one propositions, taken from our
reformer's works, were condemned as heretical,
scandalous, and offensive to pious ears; all per-
sons whatsoever were prohibited from reading
his writings under the penalty of excommunica-
tion, and ordered, if they possessed any of them,
to commit them to the flames; he himself was
called upon publicly to retract his errors within
sixty days, and burn his books, or be pronounced
contumacious, excommunicated, and delivered to
Satan: while all secular princes were required to
seize his person, that he might be punished as he
deserved. Luther, nothing daunted by this sen-
tence, appealed again to a general council, de-
nounced the pope as antichrist, declaimed against
his tyranny more vehemently than ever, and,
having called together all the professors and stu-
dents of Wittemberg, he, in the presence of a
great multitude of spectators, threw the books of
the canon law, with the bull of excommunication,
into the flames ; extracting at the same time from
the canon law those parts in which the pope's
power was set forth in the most extravagant
terms, and publishing them with remarks to
point out the wickedness of such doctrines, and
their manifest tendency to the subversion of
civil government. - d
The situation of our reformer soon became
very critical; Charles V., the new emperor, de-
sirous of securing the pope's favor, was disposed
to treat him with great severity; he therefore was
ready to yield to the wishes of the papal legates
in Germany, who urged the immediate condem-
nation of Luther by the diet then sitting at
Worms. The diet, however, considering so
abrupt a measure as altogether unjust and with-
out precedent, insisted that he should make his
appearance in person, and declare his adherence
to, or rejection of, those sentiments which had
brought upon him the displeasure of the church.
The emperor and all the princes through whose
territories he had to pass promised him a safe
conduct; and though his friends, anxious for his
safety, would have persuaded him not to adven-
ture himself into such an assembly, Luther per-
sisted in his determination to go, declaring with
his characteristic boldness, that he would go in
the name of the Lord, though there should be as
many devils in Worms, as there were tiles on the
houses. At Worms the reception he met with
was most flattering; multitudes crowded to see
him, he was daily visited by princes and persons
of high rank, and no man, however elevated his
station, could be held in greater consideration.
On appearing before the diet, he candidly ad-
mitted that he had been too acrimonious in his
publications, refusing at the same time to re-
nounce his opinions, unless he should be con-
vinced of their falsehood by an appeal to the
word of God. Some of the clergy proposed to
deal with him in the same manner as the coun-
cil of Constance had done with Huss and Je-
rome ; but the diet would not consent to so base
an act, after the promise of safe conduct which
they had given him; Luther therefore departed
in safety. He had not long left the city before a
decree was issued in the name of Charles and
the authority of the diet, pronouncing him an
obstinate heretic, depriving him of all his rights
as a subject, and calling upon every one to seize
346
L U T H E R.
him, as soon as the term of his protection should
expire. In this extremity, the kindness ahd ad-
dress of his friend, the elector of Saxony, sug-
gested a prudent stratagein for the preservation
of Luther. As he was returning from the diet,
near Altenstrain in Thuringia, a body of horse-
men in masks suddenly rushed out of a wood,
where they had been lying in .# surrounded
him, and after dismissing his attendants, carried
him to the strong castle of Wortburg, or Warten-
burg, not far distant. Here he continued for
nine months, being supplied by the elector's
order with every thing he needed, or which
might be agreeable to him; and the place of his
retreat being carefully concealed. During this
time he once secretly visited Wittemberg, being
urged to this step by some evils which were
beginning to discover themselves among his
friends, especially the conduct of Carlostadt.
This reformer held some important truths, in
which he differed from Luther, particularly with
regard to the sacrament, on which point the Lu-
therans symbolised greatly with the papists; but
he was too violent in his measures to promote the
cause of the reformation, and appears chargeable
with no small degree of envy at Luther's grow-
ing popularity. The latter could not restrain his
impatience at these circumstances, and hastened
therefore on the 3d of March, 1522, to Wittem-
berg. In his solitude at Wartenburg, which he
called his Patmos, he was engaged in writing
several treatises to confute his adversaries, and
revive the spirit of his followers, whom the
sudden disappearance of their leader had contri-
buted greatly to discourage. He also at the same
time made preparations for the greatest and most
useful work he had yet attempted, the translation
of the Holy Scriptures into the German lan-
guage. With a view to this important labor, he had
during the preceding summer applied himself
assiduously to the study of the Greek and He-
brew tongues. Several versions had appeared
previously to this, particularly at Nuremberg, in the
yeays 1477, 1483, 1490, and in 1518 at Augsburg,
but they were so badly executed that they were
not permitted to be read. Luther first published
the gospels of Matthew and Mark; these were
followed by the epistle to the Romans; the other
books succeeded, until about the month of Sep-
tember 1522 the whole New Testament was put
into circulation. He next proceeded to the
translation of the Old Testament, on which he
and his coadjutors bestowed incredible pains,
and one book after another was published, until
the whole of this laborious work was completed
in the year 1530. His principal fellow laborers
in this great undertaking were Melancthon, Cas-
par Cruciger, Justus Jonas, John Bugenhagius
or Pomeranus, Matthew Auregallus; and the
corrector of the press, George Rorarius.
In the year 1521 Luther was called to enter
the lists against no less an opponent than Henry
VIII., king of England. This monarch then in-
flamed with violent zeal for the doctrines of the
Church of Rome, and for showing his own skill
in theological polemics, wrote a treatise Of the
Seven Sacraments,"in answer to Luther's work,
entitled Of the Captivity of Babylon. He pre-
sented his book to Leo, who was so well pleased
with it, that he conferred on its author the title
of Defender of the Făith. Luther answered him
with considerable severity, treating him and his
work with great contempt. Our reformer now
declared open war with the pope and the clergy;
and published attacks upon the pope's bull,
and against the order of the bishops. He wrote
also a letter to the assembly of the Bohemian
states, exhorting them to continue stedfast, and
not to return to the Romish communion. Ferdi-
nand archduke of Austria, and some other princes,
having issued severe edicts against all who should
read his translation of the New Testament, he
published a treatise, Of the Secular Power, in
which he designated them as tyrants and impidus
persons. At the diet, which was this year held
at Nuremburg, Adrian VI, who had succeeded
Leo, sent his brief, in which he inveighs most
bitterly against Luther for still continuing to
teach and publish his heretical doctrines; de-
clares, that he thinks it very strange that a na-
tion so religiously disposed should be seduced by
a wretched apostate friar, and calls upon the diet
to compel him and his adherents to return to
their duty, or if they remained obstimate, to treat
them according to the laws of the empire, and
the edict of the diet of Worms. Another hostile
edict was published on the 6th of March 1523;
but it availed little in checking Lutheranism,
which still triumphed on every side. Luther
wrote many pieces this year, among which may
be particularly mentioned one on the Dignity
and Office of the Supreme Magistrate, with which
the elector of Saxony is said to have been much
pleased. About this time also he wrote a letter
to the Waldenses, or Pickards of Bohemia and
Moravia, who had requested his opinion “about
worshipping the body of Christ in the eucharist.
He also addressed to the senate and people of
Prague a work on the Institution of Ministers
of the church; drew up a form of saying mass,
and published a satirical work, entitled an Ex-
ample of Popish Doctrine and Divinity, directed
against monastic vows and those who professed
them. In consequence of another piece, which
he wrote against the vows of virginity, in the
preface to his commentary on 1 Cor. viii., nine
nuns, one of whom was Catharine de Bore, left
the nunnery at Nimptschen, and aided by Leo-
nard Coppen, a citizen of Torgau, came to Wit-
temberg. Luther wrote a book in the German
language, in which he highly commended this
act, and compares the déliverance of these nuns
to that of the souls which Jesus Christ has de-
livered by his death. This year two of his follow-
ers were burned at Brussels in the month of July,
being the first that suffered martyrdom for the
reformed doctrine. On this subject Luther wrote
a treatise; he also sent a letter of consolation to
re
three noble ladies, who on account of reading his
books had suffered banishment from the duke of
Saxony's court.
In the year 1524 our reformer published Re-
marks on the Canonisation of Benno, bishop of
Meissèn, in the time of Gregory VII. : the work
was entitled, Against the New Idol and Old
Devil set up at Meissen. This year also the dis-
pute on the freedom of the will commenced be-
tween him and Erasmus. The bold, uncompro-
L U T H E R.
347
mising spirit of the reformer could ill brook the
timid and trimming policy of Erasmus, who, al-
though he discovers in some of his writings, his
contempt of the priests, had not sufficient courage
to take part with the friends of truth, and too fre-
quently lent himself to subserve the designs of
their enemies. Urged by the papists to write
against Luther; and desirous to free himself from the
suspicion of heresy, he produced what he called
a diatribe or conference about free will. Luther
replied to him in rather severe terms, entitling
his book a Treatise of the Servitude of Man's
Will, which produced a rejoinder from Erasmus,
entitled Hypersapistes. About the end of this
year Luther threw off the habit and obligations
of a monk, and thus prepared the way for his
marriage, which took place a few months after-
wards. In the mean time he lost two of his
friends, whom he much valued, Nesenus, who
was suddenly drowned in the Elbe, and Henry
von Gutphen, who was called to suffer martyr-
dom for the truth, and perished by the rage of
the clergy as he was returning from Holstein,
whither he had gone to preach the reformed doc-
trines. On the 5th of May, 1525, he was called
to mourn over a still greater loss in the death of
Frederick, the elector of Saxony, who finished
his course with that peaceful serenity which was
highly creditable to his new faith. As this wor-
thy prince, however, was succeeded by his bro-
ther John, an equally warm friend to the reformed
religion, but more bold and decided in its sup-
port, Luther met with no opposition, but was
rather encouraged in all his plans; so that a new
order of worship and administration of the Sacra-
ments, in the German tongue, was approved by
him and introduced gradually into the Saxon
churches. Of Luther's marriage, which took
place on the 13th of June in the same year,
many of his friends disapproved : some consider-
ing it at least untimely, as the death of the
elector was yet recent, and as Germany was at
this time involved in all the miseries of war.
Luther, however, boldly defended himself; ‘I
took a wife,' says he, ‘in obedience to my father's
commands, and hastened the consummation, to
prevent impediments and stop the tongues of
slanderers.’ He also stated (and this was suffi-
ciently probable) that he did it to further his grand
design of opposing the popish corruptions. He was
very happy in this union. His activity, however,
did not at all abate; he was still as zealously
as ever employed in the great cause he had un-
dertaken; and held a conference at this period
with Zuinglius and the Swiss divines on the sub-
ject of the sacramental controversy. Both par-
ties, perhaps, too stiffly contended for their par-
ticular views; but it is to their honor, that each
retired from their discussion, manifesting Christian
affection for their brethren, and imploring the
divine blessing upon them.
The year 1530 was rendered remarkable by the
assembling of the diet of Augsburg, to which the
reformers presented their confession of faith and
practice, well known by the name of the Augs-
burg Confession (see the articles PROTESTANT
and REForMATION). Though it was not deemed
prudent that Luther, who had been proscribed
by the edict of Worms, should make his appear-
ance āt Augsbürg; yet he was in waiting at
Coburg, in Fraňconia, for the purpose of consul-
tation, if necessary, and he revised the copy of
the Confession, which had been previously drawn
up by Melancthon. During the discussion that
ensued, and particularly after the distressful con-
clusion of the conference and the severe decrée of
the diet, his counsel was of essential benefit to
his brethrén. The cause of the Reformation had
now taken so deep a root that the united efforts
of the pope and the emperor were unable to stop
its progress, and Luther had comparatively little
to do, but to contemplate the great work he had
been the instrument in effecting; to exhort and
advise the princes, and states, that had adopted
his doctrines; and to publish such works as might
be necessary for the confutation of his enemies
and the encouragement of his friends. His un-
daunted spirit disregarded alike the threats of the
emperor and the bulls and anathemas of the pope;
although Melancthon and others were at times
very much shaken by these things. In 1533 we
find him employed in penning a letter of conso-
lation to the citizens of Oschatz, who had suffered
much for their adherence to the Augsburg con-
fession; and nearly at the same period he en-
gaged in a controversy with George, duke of
Saxony, so bitter an enemy to his doctrines, that
he had even compelled his subjects to swear they
would never embrace them. Notwithstanding this
sixty or seventy of the citizens of Leipsic, having
conferred, with Luther on some point of difficulty,
ventured to desert the Catholic system; on which
the duke bitterly complained to the elector John.
: In 1534 he began to print his version of the
, , ,
Bible in the German language, under the sanction
of the elector. It was published early in the
next year; about which time he also wrote a
piece against masses and the consecration of
priests, in which he mentions a conference, he
supposes he had with the devil on these subjects.
In February 1537 he was called to attend a meet-
ing of the confederated protestant princes at
Smalkald, but was unable to go in consequence
of a serious indisposition, with which he was
seized. It was a severe attack of the stone, riot-
withstanding which, he would set out on his
journey. As he was carried along, he made his
will, leaving to his friends his hatred of popery,
agreeably to a saying he often used, Pestis eram
vivus, moriens ero mors tua, papa. He, however,
began to amend the very first night after he set out,
and soon afterwards recovered. Pope Pius III.,
being now sensible that the Protestants could
not be compelled to retract their opinions, began
to advise a reform of the church and clergy; and
even talked of calling a council for the pur-
pose. This Luther ridiculed in a frontispiece to
one of his works, representing the pope on a
throne, with his cardinals around him; hāving
foxes tails, and, as Melchior Adam expresses it,
seeming Sursum et deorsum repurgare. About
the same period he published a Confutation of
the pretended grant of Constântine to Sylvester,
bishop of Rome: and some of John Huss's letters
to the Bohemians, written from the prison of
Constance. In 1540 he paid a visit to Melanc-
thon, who had been taken very ill on his way to
the diet of Haguenaw, and lay at Vinaria in a
348
L U T H E R.
state of extreme weakness and dejection; his
counsels and prayers on this occasion were of
great service to his friend, who was soon after
restored to him.
But the departure of our great reformer him-
self was now hastening. It occurred in the
year 1546, just at the time, when, owing to the
persecuting measures which were then beginning
to be concerted, his presence was apparently
most necessary to the Reformation. In the lat-
ter part of the former year he paid a visit to his
native country, in company with Melancthon;
and, soon after his return, was summoned thither
again, at the earnest request of the earls of
Mansfeldt, to adjust some differences that had
arisen about the limits of their territories. Hav-
ing, therefore, preached for the last time at Wit-
temberg on the 17th of January, he left it
on the 23d, and staid three days at Halle in
Saxony with Justus Jonas. Passing the river
on the 28th, accompanied by his three sons
and his friend Dr. Jonas, they were in some
danger; on which he said rather facetiously
to the doctor, “Do not you think it would
rejoice the devil exceedingly, if I and you,
and my three sons should be drowned?” On
entering the territory of Mansfeldt he was
received very honorably, and attended by more
than 100 horsemen, but was now so extremely
ill that it was apprehended he would die on the
road. Repeated attacks of the stone had gradu-
ally, undermined his constitution, and he ex-
pired early in the morning of the 18th of
February at Eisleben, his native place. His
body was put into a leaden coffin, and carried
with great pomp to the church, where his friend
Dr. Jonas preached. It was the wish. of the
earls of Mansfeldt that his remains should be
buried in their dominions; but, as the elector of
Saxony insisted on their being removed to Wit-
temberg, he was removed and interred there
with the highest honors that had ever been paid
to a private individual; princes, nobles, and
students, attending the procession, and Melanc-
thon delivering his funeral oration. Number-
less lies were propagated by the papists about
his death; some even asserting that the devil
strangled him. After his decease his works were
published at Wittemberg in 7 vols. folio. He
had three sons by his wife Catherine de Bore,
who survived him several years.
J.UTHERANISM, the sentiments of Martin
Luther. This system has undergone some alter-
ations since the time of its founder. Luther at
one time rejected the epistle of St. James, think-
ing it inconsistent with the doctrine of St. Paul,
in relation to justification; he had also doubts
about the Apocalypse: both of these books are
now received as canonical in the Lutheran
church. He reduced the number of sacra-
ments to two, viz. baptism and the eucharist:
but he believed the impanation, or consubstan-
tiation, that is, that the matter of the bread
and wine remains in conjunction with the body
and blood of Christ; and in this article the
main difference between the Lutheran and Eng-
lish churches consists. Luther maintained, how-
ever, the mass to be no sacrifice; exploded the
adoration of the host, auricular confession, meri-
torious works, indulgencies, purgatory, the wor-
ship of images, and other errors, which had crept
in during the corrupt times of the Romish.
church. He also opposed the doctrine of free.
will, maintained predestination, and asserted
that justification is solely by the imputation
of the merits and satisfaction of Christ. He
likewise opposed the Romish fasts, monastic
vows, the celibacy of the clergy, &c.
LUTHER ANS, the Christians who follow the
opinions of Martin Luther. See LUTHER. The
Lutherans differ least of all Protestants from the
Romish church; as they affirm that the body
and blood of Christ are materially present in the
Sacrament of the Lord's Supper, though in an
incomprehensible manner; they likewise repre-
sent some religious rites and institutions, as the
use of images in churches, the distinguishing
vestments of the clergy, the private confession of
sins, the use of wafers in the administration of
the Lord's supper, the form of exorcism in the
celebration of baptism, and other ceremonies of
the like mature, as tolerable, and some of them
even useful. With regard to the divine decrees
they maintain that they respect the salvation or
misery of men, in consequence of a previous
knowledge of their sentiments and characters,
and are not free and unconditional, or founded
on the mere will of God. Towards the close of
the seventeenth century the Lutherans began to
entertain a greater liberality of sentiment than
they had before adopted; though in many
places they persevered longer in severe and des-
potic principles than other Protestant churches.
Their public teachers now enjoy an unbounded
liberty of dissenting from the decisions of those
creeds which were once deemed almost infalli-
ble rules of faith and practice, and of declaring
their dissent in the manner they judge most ex-
pedient: and too many of them it is to be feared
have abused this liberty into absolute latitudi-
marianism in doctrine. Mosheim attributes this
change in their sentiments to the maxim which
they generally adopted, that Christians are ac-
countable to God alone for their religious
opinions; and that no individual can be justly
punished by the magistrate for his erroneous
opinions, while he conducts himself like a vir-
tuous and obedient subject, and makes no
attempt to disturb the peace and order of civil
society. Protestantism on the continent has
certainly declined considerably from the stand-
ard of the Reformation. See PROTESTANTISM.
LUTHERN, in architecture, a kind of win-
dow over the cornice, in the roof of a building;
standing perpendicularly over the naked of a wall,
and serving to illuminate the upper story. Lu-
therns are of various forms; as square, semicir-
cular, round, called bull's eyes, flat arches, &c.
LUTTERWORTH, a market town of Leices-
tershire, seated on the Swift, with a handsome
church, and lofty steeple, containing above 1600
inhabitants. The whole church was repaired in
1740, and the interior made new, except the
pulpit, which is preserved with great veneration,
in memory of the reformer Wickliff, who was
rector of this place, and died suddenly in 1387,
whilst hearing mass. The chair in which he
expired is also preserved with great care : his
LUX .349 LUX
body was buried in the church, but afterwards
taken up and burned. It has a market on Mon-
day, and is fourteen miles south of Leicester,
and eighty-eight N. N.W. of London.
LUTTI (Benedict), an eminent painter, born
at Florence in 1666. He was the disciple of
Antonio Dominico Gabiani, and was judged
equal to his master; he painted easel pieces,
and his works were much valued in England,
France, and Germany. The emperor knighted
him; and the elector of Mentz sent him a cross
set with diamonds. Lutti was never satisfied
with finishing his pictures; yet, though he often
retouched them, they never appeared labored.
He died in 1724.
LUX, or Fr. lurer; Lat. luzo. To
LUX'ATE, v. a. }: out of joint; to dis-
LUXA'TION, n. s.) joint.
If it be such pain to die, what is it to be ever dy-
ing? and, if the straining and luaation of one joint
can so afflict us, what shall the racking of the whole
body, and the torturing of the soul, whose animation
alone makes the body to feel and complain of smart.
Bp. Hall.
Descending careless from his couch, the fall
Luted his joint neck, and spinal marrow bruised.
Philips.
Consider well the luxated joint, which way it
slipped out; it requireth to be returned in the same
Iſla Il IlêT. Wiseman.
The undue situation or connexion of parts, in
fractures and luxations, is to be rectified by chirurgi-
cal means. Floyer.
LUXE, n. s. Fr. lure; Lat. lurus,
LUXU'RIANCE, n.s. loosed. Voluptuousness:
LUXU'RIANCY, luxuriance, luxuriancy,
LUXURIANT, adj. U.exuberance of growth:
LUXURIATE, v.in. ſluxuriant, exuberant; su-
LUXU’ RioUS, adj. perfluous in growth: to
LUXU’RioUSLY, adv. luxuriate is to grow or
LUX’URY, n.s. J shoot forth in this man-
ner: luxurious is either administering or addicted
to voluptuous pleasure: luxury, pleasure; de-
licious or luscious fare; lewdness.
Urge his hateful luwury,
His beastly appetite in change of lust,
Which stretched unto their servants, daughters,
*
p
w
z
wives. Shakspeare.
She knows the heat of a luxurious bed:
Her blush is guiltiness, not modesty. Id.
t Hotter hours you have
Lururiously picked out. Id.
Young trees of several kinds set contiguous in a
fruitful ground, with the luxury of the trees will in-
corporate. Bacon.
A fluent and luxurious speech becomes youth well,
but not age. Id. Essays.
Envy is a weed that grows in all soils and cli-
mates, and is no less luxuriant in the country than
in the court. Clarendon.
Egypt with Assyria strove
In wealth and luxury. Milton.
Till more hands
Aid us, the work under our labour grows
Luxurious by restraint. Id. Paradise Lost.
Luzurious cities, where the noise
Of riot ascends above their loftiest towers.
t Milton.
The mantling vine gently creeps luxuriant. Id.
Than in England, there is no where more true
zeal in the many forms of devotion, and yet no
where more knavery under the shows and pretences,"
no where more abandoned libertines; more refined
luſtwrists. Sir W. Temple.
If the fancy of Ovid be luxuriant, it is his charac-
ter to be so. Dryden’s Preface to Ovid's Epistles.
Repel the Tuscan foes, their cities seize,
Protect the Latians in luxurious ease. Dryden.
Where mice and rats devoured poetick bread,
And with heroick verse luxuriously were fed. Id.
Flowers grow up in the garden in the greatest
luxuriancy and profusion. i Spectator.
He cut theside of the rock for a garden, and, by lay-
ing on it earth, furnished out a kind of luxury for a
hermit. Addison.
The power of wealth I tried,
And all the various lure of costly pride.
Prior.
A fungus prevents healing only by its luxuriancy.
Wiseman.
Prune the luxuriant, the uncouth refine,
But show no mercy to an empty line. Pope.
What a lururious man in poverty would want for
horses and footmen, a good-natured man wants for
his friend or the poor. Id.
While through the parting robe the alternate
breast
In full luxuriance rose. Thomson’s Summer.
You cannot spend money in luaury without doing
good to the poor. Nay, you do more good to them
by spending it in luxury—you make them exert in-
dustry, whereas, by giving it, you keep them idle.
Johnson.
The soft luxuriance of his fancy was already
shooting, and all the gay varieties of diction were
ready at his hand to colour and embellish it. Id.
The time, unheeded, sped away,
While love's luxurious pulse beat high,
Beneath thy silver-gleaming ray,
To mark the mutual-kindling eye. Burns.
Althaea with the purple eye ; the broom,
Yellow and bright, as bullion unalloyed,
Her blossoms; and luxuriant above all
The jasmine, throwing wide her elegant sweets.
- * Cowper.
Nor is the ‘luaury of woe,’ that we read of in
poetry, a mere figure of speech; but a real sensation,
wherewith every person of humanity is acquainted
by frequent experience. - Beattie.
Nor dint of hoof, nor print of foot,
Lay in the wild luxuriant soil;
No sign of travail—none of toil;
The very air was mute. Byron.
LUXEMBOURG (Francis Henry de Mont-
morenci), duke of, and marshal of France, a
renowned general in the service of Louis XIV.
was born in 1628. He was the prince of Condé
at the battle of Rocroy, in 1643; and in 1668
distinguished himself at the conquest of Franche
Compté. In 1672 he commanded in chief the
French army in Holland; when he defeated the
enemy near Woerden and Bodegrave, and was
universally admired for the noble retreat he made
in 1673. He became marshal of France in 1675;
gained the battle of Fleurus in 1690, that of
Steenkirk in 1692, and that of Nerwind in 1693.
His uniform success, when contending with king
William III., rendered him an object of jealousy
to that prince, and in the bitterness of his heart
he one day called him ‘a little hump back.’
This being reported to the marshal he coolly
said, “And how can he know anything of my
back, I am sure he never saw it?' He died at
*Versailles in 1695.
º
-.
LUX 350 LUY
LUXEMBURG, a considerable province of
the south-east part of the Netherlands, enclosed
by the Prussian states on the Rhine, a part of
the French frontier, and the Belgic provinces of
Namur and Liege. It has a territorial extent of
2400 square miles; and contains 226,000 inhabi-
tants, composed of Germans, French, and Wal-
loons, the major part professing the Catholic
religion. The face of the country is mountainous
and woody, being traversed by several branches
of the Ardennes. It is watered by the Moselle,
the Sure, the Semoys, the Else, and the Our.
Its climate is cold; and corn is not raised suffici-
ent for the consumption; but potatoes and flax
are raised in large quantities, and wine on the
borders of the Moselle. Cattle forms an im-
portant object of industry; but greater sources
of traffic are found in its forests, which occupy
466,000 acres. The only mineral product is
iron. The few manufactures are of woollen,
leather, and iron; and its exports are to a small
extent in wood, of wool, cattle, tallow, and
leather. By the congress of Vienna Luxemburg
was erected into a grand duchy, and ceded, as a
compensation for territory, to the king of the
Netherlands, who takes the title of grand duke.
It is divided into three districts, viz. Luxemburg,
87,000 inhabitants; Dietkirch, 47,000; and
Neufchateau 92,000.
LUXEMBURG, the capital of the grand duchy
of this name, is situated on the river Alsetz, or
Elsetz, not far from the French frontier. It is
reckoned one of the strongest places in Europe,
and is divided into the Upper and Lower Town.
The former is built in the form of a heptagon,
and stands chiefly on a steep rock, out of which
the fortifications are excavated. The latter is
situated in a deep valley, separated from the
Upper Town by the river. The chief public
building is the governor's castle; but both the
town and the environs are of interest to the an-
tiquary, from the various Roman antiquities.
The manufactures are woollen cloth, stockings,
and fine earthenware, and hardware.
Luxemburg is said to have had originally
a castle, built by its early inhabitants, and en-
larged by the Romans. The town was gradually
formed under its protection. In 1684 it fell into
the hands of the French, who enlarged its forti-
fications, but restored it to Germany at the peace
of Ryswick. In the summer of 1794 it was
besieged by the armies of France, and capitu-
lated on the 17th of June following. It was
finally lost by France in 1814. The population
is about 10,000: 130 miles south-east of Brus-
sels, and 220 south-east by south of the Hague.
LUXEMBURG, FRENCH, a ci-devant province of
France, comprehending part of the ancient
duchy, ceded to France in 1659, by the peace of
the Pyrenees, and including the districts and
towns of Thionville, Montmedy, Marville, Che-
yancy, Carignan, and Damyilliers. It now
forms the department of the Moselle.
LUXURIANS FLOs, a luxuriant or double
flower, a flower some of whose parts are increased
In number, to the diminution or entire exclusion
of others. The parts that are augmented or
multiplied, in luxuriant flowers, are the flower-
cup and petals; the parts that are diminished,
or entirely excluded, are the stamina or chives.
See Botany. Many natural orders of plants do
not in any circumstances produce luxuriant
flowers. Of this kind are the masqued flowers
of Tournefort, excepting calf's-snout; the
rough-leaved, umbelliferous, starry plants, and
such as flower at the joints, of Ray; some um-
belliferous flowers, however, are prolific. The
pea bloom, or butterfly-shaped flowers, are
rarely rendered double; some instances, how-
ever, of luxuriance, are observed in a species of
lady's-finger, coronilla and broom. All luxu-
riant flowers are vegetable monsters. Such as
are perfectly full cannot be propagated by seeds;
because these, for want of impregnation, can
never ripen. Full flowers, therefore, are deno-
minated by Linnaeus eunuchs. The highest degree
of luxuriance is very common in carnation,
lychnis, anemone, stock, Indian cress, rose,
marsh marigold, ranunculus, violet, poeony, and
narcissus. Flowers which do not exclude all
the stamina perfect their seeds. Of this kind
are poppy, fennel-flower, campanula, and some
others. Some flowers, as those of the water-
lily, fig-marigold, and cactus, have, many rows
or series of petals, without the number of sta-
mina being in the least diminished. Such
flowers are by no means to be reckoned luxu-
I’lant. d
LUXURY may be defined an extravagant
indulgence in diet, dress, and equipage. It
among the Romans prevailed to such a degree,
that several laws were made to limit it. The
extravagance of the table began about the time
of the battle of Actium, and continued in great
excess till the reign of Galba. Peacocks,
cranes of Malta, nightingales, venison, wild and
tame fowl, were the principal delicacies. A
profusion of provisions was the reigning taste.
Whole wild boars were often served up, and
filled with various small animals, and birds of
different kinds: this dish they called the Trojan
horse, in allusion to the wooden horse filled with
soldiers. Fowls and game of all sorts were
served up in whole pyramids, piled up in dishes
as broad as moderate tables. Lucullus had a
particular name for each apartment; and, in
whatever room he ordered his servants to prepare
the entertainment, they knew by the direction
the expense to which they were to go. When
he supped in the Apollo, the expense was fixed
at 50,000 drachmae, that is £1250. M. Antony
provided eight boars for twelve guests. Vitel-
lius had a large silver platter, said to have cost
1,000,000 of sesterces, called Minerva's buckler.
In this he blended together the livers of gilt-
heads, the brains of pheasants and peacocks, the
tongues of phenicopters, and the milts of lam-
preys. Caligula served up to his guests pearls
of great value dissolved in vinegar; the same
was done also by Clodius, the son of Æsop the
tragedian. Apicius laid aside 90,000,000 of
sesterces, besides a mighty revenue, for no other
purpose but to be sacrificed to luxury. The
Roman laws to restrain luxury were Lex Orchia,
Fannia, Didia, Licinia, Cornelia, and many
others: but these were ineffectual; for, as riches
increased among them, so did sensuality.
LUYA AND CHILLAos, a province of Peru
LYC
LYC
351
bounded north and north-west by the province of
Jaen, the river Amazons running between them,
east by the mountains, and south-east by Caxa-
marca. It is eighteen leagues long, and about
eight broad, containing 3500 inhabitants. The
capital is of the same name, in long. 77° 41' W.,
lat. 5° 33' S. -
LYCHEUM, Avkstov, in antiquity, a celebrated
school or academy at Athens, where. Aristotle
explained his philosophy. The place was com-
posed of porticos, and trees planted in the
quincunx form, where the philosophers disputed
walking. , Hence ‘philosophy of the Lycaeum' is
used to signify the philosophy of Aristotle, or
the Peripatetic philosophy. " Suidas, obseryes
that the Lycaeum took its name from its having
been originally a temple of Apollo Lycaeus; or
rather a portico or gallery built by Lycaeus the
son of Apollo; but others mention it to have
been built by Pisistratus or Pericles.
LYCAEUS, in ancient geography, a mountain
of Arcadia, sacred to Jupiter; whence Jupiter
Lycaeus (Pliny): 'sacred also to Pan (Virgil):
and hence Lycaea, the rites performed to Pan on
this mountain; which, Evander carrying with
him to Latium, were called Lupercalia (Virgil).
LYCANTHROPY, m. s. Fr. lycanthropie;
Gr. Aukoc, the wolf, and &v0patroc. A kind of
madness in which men have the qualities of
wild beasts.
He sees like a man in his sleep, and grows as much
the wiser as the man that dreamt of a lycanthropy,
and was for ever after wary not to come near a river.
- Taylor.
LYCAON I., in fabulous history, the first king
of Arcadia, son of Pelasgus and Meliboea. He
built a town called Lycosura, on the top of
Mount Lycaeus, in honor of Jupiter. He had
many wives, by whom he had fifty sons and a
daughter called Callisto. He was succeeded by
Nyctimus, his eldest son. He lived about
A. A. C. 1820. -
LYCAON II., king of Arcadia, noted for his
cruelties. He was changed into a wolf by Ju-
piter, because he offered human victims on the
altar of Pan. Some attribute this metamor-
phosis to another cause. The sins of mankind,
as they relate, were become so enormous, that
Jupiter visited the earth to punish wickedness
and impiety. He came to Arcadia, where he
was announced as a god, and the people began
to pay proper adoration to his divinity. Lycaon,
however, who used to sacrifice all strangers to
his wanton cruelty, laughed at the pious prayers
of his subjects; and, to try the divinity of the
god, he served up human flesh on his table.
This impiety so irritated Jupiter that he imme-
diately destroyed the house of Lycaon, and
changed him into a wolf. . . . .
LYCAONIA, in ancient geography, a small
country of the Hither Asia, bounded by Pam-
phylia on the south, Cappadocia on the north,
Pisidia and Phrygia on the west, and Armenia
Minor on the east. This country, though si-
tuated very near mount Taurus, and part of it
on it, yet the Romans reckoned it in Asia intra
Taurum. * - +--- * 4.
LYCHNIS, in botany, the campion, bache-
lor's-button, catch-fly, &c.; a genus of the pen-
tagynia order, and pentandria class of plants;
natural order twenty-second, caryophyllege : CAL.
monophyllous, oblong, and smooth; there are
five unguiculated petals; with the segments of
the limb almost bifid: CAPs, quinquelocular.
1. L. Châlcedonica, the Chalcedonian scarlet
lychnis, has a fibrated perennial root; upright,
straight, hairy, annual stalks, rising three or four
feet high; garnished with long, spear-pointed,
close-sitting leaves, by pairs opposite; and the
stalk crowned by a large, compact, flat bunch of
beautiful scarlet or flame-colored flowers, ap-
pearing in June or July. Of this there are va-
rieties, with single scarlet flowers, with large
double scarlet flowers, of great beauty and ele-
gance, with pale red flowers, and with white
flowers. Of these varieties, the double scarlet
lychnis is superior to all for size and elegance;
the flowers being large, very double, and con-
nected into a very large bunch, exhibit a charm-
ing appearance; the single scarlet kind is also
very pretty; and the others effect an agreeable
variety with the scarlet kinds. -
2. L. dioecia, the dioecious lychnis, commonly
called bachelor's-button, has fibrated perennial
roots; upright stalks, branching very diffuse and
irregularly, two or three feet high ; having oval,
acute-pointed, rough leaves, by pairs opposite;
and all the branches terminated by clusters of
dioecious flowers of different colors and proper-
ties in the varieties: flowering in April and
May. The varieties are the common single red-
flowered bachelor's button, double red, double
white, and single white flowered. The double
varieties are exceedingly ornamental; the flowers
large, very thick, and continuing long in blow;
the single red sort grows wild by ditch sides
and other moist places in many parts of Eng-
land; from which the doubles were accidentally
obtained by cultures in gardens. The flowers
are often dioecious, i.e. male and female in dis-
tinct plants.
3. L. flos cuculi, the cuckoo-flower lychnis,
has fibry perennial roots; upright, branchless,
channelled stalks, nearly two feet high; garnished
with long, narrow, spear-shaped leaves, in pairs
opposite; and terminated by branchy foot-stalks,
sustaining many purple, deeply quadrifid
flowers: appearing in May. The flowers having
each petal deeply quadrifid in a torn or ragged
like manner, the plant obtained the cant name
of Ragged Robin. There are varieties with
single and double flowers. The double sort is a
large, very multiple, fair flower; it is an im-
proved variety of the single, which grows wild
in most of our moist meadows, and is rarely
cultivated; but the double, being ornamental,
merits culture in every garden. ... "
4. L. viscaria, the viscous German lychnis,
commonly called catch-fly, has fibry perennial
roots; crowned by a tuft of long grassy leaves
close to the ground; many erect, straight, single
stalks, rising a foot and a half or two feet high, ex-
uding from their upper part a viscous or clammy
matter; garnished' with long narrow leaves, by
pairs opposite; and terminated by many reddish-
purple flowers, in clusters one above another,
forming a sort of long loose spike; all the flowers
with entire petals; flowering in May. There

LYC
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352
y-r-----
are varieties with single red flowers, with double
red flowers, and with white flowers. The double
variety is considerably the most eligible for ge-
neral culture, and is propagated in plenty by
parting the roots. All the varieties of this spe-
cies emitting a glutinous liquid matter from their
stalks, flies happening to light thereon some-
times stick and entangle themselves, whence the
name catch-fly. All the four species and re-
spective varieties are very hardy; all fibrous-
rooted; the roots perennial; but are annual in
stalks, which rise in spring, flower in summer,
succeeded in the singles by plenty of seed in
autumn, by which all the single varieties may be
raised in abundance, but the doubles only by
dividing the roots, and some by cuttings of the
flower-stalks. - t
LYCIA, a country of Asia Minor, bounded
by the Mediterranean on the south, Caria on the
west, Pamphylia on the east, and Phrygia on
the north. Tt was anciently called Milyas, and
Tremile, from the Milyae, or Solymi, a people of
Crete, who came to settle there. It was named
Lycia from Lycus the son of Pandion, who es-
tablished himself there. The inhabitants were
greatly commended by the ancients for their so-
briety and justice. They were conquered by
Croesus king of Lydia, and afterwards by Cyrus.
Though they were subject to the power of Per-
sia, yet they were governed by their own kings,
and only paid a yearly tribute to the Persian
monarchs. They became part of the Macedo-
nian empire, when Alexander came into the east,
and afterwards were ceded to the house of the
Seleucidae. The country was reduced into a
Roman province by Claudius.
LYCIUM, in botany, a genus of the monogy-
nia order, and pentandria class of plants; natural
order twenty-eighth, luridae: coR. tubular, having
its throat closed up with the beard of the fila-
ments: berry bilocular. There are eleven
species, natives of yarious countries.
LYCODONTES, in natural history, the petri-
fied teeth of the lupus piscis, or wolf-fish, fre-
quently found fossile. They are of different
shapes; but the most common kind rise in a
semiorbicular form, and are hollow within,
somewhat resembling an acorn cup; this hollow
is found sometimes empty, and sometimes filled
with the stratum in which it is immersed. Many
of them have an outer circle, of a different color
from the rest. ^
LYCOMEDES, in fabulous history, a king
of Scyros, an island in the HEgean Sea. He was
son of Apollo and Parthenope. He was se-
cretly entrusted with the care of young Achilles,
whom his mother Thetis had disguised in wo-
men's clothes, to remove him from the Trojan
war, where she knew he must unavoidably
perish. He is infamous for his treachery to
Theseus, who had implored his protection, when
driven from his throne by the usurper Mnest-
heus. Lycomedes, either envious of the fame
of his illustrious guest, or bribed by Mnestheus,
led Theseus to an elevated place, on pretence to
show him the extent of his dominions, and per-
fidiously threw him down a precipice, where
he was killed.
LYCOPERDON, in botany, a genus of the
natural order of fungi, and the cryptogamia
class of plants. The fungus is roundish, and
full of farinaceous seeds. There are several
species; the following are the most remarkable.
1. L. bovista, the common puff-ball, is fre-
quent in meadows and pastures in the autumn.
It varies exceedingly in size, figure, superficies,
and color. In general, it consists of a sack or
bag, having a root at its base, and the bag com-
posed of three membranes, an epidermis, a
tough white skin; and an interior coat, which
adheres closely to the central pith. The pith in
the young plants is of a yellowish color, at first
firm and solid, but soon changes into a cellular
spongy substance, full of a dark dull-green
powder, which discharges itself through an
aperture at the top of the fungus, which aperture
is formed of lacerated segments, in some va-
rieties reflexed. The powder is believed to be
the seeds, which through a microscope appear
of a spherical form, and to be annexed to elastic
hairs. Among the numerous varieties of this
fungus, the glabrum is most remarkable. It is
a smooth sessile kind, of a nearly spherical form,
puckered or contracted at the root. This some-
times grows to an enormous size. It has been
found in England as big as a man's head; and
at Carrara, near Padua in Italy, specimens have
been gathered, weighing twenty-five pounds, and
measuring two yards in circumference; but its
more ordinary size is that of a walnut or an
apple. The varieties of this species have no
limits, being frequently found to run into one
another; the scaly, warty, and echinated coats
turning smooth as the plants grow old, and the
neck of the fungus having no determinate length.
The natural color of the puff-ball is either white,
gray, or ash-colored; but sometimes yellowish,
tawny, and brownish. The internal spongy part
of it, applied to wounds, is esteemed good to
stop bleedings. Pressed and dried in an oven,
the puff-ball becomes a kind of tinder, the smoke
of which is said to intoxicate bees. Marsigli
says the Italians fry the great variety, and indeed
any of the others when young, and eat them with
Salt and oil.
2. L. tuber, truffles, or subterraneous puff-
balls, a native of woods both in Scotland and
England. It grows gradually in clusters three
or four inches under ground, without any visi-
ble root. The figure of it is nearly spherical,
the size that of a potato; the exterior coat at
first white, afterwards black, and studded with
pyramidical or polyhedrous tubercles; the in-
ternal substance solid and callous, of a 'dirty
white or pale brown color, grained like a nut-
meg with serpentine lines; in which, agcording
to Micheli, are imbedded minute oval capsules,
containing each from two to four round warted
seeds. The truffles of Great Britain seldom ex-
ceed three or four ounces in weight; but in Italy,
and some other parts of the continent, they are
said to have been found of the enormous weight
of from eight to fourteen pounds. They are used
at table, either fresh and roasted like potatoes,
or dried and sliced into ragouts. They have a
volatile and somewhat urinous smell; and are
reputed to be aphrodisiacal. Dogs are with
much pains tauught to hunt for them by the
LYC
LYC
353
scent, and to scratch up the ground under which
they lie. . *
LYCOPERSICON. See SoDANUM.
LYCOPHRON, a famous Greek poet and
grammarian, born at Colchis in Euboea, who
flourished about A. A. C. 304, and, according to
Ovid, was killed by an arrow, A. A. C. 250.
He wrote twenty tragedies; but all his works are
lost, except, a poem entitled Cassandra, which
contains a long train of predictions, which he
supposes to have been made by Cassandra,
Priam's daughter. This poem is extremely ob-
scure. The best edition of it is that of Dr.
Potter, printed at Oxford in 1697, folio.
LYCOPODIUM, club moss, a genus of the
natural order of musci, and cryptogamia class of
plants. The antherae are bivalved and sessile ;
there are no calyptra. There are twenty-four
species; the following are the most remark-
able :- - ~.
1. L. clavatum, the common club moss,
abounds in dry and mountainous places, and
fir forests. The stalk is prostrate, branched, and
creeping, from a foot-to two or three yards long;
the radicles woody. The leaves are numerous,
narrow, lanceolated, acute, often incurved at the
extremity, terminated with a long white hair, and
every where surround the stalk. The peduncles
are erect, firm, and naked (except being thinly
set with lanceolate scales), and arise from the
ends of the branches. They are generally two
or three inches long, and terminated with two
cylindrical yellowish spikes, imbricated with oval
acute scales, finely lacerated on the edges, and
ending with a hair. In the ala or bosom of the
scale is a kidney-shaped capsule, which bursts
with elasticity when ripe, and throws out a light
yellow powder, which, blown into the flame of a
candle, flashes with a small explosion. The
Swedes make mats of this moss to rub their
shoes upon. In Russia and some other coun-
tries, the powder of the capsules is used in me-
dicine to healgalls in children, chops in the skin,
and other sores. It is also used to powder over
officinal pills, and to make artificial lightning at
theatres. The Poles make a decoction of the
plant, and, dipping a linen cloth into it, apply it
to the heads of persons afflicted with the disease
"called the plica polonica, which is said to be
cured by this fomentation.
2. L. selago, fir club moss, is common in the
Highland mountains of Scotland, and in the
Hebrides. The stalk at the base is single and
reclining; but a little higher is divided into up-
right dichotomous branches, from two to six
inches high, surrounded with eight longitudinal
oblique series of lanceolate, smooth, rigid, im-
bricated leaves. Near the summits of the
branches, in the alae of the leaves, are placed
single kidney-shaped capsules, consisting of two
valves, which open horizontally like the shells of
an oyster, and cast out a fine yellow powder.
These capsules Linnaeus supposes to be antherae,
or male parts of fructification. In the alae also
of many of the leaves, near the tops of the
branches, are often found what he calls fe-
male flowers, but which Haller esteemas to be
only gems or buds of a future plant. They con-
sist, first, of four stiff, lanceolate, incurved, mi-
Vol. XIII.
nute leaves, one of the oute most longer and
larger than the rest. These are supposed to
correspond to the calyx in regular flowers.
Again, at the bottom of this calyx are five small
pellucid substances, resenbling leaves, visible
only by a microscope, which are supposed ana-
logous to pistils. . These, in time, grow up into
three large broad leaves, two of the five united
together like the hoof of an ox; with a third nar-
rower one annexed at the base, and two other
minute ones opposite to the other three. These
five leaves are joined at the base; and in au-
tumn, falling from the calyx, vegetate, and pro-
duce a new plant. See a dissertation De Semi-
nibus Muscorum, Amcenit., Academ. II. p., 261.
In the island of Raasay, near Sky, in Ross-shire,
and some other places, the inhabitants make use
of this plant instead of alum, to fix the colors in
dyeing. The Highlanders also sometimes take
an infusion of it as an emetic and cathartic: but
it operates violently; and, unless taken in a
small dose, brings on giddiness and convulsions.
Linnaeus informs us, that the Swedes use a de-
coction of it to destroy lice on swine and other
animals.
LYCOPSIS, in botany, a genus of the mono-
gynia order, and pentandria class of plants : natu-
ral order forty-first, asperifoliae: coR. has an
incurvated tube. Species nine; chiefly natives of
the Levant and of Palestine. *
LYCOPUS, in botany, a genus of the mono-
gyniaorder, and diandria class of plants: natural
order forty-second, verticillatae: CoR. quadrifid,
with one of the segments emarginated ; the sta-
mina standing asunder, with four retuse seeds.
LYCURGUS, the celebrated legislator of the
Spartans, was the son of Eunomes king of Sparta.
He travelled to Greece, to the isle of Crete, to
Egypt, and even to India, to converse with the
Sages and learned men of those countries, and to
learn their manners, their customs, and their
laws. After the death of his brother Polydectes,
king of Sparta, his widow offered the crown to
Lycurgus, promising that she would make herself
miscarry of the child of which she was pregnant,
provided he would marry her; but Lycurgus
nobly refused her offers, and afterwards, content-
ing himself with being tutor to his nephew Cha-
rillus, restored him the government when he came
of age; but, notwithstanding this regular and
generous conduct, he was accused of a design to
usurp the crown. This calumny obliged him to
retire to the island of Crete, where he studied
the laws and customs of nations. On his return
to Lacedemon he reformed the government;
and, to prevent the disorders occasioned by lux-
ury and the love of riches, he prohibited the use
of gold and silver; placed all the citizens in a
state of equality; and introduced the strictest
temperance, the most exact discipline, and those
admirable laws which (a few excepted) have been
celebrated by all historians. It is said that, to
engage the Lacedemonians to observe them in-
violably, he made them swear not to change any
part of them till his return; and that he after-
wards went to the island of Crete, where he
killed himself, after ordering his ashes to be
thrown into the sea, lest, if his body should be
carried to Sparta, the latelemoniº, should
2
354
I, Y D I A.
think themselves absolved from their oath. He
flourished about A. A. C. 870. - * * * *
LYCUS, in ancient geography, a river of
Phrygia, which disappears near Colossae, and
rises again about four stadia from it, after which
it falls into the Maeander. * I
LYDDA, in ancient geography, a town and
district of Judaea, fourteen miles north-east of
Joppa and thirty-two west of Jerusalem, origi-
mally belonging to the Ephraimites, but after-
wards to the Benjamites. In the time of the
Maccabees it was taken from Samaria. It was
famous for a college of the Jews, which produced
many celebrated rabbies. l
LYDGATE (John), called the monk of Bury;
not, as Cibber conjectures, because he was a
native of that place, for he was born about 1380,
in the village of Lydgate, but because he was a
monk of the Benedictine convent at St. Ed-
mund's-Bury. After, studying some time in
the English universities, he travelled to, France
and Italy; and, having acquired a competent
knowledge of the languages of those countries,
he returned to London, where he opened aschool,
in which he instructed the sons of the nobility in
polite literature. At what time he retired to the
convent of St. Edmund's-Bury does not appear;
but he was there in 1415, and was living in 1446,
aged about sixty-six; but when he died is not
known. Pits says, he was “an elegant poet, a
persuasive rhetorician, an expert mathematician,
an acute philosopher, and a tolerable divine.’ He
was a voluminous writer; and his language is
less obsolete, and his versification more harmo-
mious, than that of Chaucer, who wrote about fifty
years before him. He wrote, 1. History of the
Theban War, printed at the end of Chaucer's
works, 1561, 1602, 1687. 2. Poemation of
good Counsel, Ibid. 3. The Life of Hec-
tor, London 1594, folio, printed by Gross,
dedicated to Henry V. 4. Life of the Bles-
sed Virgin, printed by Caxton. 5. The Pro-
verbs of Lydgate upon the, fall of Princes,
printed by Wink. Word., London, 4to, 6, Dis-
pute of the Horse, the Sheep, and the Goose,
Caxton, 4to. 7. The Temple of Brass, among
the works of Chaucer. 8. London Lick-penny:
see Stowe's History, &c. Besides an incredible
number of other poems and translations, pre-
served in various libraries, and of which the
reader will find a catalogue in bishop Tanner's
works. * f - I - }
LYDIA, in ancient geography, a celebrated
kingdom of Asia Minor. All the ancient writers
tell us, that 'Lydia was first called Maeonia or
Meonia, from Meon king of Phrygia and Lydia;
and that it was known, under no other denomi-
nation till the reign of Atys, when it began to be
called Lydia, from his son Lydus. Bochart find-
ing in his learned collection of Phoenician words
the verb luz, signifying to wind, and observing
that Lydia is watered by the Maeander, so famous
for its winding, concludes that it was thence
named Lydia or Ludia. The ancient name of
Maeonia, he takes to be a Greek translation of
the Phoenician word Lud; wherein he agrees in
some measure with Stephanus, who derives the
name of Maeonia from Maeon, the ancient name
of the Maeander. Some take the word Maeonia
to be a translation of a Hebrew word signifying
metal, because that country, say they, was in
former times enriched with mines. .Though
Lydia and Maeonia are by most authors indif-
ferently used for the same country, yet they are
sometimes distinguished; that part where mount
Timolus stood, watered by the Päctolus, being
properly called Meonia; and the other, lying ºn
the coast, Lydia. This distinction is used by
Homer, Callimachus, Dionysius, and other an-
cient writers. In after ages, when the Ionians,
who had planted a colony on the coast of the
Hºgean Sea, began to make some figure, that
part was calléd Ionia, and the name of Lydia
given to the ancient Maeonia. Lydia, according
to Pliny, Ptolemy, and other ancient geographers,
was bounded by Mysia Major on the north, by
Caria on the south, by Phrygia Major on the
east, and Ionia on the west, lying between 30°
and 39° lat. N. The kingdom of Lydia was not
confined within these boundaries, but extended
from Halys to the Ægean Sea. Pliny’s descrip-
tion includes Folia, lying between the Hermus
and the Caicus.
, Josephus, and after him all the ecclesiastical
writers, derive the origin of the Lydians from
Lud, Shem's fourth son, from the similitude of
the names. Some will have the Lydians to be a
mixed colony of Phrygians, Mysians, and Ca-
rians. Others finding some conformity in reli-
gious ceremonies between the Egyptians and
Tuscans, who were a Lydian colony, conclude
them to have been originally Egyptians. All we
know, for certain, is, that the Lydians were a
very ancient nation, as is manifest from their
very fables; for Atys, Tantalus, 'Pelops, Niobe,
and Arachne, are all said to have been the child-
ren of Lydus. And Zanthus, in his Lydiaca,
quoted by, Stephanus, informs us, that the an-
cient city of Ascalon, one of the five satrapies of
the Philistines, mentioned in the books of Joshua
and the Judges, was built by one Ascalus, a Ly-
dian, whom Achiamus, king of Lydia, had ap-
pointed to command a body of troops which he
sent into Syria. The Heraclidae, or kings of Ly-
dia, descended from Hercules, began to reign
before the Trojan war; and had been preceded
by a long series of sovereigns, sprung from Atys,
and hence styled Atyadae:'a strong proof of the
antiquity of that kingdom. The Lydians began
very early to be ruled by kings, whose govern-
ment seems to have been despotic, and the crown
hereditary. They had three distinct races of
kings, viz. the Atyadae, the Heraclidae, and the
Mermnada. The Atyadº were so called from
Atys, the son of Cotys, and grandson of Manes,
the first Lydian king. But the history of this
family is obscure and, fabulous. They were stic-
ceeded by the Heraclide, or descendants of Her-
cules. For Hercules, being, by the direction of
the oracle, sold as a slave to Omphale, queen of
Lydia, and rélict of king Timolus, to expiate the
murder of Iphitus, had, during his captivity, by
one of her slaves, a son named Cleolaus, whose
grandson Argon was the first of the Heraclide
that ascended the throne of Lydia. Others say
that Omphale herself, astonished at the valor of
Herdules, fell in love with him, married him, and
had two sons by him named Agelaus and La-

L Y D I A.
35b
mon; the eldest of whom succeeded her, and
gave rise to the new royal race. This race is
said to have reigned 505 years, the son succeed-
ing the father for twenty-two generations. They
began to reign about the time of the Trojan
war. The last of the family was Candaules,
who was contemporary with Romulus, and who
lost both his life and kingdom by his impru-
dence. For, according to Herodotus and Jus-
tin, he was so vain of his wife's beauty, that he
showed her naked to Gyges, his favorite minis-
ter, which enraged the queen so much, that she
conspired with, or rather ordered, Gyges to
murder him; which he aceordingly did, while
Candaules was asleep, married the queen, and
took possession of the kingdom, in which he was
confirmed by the oracle at Delphi. Gyges
showed his gratitude by sending many rich
presents to the oraele, particularly six cups of
gold, weighing thirty talents. He made war on
Miletus and Smyrna, took Colophon, and sub-
dued the whole country of Troas. In his reign,
and by his permission, the city of Abydos was
built by the Milesians. Plutarch, and other
writers, relate his accession to the crown in a
different manner, and tell us, without mentioning
the queen, that Gyges rebelled against Candau-
les, and slew him in an engagement. In Gyges
began the third race, called Mermnada: ; who
were also Heraclidae, being descended from the
other son of Hercules by Omphale. Gyges
reigned thirty-eight years, and was succeeded by
his son Ardyes, who carried on the war against
the Milesians, and possessed himself of Priene,
in those days a strong city. In his reign the
Cimmerians invaded and over-run all Asia Mi-
nor. Herodotus informs us, that they even took
Sardis, the metropolis of Lydia, but could never
reduce the castle. , Ardyes reigned forty-nine
years, and was succeeded by his son Sadyattes,
who reigned twelve years, and was engaged in
war with the Milesians for the greater part of
his reign. To him succeeded his son Alyattes
II. who for five years continued the war against
the Milesians, ravaging their country, and about
harvest time carrying away all their corn yearly,
in order to oblige them, for want of provisions,
to surrender their city, which he could not re-
duce any other way, the Milesians being then
masters of the sea. In the twelfth year of this
war, the Lydians having set fire to the corn in
the fields, the flames were carried by a violent
wind to the temple of Minerva at Assessus, and
burnt it down to the ground. Not long after,
Alyattes, falling sick, sent to consult the oracle
at Delphos; which refused to return any answer
till the king should rebuild the temple of Minerva.
Alyattes, therefore, sent ambassadors to Miletus,
to conclude a truce with the Milesians till the
temple should be rebuilt. On the arrival of the
ambassadors, Thrasybulus, then king of Miletus,
commanded all the corn in the city to be brought
into the market-place, ordering the citizens to
banquet in public, and revél as if the city were
plentifully stored with provisions, that the am-
bassadors, seeing such plenty, and the people
every where revelling, might acquaint their mas-
ter with their affluence, and divert him from
pursuing the war. His stratagem had the desired
effect; for Alyattes, receiving this account from
his ambassadors, changed the truce into a lasting
peace, and ever afterwards lived in friendship
with Thrasybulus and the Milesians. He was
succeeded, after a reign of fifty-seven years, by
his son Croesus, whose uninterrupted prosperity,
in the first years of his reign, far eclipsed the
glory of all his predecessors. He made war on
the Ephesians, whose city he besieged and took,
notwithstanding their consecrating it to Diana,
and fastening the walls by a rope to her temple,
which was seven stadia distant from the city.
After this he attacked the Ionians and IEolians,
obliging them, and all the other Greek states of
Asia, to pay him a yearly tribute. Having met
with suci.” extraordinary success by land, he re-
solved to render his power equally conspicuous
by sea; but was dissuaded from this enterprise
by Bias of Priene, or, as others say, by Psittacus
of Mytilene. He therefore determined peaceably
to enjoy the laurels he had won, and began now
to consider himself as the happiest of men. But
his happiness was soon alloyed by the death of
his favorite son, Atys, who was unfortunately
killed at the chase of a wild boar. For this loss
he continued disconsolate for two years, and in
a state of inaction, till the conquests of Cyrus,
and growing power of the Persians, again roused
his martial spirit. He apprehended that the
success which attended Cyrus, in all his under-
takings, might at last prove dangerous to himself,
and therefore resolved to put a stop, if possible,
to his progress. In this resolution he was
encouraged by the oracle of Apollo at Delphi;
to whom he sacrificed 3000 oxen, and adorned
his shrine with dedications equally valuable for
the workmanship and for the materials; precious
vessels of silver, ewers of iron, beautifully inlaid
and enamelled; various ornaments of pure gold,
.)articularly a gold lion, weighing ten. talents;
and a female figure three cubits, or nearly five feet
high. In return for these magnificent presents
the oracle, in ambiguous language, flattered Croe-
sus with obtaining an easy victory over his
enemies, and with enjoying a long life and
a prosperous reign ; enjoining him to contract
an alliance with the most powerful of the Gre-
cian states; and assuring him, that, if he crossed
the Halys, he would overthrow a great empire;
which he concluded to be that of Persia. Ele-
vated with these favorable predictions he formed
an alliance with the Lacédemonians, then the
most powerful state in Greece; to whom he had
formerly made a present of a large quantity
of gold for a statue of Apollo, in return for
which they now sent him a large brazen vessel
capable of containing 300 amphoras (above
twelve hogsheads) elegantly carved. , Croesus
had formerly made an alliance with Amasis
king of Egypt, and Labynitus, or Belshazzar,
king of Babylon; and, having now obtained the
friendship of the most warlike nation of Europe,
the newly raised power of Cyrus and the Per-
sians seemed incapable of resisting such a formi-
dable confederacy. Elevated with these ideas,
Croesus waited not to attack the Persian domi-
nions until he had collected the strength of his
allies. The impetuosity of his temper precipi-
tated him into measures no less rººm dar-
- 2 A 2
356 -
L Y D I A.
ing. Attended only by the arms of Lydia, and
a band of mercenaries, he marched towards the
Halys; and, having crossed that deep and broad
stream, entered Cappadocia, the western frontier
of Media. That unfortunate country soon ex-
perienced all the calamities of invasion. The
Pterian plain, the most beautiful and the most fer-
tile district of Cappadocia, was laid waste; the
ports of the Euxine, as well as several inland
cities were plundered; and the inhabitants were
either put to the sword or dragged into captivity.
Meanwhile, the approach of Cyrus afforded the
Lydian king an opportunity of bringing the war
to a speedy issue. Such was the rapidity of his
movement, after, being informed of the ravages
of Cappadocia, that he arrived from the shores
of the Caspian to those of the Euxine Sea before
the army of Croesus had provided necessaries for
their journey. That prince, when apprised of
the neighbourhood of the Persians, encamped on
the Pterian plain; Cyrus likewise encamped at
no great distance; and a general engagement was
fought with equal fury and perseverance, and
only terminated by the darkness of the night.
The loss on both sides hindered a renewal of
the battle. The numbers, as well as the cou-
rage of the Persians, much exceeded the expect-
ation of Croesus. As they discovered no inten-
tion to harass his retreat, he determined to move
back towards Sardis, to spend the winter in his
palace, and, after summoning his numerous allies
to his standard, to take the field early in spring,
with such increase of force as seemed sufficient
to overpower the Persians. But this design was
defeated by the vigilance of Cyrus, who waited
until Croesus had re-entered his capital, and had
disbanded the foreign mercenaries, who com-
posed the most numerous division of his army.
Cyrus then put his Persians in motion, and such
was his celerity, that he brought the first news of
his own arrival in the plain of Sardis. Croesus's
firmness was not shaken by this unforeseen dan-
ger; though his mercenaries were disbanded,
his own subjects served him from attachment,
had been long accustomed to victory, and were
animated with a high sense of national honor.
The Lydians in that age fought on horseback,
armed with long spears; the strength of the Per-
sians consisted in infantry. They were so little
accustomed to the use of horses, that camels
were almost the only animals which they employ-
ed as beasts of burden. As the troops on both
sides approached to join battle, the -Lydian ca-
valry, terrified at the unusual appearance of the
Camels, mounted with men in arms, were thrown
into disorder, and endeavoured to escape. Croe-
sus, who perceived the confusion, was ready to
despair of his fortune; but the Lydians, aban-
doning their horses, prepared with uncommon
bravery to attack the enemy on foot.
‘age deserved a better fate; but unaccustomed
o this mode of fighting they were received and
repelled by the Persian infantry, and obliged to
take refuge in Sardis. The walls of that city
bid defiance to the art of attack then practised
by the most warlike nations.
army should invest it, the Lydians had provisions
for several years; and they expected that in a
{ew months, or even weeks, they should receive
Their cou-
If the Persian
such assistance from Egypt, Babylonia, and
Sparta, as would oblige the Persians to raise the
siege. The valor of the Spartans might have
saved the sinking empire of Lydia; but, before
their armament could sail, Croesus was no lon-
ger a sovereign. Notwithstanding the strength of
Sardis, that city was taken by storm on the 20th
day of the siege; the walls having been scaled
in a quarter, which, appearing altogether inac-
cessible, was too carelessly guarded. Hyreades
a Mede accidentally observed a Lydian sentinel
descend part of the rock to recover his helmet.
Hyreades, being accustomed to clamber over the
dangerous precipices of his native country, tried
to pass this rock, and easily accomplished it.
The bravest of the Persians followed his ex-
ample, and were supported by greater numbers
of their countrymen; the garrison of Sardis was
surprised; the citadel stormed; and the rich ca-
pital of Lower Asia subjected to the rapacity of
an indignant victor. Thus ended the ancient
kingdom of Lydia, which continued subject to
the Persians till they also were conquered by the
Macedonians. For the fate of the Lydian mo-
narch, see CROESUS.
LYDIAT (Thomas), a learned English divine, t
born in 1572, and educated at Oxford. About
1609 he became acquainted with Dr. Usher, af.
terwards archbishop of Armagh, who took him to
Ireland. He was at college in Dublin two years,
after which he returned to England; and, the
rectory of Alkrington becoming vacant, he was
presented to it: but at length, being engaged for
the debts of a near relation, which he was un-
able to pay, having before spent his patrimony
in printing several books, he was sent to prison ;
and was confined at Oxford, in the king's
bench, and elsewhere, till Sir William Boswell,
Dr. Robert Pink, warden of New College, bishop
Usher, and Dr. Laud, discharged the debt. In
the civil wars he suffered much in his rectory of
Alkrington from the parliamentary party; was
four times pillaged to the value of at least £70,
and was forced for three months to borrow a
shirt. He died in 1646. He wrote some pieces
in English, and many works in Latin, on chro-
nology and natural history. -
LYDIUS LAPIs, in the natural history of the
ancients, the touch-stone for trying gold and sil-
ver, called by some Heraclius lapis; both of
which names were also applied by the ancients
to the load-stone; and hence has arisen no small
ambiguity in their works, as Pliny has observed.
The true lapis Lydius, or touch-stone, was an-
ciently found only in the river Tmolus; but was
afterwards found in many other places, and is
now very common in many of the German ri-
vers. The ancients give us very remarkable and
circumstantial accounts of the uses they made of
it; and it is plain they were able to discern the
alloys of gold by means of it with very great
exactness. Several different stones are now used
under this name, for this purpose. In, Italy a
green marble called verdello is most frequently
used; and with us, very frequently small pieces
of the basaltes. See BASALTEs. , .
LYE or LIE. Fr. lie. A body impregnated
with some extraneous qualities; generally ap-
plied to fluids.
LYM
LYM
357
Chamber lie breeds fleas like a loach.
*.
Shakspeare.
Answerable whereunto, but beyond it, was the
diet of Valentine, a rigorous votary, who, for ten
years together, would eat nothing but bread dipt in
water, wherein wormwood was steeped : and of other
his fellow, who steeped his bread in lye, that he
might eat ashes with the prophet. Bp. Hall.
All liquid things concocted by heat become yellow;
as lue, wort, &c. s Peacham on Drawing.
He will know how to make use of the waste lyes,
so as to decompose the salts which they contain, and
convert them to good and serviceable alkali, fit for
º: operations. Parkes's Chemical Catechism.
UYE
ižo.; See LIE.
LYE. (Edward), M. A., a learned antiquary,
born at Totness in Devonshire, and educated at
Oxford. He published, 1. An Anglo-Saxon and
Gothic Dictionary, in 2 vols. folio, 1762; 2. A
Grammar of these languages; and other pieces.
He died in 1769.
LYGEUM, in botany, a genus of the monogy-
nia order, and triandria class of plants, natural or-
der fourth, gramina; spatha monophyllous; there
is a pair of corollae upon the same germen; the
nut is bilocular.
LYGII, LIGI1, LUG II, or LOGIONES, in ancient
geography, a people of Germany, west of the
Vistula, where it forms a bend like a crescent
(Dio, Strabo, Zosimus). Their name Lugii is
derived from their close confederacy. The Vis-
tula was their boundary upon the north, east, and
south, and Mount Asciburgius on the west. The
whole of that country now lies in Poland, on this
side the Vistula.
LYING To, or LYING BY, the situation of a ship,
when she is retarded in her course, by arranging
the sails in such a manner as to counteract each
other with nearly an equal effort, and render the
ship almost immoveable, with respect to her pro-
gressive motion or head way. A ship is usually
brought to by the main and fore top sails, one of
which is laid aback, whilst the other is full ; so
that the latter pushes the ship forward, whilst the
former resists this impulse by forcing her astern.
This is particularly practised in a general engage-
ment, when the hostile fleets are drawn up in
two lines of battle opposite each other. It is
also used to wait for some other ship, either ap-
proaching or expected; or to avoid pursuing a
dangerous course, especially in dark or foggy
weather, &c.
LYME, or LYME REGIS, a sea-port, borough,
and market town of Dorsetshire, near the sea, on
the borders of Devonshire, in a cavity between
two rocky hills which make it difficult of access.
As it lies on the declivity of a hill, the houses
make a good appearance; some of them are
built of freestone, and covered with blue slate.
The corporation consists of a mayor (who is jus-
tice of peace during his mayoralty and two years
after), a recorder, fifteen burgesses, and a town
clerk. This place had formerly a very flourish-
ing trade to France, Spain, the Straits, Newfound-
land, and the West Indies; during which the
customs amounted in some years to £16,000.
. But it stands on such a high steep rock, that the
merchants are obliged to load and unload their
goods at a place a quarter of a mile off, called
the Cobb, originally built in the reign of Edward
III., which costs a great sum to maintain, but
forms an excellent harbour, the ships being shel-
tered by a high thick stone wall, raised in the
main Sea a good way from the shore, broad
enough for carriages and warehouses. The ma-
terials of its rude pier consist of vast stones
weighed out of the sea, arranged in such a
manner as to break the violence of the tide,
which, notwithstanding, has made great encroach-
ments, the cliffs being composed of a kind of
marl and blue clay, incorporated with lime. The
point of the first, or main wall, is the entrance
into the port, and the opposite wall breaks the
violence of the sea from the entrance, and the
vessels being defended from all winds ride as
secure as in a wet dock. The cellars of the low
part of the town, near the sea, are however often
overflowed by the spring tides ten or twelve feet.
There are guns planted for defence of the Cobb
and the town. The custom house stands on pil-
lars, and the corn market under it. There are
an alms-house, and a Presbyterian and a Baptist
meeting-house. The church stands at the east end
of the town on a rising ground. The market is
on Friday, and there are two fairs. In 774 the
Saxon king Kinwulf gave land here to the church
of Sherbon, for boiling of salt. At this place
the duke of Monmouth landed in 1685. About
fifty years ago above £2000 worth of gold and
silver coins of Charles I. and II. were discovered
by some laborers. It is twenty-eight miles east
}. south of Exeter, and 143 W. S. W. of Lon-
On . -
LYMINGTON, a sea-port, borough, and mar-
ket town of Hampshire, about a mile from the
channel, between the main land and the Isle of
Wight; with a harbour for vessels of consider-
able burden. The tide flows nearly a mile above
the town. There are two sets of baths, one at
the bottom of the town, the other above half a
mile from it; of late they have been made very
convenient, and are much frequented during the
season. The borough is a corporation by pre-
Scription, consisting of a titular mayor, aldermen,
and burgesses without limitation. It has sent
two members to parliament since the 27th of
Elizabeth, the right of election being in the
mayor and burgesses only. The number of voters
is about sixty. It has a market on Saturday,
and two fairs. It is eighteen miles south-west
of Southampton, and eighty-eight of London.
LYMPH, n.s. Fr. lymphe ; Latin
LYMPHAT'Ic, adj. }º Water ; trans-
LYMPH'EDUCTs, n. s. X parent colorless liquor:
the anatomical terms are explained by the ex-
tracts. -
The glands,
All artful knots, of various hollow threads,
Which lympheducts, an artery, nerve, and vein,
Involved and close together wound, contain.
Blackmore.
When the chyle passeth through the mesentery, it
is mixed with the lymph, the most spirituecs and ela-
borated part of the blood. Arbuthnot on Aliments.
Upon the death of an animal, the spirits may
sink into the veins, or lympnaticks, and glandules.
- Floyer.
LYN
LYN
358
The lymphaticks are slender pellucid tubes, whose
cavities are contracted at small and unequal dis-
tances : they are carried into the glands of the me-
sentery, receiving first a fine thin lymph from the
lymphatick ducts, which dilutes the chylous fluid
Cheune.
Where now the vital energy, that moved, 3/1
While summer was, the pure and subtle lymph
Through the imperceptible meandering veins
Of leaf and flower 1 it sleeps; and the icy touch
Of unprolific winter has impressed
A cold stagnation on the intestine tide. Cowper.
LYMPHATI, a name given by the Romans
to such as were seized with madness; supposed
to be used for Nymphati, because the ancients
imagined that every person who had the misfor-
tume to see a nymph was instantly struck with
phrenzy. Lymphati may indeed signify madmen,
as derived from lympha, water, over which ele-
ment the nymphs were thought to preside. But
it appears most likely that distracted people were
called lymphati, from the circumstance of mad-
men being affected with the hydrophobia or dread
of water after the bite of a mad dog; for this
peculiarity, in cases of canine madnéss, was not
unknown to the Romans, -
LYNCEUS, in fabulous history, the only one
of the fifty sons of Ægyptus who was saved from
being murdered by the fifty daughters of Danaus.
See DANAIDES and DANAUS.
LYNCEUS, the son of Aphareus, one of the
Argonauts. He was of great use, by enabling
them to avoid the sand-banks and rocks in their
way. The poets say, that he had so piercing a
sight that it could not only penetrate the earth,
and to the bottom of the sea, but even to hell.
Some suppose that this fable is taken from Lyn-
ceus's skill in observing the stars, and discovering
the mines of gold and silver concealed in the earth.
LYNCHBURG, a town of Virginia, in Camp-
bell county, 100 miles west of Richmond, and
160 south-west of Washington. These distances
are expressed in right lines. The distance from
Richmond by the road is 120, from Washington
206 miles. Long. 79° 22' W., lat. 37°30' N. Popu-
lation, in 1818, estimated at 5500. It is situated
twenty miles below the great falls, where James
River breaks through the Blue Ridge. It is one
of the most flourishing and commercial towns in
the state, and contains a court house, a gaol, two
clerks’ offices fire proof, amarket house, two banks,
a masonic hall, a Lancasterian school, a female
academy, several other literary seminaries, a cir-
culating library, two printing offices, which issue,
one a weekly and the other a semi-weekly news-
paper, and three houses of public worship, one for
Presbyterians, one for Methodists, and one for
Baptists. There is also in the vicinity a Friends'
meeting-house. A large proportion of the houses
are of brick, of two, three, and four stories.
Here is a toll bridge across the river, and a free
bridge is now building.
The town contains seven public warehouses,
in which from 10,000 to 12,000 hogsheads of to-
bacco are annually inspected, four tobacco
manufactories, five tobacco stemmaries, thirty-
two stores for dry goods, thirty-one for groceries,
seventeen taverns, eight commission houses, and
numerous other establishments for trade and ma-
nufactures, also flour and cotton mills.
LYNCURIUM, astone thought to be the same
with the tourmalin. The name is derived from
Avyā, lynx, and ovpov, urine.
LYNN, or LYNN REGIs, a large well-built sea-
port, borough, andmarket town of Norfolk, which
sends two members to parliament. It was a
borough by prescription in 1298. King John, on
account of its adherence to him against the barons,
made it a free borough with extensive privileges;
and gave it a silver cup of seventy-three ounces,
doubly gilt and enamelled, and a large silver
sword, that is carried, before the mayor; though,
some say, this last is Henry VIII.'s sword,
which he gave to the town when he became pos-
sessed of it by exchange with the bishop of
Norwich; after which it was called Lynn Regis
or King's Lynn, instead of Bishop's Lynn.
Henry III. made it a mayor town for serving
him against the barons. It has had fifteen, royal
charters; and is governed by a mayor, two
stewards, recorder, twelve aldermen, and eigh'een
common council-mem. Pt has two churches, be-
sides St. Nicholas's ehapel; a Presbyteriaſ, and a
Quakers' meeting-house, with a bridewell, several
alms-houses and a free school. In September
1741 the spires of both its churches were blown
down by a storm; and that of St. Margaret,
which was 198 feet high, having beat down the
church, it was rebuilt; towards which king George
II. gave £1000, and Sir Robert Wa’,ole £500.
This church was formerly an abbey. The town-
house called Trinity Hall, and the 9 change, are
noble fabrics. The exchange has a belltower of
freestone, and an octagonal spire over it, 170 feet
from the ground. There is a library in it, and
another at St. Margaret's. The Gray friars'
steeple is a noted sea mark. The situation of this
town, near the mouth of the Ouse, gives it a
commercial communication with eight counties;
by which Peterborough, Ely, Stamford, Bedford,
Huntingdon, Northampton, Cambridge, St. Ed-
mundsbury, the north part of Bucks, and thein-
land parts of Norfolk and Suffolk, are supplied
with heavy goods. Of coals and wine, this is the
greatest port for importation of any place on all
the east coast of England. In return Lynn receives
all the corn exported from these counties, and
sends more of it abroad than any port except:Hull.
Its foreign trade is great, to Holland, Norway,
the Baltic, Spain, and Portugal. The harbour
is safe, but difficult to enter by reason of many
flats and shoals in the passage: but good
pilots are always ready. The town consists of
about 3000 houses, and appears to have been
anciently very strong from its ruins. St. Ann's
platform at the north end has twelve-great guns,
and commands all the ships passing near the
harbour, and towards the land there are: a wall
and a ditch. Four rivulets run through the
town ; and the Ouse is about as broad as the
Thames at London Bridge. In the great market-
place a statue was erected in 1686 of James II.
In another market-place is a statue of William
III., and a fine cross with a dome and gallery
supported by sixteen pillars. The market-house
is of freestone, supported by sixteen columns;
and is seventy feet high, erected on four-steps
neatly adorned with statues, &c. On the first
Monday of every month the mayor, alderaen,
LYO
LYO
359
preachers, &c., meet to endeavour to settle all
quarrels amicably, and prevent láw-suits. This
was established in 1588, and is called the Feast
of Reconciliation. The markets are on Tuesday
and Saturday; and there are two fairs: one be-
ginning February 14th lasts, fourteen days, and
is called Lynn mart; the other is a cheese fair
October 6th. During the civil wars this town
held out for Charles I., and sustained a siege by
18,000 men for above three weeks; but was
obliged to surrender, and to pay 10s. a head for
every inhabitant, and a month's pay to the sol-
diers, to save it from plunder. It abounds so
much with provisions that Spelman says, “Ceres
and Bacchus seem to have established their ma-
gazines in it.’ The king's quay, where the im-
ported wines are chiefly landed, is a handsome
square, with brick buildings, and a statue of king
James I. in the centre. Persons pass hence over
the famous washes into Lincolnshire; but acci-
dents often occur to the boats. Besides the churches
here are places of worship for dissenters. The
Guildhall is an ancient stone building, containing
apartments for business and amusements. The
theatre is commodious, and the new mall is
about 340 yards long, very neatly planted with
a quick-set hedge on each side, having, at conve-
nient distances, semi-circular recesses and
benches. At the east end of the town is a mound,
on which are some strong fortifications. Lynn
Regis lies forty-four miles north-west of Cam-
bridge, and ninety-six north of London. º
LYNN, a post town of Essex county, Massa-
chusetts, six miles south-west of Salem, and nine
N. N. E. of Boston. Population 4087. It con-
tains a bank, a large dyeing establishment, and
, five houses of public worship: two for Method-
ists, one for Congregationalists, one for Friends,
and one for Baptists, and is famous for the
manufacture of shoes. No less than 1,000,000
pair of ladies' shoes were made here in 1811.
There is a mineral spring in this town, near
which is a house for the accommodation of visi-
ters. Saugus has been set off from this town,
and incorporated since the last census. Lynn
Beach, which connects the peninsula of Nahant
to the main land, is regarded as a curiosity.
LYNX, n. s... . Lat. A spotted beast, re-
LYNCE'AN, adj. łmiń. for speed and sharp
sight: lyncean, like the lynx.
I beseech you, when you hear my name traduced,
learn of mine accusers, whose lyncean eyes would seem
to see further into me than my own, what singular
offence I have committed. .
- * . Bishop Hall's Account of Himself.
He that has an idea of a beast with spots, has but
a confused idea of a leopard, it not being thereby
sufficiently distinguished from a lync. Locke.
What modes of sight betwixt each wide extreme,
The mole's dim curtain, and the linz's beam. .
Pope.
Lyon KING OF ARMS, For Scotland, is the
second king at arms for Great Britain. See HE-
RALDRY.,' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' "
LYONET (Peter), F.R.S. &c., an ingenious
naturalist, born at Maestricht, and descended
from a very ancient family of Lorrain. He had
scarcely attained his seventh year before he dis-
played an uncommon strength and agility in all
bodily exercises; and he was no less diligent in
the improvement of his mind. He studied
chronology, Latin, Greek, and French, Hebrew,
logic, and the Cartesian physics. He understood
no less than nine languages. In the university
of Leyden he studied the Newtonian philosophy,
geometry, algebra, &c.; as well as divinity, in
obedience to his father who was a clergyman. He
also studied anatomy, music, and drawing; and,
having attained the degree of candidate in divi-
nity, he studied law with such success that he
was promoted at the end of the first year. . At
the Hague he studied the art of decyphering;
and became secretary of the cyphers, translator
of the Latin and French languages, and patent
master to their high mightinesses. Meanwhile
he undertook an historical description of such in-
sects as are found about the Hague; collected
materials for several volumes; and enriched his
work with a great number of plates, universally
admired by all who had seen them. In 1742
was printed at the Hague a French translation
of a German work, The Theology of Insects, by
Mr. Lesser. Mr. Lyonet, having deferred the
publication of his work, made some observations
on that of Lesser, to which he added two beau-
tiful plates, engraved from his designs, which
made his merit universally known. The cele-
brated Reaumur had Lesser's translation reprinted
at Paris, chiefly on account of Mr. Lyonet's ob-
servations; on which he bestowed the highest
encomiums. Lyonet afterwards executed draw-
ings of the fresh-water polypus for Mr. Trem-
bly's beautiful work, 1744. The ingenious
Wandelaar had engraved the first five plates;
when Lyonet, who had never seen this operation,
having experienced difficulties in getting the re-
maining eight finished in the superior style he
wished, resolved to perform the task himself. He
accordingly took a lesson of an hour from Mr.
Wandelaar, engraved three or four small plates,
and immediately began upon the work itself;
which he performed in such a manner as pro-
cured the highest praise, both from Mr. Trembly
and the celebrated Van Gool; who declared
that the performance astonished the most expe-
rienced artists. In 1748 he was chosen F. R. S.
of London. In 1749 he began his amazing col-
lection of horns and shells, which, according to
the universal testimony of all who visited it, was
the most beautiful, and one of the most valuable
in Europe. In 1753 he became member of the
Dutch Society of Sciences at Haerlem ; and in
1757, after the celebrated M. le Cat, the ana-
tomist, had seen his incomparable Traité Anato-
mique de la Chenelle qui ronge le Bois de Saule,
with the drawings belonging to it, he was elected
member of the Royal Academy of Sciences at
Rome. In 1760 he was made a member of the
Royal Academy of Sciences of Berlin; in 1761
of the Imperial Academy of Naturalists; and, in
1762, of the Imperial Academy of Sciences at
St. Petersburg. To enable such as might wish
to follow him in his astonishing discoveries re-
specting ine structure of this animal, he published,
in the Transactions of the Dutch Society of Sci-
ences at Haerlem, a description and a plate of
the instrument and tools he had invented for
dissection, and of his method of ascertaining the
360
L Y O N S.
degree of strength of his magnifying glasses.
During the last fifteen or twenty years of his life
he added to his valuable treasure of natural cu-
riosities a most superb cabinet of paintings, con-
sisting of more than 560 articles; among which
are many of the works of the first Dutch masters.
He also wrote some pieces of Dutch poetry. He
died of an inflammation in his breast, at the
Hague, in January 1789, aged eighty-three.
LYONNOIS, a district and ci-devant province
in the south-east of France, situated on the west side
of the Saone and Loire, and bounded by the Bressi,
the Beaujolois, Forez, and Dauphiny, about thirty
miles in length and seventeen in breadth.
fertile in wine, corn, and fruit; and contains the
towns of Lyons, Tarare, La Bresle, St. Chamont,
Condrieu, and Ance. It now forms part of the
departments of the Rhone and the Loire.
LYONS, the ancient Lugdunum, one of the
finest, richest, and most considerable towns of
France, is the chief place of the department of
the Rhone (Lyonnois), having a royal court for
the departments of the Ain, the Loire, and the
Rhone; a tribunal and chamber of commerce; an
exchange; a royal lottery; a royal academy of
sciences, belles lettres, and arts; a university; a
royal college; a school and museum of the fine
arts; a veterinary college; an institution for the
deaf and dumb; an agricultural society; a society
for natural history and the fine arts; and a theo-
logical faculty.
archbishopric, and has a population of 147,000
souls. The arrondissement, of which it forms a
part, contains 128 communes, and 262,960 inha-
bitants. - r
This city is beautifully situated, at the conflu-
ence of the Rhone and the Saone; on the north
the mountains of Fourvière and St. Sebastian
rise over it in the form of an amphitheatre: it
is surrounded with delightfully picturesque
scenery; on one side the eye reposes on hills
covered with vines, gardens, and country seats;
on the other it wanders over fruitful plains,
adorned with meadows and corn fields; while in
the distance are seen the snowy summits of the
Alps, which like white clouds skirt the horizon.
Divided by the Saone into two unequal parts,
and partly built on hills and partly on a level
surface, Lyons presents little appearance of
regularity; the inner part of the city is compos-
ed of very lofty houses, and narrow, crooked,
and steep streets. There are also some fine
parts, particularly those on the banks of the
Saone, and others which extend along the
Rhone, as well as those in the neighbourhood of
Bellecour Square and the Terreaux, which are
magnificent. Next to Paris this is the first city
in France, and one of the most commercial places
in Europe. It has four fauxbourgs, 245 streets,
fifty-six public squares, twenty-five quays, and
seventeen wharfs. The suburbs are pleasant,
and contain a great number of country houses and
charming walks.
In the front of the place Bellecour is an im-
mense prospect, including the course of the
Rhone, the vast plains of Dauphiny, the moun-
tains of Chartreuse and Chamberry. There
are numerous wooden bridges in this city, which
strike the traveller with the boldness of their
It is
It is a post town and an
construction: the most remarkable is that of
Moraud, built over the Rhone, and leading from
the squares of St. Clair to the walk and fauxbourg
of Bratteaux. - -
Lyons was founded in the year of Rome 712,
about forty years before the Christian era, by the
consul Lucius Minutius Plancus, and peopled
by some Roman citizens whom the natives of the
country had driven from Vienne. It immediately
became the metropolis of all Celtic Gaul, the
principal quarters of the legions, the market for
sixty commercial nations, and the point from
which the four great roads, made by Agrippa,
opened into Gaul. One of these led to the Py-
renees by the Cevennes mountains, Auvergne,
and Aquitain ; another to the Rhine; the third
to the ocean by Beauvoisis and Picardy; and
the fourth to the Mediterranean by Narbonese
Gaul. The city was built at first on the decli-
vity of the mountain which stretches on the right
of the Saone: it was embellished by Claudius,
but laid waste by the barbarians: reduced to
ashes in a single night, by lightning, it was re-
built in the reign of Nero on its present site.
Among the ancient monuments are to be observed
the ruins of an aqueduct and a theatre, a fish-
pond in good preservation, several pieces of mo-
saic work, and two columns of immense size,
which decorated the famous altar of Augustus.
Two general councils were held here in the thir–
teenth and fourteenth centuries. In the reign of
Francis I. the Genoese laid the foundation of
those silk manufactures which have since reached
so high a degree of prosperity. In 1793 it was
besieged by an army of 60,000 men, by order of .
the national convention, and defended itself for
two months with the most heroic courage; but it
was at length obliged to capitulate, after having
suffered the horrors of famine and a most tre-
mendous bombardment. It was afterwards sub-
ject to all the miseries of a city taken by storm;
its principal edifices were demolished, and its
name changed into that of Ville Affranchie. It
has now become more flourishing than ever.
Marcus Aurelius, Caracalla, and Claudius,
were born here: as were also de Couston and de
Coisevox, celebrated sculptors: de Linguet; de
Jussieu, the celebrated botanist; de Bergasse,
Morellet, Philippon la Madelaine, Prud’homme,
and Degerando, men of letters; de Patrin, the
naturalist; de Rozier, and marshall Suchet.
The manufactures of this city consist of silks
of all kinds, gold and silver stuffs, shawls,
crapes, hats, printed linen, cotton tissues, em-
broidery, gilding, silk millinery, gold and silver
lace, and painted papers. It also has consider-
able manufactories of liqueurs, mineral acids
and chemicals, dye-houses, metal and type foun-
dries, machines for drawing gold and silver wire,
glass-houses, delf factories, plaster-mills, tan-
yards, and curriers' shops. The inhabitants
carry on a traffic in all the above articles, as well
as in all sorts of grain, wines, brandies, and such
colonial produce as is not prohibited; they also
deal in oils, chestnuts, soap, and salt. The
Rhone, the Saone, and the Loire, present great
facilities for the transport of goods. Among the
public institutions may be reckoned its library,
the finest in all the departments, containing
LYR
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800 MSS. in different languages; its museum
of pictures and antiquities; its fine botanical
garden; its town hall, the handsomest in
France; the gallery of the fine arts; its hospital
built on the quay of the Rhone, with a grand
front of the Ionic order, and a quadrangular
dome rising over it, adorned with the emblems
of medicine; the church of St. John, with its
fine clock; the custom-house; the theatre; the
archbishop's palace, &c.; besides the squares,
the finest of which is that of Bellecour, with an
equestrian statue of Louis XIV. This city is
about 354 miles south-east from Paris, 123 south-
west from Geneva,seventy-two west of Chamberry,
eighty-one north-west of Grenoble, and fifty-one
south of Macon; in lat. 45° 45', long. 2°29' E.
of Paris. - -
Lyons (Israel), an eminent botanist and ma-
thematician, the son of a learned Polish Jew,
who was a jeweller, and published a Hebrew
Grammar, and observations on Scripture His-
tory. Israel was born at Cambridge in 1739.
In 1758 he published a Treatise on Fluxions:
in 1763 Fasciculus plantarum circa Cantabrigiam
nascentium. He read lectures at Oxford; and,
in 1773, accompanied captain Phipps (afterwards
lord Mulgrave) to the north pole, by order of
the board of longitude, who rewarded several of
his inventions. He had a salary of £100 a year
for calculating the Nautical Almanac. He mar-
ried, and died at London, in 1775. -
LYRA (Nicholas de), so called from the place
of his birth, Lyre, in Normandy. He was a
converted Jew of the fourteenth century, whose
wrong-headed zeal in defence of the communion
he had embraced, as the Catholic writers assert,
contributed not a little to the progress of the
reformation. ‘If this lyre had not played,’
they say, ‘Luther never would have danced.” Of
his works, which consist principally of annota-
tions on the Bible, there are two editions extant;
that of Rome, 5 vols. folio, and that of Antwerp
in 6 vols. De Lyra, on renouncing Judaism,
assumed the tonsure; and died in 1340, at
Paris, where he had fºr some time been a lec-
turer on theology.
LYRE, n.s. Fr. lyre; Lat. lyra. A
LYR'Ic, n. S. & adj. (harp; a musical instru-
LYR'ICAL, adj. ment to which poetry is
LY'RIST, n.s. supposed to be sung :
lyric and lyrist, are those who compose or play
for or to the lyre. -
With other notes than to the Orphean lyre.
Milton.
All his trophies hung and acts enrolled .
In copious legend, or sweet lyrick song. Id.
Somewhat of the purity of English, somewhat of
more equal thoughts, somewhat of sweetness in the
numbers; in one word, somewhat of a finer turn,
and more lyrical verse is yet wanting. Dryden.
The greatest conqueror in this nation, after the
manner of the old Grecian lyricks, did not only com-
pose the words of his divine odes, but set them to
musick himself. - Addison.
My softest verse, my darling lyre,
Upon Euphelia's toilet lay. - Prior.
He never touched his lyre in such a truly chroma-
tick manner as upon that occasion. Arbuthnot.
106,000 volumes, among which are more than
His tender theme the charming lyrist chose
Minerva’s anger, and the direful woes .
Which voyaging from Troy the victors bore.
* Pope.
The lute neglected, and the lyrick muse, op
Love taught my tears in sadder notes to flow,
And tuned my heart to elegies of woe. Id.
If Young be not a lyrick poet; he is at least a cri-
tick in that sort of poetry; and, if his lyrick poetry
can be proved bad, it was first proved so by his own
criticism. Johnson.
. The author of Davideis is commended by Dryden
for having written it in couplets, because he disco-
vered that any staff was too lyrical for an heroic
poem. - sº -
So should an idiot, while at large he strays,
Find the sweet lyre on which an artist plays,
With rash and awkward force the chords he shakes,
And grins with wonder at the jar he makes.
- - * Cowper.
Fair Spring advancing calls her feathered choir,
And tunes to softer notes her laughing lyre ;
Bids her gay hours on purple pinions move,
And arms her Zephyrs with the shafts of Love.
Darwin.
In vain my lyre would lightly breathe
The smile that sorrow fain would wear;
|But mocks the woe that lurks beneath,
Like roses o'er a sepulchre. Byron.
LYRE. All ancient authors agree that the
lyre was invented by Mercury; but they differ
much respecting the number of strings with
which it was furnished. Some assert it was
only three ; that the sounds of the two remote
were acute, and that of the intermediate one a
mean between them. Others say that the lyre
had four strings; that the interval between the
first and fourth was an octave, that the second
was a fourth from the first, and the fourth the
same distance from the third, and that from the
second to the third was a tone. Others contend
that the lyre of Mercury had seven strings. Ni-
comachus, a follower of Pythagoras, says, “The
lyre made of the shell was invented by Mercury;
and the knowledge of it, as it was constructed
by him of seven strings, was transmitted to
Orpheus: Orpheus taught the use of it to
Thamyris and Linus: the latter taught it to
Hercules, who communicated it to Amphion the
Theban, who built the seven gates of Thebes to
the seven strings of the lyre.’ He adds, “that
Orpheus was afterwards killed by the Thracian
women; that they cast his lyre into the sea,
which was afterwards thrown up at Antissa, a
city of Lesbos; that certain fishers finding it,
they brought it to Terpander, who carried it to
Egypt, greatly improved; and, showing it to the
Egyptian priests, assumed to himself the honor of
its invention.’ The difference among authors seems
to have arisen from their confounding together the
Egyptian and the Grecian Mercuries. The
invention of the primitive lyre with three strings
was due to the first Egyptian Hermes. The
lyre attributed to the Grècian Mercury is de-
scribed by almost all the poets to be an instru-
ment of seven strings. See MERCURY. Vincent
Galilei has collected the various opinions of the
Greek writers, who have mentioned the inven-
tion of the chelys, or testudo; and Mr. Spence
has done the saine in a very circumstantial
manner. The substance of the legend he quotes
LYR
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362
is “that Mercury, after stealing some bulls from
Apollo, retired to a grotto, at the foot of a
mountain in Arcadia; found a tortoise feeding
at the entrance, killed and eat the flesh of it;
and, as he was diverting himself with the shell,
observed the noise it gave from its concave
figure; on which he cut several thongs out of
the hides he had stolen, fastened them as tight as
he could to the shell, and thus invented a new
kind of music with them.” The most ancient
representations of this instrument agree very
well with this account of its invention. The
lyre was represented as made of one entire
shell of a tortoise;.. that of Amphion in the
celebrated group of the Dirce or Toro, in the
Farnese palace at Rome, which is of Greek
sculpture, and very high antiquity, is figured in
this manner. There have, however, been many
other claimants to the seven-stringed lyre. For,
though Mercury invented this instrument, Ho-
mer says, he afterwards gave it to Apollo (who
was the first that played upon it with method,
and accompanied it with poetry) as a peace-
offering for the oxen he had stolen from him.
Diodorus informs us, that Apollo, repenting of
the cruelty with which he had treated Marsyas
(see MARSYAs), broke the strings of the lyre,
and put a stop for a time to any further progress
in the practice of that new instrument. “The
Muses,’ adds he, 4 afterwards added to this in-
strument the string called mese; Linus, that of
lichanos; and Orpheus and Thamyras, those
strings which are named hypate and parhypate.
Many ancient authorstell us, that, before the time
of Terpander, the Grecian lyre had only four
strings. Suidas says, it remained in this state
856 years, from the time of Amphion, till Ter-
pander added to it three new strings, which ex-
tended the musical scale to a heptachord, and
supplied the player with two conjoint tetra-
chords. About 150 years after this, Pythagoras
added an eighth string to the lyre, to complete
the octave, which consisted of two disjoint tetra-
chords. Boethius tells us, that the system did
not long remain in such narrow limits as a
tetrachord. Chorzebus, the son of Atys, king of
Lydia, added a fifth string; Hyagnis a sixth ;
Terpander a seventh ; and Lycaon of Samos an
eighth. But all these accounts are irreconcil-
able with Homer's hymn to Mercury, where the
chelys, or testudo, the invention of which he
ascribes to that god, is said to have had seven
strings. There are many claimants among the
musicians of ancient Greece to the strings that
were afterwards added to these, by which the
scale, in the time of Aristoxenus, was extended
to two octaves. Athenæus speaks of the nine
stringed instrument; and Ion of Chios, a tragic
and lyric poet, who recited his pieces in the
eighty-second Olympiad, 452 B.C., mentions, in
, some verses quoted by Euclid, the ten-stringed
lyre; a proof that the third conjoint tetraghord
was added to the scale in his time, which was
about fifty years after Pythagoras constructed the
octachord. The different claimants to the same
musical discoveries only prove, that music was
cultivated in different countries; and that the
inhabitants of each improved their own instru-
ments, some of which, happening to resemblethose
of other parts of Greece, led historians to attribute
the same invention to different persons. Thus
the single flute was given to Minerva and to
Marsyas; the syrinx or fistula to Pan and
Cybele; and the lyre or cythera to Mercury,
Apollo, Amphion, Linus, and Orpheus. ' " " '
LYRIC PoETRY, such as the ancients sung to
the lyre of harp. It was originally employed in
celebrating the praises of gods and heroes, and
its characteristic was sweetness. It was much
cultivated by the Greeks; and Horace was the
first who attempted it in the Latin language.
Anacreon, Alcaeus, Stesichorus, Sappho, "and
Horace, were the most celebrated lyric poets of
antiquity. * . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
LYRODI, among the ancients, musicians who
played on the lyre and sung at the same time.
This appellation was also given to such as made
it their employment to sing lyric poems com-
posed by others. - - : x . . .
LYSANDER, a famous Spartan general, who
conquered the Athenians at Ægospotamos, and
subjected their city to thirty tyrants. See ATHENs
and SPARTA. ... : . . . . . . . . .
LYSANDRIA, a Samian festival, celebrated
with games and sacrifices in honor of the Lace-
demonian general Lysander. It was anciently
called herea; but this name the Samians abolished
by a public decree.
LYSIARCH, an ancient magistrate, who su-
perintended the sacred games, and presided in
matters of religion in the province of Lycia. He
was created in a council consisting of deputies
from the twenty-three provincial cities. The
lysiarchs were both' heads of the council and
pontiffs of the provincé. * * * * * , , i.
LYSIAS, an ancient Grecian orator, born in
Syracuse in the 80th Olympiad. At fifteen
tº
he went to Thürion, a colony of the Athenians;
and, when grown up, assisted in the administra-
tion of the government many years. When about
forty-seven years of age, he returned to Athens;
whence, being afterwards banished by the thirty
tyrants, he went to Megara. He taught oratory,
and though he did not plead at the bar, he sup-
plied others with speeches. ‘Fuit Lysias in
causis forensibus nonversatus,’ says Cicero, ‘sed
egregie subtilis scriptor atque elegans,’ &c.
Quintilian gives him a similar character. Plu-
tarch and Photius relate, that 425 orations were
formerly exhibited under the name of Lysias;
of which only thirty-four are now extant. The
best edition is by Dr. John Taylor at London,
1739, 4to.; Cambridge, 1740, 8vo. -
LYSIMACHIA, loosestrife, in botany, a genus
of the monogynia order, and pentandria class of
plants; natural order twentieth, rotaceae: coR.


rotaceous: daps.globular, beaked, and ten-valved.
There are séveral species, but only four are com-
monly cultivated in gardens. These are hardyher-
baceous perennials and biennials, rising with
erect stalks, from eightéen inches to two or three
feet high;' garnished with narrow entire leaves;
and terminated by spikes and clusters of mono-
petalous, rotated, five-parted, spreading flowers,
of white and yellow colors. They are easily
propagated by seeds, and thrive in any soil or
situation. * . . . - . . . ;
IYSIPPUS, a celebrated Greek statuary, born
LYT
LYT
363
at Sicyone. He was first a locksmith, afterwards
a painter; but at last applied himself entirely to
sculpture; in which he acquired an immortal
reputation, and made a number of statues that
were the admiration of the people of Athens and
Rome. His grand statue of the sun, represented
in a car drawn by four horses, was worshipped
at Rhodes. He made several statues of Alexander
and his favorites, which were brought to Rome
by Metellus, after he had reduced the Macedonian
empire; and the statue of a man wiping and
anointing himself after bathing, being particularly
excellent, was placed by Ágrippa before his
baths in that city. He lived in the time of
Alexander the Great, about 334 B.C.; and left
three sons, all famous statuaries.
LYSONS (Samuel), an eminent British to-
pographer and antiquarian. He was born in
1763, in Gloucestershire; and, after finishing his
early studies, became a student of the Middle
Temple, and was called to the bar. In 1804 he
succeeded Mr. Astle as keeper of the records in
the tower, which office he held till his death in
1819. Mr. Lysons' publications relate princi-
pally to the Roman antiquities of Britain, in-
cluding Figures and Descriptions of Mosaic
Pavements discovered at Horkstow in Lincoln-
shire, 1801, folio; Remains of two Temples,
and other Roman Antiquities, discovered at Bath,
1802, folio; Roman Remains discovered at
Woodchester in Gloucestershire, folio. He also
published a volume of miscellaneous antiquities
of Gloucestershire; and, in conjunction with his
brother, the Rev. Daniel Lysons, the earlier
volumes of the Magna Britannica, many of the
plates of which were,etched by himself.
LYTHRUM, purple loosestrife, in botany, a
genus of the monogynia order, and decandria
class of plants; natural order seventeenth, caly-
canthemae: CAL, cleft into twelve parts; and there
are six petals inserted into it: CAPs. bilocular
and polyspermous. There are many,species, of
which the most remarkable are,
1. L. Hispanum, the Spanish loosestrife, with
a hyssop leaf, grows naturally in Spain and
Portugal. It has a perennial root. The stalks
are slender, not more than nine or ten inches
long, spreading out on every side. The lower
part of the stalk is garnished with oblong oval
leaves placed opposite. The flowers come out
singly from the side of the stalks at each joint;
they are larger than those of the common sort,
and make a fine appearance in July, when they
are in beauty. It is propagated by seeds brought
from those countries where it is native.
2. L.Salicaria, the common purple loosestrife,
with oblong leaves, is a native of Britain, and
grows naturally by the sides, of ditches and rivers.
It has a ſperennial root, from which, come forth
several upright angular stalks, rising from three
to four feet high, garnished with, oblong leaves,
placed sometimes by pairs; but sometimes there
are three leaves at each joint-standing round the
stalk. The flowers are purple, and produced in
a long, spike at the top of the stalk: making a
fine appearance. This species is propagated by
parting the roots in autumn, in a moist, soil.
LYTTELTON (Edward), lord Lyttelton,
keeper of the great seal in the reign of Charles
I., was eminent for his probity and moderation
at the commencement of that monarch's disputes
with his subjects. Without forfeiting his fidelity
to the king, he preserved the esteem of the par-
liament till 1644, when he was made colonel or
a regiment in the king's army at York. He died
in 1645. Besides several speeches, which have
been printed, he wrote reports in the common
pleas and exchequer, printed in London in 1683,
in folio; several arguments and discourses, &c.
. LYTTELTON (George), lord, eldest son of Sir
Thomas Lyttelton, bart., descended from the
great judge of that name, was born in 1700, at
seven months; and the midwife, supposing him
to be dead, threw him carelessly into the cradle;
where, had not some signs of life been observed
by one of the attendants, he might never have re-
covered. He received the elements of his educa-
tion at Eton, where he showed an early inclination
to poetry. His pastorals, and some other light
pieces, were originally written in that seminary;.
whence he was removed to the university of Ox-
ford, where he sketched the plan of his Persian
Letters, a work which afterwards procured him
great reputation, not only from the elegance of
their style, but from the excellent observations
they contain on the manners of mankind. In
1728 he set out on the tour of Europe; and, on
his arrival at Paris, became acquainted with M.
Poyntz, then minister at the court of Versailles;
who employed him in many political negocia-
tions, which he executed with great judgment
and fidelity. About this time he wrote his poeti-
cal epistles to Dr. Ayscough and Mr. Pope,
which show singular taste and correctness.
After continuing a considerable time at Paris
with M. Poyntz, he proceeded to Lyons and
Geneva; and thence to Turin, where he was
honored with marks of friendship by his Sar-
dinian majesty. He then visited Milan, Venice,
Genoa, and Rome, where he applied himself to
the study of the fine arts. He soon after returned
to his native country, and was elected M. P. for
Okehampton in Devonshire. In 1744 he was
appointed one of the lords commissioners of the
treasury, which gave him an opportunity of
exerting his influence in rewarding merit and
ability. He was the friend and patron of Henry
Fielding, Thomson (author of the Seasons), Mr.
Mallet, Dr. Young, Mr. Hammond, Mr. West,
and Mr. Pope, and a correspondent of M. Vol-
taire. On the death of Thomson, who left his
affairs in a very embarrassed condition, Mr. Lyt-
telton took that poet's sister under his protection.
He revised the tragedy of Coriolanus, which
that writer had not finished; and brought it
out at the theatre-royal, Covent Garden, with
a prologue of his own writing, in which he so
pathetically lamented the loss of that delightful
bard, that almost the whole audience burst into
tears. His masterly Essay on the Conversion and
Apostleship of St. Paul was written in 1747, at
the desire of Gilbert West, esq. In 1754 he
was made cofferer to his majesty, and a privy-
councillor; previous to which he had married
Elizabeth, daughter of field-marshal Sir Robert
Rich, whose conduct however was so indiscreet,
that they separated by mutual consent a few
years after. After being appointed chancellor
MAA
MAB,
364
and under-treasurer of the exchequer, he was, on
the 19th of November, 1757, created a peer.
His speeches on the Scotch and mutiny bills in
1747, on the Jew bill in 1753, and on the privi-
lege of parliament in 1763, showed sound judg-
ment, powerful eloquence, and inflexible in-
tegrity. His last works were Dialogues of the
I)ead, in which the morality of Cambray and
the Spirit of Fontenelle are happily united; and
the History of Henry II, which he published in
1764. He was seized with an inflammation of
the bowels, of which he died at Hagley 22d of
July, 1773. A complete collection of his works
has been since published by his nephew George
Ayscough, esq. -
LYTTLEToN (the honorable Charles), LL.D.,
third son of Sir Thomas, was educated at Eton
and Oxford, entered of the Inner Temple, and
called to the bar; but afterwards took orders,
and was made chaplain to king George II. in
1747; in 1748 dean of Exeter, and in 1762
ologia.
bishop of Carlisle. He was many years presi-
dent of the Society of Antiquaries, and con-
tributed many valuable articles to the Archæ-
He died in 1762. -
LYTTLEToN (Thomas), lord, the son of lord
Lyttleton, a young nobleman of promising
talents, but dissipated manners. He was born
in 1744, and died in 1779, aged thirty-five. His
death was preceded by a very singular circum-
stance: he saw in a dream a young woman
dressed in white, who told him that he would
die within three days. On the third day he had
a party of friends invited to spend the evening
with him; to whom, about the hour predicted,
he said, “I believe I shall jockey the ghost;’
but in a few minutes he became faint, and was
carried to bed, where he soon breathed his last.
A collection of Letters, bearing his name (for we
have reason to doubt whether they were written
by him), was published at London in 1780,
8vo.
M.
M is used, 1. as a letter; 2. as a numeral;
and 3. as an abbreviature. I. As a letter, M is
the twelfth in the alphabet, the ninth consonant,
and the second liquid. It is pronounced by
striking the upper lip against the lower; in
which its pronunciation agrees with that of b :
the only difference consisting in a slight motion
made in the nose in pronouncing m, and not in
b; whence those who have caught cold, for m
ordinarily pronounce b : the nose in that case
being disabled from making the necessary mo-
tion. The names of all consonants are formed
with the aid of vowels; in em the vowel pre-
cedes, in be it follows. Quintilian observes,
that m sometimes ends Latin words, but never
Greek ones; the Greeks always changing it into
n, for the sake of the sound. II. As a numeral,
M was used among the ancients for a thousand.
When a dash is put on the top of it thus (M) it
signifies 1000 times 1000, or 1,000,000. III.
As an abbreviature, M stands for Manlius, Mar-
cus, Martius, Mucius, and Monsieur: M. A. signi-
fies magister artium, or master of arts; A. M.
anno mundi, or the year of the world; M. D.
doctor of medicine; M.S. manuscript; and MSS.
manuscripts, &c. M., in astronomical tables,
&c., is used for meridional, or southern ; and
sometimes for meridian or mid-day. M, in
medicinal prescription, is frequently used for a
maniple or handful; it is also often put at the
end of a recipe, for misce, mingle; or for mix-
tura, a mixture. Thus m.f. julapium, signifies
mix and make a julep.
M, in law, formerly the brand or stigma of a
person convicted of manslaughter, and admitted
to the benefit of his clergy.
MAADIE, a lake and village of Lower Egypt,
between Aboukir and Alexandria. The lake
communicates on one side with the Mediterra-
nean, and on the other with the Lake Mareotis,
by narrow channels. The village is not far from
Aboukir. -
MAATLUYS, a large town of the Nether-
lands, in South Holland, situated on the Sluis-
diep, an arm of the Maese. Its chief pursuit is
the cod and herring fishery. Population 6500.
Ten miles west of Rotterdam.
MABA, in botany, a genus of the triandria
order, and dioecia class of plants. Perianth of
the male trifid; that of the female as in the
male; the fruit a plum two-celled superior.
Species one, a native of the Friendly Isles, hav-
ing small vellous flowers.
MABILLON (John), a learned French writer,
born at Pierre-monte, on the frontiers of Cham-
pagne, in 1632. He was educated in the uni-
versity of Rheims, and afterwards entered into
the abbey of the Benedictines of St. Remy. In
1663 he was appointed keeper of the monu-
ments of France at St. Dennis. In 1664 he went
to Paris, and assisted F. D'Acheri in compiling
his Spicilegium. Soon after he revised from the
MSS, and published an edition of St. Bernard.
In 1683 Colbert sent him into Germany, to search
the archives and libraries of the ancient abbeys,
for what would contribute to illustrate the history
of the church. He published an account of this
journey. In 1685 he undertook another journey
into Italy, by order of the king of France; and
returned in 1686 with a collection for the king's
library, of above 3000 volumes of rare books,
printed and in MS. He composed two volumes
of the pieces which he had discovered in that
country. He was highly esteemed for his virtues
as well as his learning.
MABLY (Gabriel Bonnot, abbé de), a modern
French political and historical writer, was born
at Grenoble in 1709. He only rose in the church
to the order of sub-deacon; and though related
to the cardinal de Tencin, with whom he lived as
secretary, avoided preferment. He even declined
admission into the academy, and gave up an an-
nuity to his relations: but the court settled upon
him a pension. He died in 1785. His works
MAC
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of which the Discourses upon History are best
known in England, were collected in 15 vols.
8vo., 1794. - - -
MACAO, an island and town of China, sepa
rated from the continent by a narrow channel of
the bay of Canton. It is the only European
settlement within the limits of the celestial em
pire; and was first allowed to be formed by the
Portuguese, in consequence of the protection
they afforded to the empire from a band of
pirates. The territory is about three miles in
length, and half a mile in breadth ; the isthmus
connecting it with the rest of the island being
crossed by a wall, projecting on both sides into
the sea, where the Chinese keep a gate and
guard-house. Beyond this boundary Europeans
are seldom permitted to pass. The streets of
Macao are narrow and irregular, but the houses
are built of stone, on the European plan, and are
interspersed with a due portion of churches and
convents. The senate-house is at the end of the
only spacious and elegant street in the town.
The governor's house is near the landing-
place, and the English factory is a plain build-
ing contiguous to it: the United States also,
and other nations, have factories here. The
fortifications are numerous, but principally de-
tached. The fortified convent of N. S. de la
Guie, on the summit of a hill, commands
a part of the city; and on another hill is
also a fortified convent, formerly belonging to
the Jesuits. These, and several batteries com—
manding the entrance of the harbour, mount
heavy guns, and are garrisoned by from 200 to
300 troops, principally Indian Portuguese sent
from Goa. -
The population of Macao is estimated at 1400
males, mostly born in the city and of mixed
breed; the number of Europeans being very
trifling. The females are reckoned at 2400,
a great portion of whom are Tartars by birth,
purchased in infancy, and adopted by the Portu-
guese as future wives for their sons. The village
of Moa, which adjoins the city, is inhabited
entirely by Chinese, to the supposed number of
25,000, and those who live in the boats in the
harbour may be 5000, making the whole popu-
lation of the peninsula 33,800.
Macao presents the phenomenon of a city
under two distinct and very opposite govern-
ments; for, though the full sovereignty of the
peninsula nominally belongs to the Portuguese:
in virtue of the original grant, the Chinese have
gradually encroached on their privileges, until at
last they have usurped the entire authority de
facto, and, commanding as they do the supply of
provisions, the whole place is completely at
their mercy. Originally the Portuguese were
authorised to oblige the Chinese to quit the
peninsula at sunset; but, this precaution being
neglected, the Chinese have not only fixed them-
selves in the village of Moa, but even claim a
great authority within the city, so that the Por-
tuguese cannot even repair their houses without
permission from the mandarin; neither can they
cultivate the scanty portion of soil of which they
are the nominal proprietors, the Chinese having
covered every spot unbuilt on with tombs; and,
by their religion and custom, the spot of ground
in which a body is interred, immediately be-
comes the sacred property of the family of the
deceased, and is for ever held inviolate. The
Portuguese government of Macao consists of a
governor, a king's lieutenant, or disembarcador;
the first sent from Goa for three years, and the
latter from Lisbon for five. The bishop, who is
suffragan of Goa, is the third person in the
government. The municipal government is in a
senate, which assumes the pompous title of the
august senate of the noble-city of Macao. The
mandarin of Hong-Chang-foo, a town of 100,000
inhabitants, seven leagues west of Macao, has
the immediate superintendance of the Chinese
government of Macao.
The harbour of Macao is formed by the west
side of the peninsula, and the east side of an
island; it can receive vessels eighteen or nine-
teen feet draft. Four miles south of the city is
another port, named the Typa, formed by four
rocky islands, and fit for vessels of twenty feet.
No stranger can leave Macao without visiting
the grotto in which Camoens is supposed to
have composed his Lusiad; and, indeed, the
situation is capable of inspiring a poetical feel-
ing, commanding an extensive and magnificent
view of the sea and neighbouring islands. As
no European woman is permitted to set foot
on the Chinese territory, all those who may be
on board ships going into the river of Canton
are always landed at Macao, to wait the return
of the ship. -
Macao was at one time a place of the greatest
importance to the Portuguese, being the centre
of their trade with China, Japan, Siam, Cochin-
China, and all the countries in this part of Asia.
Since the general decline of their Indian trade,
which has been prosecuted by other nations with
such superior success and activity, it has sunk
into comparative insignificance. Long. 113°
32° E., lat. 22° 10' N.
MAcAo, in ornithology. See PSITTACUs.
MACARIA (Makapua, i.e. happiness), in my-
thology, daughter of Hercules and Dejanira.
During the war between Eurystheus and the
Heraclidae, who were supported by the Athe-
nians, she devoted herself to death, to insure
victory to her brethren, according to the response
of the oracle. The Athenians, therefore, decreed
divine honors to her, and worshipped her as the
goddess of happiness. See FELICITAs.
MACARIANS, in ecclesiastical history, the
followers of Macarius, an Egyptian monk, who
was distinguished, towards the close of the fourth
century, for his sanctity and virtue. In his
writings there are some superstitious tenets, and
certain opinions tainted with Origenism.
MACARIANs was also the name of another
sect, the followers of Macarius, a native of Ire-
land, who, about the close of the ninth century,
propagated in France the error afterwards main-
tained by Averrhoes, that one individual intelli-
gence or soul performed the spiritual and rational
functions in all the human race. -
MACARONIAN, or MACARONIC, a kind of
burlesque poetry, consisting of a jumble of
words of different languages, with words of the
vulgar tongue Latinised, and Latin words mo-
dernised. Some derive the word from French
MAC
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366
macaron, or macăroon, a kind of cake, which,
from being composed of various ingredients,
occasioned this kind of poetry, which consists of
Latin, Italian, Spanish, French, English, &c.; to
he called by its name. Folengio, a Benedictine
monk, was the first who invented this kind of
verse. See FoleNG10. The best pieces of this
kind are, the Baldus of Folengio, and Macaronis
Forza, by Stesonio a Jesuit, among the Italians;
and the Reātus veritabilis, &c., among the
French. Rabelais first transferred the macaro-
nic style out of the Italian verse into French
rose, in his Pantagruel. We have little in
ºnglish in the macaronian way, but some pieces
collected in Camden's remains. But the Ger-
mans and Netherlanders have had their macaro-
nic poets. Certamen Catholicum cum Calvinistis,
by Martinus Hamconius Frisius, contains about
1200 verses, all the words whereof began with
C. Drummond of Hawthornden's Polemo-
Middinia is reckoned to be equal to any thing
written in this style. The following lines may
serve as an example:—
Archelos pistoliferos furiamque manantum, ,
Et grandem esmentam quae inopinum facta ruelle
€St : . : .
Toxinumque alto troublantem corda clochero, &c.
MAC'AROON, n.s. Ital. macerona. A coarse
rude fellow.
Like a big wife, at sight of loathed meat,
Ready to travail; so I sigh and sweat, -
To hear this macaroon talk on in vain. Bonne.
MACARTHEY (Sir Charles), an Irish officer,
late governor of Sierra Leone, was, in 1796, an
officer in the Irish brigade, and in 1821 lieute-
nant-colonel in the African corps. On the war
breaking out with the Ashantees he went to Cape
Coast, and the king of those barbarians is said to
have sent him a message, expressing his hope to
have his head as an ornament for his great war
drum. This message made a considerable im-
pression on the mind of Sir Charles, and he fre-
quently mentioned it in conversation. At length,
in 1823, hostilities commenced, and he marched
against the Ashantees with a mixed force of Eu-
ropeans and blacks, the latter of whom ran away,
and, the whites being defeated, their commander
was captured by the Ashantee chief, who realised
his menace, January 21st, 1824. In a subsequent
battle, this trophy; however, was recovered, and
conveyed to his relations.
MACARTNEY (George earl of) was born at
the family mansion of Lissanoure, in Ireland.
When very young he was placed under the
charge of a clergyman. At the age of thirteen
he was admitted a fellow commoner of Trinity
College; and, in 1759, he took the degree of mas-
ter'of arts. From Dublin he went to London,
and was entered of the society of the Middle
Temple, where he formed an intimacy with Mr.
Burke, and many other characters then rising
into eminence. In 1764 Mr. Macartney was ap-
F. envoy extraordinary to the empress of
Aussia; and his zeal and penetration, in the exer-
cise of his high office, gave ample evidence that
the choice had been judiciously made. Upon his
return from St. Petersburgh, a mission to the
courton Pekin was suggested by lord Melville,
then president of the board of control, and Ma-
cartney was named by ministry with a salary of
f15,000 a-year. The obstacles which were raised,
by the absurd jealousy and prejudices of the Chi-
mese, to a free commercial. intercourse with this
country, as well as the general failure of the lead-
ing objects of the embassy, are well known to all
our readers. Our ambassador, accordingly, left
the court of China on the 17th of March, 1794,
and landed at Portsmouth on the 5th of Septem-
ber of the same year. Whatever was his success
in foreign countries, his exertions were not over-
looked at home; for the king had, by patent dated
the 1st of March, 1794, advanced him to the
title of earl of Macartney, in the county of An-
trim. His lordship died the 31st of March, 1806.
MACAS, a woody district of the province of
Quixos and Macas, in South America, being the
most easterly part of Quito. It is bounded on
the south by the province of Jaen de Bracamores,
and west by those of Riobamba and Cuença,
from which it is separated by the eastern chain
of the Andes. The nearness of Macas to the An-
des causes a sensible difference betwixt its tem-
perature and that of Quito. The winter begins
here in April, and lasts till September, which is
the time of summer betwixt the Cordilleras; and
at Macas the fine season is in September. It is
hot and moist, and its territory is fertile in seeds
and fruits, sugar and cotton; but the principal
produce is a very fine tobacco. This province is
exposed to frequent ravages from the Indians.
Among the great variety of trees, the most re-
markable are the storax and cinnamon, which
last is said to be of a superior quality to that of
Ceylon. Copal and wild wax are also brought
from Macas; but the latter is of little value, as
it never indurates, and the smell is very strong.
MACAs, the capital of the province of that
name (formerly called Sevilla del Oro, on ac-
count of its gold mines), is now but a small place.
Population, chiefly people of color, 700 : 138
miles south of Quito.
MACASSAR, a former kingdom of the island
of Celebes, on the south-west coast, extended
along the coast from Boelebbele, in the bay of
Boni, to the point of Lassum, or Lassoa, and
thence westward to the point of Touratti, or
Tanakeke, and along the west coast northward
to Tanetté, or Aganondje: reaching inland as far
as Boni and Soping. Its power was at the high-
est about the middle of the last century, when
its princes had rendered Loma, Mandelly, Bima,
Tambora, Dompo, and Sangar, tributary to
them; and had conquered Bouton, Bungay,
Gapil, Sumbawa, and the Xulla Islands. They
also held the government of Saleyer, which had
been given to Macassar by Baab Ullach, king
of Ternate; were in strict alliance with the inha-
bitants of Bali, and coined gold coins (probably
the gold mas), of the value of sixty Dutch sti-
vers. The empire of Macassar was not entirely
subverted by the Dutch until 1778. -
MACASSAR, or Fort Rotterdam, the chief
Dutch settlement in the island of Célebes, is
situated on the south-west coast, and was built
by the natives, with the assistance of the Portu-
guese. It is about 800 feet from the beech,
MAC
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367
opposite to the road, where a pier extends, which
serves for unloading the ships, and close to
#hich theré are fifteen or sixteen feet water.
The bay is full of small islands and sand-banks.
The walls of the fort are of rock-stone, high and
strong; and without the land-gate is a large plain,
on the fiorth side of which is situated the town.
Towards the sea is also a strong battery, which
commands the roads to a great distance. The
streets, which are broad, cross each other at
right angles, pointing to the four cardinal points;
at the end of one of them is the orphan-house, a
large building, but in a ruinous state; the houses,
generally, are respectable. The Chinese all live
together in one street. The town is palisadoed
all round, arid is at night closed by gates. The
governor's house stands without the town, to the
southward. The church has been rebuilt within
these few years. The environs form an extensive
plain, extending eight or ten miles, and which
reaches to the foot of a range of high mountains.
The country is considered high and healthy.
The settlement is flöurishing; and Chinese junks
from this place carry on a direct trade with
China, so that the maixed population is very con-
siderable. The beef here is good and of reasonable
price; rice, poultry, deer, and wild hogs, are also
in plenty; water is generally procured from a
small rivulet which runs hear the town; but the
best is from the wells, and can be readily shipped
from the pier. Abundance of excellent fish are
caught in the roads. This island was discovered
by the Portuguese about 1525, who obtained
permission to establish themselves, where they
remained quiet till about 1660, when they were
driven out by the Dutch. The English estab-
lished a factory here in 1615, which they were
under the fiecessity of abáñdoning. The Dutch
have frequently been engaged in contests with
the natives for the possession of the country;
but they always succeeded in repelling them.
In 1810 the settlement'surréndered to the British,
but was retunred to the Dutch in 1814. Long.
119° 48' E., lat. 5°9′ S. - -
MACASSAR, STRATTs of, separate the islānds
of Borneo and Celebes, and are about 350 miles
long, and from 110 to 140 miles wide, except at
the north entrañcé, where they are contracted to
fifty miles. This part of the eastern seas is much
frequented by ships bound to China, late in the
season: but it abounds in shoals and rocks. In
January and February strong 'northerly winds
prevail. - • * g.
MACAULAY(Catharine), a celebråted female
historian, daughter of John Sawbridge, esq. of
Ollantigh, in Kent. She was married June 13th,
1760, to George Macaulay, M.D., who left her
a widow with one daughter. In 1778 she már-
ried a younger brother of the famous empiric
Dr. Graham. She wrote, 1. The History of
England, from the Accession of James I. to the
Revolution; the first volume of which appeared
in 1763, 4to, and the eighth and last in 1783.
This work was very popular at this time, and the
observations of the author are often acute and
ingenious; but her republican prejudices deprive
it of all claim to impartiality. 2. A Modest
Plea for the Property of Copy Right. 3. Ob-
servations on a Pamphlet, entitled Thoughts on
the Causes of the present Discontéñts, 1770,
8vo. 4. Remarks on Mr. Hobbes's Rudiments
of Government and Society, 8vo. 5. Address
to the People of Engländ, Scotland, and Ire-
land, on the present important crisis of affairs,
1755. 6. History of England, from the Revo-
lution to the present time, in à series of letters
to the Rev. Dr. Wilson, 1778, 4to. 7. Treatise
on the Immutability of Moral Truth, 1783, 8vo.
and 8. Letters on Education, 8vo. 1790. Shé
was a keen republican. Dr. Wilson made her
a present of a handsome house, called Alfred
House, in Bath; and erected a statue of her
while living, in the character of liberty, in his
parish church of Walbrook. She died at Bin-
field, in Berks, 23d of June, 1791. -
MACAW, n. s. Fröm Macao probably. A
tree. See PHOENIX. # * * *
MACBETH, a Scotch nobleman of the blood
royal, who murdered Düricah I. king of Scot-
land, A. D. 1046; and chasing Malcolm Can-.
more, his son and heir, into England, usurped the
crown. Siward, earl of Northumberland, whose
daughter Duncan had married, undertook, by
order of Edward the Confessor, the protection
of the fugitive prince, marched with an army
into Scotland, defeated and killed Macbeth, and
restored Malcolm to the throne of his ancestors.
Shakspeare has made this transaction the subject
of one of his finest tragedies. n
MACBRIDE (David), Dr., an eminent phy-
sician and philosopher, descended from an an-
cient Scotch family in the county of Galloway.
His grandfather and father were présbyterian
clergymen in Ireland: the former at Belfast;
the latter at Ballymony in Antrim, where he
married, and where our author was born in April
1726. After the usual education, and having
studied some time under an eminent surgeon in
his native place, he was sent to the university of
Glasgow, and afterwards to that of Edinburgh.
He then went on board the fiavy as a surgeon's
mate, and after some time was raised to the rank
of surgeon. Although in this situation, he ac-
quired practical experience, yet, having been
rather young when he first attended the classes,
he returned to Edinburgh, and resumed his
academical pursuits, under Dr. Monro. The
Čelebrity of the medical teachers in London led
him also to visit that capital, where he studied
under Dr. Hunter and Dr. Smellie. Thus qua-
lified for the exercise of his profession, about
the end of 1749, he fixed his residence in Dub-
lin. ... His first publication, entitled Experi-
mental 'Essays on Medical, and Philosophical
Subjects, appeared in 1764. Having thus
equally distinguished himself as an ingenious
philosopher and able practitioner, his name was
enrolled with honor in the lists of many learne
societies; and the university where his studies
had commencéd conferred upon him the degree
of M. D.—Nor were his talents confined to the
advancement of medicine alone. He published,
first, An Account of a New Method of Tanning;
and afterwards, Instructions for carrying on the
New Method of Tanning. As a testimony of
respect for his ingenuity, prize medals were now
conferred upon him by the societies of arts both
in London and Dublin. His last and most ex-

MAC
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tensive publication was, A Methodical Introduc-
tion to the Theory and Practice of Medicine.
Most, if not all, of these publications went through
various editions, and were translated into dif-
ferent languages. Meantime his practice in-
creased so rapidly, that he had more business
than he could transact. In this situation, he
was attacked with a fever, which put an end to
his life on the 13th of December, 1778, in the
fifty-third year of his age. During his residence
in Dublin he was twice married, and had child-
ren by both his wives, none of whom survived him.
MACCABAEUS (Judas). See JEws.
MACCABEES, two apocryphal books, con-
taining the history of the Maccabees and their
wars against the Syrian kings, in defence of
their religion and liberties, so called from Mat-
tathias, or his son Judas Maccabaeus, who was so
named from the word ºn 5Y), formed of the ini-
tials of nin' Epsi) non- ºr, q. d., Who is
like unto thee, O Lord, among the gods; which
was the motto of his standard; whence those
who fought under his standard were called Mac-
cabees. The first book of the Maccabees is an
excellent history, and comes nearest to the style
of the sacred historians of any extant. It was
written originally in the Chaldee language, of
the Jerusalem dialect, and was extant in this
language in the time of Jerome. From the
Chaldee it was translated into Greek, and from the
Greek into Latin. It is supposed to have been
written by John Hyrcanus, the son of Simon,
who was prince and high priest of the Jews
nearly thirty years, and began his government at
the time where this history ends. It contains the
history of forty years, from the reign of Anti-
ochus Epiphanes to the death of Simon the
high priest, that is, from A. M. 3829 to 3869;
A. A. C. 131. The second book of the Macca-
bees begins with two epistles sent from the Jews
of Jerusalem to the Jews of Egypt and Alex-
andria; both reckoned spurious. After these
follows the preface to the history, which is an
abridgment of a larger work, composed by one
Jason, a Jew of Cyrene, who wrote in Greek
the history of Judas Maccabaeus and his brethren,
and the wars against Antiochus Epiphanes, and
Eupator. This book does not equal the accu-
racy of the first. It contains a history of about
fifteen years, from the execution of Heliodorus's
commission, who was sent by Seleucus to carry
away the treasures of the temple, to the victory
obtained by Judas Maccabaeus over Nicanor;
that is, from A. M. 3828, to the year 3843, or
A. A. C. 147. There are in the Polyglot bibles,
both of Paris and London, Syriac versions of
both these books; but they, as well as our Eng-
ligh version, are translated from the Greek.
There is also a third book of the Maccabees,
containing the history of the persecution of the
Jews in Egypt, by Ptolemy Philopater, and their
sufferings under it. It seems to have been writ-
ten by some Alexandrian Jew in Greek, soon
after the time of Jesus, the son of Sirach. It is
in most of the ancient MS. copies of the Greek
Septuagint, particularly in the Alexandrian and
Vatican, but was never inserted into the vulgar
Latin version of the bible, nor consequently into
any of our English copies. And Josephus's
history of the martyrs, that suffered under Anti-
ochus Epiphanes, is found in some MS. Greek
bibles, under the name of the Fourth book of
the Maccabees.
MAccABEES, the followers of Judas Macca-
baeus. The name was generally applied to all
who suffered in the cause of true religion, under
the Egyptian and Syrian tyrants.
MACCLESFIELD, anciently written Max-
field, is a large manufacturing borough and
market-town district, eighteen miles and a half
south from Manchester, twelve from Stockport,
and , 1673; north-west from London. Radal,
earl of Chester, first constituted it a borough;
and in or near the year 1261, the prince of Wales,
afterwards king Edward I., made it a free bo-
rough, and granted the burgesses a mercatorial
guild. By the conditions of this charter, the
burgesses were required to grind at the earl's
mill only, and to bake at his oven. This oven, or
bakehouse, is still vested in the crown, and a lease
of it was granted in 1791, for twenty-four years
and a half. By a charter of queen Elizabeth's,
the corporate body was to consist of twenty-four
capital burgesses; but a later charter, from king
Charles II., names a town-clerk, a coroner, two
serjeants at mace, &c., as part of the corporation.
Among other articles delivered into the custody
of the serjeants at mace, in the year 1620, was
“a bridle for a curst queane.” In the town-box
is preserved a copy of a petition sent to Henry
VII. soon after the battle of Bosworth, praying
that the citizens might not lose their charter, al-
though unable to fill up the due number of al-
dermen, having lost so many of their principal
inhabitants in that battle in his service. The
corporation are entitled to all springs and water-
courses in the manor of Macclesfield for supply-
ing the town with water, from which sources, with
the tolls of the market and fairs, considerable
émolument is derived. A court of record is
held once a month for the liberty of the hun-
dred, and another for the manor and forest; a
court leet is also held for these jurisdictions.
This town is the head of the hundred of Mac-
clesfield-forest, where the sessions are held at
Michaelmas and Easter, to try persons charged
with misdemeanors; an inferior court is held
weekly by the mayor and justices.
Macclesfield contains two churches and seve-
ral chapels. St. Michael's is a handsome build-
ing; the tower, which has a peal of eight bells,
is seventy-two feet high. The parochial chapel
was originally built by king Edward I., in the
year 1278; it was almost rebuilt, and greatly
enlarged in 1740. On the south side of this
chapel is an oratory, or burial chapel, which be-
longs to the Savage family; several of whom
were interred here. It now belongs to the earl
of Cholmondeley. In the Legh chapel are some
sepulchral memorials of the family of Legh of
Lyme. A new chapel was erected in the year
1775 by Charles Roe, esq.; and an act of par-
liament was obtained in 1779, when it was called
Christ's Church, or chapel, and the living was
made a perpetual cure, or benefice, to be subject
to the bishop of Chester. In the chancel IS 3
handsome marble monument of the founder, by
Bacon.
M A C E D O N.
369
In this town are meeting-houses for Metho-
dists, and for the Presbyterians, Quakers, and
Independents. A grammar-school was founded
here by Sir John Perceval, knt. Edward VI.
increased its revenues, by giving lands and
houses in and near the city of Chester. An act of
parliament was obtained in 1768, to regulate the
management, and define the constitution of this
noted seminary. The property left to it origi-
nally brought in an income of but £25 per
annum, it now produces £900.
From the abundance of coal and other minerals,
in the neighbourhood, the manufactures of Mac-
clesfield have become very considerable. These
at one time consisted chiefly of wrought buttons,
of silk, mohair, and twist, of which trade this town
has always been the centre. This business, however,
having declined, the cotton manufacture suc-
ceeded to it. There are about thirty silk mills
for making sewing silk, and silk for the manu-
facturers. Coals are found in the immediate
neighbourhood, and not far from the town is a
considerable brewery. There are also numerous
cotton factories: goods are also manufactured in
private houses; and there are several muslin,
silk-weaving. and twist factories. The weaving
of silk handkerchiefs, and the making of ferret
and calico, are increasing manufactures; here are
five or six dye-houses, principally for silk, a tape
manufactory, and a bleaching ground. The new
regulations concerning the silk manufactures
have considerably increased the trade of this
town.
MACDIARMID (John), an ingenious mis-
cellaneous writer, was born in 1779 at Weem, in
Perthshire, of which parish his father was minis-
ter. He was educated for the church, but on
coming to London became editor of the St.
James's Chronicle. He published in 1803 An
Enquiry into the System of Military Defence,
2 vols. 8vo.; which was followed by An Enquiry
into the Nature of Civil and Military Subordi-
nation. His last and best work was entitled
Lives of British Statesmen, 4to, He died in
1808,
MACE, n.s. Sax. mace ; Span, maza ; Ital.
mazza ; Fr. massue; Lat. massa ; Gr. uača. A
heavy weapon, or metal club; an ensign of au-
thority.
With him ther wenten knightes many on
Som wol ben armed in an habergeon,
Som wol ben armed on his legs wele,
And have an axe, and som a mace of stele.
Chaucer. Canterbury Tales.
He mightily upheld that royal mace,
Which now thou bearest. Faerie Queene.
The Turkish troops breaking in with their scy-
mitars and heavy iron maces, made a most bloody
execution. - (nolles.
O murtherous slumber 1
Layest thou thy leaden mace upon my boy
That plays the musick?
Shakspeare. Julius Caesar.
Death with his mace petrifick smote. Milton.
With his mace, their monarch struck the ground;
With inward trembling earth received the wound,
And rising streams a ready passage found.
Dryden.
The mighty maces with such haste descend,
They break the bones, and make the armour bend.
Id.
Vol. XIII.
I was placed at a quadrangular table, opposite to
the mace-bearer. Spectator.
The crown, a mark of dignity and symbol of
power, like the mace and sceptre, was also taken from
the May : being the representative of the garland or
crown, which then hung on the top of the May, or
pole, it was the signal of convening the people.
Brand’s Antiquities.
MACE, n. s. A Fr. Ital. and Lat. macis. A
MACE’ALE. $ kind of spice: mace-ale is, ale
spiced with mace.
Water, vinegar, and honey, is a most excellent
sudorifick: it is more effectual wiih a little mace
added to it. Arbuthnot.
I prescribed him a draught of maceale, with hopes
to dispose him to rest. Wiseman's Surgery.
The nutmeg is inclosed in a threefold covering, of
which the second is mace: it is thin and membrana-
ceous, of an oleaginous and yellowish colour: it has
an extremely fragrant, aromatick, and agreeable
smell, and a pleasant, but acrid and oleaginous taste.
Hill's Materia Medica.
The MACE was anciently much used by the
cavalry of all nations. It was commonly made
of iron; its figure much resembles a chocolate-
mill; many specimens may be seen in the tower.
It was with one of these that Walworth, mayor
of London, knocked the rebel Wat Tyler from
off his horse in Smithfield, for approaching the
young king Richard II. in an insolent manner;
and, as he fell, he despatched him with his dagger.
In modern times it has changed its form ; and,
being no longer an instrument of war, is made
of copper or silver gilt, ornamented with a
crown, globe, and cross, and is now the chief
ensign of authority throughout Great Britain.
Similar to the ancient maces were those staves
at the end of which iron or leaden balls armed
with spikes were suspended by chains; they
were till lately carried by the pioneers of the
trained bands or city militia.
MACE, in the materia medica, the second coat
or covering of the kernel of the nutmeg, is a
thin and membranaceous substance, of an olea-
ginous nature, and a yellowish color; being met
with in flakes of an inch or more in length, which
are divided into a multitude of ramifications
It is of an extremely fragrant, aromatic, and
agreeable flavor; and of a pleasant, but acrić
oleaginous taste. It is carminative, stomachic
and astringent; and possesses all the virtues o
nutmeg, but has less astringency. The oils o
mace and nutmeg, whether prepared by distil
lation or expression, are so much of the same
nature, that they may be indiscriminately used
for one another on all occasions. They give ease
in cholics, and often in nephritic cases, taken in-
ternally from one drop to five or six of the dis-
tilled oil, or an equal quantity of the expressed;
and externally, they are of use to rub paralytic
limbs: they also assist digestion ; and will often
stop vomitings, and hiccoughs, only by being
rubbed on the region of the stomach.
MACEDON, or MACEDONIA, a celebrated
kingdom of antiquity, bounded on the east by
the Ægean Sea; on the south by Thessaly and
Epirus; on the west by the Ionian Sea or Adri-
atic; and on the north at first by the Strymon
and the Scardian mountains, but afterwards by
the Nessus.
2 B
370
M A C E D O N.
The kingdom of Macedonia extended in a
direct line only 150 miles in length; but the
windings of the coast lengthened it out to three
times that extent; in which almost every conve-
nient situation was occupied by a Grecian sea-
port. The country was naturally divided by the
Thermaic and Strymonic gulfs, into the provinces
of Pieria, Chalcis, and Pangaeus. The middle
region, which took its hame from a city of Eu-
boea, whence it was originally peopled, was very
fertile and pleasant; the inland country being
diversified by lakes, rivers, and arms of the sea,
was extremely convenient for inland navigation,
while the towns of Amphipolis, Potidaa, Acan-
thus, and many others, afforded marts for the
commerce of the republics of Greece, as well as
of Thrace and Macedon. On one side of this
district were the mountains of Pangaeus, and on
the other the plains of Pieria. The Pangaean
mountains, which extended ninety miles towards
the east on the river Nessus, though proper nei-
ther for corn nor pasture, produced plenty of
timber for ship-building ; while the southern
branches of the mountain contained rich veins of
gold and silver; but these, though wrought suc-
cessively by the Thasians and the Athenians,
were only brought to perfection by king Philip
II., who extracted from them gold and silver to
the value of £200,000 sterling annually. Pieria
extended fifty miles along the Thermaic Gulf, to
the confines of Thessaly and Mount Pindus.
The inland part of the country was beautifully
diversified with shady hills and fountains; and
so admirably calculated for retirement, that the
ancients looked upon it to be the favorite haunt
of the muses, and accordingly bestowed upon
them the title of Pierides. In the most early
times this country was called Æmathia from
AP mathias, one of its princes. The name of
Macedon is said to have been derived from
Macedo, a descendant of Deucalion; though
others suppose it to have been only a corruption
of Mygdonia, a district of the country. In those
remote ages, Macedon was divided into a great
number of petty principalities, of which scarcely
even the names are now known.
All authors agree, that Caranus was the first
who established any permanent sovereignty in
Macedon. He was an Argive, a descendant of
Hercules, and about 814 years B. C. conducted
a small colony of his countrymen into the inland
district of Macedon, then called HEmathia. This
territory was about 300 miles in circumference.
On the south it was separated from the sea by a
number of Greek republics, of which the most
considerable were those of Olynthus and Amphi-
polis; and on the north-east and west was sur-
rounded by the kingdoms of Thrace, Poeonia,
and Illyricum. According to the traditions of
those times Caranus, having consulted the oracle
on the success of his intended expedition, was
commanded to be directed by the goats in the es-
tablishment of his empire. For some time he
proceeded at random, without knowing what to
make of the oracle's answer; but happening to
enter the small kingdom of Æmathia, at that
time governed by king Midas, he oberved a herd
of goats running towards Edessa the capital.
Recollecting then the answer of the oracle, he
attacked and took the city by surprise, soon after
making himself master of the whole kingdom.
In memory of this remarkable event he called
the city Hºgea, and the people Hºgiates, from the .
goats who conducted him, and made use of the
figure of a goat in his standard. This fable ac-
counts for the figure of a goat on the coins of
Philip and his successors. The little colony of
Argives led into AEmathia by Caranus would
soon have been overwhelmed by the barbarous
nations who surrounded it, had not this prince
and his subjects taken care to ingratiate them-
selves with their neighbours, rather than to at-
tempt to subdue them. They instructed them in
the Grecian religion and government, and in the
knowledge of many useful arts; adopting them-
selves, in some degree, the language and manners
of the barbarians. Thus they gradually asso-
ciated with the fierce and warlike tribes in their
neighbourhood; and this prudent conduct, being
followed by succeeding generations, may be look-
ed upon as one of the causes of the Macedonian
greatness. Caranus dying, after a reign of twenty
eight years, left the kingdom to his son Coenus
in 786, who, having considerably enlarged his
dominions, was succeeded by Thurymas in 774;
and he by Perdiccas I. in 729. This last prince
is by Thucydides and Herodotus accounted the
founder of the Macedonian monarchy; but his
history is so obscured by fable that nothing cer-
tain can now be known concerning it. In process
9f time, however, the good understanding which
had subsisted between the Macedonians and their
barbarous neighbours began to be interrupted;
and in 691 B.C. the kingdom was for the first
time invaded by the Illyrians. At first they did
considerable damage by their ravages; but Ar-
gaeus the son and successor of Perdiccas I., hav-
ing decoyed them into an ambush, cut off great
numbers, and obliged the remainder to leave the
kingdom. In the reign of his successors, how-
ever, they returned, and often proved very trou-
blesome enemies. Argaeus was succeeded by his
son Philip I., in 640 B.C., and he by his son
Europas in 602; who left the kingdom to his
son Alcetas in 576. *
Alcetas ascended the throne about the time
that the Persian monarchy was founded, and had
the dexterity to preserve his dominions from the
encroachments of the Greeks on the one hand,
and of the Persians on the other; but in the
reign of his son Amyntas I., who succeeded him
in 547, a formal demand was made of submission
to the great king Darius, by sending him a pre-
sent of earth and water. Seven ambassadors
were sent on this errand by Megabyzus, one of
the officers of Darius. They were sumptuously
entertained by Amyntas; but, having attempted
to take some indecent liberties with the Mace-
donian women, Alexander the king's son caused
them all to be murdered. This rash action had
almost proved the ruin of the kingdom; but Alex-
ander pacified Bubaris, the general sent against
him by Megabyzus, by means of his sister
Gygaea, a very beautiful woman, with whom the
Persian fell in love, and afterwards married her.
From this time the Macedonians were accounted .
the faithful allies of the Persians; and Alexander
obtained the country in the neighbourhood of
M A C E D o N.
371
Mount Haemus and Olympus, at the same time
that the city of Alabanda in Phrygia was given
to Amyntas. The Macedonians distinguished
themselves in the time of the Persian invasion of
Greece, by furnishing their allies with 200,000
recruits: though some cities, particularly Poti-
daea, Olynthus, and Pallene, adhered to the Gre-
cian interest. The last two were taken and razed,
and the inhabitants massacred by the Persians;
but Potidaea escaped by reason of the sea break-
ing into the Persians’ camp, where it did great
damage. Alexander, however, afterwards thought
proper to court the favor of the Greeks by giving
them intelligence of the time when Mardonius
designed to attack them. The remaining trans-
actions of this reign are entirely unknown, far-
ther than that he enlarged his dominions to the
river Nessus on the east, and the Axius on the
West. -
Alexander I. was succeeded, in 454, by his son
Perdiccas II, whose reign was a series of un-
successful intrigues for the destruction of the
Athenian influence in Olynthus, and the esta-
blishment of that of Macedon in its stead. Per-
diccas II. was succeeded about 417 B.C. by his
son Archelaus, who enlarged his dominions by
the conquest of Qydna, and other places in
Pieria, though his ambition seems rather to have
been to improve his dominions than greatly to
extend them. He facilitated the communication
between the principal towns of Macedon, by
cutting straight roads through the country:
built walls and fortresses in such places as afford-
ed favorable situations; encouraged agriculture
and the arts, particularly those subservient to
war; formed magazines of arms; raised and
disciplined a considerable body of cavalry; and,
in a word, added more to the solid grandeur of
Macedon than had been done by all his prede-
cessors. Nor was he regardless of thearts of peace.
His palace was adorned by the works of Grecian
painters. Euripides was long entertained at his
court; Socrates and other men of merit and ge-
nius were invited to reside in Macedon, and
treated with distinguished regard by a monarch
attentive to promote his own glory and the hap-
piness of his subjects. This great monarch died
after a reign of forty-one years, but according to
others of six; and after his death the kingdom
fell under the power of weak princes and usurp-
ers. A number of competitors appeared for the
throne: and these by turns called in to their as-
sistance the Thracians, Illyrians, Thessalians, the
Olynthian confederacy, Athens, Sparta, and
Thebes.
Bardyllis, an active and daring chief, who,
from being head of a gang of robbers, had become
sovereign of the Illyrians, entered Macedon at
the head of a numerous army, deposed Amyntas
II., the grandson of Alexander I., and set up in
his place one Argaeus, who consented to become
tributary to the Illyrians. Another candidate
for the throne, named Pausanias, was supported
by the Thracians; but, by the assistance of the
Thessalians and Glynthians, Amyntas was re-
stored in 397. After his restoration, however,
the Olynthians refused to deliver up several
places of importance belonging to Macedon,
which Amyntas had either entrusted to their care
or which they had taken from his antagonist.
Amyntas complained to Sparta; and that repub-
lic sent first 2000 men under Eudamidas, and
afterwards a powerful reinforcement, under his
brother Phoebidas; but these last were detained
till the season for action was past. Eudamidas,
however, with his small army, performed essen-
tial service. The appearance of a Spartan army
encouraged the subjects and allies of the Olyn-
thians to revolt; and the city of Potidaea surren-
dered soon after his arrival. But being too much
elated with his success, Eudamidas approached
so near Olynthus, that he was attacked, defeated,
and killed in a sally of the citizens. He was
succeeded by Teleutias the brother of Agesilaus,
who commanded a body of 10,000 Spartans, and
was assisted by king Amyntas and Derdas his
brother, the governor of the most westerly pro-
wince of Macedon, which abounded in cavalry.
By these formidable enemies the Olynthians were
defeated in a number of battles, and obliged to
shut themselves up in their city; on which Te-
leutias advanced with his whole forces to invest
Olynthus. But his excessive eagerness to de-
stroy his enemies proved his ruin. A body of
Olynthian horse passed the Amnias in sight of
the allied army, though so much superior in
number. Teleuties ordered his targeteers to at-
tack them; the Olynthians, having retreated
across the river, were closely pursued by the
Lacedemonians, great part of whom also passed
the river; but the Olynthians, suddenly turning
upon them, killed upwards of 100, with Tlemo-
nidas their leader. Teleutias, exasperated at
this disaster, ordered the remainder of the tar-
geteers and cavalry to pursue; while he himself
advanced at the head of the heavy armed foot
with such celerity. that they began to fall into
disorder. . But the Lacedemonians imprudently
advancing just under the battlements of the city,
the townsmen on the walls discharged upon them
a shower of missile weapons, while the flower of
the Olynthian troops sallied forth and attacked
them with such violence, that Teleutias was slain,
the Spartans defeated, and the whole army at
last dispersed with great slaughter, and obliged
to shelter themselves in Acanthus, Apollonia,
Spartolus, and Potidoea. The Spartans, undis-
mayed by this terrible disaster, continued their
operations under their king Agesipolis, and after
his death under Polybiades, an experienced ge-
neral, with so much success, by sea and land,
that the Olynthians, after holding out for ten
months, at last submitted on very humiliating
conditions. They formally renounced all claim
to the dominions of Chalcis ; they ceded the
Macedonian cities to their ancient governor; and
in consequence of this Amyntas left the city of
Hºgea or Edessa, where till now he had held his
royal residence, and fixed it at Pella, a city of
great strength and beauty, situated on an emi-
nence, which, together with a plain of consider-
able extent, was defended by impenetrable
morasses, and by the rivers Axius and Lydias.
It was about fifteen miles from the Egean Sea,
with which it communicated by these rivers. It
was originally founded by Greeks, who had lately
conquered and peopled it : but, in consequence
of the misfortunes of Dlynthus, it now became
2 B 2
372
M A C E D O N.
the capital of Macedon, which it continued ever
after to be. Amyntas, thus fully established in
his dominions, continued to enjoy tranquillity
during the rest of his life, and was succeeded by
his son Alexander II. in 371 B. C.
. The reign of Alexander II. was short, and
disturbed by invasions of the Illyrians; from
whom he was obliged to purchase a peace. His
two brothers, Perdiccas and Philip, being both
very young, Pausanias again usurped the throne;
but was soon deprived of it by the exertions of
Iphicrates the Athenian; who, in gratitude for
favors he had formerly received from Amyntas
and his queen Eurydice, expelled the usurper,
and established Perdiccas, the eldest son, on the
throne. During the minority of Perdiccas, how-
ever, his bastard brother, Ptolemy Alorites, who
was his guardian, usurped the throne; but was
deposed by the Theban general Pelopidas, who
reinstated Perdiccas in his dominions, in 366
B.C.; and, to secure the dependence of Macedon
upon Thebes, carried along with him thirty
Macedon youths as hostages; among whom was
Philip the king's younger brother. Perdiccas
now, elated by the protection of such powerful
allies, forgot Iphicrates and the Athenians, and
even disputed their right to Amphipolis, which
had been decreed to them by the general coun-
cil of Greece. He also refused to Bardyllis, the
Illyrian, the tribute which the Macedonians had
agreed to pay him, which occasioned a war with
that nation, wherein the Macedonians were de-
feated with the loss of 4000 men, Perdiccas him-
self being taken prisoner, and dying soon after of
his wounds. The kingdom was now left in the
most deplorable state. Amyntas III., the son of
Perdiccas, was an infant; the Thebans, in whom
Perdiccas had placed so much confidence, were
deprived of the sovereignty of Greece; the
Athenians, justly provoked at the ingratitude of
the late monarch, showed an hostile disposition;
the Illyrians ravaged the west and the Paeonians
the north quarter of the kingdom; the Thracians
supported Pausanias, and proposed to send him
into Macedon at the head of a numerous army:
while Argaeus, the former rival of Amyntas, re-
newed his pretensions to the throne, and, by flat-
tering the Athenians with the hopes of recovering
Amphipolis, easily induced them to support his
claims; in consequence of which they fitted out
a fleet, with 3000 heavy armed soldiers, which
they sent to the coast of Macedon. Philip, the
late king's brother, no sooner heard of his defeat
and death, than he set out privately from Thebes;
and, on his arrival at Macedon, found matters in
the situation above described. Naturally ambi-
tious, he had acquired, during the time he was
an hostage, a high degree of that knowledge of men
and manners, which was most suited to insure
his success. From the age of fifteen he had
been much in the family of Epaminondas: and
in his travels through Greece he had cultivated
an acquaintance with Plato, Isocrates, Aristotle,
and other great philosophers. His appearance
in Macedon instantly changed the face of affairs.
In the name of his nephew, Amyntas III., he
treated with the Paeonians and Thracians; whom,
by bribery and fair promises, he prevailed upon
to abandon Pausanias, and withdraw their forces,
as the Illyrians had already done. And, having
thus got rid of these barbarians, he was now at
liberty to oppose the Athenians, who supported
Argaeus, and threatened a very formidable inva-
sion. The appearance, however, of the Athenian
fleet before Methone, with that of Argaeus at the
head of a numerous army in Pieria, having filled
the whole country, with consternation, Philip
took the opportunity of getting Amyntas set
aside, and himself declared king : for which
the danger of the times afforded a very plausible
- pretext, -
Argaeus, in the mean time, having advanced
with his Athenian allies towards Edessa, Philip,
after cutting off great numbers of his men, de-
feated him in a general engagement; in which
Argaeus, with the flower of his army, was cut in
pieces, and the rest taken prisoners. As, among
these prisoners, there was a great number both
of Macedonians and Athenians, he determined, by
his treatment of them, to ingratiate himself with
both parties. The former were called into his
presence, and, after a gentle reprimand, admit-
ted to swear allegiance to him; the latter were
entertained at his table, dismissed without ran-
som, and their baggage restored. The prisoners
were just allowed time to return home, and spread
abroad the news of Philip's generosity, when
they were followed by ambassadors from Mace-
don with proposals for peace. As he knew that
the loss of Amphipolis had greatly irritated the
Athenians, he now renounced his jurisdiction
over it, and declared it free, and subject only to
the government of its own laws. This artful
conduct so wrought upon the Athenians, that
they consented to the renewal of a treaty which
had formerly subsisted between them and his fa-
ther Amyntas II. Thus he removed all jealousy
of his ambition, and even induced them to engage
in a ruinous war with their allies, which occupied
their attention until Philip had an opportunity
of getting himself so well established on his
throne, that it was impossible to overthrow him.
—Being thus left at liberty to regulate his do-
mestic concerns, he began to circumscribe the
power of his chiefs; who, especially in the more
remote provinces, paid very little regard to the
authority of the kings of Macedon. To coun-
teract their ambition, Philip chose a body of the
bravest Macedonian youths, whom he entertain-
ed at his own table, and honored with many tes-
timonies of his friendship, giving them the title
of his companions, allowing them constantly to at-
tend him in war and hunting. Their intimacy
with the sovereign, which was considered as an
indication of their merit, obliged them to supe-
rior diligence in all the severe duties of military
discipline; and the young nobility, eager to par-
ticipate such high honors, vied with each other
in their endeavours to gain admission into this
distinguished order; so that, while on the one
hand they served as hostages, on the other they
formed a useful seminary for future generals, by
whom both Philip and Alexander were afterwards
greatly assisted in their conquests. About this
time Philip is said to have instituted the Mace-
donian phalanx; but this is disputed by Dr.
Gillies. Instead of this, Philip, according to
our author, procured arms, horses, and other ne-
M A C E D O N.
373
cessaries for war; and introduced a more severe
and exact military discipline than had formerly
been known in Macedon. While he thus took
the best methods to render himself secure at
home and formidable abroad, the Paeonians
again began to make incursions into the kingdom.
The death of Agis their king, however, who
was a man of great military skill, deprived them
of almost every power of resistance when they
were attacked. Philip, in consequence, overran
their country with little opposition, and re-
duced them to the state of tributaries to Mace-
don. No sooner was this accomplished, than
he undertook a winter's campaign against
the Illyrians, who had long been the enemies
of Macedon. They now extended their terri-
tory to the east by which means the Macedo-
nians were excluded from the harbours on the
coast of the Adriatic. This was a grievance to
Philip, who seems early to have meditated the
raising of a naval power; neither could he hope
to be in safety, should the kingdom be left.
open to the incursions of a barbarous enemy;
for which reasons he determined at once to
humble those enemies so completely, that
they should no longer give him any distur-
bance. After an ineffectual negociation, he was
met by Bardyllis at the head of a considerable
body of infantry, but with only 400 horse. They
for some time made a gallant resistance, but
were at last defeated with the loss of 7000 men,
among whom was Bardyllis, who fell at the age
of ninety. The consequence was, the cession of
a considerable part of their territory, and subjec-
tion to an annual tribute. Philip now began to
put in execution greater designs than any he had
yet attempted. The rich coasts to the south of
Macedon, inhabited chiefly by Greeks, presented
a strong temptation to his ambition and avarice.
The confederacy of Olynthus, after having thrown
off the yoke of Sparta, was become more power-
ful than ever, and could send into the field an
army of 10,000 armed troops, besides a number
of cavalry. Most of the towns in Chalcidice
were become its allies or subjects; so that this
populous province, with Pangaeus on the right
and Pieria on the left, formed a barrier against
any incursions of the Macedonians. But Philip,
anxious to establish a navy, considered the con-
quest of Amphipolis as more immediately ne-
Cessary, as, besides its naval and commercial ad-
vantages, it would open a road to the woods and
mines of Pangaeus. The Amphipolitans, alarmed
at the hostile designs of Philip, put themselves
under the protection of the Olynthians, who
readily received them into the confederacy, and
sent ambassadors to Athens, requesting their as-
sistance against Philip. But the Macedonian
sent his agents to Athens, with such expedition,
that they arrived before any thing could be con-
cluded with the Olynthian deputies. Having
gained over the popular orators, he flattered the
senate in such an artful manner, that a negocia-
tion was set on foot, by which Philip engaged
to conquer Amphipolis for the Athenians, upon
condition that they surrendered to him the fort of
Pydna. Thus the Athenians, deceived by their
own magistrates, and outwitted by the policy of
Philip, rejected the offers of the Olynthians. The
ambassadors of Olynthus returned highly dis
gusted with their reception, but had scarcely
communicated the news to their countrymen,
when Philip's army arrived at Olynthus; and,
pretending to condole with them on the affront
they had received at Athens, expressed their sur-
prise that they should court the assistance of that
distant and haughty republic, when they could
avail themselves of the power of Macedon, which
wished to enter into alliance with their confede-
racy. As a proof of his sincerity, Philip offered
to put them in possession of Anthemus, an im-
portant town in the vicinity, and to reduce for
them the cities of Pydna and Potidaea. Thus he
prevailed upon the Olynthians not only to aban-
don Amphipolis, but even to assist him; after
which he pressed that city so closely, that, unable
to defend itself alone against so powerful an
enemy, it surrendered at discretion, A. A. C.
357.
Though the obstinate defence of the Amphi-
politans might have furnished a pretence for se–
verity, Philip contented himself with banishing a
few of the popular leaders from whom he had
most cause to dread opposition, treating the rest
of the inhabitants with great clemency; but took
care to add Amphipolis to his own dominions,
notwithstanding his promises to the Athenians.
Finding it against his interest at this time to at-
tack the Olynthians, he cultivated the friendship
of that republic with great assiduity; took the
cities of Pydna and Potidaea, which he readily
yielded to the Olynthians, though they had given
him but little assistance in the reduction of these
places. Potidaea had been garrisoned by the
Athenians, and these the artful king sent back
without ransom. He next took possession of
the gold mines of Thrace by the conquest of
Crenidae, which he made a Macedonian colony,
and named Philippi; and drew annually from its
coal mines nearly 100 talents, or £200,000 sterling.
The coins struck here were likewise called Philippi.
Philip next took upon him to settle the affairs
of Thessaly, where every thing was in confusion.
This country had been greatly oppressed by Alex-
ander tyrant of Pherae, as well as by Tissiphor-
mus, Pitholaus, and Lycophron, his brothers-in-
law, who had murdered him. By the united
efforts of the Thessalians and Macedonians, these
usurpers were easily overthrown, and the Thessa-
lians, out of a mistaken gratitude, surrendered to
Philip all the revenues arising from their fairs
and towns of commerce, as well as the conveni-
ences of their harbours and shipping. Having
thus not only established his sovereignty, but
rendered himself very formidable to his neigh-
bors, he formed an alliance with Arybbas king of
Epirus, and in A. A C, 357 married Olympias,
his sister. The nuptials were solemnised at Pella
with great pomp, and several months were spent
in shows and diversions: during which Philip
showed such proneness to vice of every kind, as
disgraced him in the eyes of his neighbours, and
probably laid the foundation of his domestic un-
happiness. So much was his behaviour taken
notice of by the neighbouring states, that the Paeo-
nians and Illyrians threw off the yoke, and engaged
in their schemes Cotys king of Thrace. But Philip
giving up his dissipation, early in the spring of 356,
374
M A G B D o N.
took the field with the flower of his troops, and
marching in person against the Paeonians and
Thracians, despatched Parmenio into Illyria.
Both enterprises proved successful; and, while
Philip returned victorious from Thrace, he re-
ceived an account of Parmenio's victory; a se-
cond messenger informed him of a victory gained
by his chariot at the Olympic games; and a third
that Olympias had been délivered of a son at
Pella. This was the celebrated Alexander, to
whom the diviners prophesied the highest pros-
perity and glory, from his being born in such
auspicious circumstances. Soon after Alexan-
der's birth, Philip wrote the following letter to
Aristotle: * Know that a son is born to us. We
thank the gods not so much for their gift, as for
bestowing it at a time when Aristotle lives. We
assure ourselves that you will form him a prince
vorthy of his father, and worthy of Macedon.’
Paeonia was now one of his provinces; on the
east his dominions extended to the sea of Thasos,
and on the west to the lake Lychnidus. The
Thessalians were in effect subject to his jurisdic-
tion, and Amphipolis secured him many com-
mercial advantages; he had a numerous and well
disciplined army, with plentiful resources for
supporting such an armament, and carrying on
his other ambitious schemes. His first scheme
was the reduction of Olynthus, the most populous
and fertile country on the borders of Macedon;
after which his ambition prompted him to ac-
quire the sovereignty of all Greece. He had de-
prived the Athenians gradually of several settle-
ments in Thrace and Macedon; bit he took care
always to give such appearance of justice to his
actions, that his antagonists could hardly find a
plausible pretext for engaging in war against him.
He perceived that the affairs of the Greeks were
drawing to a crisis, and he determined to wait
the issue of their dissensions. The Phocians
ploughed up the lands consecrated to Apollo,
and the Amphictyons fulminated a decree against
them, commanding the sacred lands to be laid
waste, and imposing a heavy fine upon the com-
munity. Their resistance to this decree involved
all Greece in a new war. Philip, at the begin-
ning of this Phocian or sacred war, as it was
called, was engaged in Thrace, where a civil war
had taken place among the sons of Cotys. Philip
interfered, and his encroachments at length be.
came so enormous, that Kersobletes, the most
powerful of the contending princes, ceded the
Thracian Chersonesus to the Athenians, who sent
Chares with a powerful armament to take pos-
session of it. He took Sestos by storm, and
treated the inhabitants cruelty; while Philip re-
duced Methone in Pieria, but during the siege
lost his right eye. All this time the Phocian war
raged with fury, and involved in it all the states
of Greece. Tycophron, one of the Thessalian
tyrants, whom Philip had deprived of his autho-
ſity, had again resumed it; and, his countrymen
having taken part with the Phocians, Lycophron
called in Onomarchus the Phocian general to
protect him against Philip; who, however, de-
feated Phyallus the brother of Onomarchus;
whom the latter had sent into the country with a
detachment of 7000 men. After this he besieged
and took the city of Pegasāe, driving the enemy
towards the frontiers of Phocis. Onomarchus
then advanced with the whole army; and Philip,
being inferior in numbers, was at first repulsed,
and his troops harassed in their retreat by rocks
rolled down from precipices. But returning
soon with 20,000 foot and 500 horse, whom he
encouraged by reminding them that they were
fighting in the cause of the gods against sacrile-
gious wretches, the Phocians were utterly de-
feated; upwards of 6000 perished in the battle
and pursuit, and 3000 were taken prisoners. The
body of Onomarchus, being found among the
slain, was hung up on a gibbet as a mark of in-
famy, on account of his having polluted the tem-
ple, and those of the rest were thrown into the
sea. After this victory, Philip set about the set-
tlement of Thessaly; and, having detached Ker-
sobletes from the interest of the Athenians, he
established him in the sovereignty of Thrace, with
a view to destroy him when a proper opportunity
offered. Were he once possessed of the dominions
of that prince, the way to Byzantium was open to
him; and, to pave the way for this conquest, he
attacked the fort of Heraeum, a small and unim-
portant place, but valuable by its neighbourhood
to Byzantium. The Athenians at last began to
perceive the designs of Philip, and determined to
counteract them; but, too readily giving credit
to a report of his death, they discontinued their
preparations, and directed their whole attention
to the sacred war, which, instead of being ended
by the death of Onomarchus, now raged with
double fury. Phyallus, above-mentioned, un-
dertook the cause of the Phocians; and, his affairs
becoming every day more desperate, he converted
into ready money the most precious materials
belonging to the tempte at Delphi, and with this
treasure doubled the pay of the soldiers. By
this new piece of sacrilege, he purchased the as-
sistance of 1000 Lacedemonians, 2000 Achaeans,
and 5000 Athenian foot, with 400 cavalry, which
enabled him to take the field with great prospect
of success. Philip now thought it time to throw
off the mask entirely, for which the proceedings
of the Athenians, particularly their league with
Olynthus, furnished him with a plausible pretext;
and the revenging such horrid sacrilege as had
been committed at Delphi seemed to give him a
title to march at the head of an army into Greece.
The superstition of the Greeks, however, had not
yet blinded them to such a degree but they could
perceive that Philip's piety was a mere pietence,
and that his real design was to conquer the whole
country. The Athenians no sooner heard of the
march of the Macedonian army, than they de-
spatched a strong guard to secure the pass of
Thermopylae ; so that Philip was obliged to re-
turn, greatly chagrined and disappointed. Their
next step was to call an assembly to deliberate
upon the measures proper to be taken to restrain
Philip's ambition; and this assembly is memora-
ble for the first appearance of Demosthènes as an
orator against Philip. Athens for sometime had
been in a very alarming situation. They were
deeply involved in the sacred war; their northern
possessions were plundered by Philip ; while his
mercenary partizans drew off the public attentior
to such a degree, that, instead of taking measures
to counteract that ambitious prince, they amused
M A G B D O N.
375
themselves about the designs of the Persian mo-
narch, who was preparing for war against the Cy-
prians, Egyptians, and Phoenicians. Isocrates the
orator, and Phocion the statesman, joined the
multitude, from a sense of the unsteady conduct
of the Athenians, who they were sure could not
contend with so active a prince as Philip, and
therefore exhorted them to cultivate his friend-
ship. Their arguments were violently opposed
by Demosthenes, who, in his addresses to the
people, exhorted them to awake from their indo-
lence, and assume the direction of their own af-
fairs; to abandon all romantic schemes of ambi-
tion ; and, instead of carrying their arms into
remote countries, to prepare for repelling the
attacks which might be made upon their own
dominions. He insisted also upon a better regu-
lation of their finances, a more equal distribution
of the public burdens, and upon retrenching
many superfluous expenses. He told them, that
they were not yet prepared to meet Philip in the
field; they must begin with protecting Olynthus
and the Chersonesus, for which it would be ne–
cessary to raise 2000 light armed troops, with a
due proportion of cavalry, which ought to be
transported to the islahds of Lemnos, Thasos,
and Sciathos, in the neighbourhood of Macedon.
But all his rhetoric could not prevail upon the
indolent Athenians to provide for their own
safety. They appear, indeed, at this time, to
have been sunk in effeminacy and dissipation;
which disposition Philip took care to encourage.
There was an assembly in the city called the
Sixty, who met expressly for the purposes of ex-
tinguishing all care about public affairs, and to
intoxicate themselves with every kind of plea-
sure. To this assembly Philip sent money to
support their extravagances; and so effectually
did they answer his purposes, that all the elo-
quence of Demosthenes could not counteract
the speeches of orators much his inferiors, when
backed by Macedonian gold. The destruction
of Olynthus soon followed. The city, which
held the balance of power betwixt Athens and
Macedon, was taken and plundered, and the in-
habitants sold for slaves.
Philip's chief hopes now depended on putting
an end to the Phocian war. For this purpose he
affected a neutrality that he might thereby be—
come the arbiter of Greece. His hopes were well-
founded; for the Thebans, who were at the head of
the league against the Phocians, solicited him on
the one side, and the states confederated with the
Phocians did the like on the other. He an-
swered neither, yet held both in dependence.
In his heart he favored the Thebans, or rather
placed his hopes of favoring his own cause in
that state; for he well knew that the Athenians,
Spartans, and other states allied with Phocis,
would never allow him to pass Thermopylae,
and lead an army into their territories. So much
respect, however, did he show to the ambassa-
dors from these states, particularly Ctesiphon
and Phrynon, from Athens, that they believed
and reported him to be in their interest. The
Athenians, therefore, sent ten plenipotentiaries
to treat of peace, among whom were Demosthe-
nes and Æschines; but, though they were treated
with the utmost civility by Philip, they returned,
after three months, without coming to any con-
clusion. In the mean time, he took from the
Athenians such places in Thrace as might best
cover his frontiers. At last a peace was con-
cluded, but the ratification was deferred till
Philip had possessed himself of Pheraea, and
saw himself at the head of a numerous army;
he then dismissed the plenipotentiaries with as-
surances that he should be ready at all times to
give the Athenians proofs of his friendship. On
their return to Athens, Demosthenes gave it as
his opinion that the promises of Philip ought
not to be relied on. Æschines, however, was of
an opposite opinion; the rest of the plenipoten-
tiaries concurred with Æschines ; and the peo-
ple, desirous of quiet, and addicted to pleasure,
decreed that the peace should be kept. Philip,
while the Athenians were in this humor, passed
Thermopylae, and entered Phocia with an air of
triumph; which so terrified the Phocians that
they gave up all thoughts of defence, submitted
to his mercy, and the judgment on them was
remitted to the Amphictyons. Philip paid the
most profound respect to the council; and, when
he had performed its commands, returned peace-
ably with his army to Macedon. At Athens
alone, the justice and piety of Philip was not
understood. They saw, that now the Phocians
were destroyed; Philip was master of Thermo-
mylae, and might enter Greece when he pleased ;
that, in abandoning their allies, they had aban-
doned their own interest; and that, in all proba-
bility, they might soon feel the weight of his
power whom they had so foolishly trusted; they
therefore began to take new and hostile mea-
sures; to repair their walls and forts, &c. Dio-
pithes, who had the command of the Athenian
colonies in Thrace, did not stay for instructions
from home; but, having raised with much expe-
dition a considerable body, of troops, entered the
adjacent territories of Philip, and wasted them
with fire and sword. The king, who, on account
of the operations of the campaign in the Cher-
Sonese, was not at leisure to repel Diopithes by
force, contented himself with complaining to the
Athenians of Diopithes; but Demosthenes de-
fended him, and moved that, instead of disown-
ing what Diopithes had done, they should send
him over recruits, and show the king of Macedon
that they knew how to protect their territories
and to maintain the dignity of their state. A
decree was accordingly made conformable to this
motion. While affairs stood thus, the Illyrians
recovering courage, and seeing Philip at such a
distance, harassed the frontiers of Macedon,
and threatened a formidable invasion : but Phi-
lip, by quick marches, arrived on the borders of
Illyrium, and struck the barbarians with such a
panic, that they were glad to compound for their
depredations at any price. Most of the Greek
cities in Thrace now sought Philip's friendship,
and entered into a league with him. About this
time the Argives and Messenians, weary of the
tyranny of the Spartans, applied to Thebes for
assistance; and the Thebans, from their aversion
to Sparta, sought to open a passage for Philip
into the Peloponnesus, that, in conjunction with
them, he might humble the Lacedemonians.
Philip readily accepted the offer, and resolved
to procure a decree from the Amphictyons, di-
recting the Lacedemonians to leave Argos and
376
M A C E D O N.
Messene free; which, if they complied not with,
he, as the lieutenant of the Amphictyons, might,
with great appearance of justice, march with a
body of troops to enforce their order. When the
Spartans had intelligence of this, they immedi-
ately applied to the Athenians, earnestly entreat-
ing assistance, as in the common cause of Greece.
The Argives and Messenians, on the other hand,
labored assiduously to gain the Athenians to
their side; alleging that, if they were friends to
liberty, they ought to assist those whose only
aim it was to be free. Demosthenes, at this
juncture, outwrestled Philip, to borrow that
king's expression; for, he not only determined
his own citizens to become the avowed enemies
of the king, but also made the Argives and Mes-
senians afraid of him as an ally; which, when
Philip perceived, he laid aside all thoughts of
this enterprise for this time. He next turned
his arms against Euboea, and demolished Porth-
mos. Soon after this he took Oreus; but, the
Athenians interfering, Philip thought it prudent
to abandon the project, and prosecute his con-
quests in Thrace, for which he made extraordi-
nary preparations. His son Alexander was left
regent, and he himself with 30,000 men laid
siege to Perinthus, one of the strongest cities in
the country. But he was soon obliged to raise
it with great loss, as the inhabitants were assisted
not only by the Athenians, but also by the king
of Persia, who was now become jealous of the
power of the Macedonian monarch. They were
likewise assisted by the Byzantines, who consi-
dered it their interest to preserve Perinthus for
their own security. That the reputation of the
Macedonian arms might not sink by this dis-
grace, Philip made war on the Scythians and
Triballi, both of whom he defeated; and then
formed a design of invading Attica, to effect
which he had recourse to his usual intrigues.
He excited the Locrians to insult the Amphic-
tyons; and when the latter called upon all Greece
to avenge their wrongs, and to raise an army for
that purpose, the number of troops sent to the
rendezvous, for that purpose, was so inconside-
rable, that Æschines and his other creatures
easily prevailed upon the deputies from the
different states to elect Philip their general, with
full power to act as he thought fit against such
as had opposed the authority of the Amphictyons.
Thus of a sudden Philip acquired all that he
sought; and, having an army ready in expectation
of this event, he immediately marched to exe-
cute the commands of the Amphictyons in
appearance, but in reality to accomplish his own
designs. For, having passed into Greece with
his army, instead of attacking the Locrians, he
seized upon Elatea, a large city of Phocis, upon
the Cephisus. The Athenians in the mean
time were in the utmost confusion on the news
of Philip's march. However, by the advice of
Demosthenes, they invited the Thebans to join
them against the common enemy of Greece.
Philip endeavoured as much as possible to pre-
vent this confederacy from taking place, but all
his efforts proved ineffectual. The Athenians
raised an army, which marched immediately to
Eleusis, where they were joined by the Thebans.
An engagement ensued at Cheronaea, wherein
Alexander commanded one wing of the Macedo-
nian army, and his father Philip the other. The
confederate army, in the beginning of the battle,
had the advantage; but Philip, drawing his men
up very close, retired to a neighbouring emi-
nence, whence, when the Athenians were eager
in their pursuit, he rushed down with impetuo-
sity, and broke and routed them with prodizious
slaughter. This victory decided the fate of
Greece; and from this time we may reckon
Philip supreme lord of all the Grecian states:
The first use he made of his power was to con-
voke a general assembly, wherein he was re-
cognised generalissimo, and with full power
appointed their leader against the Persians.
Having settled a general peace among them, and
appointed the quota that each state should fur-
nish for the war, he dismissed them; and, re-
turning to Macedon, began to prepare for this
new expedition. His pretence for making war
on the Persians at this time was "the assistance
they had formerly given to Perinthus. In the
mean time, however, the dissensions which
reigned in his family made him miserable. He
divorced his wife Olympias, and married another
woman, named Cleopatra. This produced a
quarrel between him and his son Alexander;
which also rose to such a height, that Alexander
retired into Epirus with his mother. Some time
afterwards, however, he was recalled, and a re-
conciliation took place in appearance; but in
the mean time a conspiracy was formed against
the king's life, the circumstances and causes of
which are very much unknown. Philip, having
given a public audience to the ambassadors of
Greece, was proceeding in state to the theatre,
when he was stabbed at the door, by one Pausa-
nias; who, endeavoring to escape, was overtaken,
but instead of being secured, to discover his
accomplices, was killed on the spot. As to the
character of Philip, he was certainly one of the
greatest monarchs that ever sat on a throne. The
history of the reign of ALEXANDER THE GREAT
is already noticed under that title.
By the death of Alexander fell the glory of the
Macedonians, who very soon relapsed into a
situation as bad, or worse, than that in which
they had been before the reign of Philip. This
was occasioned principally by his not having dis-
tinctly named a successor, and having no child
come to the years of discretion to whom the
kingdom might seem naturally to belong. The
ambition and jealousy of his mother Olympias,
his queen Roxana, and especially of the great
commanders of his army, not only prevented a
successor from being ever named, but occasioned
the death of every person in the least related to
Alexander. To have a just idea of the origin
of these disturbances, it is necessary, in the first
place, to understand the situation of the Mace-
donian affairs at the time of Alexander's death.
When Alexander set out for Asia, he left Anti-
pater in Macedon, to prevent any disturbances
that might arise either there or in Greece. The
Greeks, even during the lifetime of Alexander,
bore the superiority which he exercised over them
with great impatience; and, though nothing
could be more mild than the government of An-
tipater, yet he was exceedingly hated. One of
M A C E D O N.
377
the last actions of Alexander's life set all Greece
in a flame. He had, by an edict, directed all
the cities of Greece to recal their exiles; which
edict, when published at the Olympic games,
created much confusion. Many of the cities were
afraid that, when the exiles returned, they would
change the government; most of them doubted
their own safety if the edict took place; and all
of them held this peremptory decree to be a total
abolition of their liberty. No sooner, therefore,
did the news of Alexander's death arrive than
they prepared for war.
things was not much better; not indeed through
any inclination of the conquered countries to re-
volt, but through the dissensions among the com-
manders. In the general council which was
called soon after the death of Alexander, after
much confusion and altercation, it was at last
agreed, or rather commanded by the soldiers,
that Aridaeus the brother of Alexander, who had
always accompanied the king, and had been
wont to sacrifice with him, should assume the
sovereignty.—This Aridaeus was a man of very
weak mind, and for this reason Perdiccas, Ptole-
my, and most of the cavalry officers, resented
his promotion to such a degree, that they quitted
the assembly, and even the city.
supported their first resolution, and Aridaeus was
made king by the name of Philip. The Mace-
donians, besides their regard for the deceased
king, soon began to entertain a personal love for
Philip III. on account of his moderation. It is
remarkable, that notwithstanding all the favors
which Alexander had conferred upon his offi-
cers, and the fidelity with which they had served
him during his life, only two of them were at-
tached to the interests of his family after his
death. These were Antipater and Eumenes the
Cardian, whom he had appointed his secretary.
Antipater, being embroiled with the Greeks,
could not assist the royal family, who were in
Asia; and Eumenes had not as yet sufficient in-
terest to form a party in their favor. In a short
time, however, Perdiccas procured the murder
of Meleager; by which means the supreme
power for a time fell into his hands. His first
step was to distribute the provinces of the em-
pire among the commanders in the following
manner, in order to prevent competitors, and to
satisfy the ambition of the principal generals of
the army. Aridaeus, and Alexander the son of
Roxana, born after the death of his father, were
to reign in Macedon. Antipater had the govern-
ment of the European provinces. Craterus had
the title of protector. Perdiccas was general of
the household troops in the room of Hephæstion.
Ptolemy Lagus, the natural son of Philip, had
Egypt, Libya, and that part of Arabia which
borders upon Egypt. Cleomenes, a man of infa-
mous character, whom Alexander had made
receiver general in Egypt, was made Ptolemy's
deputy. Leomedon had Syria; Philotas, Cilicia;
Pithon, Media ; Eumenes, Cappadocia, Paph-
lagonia, and all the country bordering on the
Euxine Sea, as far as Trapezus; but these were
not yet conquered, so that he was a governor
without a province. Antigonus had Pamphylia,
1-ycia, and Phrygia Major ; Cassander Caria;
In Asia the state of
However .
Meleager, at the head of the phalanx, vigorously
Menander, Lydia; Leonatus, Phrygia on the .
Hellespont. In the mean time not only Alex-
ander's will, but Alexander himself, was so much
neglected, that his body was allowed to remain
seven days before any notice was taken of it, or
any orders given for its being embalmed. The
government, in the hands of Perdiccas and
Roxana, quickly degenerated. Alexander was
scarcely dead when the queen sent for Statira.
and Drypetis, the two daughters of Darius, the
former of whom had been married to Alexander
and the latter to Hephæstion; but, as soon as
they arrived at Babylon, caused them both to be
murdered. Sysigambis, the mother of Darius,
no sooner heard that Alexander was dead than
she laid violent hands on herself, being appre-
hensive of the calamities which were about to
€10SU18.
In the year 321 B.C. the Greeks confederated .
against Antipater, who was defeated, with the
army under his command; and Leonatus being
sent into Asia with a considerable army, to his
assistance, both were overthrown with great loss,
and Leonatus killed. Soon after, however, Cra-
terus arrived in Greece with a great army, which,
when joined to that of Antipater, amounted to
no fewer than 40,000 foot, 3000 archers, and
5000 horse; while that of the confederates
amounted only to 3000 horse and 25000 foot. The
Greeks were therefore defeated, and forced to
sue for peace; which they obtained on condition
of their receiving Macedonian garrisons into
their chief cities. At Athens also the democratic
government was abrogated; and such a dreadful
punishment did this seem to the Athenians, that
22,000 of them left their country, and retired into
Macedon. Disturbances began also to arise in
Asia and Thrace. The Greek mercenaries, dis-
persed through the inland provinces of Asia,
despairing of ever being allowed to return home
by fair means, determined to attempt it by force.
For this purpose they assembled to the number
of 20,000 foot and 3000 horse ; but were all cut
off by the Macedonians. In Thrace, Lysima-
chus was attacked by one Seuthus, a prince of
that country, who claimed the dominions of his
ancestors, and had raised an army of 20,000 foot
and 8000 horse. But, though the Macedonian
commander was forced to engage this army with
only 4000 foot and 2000 horse, yet he kept the
field of battle, and could not be driven out of
the country. Perdiccas in the mean time, by
pretending friendship to the royal family, had
gained over Eumenes entirely to his interest;
and at last put him in possession of the province.
of Cappadocia by the defeat of Ariarathes, king
of that country, whom he afterwards cruelly
caused to be crucified. His ambition, however,
now began to lead him into difficulties. At the
first division of the provinces, Perdiccas, to
strengthen his own authority, had proposed to
marry Nicæa the daughter of Antipater; and her
two brothers, Jollas and Archias, conducted her
to him, in order to be present at the nuptials.
But Perdiccas now had different intentions. He
had been solicited by Olympias to marry her
daughter Cleopatra, the widow of Alexander,
king of Epirus, and who then resided at Sardis
in Lydia. Eumenes promoted this match to the
378
M A C E D O' N.
utmost of his power, because he thought it would
be for the interest of the royal family; and his
persuasions had such an effect on Perdiccas, that
he was sent to Sardis to compliment Cleopatra,
and to carry presents to her in the name of her
new lover. In the absence of Eumenes, however,
Alcetas, the brother of Perdiccas, persuaded him
to marry Nicaea; but, in order to gratify his am-
bition, he resolved to divorce her immediately
after marriage, and marry Cleopatra. By this
last marriage he hoped to have a pretence for
altering the government of Macedon; and, as a
necessary measure preparative to these, he laid
plots for destroying Antigonus. But all his
schemes were ruined by his own jealousy and
Fº cruelty. Cynane, the daughter of
hilip by his second wife, had brought her
daughter Adda, afterwards named Eurydice, to
court, in hopes that king Aridaeus might marry
her. Perdiccas, from some political motives,
had conceived such an umbrage against Cynane,
that he caused her to be murdered. This raised
a commotion in the army; which alarmed Per-
diccas to such a degree, that he now promoted
the match between Aridaeus, and Eurydice; to
prevent which he had murdered her mother. But
in the mean time Antigonus, knowing the de-
signs of Perdiccas against himself, fled with his
son Demetrius to Greece, there to take shelter
undez Antipater and Crateras, whom he in-
formed of the ambition and cruelty of the re-
gent. A civil war was now kindled. Antipa-
ter, Crateras, Neoptolemus, and Antigonus, were
combined against Perdiccas; aud it was the
misfortune of the empire in general, that Eume-
nes, the most able general, as well as the most
virtuous of all the commanders, was on the side
of Perdiccas, because he believed him to be in
the interest of Alexander's family. Ptolemy, in
the mean time, remained in quiet possession of
Egypt; but without the least intention of owning
any person for his superior. However, he
acceded to the league formed against Perdiccas;
and thus the only person in the whole empire
who consulted the interest of the royal family
was Eumenes. It was now thought, proper to
inter the body of Alexander, which had been
kept for two years, during all which time pre-
parations bad been making for it. Aridaeus, to
whose care it was committed, set out from Baby-
lon for Damascus, in order to carry the king's
body to Egypt. This was much against the will
of Perdiccas; for there was a superstitious
report, that, wherever the body of Alexander
was laid, that country would be most prosperous.
Perdiccas, therefore, out of regard to his native
soil, would have it conveyed to the royal sepul-
chres in Macedon; but Aridaeus, pleading the
late king's express direction, was determined to
carry it into Egypt, thence to be conveyed to the
temple of Jupiter Ammon. The funeral was
accordingly conducted with all imaginable mag-
nificence. Ptolemy came to meet the body as
far as Syria; but, instead of burying it in the
temple of Jupiter Ammon, erected a stately tem-
ple for it in Alexandria; and, by the respect he
showed for his dead master, induced many of
the Macedonian veterans to join him, who were
afterwards of the greatest service to him.
Perdiccas now marched against Ptolemy, bu
was slain by his own men, who, after the death
of their general, submitted to his antagonist;
and thus Eumenes was left alone to contend
against all the other generals who had served
under Alexander. In this contest, however, he
would by no means have been over-matched,
had his soldiers been attached to him; but, as
they had been accustomed to serve under those
very generals against whom they were now to
fight, they were on all occasions ready to betray
and desert Eumenes. However, he defeated and
killed Neoptolemus and Craterus, but was still
obliged to contend with Antipater and Antigo—
nus. Antipater was now appointed protector of
the kings, with sovereign power; and Eumenes
was declared a public enemy. A new division
of the empire took place. Egypt, Lybia, and
the parts adjacent, were given to Ptolemy,
because they could not be taken from him.
Syria was confirmed to Leomedon; Philoxenus
had Cilicia; Mesopotamia and Arbiletus were
given to Amphimachus; Babylon was bestowed
on Seleucus; Susiana fell to Antigonus, who
commanded the Macedonian Argyraspidae, or
Silver Shields, because he was the first who
opposed Perdiccas; Peucestas held Persia;
Tlepolemus had Caramania; Pithon had Media
as far as the Caspian Straits; Stasander had
Aria and Drangia; Philip, Parthia; Stasonor,
Bactria and Sogdia; Sybirtius, Aracopa; Oxyar-
tes, the father of Roxana, Paropamisus. Another
Pithon had the country between this province
and India; Porus and Taxiles held what Alex-
ander had given them; Cappadocia was as-
signed to Nicanor; Phrygia, Major Lycaonia,
Pamphylia, and Lycia, were given to Antigonus;
Caria to Cassander ; Lydia to Clytus; Phrygia
the Less to Arideus. Cassander was appointed
general of the horse; while the command of
household troops was given to Antigonus, with
orders to prosecute the war against Eumenes.
Antipater, having thus settled every thing as well
as he could, returned to Macedon with the two
kings, to the great joy of his countrymen, having
left his son Cassander to be a check upon Anti-
gonus in Asia. Affairs now seemed to wear a
better aspect than they had yet done; and, had
Eumenes believed that his enemies really con-
sulted the interest of Alexander's family, there is
not the least doubt that the war would have been
immediately terminated. He saw, however, that
the design of Antigonus was only to set up for
himself, and therefore he refused to submit.
From this time, therefore, the Macedonian em-
pire ceased in Asia; and an account of the
transactions of this part of the world will be
recorded under the article SYRIA. The Mace-
donian affairs are now entirely confined to the
kingdom of Macedon itself, and to Greece.
Antipater had not long been returned to Mace-
don when he died; and the last action of his
life completed the ruin of Alexander's family.
Out of a view to the public good, he had ap-
pointed Polysperchon, the eldest of Alexander's
captains at hand, to be protector and governor
of Macedon. This failed not to disgust his son
Cassander, who thought he had a natural right to
these offices, and of course kindled a new civil

M A G B D O N.
379
war in Macedon. This was indeed highly pro-
moted by his first actions as governor. He
began with attempting to remove all the gover-
nors appointed in Greece by Antipater, and to
restore democracy wherever it had been abo-
lished. The immediate consequence of this
was, that the people refused to obey their
magistrates; the governors refused to resign
their places, and applied for assistance to Cas-
sander. Polysperchon also had the imprudence
to recal Olympias from Epirus, and allow her a
share in the administration; which Antipater,
and even Alexander himself, had always refused
her. The consequence of all this was, that
Cassander invaded Greece, where he prevailed
against Polysperchon; Olympias returned to
Macedon, where she cruelly murdered Aridaeus
and his wife Eurydice; she herself was put to
death by Cassander, who afterwards caused
Roxana and her son to be murdered, and
Polysperchon being driven into Etolia, first
raised to the crown Hercules the son of Alex-
ander by Statira, and then by the instigation
of Cassander murdered him, by which means
the line of Alexander the Great became totally
extinct. Cassander, having thus destroyed all
the royal family, assumed the regal title, as he
had for sixteen years before had all the power.
He enjoyed the title of king of Macedon only
three years; after which he died about 298
B. C. By Thessalonica, the daughter of Philip
II, he left three sons, Philip, Antipater, and
Alexander. Philip IV. succeeded him, but soon
after died of a consumption. A contest immedi-
ately began between the two brothers, Antipater
and Alexander. Antipater seized the kingdom;
and, to secure himself in it, murdered his mother
Thessalonica, if not with his own hand, at least
the execrable deed was committed in his pre-
sence. Alexander invited Pyrrhus king of Epirus,
and Demetrius the son of Antigonus, to assist him
and revenge the death of his mother. But
Pyrrhus being bought off, and a peace concluded
between the brothers, Alexander, being afraid of
having two many protectors, formed a scheme of
getting Demetrius assassinated. Instead of this,
however, both he and Antipater, the two last of
Alexander's relations, were put to death; and
Demetrius became king of Macedon four years
after the death of Cassander.
In 287 B. C. Demetrius was driven out by
Pyrrhus, who was again driven out by Lisima-
chus two years after, who was soon after killed
by Seleucus Nicator; and Seleucus, in his turn,
was murdered by Ptolemy Ceraunus, who be-
came king of Macedon about 280 B.C. The
new king was in a short time cut off, with his
whole army, by the Gauls; and Antigonus Go-
natus, the son of Demetrius Poliorcetes, became
king of Macedon in 278 B. C. He proved snc-
cessful against the Gauls, but was driven out by
Pyrrhus, king of Epirus; who, however, soon
provoked his subjects to such a degree, that An-
tigonus recovered a great part of his kingdom.
In a little time, Pyrrhus being killed at the siege
of Argos, Antigonus was restored to the whole
of Macedon; but scarcely was he seated on the
throne, when he was driven from it by Alexander
the son of Pyrrhus. This new invader was, in
his turn, expelled by Demetrius the son of Anti-
gonus, who, though at that time but a boy, had
made himself almost master of Epirus. By a
stratagem he made himself master of the city of
Corinth, and from that time began to form
schemes for the thorough conquest of Greece.
The method he took to accomplish this was, to sup-
port the petty tyrants of Greece against the free
states; which indeed weakened the power of the
latter, but involved the whole country in many
calamities. About 243 B.C. he died, leaving the
kingdom to his son Demetrius II. Neither De-
metrius, nor his successor Antigonus Doson, per-
formed any thing remarkable. In 221 B.C. the
kingdom fell to Philip V. the son of Antigonus
III. To him Hannibal applied for assistance
after the battle of Cannae, which he refused ; and
the same imprudence which made him refuse this
assistance, prompted him to embroil himself with
the Romans; and at last to conclude a treaty
with them, by which he in effect became their
subject, being prevented from making peace or
war but according to their pleasure. In 179
B. C. he was succeeded by his eldest son Perses,
or Perseus, under whom the war with the Ro-
mans was renewed. The Macedonians were still
terrible in war, and their phalanx, when properly
conducted, seems to have been almost invincible
by any method of making war then known. The
Romans had never encountered such a terrible
enemy; and in the first battle, which happened
171 B.C., they were defeated with the loss of
2200 men, while the Macedonians lost only
sixty. The generals of Perseus now pressed
him to storm the enemy's eamp; but he being
naturally of a cowardly disposition refused to
comply, and thus lost his opportunity. Still,
however, the Romans gained little or no advan-
tage, till the year 168 B.C. when Paulus HEmi-
lius, a most experienced commander, was sent
into Macedon. Perseus now put all upon the
issue of a general engagement; and Æmilius,
with all his courage and experience, would have
been defeated, had the Macedonians been com-
manded by a general of any courage or conduct.
The light armed Macedonians charged with such
vigor, that after the battle some of their bodies
were found within two furlongs of the Roman
camp. Wheu the phalanx came to charge, the
points of their spears, striking into the Roman
shields, kept the heavy armed troops from
moving; while, on the other hand, Perseus's
light armed men did terrible execution. Æmilius
was ready to give up all hopes, when perceiving,
that, as the phalanx gained ground it lost its or—
der in several places, he caused his own light-
armed troops to charge in those places, whereby
the Macedonians were put into confusion. Per-
seus fled with his horse, and the infantry at last
did the same, but not till 20,000 of them had
lost their lives. This battle decided the fate of
Macedonia, which immediately submitted. The
cowardly Perseus took refuge in the island of
Samothrace, but was at last obliged to surrender
to the Roman consul, by whom he was carried to
Rome, led in triumph, and afterwards most bar-
barously used. Some pretenders to the throne
appeared afterwards; but, being unable to defend
themselves against the Romans, the country was
MAC
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380
them it continued subject till A. D. 1375, when
it was reduced by the Turkish sultan Baazet I.
See TURKEY and GREECE.
MACEDONIANS, in ecclesiastical history,
the followers of Macedonius, patriarch of Con-
stantinople, who, through the influence of the
Eunomians, was deposed by the council of Con-
stantinople in 360, and sent into exile. He con-
sidered the Holy Ghost as a divine energy
diffused throughout the universe, and not as dis-
tinct from the Father and the Son. The sect of
Macedonians was crushed before it had arrived
at its full maturity, by the council assembled by
Theodosius in 381, at Constantinople.
MACER (AEmilius), an ancient Latin poet,
born at Verona, who flourished under Augustus
Caesar. Eusebius relates that he died a few
years after Virgil. Ovid speaks of a poem of his,
on the nature and quality of birds, serpents, and
herbs. There is extant a poem upon the nature
and power of herbs under Macer's name; but it
is spurious. He also wrote a supplement to
Homer, as Quintus Calaber did afterwards in
Greek.
MACERATA, a town and delegation of Italy,
in the states of the church. It is situated at the
top of a beautiful hill, contiguous to the river
Chienti; and the place is said to be noted for its
superior society. Here are a university, founded
in the end of the thirteenth century, a Jesuits'
college, two academies, and a public school. It
is likewise the see of a bishop. Population
10,000. Twenty miles south º Ancona, and
100 N. N. E. of Rome.
MAC’ERATE, v. a. 2 Fr. macerer; Lat. ma-
MACERATION. {...}. To steep; infuse;
soak; exhaust; make lean.
Covetous men are all fools : for what greater folly
can there be, or madness, than for such a man to
mucerate himself when he need not?
Burton on Melancholy.
Recurrent pains of the stomach, megrims, and
other recurrent head-aches, macerate the parts, and
render the looks of patients consumptive and pining.
Harvey on Consumptions.
The saliva serves for a maceration and dissolution
of the meat into a chyle. Ray on the Creation.
Out of an excess of zeal thay practise mortifica-
tions; they macerate their bodies, and impair their
health. Fiddes.
In lotions, in women’s cases, he orders two portions
of hellebore macerated in two cotylae of water.
Arbuthnot.
Maceration is the steeping of a solid body in a fluid
in order to soften it, without impregnating the fluid.
Parkes's Chemical Catechism.
MACHERUS, in ancient geography, a citadel
on the other side Jordan, near the mountains of:
Moab near the lake Asphaltites, on the north
side. It was the south boundary of the Peraea,
situated on a mountain encompassed round with
deep and broad valleys; built by‘Alexander,
king of the Jews, destroyed by Gabinius in the
war with Aristobulus, and rebuilt by Herod,
with a cognominal town round it. Here John
the Baptist was beheaded.
MACHALA, a town of South America, in
the audience of Quito. The environs produce
cacao, reckoned the best in all Guayaquil; and,
reduced to a Roman province in 148 B.C. To
mangrove-trees, whose branches and thick trunks:
seem to cover the plains; which are frequently
overflown. The wood of the mangrove, when
used in ships, &c., is very durable, being subject
neither to split nor rot. Fifty-five miles N. N.W.
of Loxa. Long. 79. W.
MACHAON, a celebrated physician among
the ancients, son of Æsculapius, and brother to
Podalirus. He went to the Trojan war with the
inhabitants of Trica, Ithome, and CEchalia. Ac-
cording to some, he was king of Messenia. He
was physician to the Greeks during the Trojan
war. Some say he was killed before Troy, by
Euryplus, the son of Telephus. He received
divine honors after death, and had a temple in
Messenia.
MACHIAVEL (Nicholas), a famous political
writer of the sixteenth century, of a distinguished
family at Florence. He wrote in his native lan-
guage with great elegance and politeness, though
he understood very little Latin. He composed
a comedy upon the ancient Greek model; in
which he satirised many of the Florentine ladies,
and which was so well received that pope Leo
X. caused it to be acted at Rome. He was
secretary, and afterwards historiographer, to the
republic of Florence. The house of Medicis
procured him this last office, with a handsome
salary, to pacify his resentment for having suf-
fered the torture upon suspicion of being an ac-.
complice in the conspiracy of the Soderini against
that house, when Machiavel bore his sufferings
heroically without making any confession. He
was also strongly suspected of being concerned
in another conspiracy against cardinal Julian de
Medicis, afterwards pope by the name of Cle-
ment VII. However, they carried on no pro-
ceedings against him; but from that time he
turned everything into ridicule, and gave himself
up to irreligion. He died in 1530. Of all his
writings, the most celebrated is a political trea-
tise entitled the Prince; which has been translated
into several languages, and written against by
many authors. The world is not agreed as to his
motives in writing this work; some think he
meant to recommend tyrannical maxims; others,
that he only delineated them to excite abhorrence.
He also wrote Reflections on Titus Livius, which
are curious; The History of Florence, from
1205 to 1494; and a 4to. volume of poems, &c.
MACHINE’, n.s. \ Fr. machine, machiner,
MACH'INATE, v. a. Lat. machina, machinor;
MACHINA’TION, n. S.). Gr. paxava. An engine;
MACHIN'ERY, \; compound of mecha-
MACH'INIST. nical contrivances: to
machinate is, to plan; contrive: machination,
the contrivance, scheme, or plan; often applied
to bad plans or schemes: machinery, mechanical
workmanship: machinist, the contriver or con-
structor of such workmanship.
O from their machinations free,
That would my guilty soul betray;
From those who in my wrongs agree,
And for my life their engines lay Sandys.
If you miscarry,
Your business of the world hath so an end,
And machination ceases. f * e
Shakspeare. King Lear.
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381
Be frustrate all ye stratagems of hell,
And devilish machinations come to nought. -
Milton.
How were they zealous in respect of their temporal
governours? Not by open rebellion, not by private
machinations; but in blessing and submitting to their
emperors, and obeying them in all things but their
idolatry. Sprat.
In the hollow side,
Selected numbers of their soldiers hide;
With inward arms the dire machine they load,
And iron bowels stuff the dark abode. Dryden.
We are led to conceive this great machine of the
world to have been once in a state of greater simpli-
city, as to conceive a watch to have been once in its
first materials.
In a watch's fine machine,
The added movements which declare
How full the moon, how old the year,
Derive their secondary power
From that which simply points the hour.
Prior.
The marvellous fable includes whatever is super-
natural, and especially the machines of the gods.
- Pope.
I have enjoyed all the pleasures of the world, I
appraise them at their real worth, which is in truth
very low ; those who have only seen the outside al-
ways overrate them, but I have been behind the
scenes. I have seen all the coarse pullies and dirty
ropes which move the gaudy machines, and I have
seen and smelt the tallow candles which illuminate
the whole decoration, to the astonishment and ad-
miration of the ignorant audience. Chesterfield.
It might, methinks, somewhat abate the insolence
of human pride, to consider that it is but increasing
or diminishing the velocity of certain fluids in the
animal machine, to elate the soul with the gayest
hopes, or sink her into the deepest despair; to de-
press the hero into a coward, or advance the coward
into a hero. Fitzosborne.
Burnet.
Are we a piece of machinery, which, like the AEolian
harp, passive, takes the impression of the passing ac-
cident 2 Burns.
To calculate the power of a machine, it is usually
considered in a state of equilibrium; that is, in the
state when the power which is to overcome the re-
sistance just balances it. Imison's Elements.
MACHINE, in general, signifies any thing that
serves to augment or to regulate moving powers:
or it is any body destined to produce motion, so
as to save either time or force. The word comes
from the Greek Haxavn, invention or art: and
hence, in strictness, a machine is something that
consists more in art and invention than in the
strength and solidity of the materials. Machines
are either simple or compound. The simple ones
are the seven mechanical powers, viz. lever,
balance, pulley, axis and wheel, wedge, screw,
and inclined plane. See MECHANIcs. From
these the compound ones are formed by various
combinations, and serve for different purposes.
See MACHINERY.
MACHINES USED IN waR, amongst the Greeks,
were principally these: 1. KAquareg, or scaling
ladders; 2. The battering ram; 3. The helepo-
lis; 4. The XéXovn, or tortoise, called by the
Romans testudo; 5. The Xopa, or agger, which
was faced with stone, and raised higher than the
wall; 6. Upon the xopia were built ºrvpyot, or
towers of wood; 7. Teppat, or osier hurdles; 8.
Catapultae or caratreMat, from which they threw
arrows with amazing force; and,9. The A19030Aoi,
trerpoğokot, or apernpua, from which stones were
cast with great velocity. The principal warlike
machines made use of by the Romans were the
ram, the lupus or wolf, the testudo or tortoise,
the balista, the catapulta, and the scorpion.
MACHINERY, in epic and dramatic poetry, is
when the poet brings some supernatural being
upon the stage, to solve some difficulty, or per-
form some exploit out of the reach of human
power. The ancient dramatic poets never made
use of machines, unless where there was an abso-
lute necessity for so doing : whence the precept
of Horace;
Nec Deus intersit, nisi dignus vindice nodus
Inciderit.
It is quite otherwise with epic poets, who intro-
duce them in every part of their poems. In
Milton's Paradise Lost the greater part of the
actors are supernatural personages: Homer and
Virgil perform nothing without them; and, in
Voltaire's Henriade, the poet has made excellent
use of St. Lewis. -
MACHUL, an instrument of music among
the Hebrews. Kircher apprehends that the
name was given to two kinds of instruments,
one of the stringed and the other of the pulsatile
kind. That of the former sort had six chords;
though there is great reason to doubt whether an
instrument requiring the aid of the hair-bow,
and so much resembling the violin, be so
ancient. The latter was of a circular form, made
of metal, and either hung round with little bells,
or furnished with iron rings suspended on a rod
or bar that passed across the circle. , Kircher
supposes that it was moved to and fro by
a handle fixed to it, and thus emitted a melan-
choly kind of murmur. .
MACHYNLETH, an ancient market town of
North Wales in Montgomeryshire, 200 miles
from London, and thirty from Montgomery. It
has a market on Monday, and fairs. It is seated
on the Douay, over which there is a large stone
bridge, leading into Merionethshire. Here
Owen Glyndower exercised the first acts of his
royalty in 1402; here he accepted the crown of
Wales, and assembled a parliament; and the
house wherein they met remains, but is divided
into tenements. The town-hall is a plain build-
ing; and here is a grammar-school. A con-
siderable tanning business is carried on, and also
the manufactures of flannels and cottons.
MACK (Charles, baron Von), an Austrian
general, famous only for his defeats, was born in
Franconia in 1752. He was well educated; but,
on leaving college, enlisted as a private in a
regiment of dragoons. In the war with Turkey
he was noticed by marshal Lascy, who gave him
a commission. The spirit of enterprise which he
now displayed procured him the favor of Lau-
dohn, who made him his aide-de-camp, and
recommended him to the emperor. On the war
with France, Mack was appointed quarter-
master-general of the army of the prince of
Cobourg, and directed the campaign of 1793,
He was afterwards employed in negociating
with Dumouriez. He again served under the
prince of Cobourg in the Netherlands; and in
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1797 succeeded the archduke Charles in the come
mand of the army of the Rhine. The following
year he was sent to Naples, and boasted that he
would soon drive the enemy out of Italy; but
being beaten, and suspected of treason by the
Neapolitans, he fled to the French camp, and
was sent prisoner to Dijon. He was afterwards
removed to Paris on parole, and in April, 1800,
made his escape to Vienna. Finding means to
justify his conduct, he was in 1804 constituted
commander-in-chief in the Tyrol, Dalmatia, and
Italy. In 1805 he was opposed to Buonaparte,
who forced him to retreat beyond the Danube,
and to submit to the famous capitulation of
Ulm, by which 28,000 Austrians became prison-
ers. Mack was permitted to go to Vienna,
where he was tried before a military tribunal,
and received the sentence of death. . His doom,
however, was commuted by the emperor for
imprisonment; and he was, after a time, re-
leased, and died in obscurity.
MACKENZIE (Sir George), of Roystoun,
F. R. S., first earl of Cromarty, was born in
1630. His father dying, in 1654, he raised some
troops and joined lord Middleton, to attempt the
restoration of king Charles II., but, being
defeated by colonel Morgan, he made an honor-
able capitulation. After the restoration he was
employed in several public offices. In 1678 he
was appointed lord justice general; in 1681 he
was made a lord of session, and lord register.
He now purchased Roystoun, and continued to
have the chief rule in Scotland, during the
reigns of Charles II. and James II., by whom,
in 1685, he was created lord viscount Tarbat;
but, by his arbitrary proceedings, rendered him-
self very unpopular; notwithstanding which, he
was, in 1692, restored by William III. to his
office of lord register. In 1695 he resigned
upon a pension of £400 a year; but upon queen
Anne's accession he was appointed secretary of
state ; and, in 1703, created earl of Cromarty.
In 1704 he resigned, and was made lord justice
general, which he held till 1710. He died
at New Tarbat on the 17th of August, 1714. He
was an original and useful member of the Royal
Society, and wrote many valuable papers in the
Philosophical Transactions. He also published,
1. A Vindication of King Robert III., Edin-
burgh, 4to. 1695; 2. and 3. Two Letters on the
Union; 4. A short Explication of Daniel's
Prophecy, and St.John's Revelation, Edinburgh,
1706, 4to.; 5. Historical Account of the Con-
spiracy of the Earl of Gowrie and R. Logan of
Restalrig, against James VI., Edinburgh, 1713,
8vo. ; and some other tracts.
MACKENziE's River, a river of North Ame-
rica, issuing out of Ilum Lake, and emptying
itself into the Frozen Ocean in lat. 70° N., and
long. 135°W. It derives its name from Mr.
Mackenzie, who first discovered it on his journey
to the Frozen Ocean, and has since been fre-
quently visited.
MACK'EREL, n. s. 2 Fr. maquereau; Belg.
MACK'EREL-GALE." Smackereel; Teut. mack-
erell; all perhaps of Lat. macula, a spot. A well
known spotted fish: mackerel-gale, a hard gale,
such as brings mackerel.
Some fish are gutted, split, and kept in pickle"; as
whiting and mackerel. Carew's Survey of Cornwall.
Law ordered that the Sunday should have rest;
And that no nymph her noisy food should sell,
Except it were new milk or mackerel.
h * Cook.
They put up every sail,
The wind was fair, #. al Hºral.
Dryden.
Sooner shall cats disport in water clear,
And speckled mackrels graze the meadows fair,
Than I forget my shepherd's wonted love. Gay.
I am living fast to see the time when a book that
misses its tide shall be neglected, as the moon by
day, or like mackrel a week after the season. -
Swift.
MACKEY (John), employed by the govern-
ment as a spy upon James II., after the revolu-
tion, was author of Memoirs of James's court at
St. Germaine, and of the court of England in the
reigns of William III., and queen Anne, in
which are many curious anecdotes not to be met
with in any other work. He died in 1726.
MACKLIN (Charles), a celebrated actor and
dramatic writer, born in the north of Ireland in
1698. His original name was Maclaughlin. He
became a performer in Lincoln's Inn company
in 1725; and not long after was tried for killing
a brother comedian in a quarrel, and found
guilty of manslaughter. His features were so
extremely harsh, that Quin rather profanely said
of him, “If God writes a legible hand, that fel-
low's a villain.” He was, notwithstanding this,
a man of humanity and extensive liberality. He
wrote two plays, which are esteemed, viz. Love
a-la-mode, and The Man of the World. He
died in 1797. His principal character was Shy-
lock, which he performed with so much perfec-
tion, that Pope said of him,
This is the Jew—that Shakspeare drew.
MACKNIGHT (James), D. D., a learned
clergyman of the church of Scotland, one of the
ministers of Edinburgh, and author of several
valuable works on theology. In 1772 he was
appointed minister of lady Yester's church; and
in 1779 one of the ministers of the old church,
Edinburgh. He published, 1. The Harmony of
the Four Gospels, in 4to. 1756; 2. The Truth
of the Gospel History, 1764; 3. Translation of,
and Commentary on, the Epistles, 1787. He died
January 13th, 1800.
MACLAURIN (Colin), F.R.S., an eminent
mathematician and philosopher, was the son of
a clergyman, and born at Kilmoddan in Scot-
land in 1698. He was sent to the university of
Glasgow in 1709, where he studied five years. His
great talents for mathematics appeared so early as
at twelve years of age; when, having accidentally
met with an Euclid, he became in a few days
master of the first six books without assistance:
and in his sixteenth year he had invented many
of the propositions, afterwards published under
the title of Geometria Organica. In his fifteenth
year he took the degree of M.A., when he com-
E. and defended a thesis On the Power of
ravity, with great applause. After this he re-
tired to a country seat of his uncle, where he
spent two or three years, as his parents were
MAC
MAC
383
dead. In 1717 he stood candidate for the pro-
fessorship of mathematics in the Marischal Col-
lege of Aberdeen, and obtained it after a ten
days’ contest with a very able competitor. In
1719 he went to London, where he became ac-
quainted with Dr. Hoadly, then bishop of Ban-
gor, Dr. Clarke, Sir Isaac Newton, and other
eminent men, and was admitted F.R.S. In an-
other journey, in 1721, he contracted an intimacy
with Martin Folkes, esq. P. R. S. which lasted
to his death. In 1722 lord Polwarth, plenipo-
tentiary to the congress of Cambray, engaged
him as a tutor and companion to his eldest son,
on his travels. After a short stay at Paris, and
visiting other towns in France, they fixed in
Lorrain; where Maclaurin wrote his piece On
the Percussion of Bodies, which gained the
prize of the Royal Academy of Sciences for
1724. But his pupil dying soon after, at Mont-
pelier, he returned immediately to Aberdeen,
where he was hardly settled when he received
an invitation to Edinburgh, to supply the place
of Mr. James Gregory. He had here many
difficulties to encounter, arising from compe-
titors, which, however, were all surmounted,
partly by the assistance of Sir Isaac Newton;
and, in November 1725, he was introduced into
the university. In 1733 he married Anne,
daughter of solicitor Stewart, by whom he had
seven children, of whom five survived him. In
1734 Berkeley, bishop of Cloyne, published a
piece called The Analyst; in which he took oc-
casion, from some disputes that had arisen con-
cerning the grounds of the fluxionary method, to
explode the method itself, and to charge mathe-
maticians in general with infidelity in religion.
Maclaurin thought himself included in this
charge, and began an answer to Berkeley’s book;
but, as he proceeded, so many new theories and
problems occurred to him, that, instead of a
vindicatory pamphlet, he published A Complete
System of Fluxions, with their Application to
the most Considerable Problems in Geometry
and Natural Philosophy; Edinburgh, in 1742
2 vols, 4to. He also published many useful
tracts in the fifth and sixth volumes of the Medi-
cal Essays, in Edinburgh; as well as in the Phi-
losophical Transactions. In the midst of these
studies, he was ready to lend his assistance in
promoting any scheme for the service of his
country. Under his direction the geography of
the Orkney and Shetland Islands was first accu-
rately ascertained in 1739. In 1745, having
been very active in fortifying the city of Edin-
burgh against the rebel army, he was obliged to
fly to the north of England; where he was in-
vited by archbishop Herring to reside with him
during his stay; but, being in this expedition
exposed to cold and hardships, he contracted an
illness which put an end to his life, in June 1746,
at the age of forty-eight. On various occasions
Maclaurin served his friends and his country by
his great skill. Frequent disputes having arisen
concerning the gauging of vessels, he presented
to the commissioners of excise two elaborate
memorials, with their demonstrations. He made
also calculations relating to the provisions estab-
lished by law for the children and widows of the
Scottish clergy, and of the professors of the uni-
versities, entitling them to certain annuities, upon
the voluntary annual payment of a certain sum
by the incumbent. . He gained the prize of the
Royal Academy of Sciences in 1724; and in
1740 the academy adjudged him a prize, for
solving the motion of the tides from the theory
of gravity; a question which had been given out
the former year without receiving any solution.
He had only ten days to draw up this paper.
He afterwards revised the whole, and inserted it
in his Treatise of Fluxions; as he did also the
substance of the former piece. After his death
two volumes more appeared; his Algebra, and
his Account of Sir Isaac Newton's Philosophi-
cal Discoveries.
MACON, an ancient post-town, the chief
place of the department of the Saone et Loire in
France. It has civil and commercial tribunals,
a philosophical Society, and one for the arts and
belles lettres; with 10,411 inhabitants. This
town is situated in a very pleasant and fertile
country on the right bank of the Saone, at the
foot of a hill, but is very irregularly built, and .
with narrow streets: it is, however, daily im—
proving by the addition of modern buildings.
Since the demolition of its walls it has been sur-
rounded with agreeable walks. The quays are
remarkable, as well as a bridge of thirteen arches
over the Saone said to have been built in the
time of Caesar. Its origin goes farther back
than the conquest of Gaul; the Romans estab-
lished magazines in it and fortified it. It once
belonged to the Burgundians, and then passed
into the hands of the successors of Clovis. It is
the native country of Dombay, the celebrated
botanist, The manufactures are,woollen counter-
panes, linens, hats, and dried confectionary;
there are also some iron foundries. It carries
on a considerable trade in Burgundy wines,
corn, flour, hoops, timber, &c. Among its pub-
lic buildings may be mentioned the town-hall,
the baths, the triumphal arch, the ruins of the
temple of Janus, and the ancient bishop's palace.
It is about 300 miles south-east of Paris.
MACPHERSON (James), esq. M. P., a
Scottish writer of considerable celebrity, born in
1737. His first and most celebrated work was
A Translation of Ossians Poems; the authenti-
city of which was attacked by Dr. Johnson and
others, and their merit ascribed to Macpherson
himself; who wrote a threatening letter to the doc-
tor, which he answered in terms equally indignant.
See Ossi AN. In 1773 he published a translation
of the Iliad into heroic prose. He also wrote A
History of Great Britain from 1660 to the acces-
Sion of the house of Hanover, in 2 vols, 4to.;
and an Introduction to the History of Great
Britain and Ireland. He published likewise some
pamphlets in defence of lord North's adminis-
tration, on whose side he voted in the house of
commons. He died in February 1796, aged
fifty-nine, -
MACQUARRIE ISLAND, an island of the
South Pacific Ocean, discovered in 1811, by
some resolute seal-fishers from New Holland.
It is eighteen miles in length from north to
south, and about six in breadth. At the distance
of eight leagues other smaller islands were dis-
covered, which were called the Judge and his
MAC
MAC
384
Clerks; and several others in a south direction,
which were called the Bishop and his Clerks.
The first adventurers killed not fewer than 80,000
'seals here. Long. 169° E., lat. 52°41’S.
MACQUER (Peter Joseph), was born in
Paris, 9th of October, 1718. He was descended
from a respectable family, and was a member of
the Academy of Sciences, and professor of phar-
macy. He was engaged in the Journal des.
Sçavans for the articles medicine and chemistry,
and had a share in the Pharmacopaeia Pari-
isiensis, published in 1758, in 4to. His other
works are, 1. Elemens de Chimie Theorique;
Paris, 1749, 1753, 12mo.; which have been
translated into English and German. 2. Ele-
mens de Chimie Pratique, 1751, 2 vols. 12mo.
These two works were re-published together, in
1756, in 3 vols. 12mo. 3. Plan d’un Cours de
Chimie Experimentale et raisonneé, 1757, 12mo.;
in which he was associated with M. Beaumé.
4. Formulae Medicamentorum Magistralium,
1763. 5. L’Art de la Teinture en Soie, 1763.
6. Dictionnaire de Chimie, contenant la Theorie
et la Pratique de cet art, 1766, 2 vols. 8vo;
which has been translated into German with
notes, and into English with notes, by Mr. Keir.
Macquer, by his labors and writings, contributed
very much to the improvement of chemistry.
He died at Paris, February 16th, 1784.
MACQUER (Philip), brother to the above, was
born in Paris, 1720, and became advocate of the
parliament of Paris. A weakness in his lungs
having prevented him from pleading, he dedi-
cated himself to literary pursuits. His works
are, 1. L'Abregé Chronologique de l’Histoire
Ecclesiastique, 3 vols. 8vo. 2. Les Annales
Romaines, 1756, 8vo.: a very judicious compi-
lation. 3. Abregé Chronologique de l’Histoire
d’Espagne et de Portugal, 1765; 2 vols. 8vo.
He died on the 27th of January 1770, aged fifty.
He had also a share in the Dictionary of Arts
and Professions, 2 vols. 8vo., and the Transla-
tion of the Syphilis of Fracastor, published by
Lacombe.
MACRINUS, one of the best Latin poets of
the sixteenth century, was born at Loudon. His
real name was John Salmon; but he took that of
Macrin, from his being frequently so called in
ridicule by Francis I. on account of his extraor-
dinary leanness. He was preceptor to Claudius
of Savoy, count Tende ; and to Honorius, the
count's brother; and wrote several pieces of
poetry in lyric verse, which were so admired,
that he was called the Horace of his time. He
died of old age, at Loudon, in 1555.
MACROBII, from parpoc Biog, long life. 1.
A people of Ethiopia, celebrated for their justice
and the innocence of their manners, as well as
for their uncommon longevity. See ETHIoPIA.
2. A people in the island of Meroe. 3. The Hy-
perboreans were also called Macrobii.
MACROBIUS (Ambrosius Aurelius Theodo-
sius), an ancient Latin writer who flourished
about the end of the fourth century. His country
and religion are uncertain. Erasmus, in his
Ciceronianus, seems to think he was a Greek;
and he himself tells us, in the preface to his Sa-
turnalia, that he was not a Roman, but labored
under the inconvenience of writing in a language
which was not natural to him. Barthius reckons
him a Christian; but Spanheim and Fabricius
suppose him to have been a pagan. It is how:
ever certain that he was of consular dignity, and
one of the chamberlains to Theodosius. He wrote
a commentary upon Cicero's Somnium Scipionis,
and seven books of Saturnalia, which treat of
various subjects, and are an agreeable mixture of
criticism and antiquarian research. He made
great use of other works, borrowing not only
their materials, but even their language, for
which he makes an apology at the commence-
ment of his work. “I shall here,’ says he,
“imitate the bees, who suck the best juices from
all sorts of flowers, and afterwards work them up
into various forms and orders, with some mixture
of their own proper spirit.” The Somnium
Scipionis and Saturnalia have been often printed
to which has been added, in the later editions, a
piece entitled De Differentiis' et Societatibus
Graeci Verbi.
MACROCEPHALUS, from Makpoc, great,
and repa)\m, head, denotes a person with a head
larger or longer than the common size. Macro-
cephali is a name given to a certain nation who,
according to the accounts of authors, were
famous for the unseemly length of their heads:
yet custom so far habituated them to it that, in-
stead of looking on it as a deformity, they
esteemed it a beauty, and, as soon as the child
was born, moulded and fashioned its head to as
great a length as possible, and afterwards used
rollers and bandages for the same purpose.
MACROCNEMUM, in botany, a genus of
the monogynia order, and pentandria class of
plants; natural order thirtieth, contorta.
MACTATION, Latin mactatio, was performed
either by the priest himself, or some of his infe-
rior officers, called popae, agones, cultrarii, and
victimarii; but, before the beast was killed, the
priest turning himself to the east, drew a
crooked line with his knife from the forehead to
the tail. Among the Greeks this ceremony was
performed most commonly by the priest, or in
his absence by the most honorable person
present. If the sacrifice was offered to the
celestial gods, the victim's throat was bent up-
wards towards heaven; if to the infernal, or to
heroes, it was killed with its throat towards the
ground. The manner of killing the animal was
by a stroke on the head, and, after it was fallen,
thrusting a knife into its throat. Good or ill
success was predicted from the struggles of the
beast, or its quiet submission to the blow, from
the flowing of the blood, and the length of time
it lived after the fall, &c.
MAC’ULA, n.s. Lat. macula. A spot;
MAc'ULATE, v. *}: stain or mark with
MACULATION. X spots.
I will throw my glove to death himself,
That there's no maculation in thy heart.
- Shakspeare.
And lastly, the body of the sun may contract
some spots or maculae greater than usual, and by
that means be darkened.
- - Burmet's Theory of the Earth.
MACULE, in astronomy, dark spots appearing
on the luminous surfaces of the sun and moon,
and even some of the planets. See ASTRONOMY.
M A D A G A S C A R.
385
Sax. maa'o, gemaa's ;
Modern Goth. mod;
(Goth. meida, to di-
vide?) Distracted or
disordered in mind;
deranged; lunatic;
hence, enraged; fu-
MAD'MAN, n. s. rious; violently af-
MAD'NEss.' J fected with desire,
taking on, after, of, or for, before the object:
to mad is to make or be furious; make or be
mad; mad-brain and mad–brained, disordered
or distracted; hot-headed: madcap (taking the
cap for the head) a madman: to madden, to be-
come or behave as deranged. The other deri-
vatives seem obvious in their meaning. g
And manye of hem seiden, he hath a deuel, and
maddith. ** - Wiclif. Jon. 10.
It is the land of graven images, and they are mad
upon their idols. Jer. i. 38.
They shall be like madmen, sparing none, but still
sporting. . . 2 Esdr. xvi. 71.
Richesse a robe of purple on had,
Ne trowe not that I lie or mad,
For in this world is none it liche,
Ne by a thousand dele so riche. *
Chaucer. Cant. Tales.
Ovillain! cried out Zelmane, madded with finding
an unlooked-for rival. Sidney.
Alack, sir, he is mad.
--'Tis the time's plague when madmen lead the blind.
Shakspeare.
This will witness outwardly,
As strongly as the conscience does within,
To the madding of her lord. Id. Cymbeline.
I give my hand opposed against my heart,
Unto a madbrain rudesby, full of spleen.
Shakspeare.
MAD'BRAIN, adj.
MAD’BRAINED,
MAD'cAP, n.s.
MAD'DEN, v. n., &c.
MAD'House, n.s.
MAD'LY, adv.
MAD, adj., v. a. & v. º
He let fall his book,
And, as he stooped again to take it up,
This madbrained bridegroom took him such a cuff,
That down fell priest and book. . I
The nimble-footed madcap prince of Wales,
And his comrades, that daft the world aside,
And bid it pass. Id. Henry IV.
The power of God sets bounds to the raging of the
sea, and restrains the madness of the people.
- * King Charles.
Holy writ represents St. Paul as making havock
of the church, and persecuting that way unto the
death, and being exceedingly mad against them.
Decay of Piety.
We must bind our passions in chains, lest, like
mad folks, they break their locks and bolts, and do
all the mischief they can. -
Taylor's Worthy Communicant.
Cupid, of thee the poets sung,
Thy mother from the sea was sprung;
But they were mad to make thee young. Denham.
His gestures fierce
He marked, and mad demeanour when alone.
Milton.
The madding wheels
Of brazen chariots raged: dire was the noise
Of conflicts | Id. Paradise Lost.
Madmen ought not to be mad;
But who can help his frenzy?
Dryden’s Spanish Friar.
The world is running mad after farce, the ex-
tremity of bad poetry, or rather the judgment that
is fallen upon dramatic writing. Dryden.
This mads me, that perhaps ignoble hands
Have overlaid him, for they could not conquer. Id.
Vol. XIII.-PART 2.
She, mixing with a throng * ,
Of madding matrons, bears the bride along.
He waved a torch aloft, and madly vain, *
Sought godlike worship from a servile train. Id.
He raved with all the madness of despair,
He roared, he beat his breast, and tore his hair.
I
Id.
A bear, enraged at the stinging of a bee, ran like
mad into the bee-garden, and overturned all the
hives. L’Estrange.
A fellow in a madhouse being asked how he came
there Why, says he, the mad folks abroad are too
many for us, and so they have mastered all the sober
people, and cooped them up here. . . Id.
He that eagerly pursues any thing, is no better
than a madman. - g
There are degrees of madness as of folly, the dis-
orderly jumbling ideas together, in some more, some
less. - Locke.
The people are not so very mad of acorns, but
that they could be content to eat the bread of civil
persons, Rymer.
Delusive ideas are the motives of the greatest part
of mankind, and a heated imagination the power by
which their actions are incited : the world, in the
eye of a philosopher, may be said to be a large mad-
house. Mackenzie.
He who ties a madman’s hands, or takes away his
sword, loves his person while he disarms his frenzy.
South.
But some strange graces and odd flights she had,
Was just not ugly, and was just not mad. ... Pope.
The dog-star rages, nay, 'tis past a dºubt,
All Bedlam or Parnassus isºlet out;
Fire in each eye, and papers in each hand,
They rave, recite, and madden round the land.
Id.
Such maddºning draughts of beauty,
As for a while o'erwhelmed his raptured thought.
Thomson.
As a man inebriated only by vapours, soon re-
covers in the open air, a nation discontented to mad-
ness, without any adequate cause, will return to its
wits and allegiance, when a little pause has cooled it
to reflection. Johnson.
A crowd gather round a dog suspected of mad-
ness, and they begin by teazing the devoted animal
on every side; if he attempts to stand upon the de-
fensive, and bite; then he is unanimously found guilty,
for a mad-dog always snaps at every thing; if, on
the contrary, he strives to escape by running away,
then he can expect no compassion, for mad dogs
always run straight forward before them.
Goldsmith.
Goading the wise to madness; from the dull
Shaping out oracles to rule the world
Afresh, for they were waxing out of date,
And mortals dared to ponder for themselves,
To weigh kings in the balance, and to speak
Of freedom, the forbidden fruit. Byron.
MAD, n.s. Sax. maāu. An earth worm.
MADAGASCAR (or MADEGASSE, a native
name). Madagascar seems first to have been
made vaguely known to Europeans by Marco
Paulo, who received some information respecting
it by its present name, from the Arabs. The an-
cients were probably wholly unacquainted with
it. It also escaped the notice of De Gama, who
coasted along Africa; and was first seen by Lo-
renzo Almeida in 1506, from whom it received
the name of St. Lawrence, which it retained until
the reign of Henry IV., when some French navi-
gators gave it that of Isle Dauphin. -
386 M A D A G A S C A R.
This is one of the largest islands of the world,
being 240 leagues long, from north to south, and
from forty to seventy leagues broad. It is sepa-
- rated from the coast of Africa by the channel of
Mosambique, from eighty leagues to 120 broad.
A ridge of mountains (said to have an elevation
of 10,000 to 12,000 feet) runs through the island
from north to south, containing various valuable
minerals and fossils; and also gives rise to a vast
number of rivers and rivulets, which reach the
Sea, and abound in fish. In no region of the
globe is vegetation more luxuriant than in this
island, where nature abandoned to its own fer-
tility produces the most various productions.
The hills are covered to their summits with im-
mense timber trees, and the plains or vast savan-
nahs, are clothed with a rich herbage, affording
pasture to innumerable cattle and sheep. Rice
is cultivated to a great extent, and all the other
vegetables and fruits of the tropics grow spon-
taneously. Unfortunately, however, this smiling
scene is generally more than counterbalanced
by the extreme unhealthiness of the climate,
which renders it the almost certain grave of Eu-
ropeans.
The wild animals of the island are of few spe-
cies, there being neither lions, tigers, nor ele-
phants, nor does it possess the horse.
At present Madagascar affords few objects of
commerce, and its exports are almost totally con-
fined to rice and cattle to the Mauritius. The
Arabs export some of the species of fruit called
Sea cocoa-nut, or cocoa-nut of the Maldivas,
(nux medica of botanists). The tree which
affords this fruit is a species of palm, and is
found on the Isle of Palms, on the coast of Ma-
dagascar only; at least, it has not hitherto been
discovered in any other part of the world. The
nuts picked up on the shores of the Maldiva islands
are probably conveyed there in the south-west
monsoon, when the currents between Mada-
gascar and these islands set to the north-east.
The nuts of the Ravensera have also been ex-
ported: they are of an acrid aromatic nature,
and used by the natives to season their food.
The other objects of commerce are eagle or
aloe wood (agallochum), which may be pro-
cured in any quantity, but of which little or
none is taken off. The island affords cotton,
and many useful gums and resins, amongst which
is º elastic gum, or India rubber (iatropha elas-
tica).
The island of Madagascar is inhabited by va-
rious tribes or castes, whose physical and moral
characteristics denote their being descended
from very different races. 1. The Betsimicaracs,
or negro race, who inhabit the north-east coast,
are in general stout and well made, and the
women handsome; but the men are drunkards,
cowards, and thieves. The Antibanivouls,
neighbours of the last named caste, are more la-
borious and less debauched, but also more stupid
and ignorant. The Betalimenes employ them-
selves chiefly in raising cattle. 2. The Hovas,
who inhabit the province of Ancove, near the
middle of the island, differ entirely from the
above tribes. They are tall and well made,
though rather slender, and much resemble the
natives of India, having long black hair, aqui-
line noses, and thin lips: there is also some dif-
ference in their dialect. This caste is by far the
most advanced in the arts, being acquainted with
the manner of forging iron, and are correct imi-
tators of the nicest European works in metal :
their chains of gold and silver are particularly
fine. They inhabit the most healthy province of the
island, being from its elevation so cold in winter
that fires are necessary; but, the province pro-
ducing neither tree nor shrub, they use the straw
of a gramineous plant as fuel. 3. The Antama-
houris form another peculiar caste, whose lan-
guage differs from that of the other tribes, being
a dialect of the Malay, and their features also
denote their being descended from the Malay
race. In the centre of the island is said to exist
a race of dwarfs, named Kimos, who do not ex-
ceed three feet and a half in height, whose arms
are extremely long, with paws like those of the
ape, and the females totally without breasts,
nourishing their infants with cows' milk, of which
animals they breed great herds. A Kimos wo—
man was sold to the French at Fort Dauphin in
1768, and is the only individual of the species
ever seen by Europeans. A detail of the subdi-
visions of all these races would lead us far be-
yond the limits we have prescribed to ourselves,
and we must therefore confine our notice to a few
of the prominent and general traits in the Mada-
gasse character.
The inhabitants taken generally are lazy,
spending three-fourths of their time in their huts,
stretched on a mat, and playing on the marou-
vané, or tritri. Their only serious employments
are the chase, fishing, and occasionally looking
after their cattle. Careless of the future, the
Madagasse little fears the frowns of fortune, and,
as he is unacquainted either with love or friend-
ship, he has little to disturb the tranquillity of
his mind. His religion extends to the acknow-
ledgement of a preserving deity, to whom he
pays no devotion, but, on the contrary, loads him
with invectives, when any misfortune happens to
him. He also believes in an evil spirit, whose
habitual residence is in burying places, and
hence he will not approach a grave during the
night. In general his youth is spent in de-
bauchery, and it is not until the middle of his
career that he takes a wife to accompany him
the rest of the way. The marriage ceremony
consists in killing a bullock, and feasting the two
families. All ages are addicted to excess of
spirituous liquors, and to their own intoxicating
mixtures. A Madagasse accused of sorcery is
confined in a solitary hut without victuals for two
or three days, when he is obliged to undergo an
ordeal by swallowing a poisonous infusion, which
if he keeps down is sure to destroy, at the same
time that it convicts him, but if he has the good
fortune to throw it up, by the natural exertion of
the stomach alone, he lives and is acquitted.
The same trial is ordered to persons of both
sexes, accused of incestuous intercourse, as well
as in cases of doubtful robbery; for, where the
fact is proved, the criminal is condemned to
slavery. -
The professions of priest and physician are
here, as amongst most savage nations, united in
the same person, and are practised only by in-
M A D A G A S C A R.
387
dividuals of the Arab tribes. The dress of the
women consists in a girdle, or kind of petticoat,
and a long Fº of cloth, one end of which is
folded round the hips, while the other covers the
shoulders, and head in wet weather : a corset
closed both before and behind like a banyan,
and which leaves the bosom bare, completes the
dress. The ornaments of the women are neck-
laces and bracelets of glass beads, or gold and
silver chains. Both sexes wear amulets of bits
of certain woods, &c., enveloped in cloth on
their necks and wrists, to defend them from the
effects of sorcery. The leaves of the ravensera
serve the purposes of plates, dishes, and spoons.
The various estimations of the population of
Madagascar make it from 1,000,000 to 1,500,000
souls. 4.
The western side of Madagascar has many
bays and rivers, but very few of them are ever
visited by European ships, and consequently are
very little known. The most frequented is St.
Augustine's Bay, at the south-west extremity of
the island, which is a safe road where may be
had any quantity of refreshments, particularly
bullocks, goats, fowls, Guinea fowls, oranges,
limes, plantains, pumpkins, yams, and sweet
potatoes. They are procured from the natives
in exchange for gunpowder, looking-glasses,
muskets, pistols, brass and iron pots, knives and
scissars, nails, flints, &c. Water is filled in the
boats four or five miles up a river, named Dart-
mouth, which falls into the bay, and which
abounds (as well as the bay) in fish, but is also
infested by the alligator. The chief of this part
of the island resides in a mud-built town twelve
miles from the bay; most of the natives who go
on, board ship to barter speak a little English,
and have taken English titles, such as the prince
of Wales, duke of York, &c.
Morundava Bay, in latitude 20° 16', is some-
times visited for refreshments; it is exposed
from north-west to south-west and has several
shallow barred rivers falling into it. A village
of huts is on the north side of the bay.
Bembatook Bay in 15° 43' is large and safe,
and represented as one of the most eligible
places in the island for a European, settlement.
Bullocks and rice are very abundant, as well as
other objects of commerce. The French pur-
chased slaves and cattle here for the use of the
Isle of France; which were driven across the
island to Foul Point, where the slaves were em-
barked and the cattle slaughtered and salted.
The natives are friendly to strangers; and the
Arabs of the continent visit this port for pur-
poses of trade. The town, from which the bay
has its name, is three leagues within the entrance
of the bay, and on a cove entirely land-locked
and accessible to ships. i
New Masseliege is a large town on a barred
river accessible only to small craft. It is pro-
tected by a mud fort with many cannon; and the
king's residence is built in the European manner
with two stories, with an armoury and many ar-
ticles of European furniture, as tables, chairs,
looking-glasses, &c. Many Arabs reside here,
and trade to Arabia and Persia. Opposite the
river's mouth is an island, about four miles long,
on which the French had once an establishment.
Manigara River is said to be six miles broad
at the entrance, with six and seven fathoms three
leagues up. .
The bight or bay of Astada is a large indenta-
tion at the north-west end of the island, with
several islands before it. Here is Morigambo
harbour, described as capacious and safe.
Passandava, at the north-west extremity of
the island, is a large bay running seven leagues
to the south. It abounds in provisions, wood,
and water. .
Fort Dauphin, once the principal establish-
ment of the French, is near the south-east extre-
mity of the island, on a cove capable of receiving
five or six vessels, land-locked. It is situated on
high ground commanding the road, and is a long
square surrounded by a wall of lime and gravel
coated with cement. Two leagues south of the
fort is a large river, which at a short distance
from its mouth expands into a lake, fifteen miles
in circuit; the mouth of the river is however, as
well as most others on the east coast, barred
against the entrance of ships. This part of the
island is populous, and under a great many
chiefs: their villages are on eminences, fortified
with parapets of turf, pallisades, and ditches.
Bullocks, poultry, and provisions are abundant,
but good water is only found at some distance
from the shore, where are excellent springs.
The bay of St. Luce is within several islands and
reefs: on its south point the French formed a
pallisaded establishment in 1787.
Manooro River, in latitude 20°, is much fre-
quented by the French of the Mauritius for rice
and cattle. The natives manufacture fine mats
and cloth from the fibres of a plant, as well as
cloth from the cotton of the island. There is a
village at the mouth of the river, and before it
good anchorage within a reef.
Hy Vondron is a considerable village, and
great rice market, three leagues south of Tama-
tave. This latter is on a lagoon, named Nossebe;
landing is difficult, from a high surf. The French
had a post here to procure cattle and rice for
their islands, but which was taken by the English
in 1811; it was on a high point of land and con-
sidered healthy. The Isle of Prunes is three
leagues from Tamatave, small but covered with
wood, and has fresh water. Between Tamatave
and Foul Point are several villages on the shore.
Foul Point (Voulu-Voulu of the natives), ano-
ther establishment of the French, is on a cove
within a reef, which shelters the anchorage. The
settlement consists of a piece of ground, sur-
rounded by pallisades, with a house for the resi-
dent, sheds, &c. A large native village is close
to it, where is the king's residence, consisting of
a story, raised from the ground, ascended to by
a ladder, and surrounded by the huts of his at-
tendants and women. Slaves and cattle are pro-
cured here in exchange for musquets, powder
and shot, flints, knives, &c."
St. Mary's Island (Nossi Ibrahim of the na-
tives) is two leagues from the main; the east
side is lined with breakers, but the west side
forms a good port, with depth and capacity for
the largest fleets. The country abounds in pro-
visions, and spars for masts may be had here.
The French formed an establishment here in
2 C 2
MAD
MAD
388
1740, but the persons in it were all massacred by
the natives. In 1743 they renewed it, but it was
abandoned in 1760, on account of its unhealthi-
ness. This island was the rendezvous of the
European pirates that infested the Indian seas
in the beginning of the last century. -
Antongil Bay (Manghabees of the natives) is
eight or nine leagues wide, and fifteen deep; its
shores are elevated, and towards its head are
Some islands, within which is an excellent har-
bour, called by the French Port Choiseul.
Several rivers fall into the bay, but they are all
barred against the entrance of any thing but
boats, though deep within. This is one of the
most fertile parts of the island, but also the most
unhealthy : the tide rises three or four feet,
Here the French attempted to form an establish-
ment conducted by the celebrated adventurer
Beniwowsky. w f
Port Louquez, at the north-east extremity of
the island, is a capacious and secure harbour for
the largest fleets; it is also said to be healthy
and abundant in provisions.
The chief capes of Madagascar are, Cape St.
Mary; the south point; Cape St. Andrew, the
north-west; Cape Ambre, the north; and Cape
East, the east. -
Tananarive is at present considered as the
capital of the island, and is the place where the
king Radama resides, and the late treaty for the
abolition of the slave trade was concluded. Mr.
Jones, who was present on this occasion, says
‘their houses are built exceedingly neat and con-
venient—are high and very airy, and supported
by strong timbers, resembling the masts of a
ship. The apartments of the royal palace are
ornamented with silver mirrors; and are in neat-
ness equal to any rooms that I have seen in the
government-house at Port Louis.’
Governor Farquhar, writing to the directors of
the London Missionary Society, represents the
natives as “a people without any national reli-
gion, or superstitions of consequence to combat,
consisting of above 4,000,000 of souls, ready,
as well as capable, of receiving instruction under
the will of a monarch, who is as eager to obtain
it for them, as you can be to grant it.’ See our
article LoNDoN MISSIONARY SocIETY. From
the manner in which he acted in reference to the
late treaty, the royal authority appears to be
absolute, and the present sovereign deserves to
be considered the father of his people; for after
having fully discussed the slave trade in several
conferences with Mr. Hastie, the British commis-
sioner, he consulted his ministers on the subject,
who were all greatly averse to its abolition.
When the Portuguese first visited India, they
kept too close to the continent to discover Mada-
gascar. In 1506 it was visited by Triestan
d'Acunha, but as they could not find it produced
either gold or silver, which were the chief objects
of their research, they paid little attention to the
discovery. When the French had formed the
settlements of Bourbon and Mauritius, they
turned their attention to Madagascar, as a place
whence the wants of their new colonies on the
smaller islands might be supplied. With this
view they sent several expeditions to various
parts of the island, but they were repeatedly
driven out. . The most celebrated of their estab.
lishments for a time was that attempted by count
Benyowsky, at the north-west extremity; but
this daring adventurer soon involved himself in
a war with the natives, in which he was killed,
and the establishment altogether failed. The
most permanent footing they gained was at Fort
Dauphin, on the south-east coast, where their
influence was maintained until the loss of Bour
bon and Mauritius in the late war.
The entire population of Madagascar is diffi-
cult to estimate, from the great number of small. .
states into which it is divided. Flacourt does
not suppose it to exceed 1,600,000; Rochon
heard it estimated at 4,000,000, though he con-
siders this amount to be exaggerated.
MAD'AM, n.s. Fr. madamie, my dame; Ital.
madama. A term of compliment used in address
to ladies of every degree: anciently pronounced as
in French, with the accent upon the last syllable.
Certes, madam, ye have great cause of plaint.
Spenser.
Madam, once more you look and move a queen!
Philips.
MADAN (Martin), an English divine of a
respectable family, born about 1726, and bred
for the bar, which he relinquished for the church,
though he obtained no preferment. The chapel
of the Lock Hospital was built chiefly through
his exertions, and he officiated as chaplain many
years gratis. He was long a very popular
preacher, but incurred much obloquy by pub-
lishing a work entitled, Thelyphthora, ora Treatise
on Female Ruin; in 3 vols. 8vo. 1781; wherein
he defended the lawfulness of polygamy, in cases
of seduction. He also published a translation
of Juvenal and Persius, in 2 vols, 8vo. He died
in 1790. He was a man of great abilities, and
unimpeachable morals.
MAD-APPLE. See SoLANUM. *
MADDEN (Samuel), D.D., an Irish divine
of French extraction, educated at Dublin. He
had some church preferments in Ireland. In
1729 he published Themistocles, or the Lover of
his Country, for which he received a library from
his bookseller. In 1731 he projected a scheme
for promoting learning in Dublin College by
premiums. In 1732–3 he published Memoirs
..of the Twentieth Century; being original letters
of State under George VI. in 6 vols 8vo., London.
This work was called in and suppressed. In
1740 he set apart £100 a-year, to be divided into
three premiums for encouraging arts and manu-
factures in Ireland. In 1743 or 1744 he pub-
lished Boulter's Monument, a Poem. He died
December 30th, 1765.
MADDER, n.s. Sax. mabene; Teut. maddar.
A plant. See below. º
The flower of the madder consists of one single
leaf, which is cut into four or five segments, and ex-
panded at the top; the flower-cup afterwards becomes
a fruit, composed of two juicy berries closely joined
together, containing seed for the most part hollowed
like a navel; the leaves are rough, and surround the
stalks in whorles. Miller.
Madder is cultivated in vast quantities in Holland:
what the Dutch send over for medicinal use is the
root, which is only dried; but the greatest quantity is
used by the dyers, who have it sent in coarse powder.
Hill.
M A TX ID E R.
389
MADDER. See RUBIA. It is yellow at first,
but grows red and dark with age. It should be
chosen of a fine saffron color, in very hard
lumps, and of a strong though not disagreeable
smell. The best roots are about the thickness of
a goose quill, or at most of the little finger: they
are semitransparent, and of a reddish color;
they have a strong smell, and the bark is smooth.
Madder is also cultivated in Smyrna, and some
other countries of Turkey in Asia. It is more
esteemed than the best Zealand madder; and
experiments have shown that it is superior to any
other kind as a dyeing ingredient. The fine
color of these madders, however, has been at-
tributed to their being dried in the air, and not
in stoves. The root of madder impregnates
water with a dull red color, and alcohol with a
deep bright red. This root, when eaten by ani-
mals with their food, tinges their urine, and
their bones, of a deep red. Wool, previously
boiled in a solution of alum and tartar, receives
from a hot decoction of madder and tartar a very
durable but not a very beautiful red color. Wool
would receive from madder only a perishable
dye, if the coloring particles were not fixed by a
base, which occasions them to combine with the
stuff more intimately, and which in some mea-
sure defends them from the destructive influence
of the alr. For this purpose, the woollen stuffs
are first boiled for two or three hours with alum
and tartar, after which they are left to drain;
they are then slightly wrung and put into a linen
bag, and carried into a cool place, where they
are suffered to remain for some days.
The quantities of alum and tartar, as well as
their proportions, vary much in different manu-
factories. Hellot recommends five ounces of
alum and one ounce of tartar to each pound of
wool; if the proportion of tartar be increased to
a certain degree, instead of a red, a deep and
durable cinnamon color is produced, because, as
we have seen, acids have a tendency to give a
yellow tinge to the coloring particles of madder.
Berthollet found, that, by employing one-half
tartar, the color sensibly bordered more on the
cinnamon than when the proportion was only
one-fourth of the alum. In dyeing with madder,
the bath must not be permitted to boil, because
that degree of heat would dissolve the fawn-
colored particles, which are less soluble than the
red, and the color would be different from that
which we wish to obtain. If wool be boiled
for two hours with one-fourth of sulphate of
iron, then washed, and afterwards put into cold
water with one-fourth of madder, and then
boiled for an hour, a coffee color is produced.
Bergmann adds, that if the wool have not been
soaked, and if it be dyed with one part of sul-
phate of iron, and two of madder, the brown
obtained borders upon a red. Berthollet em-
ployed a solution of tin in various ways, both in
the preparation and in the maddering of cloth.
He used different solutions of tin, and found that
the tint was always more yellow or fawn-colored,
though sometimes brighter than that obtained by
the common process. Mr. Guhliche describes a
process for dyeing silk with madder: for one
pound of silk he orders a bath of four ounces of
alum, and one. ounce of a solution of tin; the
liquor is to be left to settle, when it is to be de-
canted, and the silk carefully soaked in it, and
left for twelve hours; and after this preparation
it is to be immersed in a bath containing half a
pound of madder softened by boiling with an in-
fusion of galls in white wine: this bath is to be
kept moderately hot for an hour, after which it
is to be made to boil for two minutes. When
taken from the bath, the silk is to be washed in a
stream of water, and dried in the sun. Mr.
Guhliche compares the color thus obtained, which
is very permanent, to the Turkey red. If the
galls be left out, the color is clearer. A great
degree of brightness may be communicated to
the first of these, by afterwards passing it through
a bath of brasil wood, to which one ounce of so-
lution of tin has been added : the color thus ob-
tained, he says, is very beautiful and durable.
The madder red of cotton is distinguished into
two kinds : one is called simple madder red;
the other, which is much brighter, is called
Turkey or Adrianople red, because it comes from
the Levant, and has seldom been equalled in
brightness or durability by our artists. Galls or
sumach dispose thread and cotton to receive the
madder color, and the proper mordant is acetate
of alumina. The nitrate and muriate of iron as
a mordant produces a better effect than the sul-
phate and acetate of the same metal; they afford
a beautiful, well saturated violet color. The
Adrianople red possesses a degree of brightness,
which it is difficult for us to approach by any of
the processes hitherto mentioned.
Some years ago, Mr. Papillon set up a dye-
house for this red at Glasgow; and in 1790 the
commissioners for manufactures in Scotland paid
him a premium, for communicating his process
to the late professor Black, on condition of its
not being divulged for a certain term of years.
The time being expired, it has been made public,
and is as follows:–
Step. 1.-For 100 lbs. of cotton, you must
have 100 lbs. of Alicant barilla, 20 lbs. of pearl
ashes, 100 lbs. of quicklime.
The barilla is to be mixed with soft water in a
deep tub, which has a small hole near the bottom
of it, stopped at first with a peg. This hole is
to be covered in the inside with a cloth supported
by two bricks, that the ashes may be prevented
from running out at it, or stopping it up, while
the lie filters through it. Under this tub must
be another, to receive the lie, and pure water is
to be passed repeatedly through the first tub, to
form lies of different strength, which are kept
separate until their strength is examined. The
strongest required for use must float an egg, and
is called the lie of six degrees of the French
hydrometer. The weaker are afterwards brought
to this strength by passing them through fresh
barilla; but a certain quantity of the weak,
which is of two degrees of the above hydro-
meter, is reserved for dissolving the oil, the gum,
and the salt, which are used in subsequent parts
of the process. This lie of two degrees is
called the weak barilla liquor; the other the
strong.
Dissolve the pearl ashes in ten pails, of four
gallons each, of soft water, and the lime in four-
teen pails, Let all the liquors stand till they
390 M A D E I R. A. S.
become quite clear, and then mix ten pails of
each. Boil the cotton in this mixture five
hours, then wash it in running water, and dry it.
Step. 2. Bain bis, or gray steep—Take a suf-
ficient quantity (ten pails) of the strong barilla
Water in a tub, and mix with it two pailfuls of
sheep's dung; then pour into it two quart bottles
of sulphuric acid, one pound of gum-arabic, and
one pound of sal ammoniac, both previously
dissolved in a sufficient quantity of weak barilla
water; and lastly, twenty-five pounds of olive
oil, previously dissolved, or well mixed with two
pails of the weak barilla water. The materials
of this steep being well mixed, tread down the
cotton into it until it is well soaked; let it steep
twenty-four hours, then wring it hard and dry it.
Steep it again twenty-four hours, and again wring
and dry it. Steep it a third time twenty-four
hours, after which wring and dry it; and, lastly,
wash it well, and dry it.
Step. 3. The white steep.—This part of the
process is precisely the same with the last in
every particular, except that the sheep's dung is
omitted in the composition of the steep.
Step. 4. Gall steep.–Boil twenty-five pounds
of bruised galls in ten pails of river water, until
four or five are boiled away; strain the liquor
into a tub, and pour cold water on the galls in
the strainer to wash out of them all their tincture.
As soon as the liquor is become milk-warm,
dip your cotton, hank by hank, handling it care-
fully all the time, and let it steep twenty-four
hours. Then wring it carefully and equally, and
dry it well without washing.
Step. 5. First alum steep.–Dissolve twenty-
five pounds of Roman alum in fourteen pails of
warm water, without making it boil, scum the
liquor well, add two pails of strong barilla
water, and then let it cool until it is lukewarm.
Dip your cotton, and handle it hank by hank,
and let it steep twenty-four hours; wring it
equally, and dry it well without washing.
Step. 6. Second alum steep.–This is in every
particular like the last; but, after the cotton is
dry, steep it six hours in the river, and then wash
and dry it.
Step. 7. Dyeing steep.–The cotton is dyed by
about ten pounds at once, for which take about
two gallons and a half of bullock's blood, mix it
in the copper with twenty-eight pails of milk-
warm water, stir it well, add twenty-five pounds
of madder, and lastly, stir all well together.
Then having beforehand put the cotton on sticks,
dip it into the liquor, and move and turn it con-
stantly one hour, during which gradually increase
the heat until the liquor begins to boil at the end
of the hour. Then sink the cotton, and boil it
gently one hour longer; and lastly, wash it and
dry it.
Take out so much of the boiling liquor, that
what remains may produce a milk-warm heat
with the fresh water with which the copper is
again filled up, and then proceed to make up a
dyeing liquor, as above, for the next ten pounds
of cotton.
Step. 8. The firing steep.–Mix equal parts of
the gray steep liquor and of the white steep
liquor, taking five or six pails of each. Tread
down the cotton into this mixture, and let it steep
the state of Illinois.
six hours: then wring it moderately and equally
and dry it without washing. w •
Step. 9. Brightening steep.–Ten pounds of
white soap must be dissolved very carefully and
completely in sixteen or eighteen pails of warm
water: if any little bits of the soap remain un-
dissolved, they will make spots in the cotton.
Add four pails of strong barilla water, and stir
it..well. Sink the cotton in this liquor, keeping
it down with cross sticks, and cover it up; boil
it gently two hours, then wash it and dry it, and
it is finished. -
MADDISON, a county of the United States,
in Georgia. Chief town, Danielsville. Maddi-
son springs are in this county: five miles from
Danielsville. The waters are chalybeate.
MADDIson, a county of the Alabama territory,
United States. The chief town Huntsville.
MADDISON, a county of the United States, in
New York, erected from Chenango county, in
1806. It is bounded north and north-easterly
by Oneida lake and county, east by about ten
miles of Otsego county, south by Chenango
county, west by about four miles on Cortland
county, and twenty-seven on Onondaga county.
The area is 616 square miles, or 394,240 acres.
• The surface is uneven in the south part; the
northern part is quite level. Its manufactures
are of importance, although a large proportion
of the inhabitants are husbandmen. It sends
three members to the house of assembly. Popu-
lation 25,144. - -
MADDISON, a central county of the state of
Virginia, is bounded north-east by Culpepper
county, south by Orange county, and W. N. W.
by Shenandoah county. Population 8381, of
which 3970 are slaves.
MADDIson, a county of Ohio, United States,
west of Franklin county. Population 1603.
The chief town is London. •
MADDISON, a county of the United States, in
Făwardsville the chief
to Wn. - *
MADDISON, a county of the United States, in
Kentucky. Population, in 1815, 15,540, in-
cluding 3037 slaves. Richmond the chief town.
MADDISON, a post town of the United States,
and capital of Morgan county, Georgia.
MADDISON, a town of the United States, the
chief town of Jefferson county, in the state of
Ohio. It is situated on the Ohio, thirty miles
below Vevay.—Also a recently established town
of the United States in Indiana.
MAD'EFY, v. a. Lat. madefio. To
MADEFACTION, n.s. $ moisten; make wet: the
act of wetting.
To all madefaction there is required an imbibition.
Bacon.
MADEIRAS.—The Madeira Islands, two in
number, Madeira Proper and Porto Santo, are
situated between lat. 32° 22' and 33° 10' N., and
long. 17° 30' and 16° 20' W., and 150 leagues
from Cape Blanco in Africa. See Porto
SANTo. g -
Madeira is sixty miles long and twenty broad,
containing 407 square miles, or 260,480 square
acres. It is one immense mountain, at the sum-
mit of which is an excavation, supposed to have
been the crater of a volcano. It is now covered
M A D E I R A S.
391
with grass. The quantity of lava and other vol-
canic matters found on the island are a sufficient
proof of the former existence of subterranean
fires. The various branches of this mountain
are separated by narrow glens, the sides of which
are thinly covered with soil, but nevertheless
fully reward the high cultivation they have re-
ceived. Many of them have neat villages and
hamlets, and all possess rivulets of fine water.
The climate is mild and temperate, and often
recommended in pulmonary complaints. The dif.
ferent elevations, however, afford every variety
of temperature, from the scorching heat of the
torrid zone, to the moderate cold of middle
Europe. In January the summit of the moun-
tain is covered with snow, while at Funchal the
thermometer is at 64°. The minimum is not
lower than 55°; the maximum (except with a
south-east wind, when it rises at times to 95°)
does not exceed 76°. -
The importance of Madeira as a colony is de-
rived solely from its vineyards, which are enclosed
with hedges of the prickly pear, wild rose
bushes, myrtle, and pomegranate. The wild
grape is the most generally cultivated, but there
is also a red grape which gives a white wine,
called batardo, and another white grape which
produces a reddish wine, called tinto, known in
the English market by the name of London par-
ticular. The quantity of wine annually produced
is estimated at an average of 25,000 pipes, of
120 gallons each, of which 15,000 are exported,
viz. to England 4500: to the East Indies 5500:
to the West Indies 3000: to the United States,
&c., 2000. The remaining 10,000 pipes are
consumed in the island. About 500 pipes of a
sweet wine, called Malmsey, is also made. The
price of wine on the island has been of late on the
increase. In 1790 the first quality of the dry
wine sold for £32. In 1804 it was risen to £45.
In the former yeara pipe of Malmsey sold for £60.
The other vegetable productions of the island
are the eddoe root, on which the poor class
chiefly subsist, and the leaves of which are given
as food to their hogs. Sweet potatoes is another
article of common food, as well as chestnuts,
which are planted in the high parts of the island
unfit for vines. Wheat and barley are sown in
the vineyards, when the vines are nearly worn
out; but the whole produce of these grains does
not exceed three months' consumption, the defi-
ciency being made up from the Azores, and
North and South America. Sugar cane is also
cultivated on this island, from whence it is
said to have been first carried to America. The
island also produces the mastic tree, and other
gums, together with the cinnamon, cedar, &c."
The gardens produce most of the European
fruits, as well as the plantain, guava, &c., of the
tropics. -
The only wild animal is the rabbit, and the
only reptile the lizard; but common domestic
animals are in abundance. The custom of turn-
ing the hogs into the woods, to seek their food,
has produced a half-wild breed, which are hunted.
The population of the island is from 80,000 to
90,000, according to Mr. Barrow and lord
Macartney; but other estimates make it as high
as 110,000 and even 130,000.
Negro slavery, to the great credit of Portugal,
is not permitted in this island, so that the body
of the people are of Portuguese descent: and
the peasantry are a remarkably fine and healthy
race; but a great deal of distress and mendicity
is said to be visible at times. The middling class
in Funchal are clothed in black. The Portuguese
gentry live in a proud retired manner, associ-
ating little with the English, or any strangers:
and the poverty which prevails in the country is
not suffered to appear in the edifices and estab-
lishments of the Catholic religion. The city
abounds in churches, and in the country a chapel
is said to be found at every fifty yards. Many
of these are handsomely built. In the city, the
most opulent part of the inhabitants consists of
British merchants, who live in a splendid hospi-
tality: it is upon them also that the Portuguese
poor chiefly depend. -
The military force in 1790 consisted of 150
infantry of the line, 150 artillery, 2000 regular
militia, clothed, armed, and exercised, and
10,000 irregular militia. The island is divided
into two captaineries, named Machico and Fun-
chal. The English have twenty commercial
houses at Madeira, whose union forms the British
factory, and who almost monopolise the whole
trade. The exports, besides wine, are insignifi-
cant, consisting of some wood, mastic, and other
gums, honey, wax, and orchilla.
The whole value of exports is estimated at
£500,000, of which England and her colonies
take £400,000, the United States £90,000, and
Portugal only £10,000. The imports are, from
England, manufactures for £300,000; from the
United States, lumber, corn, &c., for £100,000;
and about the same value from Portugal, the Bra-
sils, and Azores, so that the imports and exports
balance each other. The revenue consists of
one-tenth of the produce of the vineyards, and a
duty of ten per cent. on imports, and eleven per
cent. on exports, producing altogether about .
£100,000, the annual expenses being about
fºſ),000; a nett revenue consequently remains
to the crown of 30,000, but some years this sum
is said to be reduced to one-third.
Funchal, the only town of Madeira, is situated
on the south coast, on a large open bay, but
which has, at no season, convenient anchorage.
See FUNCHAL.
Madeira is said to have been early visited by
an English vessel, which left here a gentleman
of the name of Macham or Machim, and a
French lady to whom he was attached. . Mr.
Bowles has founded upon this story, says lord
Byron,
& - a gentle episode :
And gravely tells (attend each beauteous miss)
When first Madeira trembled to a kiss.
Of course our author meant to say, what ap-
pears to have been the truth, that Madeira was
uninhabited when first discovered: the Portu-
guese made the first settlement here, and have
ever since retained the sovereignty. -
The first landing was made in 1419; and in
1431 Don Henry of Portugal sent Tristan Tessora,
and Gonsalvo Zarco, with a colony, to take pos-
session of the island. They now divided it into
392
M A D R A S.
the two districts Machico and Funchal; but its
prosperity is said to have been seriously retarded
by a fire which was kindled among the forests
with which the island was covered, and which
continued to rage for five or six years. When,
however, it was extinguished, the ashes had so
far increased the fertility of the ground, on which
the soil was in many parts verythin, that its pro-
duce soon became valuable. The first staple was
sugar; but, when this became cultivated in the
West Indies, it ceased to be equally profitable
with their wines, which have ever since fur-
mished the basis of a flourishing commerce.
In 1801, when it was apprehended that France
might attempt to seize upon it, it was taken tem-
porary possession of by a British squadron, but
restored at the peace of Amiens. In 1807, how-
ever, when the Portuguese government were
compelled to emigrate, Britain again occupied
the island in trust, and in that capacity held it.
The duty on Madeira wine in England, when
imported in British vessels, is £96 12s. 63d. per
tun; on which, when exported to the East Iñdies
and China, a drawback is allowed of £86 2s. per
tun. For vessels stopping here, provisions and
refreshments are exorbitantly dear. Beef and
mutton are from 1s, 3d. to 1s. 6d. per lb., and
of very indifferent quality; and fowls, equally
bad, cost a Spanish dollar each. Fruit and vege-
tables are also ill supplied.
MADIGHERY, a town and fortress of India,
belonging to the rajah of Mysore. On the fall
of the Bijanagur sovereigns it came into posses-
sion of a Hindoo family, who retained it till
conquered by one of the Mysore rajahs. The
Mahratta general, Bulwunt Row, besieged it for
five months, without effect. Long. 77° 15' E.,
lat. 13° 33' N. -
MADIGHESHY, a fortress of the south of
India, also belonging to the Mysore rajah, is
situated on a rock, and is a place of great
strength. At the foot of the rock is a fortified
town, containing about 200 stone houses. This
place originally belonged to a Hindoo family,
and is named after one of the ladies who immo-
lated herself on her husband's tomb; in conse-
quence of which Madigheshy was for a long
period governed by females. They were, how-
ever, subdued by one of the Mysore rajahs.
Long. 77° 16' E., lat. 13° 48' N.
MADISCRODIC, a post town of Louisiana,
near the entrance of the river Chifieneti, into
lake Pontchartrain, twenty-seven miles north
of New Orleans. It stands on the best harbour
of the lake.
MADNESS, a most dreadful kind of delirium
without fever. See MEDICINE.
MADOX (Dr. Isaac), a worthy English
prelate, born July 27th, 1697, of obscure parents,
who died during his infancy. He was put to
school by some friends, and completed his studies
at Aberdeen. He entered into orders; and
being made chaplain to Dr. Bradford, bishop of
Chichester, he married his niece, in 1731. After
this he was made king's chaplain, clerk of the
closet to queen Caroline, and, about 1736,
bishop of St. Asaph; whence, in 1743, he was.
translated to Worcester. He was an excellent
preacher, and a great promoter of public chari-
ties, particularly the Worcester, infirmary, and
the hospital for inoculating the small pox at
London. He published some sermons, and a
Defence of the Doctrine, and Discipline of the
Church of England, in answer to Mr. Neale's
History of the Puritans. Dr. Madox died in
1759.
MADox (Thomas), a learned and indefatigable
English antiquary, born in the seventeenth cen-
tury. He published, in 1702, A Collection of
Antique Charters and Instruments, taken from
the originals, from the Norman Conquest to the
end of the reign of Henry VIII. In 1711 he
published a work of still more importance, viz.
The History and Antiquities of the Exchequer
of the kings of England, from the conquest to
the end of the reign of Edward II., &c., in
folio, which was reprinted in 1769 in 4to. This
was dedicated to queen Anne, with a long pre-
fatory epistle to lord. Somers; and procured
him the office of historiographer royal. His last
work was Firma Burgi, or An Historical Essay
concerning the cities, towns, and boroughs of
England; dedicated to king George I. He also
compiled a valuable collection of transcripts, in
94 vols. folio and 4to., consisting chiefly of
extracts from records in the Exchequer, the rolls
in the Tower, the Cottonian Library, &c., in-
tended to afford materials for a feudal history of
England from the earliest times. These volumes,
which cost him thirty years' labor, were presented
by his widow to the British Museum.
MADRAS, or Fort St. George, the chief set-
tlement of the English on the Coromandel coast,
and second of the three presidencies, is a regular
fortification on the beach, one of its bastions
being washed by the waves: it mounts about
2500 guns, having three tiers toward the sea,
where, however, they seem to be of no other use
than very inefficiently to protect the ships in the
road. Within the fort are all the public offices
of the company, counting-houses of the private
traders, one church, assembly-room, &c. The
Black Town is separated from the fort by an
esplanade, two miles in extent, and is said to
contain 80,000 persons; Hindoos, Mussulmans,
Armenians, native Portuguese, and a few Eng-
lish. It is surrounded by an entrenchment. The
population of Fort St. George and the Black
Town, exclusive of Indians, is about 5000 Euro-
peans, the same number of half caste, and 500
Armenians.
The road of Madras is the worst in India, the
shore being perfectly straight. The swell is at
all times considerable, and the surf so great that
, ship's boats can never land, and therefore all
communication with the shore is by boats of a
peculiarly buoyant construction, named Masula
boats; composed of broad boards, the edges of
which are sewed together with fibres of coir,
without any frame-work, but with thofts for the
rowers. The pilots of these boats chaunt a
song, to the cadence of which the rowers kee
time with their oars, quickening or retard-
ing the motion of the boat according to the
nature of the surf. . The rowers also join in
chorus. All the dexterity and experience of
the boatmen (who are bred from their infancy to
the business) are sometimes ineffectual, and a
M A D R I D.
393
year seldom passes without an accident. When
the surf is unusually high, a catamaran, or raft
of three pieces of wood lashed together, with
two men on it, attends the Masula boats with
passengers, and has often saved lives when the
boat has been swamped. These catamarans,
furnished with a sail, are also used for fishing,
and go out to sea several leagues with the morn-
ing land wind, and return with the sea breeze.
Upwards of 1000 species of fish are found at
Madras and along the Coromandel coast; but
the numbers of each species is not great, doubt-
less from the agitation of the waters.
To the south of Madras is a level plain, called
the Choultry, where the English have a great
number of elegant houses; and at the south ex-
tremity of the plain is Chepauk, the palace of
, the nabob of Arcot, almost concealed in a grove.
Ennore is a village on a salt lake, eight leagues
north of Madras. The lake abounds in fish and
oysters; with which latter it supplies the English
of Madras, who also make parties of pleasure
to fish and sail on the lake.
Armagon, or Duraspatam, before the establish-
ment of Madras was the chief settlement of the
English on the Coromandel coast, in 1628 being
described as mounting twelve guns round the
factory, with a guard of twenty-three factors and
soldiers.
The Madras territory is now at least 700
miles in length, but of disproportionate breadth.
The first important accession it received was
the Jagier district of 108 miles in length, by
forty-seven in breadth, obtained from Mo-
hammed Aly, the nabob of the Carnatic, in 1750.
It next obtained, in 1769, the five provinces,
called the Northern Circars, from the great Mogul.
In the wars with Tippoo Sultan several districts
were added by cession from the Nizam and others;
and finally the whole of the Carnatic was taken
possession of in 1801, except a small portion
assigned to the nabob Azeem al Omrah for his
private estate.
The countries subject to this presidency,
comprehend nearly the whole of India south of
the river Kistnah, and the extensive province de-
nominated the Northern Circars; within these
boundaries, however, there are three native
princes, the rajahs of Mysore, Travancore, and
Cochin, who collect revenues, and exercise a cer-
tain degree of authority; but, with reference to
external politics, are wholly dependent on the
British government, are protected by a military
force, and pay a large annual tribute. The rest
of the country is under the immediate jurisdic-
tion of the governor and council at Madras;
and has been subdivided into the districts of
Arcot, Bellary, Canara, Chingleput, Chittore,
Coimbatoor, Combaconum, Cuddapah, Ganjam,
Guntoor, Madras, Madura, Malabar North, Ma-
labar South, Masulipatam, Nellore, Rajahmun-
dry, Salem, Seringapatam, Tanjore, Tinnevelly,
Tritchinopoly, Verdachellum, and Vizagapatam,
over each of which there is a European judge,
and collector, with the requisite establishments.
There are also four provincial courts of circuit
and appeal, to which the above mentioned judges
are subordinate, and a Supreme court of appeal
at Madras. The commerce of the . East India
Company is carried on here by a certain number
of their civil servants, denominated presić lents,
each of whom has the superintendance of a
factory in different parts of the country, and re-
ceive their orders from the board of trade. The
revenues arise principally from the land, which
throughout India is considered generally a s the
property of government. The customs, ex cise,
and post office, also yield a considerable revenue;
but the charges lately exceeded the receipts by
fö00,000 sterling.
MADREPORA, in natural history, a genus
of submarine substances; the character: ; of
which are, that they are almost of a stony Hard-
ness resembling the corals, and are us lally
divided into branches, and pervious by I many
holes or cavities, which are frequently of a stellar
figure. In the Linnaean system this is a genus
of lythophyta : the animal that inhabits , it is
the Medusa. According to Donati, the color is
white when polished; its surface is lightly
wrinkled, and the wrinkles run lengthwise of
the branches ; in the centre there is a sort of
cylinder, which is often pierced through its whole
length by two or three holes. From this, are
detached about seventeen laminae, which run to
the circumference in straight lines, and are
transversely intersected by other laminæ, fortning
many irregular cavities; the cellules, which are
composed of these laminae ranged into a circle,
are the habitations of little polypes, which are
extremely tender animals, generally transparent,
and variegated with beautiful colors. M. de
Peyssonel observes, that those writers who only
considered the figures of the submarine sub-
stances, denominated that class of them which
seemed pierced with holes, pora; and those, the
holes of which were large, they called madre-
pora. He defines them to be all those marine
bodies which are of a stony substance without
either bark or crust, and which have but one
apparent opening at each extremity, furnished
with rays that proceed from the centre to the
circumference. He observes, that the body of
the animal of the madrepora, whose flesh is so
soft that it divides upon the gentlest touch, fills
the centre; the head is placed in the middle.
and surrounded by several feet or claws, which
fill the intervals of the partitions observed in
this substance, and are at pleasure brought to its
head, and are furnished with yellow papillae.
He discovered that its head or centre was lifted .
up occasionally above the surface, and often
contracted and dilated itself like the pupil of
the eye: he saw all its claws moved, as well as
its head or centre. When the animals of the
madrepora are destroyed, its extremities become
white. In the madrépora, he says, the animal
occupies the extremity; and the substance is of
a stony but more loose texture than the coral.
This is formed, like other substances of the same
nature, of a liquor which the animal discharges;
and he adds, that some species of the polype of
the madrepora are produced singly, and others
in clusters.
MADRID, the capital of the Spanish mo-
narchy, is situated near the centre of Spain on
several low hills, part of the table land of New
Castile, bounded on the north by the mountains
394 M A D R I, D.
•
of Gut adarama, and stretching to a distant hori-
zon in all other directions. The neighbourhood
is dry , arid, and naked; being almost wholly
destitute of trees and towns, but watered by the
'Manz; unares, which in summer is frequently dry.
This metropolis, though not commercial or the
seat q f any important manufactures, contains a
number of handsome squares, streets, and build-
ings. . . The first amount to forty-two in number,
mostly very small; but the Plaza Mayor and
Puert a del Sol, when lighted, have a striking coup
d’oeil. The latter resembles a star, being crossed
by five of the principal streets; the former is in
the c antre of Madrid, and is a regular oblong,
surrot unded by porticoes on freestone pillars; the
house 3 are uniform, and five stories high, with
balcoi lies to each window. In the middle of one
of the sides, is the palace called de la Panaderia,
where the royal family come to witness public
exhibitions; and on such occasions, particularly
at the bull fights, still a favorite amusement, the
view ºf this square is said to be magnificent.
Most of the streets in the old town are narrow
and crooked, paved with sharp pointed stones,
and some of the principal ones have foot paths
only iwide enough for one passenger; but in the
modern parts of the town the streets are wide and
straight; and the whole city is well lighted.
The street of Alcala, entered by the gate of that
name, is the handsomest in Madrid, and will
admit ten carriages abreast. Several of the pub-
lic buildings are elegant structures. The Palazio
Real, which stands on an eminence at the western
extremity of Madrid, has four extensive fronts,
adorned with pillars and pilasters. The audience
chamber, consisting of a double cube of ninety
feet, is much admired, and the whole interior is
highly ornamented. It contains a large col-
lection of paintings by the best Spanish, Italian,
and Flanders masters. The churches deserve
attention, rather for the decoration of the interior
than for their general architecture: The number
of churches and chapels in Madrid, including
those which belong to the monasteries, convents,
&c., exceeds 130; and the ground they occupy,
including those establishments, is very extensive.
The custom-house, the post office, the state
prison, the town hall, the council house, and the
academy of St. Ferdinando, together with several
of the hospitals, are worth notice. Another
royal palace, the Buen Retiro, stands at the
eastern extremity of Madrid, encompassed with
handsome and extensive grounds. The houses
of the first grandees are only distinguished from
those of private citizens by their magnitude;
their entrances and staircases are narrow, auk-
ward, and mean. The palaces of the families of
Berwic, Altamira, and Veraguas (the last belong-
ing to the descendants of Columbus), are per-
haps exceptions; and the interior of the great
houses is generally in a better style; many of
them contain master pieces both of painting and
sculpture. Madrid has also several promenades
beyond the walls, and the Prado within the city.
It is a spacious area, laid out in public roads and
walks, provided with chairs and benches, em- .
bellished with statues, and adorned with avenues
of fine trees. The concourse of people here is
sometimes prodigious, but it presents a tiresome
uniformity; the ladies of high rank always keep
in their carriages in the middle walk, while those
who walk in the alleys are enveloped in their man-
tilla or large veil.
The great school, formerly the Jesuits’ college,
has sixteen masters, and teaches the classical and
Hebrew languages, law, logic, natural and ex-
perimental philosophy, and ecclesiastical discip-
line. There is also a seminary, on a comprehen-
sive plan, for the sons of the nobility and gentry.
A botanic garden was laid out about the year
1770, for teaching the elements of that science;
also a chemical school, and classes for engineer-
ing, for anatomy, and the practice of medicine;
and there are academies for the study of history,
painting, sculpture, and architecture; also for the
Spanish language. This last has published a very
superior dictionary on the plan of Dr. Johnson.
The royal library contains above 100,000 volumes;
and the cabinet of natural history has specimens
of natural objects from various parts of the
world, but chiefly from the Spanish colonies.
Madrid contains a considerable number of book
shops, but they have very few new works. The
Escurial had for many years the exclusive privi-
lege of printing. Female education, as in several
Catholic countries, is chiefly conducted in the
convents. . The elevated site of the city, and the
mountains that skirt the northern limits, of the
plain, being almost perpetually covered with snow,
render the climate cool, and little inconvenience
is experienced from the heat of summer; but it
is also changeable and comparatively humid.
The population, including the military and stran-
gers, is estimated at 170,000. The chief manu-
factures of Madrid are those of tapestry, Mosaic
work in stone, and porcelain, all belonging to the
king, and consequently unproductive. In the
midst of an unpropitious soil, destitute of arts,
manufactures, and commerce, and almost of in-
dustry, it could not, it is said, procure subsistence
from the adjacent country for ten days. It is,
therefore, absolutely dependent on remote pro-
vinces, or foreign countries, for every article of
utility or ornament, for all the luxuries, and even
the necessaries of life. It is, in fact, only pre-
served from poverty and desertion by the expen-
diture of the court. The Spanish government
has even discouraged, by heavy imposts, the
culture of wine in the neighbourhood of the
capital. -
Madrid is first mentioned in history as a castle
belonging to the king of Castile, which was
sacked by the Moors in 1109: the court of
Spain was not permanently fixed here till 1563.
During the war of the succession (from 1702 to
1713) Madrid took a decided part in favor of
the Bourbon against the Austrian claims. In
1808 it was early occupied by French troops;
and, when the last members of the royal family
were removing from the capital, the people burst
into open insurrection, and a dreadful conflict
took place between the French soldiery and the
inhabitants. • .
Dr. Southey says “There is no other instance
upon record of an attempt so brave and soutterly
hopeless, when all the circumstances are con-
sidered. The Spanish troops were locked up in
their barracks, and prevented from assisting their

M A D
R. I. D. 395
countrymen. Many of the French were mas-
sacred before they could collect and bring their
force to act: but what could the people effect
against so great a military force, prepared for
such an insurrection, and eager, the leaders from
political, the men from personal feelings, to
strike a blow which should overawe the Spa-
niards and make themselves be respected?'
We must insert the rest of his eloquent descrip-
tion of this horrid scene: it cannot but endear
to Englishmen the peace and liberties which
have certainly cost them much. “The French
poured into the city from all sides, their flying
artillery was brought up, in some places the
cavalry charged the populace, in others the streets
were cleared by repeated discharges of grape-shot.
The great street of Alcala, the Puerta del Sol,
and the great square, were the chief scenes of
slaughter. In the latter the people withstood
several charges, and the officer who commanded
the French had two horses killed under him:
General Grouchy also had a horse wounded.
The infantry fired volleys into every cross street
as they passed, and fired also at the windows
and balconies. The people, when they felt the
superiority of the French, fled into the houses;
the doors were broken open by command of the
generals of brigade, Guillot and Daubrai, and
all within who were found with arms were
bayoneted; and parties of cavalry were stationed
at the different outlets of Madrid to pursue and
cut down those who were flying from the town.
A part of the mob, seeking an unworthy revenge
for their defeat, attacked the French hospital;
and some of the Spaniards who were employed
within, encouraged at their approach, fell upon
the sick and upon their medical attendants. But
these base assailants were soon put to flight.
“At the commencement of the conflict Murat
ordered a detachment of 200 men to take pos-
session of the arsenal. Two officers happened
to be upon guard there, by name Daoiz and
Velarde, the former about thirty years of age;
the latter, some five years younger, was the
person who had been sent to compliment Murat
on his arrival in Spain. Little could they have
foreseen, when they went that morning to their
post, the fate which awaited them, and the
renown which was to be its reward | Having
got together about twenty soldiers of their corps,
and a few countrymen who were willing to
stand by them, they brought out a twenty-four
pounder in front of the arsenal, to bear upon the
straight and narrow street by which the enemy
must approach, and planted two others in like
manner to command two avenues which led into
the street of the arsenal. They had received no
instructions, they had no authority for acting
thus, and, if they escaped in the action, their
own government would without doubt either
pass or sanction a sentence of death against them
for their conduct; never, therefore, did any men
act with more perfect self-devotion. Having
loaded with grape, they waited till the discharge
would take full effect, and such havec did it
make, that the French instantly turned back.
The possession of the arsenal was of so much
importance at this time, that two columns were
presently ordered to secure it: they attempted
it at the cost of many lives, and the Spaniards
fired above twenty times before the enemy could
break into the neighbouring houses, and fire
upon them from the windows. Velarde, was
killed by a musket-ball. Daoiz had his thigh
broken; he continued to give orders sitting, till
he received three other wounds, the last of which
put an end to his life. Then the person to
whom he left the command offered to surrender:
while they were making terms a messenger
arrived bearing a white flag, and crying out that
the tumult was appeased. About two o'clock
the firing had ceased every where, through the
personal interference of the Junta, the council
of Castile, and other tribunals, who paraded the
streets with many of the nobles, and with an
escort of Spanish soldiers and imperial guards
Žntermixed. It might then have been hoped
that the carnage of this dreadful day was ended;
the slaughter among the Spaniards had been
very great; this, however, did not satisfy Murat;
conformably to the system of his master, the
work of death was to be continued in cool blood.
A military tribunal under general Grouchy was
formed, and the Spaniards who were brought
before it were sent away to be slaughtered with
little enquiry whether they had taken part in the
struggle or not. Three groupes of forty each
were successively shot in the Prado—the great
public walk of Madrid. Others, in like man-
ner, were put to death near the Puerta del Sol,
and the Puerta del S. Vicente, and by the church
of N. Senora de la Soledad, one of the most
sacred places in the city. In this manner was
the evening of that 2d of May employed by
the French at Madrid. The inhabitants were
ordered to illuminate their houses, and through
the whole night the dead and the dying might
be seen distinctly as in broad noon-day, lying
upon the bloody pavement. When morning
came the same mockery of justice was continued,
and fresh murders were committed deliberately
with the forms of military execution during
several succeeding days. D. Alvaro Florez
Estrada says, that care was not taken to despatch
these victims of an atrocious system,--that their
groans were heard through the night, and that to
strike the more terror, permission was not given
to remove the bodies for interment till after they
had lain there two days.” -
On the 20th of July Joseph Buonaparte made
his public entry as king of Spain; but, on the
27th of the same month, found it necessary to
retreat. He re-entered Madrid on the 5th of
December, and remained till lord Wellington's
operations in 1812 made it requisite for him to
go to the assistance of Marmont. The battle of
Salamanca was now fought; and Madrid being
entered by a body of British troops, on the 12th
of August, was occupied by them, until marshal
Soult advanced from Andalusia. It now re-
mained in possession of the French till the year
following, when the battle of Vittoria led to its
final liberation. 650 miles S.S.W. of Paris, and
850 west by south of Rome. -
MAD'RIER, n.s. Fr. madrier. A plank used
in offence and defence by besiegers. See below.
Madrier, in war, is a thick plank, armed with iron
plates, having a cavity sufficient to receive the mouth
MAD
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396
of the petard when charged, with which it is applied
against a gate, or other thing intended to be broken
down. Bailey.
Madrier also denotes a long and broad plank, used
for supporting the earth in mining, carrying on saps,
making caponiers, galleries, and the like. There
are also madriers lined with tin, and covered with
earth; serving as defences against artificial fires, in
lodgments, &c., where there is need of being covered
over head. Dr. A. Rees.
MAD'RIGAL, Fr. madrigal; Ital. mandriale;
Lat. mandra; Gr. Havópa (a fold, or cattle stall).
A pastoral song; any light, airy, piece of poetry.
Waters, by whose falls
Birds sing melodious madrigals. Shakspeare.
His artful strains have oft delayed
The huddling brook to hear his madrigal.
g Milton.
Their tongue is light and trifling in comparison of
the English ; more proper for sonnets, madrigals, and
elegies, than heroick poetry. Dryden.
A madrigal is a little amorous piece, which con-
tains a certain number of unequal verses, not tied to
the scrupulous regularity of a sonnet, or subtility of
an epigram : it consists of one single rank of verses,
and in that differs from a canzonet, which consists of
several strophes, which return in the same order and
number. Bailey.
MADURA, MATHURA, or MADRU, a district
in the Southern Carnatic, chiefly situated between
9° and 10° of N. lat. To the north it is
bounded by Dindigul and the Polygar territory,
to the south by Tinevelly, on the east by the
district of Marawas, and on the west by Dindi-
gul. . The chief rivers are the Vaygaroo and
Candaroo; and the principal towns Madura and
Scholavanden.
The ancient sovereigns of this country were of
the Pandian race: it is supposed to have been
the Pandion Mediterraneum, and Madura Regia
Pandionis of Ptolemy. In conjunction with
Trichinopoly it forms the Hindoo geographical
division of Madru.
This district never attained the cultivation of
Tanjore and some other of the neighbouring
districts, until transferred to the British in 1801
by the nabob of Arcot. During the early Car-
natic wars, from 1740 to 1760, a great propor-
tion of it was covered with forests and thick
jungle, in the recesses of which the independent
polygars had their castles. It is comprehended
in the Dindigul collectorship, and, having long
enjoyed tranquillity, is rapidly rewarding the
care of the British government.
MADURA, a city of the Southern Carnatic, the
capital of the district of Madura, stands in lat.
9° 51° N., long. 78° 13' E., the four sides fronting
nearly the four cardinal points. The river, passing
from the north-west, washes the walls at the
north-east angle; and the bed, unless imme-
diately after heavy rains, lies in dry flats of sand,
9n some of which are buildings with channels
between them. This town, during the Carnatic
Wars, sustained many sieges, and was often in
the hands of refractory polygars. The fortress
has not of late been thought worth maintaining.
Travelling distance from Seringapatam 240 miles,
from Madras 307. -
MADURA, an island in the Eastern Seas, situ-
ated off the north-east coast of Java, from which it
is separated by a narrow strait, is in length about
100 miles, by sixteen the average breadth. The
channel of the straits, where it narrows, is only
eighty-three fathoms wide, and marked with
buoys; at the entrance there are but three
fathoms water, yet ships of a large size can pass
it, the bottom being soft mud, which is easily
worked through with a light breeze. In 1747 the
Dutch invaded and subdued this island, and in
1775 it contained 30,000 tatgars, or families.
At that period a Dutch junior merchant resided
here, at Samanap, the capital, but the commerce
was of little account.
The language is a dialect of the Javanese; but
the greater part of the natives profess the religion
of their ancestors, and resemble the Hindoos in
their looks, the mark on their forehead, and the
suttees of their women. They are particularly
addicted to the worship of Indra, Surya, and
Vishnu. They appear to have ideas of a future
life, but not as a state of retribution; conceiving
immortality to be the lot of the rich, rather than
of good men. The inhabitants of the interior
possess a considerable knowledge of vegetable
poisons, which they apply to their arrows, and
then blow them through tubes of bamboo. Sa-
manap is on the south-east coast; eighty-two
miles distant is Bancallan, at which the Sultan
resides. Parmacassan is also a chief town of the
interior. The island is said to be fertile, but
thinly peopled. t
MAEANDER, in ancient geography, a ceie-
brated river of Asia Minor, rising near Celaenae.
It flows through Caria and Ionia into the HEgean
Sea between Miletus and Priene, after receiving
the waters of the Marsyas, Lycus, Eudon, Le-
thaus, &c. It is celebrated among the poets for
its numerous windings, and hence windings in
general are called maeanders.
MAEATA, or MEATs, an ancient people of
Britain, who inhabited the middle part of the
island. Their territories lay between the two
Roman walls, and comprehended the country
since called Northumberland, and the territories
between it and the Firths of Clyde and Forth.
Dunbritton or Dunbarton was their capital; and
they had kings of their own till, the Norman
conquest. Such is Dr. Anderson's account of
the Maeatae; but others say their territories com-
prehended only the district now called Lauder-
dale.
MAECENAS (Caius Cilnius), the great friend
and counsellor of Augustus, and the celebrated
and liberal patron and protector of men of
letters. He was descended from the kings of
Etruria, but his immediate forefathers were only
of the equestrian order. He is supposed to
have been born in Rome, as his family lived
there; but nothing is known of him previous to
the death of Caesar, A. U. C. 709; when Octa-
vius Caesar went to Rome to take possession of
his uncle's inheritance, and Maecenas became
first publicly known. From that time he ao-
companied him through all his fortunes, so that
Paedo Albinovanus called him Caesar's right
hand. In A. U. C. 710 Maecenas distinguished
himself by his courage and military skill at the
battle of Modena, as he did afterwards at Phi-
lippi. After this last battle began his memora-
ble friendship with Horace, who was a tribune
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397
in the army of Brutus, and was taken prisoner.
Maecenas recommended him to Augustus, who
restored to him his estate with no small addi-
tions. The league made at Brundusium, between
Antony and Augustus, was negociated by Maece-
nas on the part of the latter. (See Hor. Sat. v.
1. 1.) In A. U. C. 717, when Augustus and
Agrippa went to Sicily to Sextus Pompeius by
sea, Maecenas, who accompanied them, was sent
back to appease some commotions at Rome.
After the battle of Actium he was placed over
the military affairs of the empire; and, while
Augustus was extinguishing the remains of the
civil war in Asia and Egypt, Maecenas detected
a conspiracy to assassinate the emperor on his
return to Rome, and put to death young
Lepidus the founder of it. The civil wars being
ended, Augustus returned to Rome; and from
this time Maecenas indulged himself in literary
amusements. His house was open to all the
learned of his time; Virgil, Horace, Propertius,
Varius, Fuscus, Aristius, Asinius Pollio, and
many others, whom it would be tedious to men-
tion. All these dedicated their works, or parts
of them, to Maecenas, and celebrated his
praises; and Plutarch says, even Augustus him-
self inscribed his commentaries to him and to
Agrippa. Macenas continued in favor with
Augustus to the end of his life, but not without
interruption, the emperor forming an intrigue
with Maecenas's wife. It is to the honor of
Augustus that he received the private admoni-
tions of Maecenas in the same friendly manner
in which they were given, and he was not dis-
pleased with the liberty which he once took of
sending to him a paper with these words written
upon it, “surge carnifex,’ ‘rise butcher,' while
he was sitting on his judgment seat, and betray-
ing revenge and impatience in his countenance.
He was struck with the admonition, and left the
tribunal without passing sentence of death on
the criminals. Maecenas died in the year 8
B. C. or 745 A. U. C., but at what age is not
known. He is often called an old man by Paedo
Albinovanus, a contemporary poet, whose elegy
upon him is extant. He made Augustus his
heir; and recommended his friend Horace to
him. Though he was on the whole a virtuous
character, yet he was very luxurious and effemi-
nate. But his name will ever be venerated by
men of letters, on account of the disinterested
patronage and support he gave to all the wits
and learned men of his time, whence his name
has become almost an appellative for a patron of
learning and genius. He was also an author
himself; as he wrote, 1. A History of Animals:
2. A Journal of the Life of Augustus: 3. A
Treatise on Precious Stones: 4. Octavia: and,
5. Prometheus, Tragedies: with several other
works: but they are all lost.
MAELSTROM, a dangerous whirlpool on
the coast of Norway, near the island of Moskoe,
whence it also has its name of Moskoe-strom.
Betwixt Lofoden and Moskoe the depth of the
water is between thirty-six and forty fathoms;
but on the other side, towards Ver, the depth
decreases so as not to afford a convenient passage
for a vessel, without the risk of splitting on the
rocks, which happens even in the calmest
weather. When it is flood, the stream runs up
the country between Lofoden and Moskoe with
a boisterous rapidity; but the roar of its impetu-
ous ebb to the sea is scarcely equalled by the
loudest and most dreadful cataracts; the noise
being heard several leagues off; and the vortices
or pits are of such an extent and depth that, if a
ship comes within the attraction: º is inevitably
absorbed and carried down to the bottom, and
there beaten to pieces against the rocks; and,
when the water relaxes, the fragments thereof
are thrown up again. But thes. Intervals of
tranquillity are only at the turn of . A. ebb and
flood, in calm weather; and last but a quarter
of an hour, its violence gradually returning.
When the stream is most boisterous, and its fury
heightened by a storm, it is dangerous to come
within a Norway mile of it; boats, ships, and
yachts, having been carried away, by not guard-
ing against it before they were within its reach.
It likewise happens frequently that whales come
too near the stream, and are overpowered by its
violence; and then it is impossible to describe
their howlings and bellowings in their fruitless
struggles to disengage themselves. A bear once
attempting to swim from Lofoden to Moskoe,
with a design of preying upon the sheep at pas-
ture in the island, afforded a similar spectacle;
the stream caught him and bore him down,
whilst he roared so terribly as to be heard on
shore. Large stocks of firs and pine trees, after
being absorbed by the current, rise again broken
and torn to pieces. This plainly shows the
bottom to consist of craggy rocks, among which
they are whirled to and fro. This stream is re-
gulated by the flux and reflux of the sea; it
being constantly high and low water every six
hours. In 1645, early in the morning of Sexa-
gesima Sunday, it raged with such noise and
impetuosity that, on the island of Moskoe, the
very stones of the houses fell to the ground.
When this whirlpool is agitated by a storm its
vortex will reach vessels five or six miles distant.
MAEMACTERIA, sacrifices offered to Jupi-
ter at Athens, in the winter month Maemacte-
rion. The god, surnamed Maemactes, was
entreated to send mild and temperate weather; as
he presided over the seasons and was the god of
the air. +.
MHEMACTERION was the fourth month of
the Athenian year, containing twenty-nine days,
and answering to the latter part of our Septem-
ber and the beginning of October; so named
from the festival Maemacteria. It was called by
the Boeotians Alalcomenius.
MHENALUS, in ancient geography, a moun-
tain of Arcadia, sacred to Pan, and greatly fre-
quented by shepherds. It received its name
from Maenalus a son of Lycaon. It was covered
with pine trees, whose echo and shade have
been greatly celebrated by all the ancient poets.
MAEONIA, or MoEoNIA, a country of Asia
Minor, forming part of Lydia: viz. the neigh-
bourhood of Mount Timolus, watered by the
Pactolus. The rest, on the sea coast, was called
Lydia. See LYDIA. -
MHEONIDE, a name given to the Muses,
because Homer, their greatest and worthiest fa-
vorite, was supposed to be a native of Maeonia.
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MAEONIDES, a surname of Homer, because,
according to some writers, he was born in Maeo-
nia, or because his father's name was Maeon.
MAEOTICA PALUs, MAEoTIcus LACUs, or
MAEOTIS PALUs or LAcus, a large lake or part of
the sea between Europe and Asia, at the north
of the Euxine, with which it communicates by
the Cimmerian Bosphorus. It was worshipped
as a deity by the Massagetae. It extends about
390 miles from south-west to north-east, and is
about six miles in circumference. It is now
called the sea of Asoph or Zaback; and reaches
from Crim Tartary to the mouth of the Dori. See
ASoph. f
MAESE, a considerable river of Europe,
which has its source in the department of the
Upper Marne, France, enters the Netherlands to
the north of Charleyille, and falls into the Ger-
man Ocean below Rotterdam. In its course, of
about 400 miles, it is joined by the Mouzon,
Sambre, Ourthe, Lesse, and Ruhr, and various
inferior streams; on its junction with the Waal,
the united river takes the name of Merwe. It
passes Verdun, Sedan, and Mezieres, in France;
Charlemont, Namur, Huy, Liege, Maestricht,
Ruremonde, Venloo, Grave, Gorcum, Dort, Rot-
terdam, and Briel, in the Netherlands; and
exhibits in parts of its course, on a smaller scale,
all the romantic scenery of the Rhine.
MAESTLIN (Michael), in Latin, Maestlinus, a
celebrated German astronomer, born in the
duchy of Wittemberg: but who spent his youth
in Italy, where he converted Galileo from the
Aristotelian to the Copernican system. He
afterwards returned to Germany, and became
professor of mathematics at Tubingen; where,
among his other pupils, he educated the great
Kepler. Maestlin published many mathematical
and astronomical works; and died in 1590.
MAESTRICHT, a large central town of the
Netherlands, the capital of the province of Lim-
burg, is situated on the Maese, near the junction
of that river with the left bank of the Jaer. It
stands in a valley surrounded with hills, in a
fertile neighbourhood, and communicates with
the suburbs of Wyck, on the opposite side, by
means of a stone bridge 500 feet in length. The
whole is tolerably well built, and the principal
street, consisting chiefly of shops, extends from
the bridge to the other extremity of the town.
There are two good squares; and of the public
buildings, the chief are the town-hall, and the
church of St. Gervais; the college, once occu-
pied by the Jesuits; the theatre, and the arsenal,
are also worth a visit. -
Maestricht is considered one of the strongest
places in the kingdom of the Netherlands. It is
surrounded by walls and ditches; but its
strength consists in a number of detached bas-
tions. . . It is also defended by the fortress of St.
Pierre, on a neighbouring height. The ramparts
and banks of the river above the town form
pleasant promenades. The manufactures con-
sist in leather, flannel, stockings, hardware, and
coarse cloths. Here are also extensive breweries
and distilleries. In a neighbouring mountain
are stone quarries, with subterraneous passages
of considerable extent. From this town vessels
sail at stated hours to all the chief places higher
up on the Maese. It was besieged by the French
in 1748, at the period of the peace of Aix-ka-
Chapelle, and taken by them in 1794. Popu-
lation 18,500. Fourteen miles north by east of
Liege, and fifty-six east of Brussels.
MAFFAEUS (John Peter), a learned Jesuit,
born at Bergamo in 1536. He wrote a Life of
Ignatius Loyola; a History of the Indies: and
other works. He died at Tivoli in 1503,
MAFFEUs (Vego), a Latin poet, born in Lom-
bardy in 1407, greatly admired in his time. He
wrote epigrams, and a humorous supplement to
Virgil, which he called the Thirteenth Book of
the Æneid, and which has been as humorously
translated into English by Mr. Ellis. Maffaeus
wrote also some prose works. He was chancellor
of Rome about the end of the pontificate of
Martin V. ; and died in 1458.
MAFFEUs, or MAFFEI (Francis Scipio), a ce-
lebrated Italian poet, of an illustrious family,
born at Verona in 1675. He distinguished
himself by his valor at the battle of Donawert;
and was a member of the academy of the Arcadi
at Rome, and an honorary member of that of
Inscriptions at Paris. He wrote many works in
verse and prose, which are esteemed; particu-
larly, 1. The tragedy of Merope: 2. Ceremony,
a comedy: 3. A translation, into Italian verse,
of the first book of Homer's Iliad. 4. Many
other pieces of poetry, in a collection entitled
Rhyme and Prose, 4to.: 5. Verona Illustrata ;
6. Istoria Diplomatica; 7. Scienza Cavalleresca,
an excellent work against duelling: 8. An edi-
tion of Theatro Italiano: 9. An edition of Cas-
siodorus on the Epistles, &c. : 10. Galliae Anti-
quitates quaedam Selectae: and several other
works. These last six are in prose. He died in
1755. *
MAGADA, in mythology, a title under which
Venus was worshipped in Lower Saxony; where
she had a famous temple, which was treated with
respect even by the Huns and Vandals when
they ravaged the country. It was destroyed by
Charlemagne.
MAGADOXA, an inhospitable town on the
eastern coast of Africa, capital of a country of the
same name. It is watered by a large river; the
course of which, as well as the whole district, is
little known to Europeans. The inhabitants :
ever opposed a most determined resistance to the
Portuguese; and their jealousy of the people has
been extended to all Europeans. In 1707 the
Albemarle, East lndiaman, sent a boat on shore,
which was seized, and all attempts to recover it
proved fruitless. The greater part of the inhabi-
tants are Mahommedans, though there are said
to be some Abyssinian Christians here. The
town is known from the coast by three remark-
able mosques which rise in its centre. A reef of
coral, lined by a sand-bank, fronts this place.
Long. 46° 30' E., lat. 2° 5' N. ."
MAGAS, from uayaëtzew, to sing or play in
unison or octave, a musical instrument in use
among the ancients. There were two kinds of
Magades, the one a stringed instrument, formed
of twenty chords arranged in pairs, and tuned to
unison or octave so that they yielded ten sounds,
the invention of which is ascribed by some to
Sappho, by others to the Lydians, and by some to
MAG
MAG
399
Timotheus of Miletus. The other was a kind of
flute, which at the same time yielded very high
and very low notes. The former kind was much
improved by Timotheus of Miletus, who is said
to have been impeached, because, by increasing
the number of chords, he spoiled and discredited
the ancient music. " . . .
MAGAZINE, n.s. Fr. magazin; Ital, magaz-
zino; Arab. makzan, a storehouse; Heb. ??Jo.—
Minsheu. A depository of treasures, provisions,
or military stores; hence any repository or meta-
phorical storehouse of ideas, discoveries, &c.
If it should appear fit to bestow shipping in those
harbours, it .# be very needful . there be a
magazine of all necessary provisions and ammunitions.
. Raleigh's Essay
Plain heroick magnitude of mind
Their armories and magazines contemns.
4. - Milton.
If our passions are unruly, if our appetites are out-
rageous, if temptations be violent, and threaten to
overbear us, it leadeth us to a full magazine, whence
we may furnish ourselves with all manner of arms to
withstand and subdue them. Barrow.
Some o'er the public magazines preside,
And some are sent new forage to provide.
- | - Dryden.
His head was so well stored a magazine, that
nothing could be proposed which he was not master
of. - - - Locke.
Useful arms in magazines we place,
All ranged in order, and disposed with grace.
- Pope.
Hast thou e'er scaled my wintry skies and seen
Of hail and snows, my northern magazine? Young.
When the stamp-officers demanded to stamp the
last half sheet of the magazines, Mr. Cave alone de-
feated their claim, to which the proprietors of the
rival magazines would meanly have submitted.
• Johnsom.
A MAGAZINE, in a fortified town, ought to
contain stores of all kinds; i.e. not only arms,
ammunition, and provisions, but materials and
tools by which Smiths, carpenters, wheel-wrights,
&c., may make every thing belonging to the ar-
tillery; as carriages, waggons, &c. -
A MAGAZINE, on ship-board, is a close room
or storehouse, built in the fore or aft part of the
hold, to contain the gunpowder used in battle.
This apartment is strongly secured against fire,
and no person is allowed to enter it with a lamp
or candle: it is therefore lighted as occasion re-
quires, by the candles or lamps in the light-room
contiguous to it. - - -
MAGAZINE, ARTILLERY. In a siege the ma-
gazine is about twenty-five or thirty yards
behind the battery, towards the parallels, and at
least three feet under ground, to hold the pow-
der, loaded shells, port-fires, &c. Its sides and
roof must be well secured with boards to prevent
the earth from falling in : a door is made to it,
and a double trench or passage is sunk from the
magazine to the battery, one to go in and the
other to come out at, to prevent confusion.
Sometimes traverses are made in the passages,
to prevent ricochet shot from plunging into
them. -
, MAGAZINE, Powder, is that where gunpowder
is kept in very large quantities. Authors differ
greatly both with regard to the situation and
construction; but all agree that they ought to
which give it a beautiful appearance.
be arched and bomb-proof. In fortifications
they are frequently placed in the rampart; but
of late they have been built in different parts of
the town. . . The first powder magazines were
made with Gothic arches: but M. Vauban, find-
ing them too weak, constructed them in a semi-
circular form, whose dimensions are sixty feet
long within and twenty-five broad; the founda-
tions are eight or nine feet thick, and eight feet
high from the foundation to the spring of the
arch; the floor is two feet from the ground,
which keeps it from dampness. An engineer of
great experience had observed that, after the
centres of semicircular arches are struck, they
settle at the crown and rise up at the haunches,
even with a straight horizontal extrados, and still
much more so in powder magazines, whose out-
side at top is formed like the roof of a house, by
two inclined planes joining in an angle over
the top of the arch, to give a proper descent to
the rain.
MAGDALENA, a considerable river of South
America, in New Grenada, rises in the pro-
vince of Popayan, and runs a northerly course
of 400 miles in the valley between the ridges of
the Andes. It receives the tribute of numerous
subordinate streams. A great traffic is carried
on throughout its course by means of large flat-
bottomed boats, but the navigation is exceed-
ingly irksome, not only on account of the heat,
but through the great number of musquitoes
with which the river is infested. On its entrance
into the sea it forms a small isle or rock, called
the Isla Verde. The waters do not embody
themselves with the sea for a distance of more
than twenty leagues; and as far as this they are
perfectly, pure and sweet to the palate. Its
mouth is in lat. 11° 2' N. .
MAGDALENE'S CAve, a cave of Germany,
in Carinthia, ten miles east of Gortz. It ap—
pears like a chasm in a rock, and at the entrance
torches are lighted to conduct travellers. It has
several divisions, with a vast number of natural
pillars, white as snow, and almost transparent,
The bot-
tom is also formed of stalactite, so that it has been
likened to the ruins of an enchanted castle, sur-
rounded with magnificent pillars, some entire and
others broken. - - -
MAGDALENETTES, a name given to divers
communities of nuns, “consisting generally of
penitent courtezans. Such are those at Metz,
established in 1452; those at Paris, in 1492;
those at Naples, first established in 1324, and
endowed by queen Sancha; and those of Rouen
and Bourdeaux, which had their original among
those of Paris in 1618. In each of these
monasteries there are three kinds of persons and
congregations: 1. Those who are admitted to
make vows, and who bear the name of St. Mag-
dalen; 2. The congregation of St. Martha, com-
posed of those whom it is not judged proper to
admit to vows; 3. The congregation of St. La-
zarus, composed of such as are detained there.
The religious of St. Magdalen at Rome were
established by pope Leo X. Clement VIII.
settled a revenue on them; and farther appoint
ed that the effects of all public prostitutes, dying
intestate, should fall to them; and that the tes-
MAG
MAG
400
taments of the rest should be invalid unless they
bequeathed a portion of their effects, at least a
fifth part, to them t -
MAGDEBURG, a government of the Prus-
sian States in Lower Saxony, comprising a part
of the Old Mark on the left side of the Elbe, the .
principality of Halberstadt, the abbey of Qued-
linburg and its domain, Wernigerode, Schauen,
and the bailiwics of Barby, Gommern, and
Kloetze: or the fifteen circles of
Magdeburg, Halberstadt,
Kalbe, Ochersleben,
Wanzleben, Osterwick,
Wolmerstadt, Stendal,
Neuhaldensleben, Salzwedel,
Jerichow Loburg, Osterburg,
Genthin, Gardeleban. “
Aschersleben,
The old duchy should not be confounded with
the province of this name, since, though a part of
it is included in the latter, another part belongs to
the Prussian province or government of Merse-
burg. The area of the duchy was 2060 square
miles; its population 290,000: ... that of this
province 4400 square miles, and the population
446,000.
It is fertile in corn, which is exported in con-
siderable quantity: flax, hemp, and chicory, for
making coffee, are also raised to some extent;
wood, however, is scarce. The principal mine-
rals are coals in various parts; metals in the
mountains of the Hartz; salt; and porcelain earth.
The silk-worm has been introduced here with
some success; and, although woolien and linen
constitute the chief fabrics, silk has become, in
consequence, a considerable manufacture. The
Elbe traverses this government from north to
south. Magdeburg is the chief emporium of
trade. *
MAGDEBURG, the capital of the above govern-
ment, and formerly of all Germany, is a fortified
city of great trade and strength, and very ancient.
Its name signifies the maiden city; which, some
imagine, took its rise from an ancient temple of:
Venus, which stood here. The founder of the
city is said to have been Otho I., or his empress
Editha, daughter of Edmund I. of England.
Otho also founded a Benedictine convent, which
he afterwards converted into an archbishopric, of
which the archbishop was a count palatine, and
had great privileges. The city is pleasantly
situated amidst fruitful plains on the banks of
the Elbe. It has suffered greatly by fires and
sieges; but by none so much as that in 1631,
when count Tilly took it by storm, plundered,
and burnt it, except the cathedral and convent.
Of 40,000 burghers, not above 800 escaped.
The soldiers committed the most shocking bar-
barities. It was formerly one of the Hanse and
imperial towns. Editha, on whom it was, con-
ferred as a dowry, among many other privileges,
procured it the grant of a yearly fair.
The city is now populous, large, and well-
built, particularly the broad street and cathedral
square, being divided into five parts; the Old
Town; the Neumarkt; the Friedrichstadt, or
tower fort; the New Town; and the quarter
called Sudenburg, which have their own magis-
trates, and are treated by the government as
separate towns. The whole contained in 1816 a
population of 30,250, of whom 28,000 were
Protestants, the rest Catholics and Jews. The
New Town lies on the Elbe, to the north-east of
the Old Town, from which it is separated by
fortifications. The principal squares are the
cathedral square; the old market, with a statue
of the emperor Otho the Great; and the prince's
market, adjoining the public walks. The exche-
quer, the court-house, the ducal palace, the
regency house, government house, and the new
and old arsenals, are the most remarkable public
buildings. The cathedral is of freestone, with two
spires. Magdeburg has also three houses of
council or assembly, a Catholic church in the
citadel, twelve Protestant churches, one Catho-
lic and three Protestant convents, five hospitals,
two orphan-houses, a house of correction, and
workhouse. Principal public walks are the
prince's rampart, the freemasons' garden, and
the banks of the Elbe. Here are courts of jus-
tice for Prussian Saxony; the offices for the civil
affairs of the government of Magdeburg; a Pro-
testant consistory; the Lutheran establishment of
Notre Dame, which serves as a gymnasium; a
medical board; cathedral school, and town gym-
nasium; two mercantile Schools; and a school of
midwifery. Magdeburg has also various public
libraries, literary clubs, and collections of paint-
ings. It is accounted on the whole a pleasant
residence. A German theatre belongs to the
town, and another to a private society. The
environs are also pleasant. At a short distance
from the town is the Bergen monastery, and the
salt works of Schoenebeck, producing about
30,000 tons annually. Like other towns in the
north of Germany, Magdeburg contains exten-
sive breweries and distilleries. The manufac-
tures of the place derived, in the seventeenth
century, much advantage from the number of
Protestant emigrants who settled here from
France and the Low Countries. The largest are
of woollen and linen, stockings, hats, leather,
tobacco, wax, and soap. Magdeburg was entered
by the French in 1806, and annexed to the king-
dom of Westphalia. In 1813, on the retreat of
the French from Germany, it was occupied by a
strong garrison, and did not surrender till the
fall of Buonaparte. It is seventy-five miles
W. S.W. of Berlin, sixty-two N. N.W. of Leipsic,
and 120 S. S. E. of Hamburgh.
MAGDOLUM, or MAGDALUM, in ancient
geography, a town of Lower Egypt, twelve miles
south of Pelusium (Herodotus, Antonine); rec-
koned the Migdol or Magdol of Jeremiah.
MAGELHAENS (John Hyacinth de), a learn-
ed Portuguese ecclesiastic, who was a member of
several foreign academies, as well as F. R. S.
London. He came to London, and resided
here many years, till his death in 1790. He
published several useful tracts on experimental
philosophy. *
MAGELLAN (Ferdinand), a celebrated Por-
tuguese mariner in the sixteenth century. He
entered into the service of the emperor Charles V.,
and sailed from Seville with five vessels in 1519,
when he discovered and passed through the straits
to which he gave name, and sailed through the
MAG
MAG
401
South Sea to the Ladrone Islands, where, ac-
cording to some, he was poisoned in 1520;
though others say that he was killed in a mutiny
of his people in the island of Mutan, on account
of his severity. His voyage round the world has
been often printed in English.
MAGELLAN, STRAITs of, form a passage
between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, at the
southern extremity of the continent of America,
upwards of 300 miles in length: that is, reckon-
ing from Cape Virgin in the Atlantic, to Cape
Desire in the Pacific Ocean. In some places
they are several leagues over, in others not more
than half a league. These straits were discovered,
and passed through, in the year 1520, by Ferdi-
nando Magellan, a Portuguese in the service of
the crown of Spain, and hence derive their name.
Though they possess many harbours affording
wood, water, and fish, the heavy gales of wind
that prevail here, and the strength of the currents,
have caused them to be almost entirely aban-
doned as a route between the two oceans, ships
finding it both more safe and more expeditious
to double Cape Horn. Westerly winds are the
most prevailing, while the current usually sets
from the Atlantic: at the entrance the tide rises
twenty-eight feet.
MAGELLANICCLoups, whitish appearances
like clouds, seen in the heavens towards the
south pole, and having the same apparent motion
as the stars. They are three in number, two of
them near each other. The largest lies far from
the south pole; but the other two are about 11°
distant. Boyle supposes that, if these clouds
were seen through a good telescope, they would
appear to be multitudes of small stars, like the
milky way.
MAGGEROE, or Bare Island, a large island
on the coast of Lapland, on which is the North
Cape, thus named by Burroughs in 1556. It is
separated from the main by a sound of the same
name. The cape is an enormous block of gra-
nite, projecting far into the sea, and which,
being exposed to all the fury of the waves,
crumbles away continually. ‘Here,' says an in-
telligent traveller, “every thing is solitary, every
thing is sterile, every thing is sad and despond-
ent; the shadowy forest no longer adorns the
brow of the mountain; the singing of the birds,
which enlivens even the woods of Lapland, is
no longer heard in this scene of desolation; the
ruggedness of the dark gray rock is not covered
by a single shrub ; the only rhusic is the hoarse
murmuring of the waves, ever and anon renew-
ing their assaults on the huge masses that oppose
them. The northern sun, creeping at midnight
along the horizon of the immeasurable ocean, at
fhe distance of five diameters, in apparent contact
with the skies, forms the grand outline of the
sublime picture presented to the astonished
spectator. The incessant cares and pursuits of
anxious mortals are recollected as a dream, the
various forms and, energies of animated nature
are forgotten, the earth is contemplated only in
its elements, and as constituting a part of the
solar system.” Lat 71°11'N., long. 26° 0' 45" E.
MAGGI, or MAGIUS (Jerome), one of the
most learned men of the sixteenth century, was
born at Anghiari in Tuscany. He applied him-
Vol. XIII.
self to the sciences, and distinguished himself so
much in the art of war, that the Venetians sent
him into Cyprus as judge of the admiralty.
When the Turks besieged Famagusta, he invented
mines and machines for throwing fire, by means
of which he destroyed all the works of the be-
siegers, and in an instant overthrew what had
cost the Turks infinite labor. But they obtained
revenge; for, taking the city in 1571, they plun-
dered his library, carried him loaded with chains
to Constantinople, and treated him in the most
barbarous manner. He nevertheless, after pass-
ing the whole day in the meanest drudgery, spent
the night in writing. He composed, from memory
alone, treatises filled with quotations, which he
dedicated to the Imperial and French ambas-
sadors. These ministers, moved by compassion
for this learned man, resolved to ransom him;
but, while they were treating for his delivery,
Maggi made his escape to the imperial ambas-
sador's house; when the grand vizier, enraged
at his flight, seized, and caused him to be
strangled in prison in 1572. His principal
works are, 1. A Treatise on the Bells of the
Ancients. 2. On the JDestruction of the World
by Fire. 3. Commentaries on AEmilius Probus's
Lives of Illustrious Men. 4. Commentaries on
the Institutes. 5. A Treatise on the Wooden
Horse. These works are written in elegant Latin.
He also wrote 6. A Treatise on Fortification, in
Italian; and 7. A book on the Situation of
Ancient Tuscany.
MAGGIORE, LAGo, a lake of Upper Italy,
separating the Austro-Italian government of
Milan, from the states of Sardinia, and extending
from Sesto northwards to Locarno. Its length
is upwards of thirty miles, its breadth between
seven and eight; its medium depth 160 feet, and
its elevation above the level of the sea 1800 feet.
It is traversed by the river Ticino; and its waters,
which are clear as crystal, contain various kinds
of fish; its banks abound in picturesque objects
of every kind, and are adorned with a number of
villages and towns. It contains several small
islands, the most remarkable of which, the Bor-
romean, aré the admiration of all travellers.
MAG'GOT, n.s. Sax. magāe, mogàe; Wel.
MAG'GoTTY, adj. $ mageod, magrod; Goth. mad-
ka. A small worm or grub; any embryo: any
whimsey or fancy. The metaphorical use is
low.
Taffata phrases, silken terms precise,
Three-piled hyperboles, spruce affectation,
Figures pedantical; these summer flies t
Have blown me full of maggot ostentation.
I do forswear them.
Henceforth my wooing mind shall be exprest
In russet yeas, and honest kersy noes.
Shakspeare.
To reconcile our late dissenters,
Our brethren though by other venters,
{Jnite them and their different maggots,
As long and short sticks are in faggots.
Hudibras.
Out of the sides and back of the common caterpil-
lar we have seen creep out small maggots.
Ray on Creation.
To pretend to work out a neat scheme of thoughts
with a maggotty unsettled head, is as ridiculous as to
think to write straight in a jumbling coach. Norris.
MAG
MAG
402
From the sore although the insect flies,
3t leaves a brood of maggots in disguise. Garth.
She pricked his maggot, and touched him in the
tender point; then he broke out into a violent pas-
SiOIl. - Arbuthnot.
For bankrupts write when ruined shops are shut,
As maggots crawl from out a perished nut:
His hammer this, and that his trowel quits,
And, wanting sense for tradesmen, serve for wits.
. Young.
MAGGOT, or the fly-worm, is bred in flesh,
from the egg of the great blue flesh-fly. Not-
withstanding the distaste for this animal, its
anatomy is worth attending to ; and may serve
as a general history of the class of worms pro-
duced from the eggs of flies. It is white and
fleshy; its body is composed of a number of
rings, like the bodies of caterpillars, and is capa-
ble at pleasure of assuming different figures,
more or less extended in length, and consequently
more or less thick. Although it has no legs, it
is able to move itself very swiftly; and, in its
first attempt to move its body, is extended to its
greatest length, and assumes something of the
figure of a pointed cone. The pointed part of
the cone is the head of the animal, and is not
separated from the next ring by any deeper fur-
row than the rest of the rings are from one
another. Sometimes two short horns are thrust
out from the head; but more generally two
scaly hooks are observable: these are, however,
sometimes hid, and have each a case or sheath,
into which the animal can retract them at plea-
sure. These hooks are bent into an arch, the
concavity of which is towards the plane on which
the creature is placed; and they are thickest at
their insertion in the head, and thence diminish
gradually, till they terminate in a fine sharp
point. They are placed parallel, and can never
come together, and therefore cannot serve in the
place of teeth for grinding the food; but merely
to pull and sever it in pieces, that it may be of a
proper size for the mouth. The maggot has also
a kind of dart, at an equal distance between these
hooks, about one-third of their length. This also
is brown and scaly like them; it is quite straight,
and terminates in a fine point. The hooks have
two scaly thorns at their points; and this dart
seems intended, by reiterated strokes, to divide
and break the pieces of flesh these have separated
from the rest into smaller parts. Immediately
below the apertures for the egress of the hooks
is placed the mouth, which the creature does not
show unless pressed, when something like a
tongue appears. The hooks supply the place
poth of teeth and legs; as by fastening these
hooks into the substance on which it is
placed, and then drawing up its body to it, it
pulls itself along. The back lowers itself by
degrees as it approaches the extremity of the
belly; and, near the place where the back begins
to lower itself, are placed the two principal or-
gans of respiration; which are two small roundish
brown spots, easily distinguishable by the naked
eye, as the rest of the body is white. Viewed
through a microscope, each of these spotsappears
to be a brown circular eminence raised a little
above the rest of the body. On each of them
there are also three oblong oval cavities, of the
shape of button-holes, each situated in a parallel
direction to each other; and their length nearly
perpendicular to that of the body of the animal.
These apertures admit the air. It has six of
these, three on each side of its body. The great
transparency of its body shows that it has on each
side a large white vessel running the whole length
of the body. These vessels are most distinct
towards its hinder part; and they terminate each
in the brown spot above mentioned: hence they
seem to be the two principal tracheae. The rami-
fications of these are very beautiful in this crea-
ture, especially on its belly: but no vessel
analogous to the great artery in the caterpillar
class can be discovered in these. See ENToMo-
LOGY.
MAGI, or MAGIANS, an ancient religious sect
in Persia, and other eastern countries, who main-
tained that there were two principles, one the
cause of all good, the other the cause of all
evil; and, abominating the adoration of images,
they worshipped God only by fire; which they
looked upon as the brightest and most glorious
symbol of Oromasdes, or the good god; as
darkness is the truest symbol of Arimanius,
or the evil god. This religion was reformed by
Zoroaster, who maintained that there was one
supreme independent being; and under him two
principles or angels, one the angel of goodness
and light, and the other of evil and darkness:
that there is a perpetual struggle between them,
which shall last to the end of the world ; that
then the angel of darkness and his disciples shall
go into a world of their own, where they shall
be punished in everlasting darkness; and the
angel of light and his disciples shall go into a
world of their own, where they shall be rewarded
in everlasting light. The priests of the magi
were the most skilful mathematicians and philo-
sophers of the ages in which they lived, inso-
much that a learned man and a magian became
equivalent terms. The vulgar looked on their
knowledge as supernatural; and those who pre-
tended to a knowledge of sorcery, divination,
&c., taking upon themselves the name of magi-
ans, originated the signification which the word
magician now bears among us. This sect still
subsists under the denomination of gaurs, or
guebres, in Persia, where they watch the sacred
fire with the greatest care, and never suffer it to
be extinguished. They are divided into three
classes, of which the first and most learned nei-
ther eat nor kill animals; but adhere to the old
institution of abstaining from all living creatures.
The magi of the second class refrain only from
tame animals; nor do the last kill all indiffer-
ently, it being the firm and distinguishing settled
notion of them all, ruv perspºoxalow swat, that
there is a transmigration of souls.
MAGIC, n.s.&adj.) . Lat. magia, magicus,
MAGICAL, adj. from Gr. playog, Pers.
MAGICALLY, adv. (majus, mugh (a magi-
MAGIc'IAN, n.s.. J ciam). The pretended
art of influencing or putting in action spirits,
evil or good; sorcery; enchantment: the magician
was the operator in this far famed art.
Doun of his hors Aurelius light anon,
And forth from this magician is gon
Home to his hous, and made hem wel at ese;
Hem lacked no vitaille that might hem plese.
Chaucer. Cant. Tales.

M A G H C S Q U A R E.
403
º
I’ll humbly signify what, in his name,
That magical word of war, we have effected.
t Shakspeare.
She once being looft,
The noble ruin of her magick, Antony,
Claps on his sea-wing.
Shakspeare. Antony and Cleopatra.
What black magician conjures up this fiend,
To stop devoted charitable deeds? Shakspeare.
The writers of natural magick attribute much to the
virtues that come from the parts of living creatures,
as if they did infuse immaterial virtue into the part
severed. . Bacon.
In the time of Valens, divers curious men, by the
falling of a ring, magically prepared, judged that one
Theodorus should succeed in the empire. Camden.
If they savour not strong of magical receits, let the
indifferent judge. Bp. Hall.
Pharaoh’s curiosity carries him away quite from
the sense of the judgment: he would rather send for
his magicians to work feats, than to humble himself
under God for the removal of this plague. Id.
And the brute earth would lend her nerves, and
shake,
*Till all thy magick structures, reared so high,
Were shattered into heaps. Milton.
An old magician, that did keep
The Hesperian fruit, and made the dragon sleep;
Her potent charms do troubled souls relieve,
And, where she lists, makes calmest souls to grieve.
Wuller.
They beheld unveiled the magical shield of your
Ariosto, which dazzled the beholders with too much
brightness; they can no longer hold up their arms.
, Dryden.
There are millions of truths that a man is not con-
cerned to know; as whether Roger Bacon was a
mathematician or a magician. Locke.
By the use of a looking-glass, and certain attire
made of cambrick upon her head, she attained to an
evil art and magical force in the motion of her eyes.
Tatler.
What charm, what magick, can over-rule the force
of all these motives? Rogers.
Like castles built by magick art in air,
That vanish at approach, such thoughts appear.
Granville.
Every movement of the theatre, by a skilful poet,
is communicated, as it were, by magic to the specta-
tors. Hume. .
MAGIC, Gr. MATEIA, in its ancient sense, is
the science or discipline and doctrine of the
magi, or wise men of Persia, See MAGI. The
origin of magic and the magi is ascribed to Zo-
roaster. Salmasius derives the very name from
Zoroaster, who, he says, was surnamed Mog,
whence Magus. Others make him only the re-
storer and improver of the Persian philosophy,
alleging, that many of the Persian rites in use
among the magi were borrowed from the Zabii
among the Chaldeans, who agreed in many
things with the magi of the Persians; whence
some make the name magus common both to the
Chaldeans and Persians.
In a modern sense, magic is a science which
teaches to perform wonderful and surprising
effects. The word originally carried with it a
very innocent, nay laudable meaning; being used
purely to signify the study of wisdom, and the
more sublime parts of knowledge; but as the
ancient magi engaged also in astrology, divina-
tion, sorcery, &c., the term magic in time became
odious, and was only used to signify an unlawful
º
1 || 2 || 3 || 4 || 5 16 || 14 || 8 || 2 || 25
6|| 7 | 8 || 9 |10 3 22 20 | 11 | 9
11 |12 || 13 || 14 | 15 15ſ g| Alſºlº
16 || 17 | 18 19 20 24|18 |12|10| 1
| 21 |22 || 23 24|25 7 || 5 || 21 | 19 || 13
and diabolical kind of science, depending on the
assistance of the devil , and departed souls.
, Agrippa divides magic into three kinds; viz.
natural, celestial, and ceremonial or supersti-
tious.
MAGIC, NATURAL, is, in fact, no more than
the application of natural active causes to pas-
sive things or subjects; by means of which
many surprising, but yet natural, effects are pro-
duced. &
MAGIC, CELESTIAL, borders on judiciary as-
trology; it attributes to spirits a kind of rule, or
dominion over the planets: and to the planets a
dominion over men; and on these principles
builds a ridiculous kind of system. See ASTRO-
LOGY.
MAGIC, SUPERSTITIOUs, or GEOTIC, consists
in the invocation of devils or daemons; its effects
are usually evil and wicked, though very strange,
and seemingly surpassing the powers of nature:
they are supposed to be produced by virtue of
some compact, either tacit or express, with evil
spirits; but the truth is, these supposed com-
pacts have not the power that is usually ima-
gined; nor do they produce half those effects
ordinarily ascribed to them.
MAGIC LANTERN. See OPTIcs.
MAGIC SQUARE, a square figure, formed of a
series of numbers in mathematical proportion;
so disposed in parallel and equal ranks, as that
the sums of each row, taken either perpendicu-
larly, horizontally, or diagonally, are equal. Let
the several numbers which compose any square
number (for instance, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, &c. to 25, in-
clusive, the square number), be disposed; in their
natural order, after each other in a square figure
of twenty-five cells, each in its cell; if now you
change the order of these numbers, and dispose
them in the cells in such manner as that the five
numbers which fill an horizontal rank of cells,
being added together, shall make the same sum
with the five numbers in any other rank of cells
whether horizontal or vertical, and even the same
number with the five in each of the two diagonal
ranks: this disposition of numbers is called a
magic square, in opposition to the former dispo-
sition, which is called a natural square : Thus
Natural Square. Magic Square.


Moschopulus, a Greek author of no great
antiquity, is the first that appears to have spoken
of magic squares; and, from the age in which
he lived, there is reason to imagine he did not
look on them merely as a mathematician. How-
ever, he has left us some rules for their construc-
tion. But, as magic squares have not hitherto
been found of importance in mathematics, we
shall refer to the works of Bachet, Frenicle,
Poignard, and De La Hire, for the various me-
2 ID 2
404
M A G 1 C S Q U A R E.
thods of constructing these curious arrangements
of numbers. The latest writer upon the subject
was Dr. Franklin, who constructed what he
called a magic square of squares, and a magic
circle of circles, which may be seen in the works
of the ingenious Mr. Ferguson. We are favored
with the following original methods of filling a
magic square by an ingenious correspondent:—
The following method of filling up a magic
square of odd numbers, i.e. containing nine,
twenty-five, forty-nine, eighty-one, 121, &c. cells,
after numbers have been placed by A in any
two cells, has never before been published. It
also possesses the new properties of admitting of
fractional, and of plus and minus numbers.
Fig. 1. Fig.2.
8 || 1 || 6 17|24 TTT3T15.
--|--|-- 23| 5 || 7 || 14, 16
THT, aſ g|19|2012,
10 | 12 || 19 21 || 3
11||19|25 2 || 9 |
Fig. 3. Fig. 4. Fig. 5.
3T3T33 7.
11||27| || || || 10 |27 6
TT| || 15 as a
Fig. 6. Fig. 7. Fig. 8.
73 || 5% 7 14 | vii | 8
6 || 63 || 7% 11 iT, T11
siſ alsº ſº 2 TT. Tiy
Fig. 1 contains nine cells: fig. 2 twenty-five.
In both the ratio is 1; that is to say, the pro-
gression is by one at a time from 1 to 9, or from
1 to 25. And they both show where the lowest,
the intermediate, and the highest numbers must
be placed.
The order of progression is diagonal, e.g.
imagine these two figures to be limen or cotton
prints, and then place duplicates, triplicates, &c.,
of fig. 1, over and under it, and at each side,
&c.; and do the same by No. 2. You will find
that, in fig. 1, 2 is the diagonal of 1, and 3 of 2;
and that, in fig. 2, 2 is the diagonal of 1, 3 of 2,
4 of 3, and 5 of 4. The diagonal course will be
equal to the number of cells in a row. At the
end of each course, place the next number in
the cell below the last number of the course, and
begin a new course, and so on till the square is
filled up. Thus, in fig. 2, 6 will be under 5,
11 under 10, 16 under 15, and 21 under 20 ; and
6, 11, 16, and 21, will begin new courses.
RULE,-When A has inserted his two num-
bers, divide their difference by the difference
between the two cells. If it be a three-rowed
square, fig. 1 (which you must have at hand for
inspection) will show the number of A's two
cells; or, if a five-rowed square, fig. 2 will do
the same. If it be a seven-rowed square, you
must be prepared with that square filled up in a
similar manner, and so on for a square containing
any odd number of rows, for similar inspection.
Having divided as above, the quotient will be
the ratio.
Example 1.--Fig. 3 is a three-rowed square,
containing A's two numbers. The difference of
numbers is 16; by inspecting fig. 1 you will
find the difference of cells to be that of 3 and 7,
ſº is 4; the quotient, or ratio, therefore, will
e 4. By inspecting fig. 1 you will also see
that cell 3 is the end of the course. You must
therefore add 4 to 11, and place 15 in cell 4, 19
in cell 5, and 23 in cell 6, as in fig. 4. In this
example the numbers are all integers, and the
sum 57, or the central number multiplied by the
number of cells in each row.
Example 2.-In fig. 5 the difference of num-
bers is 1, which divide by the difference between
...the cells, i.e. between 3 and 6, which is 3. The
quotient or ratio will be 0}. Fill up, therefore,
as in fig. 6. This example contains fractional
numbers. The sum is 20, or 3 × 63.
Example 3.—In fig. 7 the difference of num-
bers is nine; of cells three; and the quotient or
ratio three. But, in filling up and diminishing
from cell 4 to cell 3, you will be obliged to put
i. minus into cell 3, iv. minus into cell 2; and vii.
minus into cell 1. These minus numbers, in
reckoning the number in each row, must be sub-
tracted. In this example the sum is 15. See
fig. 8. *
REMARKs.—1. Every example admits of being
filled up two different ways, e.g. in example 1,
27 may be considered as placed either in cell 7
or in cell 1.
2. As you have your choice of two ways, try
both, and choose that which is the most easy and
Latural. - - -
3. The central number being known, the sum
will be known by multiplying by the number of
cells in a row. When, therefore, you have half
filled up a three-rowed square, you may finish it
by placing in the remaining cells the numbers
which will complete the sum.
4. Do not let A see your process, but perform
it on a separate paper.
MAGICAL DRUM, an instrument of superstition
used in Lapland, and made of beech, pine, or
fir, split in the middle, and hollowed on the flat
side, where the drum is to be made. The hollow
is of an oval figure; and is covered with a skin
clean dressed, and painted with figures of various
kinds, such as stars, suns and moons, animals
and plants, and even lakes and rivers; and, since
the preaching of Christianity among them, the
acts and sufferings of our Saviour and his apos-
tles are often added among the rest. All these
figures are separated by lines into three regions'
or elusters. There is besides these parts of the
drüm, an index and a hammer. The index is a
bundle of brass or iron rings, the largest of
which has a hole in its middle, and the smaller
ones are hung to it. The hammer or drum-stick
is made of the horn of a rein deer; and with
this they beat the drum so as to make these rings
move, they being laid on the top for that pur-






M A G I N
D A N A O. 405
pose. In the motion of these rings, about the
pictures figured on the drum, they fancy to them-
selves some prediction in regard to the subject
of their enquiries. -
MAGINDANAO, or MINDANAo. The name
is a compound of Mag, related to—in, country—
and danao, a lake, signifying Relations living in
a country round a lake. It is the third division
of the Philippine Islands, being next to Luco-
nia in extent: it has nearly 300 leagues of cir-
cuit, but very irregular, being deeply indented
by a gulf, enclosed by a peninsula on the west.
The interior is occupied by lofty ridges of
mountains, separated by plains and covered with
forests of teak and poon. Its minerals are little
known, but some gold dust is brought to market
and talc is abundant. The island is profusely
watered, containing more than twenty navigable
rivers, and near the south is a lake sixty leagues
in circuit which discharges its waters by a large
river. The soil is extremely fertile, producing
rice and sago in abundance, and a species of
cinnamon, but inferior to that of Ceylon, is in-
digenous. The forests swarm with wild horses,
bullocks, buffaloes, goats, and hogs. The sea—
coasts are occupied by Malay Mahommedans,
who speak the Bissayan dialect as well as the
Malay. In the interior is a race of negroes named
Haraforas, who have little communication with
the Malays.
The island is politically divided into three
sovereignties. The first, under the sultan, is the
most considerable, and occupies the south-east
portion of the island; his residence is at Selan-
gan, on the east shore of the Great Illano Bay,
and on the large river Pelangy, which empties
itself by two branches, whose mouths are
crossed by bars with two and three fathoms at
high water. The town consists of about 100
houses, with a fortified palace of the sultan, and
several wooden castles of the datoos or nobles.
The passage of the river is also defended by a
large pallisaded fort with many cannon and
swivels. A number of Chinese are settled here.
This is one of the chief residences of the pirates,
and where they build their vessels.
The second sovereignty of the island is the
Illano country, and is of a feudal nature, being
under many chiefs. The third and smallest
portion, chiefly comprehending the sea coasts of
the western peninsula, is subject to the Spaniards,
whose principal establishment is Samboangan,
on the south-west extremity of the peninsula. It
consists of a fort of masonry surrounded by a
rampart of earth; its ordinary garrison is about
150 men: it seems to be of little other use to,
the Spaniards than as a place of transportation
of their convicts from the other islands.
Misamis, the second Spanish establishment, is
on the north side of the island, and has a garri-
son of 300 men. Correga, the third and last, is
an insignificant post on the east.
Hindostan cloths, sell well here, especially
long cloth; white, blue, and red handkerchiefs,
of all kinds; chintz with dark grounds; Surat
goods of most sorts, particularly pittolies; and
all kinds of European cutlery. Chinese articles,
carried from Sooloo to Magindanao, are kangans,
beads, gongs, china basins with red edges, deep
brass plates five in a set, deep saucers three and
four inches diameter, brass wire, and iron. Gold
is produced in many parts; besides which wax,
rice, cassia, rattans, tobacco, and pepper, are
exported. -
The sultan is the head of the state, and next
to him is his successor. There are various other
state functionaries, with extensive powers; six
judges named by the Sultan; and six amba
rajahs, or assertors of the people's rights. Their
office is hereditary. The sultan's vassals possess
great estates. They are sometimes Mahomme-
dans, though they are mostly native inhabitants.
The latter only may be sold with the lands,
They are more oppressed than the Mahomme-
dans, who are bound to accompany their lords;
but the Haraforas, being in a great measure ex-
cused from such attendance, pay certain yearly
taxes which are not expected from the Mahom-
medan vassals.
The inhabitants of Magindanao are all addicted
to piracy, and frequently extend their depreda-
tions to Java, Sumatra, Borneo, and Celebes.
When the prow is large they strike the mast and
hide among the rocks or up a creek. Canoes
are then detached to plunder, and the proceeds
are brought to the large vessel. When they at-
tack the Dutch possessions they will make
slaves even of persons of their own religion.
Their intercourse with Europeans has given the
inhabitants a knowledge of some of the Euro-
pean arts: in others they are remarkably
deficient, their blacksmiths being incapable of
making any thing more complicated than a
common nail. Their culinary utensils they
procure from China. The male inhabitants
pluck their beards out with pincers. They are
remarkably fond of cock-fighting. The women,
who are of stately appearance and manners, do
not suffer the same strict confinement as in other
Indian countries, being frequently present at
audiences and public exhibitions. At the
age of thirteen they have their teeth filed thin,
and stript of the enamel, that they may be
stained with black. . The ladies visit each other
with great ceremony on this occasion, and with
a numerous train of attendants, who, as they ap-
proach the house, notify their approach by a
disagreeable howl. They amuse themselves with
playing at draughts, dancing, &c., on which oc-
casion they move slowly round in a circle. The
dress of the women consists of a jacket, com-
mon to both sexes, and a kind of petticoat. The
men wear, besides the jacket, a cloth bound
about the middle, coming up between the thighs.
They tie up their hair in a singular manner,
fixing it round a piece of wood five or six
inches in diameter. The women tie their hair
behind, and plait it like the Gentoo dancing
girls. They also wear brass rings round the
wrist, knee, and on each arm and leg. They are
fond of wearing beads about their necks, and
brass rings or beads dangling at their ears, which
in both sexes are very wide and long.
Magellan first touched at this island on Easter
day, in 1521, and took possession of it ºn the
name of Charles V. of Spain. The Spaniards
afterwards made settlements here, and subdued
the northern coast, but never made any farther
MAG
MAG
406
progress: they now with difficulty retain the
feeble colonies they planted. It was visited by
the Portuguese about 1537, and by the Dutch in
1607, 1616, and 1627. In 1689 an envoy was
sent by the Dutch East India Company, for per-
mission to build a fort, which was refused. The
Dutch made a sort of survey of it in 1693, and
it was much frequented by English piratical ves-
sels, which swarmed at this period in the Indian
seas. The intercourse of the British here has
not been frequent, and generally not very amica-
ble. In 1758 the pirates from this island had
the temerity to attack the settlement at Prince
of Wales's Island, but were repulsed with loss;
and in 1798 the sultan seized a boat's crew be-
longing to the La Sybylle frigate, which had been
sent on shore. They were afterwards liberated,
but not until a ransom of 4000 dollars had been
paid. In 1803 they fitted out a fleet of forty
prows, with the intention of invading the Fndia
Company's settlements in Celebes, but were met
by the Swift cruizer, and defeated. . . Long.
119° 30' to 125° E., lat. 5° 40' to 9° 55' N.
MAGISTE’RIAL, adj. Y. Latin magister,
MAGISTE’RIALLY, adv. magistratus; Fr.
MAGISTERIALNESS, n. s. magistrat; Ital, ma-
MAG’ISTRACY, ſgistrato. Befitting
MAG’ISTRALLY, adv. | or appertaining to
MAG’ISTRATE, n. 8. J a magistrate; hence
lofty; arrogant: magistracy, the office or dignity
of a public administrator of the law: magistrate,
the officer so administering the law; magistrally
is an abbreviation of magisterially.
They chuse their magistratel
And such a one as he, who puts his shall,
His popular shall, against a graver bench
Than ever frowned in Greece.
Shakspeare. Coriolanus.
You share the world, her magistracies, priesthoods,
Wealth and felicity, amongst you, friends.
Ben Jonsort.
Such a government is maternal, not magisterial.
King Charles.
I treat here of those legal punishments which ma-
gistrates inflict upon their disobedient subjects.
Decay of Piety
Ye that are magistrates, not for God’s sake only,
but for your king's sake, whose deputies ye are, as
he is God’s 5–rouse up your spirits, awaken your
Christian courage, and set yourselves heartily against
the traitorly sins of the times. Bp. Hall.
What a presumption is this for one, who will not
allow liberty to others, to assume to himself such a
licence to controul so magisterially
Bramhall against Hobbes.
We are not magisterial in opinions, nor, dictator-
like, obtrude our notions on any man.
Browne's Vulgar Errours.
He had no other intention but to dissuade men
from magistracy, or undertaking the publick offices of
state. Browne.
He bids him attend as if he had the rod over him, ,
and uses a magisterial authority while he instructs
IIIls 'Dryden.
Pretences go a great way with men that take fair
words and magisterial looks for current payment.
L’Estrange.
Those men are but trepanned who are called to
govern, being invested with authority, but bereaved
of power; which is nothing else but to mock and
betray them into a splendid and magisterial way of
being ridiculous. South.
A downright advice may be mistaken, as if it were
spoken magisterially. Bacon’s Advice to Williers.
Peremptoriness is of two sorts; the one a magis-
terialness in matters of opinion, the other a positive-
ness in relating matters of fact: in the one we im-
pose upon men's understandings, in the other on
their faith. Government of the Tongue.
Some have disputed even against magistracy itself.
Atterbury.
... The punishment of evil-doers, and the praise of
them that do well, is the true intent of magistracy,
and will be the care of them who rightly understand.
the nature and honour of their office.
- Doddridge.
Duelling is not only an usurpation of the divine
prerogative, but it is an insult upon magistracy and
good government. . . Clarissa.
Unless a love of virtue light the flame,
Satire is, more than those he brands, to blame;
He hides behind a magisterial air *
His own offences, and strips others bare.
k Cowper.
MAGISTERY, n.s. : Of Lat. magister; be-
MAG'stERIALLY. cause this procedure
made known the principal ingredients. An
obsolete term for what is now called the preci-
pitate of certain bodies.
Paracelsus extracteth the magistery of wine, ex-
posing it unto the extremity of cold; whereby the
aqueous parts will freeze, but the spirit be uncon-
gealed in the centre • Browne.
The magistery of vegetables consists but of the
more soluble and coloured parts of the plants that
afford it. - - Boyle.
Of corals are chiefly prepared the powder ground
upon a marble, and the magisterial salt, to good pur-
pose in some fevers: the tincture is no more than a
solution of the magisterial salt. Grew.
Magistery is a term made use of by chemists to sig-
aify sometimes a very fine powder, made by solution
and precipitation; as of bismuth, lead, &c., and
sometimes resin and resinous substances; as those
of jalap, scamony, &c.; but the most genuine accep-
tation is to express that preparation of any body,
wherein the whole, or most part, is, by the addition
of somewhat, changed into a body of quite another
kind ; as when iron or copper is turned into crystals
of Mars or Venus. Quincy.
This precipitate, washed and dried, is what has
been called magistery of bismuth, or pearl-white.
Parkes's Chemical Catechism.
MAGLIABECHI (Anthony), was born at
Florence in 1633. His father died when he was
only seven years old, and his mother placed him
as an apprentice with one of the best goldsmiths
in Florence. . When about sixteen years of age
his passion for learning began to show itself;
and becoming acquainted with Michael Ermini,
librarian to the cardinal de Medicis, he soof per-
'fected himself, by his assistance, in the Latin
tongue, and, in a short time, became master of
the Hebrew. His memory was very tenacious.
A gentleman lent him a MS. he was going to
print, and, some time after it was returned, the
gentleman, coming to him with a melancholy
countenance, pretended it was lost, and requested
Magliabechi to recollect what he could of it;
upon which he wrote out the whole without a
single omission. He generally shut himself up
the whole day, and in the evening received lite-
rary men who came to converse with him. Cosmo
III., grand duke of Florence, made him his
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M A G N A C H A R T A.
407
librarian; but he still continued negligent in his
dress, and simple in his manners: an old cloak
served him for a morning gown in the day, and
for bed-clothes at night. The duke, however,
provided for him a commodious apartment in
his palace, which he was with difficulty per-
suaded to take possession of; but which he quit-
ted four months after, and returned to his house.
His dinner was commonly three hard boiled eggs,
with a draught of water. He spent some hours
in each day at the palace library, but is said
never in his life to have gone farther from Flo-
rence than to Pratz, whither he once accom-
panied cardinal Norris to see a MS. He had
a small window in his door, through which
he could see all those who approached him, and
if he did not wish for their company he would
not admit them. He patronised men of learning;
assisted them with his advice and information,
and furnished them with books and MSS.
Though he lived a most sedentary life, he reached
the eighty-first year of his age; enjoying, during
the latter part of his life, such affluence as few
have ever procured by their learning. He left
a very fine library to the public, with a fund for
its support. -
MAGLOIRE (St.), a native of Wales. He
embraced a monastic life, and went into France,
where he was made abbot of Dol, and after that
a provincial bishop of Brittany. He afterwards
founded a monastery in the island of Jersey,
where he died October 14th 575, aged eighty.
His remains were transported to the suburbs of
St. Jaques, and deposited in a monastery of Be-
nedictines, which was ceded to the fathers of the
oratory in 1628. This saint cultivated poetry
with considerable success: the hymn which is sung
at the feast of All Saints was composed by him;
Coelo quos eadem gloria consecrat, &c.
MAGNA CHARTA, the great charter of the li-
berties of England, signed and sealed by king
John at Runnemede, between Windsor and
Staines, June 19th, 1215; and confirmed by Henry
III. and Edward I. This charter may be said
to derive its origin from king Edward the Con-
fessor, who granted several privileges to the
church and state by charter: these liberties and
privileges were also granted and confirmed by
king Henry I. by a celebrated great charter. By
this charter he restored the Saxon laws which
were in use under Edward the Confessor, but
with such ‘emendations as had been made in them
by his father, with the advice of his parliament,’
at the same time annulling ‘all evil customs and
illegal exactions, by which the realm had been
unjustly oppressed.’ Some of these grievances
were specified in the charter, and the redress of
them expressly enacted. According to one of
our greatest antiquaries, Sir Henry Spelman,
‘this was the original of king John's Magna
Charta, containing most of the articles of it,
either particularly expressed, or in general, under
the confirmation it gives to the laws of Edward
the Confessor.’ So mistaken are they, says lord
Lyttleton, who have supposed that all the privi-
!eges granted in magna charta were ‘innovations’
extorted by the arms of rebels from king John I
Matthew Paris also tells us, that, in the year
1215, the barons came in arms to king John at
London, and demanded of him that certain
liberties and laws of king Edward, with other
liberties granted to them, and to the kingdom
and church of England, should be confirmed,
‘as they were contained and set down in the
charter of king Henry I., and in the laws above-
mentioned.’ And the same historian, where he
mentions the “capitula,' or rough draught of the
great charter, delivered to John by the barons,
says, that the articles thereof *were partly written
before, in the charter of king Henry I. and partly
taken out of the ancient laws of king Edward.' '
These passages, and also what he says before, of
the barons having sworn at St Edmund's Bury,
to make war on the king, till he should confirm
to them, by a charter under his seal, the laws and
liberties granted in the charter of Henry I., suf-
ficiently show, that they understood and intended
this charter to be the original and foundation of
that which they demanded and obtained from
John. Besides, the first charter of Stephen
‘confirms the liberties and good laws, which his
uncle king Henry gave and granted, and all
good laws and good customs, which the nation
had enjoyed in the time of Edward the Con-
fessor,’ words which evidently refer to the charter.
It was also confirmed more expressly by king
Henry II. Henry III., after having caused
twelve men to make enquiry into the liberties of
England in the reign of Henry I., granted a new
charter; which was the same as the present
magna charta. This he several times confirmed,
and as often broke; till, in the thirty-seventh
year of his reign, he went to Westminster Hall,
and there, in the presence of the nobility and
bishops, who held lighted candles in their hands,
magna charta was read, the king all the time
holding his hand to his breast, and finally swear-
ing solemnly faithfully and inviolably to observe
all the things therein contained, &c. Then the
bishops extinguishing the candles, and throwing
them on the ground, they all cried out, ‘Thus let
him be extinguished, and stink in hell, who vio-
lates this charter.” It is observed that, notwith-
standing the solemnity of this confirmation, king
Henry, the very next year, again invaded the
rights of his people, till the barons entered into
a war against him ; when, after various success,
he confirmed this charter, and the charter of the
forest, in the fifty-second year of his reign. This
charter confirmed many liberties of the church,
and redressed many grievances incident to feu-
dal tenures, of no small moment at the time;
though now, unless considered attentively and
with this retrospect, they seem but of trifling
concern. But, besides these feudal provisions,
care was also taken therein to protect, the sub-
ject against other oppressions, then frequently
arising from unreasonable amercements, from
illegal distresses or other process for debts or
services due to the crown, and from the tyranni-
cal abuse of the prerogative of purveyance and
pre-emption. It fixed the forfeiture of lands for
felony in the same manner as it still remains;
prohibited for the future the grants of exclusive
fisheries, and the erection of new bridges. So as
to oppress the neighbourhood. With respect to
private rights, it established the testamentary
power of the subject over part of his personal
estate, the rest being distributed among his wife
and children; it laid down the law of dower, as
408 M A G N
E S I A.
it has continued ever since; and prohibited the
appeals of women, unless after the death of their
husbands. In matters of public police, and na-
tional concern, it enjoined a uniformity of
weights and measures; gave new encourage-
ments to commerce, by the protection of mer-
chant strangers; and forbade the alienation of
lands in mortmain. With regard to the admi-
nistration of justice, besides prohibiting all de-
nials or delays of it, it fixed the court of common
pleas at Westminster, that the suitors might no
longer be harassed with following the king's
person in all his progresses; and at the same
time brought the trial of issues home to the
very doors of the freeholders, by directing assizes
to be taken in the proper counties, and establish-
ing annual circuits; it also corrected some
abuses then incident to the trials by wager of
law and of battle; directed the regular awarding
of inquest for life or member; prohibited the
king's inferior ministers from holding pleas of
the crown, or trying any criminal charge, where-
by many forfeitures might otherwise have un-
justly accrued to the exchequer; and regulated
the time and place of holding the inferior tri-
bunals of justice, the county court, sheriff's torn,
and court-leet. It confirmed and established the
liberties of the city of London, and all other
cities, boroughs, towns, and ports of the kingdom.
And lastly (which alone would have merited the
title that it bears of the great charter), it protect-
ed every individual of the nation in the free en-
joyment of his life, his liberty, and his property,
unless declared to be forfeited by the judgment
of his peers, or the law of the land. This excel-
lent charter, so equitable and beneficial to the
subject, is the most ancient written law in the
kingdom. By the 25th Edward I. it is ordain-
ed, that it shall be taken as the common law;
and by the 43d Edward III. all statutes made
against it are declared to be void.
MAGNALITY, m. s. Lat. magnalia. A great
thing; something above the common rate: a
word now happily out of common use.
Too greedy of magnalities, we make but favour-
able experiments concerning welcome truths.
Browne.
MAG NANIM’ITY, m. s.
MAGNAN'ſ MoUs, adj. }; magnanimus.
MAGNAN'i MoUSLY, adv. ) Greatness or ele-
vation of mind; bravery: the adjective and ad-
verb corresponding.
Fr. magnanimité,
Confidence in one's self is the chief nurse of mag-
namimity. - Sir P. Sidney.
With deadly hue, an armed corse did lye,
In whose dead face he read great magnanimity.
* Spenser.
Let but the acts of the ancient Jews be but indif-
ferently weighed, from whose magnanimity in causes
of most extreme hazard those strange and unwonted
resolutions have grown which, for all circumstances,
no people under the roof of heaven did ever hitherto
match. - Hooker. .
They had enough revenged, having reduced
Their foe to misery beneath their fears;
The rest was magnanimity to remit,
If some convenient ransom was proposed.
Milton.
To give a kingdom hath been thought
Greater and nobler done, and to lay down
Far more magnanimous, than to assume. Id.
gravity is 2:3 by Kirwan.
- In strength
All mortals I excelled, and great in hopes,
With youthful courage, and magnanimous thoughts
Of birth from heaven foretold, and high exploits,
A complete and generous education fits a man to
perform justly, skilfully, and magnanimously, all the
offices of peace and war. Id. on Education.
Magnanimous industry is a resolved assiduity and
care, answerable to any weighty work.
- Grew's Cosmologia.
Exploding many things under the name of trifles
is a very false proof either of wisdom or magnanimity,
and a great check to virtuous actions with regard to
fame. Swift.
I have yet found among them, in not a few in-
stances, some of the noblest virtues, magnanimity,
generosity, disinterested friendship, and even mo-
desty. Burns.
MAGNESIA, in chemistry, one of the primitive
earths, having a metallic base called magnesium.
It has been found native in the state of hydrate.
Magnesia may be obtained by pouring into a
solution of its sulphate a solution of subcarbon-
ate of soda, washing the precipitate, drying it,
and exposing it to a red heat. It is usually
procured, in commerce, by acting on magnesian
limestone with the impure muriate of magnesia,
or bittern of the sea-salt manufactories. The
muriatic acid goes to the lime, forming a solu-
ble salt, and leaves behind the magnesia of both
the bittern and limestone. Or the bittern is de-
composed by a crude subcarbonate of ammonia,
obtained from the distillation of bones in iron
cylinders. Muriate of ammonia and subcarbon-
ate of magnesia result. The former is evaporat-
ed to dryness, mixed with chalk, and sublimed.
Subcarbonate of ammonia is thus recovered,
with which a new quantity of bittern may be
decomposed; and thus, in ceaseless repetition,
forming an elegant and economical process.
100 parts of crystallised Epsom salt require, for
complete decomposition, fifty-six of subcarbon-
ate of potash, or forty-four dry subcarbonate of
soda ; and yield sixteen of pure magnesia after
calcination. • *
Magnesia is a white soft powder. Its specific
It renders the syrup
of violets, and infusion of red cabbage, green,
and reddens turmeric. It is infusible, except by
the hydrogen blow-pipe. It has scarcely any
taste, and no smell. It is nearly insoluble in
water; but it absorbs a quantity of that liquid
with the production of heat. And, when it is
thrown down from the sulphate by a caustic al-
kali, it is combined with water, constituting a
hydrate, which, however, separates at a red
heat. It contains about one-fourth its weight of
Water.
When magnesia is exposed to the air it very
slowly attracts carbonic acid. It combines with
sulphur, forming a sulphuret.
The metallic basis, or magnesium, may be
obtained in the state of amalgam with mercury,
by electrisation, as is described under BARIUM.;
but a much longer time is necessary. Sir H.
Davy succeeded also in decomposing magnesia,
by passing potassium, in vapor, through it,
heated to whiteness in a tube of platinum
out of the contact of air. He then, introduced
a small quantity of mercury, and heated it
M A G N E S I A.
409
gently for some time in the tube. An amalgam
was obtained, which by distillation, out of
the contact of the atmosphere, afforded a dark-
gray metallic film, infusible at the point at which
plate-glass softened, and which in the process of
the distillation of the mercury rendered the
glass black at its point of contact with it. This
film burned with a red light when heated
strongly, and became converted into a white
powder, which had the character of magnesia.
When a portion of magnesium was thrown into
water it sunk to the bottom, and effervesced
slowly, becoming covered with a white powder.
By adding a little muriatic acid to the water the
effervescence was violent. The metal rapidly
disappeared, and the solution was found to con-
tain magnesia.
When magnesia is strongly heated, in contact
with two volumes of chlorine, this gas is ab-
sorbed, and one volume of oxygen is disengaged.
Hence it is evident that there exists a combina-
tion of magnesium and chlorine, or a true chlo-
ride. The salt called muriate of magnesia is a
compound of the chloride and water. When it
is acted on by a strong heat, by far the greatest
part of the chlorine unites to the hydrogen of the
water, and rises in the form of muriatic acid gas;
while the oxygen of the decomposed water com-
bines with the magnesium to form magnesia.
Magnesia is often associated with lime in
minerals, and their perfect separation becomes
an interesting problem in analysis. Mr. Long-
champ has published a valuable paper on the
subject, in the twelfth volume of the Ann. de
Chim. et de Phys.
Magnesia is chiefly used as an antacid, pur-
gative, and lithontriptic, in medicine. When
incautiously used for a long time it may produce
very serious evils, of which a remarkable case is
narrated by Mr. Brande, in the first volume of
his Journal. A lady was recommended to take
ragnesia, in consequence of some very severe
nephritic attacks, accompanied with the passage
of gravel. She was desired to take a tea-spoon-
ful every night; and Henry's calcined magnesia
was preferred, as that always operated upon the
bowels, and “carried itself off,’ which other
magnesia did not, but on the contrary felt heavy and
uneasy on the stomach. The dose was gradually
increased to two tea-spoonfuls, in order to produce
effect upon the bowels, which this quantity
never failed to do The symptoms for which it
was ordered were soon removed, but the plan
was persevered in for two years and a half, with
little intermission; so that as the average weight
of a tea-spoonful is at least forty grains, and the
average dose was a tea-spoonful and a half, it
may be presumed that she took, during the
above period, between nine and ten pounds troy.
“In the course of the last autumn she became
sensible of a tenderness in the left side, just
above the groin, connected with a deeply seated
tumor, obscurely to be felt upon pressure, and
subject to attacks of constipation, with painful
spasmodic action of the bowels, tenesmus, and a
highly irritable state of stomach. These attacks
recurred every two or three weeks, varying in
violence, but requiring the use of active reme-
dies. Several irregular lumps, of a soft light-
brown substance, were voided, having the
appearance of a large mass broken aown, and
when dry extremely friable. A part of each was
subjected to analysis, and found to consist en-
tirely of subcarbonate of magnesia, concreted
by the mucus of the bowels, in the proportion
of about forty per cent. She was cured by the
use of other purgatives.' Another case is men-
tioned, in which not only large quantities of a
concretion of a similar description were voided,
but upon examination after death, which took
place perhaps six months after any magnesia
had been taken, a collection, supposed to be
from four to six pounds, was found imbedded in
the head of the colon, which was of course much
distended.
MAGNESIA, HYDRATE of, in mineralogy. This
mineral was discovered by Dr. Bruce of New
York, in small veins in serpentine at Hoboken,
in New Jersey. Color white. Massive. Lus-
tre pearly. Fracture foliated or radiated. Se-
mitransparent in the mass; transparent in single
folia. Soft, and somewhat elastic. Adheres
slightly to the tongue. Specific gravity 2:13.
Soluble in acids. Its constituents are magnesia
70, water 30, which approaches to one prime
equivalent of each.—Jameson.
MAGNESIA, in ancient geography, a mari-
time district of Thessaly, lying between the south
part of the Sinus Thermaicus and the Pegasaeus
on the south, and to the east of the Pelasgiotis.
Magnesius and Magnessus, the epithet. Horace.
MAGNESIA, a town of Asia Minor, on the
Maeander, about fifteen miles from Ephesus.
Themistocles died there: it was one of the three
towns given him by Artaxerxes, “to furnish his
table with bread.’ It is also celebrated for a
battle fought there, 190 years before the Christian
era, between the Romans and Antiochus king of
Syria. The forces of Antiochus amounted to
70,000 men according to Appian, or 70,000 foot
and 12,000 horse according to Livy, which has
been exaggerated by Florus to 300,000 men; the
Roman army consisted of about 28,000 or 30,000
men, 2000 of whom were employed in guarding
the camp. The Syrians lost 50,000 foot and
4000 horse; and the Romans only 300 killed,
with twenty-five horse. It was founded by a
colony from Magnesia in Thessaly.
MAGNESIA AD SIPYLUM, a town of Tantalis,
the residence of Tantalus, and capital of Maeonia,
where now stands the lake Sale; seated at the
foot of mount Sipylus, east of the Hermus. It
was adjudged free under the Romans, but was
destroyed by an earthquake in the reign of Ti-
berius.
MAGNESITE. Color yellowish-gray, or
yellowish-white, and marked with spets. It
occurs massive, tuberose, reniform, and vesicular.
Surface rough. Dull. Fracture conchoidal.
Fragments rather sharp-edged. Opaque.
Scratched by fluor spar, but it scratches calca-
reous spar. It adheres pretty strongly to the
tongue. It feels rather meagre. Streak dull.
Rather easily Frangible. Specific gravity 2.881.
Infusible; but before the blow-pipe it becomes
so hard as to scratch glass. Its constituents are,
46 magnesia, 51 carbonic acid, 1 alumina, O'25
ferruginous manganese, 0.16 lime, 1 water.-
Bucholz. It is found at Hrubschitz in Moravia,
in serpentine rocks.
410
M A G N E TI s M.
MAGNET, n.s.
Lat. magnes; Gr. par
MAGNET'Ic, adj.
wnraç. . Mayvnawa, the
MAGNET'IcAL, country where magnets
MAG'NETISM, n.s.) were first, as it is said,
discovered. The loadstone; the stone that at-
tracts iron; any ore or metal thus attractive :
magnetic and magnetical, having the power of a
magnet; attraction in any way: magnetism, the
power of the loadstone; attraction generally;
the science that teaches the nature of magnetic
powers or operations.
The moon is magnetical of heat, as the sun is of
cold and moisture. Bacon's Natural History.
!. She should all parts to reunion bow;
She that had all magnetic force alone;
To draw and fasten hundred parts in one.
y Donne.
They, as they move towards his all-chearing lamp,
Turn swift their various motions, or are turned
By his magnetick beam. Milton's Paradise Lost.
Draw out with credulous desire, and lead
At will the manliest resolutest breast,
As the magnetick hardest iron draws. Milton.
Many other magnetisms, and the like attractions
through all the creatures of nature. Browne.
Two magnets, heaven and earth, allure to bliss,
The larger loadstone that, the nearer this. Dryden.
It may be reasonable to ask, Whether obeying the
magnet be essential to iron 3 Locke.
The magnet acts upon iron through all dense
bodies not magnetick, nor red hot, without any dimi-
mution of its virtue ; as through gold, silver, lead,
glass, water. Newton’s Opticks.
Review this whole magnetick scheme.
Blackmore.
By the magnetisms of interest our affections are
irresistibly attracted. Glanville's Scepsis.
Magnetism coincides with electricity in so many
important points, that the existence of two magnetic
ethers, as well as of two electric ones, becomes highly
probable. Darwin.
MAGNETISM. This science may justly be con-
sidered as yet but in its infancy, although the
facts elicited since the commencement of the
nineteenth century, by Barlow, Morichini, and
Davy, bid fair to throw considerable light on
some of its more recondite principles.
The theory of magnetism bears a very strong
resemblance to that of electricity, and this ana-
logy has been pretty fully examined under the
article devoted expressly to ELECTRO-MAG-
NETISM. We have seen the electric fluid not
only exerting attractions and repulsions, and
causing a peculiar distribution of neighbouring
portions of a fluid similar to itself, but also ex-
cited in one body, and transferred to another, in
such a manner as to be perceptible to the senses,
or at least to cause sensible effects, in its passage.
The attraction and repulsion, and the peculiar
distribution of the neighbouring fluid, are found
in the phenomena of magnetism; but we do
not perceive any actual excitation, or perceptible
transfer of the magnetic fluid from one body to
another; and it has also this striking peculiarity,
that metallic iron is very nearly the only sub-
stance capable of exhibiting any strong indica-
tions of its presence.
A magnet, whether natural or artificial, is
always possessed of the following characteristic
properties, which are inseparable from its nature;
so that a body cannot be called a magnet, unless
it be possessed of all those properties at the same
time. 1. It attracts iron and other ferruginous
bodies. 2. When a magnet is placed so as to
be at liberty to move itself with sufficient free-
dom, it turns one, and constantly the same, part
of its surface towards the north pole of the
earth, or towards a point not much distant from
it; and, of course, it turns the opposite part of
its surface towards the south pole of the earth,
or towards a point not much distant from it.
Those parts on the surface of the magnet are
therefore called its poles; the former being deno-
minated its north pole, and the latter its south
pole. This property itself is called the ‘magnet's
directive power,’ or the ‘magnetic polarity;’ and
when a magnetic body places itself in that direc-
tion, it is said to traverse. A plain perpendicular
to the horizon, and passing through the poles of a
magnet when standing in their natural direction,
is called the magnetic meridian ; and the angle
which the magnetic meridian makes with the me-
ridian of the place where the magnet stands, is
called the declination of the magnet, or more com-
monly of the magnetic needle, at that place; be-
cause the artificial magnets, mostly used for ob-
serving this property, are generally made of a
slender shape, and sometimes real sewing-needles,
rendered magnetic, are used for this purpose. 3.
When two magnets are placed so that the north
pole of one of them is opposite to the south pole
of the other, then they attract each other; but if
the south pole of one magnet be placed opposite
to the south pole of the other, or if the north pole
of the one be brought near to the north pole of
the other; in either case, a repulsion takes
place. In short, magnetic poles of the same
name repel each other; but those of different
names attract each other. 4. When a magnet is
situated so as to be at liberty to move itself with
sufficient freedom, it generally inclines one of
its poles towards the horizon, and of course it
elevates the other pole above it. This is called
the inclination, or dipping of the magnet, or of
the magnetic needle. 5. Any magnet may, by
proper methods, be made to impart those pro-
perties to iron, or to steel, or, in short, to most
ferruginous bodies.
The earliest theories of magnetism partook of
the systematic ideas that prevailed among the
philosophers of the day. The vortices of Des-
cartes captivated the mind to such a degree, that
attempts were made to introduce them every
where. They were given to electric bodies, and
the magnet must also have its share. After-
wards the idea suggested itself of simple effluvia
of magnetic matter, the moleculae of which ad-
vanced towards each other, or took a retrograde
motion, according to the manner in which the
respective effluvia of two magnets met. There
were supposed to be in the iron a kind of small
hairs that performed the office of valves, to aid
M A G N E T I S M
411
he passage of the fluid in one way, and to op-
pose its passage when it presented itself in a
contrary direction. Such was, among others,
the opinion of Dufay; and this philosopher,
who had seen so clearly the principle of electric
motion, when he came to apply it to magnetism,
presented a machine of his own invention, in-
stead of the mechanism of nature.
Hºpinus was the first, who, to explain the
phenomena of magnetism, made use of simple
powers subjected to calculation. The idea which
served as the basis of his theory was suggested
to him while holding a tourmalin in his hand.
He had discovered that the effects of this stone
were the result of electricity, and had remarked
that it repelled on one side, and attracted on the
other, a small electrised body. To these two
sides he gave the name of poles, and this appel-
lation, which might have passed for a convenient
mode of expression only, became the word really
expressive of the thing. He saw in the tourma-
lin a kind of small electrical magnet, and, com-
paring the phenomena of real magnet, with those
of idio-electric bodies, he found that the action
of the two fluids might be reduced to the same
laws; and thus added to the merit of having im-
proved the theory of electricity, and created, as
it were, the theory of magnetism, that of com-
bining in the same link these two grand portions
of the chain of human science.
We may thus more simply illustrate the theory
of ZEpinus. He imagined that there must exist
a fluid capable of producing all the phenomena
of attraction and repulsion, and with a subtilty
so great, as to penetrate the pores of all bodies;
and also of an elastic nature, its particles being
repulsive of each other. At the same time he
imagined a mutual attraction between the mag-
netic fluid and iron, or other ferruginous bodies.
According to this hypothesis, iron and all ferru-
ginous substances contain a quantity of magnetic
fluid, which is equally dispersed through their
substance, when those bodies are not magnetic ;
in which state they show no attraction or repul-
sion towards each other, because the repulsion
between the particles of the magnetic fluid is
balanced by the attraction between the matter of
those bodies and the same fluid, in which case
those bodies are said to be in a natural state ;
but when, in a ferruginous body, the quantity of
magnetic fluid belonging to it is driven to one
end, then the body becomes magnetic, one
extremity of it being now overcharged with
magnetism, and the other extremity under-
charged. Bodies thus modified, or rendered
magnetic, exert a repulsion between their over-
charged extremities, in virtue of the repulsion
between the particles of that excess of magnetic
fluid which is more than overbalanced by the
attraction of their matter. There is an attraction
exerted between the overcharged extremity of
one magnetic body and the undercharged extre-
mity of the other, on account of the attraction
between that fluid and the matter of the body;
but, to explain the repulsion which takes place
between their undercharged extremities, we must
either imagine that the matter of ferruginous
bodies, deprived of its magnetic fluid, must be
repulsive of its own particles, or that the under-
charged extremities appear to repel each other,
only because either of them attracts the opposite
overcharged extremities; both which supposi-
tions are embarrassed with difficulties. A ferru-
ginous body, therefore, is rendered magnetic by
having the equable diffusion of magnetic fluid
throughout its substance disturbed, so as to have
an overplus of it in one or more parts, and a de-
ficiency of it in the remainder, and it remains
magnetic as long as its impermeability prevents
the restoration of the balance between the over-
charged and undercharged parts.
Such was the state of our knowledge as
to this subject, when on Coulomb the task
seems to have devolved of estimating those
very small forces discoverable only by the most
delicate attention. This philosopher took two
magnetic bars which he so disposed on a right
line that their opposite poles were about twenty-
five millimetres from each other. In the inter-
mediate space he placed, successively, a number
of small cylinders made of different materials,
and from seven to eight millimetres in length.
Each cylinder was suspended freely to a silk
thread, such as it comes from the silk-worm.
Coulomb observed that this cylinder, of what-
ever material it was composed, always arranged
itself exactly according to the direction of the
bars, and, if it were moved out of that direction,
it invariably returned to it again after a certain
number of oscillations. Gold, silver, copper,
lead, glass, chalk, the bones of animals, and dif-
ferent kinds of wood, were tried, and all these
bodies felt the action of the magnetic bars.
Two ways suggested themselves of explaining
these phenomena: the first, by supposing that
all the elements which enter into the composition
of our globe were, by their nature, susceptible
of the magnetic virtue, but that in most bodies it
is so trifling as to be nearly nugatory; and has
scarcely been observed except in iron, which
possesses it in an eminent degree. The other
explanation supposed that the magnetic action
exerted by the bars, in the experiments we have
cited, was owing to moleculae of iron, pervading
in an imperceptible manner the different natural
substances, and eluding the strictest investigation
of chemical analysis. Coulomb, who was fa-
vorable at first to the former explanation, appears
to have wavered since between the two, and has
devised a set of experiments, which he has in
part executed, the object of which is to measure
the action of the bars on the different bodies,
and ascertain, relative to the mass of each, what
quantity of iron must be disseminated in its in-
terior, to produce the number of oscillations
made in a given time.
However that may be, the fact we have stated
is the more interesting, as it leads us to consider
the terrestrial globe, taken in its whole extent, as
an entire magnet, the force of which is the aggre-
gated amount of all those exerted by the mole-
culae that enter into its composition. This fact
being once fully established, with regard to all
terrestrial bodies, would advantageously compen-
sate for the hypothesis of an individual magnetic
nucleus, which has the appearance of having been
invented by naturalists, rather to support their own
theories, than to give a fair representation of nature,
412
M A G N E T I S. M.
We shall remark here, that M. Prevost had
previously asserted that, to explain natural mag-
netism, it was not necessary to have recourse
to the supposition of a particular nucleus. It
is sufficient, according to this naturalist, that the
decomposition of the fluid, which is only effected
in the interior of the iron, by means in our own
power, may have place even out of that metal
from natural causes more powerful than the
agents of art, and whose permanent influence
would keep the two poles of the globe in two
states of opposite magnetism. g
The magnetising power of the more refrangi-
ble rays of light has long been a subject of deep
interest to the scientific world, but it has unfor-
tunately been involved in a degree of uncertainty
which is seldom attached to a point of experi-
mental enquiry. Dr. Morichini, a respectable
physician at Rome, discovered this remarkable
property of the violet ray. His experiments
were successfully repeated by Dr. Carpi of
Rome, and the marquis Cosimo Ridolfi, at Flo-
rence; but as M. Dhombre Firmas, who resides
at Alais, and professor Configliachi of Pavia, had
both failed in obtaining any magnetic effect from
violet light; and as M. Berard, a most skilful
experimenter, had observed only casual indica-
tions of magnetism, the discovery of Morichini
was brought into considerable discredit both in
France and England.
Fortunately, however, for the reputation of
the Italian physician, his experiments were per-
formed both before Sir Humphry Davy, and
professor Playfair; before the former in 1814,
and the latter in 1817. Sir Humphry Davy
stated, that he had paid the most diligent atten-
tion to one of Morichini's experiments, and that
`e saw an unmagnetised needle rendered dis-
tinctly magnetic by violet light.
When professor Playfair was at Rome, he
saw the experiment performed by Dr. Carpi, in
the absence of Morichini, before a party of Eng-
lish and Italian gentlemen. The following
account was drawn up by an observer from a
conversation which he had with that philosopher:
‘The violet light was obtained in the usual
manner, by means of a common prism, and was
collected into a focus by a lens of a sufficient
size. The needle was made of soft wire, and
was found, upon trial, to possess neither polarity
nor any power of attracting iron filings. It was
fixed horizontally upon a support, by means of
wax, and in such a direction as to cut the mag-
netic meridian at right angles. The focus of
violet rays was carried slowly along the needle,
proceeding from the centre towards one of the
extremities, care being taken never to go back in
the same direction, and never to touch the other
half of the needle. At the end of half an hour
after the needle was exposed to the action of the
violet rays, it was carefully examined, and it had
acquired neither polarity nor any force of attrac-
tion; but after continuing the operation twenty-
five minutes longer, when it was taken off and
placed on its point, it traversed with great ala-
crity, and settled in the direction of the mag-
netical meridian, with the end over which the
rays had passed turned towards the north. It
also attracted and suspended a fringe of iron
filings. The extremity of the needle that was
exposed to the action of the violet rays repelled
the north pole of a compass-needle. This effect
was so distinctly marked as to leave no doubt,
in the minds of any who were present, that the
needle had received its magnetism from the
action of the violet rays.”
Such was the state of this subject when Mrs.
Somerville directed her attention to it; and it is
no slight praise to say, that she has set to rest
a question on which the scientific world was
divided, and that, by the sagacity and ingenuity
with which this lady has conducted her experi-
ments, she has rendered visible, even in the
northern climate of Scotland, one of the most
delicate of the magnetic influences, which, it was
agreed, on all hands, required for its develope-
ment the serene sky of an Italian climate. The
following is a general outline of these interesting
experiments :-Having obtained the prismatic
spectrum, by means of an equiangular prism of
flint-glass placed in a hole in the window-shutter,
Mrs. Somerville took a sewing-needle, about an
inch long, and entirely devoid of magnetism.
This was ascertained by its attracting indiffer-
ently either pole of a sewing-needle magnetised
in the usual way. This magnetised needle was
pushed through a piece of cork, in which was
inserted a glass cap, and it was in that state
made to revolve freely on the point of another
sewing-needle. Conceiving that no polarity would
be superinduced if the whole needle was exposed
to its action, she covered one half of it with pa-
per, and exppsed the other half to the violet
rays of the spectrum, cast upon a pannel at the
distance of five feet. In about two hours the
needle had acquired magnetism, the exposed
end exhibiting north polarity. This experiment
was often repeated, and always with the same
result. By a similar process, Mrs. Somerville
ascertained that the indigo rays had nearly as
great an effect as the violet, and that the blue and
green rays likewise produced the same effect,
though in a less degree.
Mrs. Somerville next tried the yellow, orange,
and red rays; but neither in them nor the calo-
rific rays was the slightest effect produced, even
when the experiments were continued for three
successive days. Mrs. S. now applied the same
method to pieces of clock and watch springs,
about one inch and a half long, and from one-
eighth to one-fourth of an inch broad, and they
were found to receive a stronger degree of mag-
netism from the violet rays; an effect which was
attributed to their blue color, and their greater
extent of surface. Bodkins were not affected.
When the violet ray was concentrated by a lens,
the magnetic influence was imparted to the
needles in a shorter time. -
In order to give additional confirmation to
these results, Mrs. Somerville exposed magnetised
needles, half covered as formerly, to the sun's
rays transmitted through glass colored blue by
cobalt, and they were distinctly magnetised as
before. Needles exposed under green glass re-
ceived the same property. Mrs. Somerville now
enclosed unmagnetised needles in pieces of blue
and green riband, one-half of each being co-
vered with paper, and after they had hung a day
M A G N E T 1 s M
413
in the sun's rays behind a pane of glass, they had
acquired magnetic polarity, the exposed ends
being north poles, as in the former experiments.
When red, orange, or yellow riband was used,
no magnetic influence was imparted. In per-
forming these experiments, Mrs. Somerville
found that the most favorable time of the day
was from ten to one o'clock; and that, as the
season advanced, the magnetism acquired was
less permanent, as the needle required a longer
exposure to acquire the same degree of magnetic
virtue.
Mr. Cavallo made several experiments, with a
view of ascertaining the magnetism of brass, and
investigating the cause of it. The result he gives
is as follows:—It appears, he says, “ 1st. That
most brass becomes magnetic by hammering,
and loses the magnetism by annealing or
softening in the fire, or at least its magnetism is
so far weakened by it as afterwards to be only
discoverable when set afloat on mercury. 2dly.
That the acquired magnetism is not owing to
particles of iron or steel imparted to the brass
by the tools employed, or naturally mixed with
the brass. 3dly. Those pieces of brass which
have that property, retain it without any diminu-
tion after a great number of repeated trials, viz.
after having been repeatedly hardened and
softened. But I have, not found any means of
giving that property to such brass as had it not
naturally. 4thly. A large piece of brass has
generally a magnetic power somewhat stronger
than a small piece; and the flat surface of the
piece draws the needle more forcibly than the edge
or corner of it. 5thly. If only one end of a large
piece of brass be hammered, then that end
alone will disturb the magnetic needle, and not
the rest. , 6thly. The magnetic power which
brass acquires by hammering has a certain limit,
beyond which it cannot be increased by farther
hammering. This limit is various in pieces of
brass of different thickness, and likewise of
different quality. 7thly. Though there are
some pieces of brass which have not the pro-
of being rendered magnetic by hammer-
ing, yet all the pieces of magnetic brass that I
have tried lose their magnetism so as no longer
to affect the needle, by being made red-hot;
excepting indeed when some pieces of iron are
concealed in them, which sometimes occurs;
but, in this case, the piece of brass, after having
been made red-hot and cooled, will attract the
needle more forcibly with one part of its surface
than with the rest of it; and hence, by turning
the piece of brass about, and presenting every
part of it successively to the suspended mag-
netic needle, one may easily discover in what
part of it the iron is lodged. 8thly. In the
course of my experiments on the magnetism of
brass, I have twice observed the following re-
markable circumstance:– A piece of brass
which had the property of becoming magnetic
by hammering, and of losing the magnetism by
softening, having been left in the fire till it was
partially melted, I found, upon trial, that it had
lost the property of becoming magnetic by ham-
mering; but, having been afterwards fairly
fused in a crucible, it thereby acquired the
property it.had originally, viz. that of becoming
magnetic by hammering. 9thly. I have likewise
often observed, that a long continuance in a fire,
so strong as to be little short of melting-hot,
generally diminishes, and sometimes quite de-
stroys, the property of becoming magnetic in
brass. At the same time the texture of the
metal is considerably altered, becoming what
some workmen call rotten. From this it appears
that the property of becoming magnetic in brass,
by hammering, is rather owing to some particu-
lar configuration of its parts, than to the admix-
ture of any iron; which is confirmed still farther
by observing, that Dutch plate brass, which is
made, not by melting the copper, but by keep-
ing it in a strong degree of heat whilst sur-
rounded by lapis calaminaris, also possesses that
property; at feast all the pieces of it, which I
have tried have that property. From these
observations it follows, that when brass is to be
used for the construction of instruments wherein
a magnetic needle is concerned, as dipping
needles, variation compasses, &c., the brass
should be either left quite soft, or it should be
chosen of such a sort as will not be made mag-
netic by hammering, which sort, however, does
not occur very frequently.”
From what we have already stated it will be
perfectly evident that magnetic effects are pro-
duced by quantities of iron incapable of being
detected either by their weight or by any chemi-
cal tests. Mr. Cavallo found that a few particles
of steel adhering to a home, on which the point
of a needle was slightly rubbed, imparted to it
magnetic properties; and Mr. Coulomb has
observed that there are scarcely any bodies in
nature which do not exhibit some marks of being
subjected to the influence of magnetism, al-
though its force is always proportional to the
quantity of iron which they contain, as far as
that quantity can be ascertained; a single grain
being sufficient to make twenty pounds of another
metal sensibly magnetic. A combination with a
large propertion of oxygen deprives iron of the
whole or the greater part of its magnetic proper-
ties; finery cinder is still considerably magnetic,
but the more perfect oxides and the salts of
iron only in a slight degree; it is also said that
antimony renders iron incapable of being at-
tracted by the magnet. Nickel, when freed from
arsenic and cobalt, is decidedly magnetic, and
the more so as it contains less iron. Some of
the older chemists supposed nickel to be a com-
pound metal containing iron, and we may still
venture to assume this opinion as a magnetical
hypothesis. , There is, indeed, no way of de-
monstrating that it is impossible for two sub-
stances to be so united as to be incapable of
separation by the art of the chemist; had nickel
been as dense as platina, or as light as cork, we
could not have supposed that it contained an
considerable quantity of iron, but in fact the
specific gravity of these metals is very nearly the
same, and nickel is never found in nature but in
the neighbourhood of iron; we may therefore
suspect, with some reason, that the hypothesis of
the existence of iron in nickel may be even
chemically true. The aurora borealis is certainly
in some measure a magnetical phenomenon, and,
if iron were the only substance capable of ex-
414 M A G N E T I S. M.
f
*
hibiting magnetic effects, it would follow that
some ferruginous particles must exist in the
upper regions, of the atmosphere. . The light
usually attending this magnetical meteor may
possibly be derived from electricity, which may
be the immediate cause of a change of the dis-
tribution of the magnetic fluid contained in the
ferruginous vapors that are imagined to float in
the air. - -
M. Arago's beautiful experiment on the mag-
netic effects of different metals is now well
known; and, as it deserves, attracts attention
every where. The following are some results
obtained by M. M. Prevost and Colladon,
which, as they vary slightly in certain points
from those as yet published in this country, will
be interesting to such as pursue this branch of
science. A disc of glass covered with lead, or a
single leaf of tin glued on to wood, sensibly
deviated the needle. Wood alone, or sulphur,
or a disc of peroxide of iron, had no appreciable
effect. A screen of copper, or copper and zinc
interposed, diminished the effect without destroy-
ing it. The diminution was greater as the screen
was thicker, or placed nearer to the needle. A
screen of glass had no influence. If the inter-
posed metallic screen was pierced by an aper-
ture equal in diameter to the length of the
needle, its effect was very nearly the same. A
vertical magnet suspended in the centre of a
cylinder of copper remained unmoved, whatever
the direction or rapidity of rotation of the ring.
When two needles were fixed together in a simi-
lar direction, the effect increased; when they
were placed with their opposite poles together, it
ceased entirely. A needle magnetised, so as to
have similar poles at its two extremities, was
the apparatus most sensible to the motion of the
discs. It was one of this kind which they used
in their delicate experiments. The conclusion
arrived at by M. M. Prevost and Colladon is,
that the effects are due to a transient magnetisa-
tion of the discs, which, not being able to modify
itself with a rapidity proportional to that by
which the different points of the disc are dis-
placed % rotation, are transported to a small
angular distance from the needle before they are
changed, and 'draw it after them. This is the
same explanation in effect as that of Messrs.
Herschel and Babbage. Experiments made
with care, to determine the influence of the velo-
city and the distance of the discs, indicated that
the angles of deviation, and not their sines, aug-
mented proportionally with the velocity, at least
within certain limits, and that the sines of the
angles of deviation increased in an inverse ratio
of the power, two and two-tenths of the distance.
They were careful to employ, in this determina-
tion, discs having diameters very great in com-
parison to the length of the needle.
There are some important circumstances which
require attention, in order to enable us to ascer-
tain the best method of constructing artificial
magnets. The nature of the body must be
adapted to the power which is to render it mag-
netic; remembering, that soft ferruginous bodies
both acquire, and lose magnetism more easily
than those which are harder. Several magnets
are much preferable to a single one, for the pur-
pose of communicating magnetism, in the
application of which it must be remembered
that the south pole of the magnet produces a
north pole in the part of the ferruginous body to
which it is first applied, while the north pole of
the magnet produces a south pole. . .
The late Dr. Gowin Knight practised a me-
thod, which he never published, of commu-
nicating to iron a very considerable magnetic
virtue, and also of increasing that of feeble mag-
nets. From a report, delivered to the Royal
Society in 1744, it appears that he had prepared
a small eight-coined bar of steel, three inches
and almost seven-tenths long, and about half an
ounce troy in weight, which lifted by one of its
ends about eleven of the same ounces; that
another plain bar of steel, and a parallelopiped
form, five inches nine-tenths long, four-tenths of
an inch broad, and two-tenths of an inch thick,
weighing two ounces eight pennyweights and a
half, lifted in like manner, by one of its ends,
twenty troy ounces; that a steel bar, almost of
the same form as the last, but only four inclies
in length, capped, or armed with iron at each
end, cramped with silver, and weighing alto-
gether one ounce fourteen pennyweights, lifted
by the feet of the armour full four pounds troy;
and that a single block of steel, of a parallelo-
piped form, almost four inches long, and one inch
and two-tenths high, and four-tenths of an inch
thick, armed with iron, cramped with brass, and
suspended by a ring of the same, and weighing
altogether fourteen ounces one pennyweight,
lifted by the feet of the armour fourteen pounds
two ounces and a half troy weight. He also
exhibited a compound artificial magnet, consist-
ing of twelve bars of steel armed, which lifted
by the feet of the armour, as the last, twenty-
three troy pounds two ounces and a half. At
the same time he presented before the society a
small armed load-stone, which with its armour
weighed seven pennyweights fourteen grains, and
which could scarcely lift two ounces; but, im-
proved by his method, it sustained six ounces
eighteen pennyweights and three grains.
Mr. Canton's process must now be adverted
to. This ingenious philosopher was able, in
about half an hour's time, to communicate to six
bars of hardened steel, at first entirely destitute
of any magnetic virtue, the utmost virtue they
were capable of receiving, and that without the
mediation 'or assistance of any natural load-
stone, or of any artificial magnet. Mr. Canton
has published a description of his process, with
such directions, that any person may readily
perform the same. For this purpose procure a
dozen bars; six of soft steel, each three inches
long, one-fourth of an inch broad, and one-twen-
tieth of an inch thick, with two pieces of iron,
each half the length of one of the bars, but of
the same breadth and thickness: and six of the
hard steel, each five inches and a half long, half
an inch broad, and three-twentieths of an inch
thick, with two pieces of iron of half the length,
but the whole breadth and thickness of one of
the hard bars; and let all the bars be marked
with a line quite round them at one end. Then
take an iron poker and tongs, or two bars o
iron, plate MAGNETISM. fig. 1, the larger they

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M A G N E T I S. M.
415
are, and the longer they have been used the bet-
ter; and, fixing the poker upright between the
knees, hold it near to the top of one of the soft
bars having its marked end downward, by a
piece of sewing silk, which must be pulled tight
with the left hand, that the bar may not slide;
then grasping the tongs with the right hand a little
below the middle, and laying them nearly in a
yertical position, let the bar be stroked by the
lower ent, from the bottom to the top, about
ten times on each side, which will give it a mag-
netic power sufficient to lift a small key at the
marked end; which end, if the bar was suspend-
ed on a point, would turn towards the north,
and is, therefore, called the north pole, and the
unmarked end is, for the same reason, called the
South pole of the bar. Four of the soft bars
being impregnated after this manner, lay the
other two, fig. 2, parallel to each other, at the
distance of about one-fourth of an inch between
the two pieces of iron belonging to them, with a
north and a south pole against teach piece of
iron; then take two of the four bars already
made magnetical, and place them together so as
to make a double bar in thickness, the north
pole of one being even with the south pole of
the other; and the remaining two being put to
these, one on each side, so as to have two north
and two south poles together, separate the north
from the south poles at one end by a large pin,
and place them perpendicularly with that end
downward, on the middle of one of the parallel
bars, the two north poles towards its south,
and the two south poles towards its north end.
Slide them backwards and forwards three or four
times over the whole length of the bar, and, re-
moving them from the middle of this, place
them on the middle of the other bar as before
directed, and go over that in the same manner;
then turn both the bars with the other side up-
ward, and repeat the former operation: this
being done, take the two from between the
pieces of iron; and, placing the two outermost of
the touching bars in their room, let the other
two be the outermost of the four to touch these;
and this process being repeated till each pair of
bars has been touched three or four times 'over,
which will give them a considerable magnetic
power, put the half dozen together after the
manner of the four, fig. 3, and touch with them
two pairs of the hard bars, placed between the
irons, at the distance of about half an inch from
each other: then lay the soft bars aside, and with
the four hard ones let the other two be impreg-
nated, fig. 4, holding the touching bars apart at
the lower end nearly two-tenths of an inch, to
which distance let them be separated after they
are set on the parallel bar, and brought together
again after they are taken off; this being ob-
served, proceed, according to the method already
described, till each pair has been touched two or
three times over. But, as this vertical way of
touching a bar will not give it quite so much of
the magnetic virtue as it will receive, let each
pair be touched once or twice over, in their pa-
rallel position between the irons fig. 5, with two
of the bars held horizontally, or nearly so, by
drawing at the same time the north of one, from
the middle, over the south end of a parallel bar :
then bringing them to the middle again, without
touching the parallel bar, give three or four of
these horizontal strokes to each side. The hori-
zontal touch, after the vertical, will make the
bars as strong as they possibly can be made; as
appears by their not receiving any additional
strength, when the vertical touch is given by a
greater number of bars, and the horizontal by
those of a superior magnetic power. This whole
process may be gone through in the space of
half an hour, and each of the larger bars, if well
hardened, may be made to lift twenty-eight troy
ounces, and sometimes more. And when these
bars are thus impregnated they will give to a
hard bar of the same size its full virtue in less
than two minutes; and will, therefore, answer
all the purposes of magnetism in navigation and
experimental philosophy, much better than the
load-stone, which is well known not to have suf-
ficient power to impregnate hard bars. The half
dozen being put into a case fig. 6, in such a
manner as that two poles of the same denomi-
nation may not be together, and their irons with
them as one bar, they will retain the virtue they
have received; but if their power should, by
making experiments, be ever so far impaired, it
may be restored without any foreign assistance
in a few minutes. And if, out of curiosity, a
much larger set should be required, these will
communicate to them a sufficient power to pro-
ceed with, and they may in a short time by the
same method be brought to a full strength. Mr.
Canton, by the same process, communicated
inagnetic virtue in two large bars, each half an
inch square, ten inches and a half in length, and
weighing nearly ten ounces twelve pennyweights,
to such a degree, that one of them lifted by one
of its ends seventy-nine ounces and nine penny-
weights: and a flat semicircular magnet, weigh-
ing an ounce and twelve pennyweights, was
made to lift, by applying its two ends together to
an iron wedge, ninety troy ounces. The same
ingenious gentleman could also readily deprive
his bars of their virtue; and change the poles
of a natural load-stone, by placing it in an in-
verted direction, between the contrary poles of
his larger bars, laid down at some distance from
each other, in the same straight line continued
at the distance of about a quarter of an inch
from either of the poles, without touching the
stone with either of the bars.
The method in which the steel he made use of
was hardened is as follows:—Having cut a suffi-
cient quantity of the leather of old shoes into very
small pieces, an iron pan is provided, which a lit-
tle exceeds the length of a bar, and is wide enough
to admit of two bars side by side without touch-
ing each other on the pan, and at least an inch
deep. This pan is nearly half filled with the
bits of leather, upon which are laid the two
bars, having fastened to the end of each a small
wire for taking them out: the pan is then quite
filled with the leather, and placed on agentle
flat fire, being covered and surrounded with
charcoal. The pan, being brought to something
more than aired heat, is kept about half an hour;
and the bars are suddenly quenched in a large
quantity of cold water. Mr. Horne, in his
Essays on Iron and Steel, p. 147, claims the
416
M A G N E T 1 S M.
merit of directing this process for hardening Mr.
Canton's bars.
Captain Scoresby furnishes us with some
very valuable information relative to the mode
of making artificial magnets. “Being desirous,’
says he, ‘of applying my process to the con-
struction of powerful artificial magnets, I pre-
pared (with the assistance of the armourer on
board) six bars of steel, and bars properly tem-
pered, suitable for a large compound magnet.
The soft steel bars were nearly eight inches long,
half an inch broad, and a sixth of an inch thick.
The bars for the compound magnet, seven in
number, which were of the horse-shoe form,
were each two feet long before they were curved,
and eleven inches from the crown to the end
when finished, one inch broad, and three-eighths
thick. These bars were combined by three pins
passing through the whole, and screwing into
the last; and any number of them could be
united into one magnet by means of a spare set
of pins screwed throughout their length, and
furnished with nuts. In addition to these bars,
&c., I provided separate feeders or conductors of
soft iron, suitable for connecting the poles of
each of the bars of the compound magnet, and
also another conductor, fitted to the whole when
combined. With this apparatus, I proceeded
to give the magnetic virtue as follows:—I took
a rod of soft steel, which I considered better than
a poker, and hammered it for a minute or two,
while held vertically upon a large bar of soft
iron in the same position. This gave consider-
able magnetism to the steel rod. On the top
of this, I then hammered each of the six bars
of soft steel, until the accession of lifting power
ceased. Then fixing two of them on a board,
with their different poles opposite and formed,
by a feeder at each end, into a paralellogram, I
rubbed these after the manner of Canton, by
means of the other four bars, and found their
magnetism greatly augmented. The other four
bars were operated upon in pairs, in a similar
way, those already strengthened being used for
strengthening the others, and each pair being
successively changed until all the bars were
found to be magnetised to saturation. A pair
of them now possessed a lifting power of two
pounds and a half.
“The next step was to touch the bars intended
for the compound magnet, by means of these
six bars now magnetised. For this purpose, the
six bars were combined into two magnets, by
tying three of them together, with similar poles
in contact; these two were then placed with
opposite poles, in connexion, and tied together
at one end, but separated about the third of an
inch at the other, so as to form one compound
magnet, and a conductor was kept constantly
applied to the open end of it, when not in use,
to preserve the power from being lost. One of
the bars of the horse-shoe magnet, with a con-
ductor placed across the poles, was now placed
on a board, in a groove cut so as to hold it fast
under the operation. The straight bar magnet
was then placed erect on the middle of it, with
the separated poles downward, and rubbed
against the horse-shoe bar, from the middle to
one of its poles, until the north pole of the one
was in connexion with the pole intended to
become the south of the other; thence it was
rubbed back again, with the south pole of the
magnet in advance, as far as the other extremity,
or that intended for the north pole of the horse-
shoe bar. Two or three strokes of this kind
being made from end to end of the bar, on
each side of the bar, the north and south poles
of the magnet being always directed to the
north and south poles of the bar respectively,
the magnet was slipped sideways off, when at
the pole of the bar, and the bar was found to
have acquired such a magnetic power as to
enable it to sustain a weight of several ounces,
hung from the conductor. Each of the bars of
the horse-shoe magnet was treated this way in
succession, and then the first five bars of the
magnet, being combined by the screws, were
employed in the same way as the soft steel
magnet had been used, for increasing the power
of the sixth and seventh bars, by which they
were rendered capable of carrying above two
pounds weight each. These were then substi-
tuted, in the combined magnet, for the fourth
and fifth bars, while the latter underwent the
touch of the other five in combination; and, in
their turn, the second and third, and then the
seventh and first, were subjected to a similar
treatment. After these operations, which oc-
cupied forty-three minutes, the compound mag-
net, with all the seven bars in connexion, lifted
ten pounds.
“After a second series of the same kind of
manipulations, five of the bars in combination
carried fifteen pounds; and, after a third series,
eighteen pounds; but as, on trying a fifth series,
little augmentation, took place, the process was
discontinued. The whole of the operations,
from beginning to end, occupied above foul
hours; but as I generally rubbed each bar
with twelve strokes on each side, instead of one
or two, which I afterwards found sufficient, and
in other parts of the process spent a great deal
of time and labor which turned to no account,
I doubt not but the whole might have been
completed, beginning without the smallest per-
ceptible magnetism, and ending with a lifting
power of twenty or thirty pounds, in the space
of two hours, or less.’
Mr. Michell's method of making artificial
magnets may be thus described:—Prepare a
dozen bars of steel, of about one ounce and three-
quarters weight each, six inches long, and half
an inch broad: let these be hardened by immer-
sion into water at a red heat. The size and
shape.of the bars may be varied at pleasure, pro-
vided that the length be proportioned to the
thickness. The best sort of steel is that which
has no veins of iron in it, and Mr. Michell
found the common blistered steel at least equal
to any other. In order to preserve the bars, they
must be placed in a box furnished with two
pieces of iron, about an inch long each. These
pieces of iron may be about a quarter of an
inch square, and should be filed perfectly smooth
on the sides. Against these are to be placed,
with their edges towards them, the twelve mag-
netical bars, six on one side, with their south or
north poles one way, and six on the other side,
M A G N E T I S. M.
4 |7
with the same poles the contrary way. It is
necessary to observe that these bars must neither
be taken out, nor put in, all, or too many on a
side at once; for if two only be left with their
poles of the same denomination the same way,
without one or more on the other side to coun-
terbalance their effects, they will injure each
other.
these bars south poles, and the other ends north
poles, place six of them in a line north and south,
bringing the unmarked end of one to touch the
marked end of the next throughout; the marked
ends lying towards the north, which will be some
advantage to them. Then take an armed magnet,
and placing it with both poles upon one of the
bars, the north pole towards the marked end,
which is to be a south pole, and the south pole
towards the unmarked end, which is to be a north
pole, slide it backwards and forwards from end
to end of the whole line of bars three or four
times, taking care that they all touch. Then,
taking it off, remove the two endmost bars into
the middle, and pass over them again three or
four times. Having thus touched the bars, it
will not be improper to turn them with the other
side uppermost, and to magnetise again on that
side as before, omitting the endmost bars, till
they are removed into the middle, when they
must undergo the same process.
Professor Steinhauser has ascertained, that if,
by the process of Canton, we unite, in the form
of a square, two steel bars, and two contacts of
iron, it is better to operate by the double touch
in a circle, than by a motion backwards and for-
wards. Again, when we combine these bars in
a square, the force of that which we wish to
magnetise ought to increase in proportion as the
other magnet has become, more energetic. In
magnetising horse-shoe magnets, it is much more
advantageous to place two of these bent bars,
with their friendly poles so situated, as that the
magnetic circlé shall be completed; and that we
should then touch circularly, with the magnet
destined to communicate the power. When the
two horse-shoe bars are separated, they lose
usually a considerable part of their force, if we
.do not previously decompose the great circuit
into two smaller ones, by applying each contact
to its curved magnet before the separation. In
this way the two separated magnets lose little or
nothing of their power; and two may be touched
in the same time that one is on the usual plan.
Among artificial magnets, those which are
bent into the form of a horse-shoe, and therefore
termed horse-shoe magnets, are reckoned the
most powerful. To render such a shaped piece
magnetic, place a pair of magnetised bars against
the ends of the horse-shoe, with the south end of
the bar against that of the horse-shoe which is
intended to be north, and the north end of the
oar to that which is to be the south; the lifter,
of soft iron, to be placed at the other end of the
bars. Also rub the surfaces of the horse-shoe
with the pair of bars, disposed like the legs of
compasses when a little open, or with another
horse-shoe magnet, turning the poles properly to
those of the proposed magnet; and being careful
that these bars never touch the ends of the
straight bars. To prevent a sudden separation
Vol. XIII.
In order to make the marked ends of .
of the bars from the horse-shoe, which woull
..considerably diminish the force of the latter,
slide on the lifter, or support, to the end of the
horse-shoe magnet, but in such a manner that
it may not touch the bars; they may then be
taken away, and the support slid to its place.
AA, fig. 7, represents a magnet thus contrived,
and AF the armature or pieces of iron, the projec-
tions for which are at FF, and to which the cen-
tral piece of iron D is made to adhere. The dotted
line represents a brass box, having a ring O at
its upper part, by which the armed magnet may
be suspended. Thus the two poles of the mag-
net, which are at F and F, are made to act on
every part alike, and the straight piece of iron
D may be conveniently applied for supporting a
weight.'
The variable power of a magnet may be
shown by suspending iron to it, in the following
manner:—Suspend a magnet in a place that is
not much shaken, and apply to it as much weight
of iron as it will just support. Let a hook or a
scale, like those used for a balance, be fastened
to the iron slide. On the day following the
operator may put a little more weight into the
scale, which the magnet will support. One or
two days after a little more weight may be added,
and so on; the power of the magnet increasing
daily; and though this increase of power is
neither unlimited nor very regular, being affected
in some measure by the vicissitudes of heat and
cold, yet, upon the whole, the power of a mag-
net will be considerably increased by this con-
trivance. f -
It is very remarkable, that if, in the course of
the operation, the iron were to dróp from the
magnet, on replacing it, you will find that the
magnet will no longer support as much weight as
it did a moment before; so that now you must
diminish the weight, though in the course of the
following days you may increase it gradually
again; hence, in placing the weights into the
scale, or upon the hook, care must be taken not
to give it any jerk, so as to cause the iron to fall
off, otherwise a great deal of the work will be
lost. *
The reason of this experiment is, that the iron,
being rendered magnetic, tends to strengthen the
magnetism of the magnet in the same manner as
any other magnet endeavours to render magnetic
any ferruginous substance that is placed within
its sphere of action. When the iron falls off the
magnet loses part of the acquired power, espe-
cially if the magnet had acquired more than its
point of saturation, there having been removed
the cause which kept it up; and, when the iron is
replaced, the magnet will not recover the lost
power very readily, because there is required a
considerable time to communicate a certain de-
gree of magnetic power to a hard ferruginous
substance, as the magnet is, especially when that
magnetism must be communicated by the action
of a proportionably weak magnet, like the iron
weight.
According to Epinus's hypothesis of the mag-
netic fluid, this experiment is thus explained :-
The magnetic fluid in a magnet is not equally
dispersed through its substance, but one pole or
half of it is overcharged, and the other under-
- wº 2 E
418
M A G N E T I S. M.
charged. There is a strong attraction between
the undercharged part and the superfluous quan-.
tity of magnetic fluid in the overcharged part,
and the restoration of the balance is in a great
measure prevented by the hardness or some other
quality of the magnet. Now, when the iron is
affixed to the magnet, it beeomes magnetic, viz.
that part of it which is contiguous to the over-
charged pole of the magnet becomes undercharg-
ed, and the opposite one becomes overcharged.
In this situation the undercharged part of the iron,
endeavouring to draw the magnetic fluid of the
magnet towards itself, accumulates or draws it still
nearer to that overcharged pole of the magnet;
and, on the other side, the overcharged part of
the iron being contiguous to the undercharged
pole of the magnet, tends continually to drive
the magnetic fluid away from that undercharged
pole of the magnet; but the power of the mag-
net, according to the hypothesis, depends on the
unequal distribution of the magnetic fluid, there-
fore the action of the iron, by endeavouring
continually to increase that unequal distribution,
must increase the power of the magnet.
It follows from this experiment, that a magnet
is apt to lose much of its power when kept with-
out any iron-affixed to it.
As heat is observed to destroy magnetism, so
it may also be employed to induce it on sub-
stances that are susceptible of magnetism. Dr.
Gilbert says, that the ores of iron, which are in
that particular metallic state which he considers
as most susceptible of magnetism, will acquire
it by long continuance in a red heat, if laid in
the magnetic direction, and that their polarity is
conformable to their position, that end of the
mass which is next the north becoming the north
pole. He also made many experiments on iron
and steel bars exposed to strong heats in the
magnetical direction. Such experiments have
been made since Gilbert's time in great numbers.
Dr. Hooke, in 1684, made experiments on rods
of iron and steel, one-fifth of an inch in diame-
ter, and seven inches long. He found them to
acquire permanent magnetism by exposure to
strong heat in the magnetic direction, and if
allowed to cool in that direction. But the mag-
netism thus acquired by steel rods was much
stronger, and more permanent, if they were sud-
denly quenched with cold water, so as to temper
them very hard. He found that the end which
was next to the north, or the lower end of a ver-
tical bar, was always its permanent north pole.
Even quenching the upper end, while the rest
was suffered to cool gradually, rendered it a very
sensible south pole. No magnetism was acquired
if this operation was performed on a rod lying
at right angles to the magnetical direction.
Mr. Scoresby has invented a very useful piece
of apparatus called a magnetimeter. This in-
strument consists of a small table of brass, about
four inches square, and three inches high, having
a plate of brass attached to it by hinges, and
moveable by means of a wheel and pinion,
through an arc of 250° of a vertical circle. This
plate has a small straight groove running from
end to end, for the purpose of receiving bars of
metal, the polarity of which is to be determined.
These bars are readily fixed to the plate, by being
slipped through a circular aperture in the end
of a spring, which, perforating the moveable
plate, is marked by a graduated circle, screwed
on the side of the table. On the brass table is
placed a moveable flat plate of brass, divided
into degrees, and furnished with a magnetic
needle with an agate cap traversing on a brass or
steel point. The needle can be changed accord-
ing to the nature of the circumstances; a very
light and strongly magnetised one being used in
delicate experiments. The compass, or plate
carrying the needle, being moveable, its distance
from the bar resting on the moveable plate, can
be varied at pleasure. The centre of the hinge
is one-tenth of an inch above the level of the
table; and the bars in use, being. one-fourth of
an inch in diameter, are sunk in the groove of
the moveable plate, to such a depth that their
axis, or centre, precisely corresponds with the
centre of the hinges; hence the middle of the
extremity of each bar is at the same elevation,
and at the same distance from the needle in
every position of the moveable limb. To give
firmness to the instrument, in making experi-
ments, the table is fixed by the feet to a mass of
lead, of seven or eight pounds weight. By
means of this plate of lead, which has a screw
at each corner, the whole apparatus is readily
put into a horizontal position. With this ap-
paratus, Mr. Scoresby made a series of experi-
ments, which are fully detailed in the Transactions'
of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, vol. ix., and
of which the following are the principal results.
1. Iron bars become magnetical by position,
except when placed in the plane of the magnetic
equator, the upper end, as regards the position
of the magnetic equator, becoming a south pole,
and the lower extremity a north pole.
2. No attraction or repulsion appears between
a magnetised needle and iron bars; the latter
being free from permanent magnetism, whenever
the iron is in the plane of the magnetic equator;
consequently, by measuring the angle of non-
attraction, in a bar placed north and south, we
discover the magnetic dip.
3. Before a magnet can attract iron, that is
totally free from both permanent magnetism and
that of opposition, it infuses into the iron a
magnetism of contrary polarity to that of the
attracting pole. -
4. A bar of soft iron, held in any position,
except in the plane of the magnetic equator,
may be rendered magnetical by a blow with a
hammer or other hard substance ; in such cases,
the magnetism of position seems to be fixed in
it, so as to give it a permanent polarity.
5. An iron bar, with permanent polarity,
when placed any where in the plane of the mag-
netic equator, may be deprived of its magnetism
by a blow. a
6. Iron is rendered magnetical if scoured or
filed, bent or twisted, when in the position of
the magnetic axis, or near this position; the
upper end becoming a south pole, and the lower
end a north pole; but the magnetism is de-
stroyed by the same means, if the bar be held
in the plane of the magnetic equator. -
7. Iron heated to redness, and quenched in
water, in a vertical position, becomes magnétic;
- \{A (; N E 'II' [S Mſ.,
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M A G N E T is M.
419
the upper end gaining south polarity, and the
lower end north.
8. Hot iron receives more magnetism of po-
sition than the same when cold.
9. A bar-magnet, if hammered when in a
vertical position, or in the position of the mag-
netic axis, has its power increased, if the south
pole be upward, and loses some of its magnetism
if the north end be upward.
10. A bar of soft steel, without magnetic
virtue, has its magnetism of position fixed in it,
by hammering it when in a vertical position;
and loses its magnetism by being struck when
in the plane of the magnetic equator.
The application of magnetism to nautical pur-
poses must now be noticed. The history of the
compass is involved in much obscurity, as the
Chinese appear to have possessed this important
instrument long prior to its use in Europe. See
CoMPASs. -
A common sewing-needle, rendered magneti-
cal, and simply laid upon water, or fastened to a
cork or straw, &c., and so laid upon water in a
glass, or earthen or wooden cup; or else sus-
pended by a very flexible thread, which must be
fastened to its middle, forms a simple, but imper-
fect compass; and such, in all probability, was
one of the first modes of constructing the com-
pass, whence the magnetised steel wire, or bar,
has ever since been called the magnetic needle.
The defects of the last-mentioned construction
are too evident to need any particular remarks.
The needle laid upon water, is continually run-
ning to the sides of the cup, the water is liable to
be spilt, or, if a thread be used, the stiffness of it
will always influence the action of the needle.
A mariner's compass, or compass generally
used on board of ships, is represented in fig. 8.
The box, which contains the card or fly with the
needle, is made of a circular form, either of
wood, brass, or copper. It is suspended within
a square wooden box by means of two concen-
tric circles, called gimbals, so fixed by cross
axes a, a, a, a, fig. 9, plate II., to the two boxes,
that the inner one, or compass-box, shall retain
an horizontal position in all motions of the ship,
whilst the outer or square box is fixed with respect
to the ship. The compass-box is covered with a
pane of glass, in order that the motion of the
card may not be disturbed by the wind. What
is called the card is a circular piece of paper
which is fastened upon tie needle, and moves
with it. Sometimes there is a slender rim of
brass which is fastened to the extremities of the
needle, and serves to keep the card stretched.
The outer edge of this card is divided into 360
equal parts or degrees, and within the circle of
these divisions it is again divided into thirty-two
equal parts, or arcs, which are called the points
of the compass, or rhumbs, each of which is often
sub-divided into quarters. The initial letters N.,
N. E., &c., are annexed to those rhumbs, to de-
note the north, north-east, &c. The middle part
of the card is generally painted with a sort of
star, whose rays terminate in the above-men-
tioned divisions. . To avoid confusion, those
letters are not drawn in the figure.
The magnetic needles which are commonly
nsed at sea are between four and six inches long;
but those which are used for observing the daily
variation, are made a little longer, and their ex-
tremities point the variation upon an arch or’
circle, properly divided or affixed to the box.
The best shape of a magnetic needle is repre-
sented in figs. 1 and 2, plate II. MAGNETISM;
the first shows the upper side, and the second
shows a lateral view of the needle, which is of
steel, having a hole in the middle, to which a
conical piece of agate is adapted by means of
a brass piece O, into which the agate cup (as it is
called) is fastened. Then the apex of this hollow
cap rests upon the point of a pin F, which is
fixed in the centre of the box, and upon which
the needle, being properly balanced, turns easily.
For common purposes, those needles have a coni-
cal perforation made in the steel itself, or in a
piece of brass which is fastened in the middle of
the needle.
It is commonly imagined that the agitation of
the compass is communicated by friction at the
points or edges of suspension, and the compass-
maker has accordingly exerted his ingenuity to
diminish this friction, by contrivances similar to
that of a conical cap balanced on a point, and
itself affording another point to support the
needle. But it may be readily proved by expe-
riment, that the greatest disturbance of the needle
is produced by the quantity of horizontal pro-
gressive motion, and not by the mere inclination
or angular motion. A compass-needle, supported
on a simple point, will suffer very little agitation
from any angular motion, or moderate deviation
from perpendicularity in the pin; but it will in-
stantly begin to vibrate if moved horizontally.
Thus the common experiment of tilting the com-
pass-box in all positions, while its centre remains
immoveable, is fallacious. -
It appears, therefore, that the steadiness of a
needle which vibrates slowly, is the consequence
not only of the length of time it allows for
alternate actions to operate, and destroy each
other; but also of the difficulty with which it
yields to such impressions. If the centres of sus-
pension and of gravity in the needle were coin-
cident, no angular motion would be produced
by any action of the pin, excepting by the effects
of friction; and the angular motion produced in
other cases will be less, the shorter the distance
between these two centres, or the lever by which
it is propagated. * -
The simple suspension of the needle on a
point has been applied to the compass-box, for
which it is little suited, not only because of the
wear upon so small a surface, but also because
it admits the box to traverse horizontally; an
effect which is inconvenient, and cannot be re-
medied by any means not calculated in some
respect to increase the effects of agitation. The
method most generally employed, and in fact
the one best adapted to the purpose, consists in
employing gimbals. * s
This well-known contrivance consists of a
hoop supported upon two pins diametrically
opposite to each other, and issuing from the ex-
ternal surface of the ring in such a direction that
both lie in the same diameter line. When the
hoop is suspended on these pins, it is at liberty
to turn freely round the diameter of * they
420
M A G N E T I S. M.
constitute the prolongation. The notches or holes
of support are disposed horizontally. The com-
pass-box itself is placed in a similar ring, with
two projecting pivots; and these pivots are in-
serted in holes made in the former ring at an
equal distance from each of its pivots. If, there-
fore, we suppose the hole to be left at liberty,
the compass-box may vibrate upon the diametral
line of the outer ring, and also upon a line formed
by its own pivots, at right angles to that diametral
line. The consequence of this arrangement is,
that the centre of gravity of the compass-box will
dispose itself immediately beneath the intersec-
tion of both lines, on which it is at liberty to
move:-that is to say, if the weight of the box
or its parts be properly disposed, the compass
will assume a position in which its upper surface
shall be horizontal.
The same principles which were applied to
the single centre of the magnetic needle will
also apply to the axis of the gimbals. If the centre
of gravity of the compass-box be so placed with
respect to either axis as that its vibrations shall
be quick, every horizontal action will greatly
disturb it, and it will not speedily settle. The
most favorable position of the pivots or edges
of support in the gimbals will be when they all
lie in the same plane, and the centre of gravity
of the compass-box is very little below that
plane. The following valuable results, relative
to the best mode of constructing the compass-
needle, form part of an admirable paper, by
captain Kater, inserted in the Transactions of
the Royal Society:-1. That the best material
for compass-needles is clock-spring; but care
must be taken, in forming the needle, to expose
it as seldom as possible to heat, otherwise its
capability of receiving magnetism will be much
diminished. 2. That the best form for a com-
pass-needle is the pierced rhombus, in the pro-
portion of about five inches in length to two
inches in width, this form being susceptible of
the greatest directive force. 3. That the best
mode of tempering is, first to harden the needle
at a red heat, and then to soften it from the
middle to about an inch from each extremity, by
exposing it to heat sufficient to cause the blue
color, which arises, to disappear. 4. That in
the same plate of steel, of the size of a few
square inches only, portions are found varying
considerably in their capability of receiving
magnetism, though not apparently differing in
any other respect. 5. That polishing the needle
has no effect on its magnetism. 6. That the
best mode of communicating magnetism to a
needle appears to be by placing it in the mag-
netic meridian, joining the opposite poles of a
pair of bar magnets (the magnets being in the
same line), and laying the magnets so joined,
flat upon the needle, with their poles upon its
centre; then having elevated the distant extre-
mities of the magnets, so that they may form an
angle of about two or three degrees with the
needle, they are to be drawn from the centre of
the needle to the extremities, carefully preserving
the same inclination; and, having joined the
poles of the magnets at a distance from the
needle, the operation is to be repeated ten or
£welve times on each surface. 7. That in needles
from five to eight inches in length, their weights
being equal, the directive forces are nearly as the
lengths. 8. That the directive force does not
depend upon extent of surface, but, in needles
of nearly the same length and form, is as the
mass. 9 That the deviation of a compass-
needle, occasioned by the attraction of soft iron,
depends, as Mr. Barlow has advanced, on extent
of surface, and is wholly independent of the
mass, except a certain thickness of the iron,
amounting to about two-tenths of an inch, which
is requisite for the complete development of its
attractive energy. g
The improved mariner's compass contrived by
Mr. Pope, for which he has taken out a patent,
is too important to be passed unnoticed. Its
great merit consists in suspending the magnetic
needle in such a manner as to combine the
advantages of the dipping needle with those of
the ordinary mariner's compass; the needle,
from the peculiar mode in which it is suspended,
being perfectly at liberty to dip in all latitudes,
from the equator to the poles; while the card
retains its horizontal position. tº
Fig. 3 represents the card, with the needle
lying across it, in an orifice cut completely
through the card from north to south. The card
is perforated with a number of holes, to allow
a free circulation of the air.
In fig. 4 the compass is seen in perspective,
supported on an agate centre, and the needle
dipping, while the card remains horizontal.
The advantages of this admirable invention
are at once great and simple: in the first place,
this compass increases its power of magnetic
force where in others it diminishes, and that in
every latitude from the equator to the poles;
secondly, it retains its force even situated nearly
over the polar point, where all others entirely
lose it, and become useless; thirdly, it is more
steady on its point, a circumstance of the first
importance, when the agitation is increased by
the motion of the vessel.
A few remarks by way of elucidation will
prove the above; the first property it gains from
its peculiar construct on, by which the magnet
is placed more in harmony with nature; and
among many particulars, the principal point con-
sists in the needle falling in a line with the at-
tractive affluvia; this is effected by uniting the
nature of a dipping-needle with that of a hori-
zontal steering card ; by virtue of which it has
power to alter its own elevation, to every de-
gree of latitude it may be placed in, and of
course stands nearly in the line of attraction;
this it performs without taking the card out of
the horizontal position. The second it may be
said to retain from the dip of the needle; for at
the poles the dipping needle is found to increase
its power, when that of the horizontal one is in-
variably lost. The third property it acquires by
the manner of connecting the needle with the
card ; for when the motion is increased, and the
compassexceedingly agitated, this needle quits the
card, and attains a perpendicular motion, which
serves most effectually to counteract that of the
card; so that, between the motion of the card
and the needle, the whole is brought to an equi-
poise; this in connexion with the card of the
M A G N
421
E T I S. M.
Compass being perforated, thereby admitting the
air that is below the card, to pass freely above,
without taking the card with it, renders it much
steadier; and, being placed deeply in the box, it
is not liable to strike against the glass like the
common card.
It scarcely need be remarked that all com-
passes hitherto in use diminish their power
every degree they are removed from the equi-
noctial line, which, the inventor of the present
patent presumes, is occasioned solely by an er-
roneous system in the manufacture of the needle,
as follows, viz. the mechanic is first careful to
make it equally heavy at both ends, so as to
swing parallel with the horizon on its point or
Centre; this done, the needle is further com-
pleted by touching it on the magnet for the
purpose of gaining the magnetic poles; when
it instantly requires a different position, falling
from the horizontal to an oblique direction: to
prevent this, and bring it parallel again, he is
reduced to the alternative of loading the south
end, either of the magnet or the ºard, which
effectually performs the intention of the me-
chanic, but not of nature; for, thus encumbered,
the needle is eventually so impeded, that, when
it is brought near the poles, its efforts are fruit-
less, the card falling all around without any
direction, from the single circumstance of being
lifted beyond its natural inclination: and the
magnet also is hereby drawn by main force
above the magnetic line, and is obliged in its
own defence to hang either on the left or right
of it, in order to form a greater angle; for it
is the distance from the poles only that enables
the horizontal needle to act at all; and hence
the variation may apparently be much increased
hereby. -
It may be suggested against this needle (from
the fact that it is capable of being drawn nearly
perpendicular when situated over the poles),
that it will have no purchase or power over the
card, and therefore cannot turn it round to its
point: this would be correct but for the con-
sideration of the poise of the needle, which
always prevents a steering dipping-needle from
falling to its due depression or dip, leaving a
sufficient power for the purpose of turning the
card ; this is also provided for, by hanging the
needle below its bearing.
The improvements in the new compass are
evident, not only for the high north and south
latitudes, but for the East and West India
services, as being less subject to get out of re-
pair and lose the power of the attractive force,
and also more proof against local attraction,
&c. This will appear more certain when it is
recollected that all metallic substances (partly
the cause of the variation) are contained nearer
to the surface than the centre of the earth : they
stand in the horizon; therefore, the common ma-
riner's needle being poised horizontally, the me-
tallic lodgments (in the horizon) have power to
attract a horizontal needle, whereas this new dip-
ping steering needle points below that line, and
forms nearly a true junction with the attractive
influence, which is deep in the poles; hence this
valuable instrument is not so subject to local
attraction. Mr. Pope has adapted the principle
of the azimuth to the steering compass, which
is so constructed as to be capable of steering by,
and of 'taking an azimuth of the sun ; thus
making use of one compass alone, both to steer
by and to take the azimuth.
This compass is furnished with a temporary
verge (or glass) to shift on when steering, which
leaves the face of the azimuth as clear to see the
points and steer by as the common steering
compass, and with the same facility performs
both operations. He recommends it, therefore,
to general use, in preference to his steering com-
pass; but, when the latter is used, one only
should be in the binnacle to steer by, instead of
two as is customary at piesent; for there must be
local attraction where two compasses are so close
together. º
In cases where the common compass becomes
entirely useless, the able navigator is driven to
the alternative of steering by the stars alone,
which are not always to be seen, in consequence
of thick weather, &c. For this reason, the ad-
dition of the dipping-needle to the mariner's
compass is a matter of the first consequence to
the instrument, and was never effected before
the present time. From some experiments made
by Mr. Pope, he is of opinion that the central
part of the earth is one immense spherical mag
net, extending from the centre to 40°, the re-
maining 50° being-composed of strata surround-
ing that nucleus, and arranged from east to west.
Now when the mariner's magnetic needle, which
is a subject of the principal one (the earth), is
brought up to latitudes above 60°, the magnetic
north being deep in the earth, the dipping needle
in high latitudes is drawn almost perpendicular;
and as it is now harnessed so as to be free of
the card, and possesses both the advantages of
the dip and of carrying the fly horizontally, its
powers remain; whereas the old needle of the
compass being riveted to the fly, and the fly
being loaded at the south end to make it poise,
it is thereby forced againstits natural inclination,
and brought up to a horizontal position. It
then turns its back on its principal, the magnet
of the earth ; and herein, according to the inven-
tor's opinion, consists the cause of the different
effects of the old and new compasses.
Mr. Wales, who accompanied captain Cook
in his second voyage, appears to have been the
first person who observed the effects of the iron
employed in ship building, upon the action of
the magnetic needle. This subject was further
investigated by captain Flinders, who, in his
survey of the coast of New Holland, succeeded
in applying a correction for the use of his own
vessel. From an account of the survey, pub-
lished some time after this navigator's return, it
appeared that in captain Flinder's vessel, and
indeed in every ship, a compass would differ
very materially from itself, in being removed
from the head to the stern. This was found to
arise from the iron which surrounds the compass
becoming magnetic, and its entire attractive
force is thus concentrated into one powerful
focus. Of this, the principal south pole is situ-
ated near the middle of the upper deck. This
focus of attraction so influences the compass-
needle, that it is subject to a considerable varia-
422
M A G N E T I S. M.
tion from the true meridian, different from what
is observed by a compass on shore; the north
point of the compass being constantly drawn
towards the focus in our hemisphere, and the
south point in the opposite hemisphere.
With these facts in view, professor Barlow
commenced a series of experiments to remedy
the defective apparatus. Having procured a
solid iron ball, thirteen inches in diameter,
he found, on placing the compass above it, that
the north end of the needle was attracted by the
upper part of the ball; that, when placed below
the ball, the south end was attracted; and that
when the needle was raised or depressed, in any
vertical around the ball, it always passed through
a point in which both attractions became neu-
tralised. The next step in his investigation was
to ascertain whether these points of no attraction
were all in the same plane; and, if so, to deter-
mine correctly its inclination to the horizon,--
since it had become obvious, from the care with
which the trials had been made, that it was not
parallel to it. This question was soon decided:
by a series of experiments it was demonstrated
that the points were all in the same plane, and
that the inclination of the plane itself to the
horizon was about 20°, declining directly from
the magnetic north point to the south, approach-
ing very nearly to the complement of the dip of
the needle. This circle Mr. Barlow now traced
on his iron ball, assuming as its principal
axis the direction of the dipping needle; and,
imagining circles of latitude and longitude to be
described around the whole ball, he had thus an
ideal magnetic sphere, which would readily indi-
cate the relative position of the iron and the
compass in his subsequent experiments. Plate
II., fig. 5, will enable the reader to form a correct
idea of the nature and properties of this mag-
netic sphere. O is supposed to represent an
iron ball, and AAA a sphere circumscribing
it, and within which its influence is active;
S, N, being in the magnetic meridian. The line
NS, in the plane S, E., N, W, denotes the natu-
ral direction of the dipping needle, in those lati-
tudes where its inclination to the horizon is
about 70°30'. Now, conceiving Q, E, Q, W, to
represent a plane, passing through the centre of
the ball, and being perpendicular to the axis
NS, it will be the plane of no attraction, which
has this remarkable property, that if lines be
drawn in it (as for example,the lines O C, O,C',
O C", &c.) and a compass be placed any where
in those lines, or indeed in any point of the
plane Q, E, Q, W, it will be uninfluenced by the
iron ball, and will preserve its natural magnetic
direction. -
As soon, however, as the compass is removed
out of this plane, the needle is found to deviate
from its original bearing, its south end being
attracted towards the ball when the needle is
below the plane, and its north end when it is
above; and in every case the deviation follows
a determinate law, so that, the amount being
given in any one case, it may be ascertained for
all others.
Suppose, for example, any two other planes,
passing through the centre of the ball, each being
perpendicular to Q, E, Q, W, of which let M,
O, S, L, represent quadrants; then supposing a
compass placed in each of these planes, at equal
distances from the centre, at L, we shall have
ML, for, the latitude, and E M, E M', for the
longitude of position of those points; then will
the following proportion express the law in ques-
tion :-The tangent of the deviation of the com-
pass at Lis, to the tangent of the deviation of the
compass at L', as the rectangle of the sine of
2 L M + cosine E M to the rectangle of the sine
of 2 L'M' + cosine of E Mſ., E, being the east
point of the horizon.
Pursuing this enquiry, Mr. Barlow next ascer-
tained, by a series of experiments, the law of
attraction at different distances of the compass
from the iron ball; and which he thus states:—
That, while the position as to latitude and longi-
tude is the same, the tangents of the angles of
deviation are reciprocally proportional to the
cubes of the distances.
Still, however, there remained an important
question to be solved, viz. when the position and
distance are the same, what is the law of devi-
ation as it respects the mass of the attracting
body? And here a most unexpected result was
obtained. From the first experiments, which
were made with a solid iron ball of ten inches in
diameter, it appeared, as Mr. Barlow seems to
have anticipated, that the tangents of the devia-
tions are proportioned to the cubes of the diame-
ters, all other things being the same ; but
happening at this time to make trial of an iron
wheel of the same diameter as the ball, but only
three-fourths of its weight, he was not a little
surprised to find the results in both cases the
same. “In fact,' he remarks, ‘it appeared that
the power of attraction resided on the surface,
and was independent of the mass.’
Before it was discovered that the power of an
attracting body resides in its surface, Mr. Barlow
had anticipated a great impediment in the way
of final success, arising from the mass of iron
which he considered as necessary to produce the
desired effect. It now, however, readily occurred
to him, that, as surface is the principal thing to
be attended to, a light, globular shell of iron, or
a simple circular plate of the same metal, would
be amply sufficient for the purpose. A plate of
this description was accordingly tried; it was
fifteen inches in diameter, and weighed only
4lbs. 13oz. With this plate Mr. Barlow re-
peated the series of experiments that had been
made with the ball, and had the satisfaction of
finding that its power was far greater than would
be requisite for doubling the effect of the guns
of any vessel in the navy, although applied
to the exterior of the binnacle, and fifteen inches
distant from the pivot of the needle. The pre-
cise situation for this correcting plate is, of
course, a matter of essential importance, and
cannot be fixed on until the local attraction of
the vessel has been ascertained. This is effected
in the following manner:—The ship being so
moored as to admit of her head being directed to
each point of the compass successively, and there
steadied whilst the bearing of as remote an ob-
ject as can be found is taken, it will then be
found that the bearings thus taken vary from
each other, according to the attractive power of
M A G N E T I S. M.
423
the vessel, sometimes as much as 28°, which
difference is caused by the iron of the ship
drawing the needle from its proper direction to
the eastward with the ship's head east, and to the
westward with the head to the west. It will also
be found that two of the bearings, taken at oppo-
site points of the compass, nearly agree with
each other, and the mean of these is to be taken
as the true magnetic bearing of the object. By
these points, also, will be indicated the line of
no attraction in the vessel, which in general is
found to be nearly fore and aft, and in this line
the plate is ultimately to be placed. This being
accomplished, a pedestal or compass-stand is
then taken ashore, and by trying different situ-
ations for it, and turning it about till the same
deviations are produced by the plate at each
point, as had been observed in the vessel. But
this process, which is very troublesome, is now
rendered unnecessary, the end being much more
readily accomplished by means of a printed
table, which is given with the correcting plate;
and which comprises a series of attractions
obtained by the plate, including all possible
limits for every class of vessels. Corresponding
to each degree of local attractiºn are given two
numbers, the one indicating the distance of the
centre of the plate below the pivot of the needle,
and the other its distance from the centre line of
the pedestal, and at this depth and distance the
plate must be fixed, either fore or aft the com-
pass; if the former, the effect of the vessel will
be exactly doubled, and if the latter it will be
neutralised. When the plate is applied in front,
which is reckoned preferable in southern voyages,
it is not a fixture, but is applied at pleasure;
but when placed béhind, as recommended in
northern voyages, where the disturbance from
local attraction is very considerable, it is fixed
in its place during the voyage, and the needle is
thus left free to obey the influence of the mag-
netic power of the earth only.
It now remains to give some account of
the plate itself. The plate employed by Mr.
Barlow in his experiments, as well as those which
he sent out by captains Parry and Sabine, con-
sisted of two circular pieces of sheet iron, weigh-
ing about 31bs, per square foot, screwed together
in such a manner as to combine any strong
irregular power of one plate, with a correspond-
ing weak part on the other, by which means a
more uniform attraction is produced; he is,
however, of opinion that a single plate of iron,
weighing about 6lbs. per square foot, would
answer the purpose equally well. In diameter
the plate may vary from twelve to sixteen inches,
according to the power of the vessel. When the
plate is made double, there is a circular board
of the same size inserted between the iron discs,
for the purpose of increasing the thickness, with-
out adding much to the weight. The two plates
thus separated are found to be more powerful
than either a single plate, or two plates in imme-
diate contact. The plates are perforated in the
centre, and through this opening is passed a
brass socket with a broad head, and having an
exterior screw and nut, by which the two iron
plates, and the interposed plate of wood, are
compressed fogether. Fig. 6 represents the
brass pin, socket, plate, pedestai, and compass,
combined, as in action on ship-board.
It appears from a curious paper by Mr.
Fisher, on the errors in longitude as determined
by chronometers at sea, that a sudden alteration
takes place in their rate when taken on ship-
board, an effect which has been generally
ascribed to the motion of the vessel. He ascribes
the acceleration which takes place to the “mag-
netic action exerted by the iron in the ship, on
the inner rim of the balance, which is made of
steel;'' and in proof of this, he found that analo-
gous effects took place in chronometers when
under the influence of magnets placed in differ-
ent positions with respect to their balances.
“Upon the whole,” says Mr. Fisher, “it appears
that chronometers will be generally accelerated
(particularly if their balances have received
polarity by the too near approach of any thing
magnetical) on ship-board. It appears probable,
likewise, that the force of the balance-springs is
affected in the same way, since it is well known
that chronometers having gold balance-springs,
although more difficult to adjust, yet keep better
rates at sea than others.’ -
The use of the chronometrical compass stand,
contrived by captain Scoresby, is to preserve the
rate of a chronometer, although magnetic pro-
perties may have been imparted to it. The in-
strument represented in fig. 7 consists of a slender
cross of brass, supported on a long point of
brass, or steel, in a compass-bowl, from which is
Sºspended a rhomboidal compass-needle. On
the centre of the brass cross there is a light case
of card paper, fitted to the pocket chronometer,
to be carried by it. The case for the chrono-
meter slips upon two pins, riveted to a move-
able plate upon the cross, which, being made to
slide in different directions, may be so placed as
to adjust the chronometer fairly over the centre
of the needle, and is then fastened by screws.
In this state, the magnetic needle below it causes
the cross and chronometer to traverse with great
celerity. It therefore has the property of keep-
ing the chronometer invariably in the same posi-
tion, and, being suspended on gimbals, of pre-
serving it from the bad effects of the motion of
the ship at sea. The magnetic needle was hung
five or six inches below the chronometer, so that
its influence on the instrument was not greater
than that of the earth; and, being in an opposite
direction, has a tendency to neutralise rather
than add to this disturbing cause. *
The azimuth compass is nothing more than
the mariner's compass already examined, to
which two sights are adapted, throughout which
the sun is to be seen, in order to find its azimuth,
and thence to ascertain the declimation of the
magnetic needle at the place of observation.
The particulars in which is differs from the usual
compass are, the sights FG fig. 8; in one of which,
G, there is an oblong aperture with a perpendi-
cular thread or wire stretched through its middle;
and in the other sight, F, there is a narrow per-
pendicular slit. The thread or wire, HI, is
stretched from one edge of the box to the oppo-
site. The ring A B of the gimbals rests with
its pivots on the semi-circle CD, the foot, E, of
which turns in a socket, so that whilst the box,
424 M A G N E T I S. M.
KLM, is kept steady, the compass may be
turned round, in order to place the sights, F, G,
in the direction of the sun.
There are, on the inside of the box, two lines
drawn perpendicularly along the sides of the
box, just from the points where the thread HI
touches the edge of the box. These lines serve
to show how many degrees the north or south
pole of the needle is distant from the azimuth of
the sun; for which purpose the middle of the
apertures of the sights F, G, the thread HI, and
the said lines, must be exactly in the same verti-
cal plane. The use of the thread HI, which is
often omitted in instruments of this sort, is like-
wise to show the degrees between the magnetic
meridian and the azimuth, when the eye of the
observer stands perpendicularly over it. On the
side of the box of this sort of compasses there is
generally a nut or stop, which, when pushed in,
bears against the card and stops it, in order that
the divisions of the card, which coincide with
the lines in the box, may be more commodiously
read off.
If the magnetic poles always agreed with the
astronomical poles of the globe, the compass-
needle must of necessity point due north and
South in every part of the earth. This, however,
is not the fact, as the needle is found to vary
considerably, not only after the lapse of ages, but
also at stated periods, within a few hours of its
maximum in either direction. In other words, the
magnetic meridian, and the real meridian, sel-
dom coincide. The angle which they make is
called the angle of declination, and this is said to
be east or west, according as the north pole of
the needle is eastward or westward of the true
meridian of the place. From the minuteness of
the daily variation, and the extreme difficulty of
measuring it, excepting with the nicest instru-
ments, its laws, and consequently its cause, are
still undiscovered. -
The following are a series of axioms respect-
ing the variation of the magnetic needle collected
by L. Cotte; to which he adds others respecting
the northern lights; as being concerned in the
movements of the needle. sº
1. The greatest variation of the needle from
the north towards the west takes place about
two in the afternoon, and the greatest approxi-
mation of it towards, the north about eight in
the morning; so that, from the last mentioned
hour till about two in the afternoon, it endeavours
to remove from the north, and, between two in
the afternoon and the next morning, to approach it.
2. The annual progress of the magnetic needle
is as follows:—between January and March it
removes from the north; between March and
May it approaches it; in June it is stationary;
in July it removes from it; in August, Septem-
ber, and October, it approaches it; its declina-
tion in October is the same as in May; in
November and December it removes from the
north; its greatest western declination is at the
vernal equinox, and its greatest approximation to
the north at the autumnal equinox.
3. The declination of the magnetic needle is
different, according to the latitude: among us
it has always, increased since 1657; before that
f
period it was easterly."
4. Before volcanic eruptions and earthquakes,
the magnetic needle is often subject to very
extraordinary movements.
5. The magnetic needle is agitated before and
after the appearance of the northern lights: its
declination on those occasions is about noon
greater than usual. *
6. The greater or less appearance of these
northern lights is variable; some years this phe-
nomenon is very frequent, in others uncommon.
7. The northern lights are more frequen:
about the time of the equinoxes than at other
periods of the year. i
8. This phenomenon is almost constant dur-
ing the long winter in the polar regions, and is
the more uncommon the nearer the equator.
9. Southern lights have been observed also in
the regions near the south pole.
10. The northern lights are often accompanied
with lightning, and a noise like that of electri-
city; while the lightning proceeds partly from
the middle of the northern lights, and partly
from the neighbouring clouds. f
It happens that the declination is sometimes
subject to interruptions, so that the needle mani-
festly remains stationary for a while. For ex-
ample, at . Paris, the needle experienced no
alteration from the year 1720 to 1724, during
which it was constantly at 13° from the meridian.
Observation proves, also, that the variations of
the declination compared with one another, in
different points of the globe, follow different re-
lations. But there is a fact extremely worthy of
attention, that has been remarked by the cele-
brated Halle on the mere inspection of the table
of declination published by Van Swinden, whose
notice it had escaped. In the table, three places
are pointed out where the needle has expe-
rienced the greatest declination : and these are,
first, in the middle of the Indian Ocean, from
100 to 15° of south latitude, and from 82° 87° of
east longitude (reckoning from the island of
Ferroe), where the variation, from the year 1700
to that of 1756, was from 11° to 11° 15'.
Secondly, in the AEthiopian Ocean, from 5° of
north to 20° or 25° of south latitude, and in
the interval of 10°, 15°, and 20°, of east longi-
tude; the variation relative to this space, dur-
ing the same period of time, was from 10° to
10° 45', principally under the line, and to 5°
southward. Thirdly, at 50° north latitude, and
between 17° of east and 10° of west longitude;
where, again, in the same period, there was a
variation of from 11° to 11° 45'.
Looking at Van Swinden's table, Hallé per-
ceived that these three places formed, as it were,
three centres, round which the numbers indi-
cating the quantities of variation insensibly de-
creased in proportion as we departed from each
centre; so that we have here a new order of
observations, alswering to the places where the
variation was least in the same course of years.
These places are, first, the whole American
Ocean, without including the gulf of Mexico,
that is to say, from the eastern point of Africa to
the farthest of the Bermudas Islands. And here
also we must remark, that, in the ocean between
Africa and North America, the variation is much
less towards the American than towards the
M A G N E T, I S. M.
425
ing the magnetic equator, and always increased
African coasts. Secondly, the environs of the
isle of Madagascar, and part of the coast of Zan-
guebar. Thirdly, that part of the ocean which
is to the south and south-east of the Sunda Is-
lands between those islands and New Holland.
And, lastly, in the same sea, about the fourth
degree of south latitude, and the ninety-seventh
of east longitude, that is, in the middle of the
space comprised between the western angle of
New Holland and the southern point of Africa.
In all these different places the declination of
the needle has not varied, during the whole
fifty-six years, as much as one degree.
If similar observations had been made in the
Pacific Ocean, in the northern and southern
oceans, and even the principal divisions of large
seas, such as the Baltic, the Mediterranean, the
Gulf of Mexico, &c., these places would proba-
bly have furnished similar points: and how greatly
would the study of natural magnetism be faci-
litated, by referring to a series of such facts in
subordination to a number of centres round
which they would range themselves according to
the order of their respective relations.
A memoir was presented to the French Na-
tional Institute, by Humboldt and Biot, “On the
variations of the terrestrial magnetism in differ-
ent latitudes.’ These philosophers, having first
determined the position of the magnetic equator
by direct observations, proved that the magnetic
force must increase in proceeding from that equa-
tor to the poles; and the same distinguished
foreigners have given a mathematical hypothesis,
which, when reduced to a formula, accords with
all the inclinations of the needle hitherto ob-
served.
As to the position of the magnetic equator,
supposing it to be a great circle of the terrestrial
sphere, an hypothesis which is conformable to
observations: the inclination of this plane to
the astronomical equator is equal to 12:2025° of
the decimal division (10°58'56" of the com-
mon division), and its occidental node on that
equator is at 133,3719° (120°2' 5") longitude
west from Paris, that is, a little beyond the con-
tinent of America, near the Gallipagos, in the
South Sea; the other node is at 66-6281° (59°
57' 55") eastward of Paris, that is to say, in the
Indian Seas. The points where the axis of the
magnetic equator pierces the earth's surface, are,
the northern point at 87.7975° (79° 1' 4") of
north latitude, and at 33.3719° (30° 2' 5") of
longitude west from Paris; the southern point
is situated in the same latitude south, and
166-6281° (149° 67° 35") of longitude east from
Paris. It is remarkable that this determination
of the magnetic equator agrees almost perfectly
with that given half, a century back, by Wilke
and Lemonnier.
With respect to the intensity of the magnetic
force, in different parts of the earth, these philo-
sophers have ascertained that it varies in different
latitudes; its increase proceeding from the equa-
tor towards the poles. The needles of Hum-
boldt's compass, which, at his departure, gave
at Paris 245 oscillations in ten minutes, gave no
more in Peru than 211, and it constantly varied
in the same direction; that is to say, the number.
of the oscillations always decreased by approach-
by advancing towards the north. The differ-
ences can neither be ascribed to a diminution of
magnetic force in the compass, nor to the effects
of heat or of time; for, after three years’ resi-
dence in the warmest countries of the earth, the
same compass gave again in Mexico oscillations
as rapid as at Paris.
There are some anomalies, however, occasion-
ed by local causes. Thus Biot, having in the
summer of 1804 carried to the Alps the mag-
netic needle employed in one of his previous
aérial excursions, found that its tendency to
return to the magnetic meridian was constantly
stronger in these mountains than it was at Paris
before his departure, and than it had been since
his return. This needle, which made at Paris
83.9 oscillations in ten minutes of time, gave os-
cillations as below, at the places mentioned, in
the same interval of ten minutes: viz. Paris, be-
fore departure, 83-9; Turin 87-2; on Mount
Genevre 88.2 ; Grenoble 87.4; Lyons 87.3;
Geneva 86.5; Dijon 845; Paris, after his re-
turn, 839. It appears to result from these ob-
servations, that the action of the Alps has a
perceptible influence on the intensity of the
magnetic force. Humboldt observed analogous
effects at the bottom of the Pyrenees, for instance,
at Perpignan. It is not improbable that they
arose from the mass of these mountains, or the
ferruginous matters contained in them; but,
whatever may be the cause, it is hence manifest
that the general action of terrestrial magnetism
is sensibly modified by local circumstances, the
differences of which may be perceived in places
very little distant from each other.
The important discovery of the inclination or
dip of the magnetic needle was made about the
year 1576, by Robert Norman, a compass maker,
residing in Wapping, who in 1580 published a
pamphlet ºniº, “The Newe Attractive, show-
ing the Nature, Propertie, and manifold Vertues.
of the Loadstone; with the Declination of the
Needle, touched therewith, under the Plaine of
the Horizon. Found out and discovered by
Robert Norman.’ The sole credit of the disco-
very was awarded to him by Dr. Gilbert and Mr.
William Burrows, contemporary writers on the
subject of magnetism. The Newe Attractive
was dedicated to Mr. Burrows, and Dr. Gilbert
speaks of the author, in the following terms:
* This is that Robert Norman, that skilful sea-
man, and ingenious artificer, who first found out
the inclination of the magnetic needle.” Mr.
Bond also assures us, about a century after the
invention, “That he himself saw an inclinatory
needle of one Dr. Merrets, which was made by
this Robert Norman, A.D. 1578, and which
he fitted up for the Dr’s use.’ This curious
pamphlet was reprinted in 1720 by Mr. William
Whiston, and subjoined to a work of his own on
the discovery of the longitude and latitude by
the inclinatory or dipping needle.
The attraction or repulsion of two magnets
decreases as the distance increases, but not ac-
cording to any ratio of the distance. On this
account a magnetical bar, which is at liberty to
assume any horizontal position, as, for example,
a needle floated on water by means of cork, or
426
M A G N E T I S. M.
the needle of a mariner's compass, being brought
into the vicinity of another magnet, will assume
such a situation as shall conform to the attractive
and repulsive powers as much as possible. Thus,
if a suspended magnetical needle be brought
near another magnet, it will place itself in a po-
sition parallel to the axis of the magnet, if the
poles of contrary names in each be mutually
equi-distant; but, if the north pole of the sus-
pended needle be nearer the south pole of the
magnet than the two other poles are to each
other, its north end will be most attracted, and
consequently must incline, so that the axis of
the two magnets will form an angle greater or
less, according to circumstances. Suppose now
a small magnetical bar, suspended so as to be
capable of assuming any position whatever, be
placed upon, or near, the surface of a very large
globular magnet. It is evident, in this case, that
the two ends of the small bar, being respectively
attracted by the contrary poles of the globe, will
always be found in a plane passing through these
poles; or in other words, if circles or meridians
be supposed to be described on the globe, inter-
secting each other in those poles, the magnetical
bar must always be in the plane of one of them.
But its situation, with regard to the spherical
surface, will be governed by the excess of at-
traction in the nearest pole. If the bar be sus-
pended immediately over the north pole of the
magnet it must stand perpendicularly, with its
south end downwards; but, if it be gradually
removed along the surface towards the south pole,
the increasing action of this last pole will cause
it gradually to incline that way. At the equator
it will rest parallel to the surface; and, in ap-
proaching still nearer the last mentioned pole,
its north end will incline towards the surface,
till at length it will stand perpendicularly over
the south pole of the great magnet, with its north
end downwards. For the sake of conciseness,
the poles of the great magnet are supposed to be
equally strong; which, however, is seldom the
C2S6. -
This reasoning may be exemplified by placing a
small piece of a sewing needle on the surface of
a spherical magnet or loadstone. Its position is
found to vary according to its situation with re-
spect to the poles. For the same reasons, steel
filings gently dusted through a rag upon a mag-
net, adhere to it in a very curious and amusing
manner. The filings, acquiring magnetism by
the contact, adhere together, and form a number
of small magnets, which arrange themselves in
conformity to the attractions of the poles of the
original magnet.
From observations of this nature, it was very
early supposed, that the globe of the earth acts
as a large magnet, upon all other magnets:
whence they naturally tend to conform to the
meridian or line which joins the poles of the
earth. And the dipping of the needle is readily
shown to arise from the vicinity, and consequent
stronger attraction of the pole towards which the
inclination is made.
The dipping needle, though of late much im-
proved, is still, however, far from perfect. The
general mode of constructing it is to pass an
axis quite through the needle, to let the extre-
mities of the axis, like those of the beam of a
balance, rest upon its supports, so that the nee-
dle may move itself vertically round, and, when
situated in the magnetic meridian, may place
itself in the magnetic line. When it is used at
sea it is suspended by a ring. When it is
placed upon a stand a spirit-level is attached
to it.
The greatest imperfection in this instrument
is in the balancing of the needle, and the diffi-
culty of ascertaining whether the needle retains
its equipoise. In observing the dip of the nee-
dle, at any particular place, the best method to
avoid the error arising from the want of balance
is, first to observe the dip of the needle, then to
reverse its magnetism, by the magnetic bars, so
that the end of the needle which before was ele-
vated above the horizon may now he below it;
and, lastly, to observe its dip again; for a mean
of the two observations will be pretty near the
truth, though the needle may not be perfectly
balanced.
From a series of numerous and accurate ex-
periments made by captain Sabine, he obtained
the following measures of the dip of the mag-
netic needle at London:—
By ten experiments with Tobias Mayer's
needle . . . . . 70°2'9”
By the times of oscillation in the magnetic
meridian, and in the plane perpen-
dicular to it. Mean by three
needles s tº e - . 70 40
By the times of vertical and horizontal
oscillation 73 2 6
Mean º . 703 2
Hence captain Sabine concludes, that 70°3'
was the mean dip of the needle at London, in
August and September 1821, within a few hours
of noon.
As the observations of Nairne and Cavendish
give 70°25' for the dip in 1774, we obtain 3' 02"
as the mean annual rate of diminution between
1774 and 1821. *
Taking Mr. Whiston's determination of the
dip in 1720 at 75° 10', which Mr. Cavendish
considered as accurate, the annual diminution is
3’ 05”.
Having thus illustrated the nature of the mag-
netic dip, it may now be advisable to notice
Biot's hypothesis, in which he attempts to d -
termine the law which regulates the inclination
of the needle in different parts of the globe.
M. Biot supposes two centres of attraction, or
northern and southern poles, situated at equal
distances from the centre of the earth, and in the
axis of the magnetic equator. He then calcu-
culated the effects which ought to result from the
action of these centres upon any point of the
earth's surface, assuming the attractive force in
the reciprocal ratio of the squares of the dis-
tances; and the result was, that the nearer these
assumed poles were brought to each other, the
more perfectly did the calculation agree with ex-
periment. * -
The following table of the magnetic dip in
the Pacific Ocean, north of the equator is too
important to be passed unnoticed :—
M A G N E T H S M. 427


By whom observed in 1776, Lat. Long. Dip. ||By whom observed in 1776, Lat. Long, Dip.
to 1780. N. E. N. end to 1780. N. E. N. end
O A O & O f Q A O Af G -
Cook, Dec. 23, 1777, O 44|203 05' 8" 42||Bayly, 44 51 229 2068 31
Bayly, Dec. 25, 1 571203 0011 29|Cook, March 16, 44 56 234 56.68. 19
Cook, Dec. 22, 1 58|203 00||11 54 March 19, 44 57 234 1067 20
Dec. 24, 2 02/202 56|10. 53||Bayly, Oct. 16, 1779, 45 08 154 10 57 28
Jan. 4, 1778, 4 08/203 16.16 16||Cook, Oct. 15, 46 30 156 01:57 10
Bayly, 4 50202 5515 40||Bayly, March 24, 1778, 47 44235 0070 00
Cook, Jan. 8, 7 |305 1323 oil Cook, Oct. 14, 1779, ' |43 17156 is 59 go
Jan. 9, 8 12.205 3423 37||Bayly, March 28, 1778, 49 27.233 5071 53
Bayly, Jan. 10, 10 31|205 0026 49|Cook, April 5, 1778, 49 36233 4772 35
Cook, Jan. 12, 12 17|204 3629 54||Bayly, April 20, 1779, 49 47,161 2360 55
Sept. 17, 1776, 12 40201 54|37 38 Oct. 12, 50 55,157 42.63 38
Jan, 12, 1779, 18 35|204 51|38 30 April 27, 52 22,159 23|64 57
Bayly, Jan. 15, 1778, 19 001201 1039 49|Cook, Sept. 15, 53 OO159 1463 O1
Cook, in Bay of Oeyhea, 19 28.204 00|40 32 June 7, 53 00159 14|63 O8
- Feb. 3, 1779, 19 28.204 0041 14||Bayly, Aug. 17, 53 50.168 41|66 03
March 26, 19 48|183 39.37 00 Oct. 3, . 53 54|194 OO!69 11
March 25, 19 57|184 4238 52||Cook, June 30, 53 54194 OO68 20
Bayly, March 25, 1779, 19 59|104 3538 47 Oct. 12, 1778, 53 55,196 00|69 23
Cook, March 21, 20 37|192 4341 25||Bayly, May 1, 54 40|225 00|73 34
Bayly, March 19, 21 12|194 40.42 10 Aug. 12, 1779, 55 24|171 3067 47
Cook, Jan. 18, 1778, 21 17|201 1842 10|Cook, June 18, 1778, 55 24.201 2070 57
Jan. 28, 21 21|200 3O42 23 June 21, 1779, 55 51|164 21|65 31
Bayly, Jan. 18, 21 46.201 00|42 36||Bayly, June 21, 56 02|164 40|66 40
Jan. 31, 21 47|200 2542 36 July 5, 1778, 56 31|199 30|71 01
Cook, March 6, 1779, 21 56|216 46|43 11 June 10, 57 10.207 55||73 49
April 2, 22 36||177 5038 00|Cook, July 14, 1780, 58 12|199 1572 22
Bayly, Feb. 13, 1778, 24 30199 44/45 43||Bayly, July 13, 1778, 58 12|198 48|73 06
Cook, Feb. 4, 24 31|200 00|45 52||Cook, May 14, 1780, 58 221221 22.75 26
Nov. 14, 1779, 24 36142 30|29 31||Bayly, Sept. 27, 58 38||189 O8||73 34
April 3, 24 38||175 51|38 52 May 5, 1778, 58 47|221 33|76 26
Bayly, Nov. 14, 24 50|141 2031 58||Cook, June 25, 1779, 59 O7|169 1768 25
Nov. 13, 25 56.143 4631 27 Aug. 7, 59 33|183 2071 25
April 5, 25 57|174 1743 10|Bayly, July 19, 1778, 59 37|197 45||73 03
Cook, Feb. 6, 1778, 27 41 |201 O0|49 42 June 27, 1779, 59 56|176 00|70 26
Bayly, Feb. 5, 27 43|200 3048 51|Cook, May 17, 1778, 6O 50|213 26||78 32
Cook, Feb. 8, 1778, 30 18201 37|51 25||Bayly, 6O 51 |213 O8|77 07
April 8, 1779, 30 39|167 34|42 55 May 31, 61 12|209 10|76 09
Bayly, 30 54|167 0243 35|Cook, June, 30, 1779, 61 48|181 0071 57
Feb. 9, 1778, 31 16|203 1853 47||Bayly, July 1, 61 52|182 1072 18
Feb. 14, 31 34|306 1753 10|Cook, July 3, 63 36||187 01 |74 12
April 9, 1779, 32 16|167 0943 47||Bayly, 63 42|188 00|74 59
Feb. 14, 1778, 31 35|206 4352 12||Cook, Aug. 2, - 64 03189 2076 07
Nov. 17, 32 26.207 30|54 54||Bayly, Sept 7, 1778, 64 2019.5 40|76 36
April 10, 1779, 33 30166 3045 37 Sept. 13, 64 21|198 30|76 58
Bayly, Nov. 15, 1778, 33 34,107 32|56 03||Cook, Aug. 1, 1779, 64 23|189 3276 O3
Cook, Nov. 7, 1779, 33 52|148 3542 50|| Sept. 13, 1778, 64 33|197 5076 25
Bayly, Feb. 17, 1778, 35 04206 30|56 53||Bayly, Aug. 5, 64 35|192 54.76 40
Nov. 1, 1779, 35 09142 1646 35 July 31, 1779, 65 09|189 57.76 17
Cook, Oct. 31, 35 30|142 2045 00 Aug. 11, 1778, 66 30|191 1377 10
Aug. 30, 36 41|142 2646 26 Sept. 2, 66 30|189 30.77 15
$. Feb. 18, 1778, 36 53206 3255 19|Cook, Aug. 13, 66 32.192 2777 07.
Cook, Nov. 28, 1779, 38 06|142 30|48 10 July 18, 1779, 67 08.189 4978.48
Bayly, Feb. 20, 1778, 38 10208 1559 32|Bayly, July 27, 67 30189 0778 15
Cook, Feb. 21, 39 06210 1559 15|Cook, July 10, 68 01188 45.78 30
Bayly, Oct. 26, 1779, 40 04|142 4451 34 July 9, 69. 12|188 35 79 00
Cook Oct. 22, 40 50|148 4751 53||Bayly, July 8 69 23|194 30 80 03
Feb. 22, 1778, 41 00215 4062 54 July 13, 69 26|188 48 80 05
Cook, Nov. 9, 1779, 41 40,147 0340 03|Cook, Aug. 26, 1778, 69 36||185 4479 35
Bayly, April 15, 41 53|160 10|53 58 July 14, 69 36,188 4579 00
Cook, April 16, 42 12160 1 1|53 34||Bayly, Aug. 26, 69 37|182 4079 04
April 17,. 43 18|158 67|54 15 July 17, 1779, 69 56,195 45,79 52
Bayly, Feb. 26, 1778, 43 20222 3065 48||Cook, Aug. 19, 70 06.197 0679 40
s March 6, 44 30|235 50|68 29|| July 18, 70 -26|196 22.79 58
Cook, March 1, 44 49.228 2967 25||Bayly, Aug. 18, 70 30|198 1581 46
428
M A G N E T 1 s M.
MAGNETISM, ANIMAL, a fancied sympathy said
by some persons to exist between the magnet
and the human body: by means of which the
former became capable of curing many diseases in
an unaccountable manner. The fanciful system, to
call it by no worse name, of animal magnetism,
appears to have originated in 1774, from a Ger-
man philosopher, named Father Hehl, who
greatly recommended the use of the magnet in
medicine. M. Mesmer, a physician of the same
country, by adopting the principles of Hehl, be-
came the direct founder of the system ; but
afterwards, deviating from the tenets of his in-
structor, he lost his patronage, as well as that
of Dr. Ingenhousz, which he had formerly enjoy-
ed. Mesmer had already distinguished himself
by A Dissertation on the Influence of the Stars
upon the Human Body, which he publicly de-
fended in a thesis before the university of Vienna;
but he was so unable to stand before the opposi-
tion of Hehl and Ingenhousa, that his system fell
almost instantly into disrepute. Mesmer ap-
pealed to the Academy of Sciences at Berlin;
but they rejected his principles as destitute of
foundation, and unworthy of the smallest atten-
tion. He then made a tour through Germany,
publishing every where the great cures he per-
formed by means of his animal magnetism, while
his opponents every where pursued him with de-
tections of the falsehood of his assertions. Mes-
mer, still undaunted by so many defeats, returned
to Vienna; but meeting there with no better
success than before, he retired to Paris in the
beginning of 1778. Here he met with a very
different reception. He was first patronised by
the author of thc Dictionnaire des Merveilles de
la Nature; in which work a great number of his
cures were published, Mesmer himself receiving
likewise an ample testimony of his candor and
solid reasoning. He soon collected patients, and,
in April 1778, retired with them to Cretail,
whence he in a short time returned with them
perfectly cured. His success was now as great
as his disappointment had been before. Patients
increased so rapidly, that he was soon obliged to
take in pupils to assist him in his operations.
These pupils succeeded as well as Mesmer him-
self; and so well did they take care of their own
emolument, that one of them, named M. Deslon,
realized upwards of £100,000 sterling. In 1779
Mesmer published a Memoir on Animal Mag-
netism, promising afterwards a complete work
upon the subject, which should make as great a
revolution in philosophy as it had already done
in medicine. The new system now gained
ground daily; and soon became so fashionable,
that the jealousy of the faculty was thoroughly
awakened, and an application concerning it was
made to government. In consequence of this, a
committee was appointed to enquire into the
matter, consisting partly of physicians, and
partly of members of the Royal Academy of
Sciences, with Dr. Benjamin Franklin at their
head. This was a thunderstroke to the supporters
of the new doctrine.—Mesmer himself refused
to have any communication with the committee;
but his most celebrated pupil Deslon was less
scrupulous, and explained the principles of his art
in the following manner: “1. Animal magnetism
is a universal fluid, constituting an absolute
plenum in nature, and the medium of all mutual
influence between the celestial bodies, and be-
twixt the earth and animal bodies. 2. It is the
most subtile fluid in nature; capable of a flux
and reflux, and of receiving, propagating, and
continuing all kinds of motion. 3. The animal
body is subjected to the influences of this fluid
by means of the nerves, which are immediately
affected by it. 4. The human body has poles
and other properties analogous to the magnet.
5. The action and virtue of animal magnetism
may be communicated from one body to another,
whether animate or inanimate. 6. It operates at
a great distance without the intervention of any
body. 7. It is increased and reflected by mir-
rors; communicated, propagated, and increased
by sound; and may be accumulated, concen-
trated, and transported. 8. Notwithstanding
the universality of this fluid, all animal bodies
are not equally affected by it; on the other hand,
there are some, though but few in number, the
presence of which destroys all the effects of ani-
mal magnetism. 9. By means of this fluid ner-
vous disorders are cured immediately, and others
mediately; and its virtues, in short, extend to
the universal cure and preservation of mankind.
From this extraordinary theory, Mesmer, or M.
Deslon, had fabricated a paper, in which he
stated that there was in nature but one disease
and one cure, and that this cure was animal
magnetism. To ascertain the truth of these as-
Sertions, the committee attended M. Deslon, in
the room where his patients underwent his mag-
netical operations. The apparatus consisted of a
circular platform made of oak, one foot and a
half high; with a number of holes at the top, in
which were iron rods with moveable joints, for
the purpose of applying them to any part of the
body. The patients were placed in a circle
around it, each touching one of these rods, and
joined to one another by a cord passing round
their bodies. Each of them held an iron rod in
his hand ten or twelve feet long, to concentrate
the magnetism. M. Deslon also called in the
aid of music from a piano-forte: on which some
airs were played, accompanied with songs;
alleging that music is a conductor of animal
magnetism, which is transmitted to the patients
by the sounds. The internal part of the platform
was said to concentrate the magnetism, and was
the reservoir whence the virtue was diffused
among the patients. The committee satisfied
themselves, by means of a needle and electro-
meter, that neither common magnetism nor elec-
tricity was concerned. Deslon also communicated
the magnetism by his finger, and a rod which he
held in his hand, and which he carried about the
face, head, or such parts of the patient as were
diseased. His principal application, however,
was by pressure of his hands or fingers on the
lower regions of the stomach. The effects of
these operations upon his patients were very dif-
ferent. Some felt nothing; others spit, coughed,
perspired, and felt, or pretended to feel, extraor-
dinary heats in different parts of the body.
Many women, but very few men, had convul-
sions, which Deslon called their crisis, &c. The
commissioners at last finding they could come to
MAG
MAG
29
no satisfactory conclusion, while they attended
in this public way, determined to try the experi-
ments themselves privately. Accordingly, they,
1. Tried the effects of animal magnetism upon
themselves, and felt nothing. 2. Seven of Des-
lon's patients were magnetised at Dr. Franklin's
house, of whom four felt nothing; three felt, or
affected to feel something. 3. Several persons
in a higher sphere of life were magnetised, and
felt nothing. 4. The commissioners now deter-
mined to discover what share imagination had
in this business, blindfolded several of the com-
mon people, and made them sometimes think
that they were magnetised; at other times they
magnetised them without letting them know that
they did so ; the consequence was, that when
they supposed themselves magnetised, they like-
wise thought they felt something, and vice verså.
5. A magnetised tree was said to produce con-
vulsions; a young man, blindfolded, fell into
convulsions, when he imagined himself near the
tree, though he was really at a considerable dis-
tance from it. Deslon accounted for this on the
principle of all trees being magnetic; but in this
case, every one, susceptible of magnetism, would
be seized with convulsions when he approached :
a tree. The same influence of imagination was
observed in a woman accustomed to have con-
vulsions when magnetised. They came on when
nothing was done to her, on being told, when
blinded, that she was magnetised. Other in-
stances were given, from which it was evident,
either that the patients were impostors, or in
such a wretched state of debility, both of mind or
body, that the most trifling effects of the former
had the most powerful effects on the latter. The
commissioners therefore entirely disapproved of
the whole. The touch, imitation, and imagina-
tion, they concluded, were the great causes of
the effects produced by M. Deslon's operations;
and by means of these they supposed that con-
vulsions, which in themselves are a very violent
disorder, might be spread much farther than
could be wished, even through a whole city. It
was observed, that the operator sometimes press-
ed strongly, and for a long time, upon the hypo-
chondria and pit of the stomach; and it is well
known, that a strong pressure on these parts will
produce disagreeable sensations in those who
2njoy perfect health. Mesmer complained of the
report of the commissioners, petitioned parlia-
ment, and was by them commanded to discover
he mysteries of his doctrine; which is now uni-
rersally exploded. The conclusion of the aca-
lemicians concerning it was, that it is not entire-
y useless to philosophy; as it affords one fact .
more to be added to the history of the errors and
llusions of the human mind, and a signal in-
tance of the power of imagination.
MAGNIEZ (Nicholas), a learned and labori-
us ecclesiastic, who died in 1749 at an advanced
ge. He compiled an excellent Latin dic-
ionary, entitled Novitius, printed at Paris 1721
nd 1733; 2 vols. 4to. This dictionary, besides
lassical words, contains all those which occur
n the Bible, the breviary, and ecclesiastical au-
hors, the terms of art, the names of great men,
ishops, councils, heresies, &c.; in short, more
han 6000 words which are not to be found in
he common dictionaries. -
MAG’NIFY, v. a. \
MAGNIFI’ABLE, adj.
Lat. magnifico, mag-
nificus, magnificentia,
MAGNIFICAL, magnitudo ; Fr. mag
MAGNIF'Ic, * nifier, , magnificence
MAGNIF'ICENCE, n.s. ºftus ; Ital. ar
MAGNIF'ICENT, adj. Port. magnificenza ;
MAGNIFICENTLY, adv. Span. magnificencia ;
MAGNIF'Ico, n. S. Ital. Span. and Port.
MAG'NIFIER, } magnifico. To make
MAG’NITUDE. J great; exalt; elevate;
increase in apparent bulk or size: hence to am-
plify; exaggerate; praise; extol : magnifical and
magnific mean grand; great; illustrious: magnifi-
cence, grandeur; splendid appearance: the adjec-
tive and adverb, magnificent and magnificently,
correspond: magnifico is an Italian title, , a
grandee of Venice: a magnifier, a medium or in-
strument of magnifying, as a particular kind of
glass; also an encomiast, one who praises or ex-
tols: magnitude is greatness; bulk; grandeur.
For thei drawen abrood her falateries and magny-
fien hemmes, and thei loven the firste sittynge placis
in Soperis. Wicliff. Matt. xxiii.
The house that is to be builded for the Lord must
be exceeding magnifical, of fame and glory throughout
all countries. 1 Chron. xxii. 5.
If ye will magnify yourselves against me, know
now that God hath overthrown me. Job xix. 5.
He shall magnify himself in his heart.
& Dan. viii. 5.
He shall exalt and magnify himself above every
god. - Daniel.
Provision is the foundation of hospitality; and
thrift the fuel of magnificence. Sir P. Sidney.
The duke himself, and the magnificoes
Of greatest port, have all proceeded with him.
- * Shakspeare.
This tree hath no extraordinary magnitude, touch-
ing the trunk or stem; it is hard to find any one
bigger than the rest. , Raleigh.
The ambassador, making his oration, did so mag-
nify the king and queen, as was enough to glut the
hearers. Bacon.
Never repose so much upon any man's single coun-
sel, fidelity, and discretion, in managing affairs of
the first magnitude, that is, matters of religion and
justice, as to create in yourself, or others, a diffidence
of your own judgment. King Charles.
The prodigal man, while he spendeth, is magnified;
when he is spent, is pitied : and that is all his recom-
pence for his lavished patrimony. Bp. Hall.
They magnified their own services; That having
found the kingdom groaning under these difficulties,
which seemed to be insuperable, they had by the di-
vine providence overcome them all. Clarendon.
He with plain heroick magnitude of mind,
And celestial vigour armed,
Their armories and magazines contemns. Milton.
When I behold this goodly frame, this world,
Of heaven and earth consisting; and compute
Their magnitudes; this earth, a spot, a grain.
An atom, with the firmament compared. Id.
Greater now in thy return,
Than from the giant-angels; thee that day
Thy thunders magnified; but to create I.
Is greater than created to destroy.
Not Babylon,
Nor great Alcairo, such magnificence
Equalled in all her glories to inshrine
Belus or Serapis, their gods; or seat.
Their kings, when Egypt with Assyria strove
In wealth and luxury. Id. Paradise Lost.
MAG
MAG
430
Man he made, and for him built
Magnificent this world. Id.
Thrones, dominations, princedoms, virtues, powers!
If these magnifick titles yet remain,
Not merely titular. Id.
Can so magnificent and so massy a fabric of com-
mendation stand firm upon such foundations as these?
\ Barrow.
Number, though wonderful in itself, and sufficiently
"magnifiable from its demonstrable affection, hath yet
received adjections from the multiplying conceits of
IIlêI). Browne’s Vulgar Errours.
The primitive magnifiers of this star were the
Egyptians, who notwithstanding chiefly regarded it
in relation to their river Nilus. - Browne.
If he were magnificent, he spent with an aspiring
intent: if he spared, he heaped with an aspiring in-
tent. Sidney.
Convince the world that you're devout and true;
Whatever be you're birth, you're sure to be
A peer of the first magnitude to me. Dryden.
Beauty a monarch is,
Which kingly power magnificently proves, -
By crowds of slaves and peopled empires loves. Id.
How these red globules would appear, if glasses
could be found that could magnify them a thousand
times more, is uncertain. , Locke.
It is suitable to the magnificent harmony of the
universe, that the species of creatures should, by
gentle degrees, ascend upward from us toward his
perfection, as we see they gradually descend from us
downwards. - † Id.
We can never conceive too highly of Göd; so nei-
ther too magnificently of nature, his handy work.
Grew's Cosmologia.
My governess assured my father I had wanted for
nothing; that I was almost eaten up with the green
sickness: but this magnified but little with my father.
* Spectator.
One may observe more splendour and magnificence
in particular persons' houses in Genoa, than in those
that belong to the publick. Addison on Italy. ,
Immortal glories in my mind revive,
When Rome's exalted beauties I descry,
Magnificent in piles of ruin lie. Addison.
Conceive these particles of bodies to be so disposed
amongst themselves, that the intervals of empty
spaces between them may be equal in magnitude to
them all; and that these particles may be composed
of other particles much smaller, which have as much
empty space between them as equals all the magni-
tudes of these smaller particles. Newton.
By true reflection I could see my face;
Why brings the fool a magnifying glass?
Granville.
The greatest magnifying glasses in the world are
a man's eyes, when they look upon his own person.
Pope.
As things seem large which we through mists
descry, -
Dulness is ever apt to magnify.
- Pope's Essay on Criticism.
By nature’s hand magnificently fed,
His meal is on the range of mountains spread.
Young.
As a glass, which magnifies objects by the approach
of one end to the eye, lessens them by the application
of the other, so vices are extenuated by the inversion
of that fallacy by which virtues are augmented.
Johnson.
Less worthy of applause, though more admired,
Because a novelty, the work of man,
Imperial mistress of the fur-clad Russ,
Thy most magnificent and mighty freak,
The wonder of the North. Cowper.
underneath.
MAGNISA, anciently Magnesia, a town of
Asia Minor, once the capital of the Greek em-
pire, is situated at the foot of a lofty mountain.
Its environs were formerly celebrated for the pro-
duction of loadstone, and so have given it the
name of MAGNET, which see. It is a large and
populous town, chiefly inhabited by Turks.
Twenty miles N. N. E. of Smyrna. -
MAGNOLIA, the laurel-leaved tulip' tree, in
botany, a genus of the polygynia order, and po-
lyandria class of plants: natural order fifty-
second, coadnatae: CAL. triphyllous; petals nine:
CAPS. bivalved and imbricated: SEED pendulous,
and in the form of a berry. Species thirteen.
1. M. acuminata, with oval spear-shaped
pointed leaves, is a native of the inland parts of
North America. The leaves are near eight inches
long, and five broad; ending in a point. The
flowers come out early in spring, and are com-
posed of twelve white petals; the wood is of a
fine grain, and an orange color.
2. M. glauca, the small magnolia, is a native
of Virginia, Carolina, and other parts of North
America. In moist places it rises from seven or
eight to fifteen or sixteen feet high, with a slen.
der stem. The wood is white and spongy; the
bark smooth, and of a greenish-white color; the
branches garnished with thick smooth leaves, ol
an oval shape, smooth on their edges, and white
The flowers, produced at the ex-
tremities of the branches, are white, composed
of six concave petals, and have an agreeable
scent. The fruit increases in size till it becomes
as large as a walnut with its cover; but of a co-
nical shape, having many cells round the outside,
in each of which is a flat seed about the size of a
small kidney-bean, and of a brown color. The
seeds are discharged from their cells, and hang
by a slender thread. This species generally grows
in a poor swampy soil, or on wet meadows. The
English and Swedes in Pennsylvania and New
Jersey call it beaver tree, because the root of i
is the food of beavers, which are caught by its
means. It drops its leaves early in autumn
though some of the young trees keep them all the
winter. It is seldom found north of Pennsylva
nia, where it begins to flower about the end o
May. The scent of its blossoms is exquisite
and may be perceived at the distance of three
quarters of an English mile. They retain thei
flowers for three weeks, or longer, according tº
the soil, spreading their odoriferous exhalations
The berries likewise look very handsome, having
a rich red color, and hanging in bunches on slen
der stalks. They are greatly extolled for thei
salutary effects in consumptions. The bark pri
into brandy, or boiled in any liquor, is said t
give great relief in cases of cold.
3. M. grandiflora, the great magnolia, is a na
tive of Florida and South Carolina. It rises t
the height of about eighty feet, with a straigh
trunk above two feet in diameter, and a regula
head. The leaves resemble those of the laure
but are larger, and continue green throughou
the year. The flowers are produced at the ent
of the branches, and are of a purplish whi
color.
4. M. tripetala, the umbrella tree, is a n
tive of Carolina. It rises with a slender trun
M A H. O. M. E. T.
431
to sixteen or twenty feet; the wood is soft and
spongy; the leaves very large, and produced in
horizontal circles, somewhat resembling an um-
brella; whence the inhabitants of those countries
have given it this name. The flowers are com-
posed of ten or eleven white petals, hanging
down without order. The leaves drop off at the
beginning of winter. All these species are pro-
pagated by seeds, which must be procured from
the places where they grow naturally. They
should be put up in sand, and sent over as soon
as possible; for they seldom grow if long kept
Out of the ground.
, MAGNUS (Albertus), a Dominican friar,
afterwards bishop of Ratisbon, was one of the
most learned men and most famous doctors of
the thirteenth century. He is said to have acted
as a man mid-wife. A book entitled De Naturá
Rerum, of which he was the reputed author,
gave rise to this report. Albertus Magnus was
a man of a most inquisitive turn of mind, which
gave rise to other accusations; such as, that he
labored to find out the philosopher's stone; that
he was a magician; and that he made a machine
in the shape of a man, which was an oracle to
him, and explained all the difficulties he pro-
posed. IIe died at Cologne, November 15th,
1280. His works were printed at Lyons, in
1651, in 21 vols. folio.
MAGNUs (John), archbishop of Upsal, was
born at Linkioping in 1488. Being made apos-
tolical nuncio, he used his utmost endeavours to
prevent Gustavus Vasa from becoming king of
Sweden, and the consequent introduction of
Lutheranism into his dominions.
Rome in 1545. He wrote a History of Sweden,
and a History of the Archbishops and Bishops
of Upsal.
MAGNUs (Olaus), archbishop of Upsal, suc-
ceeded his brother in 1544. He appeared at the
council of Trent in 1546, and suffered much af-
terwards for the Catholic religion. He wrote a
History of the Manners, Customs, and Wars of
the Northern Nations of Europe.
MAGNUs BAY (St.), a commodious bay of the
mainland of Shetland, with good anchorage and
from seven to twenty-two fathoms of water.
MAGPIE, n.s. Lat. pie, pica, and mag, con-
tracted from Margaret, as phil is used for a spar-
row, and poll for a parrot.—Johnson. Mr.
Thomson says from masculus pica. A bird some-
times taught to talk.
Augurs, that understood relations, have
By *:::::: and by choughs, and rooks, brought
Orth
The secretest man of blood. Shakspeare. Macbeth.
Dissimulation is expressed by a lady wearing a
wizard of two faces, in her right hand a magpie, which
Spenser described looking through a lattice.
Peacham on Drawing.
So have I seen in black and white,
A prating thing, a magpie hight,
Majestically stalk;
A stately worthless animal,
That plies the tongue, and wags the tail,
All flutter, pride, and talk. Swift.
MAGPIE. See CoRVUs.
MAHABALEPURAM, a town of the Car-
natic, Hindostan, near which are the celebrated
ruins of the Seven Pagodas, dedicated to Vishnu.
Several of them are cut out of isolated rocks, and
He died at .
covered with images. On an adjoininghill is anim-
portant statue of Vishnu, cut out of the solid rock,
in a recumbent posture, with a huge snake folded
round him. The town is said to have extended
many miles to the eastward, into what is now co-
vered by the sea. Long. 78° 18' E., lat. 12°
23° N.
MAHANTANGO, a river of the United
States, in Pennsylvania, running west into the
Susquehannah, eighteen miles below Sunbury.
—There is another of the same name, which
runs east into the Susquehannah, two miles
above. - -
MAHANTANGo, a township of the United
States, in Northumberland county, Pennsylvania.
Population 1605.
MAHE, a neat trading town of Malabar, is
situated a short distance from Tellichery, on the
south side of a river where it joins the sea, and
which is navigable for large boats. Small vessels
can cross the bar, and find a secure, harbour.
This place was taken by the French in 1722, and
by the British in 1761. It was restored at the
peace of Paris, but again taken by the British
in 1793, and retained. It is now the station of
the East India Company's commercial agent; the
trade is in pepper. Long, 75° 38' E., lat. 11°
42' N.
MAHMOODSHI, an extensive district of
Bengal, on the southern bank of the Ganges. It
is intersected by innumerable branches of that
river, and contains several towns. The mulberry
tree is cultivated, and some silk-worms bred here;
but its staple commodity is rice.
MAHIE, the name given by the inhabitants
of Otaheite, or George's Island, to their bread-
fruit when made into a kind of sour paste, which,
in eonsequence of having undergone a fermenta-
tion, will keep a considerable time, and supply
them with food when no ripe fruit is to be had.
When, therefore, they see a great show of new
fruit on the trees, they strip them all at once of
their former crop, of which they make mahie.
This succedaneum for ripe bread-fruit is thus
made. They gather the fruit before it is per-
fectly ripe, and laying it in heaps cover it closely
with leaves. In this state it ferments, and be-
comes disagreeably sweet; the core is then taken
out entire, and the rest of the fruit thrown into a
hole in their houses, dug on purpose, and neatly
lined in the bottom and sides with grass. The
whole is then covered with leaves, and heavy
stones are laid upon them. In this state it un-
dergoes a second fermentation, and becomes sour,
after which it will suffer no change for many
months. It is taken out of this hole, as it is
wanted for use; and, being made into balls, it is
wrapped up into leaves and baked, and thus
dressed it will keep for five or six weeks.
MAHOMET, or Mohawm ED, the celebrated
Arabian prophet, and founder of the Mahom-
medan religion, was born in the reign of Anu-
shirwan the Just, emperor of Persia, A. D. 571.
His father Abdallah was a younger son of Abdal-
motalleb; and, dying very young, left his widow
and infant son in narrow circumstances, his whole
property consisting but of five camels and one
female slave. Abdalmotalleb was therefore
obliged to take care of his grandchild, which he
not only did during his life, but at his death en-
432 M A H O M E T.
joined his eldest son Abu Taleb, brother to Ab-
dallah, to provide for him afterwards. This he
very affectionately did, and instructed him in the
business of a merchant, for which purpose he
took him to Syria when he was only thirteen.
He afterwards recommended him to Khadijah, a
rich widow, for her factor ; in whose service he
behaved so well, that she married and raised
him to an equality with the richest in Mecca.
According to the tradition of his companions,
Mahomet was distinguished by the graces of his
person and manners, so that before he spoke he
engaged in attachment and interest the affections
of a public or private audience. His attendants
applauded his commanding presence, his majestic
aspect, his piercing eye, his gracious smile, his
flowing beard, his countenance that painted every
sensation of the soul, and each gesture that en-
forced every expression of his tongue. In
the intercourse of private life he blended,
with respectful attention to the affluent and pow-
erful, condescension and affability to the poorest
citizens of Mecca; the frankness of his manner
concealed the artifice of his views; and the
habits of courtesy were imputed to personal
friendship or personal benevolence. His memory
was capacious and retentive; his wit easy and
Social ; his imagination sublime; his judgment
clear, rapid, and decisive. He possessed, says
one of his biographers, the courage both of
thought and action; and, although his designs
might probably expand with his success, the first
idea which he entertained of his divine mission
bears the stamp of an original and superior ge-
nius. Educated amidst the noblest race, he ac-
quired a fluency of speech in the purest dialect of
Arabia; and he had the art, on proper occasions,
of observing a discreet silence. Notwithstanding
all these accomplishments, he was an illiterate
barbarian; insomuch that his youth had never
been instructed in the arts of reading and writ-
ing. After his advantageous match he first con-
ceived the scheme of establishing a new religion,
or, as he expressed it, of replanting the only true
and ancient one professed by Adam, Noah, Abra-
ham, Moses, Jesus, and all the prophets; by
destroying the gross idolatry into which, ſhe gene-
rality of his countrymen had fallen, and weeding
out the corruptions and superstitions which the
Jews and Christians had, as he said, introduced
into their religion, and reducing it to its original
purity, which consisted chiefly in the worship of
one God. But, before he made any attempt
abroad, he resolved to begin with the conversion
of his own household. Having therefore retired
with his family, as he had done several times be-
fore, to a cave in Mount Hara, he there opened
the secret of his mission to his wife; and acquainted
her, that the angel Gabriel had appeared to
him, and appointed him the apostle of God:
he also repeated to her a passage which he pre-
tended had been revealed to him by the angel,
with those other circumstances of this first ap-
pearance, which are related by the Mahommedan
writers. Khadijah received the news with great
joy; and immediately communicated what she
had heard to her cousin Warakah Ebn Nawfal,
who, being a Christian, was tolerably well versed
in the scriptures, and soon became a believer, as-
suring her that the same angel who had formerly
appeared unto Moses was now sent to Mahomet.
The first overture the prophet made was in the
month of Ramadan, in the fortieth year of his
age, which is therefore usually called the year of
his mission. He soon made proselytes of those
under his own roof, viz. his servant Zeid Ebn
Haretha, to whom he gave his freedom on that
occasion ; and his cousin and pupil Ali, the son
of Abu Taleb, though then very young; who
was styled the first of believers. The next person
Mahomet applied to was Abdallah Ebn Abi
Kohafa, surnamed Abu Becr, a man of great au-
thority among the Koreish, and one whose
interest he knew would be of great service, as it
soon appeared: for Abu Becr, being converted,
prevailed on Othman Ebn Affan, Abdalraham
Ebn Awf, Saad Ebn Abbi Wakkas, al Zobeir
Ebn al Awam, and Telha Ebn Obeidallah, all
principal men of Mecca, to follow his example.
These men were the six chief companions, who
with a few more were converted in three years: at
the end of which Mahomet, having as he hoped a
sufficient interest to support him, made his mis-
sion no longer a secret, but gave out that God
had commanded him to admonish his near rela-
tions; and, to do it with greater prospect of suc-
cess, he directed Ali to prepare an entertainment
and invite the sons and descendants of Abdal-
motaleb, intending then to open his mind to
them. This was done, and about forty of them
came ; when he announced his mission, and
offered them happiness both in this life and
in that which is to come. “Who, therefore,’
said he, “among you will be assistant to me'
herein, and become my brother, and my vice-
gerent?’ All of them hesitating, Ali rose up and
declared that he would be his assistant; and ve-
hemently threatened those who should oppose
him. Mahomet upon this embraced Ali, and
desired all who were present to obey him as
his deputy; at which the company broke out into
laughter, and told Abu Taleb that he must now
pay obedience to his son. This repulse, however,
was so far from discouraging Mahomet, that he
began to preach in public to the people; who
heard him with patience till he began to upbraid
them with their idolatry, obstinacy, and perverse-
mess; which highly provoked them. The chief
of the Koreish warmly solicited Abu Taleb to
desert his nephew, remonstrated against the in-
novations he was attempting, and threatened
him with an open rupture, if he did not prevail
on Mahomet to desist. On this Abu Taleb
earnestly dissuaded his nephew from pursuing
the affair any farther, representing the great dan-
ger he and his friends must otherwise run. But
Mahomet told his uncle plainly, that if they set
the sun against him on his right hand, and the
moon on his left, he would not abandon his en-
terprise: and Abu Taleb, seeing him so firmly
resolved to proceed, promised to support him
against all opposition. The Koreish then tried
what they could do by force, using Mahomet's
followers so cruelly, that it was not safe for them
to continue at Mecca: whereupon Mahomet
gave leave to such of them as had not friends to
protect them to seek for refuge elsewhere. . And
accordingly, in the fifth year of his mission,
M A H O M E T.
433
twelve men and four women fled into Ethiopia;
among whom were Othman Ebn Assan and his
wife Rakiah, Mahomet's daughter. This was
the first flight; but afterwards they were followed
by eighty-three men and eighteen women, besides
children. These refugees were kindly received
by the Najashi, or king of Ethiopia; who refused
to deliver them up to the Koreish, and, as the
Arab writers unanimously attest, professed the
Mahommedan religion. In the sixth year of his
mission, Mahomet had the pleasure of seeing his
party strengthened by the conversion of his uncle
Hamza, a man of great valor and merit; and of
Omar Ebn al Kattab, a person highly esteemed,
and once a violent opposer of the prophet.
Islamism now made so great a progress among
the Arab tribes, that the Koreish to suppress it
effectually, in the seventh year of Mahomet's,
mission, made a solemn league against the
Hashemites and the family of Abdalmotaleb, en-
gaging themselves to contract no marriages with
any of them, and to have no communication
with them; and, to give it the greater sanction,
reduced it into writing, and laid it up in the
Caaba. Upon this the tribe became divided into
two factions: and the family of Hashem all re-
paired to Abu Taleb as their head: excepting
only Abdal Uzza, surnamed Abu Laheb, who,
out' of hatred to his nephew and his doctrine,
went over to the opposite party, whose chief was
Abu Sosian Ebn Harb, of the family of Ommeya.
The families continued thus at variance for three
years: but, in the tenth year of his mission,
Mahomet informed Abu Taleb, that God had ma—
nifestly showed his disapprobation of the league
which the Koreish had made against them, by
sending a worm to eat out every word of the in-
strument except the name of God. Of this acci-
dent Mahomet had probably some private notice;
for Abu Taleb went immediately to the Koreish
and acquainted them with it; offering, ifit proved
false, to deliver his nephew up to them; but, in
case it were true, he insisted that they ought to
lay aside their animosity, and annul the league
they had made against the Hashemites. To this
they acquiesced; and, going to inspect the wri-
ting, to their great astonishment found it to be as
Abu Taleb had said: and the league was there-
upon declared void. In the same year Abu
Taleb died, aged above eighty; and many wri-
ters say he died an infidel: though others assert,
that when he was at the point of death he em-
braced Mahommedanism; and in proof of this
produce some passages out of his poetical com-
positions. About a month, or as some write,
hree days after his uncle's death, Mahomet had
he additional mortification to lose his wife Kha-
lijah; whence this year is called the year of
mourning.
hostile than ever to the prophet, and especially
ome who had formerly been his intimate friends;
nsomuch that he found himself obliged to seek
or shelter elsewhere, and first pitched upon
[ayef, about sixty miles east of Mecca, for the
5lace of his retreat. Thither therefore he went,
|ccompanied by his servant Zied, and applied
timself to two of the chief of the tribe of Thakif,
who were the inhabitants of that place; but they
eceived him very coldly. He however staid
Vol. XIII.
The Koreish began now to be more
there a month; but the slaves and inferior peo-
ple rose against him, and obliged him to return
to Mecca, where he put himself under the pro-
tection of Al Motaam Ebn Adi. This repulse
greatly discouraged his followers. However,
Mahomet boldly continued to preach to the pub.
lic assemblies at the pilgrimage, and gained
several proselytes; and among them six of the
inhabitants of Yathreb of the Jewish tribe of
Khazraj; who, on their return home, failed not
to speak much in commendation of their new
religion, and exhorted their fellow citizens to em-
brace it. In the twelfth year of his mission
Mahomet gave out that he had made his miracu-
lous night journey from Mecca to Jerusalem, and
thence to heaven. Dr. Prideaux thinks he in-
vented it either to answer the expectations of
those who demanded some miracle as a proof of
his mission; or else, by pretending to have con-
versed with God, to establish the authority of
whatever he should think fit to leave behind by
way of oral tradition, and make his sayings to
serve the same purpose as the oral law of the Jews.
But it does not appear that Mahomet himself
ever expected so great a regard should be paid
to his sayings as his followers have since done:
and, seeing he all along disclaimed any power of
performing miracles, it seems rather to have been
a stroke of policy to raise his reputation, by pre-
tending to have actually conversed with God in
heaven, as Moses had heretofore done in the
mount, and to have received several institutions
immediately from him, whereas before he con-
tented himself with persuading them that he had
all by the ministry of Gabriel. However this
story seemed so absurd and incredible, that
several of his followers left him upon it; and it
might probably have injured rather than benefited
his cause, had not Abu Becr vouched for his ve-
racity, and declared, that, if Mahomet affirmed
it to be true, he verily believed the whole. This
retrieved the prophet's credit, and contributed to
raise his reputation to that great height to which
it afterwards arrived. In this year, called by the
Mahommedans the accepted year, twelve men of
Yathreb or Medina, came to Mecca, and took an
oath of fidelity to Mahomet at Akaba, a hill on
the north of that city. This oath was called the
woman's oath; not that any women were present
at this time, but because it was the same oath
that was afterwards exacted of the women, viz.
That they should renounce all idolatry; and they
should not steal, nor commit fornication, nor
kill their children (as the Pagan Arabs used to
do when they apprehended they should not be
able to maintain them); nor forge calumnies;
and that they should obey the prophet in all
things that were reasonable. When they had
solemnly engaged to all this, Mahomet sent one
of his disciples, named Masab Ebn Omair, home
with them, to instruct them more fully in his
new religion. Masab being arrived at Medina,
by the assistance of those who had been formerly
converted, gained several proselytes, so that
there was scarcely a house wherein there were not
some who had embraced Mahometanism. In the
thirteenth year of Mahomet's mission, Masao
returned to Mecca, accompanied by seventy-
three men and two women of Medina who had
2 F
434
M A H O M E. T.
professed Islamism, besides some others who
were as yet unbelievers. On their arrival they
immediately sent to Mahomet, and offered him
their assistance, of which he was now in great
need; for his adversaries were by this time
grown so powerful in Mecca, that he could not
stay there without imminent danger. Wherefore
he accepted their proposal, and met them by .
night at Akaba, attended by his uncle Abbas ;
wherein he told them, that as Mahomet was
obliged to quit his native city, and seek an asy-
lum elsewhere, and they had offered him their
protection, they would do well not to deceive
him; that, if they were not firmly resolved to de-
fend and not to betray him, they had better let
him provide for his safety in some other manner.
Upon their protesting their sincerity, Mahomet
swore to be faithful to them, on condition that
they should protect him against all insults as
heartily as they would their own wives and
families. They then asked what recompence
they were to expect if they should happen to be
killed in his quarrel; he answered, Paradise.
Whereupon they pledged their faith to him, and
so returned home; after Mahomet had chosen
twelve of their number, who were to have the
same authority among them as the twelve apos-
tles of Christ had among his disciples.
Mahomet having provided for the security of
his companions as well as of himself, by the
league offensive and defensive which he con-
cluded with those of Medina, directed them to
repair thither, which they accordingly did; but
he himself with Abu Becr and Ali staid behind.
The Koreish, fearing the consequence of this new
alliance, began to think it absolutely necessary
to prevent Mahomet's escape to Medina; and,
having held a council, came to a resolution that
he should be killed; and agreed that a man
should be chosen out of every tribe for the
execution of this design; and that each man
should have a blow at him with his sword, that
the guilt, of his blood might fall equally on all
the tribes, to whose united power the Hashemites
were much inferior, and therefore durst not at-
tempt to revenge their kinsman's death. This
conspiracy was scarcely formed, when the news
of it reached Mahomet, who gave out that it was
revealed to him by the angel Gabriel, who or-
dered him to retire to Medina. Whereupon, in
order to amuse his enemies, he directed Ali to
lie down in his place, and wrap himself up in
his green cloak, which he did; and Mahomet
escaped to Abu Becr's house, unperceived by
the conspirators, who had already assembled at
the prophet's door. They, in the mean time,
looking through the crevice, and seeing Ali, whom
they took to be Mahomet himself, asleep, con-
tinued watching till morning, when Ali arose,
and they found themselves deceived. From Abu
Becr's house Mahomet and he went to a cave in
mount Thur, south-east of Mecca. In this cave
they lay hid three days to avoid their enemies,
whom they very narrowly escaped: for some say
that the Koreish were struck with blindness, so
that they could not find the cave; others, that
after Mahomet and his companions had entered,
two pigeons laid their eggs at the entrance, and
a spider covered the mouth of the cave with her
web, which made them look no farther. “We are
only two, said the trembling Abu Becr: There
is a third,' replied the prophet, “it is God himself.'
Their enemies having retired, they left the cave,
and set out for Medina by aby-road; and, having
fortunately escaped some who were sent to pursue
them, arrived safely at that city, whither Ali fol-
lowed them in three days. The first thing Maho-
met did after his arrival at Medina was to build a
temple for worship, and a house for himself, which
he did on a parcel of ground which belonged to
Sahal and Soheil, the orphan sons of Amru. Ma-
hometan writers say that the young men in-
sisted he would accept the ground as a present;
while others affirm that he actually bought it,
and that the money was paid by Abu Becr.
Mahomet, being thus settled at Medina, began
to send out small parties to make reprisals on the
Koreish; the first consisting of only nine men, who
plundered a caravan belonging to that tribe, and
took two prisoners. But what established his
reputation, and laid the foundation of his suc-
ceeding greatness, was the battle of Bedr, fought
in the second year of the Hegira. Some reckon
no less than twenty-seven expeditions in which
Mahomet was personally present, in nine of
which he gave battle, besides several others in
which he was not present. His forces he main-
tained partly by the contributions of his fol-
lowers, which he called Zacat, or alms, and the
paying of which he made an article of his reli-
gion; and partly by ordering one-fifth of the
plunder to be brought into the public treasury
for that purpose. In a few years, by the success
of his arms, he considerably raised his credit and
power. In the sixth year of the Hegira he set
out with 1400 men to visit the temple of Mecca,
not with any intention of committing hosti-
lities, but in a peaceable manner. However,
when he came to Hodeibiya, which is partly
within and partly without the sacred territory,
the Koreish sent to let him know that they would
not permit him to enter Mccea; whereupon he
resolved to attack the city; but the people of
Mecca sending Arwa Ebn Masud, prince of
the tribe of Thakif, as their ambassador, to desire
peace, a truce was concluded for ten years, by
which any person was allowed to enter into
league either with Mahomet, or with the Koreish,
as he thought fit. The veneration which the Ma-
hometans had by this time for their prophet, ap-
pears from the account which the above-mentioned
ambassador gave the Koreish of the extraordinary
respect which they showed him. In the seventh
year of the Hegira, Mahomet began to think of
propagating his religion beyond the bounds of
Arabia; and sent messengers to the neighbouring
princes, with letters inviting them to embrace
his doctrine. Nor was this project without some
success. Khosru Parviz, then king of Persia,
received his letter with great disdain, and tore
it in a passion, sending away the messenger very
abruptly; which when Mahomet heard, he said,
God shall tear his kingdom: and soon after a
messenger came to Mahomet from Badhan, king
of Yemen, who was a dependent on the Per-
sians, to acquaint him that he had received orders
to send him to Khosru. Mahomet put off his
answer till the next morning, and then told the
messenger it had been revealed to him that night
that Khosru was slain by his son Shiruyeh; add-
M A H O M E T.
43.5
ing that he was well assured his new religion
and empire would rise to as great a height as
that of Khosru; and therefore bid him advise
his master to embrace Mahometanism. The
messenger being returned, Badhan in a few days
received a letter from Shiruyeh, informing him
of his father's death, and ordering him to give
the prophet no further disturbance: on which
Badhan and the Persians with him embraced
Mahometanism. The emperor Heraclius, as the
Arabian historians assure us, received Mahomet's
letter with great respect, laying it on his pillow,
and dismissed the bearer honorably. Mahomet
wrote to the same effect to the king of Ethiopia,
though he had been converted before, according
to the Arab writers; and to Mokawkas, governor
of Egypt, who gave the messenger a very favor-
able reception, and sent several valuable presents
to Mahomet, and among the rest two girls, one
of whom, named Mary, became a great favorite
with him. He also sent letters of the like pur-
port to several Arab princes, with varied suc-
cess. . The eighth year of the Hegira was a
very fortunate year to Mahomet. In the begin-
ning of it Khaled Ebn al Walid and Amru Ebn
al As, both excellent soldiers, the first of whom
afterwards conquered Syria and other countries,
and the latter Egypt, became proselytes to Ma-
hometanism. And soon after the prophet sent
3000 men against the Grecian forces, to revenge
the death of one of his ambassadors, who, being
sent to the governor of Bosra on the same
errand as those who went to the above-men-
tioned princes, were slain by an Arab of the tribe
of Ghassan, at Muta, a town in the territory of
Balka in Syria, about three days journey east of
Jerusalem, near which town they encountered.
The Grecians being greatly superior in number
(for, including the auxiliary Arabs, they had an
army of 100,000 men), the Mahometans were
repulsed in the first attack, and lost successively
three of their generals, viz. Zeid Ebn Haretha,
Mahomet's freedman; Jaafar, the son of Abu
Taleb; and Abdallah Ebn Rawaha; but Khaleb
Ebn al Walid, succeeding to the command, over-
threw the Greeks with great slaughter, and
brought away abundance of rich spoil; on occa-
sion of which action Mahomet gave him the title
of Seif min soyuf Allah, one of the swords of
God. In this year also Mahomet took the city
of Mecca, the inhabitants whereof had broken
the truce; for the tribe of Becr, who were con-
federates with the Koreish, attacking those of
Rhozah, who were allies of Mahomet, killed
several of them, being supported in the action by
a party of the Koreish themselves. The conse-
quence of this violation was soon apprehended;
and Abu Sosian himself made a journey to Me-
dina on purpose to heal the breach and renew
the truce; but in vain, for Mahomet refused to
see him; whereupon he applied to Abū Becr
and Ali; but, they giving him no answer, he was
obliged to return to Mecca as he came. Mahomet
immediately ordered preparations to be made,
that he might surprise the Meccans while they
were unprovided to receive him; in a little time
he began his march thither, and by the time he
came near the city his forces were increased to
10,000 men. Those of Mecca, being unable to
defend themselves against so formidable an army
surrendered at discretion; and Abu Sosian saved
his life by turning Mahometan. About twenty-
eight of the idolaters were killed by a party
under the command of Khaled, but contrary to
Mahomet's orders, who, when he entered the
town, pardoned all the Koreish on their submis-
sion, except six men and four women, who had
apostatised, and were solemnly proscribed by the
prophet himself; but of these only three men
and one woman were put to death, the rest being
pardoned on their embracing Mahometanism,
and one of the women making her escape. The
remainder of this year Mahomet employed in
destroying the idols in and round Mecca, send-
ing several of his generals on expeditions for
that purpose, and to invite the Arabs to Islam-
ism. The next year, being the ninth of the
Hegira, the Mahometans call the year of em-
bassies, for the Arabs had been hitherto expect-
ing the issue of the war between Mahomet and
the Koreish; but as soon as that tribe, the
principal of the nation, and the genuine de-
scendants of Ishmael, whose prerogatives none
offered to dispute, had submitted, they were
satisfied that it was not in their power to oppose
Mahomet; and therefore began to come in to him
in great numbers, and to send embassies to make
their submission to him, both to Mecca, while he
staid there, and also to Medina, whither hereturned
this year. Among the rest five kings of the tribe
of Hamyar professed Mahometanism, and sent
ambassadors to notify the same. In the tenth
year, Ali was sent into Yemen to propagate the
Mahometan faith there; and, as it is said, con-
verted the whole tribe of Hamdad in one day.
Their example was quickly followed by all the
inhabitants of that province, except only those of
Najran, who, being Christians, chose rather to
pay tribute. Thus was Mahometanism estab-
lished, and idolatry rooted out, even in Maho-
met's life-time, throughout all Arabia, except only
Yamama, where Moseilama, who set up also for
a prophet as Mahomet's competitor, had a great
party, and was not reduced till the khalifat of Abu
Becr; and the Arabs being then united in one
faith, and under one prince, found themselves in
a condition for making those conquests which
extended the Mahometan faith over so great a
part of the world. -
Till the age of sixty-three, Mahomet retained
a vigor of constitution which enabled him to en-
dure the corporal and spiritual fatigues of his
mission. The last conspicuous act of his life was
his pilgrimage to Mecca. His health had been
declining for four years previous to his death;
and he ascribed this change to poison adminis-
tered to him at Chaibar, by a Jewish female,
from a motive of revenge, as some have said, or,
according to others, from a desire of putting his
prophetic character to the test. However this
may be, his mortal disease was a fever of fourteen
days, which at intervals deprived him of the use
of his reason. During the intermissions of his
disorder he employed himself in haranguing his
disciples from the pulpit, and performing other
religious duties of his function, and in giving
instructions with regard to the measures that
were fit to be pursued after his decease. He be-
2 F 2
436
M A H O M ET A N I S. M.
held, it is said, with firmness the approach of
death, satisfied the demands of his creditors, en-
franchised his slaves, directed the order of his
funeral, moderated the grief of his weeping
friends, on whom he bestowed the benediction
of peace, and regularly performed the exercise
of public prayer till the third day before his dis-
solution. The choice of Abubeker to supply his
place indicated his respect for this ancient and
faithful friend, as he seems to have thought him
a fit successor in the sacerdotal and regal office.
If any credit may be given to the traditions of
his wives and companions, he maintained, to the
last moments of his life and in confidential in-
tercourse with his family, the dignity of an
apostle and the faith of an enthusiast; describing
the visits of Gabriel, and expressing his lively
confidence, not only in the mercy, but the favor,
of the Supreme Being. In a familiar discourse
he had mentioned his special prerogative, That
the angel of death was not allowed to take his
soul till he had respectfully asked the permission
of the prophet. The request being granted,
Mahomet fell into the agony of dissolution, and
expired in the arms, or on a carpet near the feet
of his favorite wife Ayesha, the daughter of Abu-
beker, in the month of June, A. D. 632, Hegira
11, at the age of sixty-three. Some of his fol-
lowers would not for a time believe the reality
or possibility of his death, till Abubeker calmly
reasoned them out of their delusion. He was
interred at Medina, in a grave dug beneath the
bed on which he expired, over which a magnifi-
cent building was erected by one of the caliphs.
MAHOMET II., surnamed the Great, was born
at Adrianople, the 24th of March, 1430; and
succeeded his father Amurah II. in 1451. He
took Constantinople in 1453, and thereby drove
many learned Greeks into the West, which was
a great cause of the restoration of learning in
Europe, as the Greek literature was then intro-
duced here. He conquered two empires, twelve
kingdoms, and 200 considerable cities: and he
was the first of the Ottoman emperors whom
the western nations dignified with the title of
grand seignior, which posterity has preserved
to his descendants. Italy had suffered greater
calamities, but had never felt a terror equal
to that which this sultan's victories imprinted.
The inhabitants seemed already condemned
to wear the turban; and pope Sixtus IV.,
dreading the fate of Constantinople, thought
of escaping into Provence, and transferring the
holy see to Avignon. Hence the tidings of Ma-
homet's death, which happened the 3d of May,
1481, were received at Rome with the greatest
demonstrations of joy. Mahomet appears to have
been the first sultan who was a lover of arts and
sciences, and cultivated polite letters. He studied
the history of Augustus and the other Caesars;
and he perused those of Alexander, Constantine,
and Theodosius, with more than ordinary plea-
sure, because they had reigned in the same
country with himself. He was much addicted to
astrology, and used to encourage his troops by
giving out, that the influence of the heavenly
bodies promised him the empire of the world.
Contrary to the genius of his country, he de-
lighted so much in foreign languages, that he not
only spoke the Arabian, but also the Persian,
Greek, and French. Landin, a knight of Rhodes,
collected several of his letters, written in Syriac,
Greek, and Turkish, and translated them into
Latin. Where the originals are is unknown, but
the translation has been published at Lyons,
1520, in 4to.; at Basil 1554, 12mo.: in a collec-
tion by Oporinus, at Marpurg, 1604, in 8vo. 5
and at Leipsic, in 1690, 12mo. Professor Mel-
chior Junius published at Montbeliard, 1595, a
collection of letters, in which there are three
written by Mahomet II. to Scanderbeg. §
MAHOMET IV. was born in 1642, and suc-
ceeded in 1649, on the murder of his father
Ibrahim I. He was unsuccessful in most of his
enterprises. He took Candia from the Venetians
in 1669, but lost 100,000 men in the siege. He
took several towns in Poland, but was repeatedly
defeated by king John Sobieski. In 1683 he be-
sieged Vienna, but was completely routed by
the Poles and Austrians. In 1687 he was de-
posed by the Janizaries, and succeeded by Soly-
man III. He died in prison in 1693.
MAHOMETANISM, or MAHomeTISM, the
system of religion broached by Mahomet, and
still adhered to by his followers. See MAHOMRT,
and ALcoPAN. Mahometanism is professed by
the Turks, Persians, several nations among the
Africans, and many in the East Indies. The
Mahometans divide their religion into two gene-
ral parts, faith and practice; of which the first
is divided into six distinct branches: belief in
God, in his angels, his scriptures, his prophets, in
the resurrection and final judgment, and in
God's absolute decrees. The points relating to
practice are, prayer with washings, &c., alms,
fasting, pilgrimage to Mecca, and circumcision.
1. The Mahometans, at least those who are
reckoned orthodox, profess to believe in and
worship the true God, the God of the Jews and
Christians. 2. The existence and purity of
angels are, in the Koran, required to be believed;
and he is reckoned an infidel who denies there
are such beings, or hates any of them, or asserts
any distinction of sexes among them. They
believe them to have pure and subtile bodies,
created of fire; that they neither eat nor drink,
nor propagate their species; that they have va-
rious forms and offices, some adoring God in
different postures, others singing praises to him,
or interceding for mankind. They hold that
some of them are employed in writing down the
actions of men; others in carrying the throne of
God, and other services. The four angels whom
they look on as more eminently in God's favor
are, Gabriel, to whom they give several titles,
particularly those of the holy spirit, and the angel
of revelations, supposing him to be honored by
God with a greater confidence than any other,
and to be employed in writing down the divine
decrees; Michael, the friend and protector of
the Jews; Azrael, the angel of death, who sepa-
rates men's souls from their bodies; and Irasil,
whose office it will be to sound the trumpet at
the resurrection. They also believe that two
guardian angels attend on every man, to observe
and write down his actions, being changed every
day, and therefore called al Moakkibat, or the
angels who continually succeed one another.
M.A. H. O M ET A N I S. M.
437
The devil, whom Mahomet names Eblis, from
his despair, was once one of those angels who are
nearest to God's presence, called Azazil; and
fell, for refusing to pay homage to Adam at the
command of God. Besides angels and devils,
the Mahometans believe in an intermediate order
of creatures, which they call jin or genii, created
also of fire, but of a grosser fabric than angels,
as they eat and drink, and propagate their spe-
ciés, and are subject to death. Some of these
are supposed to be good and others bad, and
capable of Salvation or damnation as men are;
- whence Mahomet pretended to be sent for the
conversion of genii as well as men. 3. As to
the Scriptures, the Koran teaches that God, in
divers ages of the world, gave revelations of his
will in writing to several prophets, the whole and
every one of which it is absolutely necessary for
a good Moslem to believe. The number of these
sacred books were, according to them, 104; of
which ten were given to Adam, fifty to Seth,
thirty to Edris or Enoch, ten to Abraham ; and
the other four, being the Pentateuch, the Psalms,
the Gospel, and the Koran, were successively
delivered to Moses, David, Jesus, and Mahomet;
which last being the seal of the prophets, those
revelations are now closed, and no more are to
be expected. All these divine books, except the
four last, they agree to be now entirely lost, and
their contents unknown; though the Sabians have
several books which they attribute to the ante-
diluvian prophets. And of these four, the Pen-
tateuch, Psalms, and Gospel, they say, have
undergone so many alterations and corruptions,
that, though there may possibly be some part of
the true word of God therein, yet no credit is to
be given to the present copies in the hands of the
Jews and Christians. The Mahometans have
also a gospel in Arabic, attributed to St. Barna-
bas. See BARNABAs. Of this gospel the Moris-
coes in Africa have a translation in Spanish. It
appears to be no original forgery of the Maho-
metans; though they have no doubt altered it
since, e. g. instead of the paraclete, or comforter,
they have in this apocryphal gospel inserted the
word periclyte, i.e. the famous or illustrious;
by which they pretend their prophet was foretold
by name, that being the signification of Maho-
met in Arabic; and this they say to justify
that passage of the Koran where Jesus Christ is
formally asserted to have foretold his coming
under his other name of Ahmed, which is derived
from the same root as Mohammed, and of the
same import. From these, or some other forge-
ries of the same stamp, the Mahometans quote
several passages, of which there is not the least
vestige in the New Testament. The number
of the prophets, from time to time sent by God
into the world, amounts to no less than 224,000
according to one Mahometan tradition; or to
124,000 according to another: among whom 313
were apostles, sent with special commissions to
reclaim mankind from infidelity and supersti-
tion; and six of them brought new laws or
dispensations, which successively abrogated the
preceding: these were Adam, Noah, Abraham,
Moses, Jesus, and Mahomet. All the prophets
in general the Mahommedans believe to have
been free from great sins, and professors of the
same religion, viz. Islam, notwithstanding the
different laws and institutions which they ob-
served. They hold some of them to be more
excellent and honorable than others. The first
place they give to the revealers of new dispensa-
tions, and the next to the apostles. In this great
number of prophets, they not only reckon divers
patriarchs and persons named in Scripture, but
not recorded to have been prophets, as Adam,
Seth, Lot, Ishmael, Nun, Joshua, &c., and in-
troduced some of them under different names,
as Enoch, Heber, and Jethro, who are called in
the Koran, Edris, Hud, and Shoaib ; but several
others whose names do not appear in Scripture,
as Saleb, Khedr, Dkulkefl, &c. 5. They believe
in a general resurrection and a future judgment.
When a corpse is laid in the grave, they say he
is received by an angel, who gives him notice of
the coming of the two examiners, who are two
black livid angels, of a terrible appearance,
named Monker and Nakir. These order thr.
dead person to sit upright, and examine him
concerning his faith, as to the unity of God, and
the mission of Mahomet: if he answer rightly,
they suffer the body to rest in peace, and it is
refreshed by the air of paradise; but if not, they
beat him on the temples with iron maces, till he
roars out for anguish so loud, that he is heard by
all from east to west, except men and genii.
They then press the earth on the corpse, which
is gnawed and stung till the resurrection by
ninety-nine dragons, with seven heads each; or,
as others say, their sins become venomous
beasts, the grievous ones stinging like dragons,
the smaller like scorpions, and the others like
serpents; circumstances which some understand
in a figurative sense. As to the soul, they hold,
that, when it is separated from the body by the
angel of death, who performs his office with
ease and gentleness towards the good, and with
violence towards the wicked, it enters into that
which they call al berzakh, or the interval be-
tween death and the resurrection. If the de-
parted person was a believer, they say two
angels meet it, who convey it to heaven, that its
place there may be assigned, according to its
merit and degree. For they distinguish the
souls of the faithful into three classes ; viz. 1.
Prophets, whose souls are admitted into Paradise
immediately: 2. Martyrs, whose spirits, accord-
ing to a tradition of Mahomet, rest in the crops
of green birds, which eat of the fruits and drink
of the rivers of paradise; and 3. Other be-
lievers, concerning the state of whose souls
before the resurrection there are various opinions.
Though some Mahometans have thought that the
resurrection will be merely spiritual, and no more
than the returning of the soul to the place
whence it first came (an opinion defended by
Ebn Sina, and called by some the opinion of
the philosophers); and others, who allow man
to consist of body only, that it will be merely
corporeal; the received opinion is, that both
body and soul will be raised; and their doctors
argue strenuously for the possibility of the resur-
rection of the body, and dispute with great
subtlety concerning the manner of it. But
Mahomet has taken care to preserve one part of
the body, whatever becomes of the rest, to serve
438
M A H O M ET A N I S. M.
for a basis of the future edifice, or rather a
leaven for the mass which is to be joined to it.
For he taught, that a man's body was entirely
consumed by the earth, except only the bone
called alajb, which we name the os coccygis, or
rump-bone; and that, as it was the first formed
in the human body, it will also remain uncor-
rupted till the last day, as a seed whence the
whole is to be renewed: and this, he said, would
be effected by a forty years' rain, which God
should send, and which would cover the earth to
the height of twelve cubits, and cause the bodies
to sprout forth like plants. Herein also is
Mahomet beholden to the Jews, who say the
same things of the bone luz, excepting that
what he attributes to a rain will be effected,
according to them, by a dew impregnating the
dust of the earth. The time of the resurrection
the Mahometans allow to be a perfect secret to
all but God alone; the angel Gabriel himself
acknowledging his ignorance in this point, when
Mahomet asked him about it. However, they
say, the approach of that day may be known
from certain signs which are to precede it.
These signs they distinguish into two sorts, the
less and the greater. The less signs are, 1.
The decay of faith among men. 2. The ad-
vancing of the meanest persons to eminent dig-
nity. 3. That a maid-servant shall become the
mother of her mistress (or master); by which is
meant, either that towards the end of the world
men shall be much given to sensuality, or that
the Mahometans shall then take many captives.
4. Tumults and seditions. 5. A war with the
Turks. 6. Great distress in the world, so that a
man, when he passes by another's grave, shall
say, would to God I were in his place. 7. That
the provinces of Irac and Syria shall refuse to
pay their tribute. And 8. That the buildings of
Midian shall reach to Ahab, or Yahab. The
greater signs are, 1. The sun's rising in the west.
2. The appearance of the beast, which shall
rise out of the earth, in the temple of Mecca, or
en mount Safa, or in the territory of Tayef.
This beast, they say, is to be sixty cubits high;
though others, not satisfied with so small a size,
will have her reach to the clouds and to heaven;
and that she will appear for three days, but
show only a third part of her body. They de-
scribe this monster, as to her form, to be a com-
pound of various species; having the head of a
bull, the eyes of a hog, the ears of an elephant,
the horns of a stag, the neck of an ostrich, the
breast of a lion, the color of a tiger, the back of
a cat, the tail of a ram, the legs of a camel, and
the voice of an ass. Some say this beast is to
appear three times in several places, and that
she will bring with her the rod of Moses, and .
the seal of Solomon; and, being so swift that
none can overtake or escape her, will with the
first strike all the believers on the face, and mark
them with the word mumen, i.e. believer; and
with the latter will mark the unbelievers on the
face likewise, with the word cafer, i. e. infidel;
that every person may be known for what he
really is. They add that the same beast is to
demonstrate the vanity of all religions except
Islam, and to speak Arabic. 3. War with the
Greeks, and the taking of Constantinople by
70,000 of the posterity of Isaac, who shall not
win that city by force of arms, but the walls
shall fall down while they cry out, There is no
God but God; God is most great As they are
dividing the spoil, news will come to them of the
appearance of Antichrist; whereupon they shall
leave all and return back. 4. The coming of
Antichrist, whom the Mahometans call Masib al
Dajal, i. e. the false or lying Christ, and simply
al Dajal. He is to be one-eyed, and marked on
the forehead with the letters C. F. R. signifying
cafer, or infidel. They say that the Jews gave
him the name of Messiah Ben David; and pre-
tend he is to come in the last days, and to be
lord both of land and sea, and that he will
restore the kingdom to them, 5. The descent
of Jesus on earth. They pretend that he is to
descend near the white tower to the east of Da-
mascus, when the people are returned from the
taking of Constantinople: that he is to embrace
the Mahometan religion, marry a wife, beget
children, kill Antichrist, and at length die, after
forty years, or, according to others, twenty-four
years continuance on earth. Under him they
say there will be great security and plenty in the
world, all hatred and malice being laid aside;
when lions and camels, bears and sheep, shall
live in peace, and a child shall play with ser–
pents unhurt. 6. War with the Jews; of whom
the Mahometans are to make a dreadful slaughter,
the very trees and stones discovering such of
them as hide themselves, except only the tree
called gharkad, which is the tree of the Jews.
7. The eruption of Gog and Magog, or, as they
are called in the east, Yajuj and Majuj; of whom
many things are related in the Koran and the
traditions of Mahomet. These barbarians, they
tell us, having passed the lake of Tiberias, which
the vanguard of their vast army will drink dry,
will come to Jerusalem, and there greatly dis-
tress Jesus and his companions; till, at his re-
quest, God will destroy them, and fill the earth
with their carcasses, which, after some time, God
will send birds to carry away, at the prayers of
Jesus and his followers. Their bows, arrows,
and quivers, the Moslems will burn for seven
years together, and at last God will send a rain
to cleanse the earth and make it fertile. 8. A
smoke which shall fill the whole earth. 9. An
eclipse of the moon. Mahomet is reported to
have said, that there would be three eclipses
before the last hour; one to be seen in the east,
another in the west, and the third in Arabia.
10. The returning of the Arabs to the worship
of Allat and al Uzza, and the rest of their ancient
idols, after the decease of every one in whose
heart there was faith equal to a grain of mustard
seed, none but the very worst of men being left
alive. For God, they say, will send a cold
odoriferous wind, blowing from Syria Damas-
cena, which shall sweep away the souls of all
the faithful, and the Koran itself, so that men will
remain in the grossest ignorance for 100 years.
11. The discovery of a vast heap of gold and
silver by the retreating of the Euphrates, which
will be the destruction of many. 12. The de-
molition of the Caaba, or temple of Mecca, by
the Ethiopians. 13. The speaking of beasts
and inanimate things, 14. The breaking out of
M A H O M ET AN Is M.
439
fire in the province of Hejaz; or according to
others in Yemen. 15. The appearance of a
man of the descendants of Kahtan, who shall
drive men before him with his staff. 16. The
coming of the Mohdi, or director; concerning
whom Mahomet prophesied, that the world
should not have an end till one of his own fa-
mily snould govern the Arabians, whose name
should be the same with his own name, and whose
father's name should also be the same with his
father's name, and who should also fill the earth
with righteousness. This person the Shiites believe
to be now alive, and concealed in some secret
place; for they suppose him no other than the
last of the twelve Imams, named Mahomet
Abulkasem, as their prophet was, and the son of
Hassan al Askeri, the eleventh of that succes-
Sion. He was born at Sermanrai, in the 255th
year of the Hegira. From this tradition it is to
be presumed, an opinion pretty current among
the Christians took its rise, that the Mahometans
are in expectation of their prophet's return.
17. A wind which shall sweep away the souls of
all who have but a grain of faith in their hearts,
as has been mentioned under the tenth sign.
These are the greater signs, which, according to
their doctrine, as Mr. Sale so ably exhibits it in
the introduction to his translation of the Koran,
are to precede the resurrection, but still leave the
hour of it uncertain; for the immediate sign of
its being come will be the first blast of the
trumpet, which they believe will be sounded
three times. The first they call the blast of
consternation; at the hearing of which all crea-
tures in heaven and in earth shall be struck with
terror; not only all buildings, but the very
mountains shall be levelled, the heavens shall
melt, the sun be darkened, the stars fall (on the
death of the angels, who as some imagine hold
them suspended between heaven and earth), and
the sea shall be troubled and dried up; or,
'according to others, turned into flames. The
Mahometans believe that this first blast will be
followed by a second, which they call the blast
of exinanition; by which all creatures, both in
heaven and earth, shall die or be annihilated,
except those which God shall please to exempt
from the common fate; and this, they say, shall
happen in the twinkling of an eye, may in an
instant; nothing surviving, except God alone,
with paradise and hell, the inhabitants of those
two places, and the throne of glory. The last
who shall die will be the angel of death. Forty
years after this will be heard the blast of resur-
rection, when the trumpet shall be sounded the
third time by Israfil, who, together with Gabriel
and Michael, will be previously restored to life;
and, standing on the rock of the temple of Jeru-
salem, shall, at God's command, call together all
the dry and rotten bones, and other dispersed
parts of the bodies, and the very hairs, to judg-
ment. This angel, having, by the divine order;
set the trumpet to his mouth, and called together
all the souls from all parts, will throw them into
his trumpet, whence, on his giving the last
sound, at the command of God, they will fly
forth like bees, and fill the whole space between
heaven and earth, and then repair to their re-
spective bodies, which the opening earth will
suffer to arise; and the first who shall so arise,
according to a tradition of Mahomet, shall be
himself. For this birth the earth will be pre-
pared by the rain above mentioned, which is to
fall continually for forty years, and will resemble
the seed of a man, and be supplied from the
water under the throne of God, which is called
the living water ; by the efficacy of which the
dead bodies shall spring forth from their graves,
as they did in their mother's womb, or as corn
sprouts forth by common rain, till they become
perfect; after which breath will be breathed into
them, and they will sleep in their sepulchres, till
they are raised to life at the last trump.
When those who have risen shall have waited
the limited time, it is believed Godwill at length
appear to judge them ; Mahomet undertaking
the office of intercessor, after it shall have been
declined by Adam, Noah, Abraham, and Jesus,
who shall beg deliverance only for their own
souls. They say, that on this solemn occasion
God will come in the clouds, surrounded by
angels, and will produce the books wherein the
actions of every person are recorded by their
guardian angels, and will command the prophets
to bear witness against those to whom they have
been respectively sent. Then every one will be
examined concerning all his words and actions
uttered and done by him in this life. The par-
ticulars of which they shall give an account, as
Mahomet himself enumerated them, are, of their
time, how they spent it; of their wealth, by what
means they acquired, and how they employed
it; of their bodies, wherein they exercised them;
of their knowledge and learning, what use they
made of them ; each endeavouring to excuse
himself, by casting the blame of his evil deeds
on others; so that a dispute shall even arise be-
tween the soul and the body; the soul, according
to this sapient prophet, saying, “O Lord, my
body I received from thee; for thou createdst
me without a hand to lay hold with, a foot to
walk with, an eye to see with, or an understand-
ing to apprehend with, till I came and entered
into this body; therefore punish it eternally, but
deliver me.’ The body, on the other side, mak-
ing this apology: “O Lord, thou createdst me
like a stock of wood, having neither hand that I
could layhold with, nor foot that Icould walk with,
till this soul, like a ray of light, entered into me,
and my tongue began to speak, my eye to see,
and my foot to walk; therefore punish it eter-
mally, but deliver me.' But now will be pro-
pounded to them the following parable:—‘A
certain king having a pleasant garden, in which
were ripe fruits, set two persons to keep it, one
of whom was blind, and the other lame; the
former not being able to see the fruit, nor the
latter to gather it; the lame man, however, seeing
the fruit, persuaded the blind man to take him
upon his shoulders, and by that means he easily
gathered the fruit, which they divided between
them. The lord of the garden coming some time
after, and enquiring after his fruit, each began to
excuse himself: the blind man said he had no
eyes to see with; and the lame man that he had
no feet to approach the trees. But the king,
ordering the lame, man to be set on the blind,
passed sentence on and punished them both.
440
M A H O M ET A N IS M.
And in the same manner will God deal with the
body and the soul.” . At this examination, they
also believe, that each person will have the book
wherein all the actions of his life are written de-
livered to him; which books the righteous will
receive into their right hand, and read with great
pleasure and satisfaction; but the ungodly will
be obliged to take them against their wills, in
their left, which will be bound behind their backs,
their right hand being tied up to their necks.
To show the exact justice which will be observed,
on this great day of trial, the doctors describe
the balance, wherein all things shall be weighed.
They say it will be held by Gabriel; and that it
“s of so vast a size, that its two scales, one of
"which hangs over paradise, and the other over
hell, are capacious enough to contain both heaven
and hell. But some are willing to understand
what is said in the Koran concerning this ba-
lance allegorically, and only as a figurative re-
presentation of God's equity; the more ancient
and orthodox opinion, however, is that they are
to be taken literally. They say that the books
wherein the actions of men are written will be
thrown into the scales, and, according as those
wherein the good or evil actions are recorded
shall preponderate, sentence will be given; nor
will any one have cause to complain that God
suffers any good action to pass unrewarded, be-
cause the wicked, for the good they do, have
their reward in this life, and therefore can expect
no favor in the next. f - -
This examination being past, mutual retalia-
tion will follow, according to which every crea-
ture will take vengeance one of another, or have
satisfaction made them for the injuries they have
suffered. And, since there will then be no other
way of returning like for like, the manner of
giving this satisfaction will be by taking away a
proportional part of the good works of him who
offered the injury, and adding it to those of him
who suffered it. Which being done, if the an-
gels (by whose ministry this is to be performed)
say, Lord, we have given to every one his due, eter * &
believers shall be detained there, according to a
and there remaineth of this person's good works
so much as equalleth the weight of an ant,” God
will, of his mercy, cause it to be doubled unto
him, that he may be admitted into paradise; but
if, on the contrary, his good works be exhausted,
and there remain evil works only, and there be
any who have not yet received satisfaction from
him, God will order that an equal weight of their
sins be added unto his, that he may be punished
for them in their stead, and he will be sent to hell
laden with both. Brutes shall likewise take
vengeance of one another, when God will com-
mand them to be changed into dust; while
wicked men, being reserved to more grievous pu-
nishment, shall cry out, “would to God we were
dust also.” As to the genii, many Mahometans
are of opinion, that such of them as are true be-
lievers will undergo the same fate as the irra-
tional animals, and have no other reward than
the favor of being converted into dust; and for
this they quote the authority of their prophet.
Their trial being over, those who are to be ad-
mitted into paradise will take the right-hand way,
and those who are destined to hell the left; but
both must first pass the bridge called in Arabic
al Sirat, which they say is laid over the midst of
hell, and describe to be finer than a hair, and
sharper than the edge of a sword. The Motaza-
lites reject the account of this bridge as a fable;
though the orthodox think it a sufficient proof of
the truth of this article, that it was seriously
affirmed by him who never asserted a falsehood,
meaning their prophet; who, to add to the diffi-
culty of the passage, has likewise declared, that
al Sirat is beset on each side with briars and
hooked thorns: which will, however, be no im-
pediment to the good; for they shall pass with
wonderful ease and swiftness, like lightning, or
the wind, Mahomet and his Moslems leading
the way; whereas the wicked will miss their
footing, and fall down headlong into hell, which
is gaping beneath them. This, the Mahometans
are taught, is divided into seven stories or apart-
ments, one below another, designed for the re-
ception of as many distinct classes of the damned.
The 1st, Jehennam, they say, will be the recep-
tacle of those who acknowledge one God, that
is, the wicked Mahometans; who, after having
been there punished according to their demerits,
will at length be released. The 2d, named
Ladha, they assign to the Jews; the 3d, al Ho-
tama, to the Christians; the 4th, al Sair, to the
Sabians; the 5th, Sakar, to the Magians; the
6th, al Jahim, to the idolaters; and the 7th,
which is the lowest and worst of all, and is called
Hawyat, to the hypocrites, or those who out-
wardly professed some religion, but in their
hearts were of none. Over each of these apart-
ments they believe there will be set a guard of
angels, nineteen in number, to whom the damned
will confess the just judgment of God, and beg
them to intercede with him for some alleviation
of their pain, or that they may be delivered by
being annihilated. Mahomet has, in the Koran,
been very exact in describing the various tor-
ments of hell, in which, according to him, the
wicked will suffer both from intense heat and ex-
cessive cold. But infidels alone will be liable to
eternal damnation. The time which the true
tradition handed down from the prophet, will
not be less than 900 years, nor more than 7000.
They will be released by the mercy of God, at
the intercession of Mahomet and the blessed.
The righteous, having surmounted the difficul-
ties, and passed the sharp bridge above-menti-
oned, before they enter paradise, will be refreshed
by drinking at the pond of their prophet, who
describes it to be an exact square of a month's
journey in compass; its water, which is supplied
by two pipes from al Cawthar, one of the rivers
of paradise, being whiter than milk or silver, and
more odoriferous than musk, with as many cups
set round it as there are stars in the firmament;
of which water whosoever drinks will thirst no
more for ever. This is the first taste which the
blessed will have of their future and now near
approaching felicity. Though paradise be so
very frequently mentioned in the Koran, yet it is
a dispute among the Mahometans whether it be
already created, or to be created hereafter; the
Motazalites and some other sects asserting, that
there is not at present any such place, and that
the paradise which the righteous will inhabit in
M A H O M E T A N I S. M.
441
the next life will be different from that from
which Adam was expelled. However, many of
the orthodox profess the contrary, maintaining
that it was created even before the world. They
say it is situated above the seven heavens (or in
the seventh heaven), and next under the throne
of God; to express the amenity of the place,
they tell us, that the earth of it is of the finest
wheat-flour, or of the purest musk; that its
stones are pearls and jacinths, the walls of its
buildings enriched with gold and silver, and that
the trunks of all its trees are of gold: among
which the most remarkable is Tuba, or the tree
of happiness. Concerning this tree, they say,
that it stands in the palace of Mahomet, though
a branch of it will reach to the house of every
true believer; that it will be laden with pomegra-
nates, grapes, dates, and other fruits, of surpris-
ing bigness, and of tastes unknown to mortals.
So that if a man desire to eat of any particular
kind of fruit, it will immediately be presented
him; or, if he choose flesh, birds ready dressed
will be set before him, according to his wish.
They add, that the boughs of this tree will spon-
taneously bend down to the hand of the person
who would gather of its fruits; that it will supply
the blessed not only with food, but also with
silken garments, and beasts to ride on ready
saddled and bridled, and adorned with rich
trappings (which will burst forth from its fruits);
and that this tree is so large, that a person,
mounted on the fleetest horse, would not be able
to gallop from one end of its shade to the other
in 100 years. The Koran often speaks of the
rivers of paradise as a principal ornament: some
of these, they say, flow with water, some with
milk, some with wine, and others with honey; all
taking their rise from the root of the tree tuba,
Even these glories however will be eclipsed by the
resplendent and ravishing girls of paradise, called,
from their large black eyes, Hur aloyun, or hou-
ries, the enjoyment of whose company will be a
principal felicity of the faithful. These, they
say, are created, not of clay, as mortal women
are, but of pure musk; being free from all natu-
ral impurities and defects; of the strictest mo-
desty, and secluded from public view in pavilions
of hollow pearls, so large, that one of them will
be no less than four parasangs (or sixty miles)
long, and as many broad. The name which the
Mahometans usually give to this happy mansion
is al Jannat, or the garden; sometimes they call
it Jannat al Ferdaws, the garden of paradise;
Jannat Aden, the garden of Eden; Jannat al
Mawa, the garden of abode; Jannat al Naim,
the garden of pleasure, &c., by which appella-
tions some understand so many different gardens,
or places of different degrees of felicity, of which
they reckon no fewer than 100. The Mahometans
believe in God's absolute decree and predestina-
tion both of good and evil. The orthodox doc-
trine is, that whatever hath or shall come to pass
in this world, whether good or evil, proceedeth
entirely from the divine will, and is irrevocably
fixed and recorded from all eternity in the pre-
served table: God having predetermined not only
the adverse and prosperous fortune of every
person in this world, in the most minute particu-
lars, but also his faith or infidelity, his obedience
º- *
or disobedience, and consequently his everlasting
happiness or misery after death; which fate or
predestination it is not possible by any foresight
or wisdom to avoid. Of this doctrine Mahomet
made great use for the advancement of his de-
signs, encouraging his followers to fight without
fear, and even desperately, for the propagation
of their faith, by representing to them, that all
their caution could not avert their inevitable
destiny, or prolong their lives for a moment; and
deterring them from disobeying or rejecting him
as an impostor, by setting before them the dan-
gers they might thereby incur of being, by the
just judgment of God, abandoned to seduction,
hardness of heart, and a reprobate mind, as a pu-
nishment for their obstimacy. It is quite clear
that this doctrine has been the chief basis of the
desperate courage of his followers for ages,
MAHOMETAN RELIGIOUs PRACTICE.-The first
point of religious practice in the creed of Mus-
sulmansis prayer, under which are comprehended
those legal washings which are necessary prepa-
rations for it. Of these there are two degrees,
one called ghost, being a total immersion or
bathing of the body in water: and the other
called wodu, which is the washing of their faces,
hands, and feet, after a certain manner. The
first is required in some cases only, as, after ap-
proaching a dead body; women are also obliged
to it after their courses or childbirth : the latter
is the ordinary ablution before prayer, and must
necessarily be used by every person before he
can enter upon that duty. Mahomet is said to
have declared that the practice of religion is
founded on cleanliness, which is the one-half of
the faith, and the key of prayer, without which
it will not be heard by God. Al Ghazali reckons
four degrees of purification; viz. 1st, cleansing
of the body from all pollution, filth, and excre-
ments; 2dly, cleansing the members of the body
from all wickedness and injustice; 3dly, cleansing
the heart from all blameable inclinations and
odious vices; and, 4thly, purging a man's secret
thoughts from all affections which may divert
their attendance on God. Circumcision, though
it be not once mentioned in the Koran, is yet
held by the Mahometans to be an ancient divine
institution, confirmed by the religion of Islam,
and, though not so absolutely necessary but that
it may be dispensed with in some cases, yet
highly proper and expedient. The Arabs used
this rite for many ages before Mahomet, having
learned it from Ishmael their ancestor. The
Ishmaelites circumcised their children when
about twelve or thirteen years old, at which age
their father underwent that operation; the Ma-
hometans imitate them so far as not to circum-
cise their children before they be able, at least,
distinctly to pronounce that profession of their
faith, There is no God but God; Mahomet is the
apostle of God. They generally perform the
operation between six and sixteen.
Prayer Mahomet thought so necessary a duty,
that he used to call it the pillar of religion, and
the key of paradise; and when the Thakisites,
who dwelt at Tayef, sending, in the 49th year of
the Hegira, to make their submission to the pro-
phet, after the keeping of their favorite idol had
been denied them, begged, at least, that they
442
M A H O M ET A N I S. M.
might be dispensed with as to their saying of
their appointed prayers, he answered, That there
could be no good in that religion wherein was
no prayer. That so important a duty, therefore,
might not be neglected, Mahomet obliged his
followers to pray five times every twenty-four
hours, at certain stated times; viz. 1. In the
morning before sun-rise; 2. When noon is past,
and the sun begins to decline from the meridian;
3. In the afternoon, before sun-set; 4. In the
evening, after sun-set, and before day be shutin;
and, 5. After the day is shut in, and before the
first watch of the night. At these times, of which
public notice is given by the muedhdhins, or
criers, from the steeples of their mosques (for
they use no bells), every conscientious Moslem
prepares himself for prayer, which he performs
either in the mosque or any other place, pro-
vided it be clean, after a prescribed form, and
with a certain number of praises or ejaculations
(which the more scrupulous count by a string of
beads), and using certain postures of worship ;
all which have been particularly set down and
described, and must not be abridged, unless on
a journey, or preparing for battle, &c. It is also
requisite that they turn their faces, while they
pray, towards the temple of Mecca; the quarter
where the same is situated being, for that reason,
pointed out within their mosques by a niche,
which they call al Mehrab; and without, by the
situation of the doors opening into the galleries
of the steeples: there are also tables calculated
for the ready finding out their keblah, or part
towards which they ought to pray, in places
where they have no other direction.
2. Alms are of two sorts, legal and voluntary.
The legal alms are of indispensable obligation,
being commanded by the law, which directs and
determines both the portion which is to be given,
and of what things it ought to be given; but the
voluntary alms are left to every one's liberty, to
give more or less, as he shall see fit. The former
kind are called zacat, either because they increase
a man's store by drawing down ablessing thereon,
or because they purify the remaining part of one's
substance from pollution, and the soul from the
filth of avarice: the latter sadakat, because they
are a proof of a man's sincerity in the worship
of God.
3. Fasting is also a duty of so great moment,
that Mahornet used to say it was the gate of re-
ligion, and that the odor of the mouth of him
who fasteth is more grateful to God than that of
musk; Ghazali reckons fasting one-fourth part
of the faith. According to the Mahometan di-
vines, there are three degrees of fasting; 1. The
restraining the belly and other parts of the body
from satisfying their lusts; 2. The restraining
the ears, eyes, tongue, hands, feet, and other
members, from sin; and, 3. The fasting of the
heart from worldly cares, and restraining the
thoughts from every thing besides God. The
Mahometans are obliged, by the Koran, to fast
the whole month of Ramadan, from the new
moon till the next new moon; during which they
must abstain from eating, drinking, and women,
from day-break till night or sun-set. And this
injunction they observe so strictly, that, while
they fast, they suffer nothing to enter their mouths,
or other parts of their body, esteeming the fast
broken and null, if they smell perfumes, take a
clyster or injection, bathe, or even purposely
swallow their spittle: the fast is also deemed
void, if a man kiss or touch a woman. But after
Sun-Set they are allowed to refresh themselves,
and discontinue the fast till day-break; though
the more rigid begin it again at midnight. This
fast is extremely rigorous when the month of
Ramadan happens to fall in summer (for, the
Arabian year being lunar, each month runs
through all the different seasons in the course of
thirty-three years), the length and heat of the
days making the observance of it much more
difficult than in winter. The reason given why
the month Ramadan was pitched on for this pur-
pose is, that in that month the Koran was sent
down from heaven.
4. The pilgrimage to Mecca is so necessary a
point of practice, that, according to a tradition
of Mahomet, he who dies without performing it
may as well die a Jew or a Christian. The tem-
ple of Mecca stands in the midst of the city, and
is honored with the title of Masjad al elharam,
i.e. the sacred or inviolable temple. What is
principally reverenced here, and gives sanctity to
the whole, is a square stone building, called the
Caaba; to which every Mahometan, who has
health and means sufficient, ought, once at least
in his life, to go on pilgrimage; nor are women
excused. The pilgrims meet at different places
near Mecca, according to the different parts
whence they come, during the months of Shawal
and Dhulkaada; being obliged to be there
by the beginning of Dhulhajja; which month
is set apart for the celebration of this so-
lemnity. At these places the pilgrims properly
commence such ; when the men put on the Ibram
or sacred habit, which consists of two woollen
wrappers, one wrapped about their middle, and
the other thrown over their shoulders, having
their heads bare, and a kind of slippers which
cover neither the heel nor the instep, and so
enter the sacred territory in their way to Mecca.
While they have this habit on, they must neither
hunt nor fowl (though they are allowed to fish);
which precept is so punctually observed, that
they will not kill even an insect on their bodies:
there are some noxious animals, however, which
they have permission to kill during the pilgri-
mage. During the pilgrimage it behoves a man
to have a constant guard over his words and
actions; to avoid all quarrelling, and all con-
verse with women; and to apply his whole at-
tention to the good work he is engaged in. The
pilgrims, being arrived at Mecca, immediately
visit the temple; and then enter on the perform-
ance of the prescribed ceremonies, which consist
chiefly in going in procession round the Caaba,
in running between the mounts Safa and Merwa,
in making the station on mount Araf, and slaying
the victims, and shaving their heads in the .
of Mina. So often as they pass by the black
stone, they either kiss it, or touch it with thei
hand and kiss that. The running between Saf:
and Merwa is performed seven times, partly with
a slow pace, and partly running. On the 9th o
Dhulhajja, after morning prayer, the pilgrim.
leave the valley of Mina, whither they came the
MAH
MAH -
443
day before; and proceed in a tumultuous and
rushing manner to mount Arafat, where they per-
form their devotions till sun-set; then they go to
Mozdalifa, an oratory between Arafat and Mina,
and there spend the night in prayer and reading
the Koran. The next morning, by day-break,
they visit al Mashar al Karam, or the sacred
monument; and, departing thence before sun-rise,
haste by Batn Mohasser to the valley of Mina,
where they throw stones at three marks or pillars,
in imitation of Abraham, who, meeting the devil
in this place, and being by him disturbed in his
devotions, was commanded by God to drive him
away by throwing stones at him. This ceremony
being over, on the same day, the 10th Dhulhajja,
the pilgrims slay their victims in the valley; of
which they and their friends eat part, and the
rest is given to the poor. The sacrifices being
over, they shave their heads and cut their nails,
burying them in the same place; after which the
pilgrimage is regarded as complete: though many
again visit the Caaba, to take their leave of that
sacred building.
The rapid success which attended the propaga-
tion of this religion was owing to causes that are
plain and evident, and must remove all surprise
when they are attentively considered. The terror
of Mahomet's arms, and the repeated victories
which were gained by him and his successors,
were, no doubt, the irresistible arguments that
persuaded multitudes to embrace his religion,
aud submit to his dominion. Besides, his law
was artfully and marvellously adapted to the cor-
rupt nature of man; and, more particularly, to
the manners and opinions of the eastern nations,
and the vices to which they were addicted: for
the articles of faith which it proposed were few
in number, and extremely simple; and the duties
it required were neither many nor difficult; nor
such as were incompatible with the empire of
appetite and passions. It is to be observed far-
ther, that the gross ignorance under which the
Arabians, Syrians, Persians, and the greatest part
of the eastern nations, labored at the time, ren-
dered many an easy prey to the artifice and elo-
quence of this bold adventurer. To these causes
of the progress of Mahometanism we may add
the bitter dissensions and cruel animosities that
reigned among the Christian sects, particularly
the Greeks, Nestorians, Eutychians, and Mono-
physites; dissensions that filled a great part of
the east with carnage, assassinations, and such
detestable enormities, as rendered the very name
of Christianity odious. It is well known that
the Monophysites and Nestorians, full of resent-
ment against the Greeks, from whom they had
suffered the most injurious treatment, assisted
the Arabians in the conquest of several provinces,
into which, of consequence, the religion of Ma-
homet was afterwards introduced.
MAHOMMED-AMEENPORE, a large dis-
trict of 700 square miles, on the western bank of
the Bhaggarutty, in Bengal, comprehending
Hoogly, and all the other European towns on
the western side of the river.
MAHRATTAS, a native Hindostan race pos-
sessing till recently a territory in India, which
2xtended across the peninsula. Their original
sountry is said to have been Khandeish; but
Ragogee.
little is known of their history, till the middle of
the seventeenth century, when they possessed a
narrow tract on the western side of Hindostan,
extending from the fifteenth to the twenty-first de-
gree of latitude. The first distinguished chief of
this nation was Sevajee, born about the year
1626; he and his descendants asserting that the
were of the same family as the rajahs of Odey-
R. who claim a descent from the celebrated
oushirvan, king of Persia, who reigned in
the seventh century. The father of Sevajee
named Sahoo Bhosila, or Bhoonsla, was an offi-
cer in the service of the last Mahommedan king
of Bejapore; and his son, who succeeded to his
command, taking advantage of the Mogul inva-
sion retired with his followers to the mountains
of the sea coast, whence he returned to carry his
ravages into the heart of the Bejapore terri-
tories. He also carried on a successful war
against the Moguls, and obtained possession of
several portions of that empire. He died in
1680, and was succeeded by Sambajee, who was
taken prisoner and put to death in the year 1689
by the emperor Aurungzebe. Sahoo Rajah, the
son of Sambajee in a reign of nearly fifty years
extended his dominions from sea to sea, and
had possession of fortresses reaching from the
province of Agra to Cape Comorin. This mo-
narch was succeeded in the year 1740 by Ram
Rajah, his son, a weak prince, who was confined
in the fortress of Sattarah by the two chief offi-
cers of the state, viz. the peishwa, or prime mi-
nister, Bajeerow, and the paymaster-general
The former fixed his residence at
Poonah, and the latter founded a new kingdom
at NAGPoRE, which see.
In order to conciliate other chiefs, they grant-
ed them extensive independent principalities,
the foundations of all the modern Mahratta
states. Bajeerow died in 1759, and was succeed-
ed by his son Ballajeerow, when the office of
peishwa became hereditary. In 1761 the Mah-
rattas, having extended their conquests to the
city of Delhi, were on the 7th of January op-
posed and totally defeated by the united Mahom-
medan armies under the command of Ahmed
Shah Abdally. Balajee died soon after this
event, and was succeeded by his son Madhoo-
row, who died in 1772, and grandson Narrain-
row murdered in the following year, at the insti-
gation of his uncle Ragobah; the latter, having
been disappointed in getting possession of the
throne, fled to Bombay, a circumstance which
brought on a war between the Mahrattas and
the British. See our article INDIA.
A posthumous son of Madhoorow, of the same
name, succeeded to the peishwaship, but died in
1795. On this event the two sons of Ragobah
contended for the office, and the cause of the
eldest brother, named Bajeerow, was espoused
by Scindia, who fixed him on the throne in a
nominal sovereignty. In 1802 Holkar defeated
the united armies of Scindia, and the peishwa ;
and the latter, having been compelled to take
refuge in the British territory, entered into the
treaty of Bassein, with the Bombay government,
by which he agreed to receive into his pay a
force of 6000 infantry, with their usual propor-
tion of artillery, and gave an assignment of ter-
*
MAI
MAI.
444
ritory for their support. In consequence of this
treaty the peishwa was in the month of Ma
1803 reinstated at Poonah. Lord Lake's defeat
of Scindia, the overthrow of Holkar, and the
peace concluded with the Mahratta chiefs in
1805, are detailed in the article INDIA. . It will
be seen that in 1817 the peishwa made a fresh at-
tempt at independence: a circumstance which
may be said to have annihilated his authority;
as the descendant of Ram Rajah has been since
brought out from his confinement, and placed on
the throne of his ancestors under British pro-
tection. s
The Mahrattas are not very scrupulous Hin-
doos, all of them but the Brahmins being careless
of what they eat except beef. They are fond of
horses, and their army was almost entirely com-
posed of cavalry, the celerity of whose motions
and sudden incursions alone rendered them for-
midable: their arms were a sword and spear,
and their only camp equipage blankets or horse
cloths. They would march at the rate of fifty
miles a day; and not content with plunder of
ten carried away children into slavery, and used
the female sex barbarously. Their Brahmins
are many of them polished and insidious mer-
chants.
MAIA, in fabulous history, the daughter of
Atlas and Pleione. She was the mother of
Mercury by Jupiter. She was one of the
Pleiades, and the most luminous of the seven
sisters.
MAIA, a surname of Cybele.
MAID, or Y Sax. may, maeben,
MAID'EN, n.s. maegioen; Goth. may,
MAID'ENHAIR, m. s. mejd; Belg. magd, meid;
MAID'ENHEAD, or Teut. magd, the femi-
MAID'ENHooD, n. s. mine of mag, mac, a son.
MAID'ENLY, adj. (A girl; an unmarried
MAID'HooD, n.s. woman; a virgin; a fe-
MAIDMA'RIAN, male; a female servant:
MAID'-PALE, adj. maidenhair is a plant,
MAID'-SERVANT, n.s. J the ADIANTHUM, which
See: maidenhead, maidenhood, or maidhood, vir-
ginity; purity; and, in an obsolete sense, new-
ness; freshness: maidenly, like or becoming a
maid; gentle; timid; delicate: maidmarian, a
species of buffoon-dance: maid-pale, pale with
sickness, or a trifling complaint: maid-servant,
a female servant. i
If she bear a maid child. Lev. xii. 5.
Your wives, your daughters,
Your matrons, and your maids, could not fill up
The cistern of my lust. Shakspeare. Macbeth.
This is a man old, wrinkled, faded, withered,
And not a maiden, as thou say'st he is. Shakspeare.
My maid Nerissa and myself, mean time,
Will live as maids and widows. Id.
He fleshed his maiden sword. Id.
'Tis not maidenly;
Our sex, as well as I, may chide you for it. Id.
The devil and mischance look big
Upon the maidenhood of our affairs.
By maidhood, honour, and every thing,
I love thee - Id. Twelfth Night.
Example, that so terrible shews in the wreck of
maidenhood, cannot for all that dissuade succession,
but that they are limed with the twigs that threaten
them. Shakspeare.
Id.
Change the complection of her maidpale peace
To scarlet indignation. } Id.
And, for the modest lore of maidenhood,
Bids me not sojourn with these armed men.
Oh whither shall I fly? what sacred wood
Shall hide me from the tyrant? or what den?
F.airf(24's
She hated chambers, closets, secret mewes,
And in broad fields preserved her maidenhead.
& Id.
Some, who attended with much expectation, at
Jheir first appearing have stained the maidenhead of
their credit with some negligent performance.
Wotton.
She employed the residue of her life to repairing of
highways, building of bridges, and endowing of
maidens. -- Carew.
June is drawn in a mantle of dark grass green,
upon his head a garland of bent, king's-cup, and
naidenhair. Peacham.
Hope's chaste kiss wrongs no joys maidenhead,
The spousal rites prejudge the marriagé-bed.
Crashaw.
Maidenhood she loves, and will be swift -
To aid a virgin. Milton.
A set of morrice-dancers danced a maidmarian with
a tabor and pipe. Temple
Let me die, she said,
Rather than lose the spotless name of maid.
Dryden.
Old Tancred visited his daughter's bower;
Her cheek, for such his custom was, he kissed,
Then blessed her kneeling, and her maids dismissed.
Id.
Her closet and the gods share all her time,
Except when, only by some maids attended,
She seeks some shady solitary, grove. Rowe.
Nor was there one of all the ſymphs that roved
O'er Maenalus, amid the maiden throng,
More favoured once. Af Addison's Ovid.
A thousand maidens ply the purple loom,
To weave the bed, and deck the regal room.
- Prior.
It is perfectly right what you say of the indifference
in common friends, whether we are sick or well; the
very maidservants in a family have the same notion.
Swift.
'Tis all mere sharper's play;
He likes your house, your house-maid, and your pay;
Reduce his wages, or get rid of her,
Tom quits you, with—Your most obedient, Sir.
- Cowper.
MAIDA, a town of Calabria Ultra, Naples,
nine miles W. S. W. of Squillace, chiefly remark-
able as the scene of a gallant action between the
British and French, 4th of July 1806; in which
the latter were defeated. Population 3000.
MAIDEN. See MAID.
MAIDEN, or MAYDEN, an instrument anciently
used in Scotland for beheading criminals, simi-
lar to the GUILLOTINE, which see.
MAIDEN is also the name of a machine first
used in Yorkshire, and since introduced into
other places, for washing linen; consisting of a tub
nineteen inches high, and twenty-seven in dia-
meter at the top, in which the linen is put, with
hot water and soap, to which is adapted a cover,
fitting it very closely, and fastened to the tub by
two wedges; through a hole in the middle of the
cover passes an upright piece of wood, kept at a
proper height by a peg above, and furnished with
two handles, by which it is turned backward and
forward : to the lower end of this upright piece
M. A. I D S T O N E.
445
is fastened a round piece of yood, in which are
fixed several pieces, like cogs of a wheel. The
operation of this machine makes the linen pass
and repass quickly through the water.
MAIDEN-RENTS, in old English writers, a
noble paid by the tenants of some manors on
their marriage. This was said to be given to the
lord for his omitting the custom of marcheta,
whereby he was to have the first night's lodging
with his tenant's wife; but it seems more proba-
bly to have been a fine for a license to marry
a daughter.
MAIDENHAIR. See ADIANTHUM.
MAIDENHAIR, GoLDEN. See PolytrichUM.
MAIDENHEAD, a town of Berkshire, twenty-
six miles from London, with a stone bridge over
the Thames. It is governed by a high steward, a
mayor, a steward, and ten aldermen, two of
whom are appointed bridgemasters every year.
The mayor is justice of the peace, coroner, and
clerk of the market: he is also judge of a
court which he must hold once in three weeks,
exclusive of two sessions in the year. The town
stands partly in the parish of Bray and partly in
that of Cookham, and has a chapel belonging to
the corporation, the minister of which is chosen
by the inhabitants and not obliged to attend the
bishop's visitation. It has a gaol, with several
almshouses and charities. The barge-pier bridge
is maintained by the corporation, for which they
are allowed the tolls over and under it. This
town has a great trade in malt, meal, and timber,
which are brought in barges to London. As
this is the great thoroughfare from London to
Bath, Bristol, &c., the adjacent wood has been
noted for robberies. There is a market on
Wednesday, three fairs, and horse-races.
MAIDSTONE, the county town of Kent, is
advantageously situated on the eastern bank of
the Medway, over which is an ancient stone
bridge of seven arches, which has been lately
widened and improved. Some antiquaries
have considered it as the Vagniacae of Antoninus.
The Saxons termed it Medwegestun, from its si-
tuation on the Medwedge, or Medway. In the
record of Domesday the name is written Med-
destane. The town is pleasant, large, and
populous, consisting of four principal streets,
which intersect each other near the site of the
ancient market cross. This fabric was taken
down about twenty years ago, and in its place a
commodious fish-market was erected, where is an
ample reservoir of spring water, conducted from
the opposite side of the river.
The town was governed by a portreve and
twelve brethren, till Edward VI., in his third
year, newly incorporated it by the style and title
of the mayor, jurats, and commonalty, of Maid-
stone. Their privileges were soon afterwards,
however, forfeited by rebellion in the first year
of queen Mary. But queen Elizabeth, in her
second year, re-incorporated it, as before; and
granted some additional privileges. A third
charter of incorporation, with new privileges, was
granted in 1604 by James I.; and a fourth in
1619. King Charles II., in his thirty-fourth
year, incorporated it anew by the above style
and title ; which charter was in force until the
revolution in 1688, after which it was laid aside.
In 1748, the corporation being dissolved by
judgment of ouster against its principal members,
a new charter was granted by king George II.,
in which it is stated, that the inhabitants shall
be one body politic and corporate, by the name
of ‘the mayor, jurats, and commonalty, of the
king's town and parish of Maidstone, in the
county of Kent,' and by that name have perpe-
tual succession, and acquire and hold lands, &c.,
and alien the same; that by the aforementioned
name they are to plead and be impleaded, &c.; un-
der a common seal, and might break, change,
and new make the same at their liking; that there
should be thirteen inhabitants of the town and
parish, who should be chosen jurats of the same,
one of whom should be mayor; and that there
should be forty of the remaining principal in-
habitants chosen common council-men, all of
whom, viz. mayor, jurats, and common council-
men, duly assembled, should have power upon
public summons to make bye laws. By the
above charter the corporation at present act.
Queen Elizabeth, in her second year, granted to
the mayor, &c., a market on a Thursday weekly,
with all tolls, customs, and other profits, and
also four fairs. King James regranted and con-
firmed the fairs and markets, and other liberties
and privileges; and further granted that it should
be lawful for the mayor to extend the market be-
yond the market-place, or to hold it in any other
place within the town.
Queen Elizabeth also granted the mayor,
jurats, and commonalty, full power to hold a
court in the town, from fourteen days to fourteen
days, on a Tuesday, ‘for pleas, as well of assize
of novel disseisin, as other pleas, actions, and suits,
concerning lands, &c., in the town and parish,
although they should or should not exceed the
sum of 40s ' And the mayor, jurats, and re-
corder, as steward, annually hold a court leet, or
law day, formerly called the portmote, at which
among other business the peace officers are
chosen, viz. a high constable for the town and
parish, and a borsolder for each of the three
boroughs of Week, West Street, and Stone, into
which the town and parish are divided.
This town and parish, with others in the
neighbourhood, were formerly bound to contri-
bute to the repair of the fifth pier of Rochester
Bridge.
The chief source of the wealth of this town has
arisen from the cultivation of hops, in which
pursuit the principal inhabitants are engaged : but
no species of natural produce is subject to such
abrupt and decisive vicissitudes.—The manufac-
ture of linen thread was introduced here from
Flanders, in the reign of Elizabeth, and is still
continued. Within the last fifty years also it
has been famous for the distillation of a spirit
termed Maidstone Geneva: but this is now dis-
continued. - -
This town derives great advantage from the
navigation of the river Medway, as a considerable
traffic is carried on by it from hence to Roches-
ter, Chatham, and London; and, from the many
large corn mills, abundance of meal and flour is
shipped off to the above towns, as well as to
London. The paper-mills, in and near this
town, are also considerable. Great quantities of
MAI 446 - MAJ
.
timber brought hither from the Weald of Kent,
and its neighbourhood, by land carriage, are
conveyed by the navigation of the Medway to
the dock at Chatham, and more distant parts.
Besides which there are several large hoys which
sail to and from London weekly. The Medway
is navigable as far as Tonbridge. -
The church stands at the western part of the
town, and is a spacious and handsome structure,
formerly collegiate; consisting of a nave, chan-
cel, and two side aisles, with a handsome well-
built tower at the west end. It is one of the
largest parochial churches in the kingdom, and
was chiefly erected in the reign of Richard II,
by archbishop Courteney. The stalls for the
warden and fellows of the college are still re-
maining. In the middle of the great chancel
there is a tomb-stone, raised a little, above the
pavement, with the marks of the portraiture of a
bishop in his mitre and robes, and an inscription
round it; but the brass of the whole is torn
away. This is supposed to be the cenotaph of
archbishop Courteney. The college founded by
this prelate was an extensive pile of stone, and
most of the buildings, with the great gate, are
standing, on the south side of the church, but are
now occupied by an agriculturist, who uses some
of the apartments as an oasting house. There
are, also, many other vestiges of ancient religious
buildings in this town and its vicinity. A stock
market is held on the second Tuesday in each
month in a place called the Meadow, close to
the Medway: the fairs are also held in this place
on the 13th of February, 12th of May, 20th of
June, and 17th of October.
In the year 1648 the town held out some time
for Charles I., but at last general Fairfax took it
by storm.
Amongst the public buildings of Maidstone,
its gaol stands pre-eminent. This ponderous
and extensive fabric was commenced in the
year 1811, and completed in 1818. It is in-
tended as a prison for the use both of the county
and town. The ground comprised within the
walls is between thirteen and fourteen acres, and
the building is capable of holding 450 prisoners.
The structure of brick is faced with rag stone
chiefly dug from the site which it occupies. The
plan on which it is arranged would appear to be
extremely judicious. Each class of prisoners has
a distinct airing-yard, and each prisoner a sepa-
rate sleeping cell. The expense of the erection
was about £180,000. In front has been added
a handsome sessions house of Portland stone,
with a spacious area, surrounded by iron railing.
The whole cost the county, it is said, upwards
of £30,000. In the vicinity is also an extensive
depôt, in which are trained the cavalry destined
for the East India service. -
The chief part of this town has been greatly
improved since the year 1791, at which time an
act was obtained for lighting and newly paving
the principal streets: gas lights are now intro-
duced. Among the many charitable institutions,
for the benefit of the poor, are a grammar school,
five charity schools, and a savings bank.
Maidstone sends two members to parliament,
who fire elected by all freemen not receiving
alms or charity; of these there are about 800.
The newly erected Kent fire office forms a
very prominent feature in the High Street oppo-
site the town hall: it is an extensive building
fronted with Portland stone; a uniform frontage
is continued beyond the office, the upper part of
which forms a part of a new tavern, and the
lower part is used as a corn market. Behind
stand the poultry, meat, fish, and vegetable
markets, lately erected at a great expense, and
extending into East Street. The different mar-
ket buildings which before stood in the High
Street are now all taken down. -
About a mile south-east of the town is a seat
termed the Mote, belonging to the earl of Rom-
ney. The ancient house on this estate was taken
down some few years back, and the present
structure erected on a knoll commanding some
fine views. The park is extensive, and is en-
riched by much venerable timber. On the 1st
of August 1799 the late lord Romney (then lord
lieutenant of the county) entertained his majesty
George III., several other branches of the royal
family, many of the cabinet ministers, a numerous
company of the principal noblemen and gentle-
men of the kingdom, and the whole of the volun-
teers of the county. A stone building is erected
on the spot where the king's marquee stood.
MAJESTIC, or Lat. majestas; Gr.
MAJESTICAL, adj. psyac, great. August;
MAJESTICALLY, adv. (grand ; sublime; im-
MAJ'ESTY, n.s. perial; regal : majesty
is dignity; grandeur; regal or imperial sway; a
title of those who bear such sway; great or awful
appearance, or effect.
in lyk maner also these that defoulen the fleasche,
and dispisen lordschip, and blasſemen maiestee.
- Wiclif. Jud. 1.
Thine, O Lord, is the power and majesty.
1 Chron. xxix.
The voice of the Lord is full of majesty.
Psalm xxix. 4.
He gave Nebuchadnezzar thy father majesty.
Dan. v. 18.
It was no mean thing which he purposed; to per-
form a work so majestical and stately was no small
charge. - Hooker.
Most royal majesty,
I crave no more than what your highness offered,
Nor will you tender less. . . Shakspeare. King Lear.
They made a doubt
Presence majestical would put him out:
For, quoth the king, an angel shalt thou see,
Yet fear not thou, but speak audaciously.
Shakspeare.
Get the start of the majestick world,
And bear the palm alone.
Shakspeare. Julius Caesar.
Which passage doth not only argue an infinite
abundance, both of artizans and materials, but like-
wise of magnificent and majestical desires in every
common person. . Wotton.
The hugeness of thy work, O God, is little inferior
for admiration to the majesty of it. Bp. Hall.
In his face
Sate meekness, heightened with majestick grace.
Denham.
He, who had been always believed a creature of
the queen, visited her majesty but once in six weeks.
s Clarendom.
Amidst e
Thick clouds, and dark, doth Heaven's all ruling Sire
Chuse to reside, his glory unobscured,
MAI
MAI
447
And with the majesty of darkness round
Covers his throne. Milton's Paradise Lost.
I have a garden open to the sea,
From whence I can your majesty convey -
To some nigh friend, Waller.
The first in loftiness of thought surpassed,
The next in majesty. Dryden.
The least portions must be of the epic kind; all
must be grave, majestical, and sublime. Id.
From Italy a wandering ray
Of moving light illuminates the day;
Northward she bends, majestically bright,
And here she fixes her imperial light.
Granville.
Great, without pride, in sober majesty. Pope.
A royal robe he wore with graceful pride,
Embroidered sandals glittered as he trod,
And forth he moved, majestick as a god.
Pope's Odyssey.
So have I seen in black and white, .
A prating thing, a magpie hight,
Majestically stalk;
A stately worthless animal,
That plies the tongue, and wags the tail,
All flutter, pride, and talk. Swift.
Wherefore darts the mind,
With such resistless ardour to embrace
Majestic forms. Akenside.
Girt with many a baron bold,
Sublime their starry fronts they rear ;
And gorgeous dames, and statesmen old,
In bearded majesty appear. Gray.
MAJESTY is derived from major, Lat. greater,
and status, state. The emperor of Austria is
called his imperial apostolic majesty. The king
of Spain, his most Catholic majesty; and the
king of Portugal, his most Faithful majesty.
The king of France is called his most Christian
majesty. As to other kings, the name of the
kingdom is prefixed; as his Britannic majesty,
his Sardinian majesty, &c.; before the reign of
Charles V. the king of Spain had only the title
of highness; and before that of Henry VIII.
the kings of England were only addressed under
the titles of grace and highness. Under the
Roman republic, the title majesty (majestas) be-
longed to the whole body of the people, and to
the principal magistrates : so that to diminish or
wound the majesty of the commonwealth was,
to be wanting in respect to the state or to its mi-
nisters. But, the power afterwards passing into
the hands of a single person, the appellation of
majesty was transferred to the emperor and the
imperial family. Pliny compliments Trajan on
his being contented with the title of greatness;
and speaks very invidiously of those who affect-
ed that of majesty.
MAIGNAN (Emanual), a religious minim,
and one of the greatest philosophers of his age,
was born of an ancient and noble family at
Thoulouse in 1601. Like the famous Pascal, he
became a mathematician without a teacher ; and
filled the professor's chair at Rome in 1636,
where, at the expense of cardinal Spada, he pub-
lished his book De Perspectivā Horariä. He
returned to Thoulouse in 1650, and was created
provincial : and the king, who in 1660 often en-
tertained himself with the machines and curiosi-
ties in his cell, made him offers through cardinal
Mazarine, to induce him to fix his residence in
Paris; but he preferred his cloister. He pub-
lished A Course of Philosophy, 4 vols. 8vo., at
Thoulouse; to the second edition of which he
added two treatises, one against the vortices of
Descartes; and the other on the speaking trum-
pet invented by Sir Samuel Morland. He is
said to have studied even in his sleep, “his very
dreams being employed in theorems, the demon-
strations of which would awaken him with joy!"
He died in 1676.
MAIHIDPORE, a town of Hindostan, in the
province of Malwah, situated on the banks of the
Soprah. In the vicinity was fought on the 21st
of December 1817 a severe battle between the
troops of Holkar and the British, in which the
former was defeated with the loss of all his artil-
lery. It is twenty miles north of the city of
Oojain, the capital of Scindia.
MAII INDUCTIo, an ancient custom for the
priest and people of country villages to go in
procession to some adjoining wood on a May day
morning; and return in a kind of triumph, with
a May pole, boughs, flowers, garlands, and other
tokens of the spring. This May game, or re-
joicing at the coming of the spring, was long ob-
served, and is so still in some parts of England;
but bishop Grosthead thought there was so much
“heathen vanity' in it, that it was condemned
and prohibited within the diocese of Lincoln.
MAIL, n. s. & v. a. Fr. maille ; Ital. maglia :
Belg. maelis; Span. malla. Skinner derives our
word from the Ital, málle, the mesh of a net:
but the Goth, mal (Swed. malja) a link or di-
vision, is more probably suggested by Mr.
Thomson. A coat of armour; to cover with ar-
mour; or as in defence.
I am thy married wife,
And thou a prince, protector of this land;
Methinks I should not thus be led along,
Mailed up in shame, with papers on my back.
t Shakspeare.
The mailed Mars shall on his altar sit
Up to the ears in blood. Id. Henry IV
Some shirts of mail, some coats of plate put on,
Some donned a curace, some a corslet bright.
Fairfax.
Being advised to wear a privy coat, the duke gave
this answer, That against any popular fury, a shirt
of mail would be but a silly defence. Wotton.
Some wore a coat-armour, imitating scale,
And next their skin were stubborn shirts of mail;
Some wore a breast-plate. Dryden's Knight's Tale.
We strip the lobster of his scarlet mail. Gay.
At full my huge Leviathan shall rise,
Boast all his strength, and spread his wondrous size:
Who great in arms, e'er stripped his shining mail,
Or crowned his triumph with a single scale.
- - Young.
Then let them wield the thunder,
Fell is their dint who're mailed in despair.
Let mortal might sever the grasp of Bertram.
Maturin
MAIL, n.s. Fr. male, mallette. Or pro-
MAIL-CoAcH. ; bably from the use of mail
armour as a close covering. A bag or portman-
teau; a postman's bundle or bag; the collection
of letters belonging to a postman, or despatched
from the post-office; mail-coach, the modern
and most excellent invention for transporting
them.
This goth aright; unbockled is the male.
Chaucer. Cant. Tales.
MAI
MAI
448
But, sires, o word forgate I in my 'ale ;
I have reliques and pardon in my male
As faire as any man in Englelond,
Which were me yeven by the pope's hond. Id.
The same prince erected a letter-office for England
and Scotland, under the direction of the same Thomas
Witherings, and settled certain rules of postage: but
this extended only to a few of the principal roads,
the times of carriage were uncertain, and the post-
masters on each road were required to furnish the
mail with horses at the rate of 24d. a mile.
Dr. A. Rees.
Mr. Palmer's modern invention of mail-coaches has
been found highly convenient and useful, not only
for the safe and expeditious conveyance of letters,
but also of passengers. Those who have travelled
in these vehicles need not be informed of their rapid
motion. ... - ld.
MAIL, or MAILL, on ship-board, a square
machine composed of a number of rings inter-
woven net-wise, and used for rubbing off the
loose hemp which remains on white cordage after
it is made. -
MAIL, or MAILLE, in old English writers, a
small kind of money. Silver halfpence were
likewise termed mailles, 9 Henry V. By inden-
ture in the mint a pound weight of old sterling
silver was to be coined into 360 sterlings or pen-
nies, or 720 mails or half-pennies, or 1440 far-
things. Hence the word mail was derived, which
is still used in Scotch law for an annual rent.
MAIL, or MALL, also signifies a round ring of
iron; whence the play of pall-mall, from palla,
a ball, and maille, the round ring through which
it is to pass.
MAIL CoACHES. See CoAcH.
MAIL, CoAT of. It is called also an haber-
geon. Anciently they also wore shirts of mail
under the waistcoat, to serve as a defence against
swords and poniards. They wore also gloves of
mail. See ARMoUR.
MAILAH, a river of the Bled-el-Jereede,
which rises to the south of Algiers, and falls into
the desert plain called the Shott. .
MAILCOTTA, a town of the Mysore, Hin-
dostan, situated on a hill which commands a
view of the extensive valley watered by the
Cavery. It is a celebrated place of Hindoo wor-
ship, and possesses a large temple surrounded by
a colonade containing a large reservoir, on the
banks of which are numerous buildings for the
reception of pilgrims. The idols of this temple
are covered with jewels; and such is the vene-
ration in which it is held, that Tippoo Sultan
would not venture to plunder it. In the vicinity
the Mahrattas gained a complete victory over
Hyder Aly in the year 1772; and it was here
that the Mahratta chiefs joined lord Cornwallis
in 1791. The town consists of about 400 re-
spectable houses occupied by Brahmins. Long.
76° 52' E., lat. 12° 38' N.
MAILLA (Joseph-Anne-Marie de Moyriac
de), a learned Jesuit, born in the castle of
Maissac in Bugey, 1670, and appointed a mis-
sionary to China, whither he went in 1703. At
the age of twenty-eight he had acquired consi-
derable skill in the characters, arts, sciences,
mythology, and ancient books of the Chinese,
and was greatly esteemed by the emperor Kam-
Hi. who died in 1722. He and other mission-
aries were employed by that prince to draw a
chart of China and Chinese Tartary, which was
engraved in France in 1732. He likewise drew
charts of some of the Chinese provinces; with
which the emperor was so pleased, that he set-
tled the author at his court. The annals of China
were also translated into French by Mailla, and
his MS. was transmitted to France in 1737. This
work was published in 12 vols. 4to., under the
inspection of M. Grosier, and is the first com-
plete history of that extensive empire. F. Mailla,
after having resided forty-five years in China,
died at Pekin on the 28th of June 1748, in the
seventy-ninth year of his age. Kien Long, the
emperor, paid the expenses of his funeral.
MAILLET (Benedict de), descended from a
noble family in Lorraine, was born in 1659, and
appointed in 1692 consul-general for Egypt.
He fulfilled this office for sixteen years with
great ability, supported the king's authority
against the janizaries, and greatly extended the
trade of France into that part of Africa. As a
recompense for his services, Louis XIV. bestowed
upon him the consulship of Leghorn. Being
appointed in 1715 to visit the sea-ports in the
Levant, and on the coast of Barbary, he was so
successful, that he was permitted to retire with
a considerable pension. He settled at Marseilles;
where he died in 1738, in the seventy-ninth year
of his age. He was a man of a lively imagina-
tion, gentle manners, and the strictest probity.
He paid particular attention to natural history,
and was anxious to investigate the origin of our
globe. On this important subject he left some
curious observations, which have been published
in 8vo. under the title of Telliamed. An Indian
philosopher is introduced as explaining to a
French missionary his opinion concerning the
nature of the globe, and the origin of mankind.
His great object is to prove that all the strata of
which this globe is composed, even to the tops
of the highest mountains, arose originally from
the bosom of the waters. He dedicated his book
to the illustrious Cyrano de Bergerac, author of
Travels to the Sun and Moon. A Description of
Egypt was collected from his memoirs by Mas-
crier in 1743, 4to., or in 2 vols. 12mo.
MAIM, m. s. & v. a. Goth. maitan; Ital.
maidham ; Old Fr. maimis, to mutilate. A mu-
tilation or defect; privation of some essential
part; injury: to maim, to inflict such injury.
The multitude wondered when they saw the dumb
to speak, the maimed to be whole, and the lame to
walk; and they glorified God. Matthew xv. 31.
Surely there is more cause to fear, lest the want
thereof be a maim, than the use a blemish.
Hooker.
Humphry, duke of Glo'ster, scarce himself,
That bears so shrewd a maim ; two pulls at once ;
A lady banish't, and a limb lopt off? * A
-- - Shakspeare.
You wrought to be legate; by which power
You maimed the jurisdiction of all bishops. Id.
Not so deep a maim, -
As to be cast forth in the common air
Have I deserved. Id. Richard II.
A noble author esteems it to be a maim in history
that the acts of parliament should not be recited.
Hayward.
|MAI
MAI
449
MAIM, MAIHEM, or MAYHEM, in law, a
wound by which a person loses the use of a
member that might have been a defence to him;
as when a boné is broken, a foot, hand, or other
member cut off, or an eye put out; though the
cutting off an ear or nose, or breaking the hinder
teeth, was formerly held to be no maim. A
maim by castration was anciently punished with
death, and other maims with loss of member for
member; but afterwards they were only punished
by fine and imprisonment. It is now enacted,
by the statute 22 and 23 Car. II., that if any
person, from malice aforethought, shall disable
any limb or member of any of the king's subjects,
with an intent to disfigure him, the offender,
with his aiders and abettors, shall be guilty of
felony without benefit of clergy, but shall not
corrupt the blood, or occasion forfeiture of
lands, &c. By stat. 5. Henry IV. c. 5, to reme-
dy a mischief which then prevailed, of beating,
wounding, or robbing a man, and then cutting
out his tongue, or putting out his eyes, to pre-
vent him from being an evidence against the
offenders, this offence is declared to be felony, if'
done of malice prepense; that is, as Coke
explains it, voluntarily, and of set purpose,
though done upon a sudden occasion. Next in
order of time is stat. 27 Henry VIII. c. 6, which
directs that if a man shall maliciously and unlaw-
fully cut off the ear of any of the king's subjects,
, he shall not only forfeit treble damages to the
party grieved, to be recovered by action of tres-
pass at common law, as a civil satisfaction; but
also £10 by way of fine to the king, which was
his criminal amercement. The last statute, but
by far the most severe and effectual of all, is
stat. 22 and 23 Car. II. c. 1, called the Coven-
try Act; being occasioned by an assault on Sir
John Coventry in the street, and slitting his nose,
in revenge (as was supposed) for some obnoxious
words uttered by him in parliament. By this
statute it is enacted, that if any person shall, of
malice aforethought, and by lying in wait,
unlawfully cut out or disable the tongue, put out
an eye, slit the nose, cut off a nose or lip, or cut
off or disable any limb or member of any other
person, with intent to maim and disfigure him,
such person, his counsellors, aiders, and abet-
tors, shall be guilty of felony, without benefit of
clergy; though no attainder of such felony shall
corrupt the blood, or forfeit the dower of the
wife, or lands or goods of the offender.
If a man attack another, of malice aforethought,
in order to murder him, with a bill, or any such
like instrument, which cannot but endanger the
maiming him, and in such attack happen not to
kill, but only to maim him, he may be indicted
of felony on this statute; and it shall be left to
the jury, on the evidence, whether there was
a design to murder by maiming, and conse-
quently a malicious intent to maim as well
as kill, in which case the offence is within the
statute. - •
In a case where a gentleman had apprehended
a pickpocket, an accomplice followed and gave
the gentleman a wound across the nose with
a knife; this was held to be a slitting of the
nose, and a maiming within the statute. It has
been determined, that if a man deliberately
Vol. XIII. -
the statute.
watches an opportunity, and carries his intention
into execution, he may be said to lie in wait;
but where a person went up to a man stealing
turnips, who immediately cut him in the face,
this was thought not to be a lying in wait within
A wound or incision in the throat
has been held not to be a maiming.
MAIMBOURG (Lewis), a celebrated French
Jesuit, born in 1610. He joined the Jesuits in
1626; and acquired great reputation both
as a teacher and a historian. Hé published
Histories of Arianism; of the Iconoclastes; of
Calvinism; of Lutheranism; and of the Cru-
sades. The Jansenists criticised the first two of
these, and the third, was violently opposed ; but
he made no reply. In 1682 he was, by order of
pope Innocent XI., expelled the Society of
Jesuits, for his zeal in defending the liberty of
the Gallican church against the Ultramontanes,
but Louis XIV. made him amends by a large
pension. He retired into the abbey of St. Vic-
tor, where he died in 1686.
MAIMONIDES (Moses), or Moses the son
of Maimon, a celebrated rabbi, called by the
Jews the eagle of the doctors, was born of an
illustrious family at Cordova in Spain, in 1131.
He is also called Moses Agyptius, because he
settled in Egypt, where he spent his life as
physician to the sultan. He also opened a
school, which was soon filled with pupils from
Alexandria, Damascus, &c., who spread his fame
over all the world. He was no less eminent in
philosophy, mathematics, and divinity, than in
medicine. His reputation was so great that he
was applied to for advice and counsel by per-
sons of the very first rank. Among others, the
rabbi Aben Tybbon proposed to pay him a visit,
that they might discuss some important subjects
at length in conversation. To which Maimon-
ides replied, that nothing would afford him
greater pleasure than such an interview: never-
theless his own time was so fully occupied that
he could scarcely promise him his company for
a single hour, either in the day or at night: ‘I
live,’ said he, “at the distance of nearly two sab-
bath-days’ journey from Al-Cairo, where the
king resides. On him the duties of my appoint-
ment require a very regular attendance. I gene-
rally visit him every morning; but when either
himself, or any of his children, or of his concu-
bines, are sick, I am not allowed to stir from the
palace, so that I very often spend the whole day
at court: if I find nothing amiss at court,
I return home towards moon, but when arrived at
my house, almost famished for want of food,
I find all the approaches to it crowded with
Gentiles and Jews, men of all ranks, who have
been impatiently waiting my return, No sooner
have I alighted from my horse, and washed my
hands, than I humbly request the indulgence of
the multitude till I have appeased my craving
appetite. As soon as I have dined, I examine
the cases of my patients, and prescribe for them.
This employment commonly lasts till night,
when I am so overcome with the fatigue of
hearing, speaking, and prescribing, that I can
scarcely speak any longer, or even keep myself
awake.” Maimonides died at the age of seventy,
in the 1204th year of the Christian era, and was
2 G
|MAI
MAI
45'
interred, with the highest funeral honors, in
Upper Galilee. For three whole years did the
people at large.bewail his death: they called the
year in which it took place, lamentum lamenta-
bile; and in speaking of him, they used to say
that, from the time, of Moses the prophet, no one
approached so near to him in wisdom and
sound learning as Moses the son of Maimon.
Notwithstanding his avocations as a physician,
he devoted much of his time to the composition
of learned works, a few of which may be men-
tioned: the first he produced was his, Pirush
Hemishnah, or a commentary on the Mishna,
which he began in Spain, when he was in the
twenty-third year of his age, and finished in
Egypt when he was about thirty. It was written
in the Arabic language, and translated into
Hebrew by rabbi Aben Tybbon. The best
edition of this work is published with the Mishna,
at Amsterdam, in 1698, in 16 vols. folio. His
next work is entitled Jad Chazekeh, or Strong
Hand, which is also named Mishna Hathora, or
the Reception of the Law: it consists of a com-
pendium of the Talmud, and presents a com-
plete code of Jewish, civil, and canon law, with
a commentary. The best edition is that of Am-
sterdam, in 1702, in 4 vols. folio. The principal
work of this great man is entitled More Nevo-
chim, or Guide to the Perplexed, which is
partly critical, partly philosophical, and partly
theological; its design being to illustrate and
explain the meaning of the Scriptures. It was
translated from the Arabic into Hebrew by rabbi
Aben Tybbon in the year 1551, and published
at Venice; Buxtorf the younger gave an excel-
lent version of it in the Latin tongue, which was
published at Basil in 1629. Another important
work of Maimonides is his Sepher Hamitzoth,
Book of Commandments, containing an expo-
sition of the Mosaical law. The titles of his other
works may be seen in Wolfii Biblioth. Hebr.
MAIN, adj. & n.s.) . Old Fr. magne, of Lat.
MAIN'LAND, n.s. magnus, great. There is
MAIN'LY, adv. also a Goth. megn, magn;
MAIN'MAST, n. s. Saxon megme: ; Teut.
MAIN'sAIL, ſmegin. Great; huge;
MAIN'SHEET, mighty; chief; principal;
MAIN'Top, leading; gross; impor-
MAIN'YARD. J tant: as a substantive,
the bulk; sum total; whole; greatest part ;
power; vigilance; the ocean; great and open
sea; mainland, continent; a large expanse of
land: mainly, follows the various senses of
main : mainmast is the chief or middle mast of
a ship: mainsail and mainsheet, the sail of that
mast: maintop, its top; and mainyard, its yard.
. . They committed themselves unto the sea, and
hoisted up the mainsail to the wind, and made to-
wards shore. . . . . . . . . . . Acts.
He ‘gan advance
With huge force, and importable.main,
And towards him with dreadful fury prance.
- 1 - Spenser.
Ne was it island then, -
But was all desolate, and of some thought -
By sea to have been from the Celtick mainland
brought. ld.
In every grand or main publick duty which God
requireth of his church, there is, besides that matter
and form wherein the essence thereof consisteth, a
certain outward fashion, whereby the same is in de-
cent manner administered... . . . . ..., Hooker.
There is a history in all men's lives,
Figuring the nature of the times deceased;
The which observed, a man may prophesy,
With a near aim, of the main chance of things,
As yet not come to life. Shakspeare. Henry IV.
Think you question with a Jew :
You may as well go stand upon the beach,
And bid the main flood bate his usual height.
t ... Shakspeare.
- . . We ourselves will follow ſº
In the main battle, which on either side , , ,
Shall be well winged with our chiefest home,
. . . . Where's the king? . .
—Bid the wind blow the earth into the sea,
Or swell the curled waters 'bove the main,
That things might change. . Id. King Lear,
In 1589 we turned challengers, and invaded the
main of Spain. Bacon's War with Spain.
When a man’s stock is come to that, that he can
expect the prime of markets, and overcome those
bargains, which, for their greatness, are few men's
money, and be partner in the industries of younge
men, he cannot but increase mainly. Bacon.
This young prince, with a train of young noble
men and gentlemen, but not with any main army.
came over to take possession of his new patrimony.
. . . . . . . . . . . Davies on Ireland.
They allowed the liturgy and government of the
church of England as to the main. King Charles,
That vessel, that seemed very small upon th
main, seems a tall ship upon the Thämes.
- . Bp. Hall.
These flaws, though mortals fear them,
As dangerous to the pillared frame of heaven,
Or to the earth's dark basis underneath,
Are to the main inconsiderable. . . . . . A.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . Milton's Paradise Lost.
I should be much for open war, Opeers,
If what was urged, , , -
* , , ; ;
Main reason to persuade immediate war,
Did not dissuade me most. . . . . . Id.
. . . That, which thou aright
Believest so main to 'our success, I bring. .
Milton.
r A brutish vice, r
Inductive mainly to the sin of Eve. Id.
t With might and main.
He hasted to get up again. . . Hudibras.
They are mainly reducible to three., . More.
Our main interest is to be as happy as we can
and as long as possible, , , ; ; , , ... Tillotson.
Nor tell me in a dying father's tone,
Be careful still of the main chance, my son;
Put out the principal in trusty hands;,
Live on the use, and never dip thy lands.
r . 2 . . Dryden.
He fell, and struggling in the main,
Cried out for helping hands, but cried in vain.
With might and main they chaced the murderou
t , fox, , - * {
With brazen trumpets, and inflated box. . . Id.
Those whom Tyber's holy forests hide, .
Or Circe's hills from the mainland divide.
. . . One dire shot... . . . . . .
. Close by the board the prince's mainmast bore.
Id.
Strike, strike the top-sail; let the mainsheet fly,
And furl your sails. . . . - Id.
From their maintop joyful news they hear .
Of ships, which by their mould bring new suppº
M A I N E.
451
All creatures look to the main chance, that is, food
and propagation. L’Estrange.
A Dutchman, upon breaking his leg by a fall from
a mainmast, told the standers-by it was a mercy it
was not his neck. Spectator.
Dictys could the maintup-mast bestride,
And down the ropes with active vigour slide.
Addison.
Say, why should the collected main
Itself within itself contain 3
Why to its caverns should it sometimes creep,
And with delightful silence sleep {
On the loved bosom of its parent deep
Prior.
The metallick matter, now found in the perpendi-
cular intervals of the strata, was originally lodged
in the bodies of those strata, being interspersed
amongst the matter whereof the said strata mainly
COnS1St. Woodward's Natural History.
With sharp hooks they took hold of the tackling
which held the mainyard to the mast; then rowing
they cut the tackling, and brought the mainyard by
the board. ! Arbuthnot.
Nor is it only in the main design, but they have
followed him in every episode. Pope.
Whilst they have busied themselves in various
learning, they have been wanting in the one main
thing. - - Baker.
Have you beheld how, from the distant main,
The thronging waves roll on, a numerous train,
And foam, and bellow, till they reach the shore,
There burst their noisy pride, and are no more?
- Young.
But why o’ death begin a tale 1
Just now we’re living sound and hale,
Then top and maintop crowd the sail,
Heave care owne side
And large, before enjoyment's gale,
Let's tak the tide.
MAIN, n.s. ) Lat, manus, the
MAIN'PERNOR, hand. A hand at
MAIN'PRISE, n.s. & v. a. Ş dice: mainprise is
of French origin ; i.e. of main (Lat. manus) and
ris (captus), taken; and signifies the delivery
bf a man into friendly custody; bail: the main-
pernor is the receiver of a person into such cus-
ody.
Burns.
Were it good,
To set the exact wealth of all our states
All at one cast ; to set so rich a main
In the nice hazard of one doubtful hour?
Shakspeare.
He enforced the earl himself to fly, till twenty-six
loblemen became mainpernors for his appearance at
certain day; but, he making default, the uttermost
dvantage was taken against his sureties.
Davies on Ireland.
Sir William Bremingham was executed for treason,
hough the earl of Desmond was left to mainprize.
Davies.
Give its poor entertainer quarter;
And, by discharge or mainprize, grant
Delivery from this base restraint, Hudibras.
To pass our tedious hours away,
We throw a merry main. Earl Dorset's Song.
Writing is but just like dice,
And lucky mains make people wise:
That jumbled words, if fortune throw 'em,
'Shall, well as Dryden, form a poem. Prior.
MAIN is usually applied by seamen to what-
yer is principal, as opposed to whatever is
scondary. Thus the main land is used in con-
adistinction to an island or peninsula; and the
main mast, the main wale, the main keel, and the
main hatchway, are distinguished from the fore
and mizen masts, the channel wales, the false
keel, and the fore and aft hatchways, &c.
MAINA, a mountainous district of the Morea,
Greece, comprising the south-eastern part of the
ancient province of Laconia, but inhabited by a
brave and very superior race of men. See
an ample account of them in our article GREECE,
vol. X. p. 637. It is the least fertile part of the
peninsula.
MAINE, DISTRICT OF, forming a part of the
state of Massachusetts, North America, is bounded
north-west and north by Lower Canada, east by
New Brunswick, south-east and south by the
Atlantic, and west by New Hampshire. Its
length on the northern frontier is 280 miles, on
the eastern 210; greatest length from north to
south 225, and greatest breadth from east to
west 195; and it is estimated to contain 32,628
Square miles. -
The counties, number of towns, population,
and chief towns, are exhibited in the following
table t—

Counties. Towns. Population. ChiefTowns.
Cumberland 24 42,831 | Portland
Hancock 21 22,560 Castine
Kennebeck 33 32,564 Augusta
Lincoln 33 42,992 Wiscasset
Oxford 28 17,630 Paris
Penobscot 20 7,471 Bangor
- 5 Norridge-
Somerset 26 12,910 |{...”
Washington | 10 | 7,870 Machias
$ York
York 22 || 41,877 || Aiſºd
Total || 217 |228,705
Portland is the chief town. The other most
considerable towns, excepting the county towns
exhibited in the preceding table, are Bath, Hal-
lowell, Kennebunk, Saco, Gardiner, Waterville,
Belfast, Frankfort, Bucksport, Eastport, Bruns-
wick, South Berwick, and Fryeburg. There
are thirteen banks in this district.
There is a college at Brunswick, theological
schools at Hampden and Waterville, and aca-
demies have been established at the following
places, Augusta, Bath, Belfast, South Berwick,
Bloomfield, Bluehill, Bridgeton, Bristol, China,
Farmington, Fryeburg, Gorham, Hallowell,
Hampden, Hebron, Limerick, Machias, Mon- .
mouth, Newcastle, North Yarmouth, Portland,
Saco, Warren, and Wiscasset.
academies have but small funds, and they are
not all in operation. Good schools are sup-
ported in all those parts of the district that have
been long settled.
The most numerous denominations of Christians
in the district of Maine are, Congregationalists,
who have 115 Churches; and Baptists, who have
112 churches. The Friends have thirty-two meet-
ings. There are some Methodists, and a few Epis-
copalians. The citizens of Maine are under the
same government, and have the same rights and
privileges as the citizens of Masaº Proper.
2 G 2
Most of these . .
452
M A I N E.
This district sends seven representatives to con-
SS. -
The principal rivers are the Penobscot, Ken-
nebeck, Androscoggin, Saco, St. Croix, and St.
Johns. The principal bays are Casco, Penob-
scot, Frenchman's, Englishman's, Machia's, and
Passamaquoddy. -
Moosehead, Umbagog, Sebago, Schoondic, and
several others farther in the interior.
Maine is rather an elevated country, having
generally a diversified surface. A tract com-
mencing on the west side of the district, east of
the White Mountains in New Hampshire, and
holding a north-east direction as far as the heads
of the Aroostic, about 160 miles in length and
sixty in its greatest breadth, is mountainous.
Katahdin Mountain, in this range, is supposed to
be the highest land between the Atlantic and the
St. Lawrence. There is also a small mountain-
ous tract in the northern extremity. The re-
mainder of the district may be considered,
generally, as a moderately hilly country.
The tract of country along the sea-coast, from
ten to twenty miles wide, embraces all the varie-
ties of sandy, gravelly, clayey, and loamy soils,
frequently interspersed at short distances; sel-
dom very rich; in many places tolerably fertile,
but generally poor. Of this section Indian corn,
rye, barley, grass, &c., are the principal produc-
tions. In the tract lying north of this, and ex-
tending fifty miles from the sea in the western,
eighty in the central, and ninety in the eastern
part, the same kinds of soil are found, but they
are less frequently diversified, and generally
more fertile. The surface rises into large swells
of generally good soil, between which, on the
margin of the streams, are frequently rich inter-
vals, and in other places Sandy or gravelly pine
plains, or spruce and cedar swamps. Of this
section the principal productions are grass,
Indian corn, wheat, barley, rye, flax, &c.
The country beyond the limits above specified
is but little settled. It exhibits great diversities
in the appearance of its soil, growth of timber,
and also in climate. The land on the Kenne-
beck, and between this river and the Penobscot,
is accounted the best in the district. It is well
adapted to the various purposes of agriculture,
and, as a grazing country, it is one of the finest
in New England.
An estimate of the quantity of grain produced an-
nually, and of the average product per acre in six
of the counties, is exhibited in the following table:
| is t = * | *
35 ,5 Tº .: d; #
*. - *- : © . ord 'B º
Counties. | * = 2, # .5 = | ". .
#: # 3 | #" ºf #:
##| | ##| | ###|##
3's ſº a dº. 3 #5 | < 3.
York 12,350 122,807 || 26,860 || 14
Oxford 14,508 42,346 |115,792 18
Cumberl. 16,993 || 93,887 29,127 | 15
Lincoln 20,188 || 82,564 24,426 18
Kenneb. 29,003 || 73,559 || 14,409 19
Somerset 9,828 21,842 7,734 18
Average 17
The most noted lakes are
Though the climate of Maine is subject to
great extremes of heat and cold, yet the air in
all parts of the country is pure and salubrious.
The summers in most parts are favorable to the
growth of all the vegetable productions of the
northern states. In some parts, however, Indian
corn, and some other plants of a more tender
kind, are frequently injured, and sometimes
destroyed, by frosts late in the spring and early
in autumn. The cold of winter is severe, yet the
Serenity of the sky, and the invigorating influence
of the atmosphere, during the same season,
make amends, in some degree, for the severity
of the weather. It is said that an inhabitant on
Kennebeck River requires more clothing in win-
ter to keep him comfortable in Boston than at
home. Maine enjoys great facilities for com-
merce. The coast is indented with bays, abound-
ing in excellent harbours. All the settled parts
of the country lie near a market, and the pro-
duce of the farmer is readily exchanged for
money, at a good price. When the attention of
the inhabitants of this district shall be more
generally turned towards improvement in agri-
culture, and the resources of the country more
fully developed, Maine will doubtless rise in the
scale of comparison with other parts of New
England. The principal article of export is
lumber. Vast quantities of boards, shingles,
clapboards, masts, spars, &c., are transported to
the neighbouring states, to the West Indies, and
to Europe. Much of the firewood consumed in
Boston, and Salem, is brought from Maine.
Dried fish and pickled salmon are considerable
articles of export. Beef, pork, butter, pot and
pearl ashes, and some grain, are also among the
exports. Great quantities of lime are annually
exported to Thomastown. Limestone and bog
iron ore abound in many places.
In manufacturing articles of prime necessity
Maine greatly exceeds her proportion, when
compared with the average of the United States.
The principal manufactures consist of cotton and
woollen cloths, hats, shoes, boots, leather, iron,
nails, distilled spirits, and cordage. &
MAINE, one of the large rivers of Germany,
has its course in the west of the empire, and is
formed by the union of the Red and White
Maine, which rise among the mountains of Fran-
conia, and unite near Steinhaus. It now takes
a meandering course through the Bavarian circles
of the Upper and Lower Maine, flows by Frank.
fort, and falls with a wide channel into the
Rhine, opposite to Mentz. In its course it i.
joined by a number of rivers, the principal o
which are the Franconian Saale, the Regnitz
the Tauber, and the Rodach. The Maine is na
vigable to Bamberg.
MAINE, LoweR, a province of the Bavaria
states, comprising the territories in Franconi
acquired by the treaty of Vienna in 1815 and th
exchanges consequent on that treaty, is the gran
duchy of Wurzburg, the principality of Fulda
and portions of the grand duchies of Hesse an
Fulda. The whole form an extensive provinc

adjoining Baden, Hesse-Cassel, and Hesse
Darmstadt, having an area of about 3000 squar
miles, and a population of 423,000: it is subdi
vided into districts, like the rest of the Bavaria
states. The surface is hilly, except in the neigh
|MAI
MAI -
453
bourhood of Wurzburg, one of the most beautiful
and fertile parts of Germany. Among the hills,
especially on the woody tract of the Spessart, it
is much less productive. Wine is the principal
product; but the country about Wurzburg pro-
duces corn for exportation. The only mineral
found in abundance is salt: the manufactures are
trifling. The chief forests are those on the hills
of the Rhoen, the Steigerwald, and the Spessart.
The chief religion is the Catholic, but there are
many Lutherans, and some Anabaptists. The
chief town is Wurzburg.
MAINE, UPPER, a circle or province of the
Bavarian states, comprising the principalities of
Bamberg, Upper Bayreuth, and the northern
part of the Upper Palatinate. It adjoins Bohemia
and Saxony, and has an area 3460 square miles,
and 434,000 inhabitants. The chief town is
Bayreuth, but a court of appeal sits at Bamberg.
This province contains the extensive range called
the Fichtelgebirge, and has all the characteristics
of a hilly country, such as a keen but pure air,
mines, and a light soil, more adapted to pastur-
age, the cultivation of hemp or flax, and the
growth of timber, than to corn. But in the
neighbourhood of Bamberg the soil is of great
fertility. Manufactures of the articles produced
In the province, viz. the metals, flax, and timber,
are conducted with great activity.
in particular, affords the means of an active
traffic. All religious sects are tolerated, and the
two great parties are pretty equally divided, the
Protestants being most numerous in Bayreuth,
and the Catholics in the rest of the province.
MAINE ET Loire, a department of the west of
France, comprising a portion of Anjou, and the
western part of Touraine, and contiguous to the
department of the Mayenne, the Sarthe, and the
Indre and Loire. Its extent is nearly 4000
square miles: its population about 400,000.
This territory is intersected by hills; the inter-
vening tracts, with the exception of a few marshy
districts, are fertile; the soil consisting of a mix-
ture of black rich mould with a lighter sort of
earth. The principal rivers are the Loire, the
Mayenne, the Sarthe, the Authion, the Layon,
and the Verzee. The products are corn, flax,
hemp, fruit, and wine. Of vines, the quantity
raised is not inconsiderable; but they are for
the most part made into brandy. Coal is
found to the annual amount of about 3000 tons,
and considerable quantities of linen are manu-
factured. The department belongs to the twenty-
second military division, and is divided into five
arrondissements, viz. Angers (the capital), Segre,
Bauge, Saumur, Beaupreau: these are subdi-
vided into thirty-four cantons, and 385 com-
In UlneS.
MAINE AND TAUBER, one of the ten circles of
Baden. It comprehends the north-east corner
of the grand duchy, and a small tract on the
Maine, at some distance from the rest. The po-
pulation is about 96,000. It is divided into
eight bailiwics: the chief town is Wertheim.
MAINLAND, or Pomona, the largest of the
ORKNEY ISLANDs, which see.
MAINLAND of SHETLAND, the largest of the
SHETLAND ISLEs, which see.
MAINOUR, MANour, or MEINoUR, from the
The last,
French manier, i. e. manu tractare, in a legal
sense denotes the thing that a thief taketh away"
or stealeth; to be taken with the mainour is to
be taken with the thing stolen about him : and
again it was presented, that a thief was deli,
vered to the sheriff or viscount, together with.
the mainour. If a man be indicted, that he
feloniously stole the goods of another, where, in
truth, they are his own goods, and the goods be
brought into court as the mainour; and if it be
demanded of him, what he saith to the goods,
and he disclaim them: though he be acquitted
of the felony, he shall lose the goods. If the
defendant were taken with the mainour, and the
mainour be carried to the court, they, in ancient
times, would arraign him upon the mainour, with-
out any appeal or indictment—Cowel. Blackst.
Comment.
|MAINPERNORS differ from bail in that a
man's bail may imprison, or surrender him up
before the appointed day of appearance; main-
pernors can do neither, but are barely sureties
for his appearance at the day: bail are only
sureties, answerable for the special matter for
which they stipulate; mainpernors are bound
to produce him to answer all charges whatever.
MAIN PRISE, or MAIN PRIZE. See IMPRISON-
MENT. The writ of mainprize, manucaptio, is a
writ directed to the sheriff (either generally,
when any man is imprisoned for a bailable of
fence, and bail has been refused; or specially,
when the offence or cause of comment is not
properly bailable below), commanding him to
take sureties for the prisoner's appearance,
usually called mainpernors, and to set him at
large. -
MAINTAIN", v. a. & v. m. S. Fr. maintenir ;
MAINTAIN"ABLE, adj. Ital, mantenare;
MAINTAIN’ER, n.s. y Span. mantener;
MAIN'TENANCE. Port. manter: all
of Lat. manu tenere. To uphold; support, pre-
serve ; keep ; keep up ; defend; continue : main-
tainable is, defensible; justifiable : maintainer,
he who supports; defends; preserves: mainte-
nance is used by Chaucer for carriage; general
behaviour: in modern times it follows the sense
of the other derivatives.
If a woman maintain her husband she is full of
anger and much reproach. Ecclus. xxv. 22.
It was my swete right al her selve ;
She had so stedfast countenaunce,
So noble porte and maintenaunce.
- The Dreme of Chaucer.
He dedicates the work to Sir Philip Sidney, a
special maintainer of all learning.
Spenser's Pastorals.
The beginning and cause of this ordinance amongst
the Irish was for the defence and maintenance of their
lands in their posterity. Id. on Ireland.
It was St. Paul's choice to maintain himself,
whereas in living by the church's maintenance, as
others did, there had been no offence committed.
W Hooker.
They knew that no man might in reason take upon
him to determine his own right, and according to his
own determination proceed in maintenance *;
t d.
If any man of quality will maintain upon Edward
earl of Glo'ster, that he is a manifold traitor, let him
appear Shakspeare,
MAI
MAJ
454
i.
Maintain talk with the duke, that my charity be
not of him perceived. Id. King Lear. .
I seek not to wax great by others waining;
Sufficeth, that I have maintains my state,
And sends the poor well pleased from my gate.
* . º - Shakspeare.
These possessions, being unlawfully gotten, could
not be maintained by the just and honourable law of
England. Davies.
Being made lord lieutenant of Bulloine, the walls
sore beaten and shaken, and scarce maintainable, he
defended the place against the dauphin.
* Hayward.
Lord Roberts was full of contradiction in his
temper, and of parts so much superior to any in
the company, that he could too well maintain and
iustify those contradictions. Clarendon.
The ingredients being prescribed in their sub-
stance, maintain the blood in a gentle fermentation,
reclude oppilations, and mundify it. Harvey.
This place, these pledges of your love, maintain.
Dryden.
In tragedy and satire, I maintain against some of
our modern criticks, that this age and the last have
excelled the ancients. Id. Juvenal.
God values no man more or less, in placing him
high or low, but every one as he maintains his post.
Grew's Cosmologia.
It is hard to maintain the truth, but much harder
to be maintained by it. Could it ever yet feed,
cloath, or defend its assertors? South.
The maintainers and cherishers of a regular devo-
tion, a true and decent piety. Id. Sermons.
Here ten thousand images remain
Without confusion, and their rank maintain.
Blackmore.
Those of better fortune not making learning their
maintenance, take degrees with little improvement.
Swift.
Nothing can be more unphilosophical than to be
positive or dogmatical on any subject; and even if
excessive scepticism could be maintained, it would
not be more destructive to all just reasoning and in-
quiry. - Hume.
MAINTENANCE, in law, bears a near relation
to Barretry; being an officious intermeddling in
a suit that does not belong to one, by maintaining
or assisting either party, with money or other-
wise, to prosecute or defend it. This is an of-
fence against public justice, as it keeps alive strife
and contention, and perverts the remedial pro-
cess of the law into an engine of oppression.
By the Roman law, it was a species of the
crimen falsi to enter into any confederacy, or do
any act, to support another's lawsuit, by money,
witnesses, or patronage. A man may lawfully,
however, maintain the suit of his near kinsman,
servant, or poor neighbour, out of charity and
compassion. Otherwise the punishment by com-
mon law is fine and imprisonment; and by stat.
32 Hen. VIII. a forfeiture of £10.
MAINTENON (Madame de), was descended
of an ancient family, and her proper name was
Frances D'Aubigne. She was born in 1635, in a
prison at Paris, where her father had been incar-
cerated ; and her mother being unable to support
her, she fell to the care of her father's sister,
Madame Vilette. To escape this state of depen-
dence, she married the celebrated abbé Scarron,
who himself subsisted on a pension allowed him
by the court. She lived with him many years:
but when he died, in 1660, she found herself as
indigent as before her marriage. Her friends
endeavoured to get her husband's pension con-
tinued to her, and presented so many petitions to
the king, all beginning with ‘the widow Scarron
most humbly prays your majesty, &c.’ that he
was quite weary of them, and would exclaim,
‘must I always be pestered with the widow
Scarron?” At last, however, through the recom-
mendation of Madame de Montespan, he settled
a much larger pension on her, and afterwards
appointed her to take care of the education of
the young duke of Maine, his son by Madame
de Montespan. The letters she wrote on this
occasion attracted the attention of the king, and
were the origin of her advancement. He bought
her the lands of Maintenon, the only estate she
ever had, and called her publicly Madame de
Maintenon; he came to her apartment every
day after dinner, before and after supper, and
continued there till midnight: here he transacted
business with his ministers, while she, engaged in
reading or needle-work, never showed any desire
to interfere with state affairs. About the end of
1685 it is said that Louis XIV. married her, he
being then in his forty-eighth and she in her fiftieth
year. She prevailed on him to found a religious
community for the education of 300 young ladies
of rank at St. Cyr, whither she frequently retired
as a relief from that melancholy of which she
complains so pathetically in one of her letters,
and which few will suppose she should have
been liable to in such an elevated situation.
Louis, however, died before her in 1715; when
she retired wholly to St. Cyr, and spent the rest
of her days in acts of devotion. What is most
surprising is, that Louis left no certain provision
for her, only recommending her to the duke of
Orleans. She would accept no more than a pen-
sion of 80,000 livres, which was punctually paid
her till her death in 1719. A collection of her
letters has been published, and translated into
English; from which her character will be best
known. -
MAINTENON, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Eure and Loire, on the Eure.
Population 1600. Eleven miles north of Char-
tres.
MA'JOR, adj. & n.s.) Lat. major. Greater,
MAJORATION, n.s. W in any respect: as a
MAJ or Do'Mo, substantive the field
MA'JoR-6EN’ERAL, \; above the cap-
MAJoR’ITY. tain; a principal civil
officer in towns and cities; the first proposition
of a syllogism: majoration is used by Bacon for
enlargement; increase: major domo (Fr. majeur
dome) is the principal officer of a domestic esta-
blishment: major-general, a general officer next
in rank to a full general: majority, the greater
number; the state of being greater: seniority of
rank; full age or manhood; also, in an obsolete
sense (Lat. majores), ancestry.
They bind none, no not though they be many,
saving only when they are the major part of a gene-
ral assembly, and then their voices, being more in
number, must oversway their judgments who are
fewer. Hooker.
Fall Greek, fall fame, honour, or go or stay,
My major vow lies here. Shakspeare.
M A J O R.
455
Douglas, whose high deeds,
Whose hot incursions, and great name in arms,
Holds from all soldiers chief majority,
And military title capital. Id. Henry IV.
There be five ways of majoration of sounds: enclo-
sure simple; enclosure with dilatation; communica-
tion ; reflection concurrent; and approach to the
sensory. - Bacon's Natural History.
During the infancy of Henry the IIIrd, the barons
were troubled in expelling the French: but this
prince was no sooner come to his majority, but the
barons waged a cluel war against him. Davies.
The true meridian is a major circle passing through
the poles of the world and the zenith of any place,
exactly dividing the east from the west. Browne.
Of evil parents an evil generation, a posterity not
unlike their majority ; of mischievous progenitors, a
venomous and destructive progeny. Id.
The major of our author's argument is to be under-
stood of the material ingredients of bodies. Boyle.
It is not plurality of parts without majority of
parts that maketh the total greater.
- Grew's Cosmologia.
Major-general Ravignan returned with the French
king's answer. Tatler.
"It was highly probable the majority would be so
wise as to espouse that cause which was most agree-
able to the
sedition. Addison.
. As in senates so in schools, 4.
Majority of voices rules. Prior.
Decent executions keep the world in awe; for that
reason the majority of mankind ought to be hanged
every year. Arbuthnot.
In common discourse we denominate persons and
things according to the major part of their character:
he is to be called a wise man who has but few follies.
. . . . . . . . * * \ . . . . Watts's Logick.
As to bribery and corruption, Sir, if it were pos-,
sible to influence, by such base means, the majority
of the electors of Great Britain, to chuse such men
as would probably give up their liberties; if it were
possible to influence by such means a majority of the
members of this house to consent to the establish-
ment of arbitrary power, I would readily allow that
the calculations made by the gentlemen of the other
side were just, and their inference true.
* * ... } Sir Robert Walpolé.
Whether the majority of the members of any civil
community have a right to compel all the members
of it to pay' towards the maintenance of a set of
teachers appointed by the majority, to preach a par-
ticular system of doctrines, is a question which might
admit a serious discussion. Bp. Watson.
MAJOR, in law, a person who is of age to
manage his own affairs. By the civil law a man
is not a major till the age of twenty-five years;
in England he is a major at twenty-one; in
Normandy at twenty, &c." -
MAJOR, in logic, is understood of the first
proposition of a regular syllogism. It is called
major, because it has a more extensive sense than
the minor proposition, as containing the princi-
pal term. . . . . - - -
MAjor, in the art of war, is the title of several
officers of very different ranks and functions; as,
Drum-major, who has the same authority over his
drummers as the corporal has over his squad. He
instructs them in their different beats; is daily at
orders with the serjeants, to know the number of
drummers for duty; and marches at their head
when they beat in a body. In the day of battle,
or at exercise, he must be very attentive to the
public weal, and by that means hinder a
orders given him, that he may regulate his beats
according to the movements ordered. Fife-major,
he that plays best on the fife. He has the same
authority over the fifers as the drum-major has
over the druimmers. He teaches them their duty,
appoints them for guards, &c. -
The MAJOR-GENERAL is the next officer to the
lieutenant-general. His chief business is to re-
ceive orders from the general, or in his absence
from the lieutenant-general of the day; which
he is to distribute to the brigade-majors, with
whom he is to regulate the guards, convoys, de-
tachments, &c. On him rests the whole fatigue
and detail of duty of the army roll. He is
charged with the encampment of the army;
places himself at the head of it when they march;
marks out the ground of the camp to the quarter.
master-general; and places the new guards for
the safety of the camp. When the army is to
march, he dictates to the field-officers the order
of the march, which he has received from the
general, and on other days gives them the parole.
In a fixed camp he is charged with the foraging,
with reconnoitring the ground for it, and posting
the escorts. In sieges, if there are two separate
attacks, the second belongs to him; but if there
is but one, he takes, either from the right or left
of the attack, that which the lieutenant-general
has not chosen. When the army is under arms
he assists the lieutenant-general, whose orders he
executes. If the army marches to an engagement
his post is at the head of the guards of the army,
until they are near enough to the enemy to rejoin
their different corps; after which he retires to his
own proper post: for the major-generals are dis-
posed in the order of battle as the lieutenant-
generals are ; to whom, however, they are subor-
dinate for the command of their divisions. The
major-general has one aid-de-camp paid for
executing his orders. - - -
MAJOR of A REGIMENT of Foot, the next
officer to the lieutenant-colonel, generally pro-
moted from the eldest captain. He is to take
care that the regiment be well exercised, to see it
march in good order, and to rally it in case of
being broken in action : he is the only officer
among the infantry that is allowed to be on
horseback in time of action, that he may the
more readily execute the colonel's orders.
MAJoft OF A REGIMERNT of HoRSE, as well as
of foot, ought to be a man of integrity, courage,
activity, experience, and address: he should keep
a detail of the regiment in every particular; he
should be skilled in horsemanship, and ever at-
tentive to his business; one of his principal
functions is, to keep an exact roster of the offi-
cers for duty: he should have a perfect know-
ledge in all the military evolutions, as he is
obliged by his post to instruct others, &c.
MAJoR of ARTILLERY, is the next officer to
the lieutenant-colonel. His post is very labori-
ous, as the whole detail of the corps rests with
him; and therefore all the non-commissioned
officers are subordinate to him, as his title of
serjeant-major imports: in this quality they
must render him an exact account of every thing
which comes to their knowledge, either regarding
the duty or wants of the artillery and soldiers.
He should possess a, perfect knowledge of the
456
M A J O R C A.
power of artillery, together with all its evolutions.
In the field he goes daily to receive orders from
the brigade-major, and communicates them with
the parole to his superiors, and then dictates
them to the adjutant. He should be a very
good mathematician, and be well acquainted
with every thing belonging to the train of ar-
tillery. *
MAJoR of BRIGADE. See BRIGADF-MAJOR.
He is appointed only in camp: he goes every
day to head-quarters to receive orders from the
adjutant-general : thence he goes to give the
orders, at the place appointed, to the different
majors or adjutants of the regiments which com-
pose the brigade, and regulates with them the
number of officers and men which each are to
furnish for the duty of the army; taking care to
keep an exact roster. In short, the major of
brigade is charged with the particular detail in
his own brigade, in much the same way as the
adjutant-general is charged with the general de-
tail of the duty of the army. He sends every
morning to the adjutant-general an exact return,
by battalion and company, of the men of his
brigade missing at the retreat, or a report ex-
pressing that none are absent: he also mentions
the officers absent with or without leave.
MAJoe of ENGINEERs, commonly called sub-
director, should be well skilled in military archi-
tecture, fortification, gunnery, and mining. He
should know how to fortify in the field, to attack
and defend all sorts of posts, and to conduct the
works in a siege, &c. See ENGINEER.
MA:JORCA, an island of the Mediterranean
belonging to Spain, is nearly a square, the parallel
sides lying north-east, and south-west, and
W. N. W., and E. S. E.: the former are nearly
straight, without indentation of consequence; but
the latter are deeply indented by gulfs. The
greatest length is fifty, and the medium breadth
forty miles, containing a surface of 1440 square
miles.
In general this island is mountainous and
rocky, particularly on the north-west, where are
the two conspicuous elevated mountains of Pugg-
major and Galatz. On this side the shore is
formed of precipices, furiously beaten by the
sea, and has no place of shelter for a vessel, ex-
cept the insignificant port of Soller. The island
has no stream that deserves the name of river, but
is sufficiently watered by the torrents from the
mountains, many of which find their way to the
sea. The climate is temperate, and in general
healthy. The mountains of the north coast shel-
ter the rest of the island from the cold north
winds, which blow with great violence out of the
gulf of Lyon, and also arrest the clouds, which
condense into light rains and dews, that animate
vegetation and moderate the heats of summer,
during which season the atmosphere is also re-
freshed by sea breezes. The mountains, how-
ever, often create transient storms of great vio-
lence.
The mineral productions are coal (veins of
which are found in several places, but none are
worked), limestone, marbles, slate, and mill-
stones. . Near Campos is the only mineral spring
in the island, which is sulphurous. The vege-
tables are similar to those on the opposite coast
of Spain. The quantity of wheat and barley
produced is insufficient for the consumption of
the island by 50,000 fanegas, to make up which
it depends on Barbary, &c. This deficiency
does not, however, proceed from the infertility
of the soil, so much as from the imperfect
i. of cultivation, and the quantity of waste
3.I. Cl.
The only wild quadrupeds are hares, rabbits,
and a few foxes: the domestic animals, in 1805,
were 2000 horses, 9000 asses and mules, 6000
head of horned cattle, 61,000 sheep, 34,000 goats,
25,000 hogs. The horses are weak and ill-shaped;
the asses and mules strong and hardy; the horned
cattle poor and weak; the sheep large and their
wool fine, their milk as well as that of the goats
is made into cheese; the hogs are large and fat,
and their flesh is the most common animal food.
Common fowls are plentiful, but geese and ducks
very scarce.
The population of the island is estimated at
136,000 souls, of whom 2000 are priests and
monks, and 1200 nuns. The manufactures are
confined to some coarse linens and woollens,
sail-cloth, and a little silk: the woollen girdles
fabricated here are sent to Italy and Malta, the
sail-cloth to Carthagena for the navy.
The island has two cities, thirty villages, and
twenty hamlets. The most conspicuous points
of the coast are those which form the angles of
the square, viz. Cape Pera the north-east, Cape
Salinas the south-east, Cape Dragonera the
south-west, and Cape Formentor the north-west.
In the topographical description we shall com-
mence at Cape Pera, and make the circuit of the
island by the south. Manacor, two leagues south
of this cape, is on a small cove, with good an-
chorage and fresh water, which issues from a
grotto eighty yards from the beach. Cala Longo
affords shelter to small vessels in bad weather :
on it is the bamlet of Colomb. Port Pera can
receive five or six moderate sized vessels, which
may lie sheltered from all winds but south-east;
on the left hand entering is a ruined castle. Cala
Figuera, north of Cape Salinas, is only fit for
long boats. Campas west of Cape Salinas. The
Gulf of Palma is four leagues deep, with good bot-
tom all over it, but exposed to south-west winds,
which throw in a great swell, prolonging its west
shore. The first place is Fort St. Carlos on a
point, to which succeeds Port au Pins, a cove
protected by its fort on its north point, in which
frigates may anchor close to the shore, tolerably
sheltered from all winds in ten fathoms. Here
is also a haven for vessels of twelve feet, the 'en-
trance of which may be closed by a chain. Next
to Port au Pins is Belew Castle, of considerable
size, on a hill, and with a garrison in war of 150
men. Attached to it, on the north, is a tower,
which serves as a state prison. The lazaret, be-
tween this castle and Palma, is built on the side
of a hill, and is in very bad order.
Palma, the capital of the island, is at the head
of the gulf, built semicircularly on a rising
ground. It has 33,000 inhabitants, the streets in
general narrow and ill-paved, and the houses
large but plain. The chief buildings are the
palace of the captain-general, a cathedral, five
churches, ten convents of men and eleven of
|MAI
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457
women, the exchange, a town house, four hospi-
tals, and a theatre.
a wall fourteen palms thick, and flanked by thir-
teen bastions, several of which have redoubts,
with two half moons and a horn-work. On the
land side is a wide dry ditch, and towards the
sea a narrow fausse bray. It has five gates tow-
ards the land, and three from the sea. Its haven
is only fit for small vessels, who make fast along-
side a narrow mole, 500 yards long, on the ex-
tremity of which is a battery. One of the
most considerable streams of the island, called la
Riera, runs past the walls of the city; it is only
a mountain torrer.i, which nearly dries in summer,
but in winter is often much swollen, and does
considerable damage. Palma is also the seat of
government of the isles Baleares, and Pityuses,
which is composed of a captain-general for the
military, and a royal audience of eight persons
for civil affairs: these authorities are independent
of each other, but are both immediately account-
able to the supreme council of Castile. Palma
has a society for the encouragement of agricul-
ture, manufactures, &c., and two printing presses;
from which, however, there issues only govern-
ment orders and advertisements of sales and local
he WS.
Port Pasquet, west of Cape Figuera, and the
west point of the gulf of Palma, has good an-
chorage in three to six fathoms, but is exposed to
the south-west. Off its south-east point are two
islets, which shelter it in that direction. Andraceio,
or Andraig, is a well built town of 4000 inhabi-
tants: near it is a cove, two miles deep, and a
musket shot broad, which serves as its port, but
admits only small craft. Friou, solith of Cape
Dragonera, is an open road. Banalbufar, north-
east of Cape Dragonera, is a town of 5000 inha-
bitants, on the summit of a mountain. Soller
Cove, nearly in the middle of the north-west side
of the island, is at the extremity of a beautiful
valley, bounded by barren hills: its entrance is
difficult, and is protected by a battery of four
guns: it is only visited by small craft, to load
oranges, which the valley produces in abundance
and which are shipped from the village of St. Ca-
tharine. Polenza Bay (Portus Minor), between
Cape Formentor on the west and Cape Pinor on
the east, has also good anchorage all over it, from
twenty-seven fathoms at the entrance to three
near its head. It has a land-locked cove, in
which one ship may anchor in four fathoms,
under a tower with some cann on ; South of which
is a good watering place. The open town of
Polenza is two miles from the shore, at the head
of the bay, and behind a hill: it has 6000 inha-
bitants. Alcuida Bay (Portus Major) is separated
from Polenza Bay by a peninsula, whose north
point is, Cape Pinar, and the south Cape Mi-
norca, or Alcuida, Cape Ferroul is the east
point of the bay, within which is good anchorage
for large ships. About thirty vessels of easy
draft may lay perfectly sheltered at the head of
the bay, near a small island, within which, on
the main land, 200 yards from the shore, is a
hole in a rock, with fresh water. .
The city of Alcuida, the second of the island,
is on the peninsula that separates the two bays,
and situated on an eminence, two miles from the
The town is surrounded by’
drowned in it.
f
shore of Alcuida Bay. Its population is at pre-
sent but 800, being deserted in consequence of
its unhealthiness, from a stagnant lake in the
vicinity: it is surrounded by old walls and a
dry ditch, with two forts and a garrison of thirty
Iſleſ], -
Dragonera Island is but a quarter of a mile
distant from Cape Dragonera, the west point of
the island; and in the middle of the passage is a
ledge of rocks, level with the water, but with a
deep channel on each side. Cabrera is three
leagues south-west of Cape Salinas. *
MAIPO, a large river of Chili, in the province
of Rancagua, noted for the number of persons
It runs with such force, that, at
the time of its floods, no bridge can be found to
resist its impetuosity. Its waters are also im–
pregnated with salt, and on this account are not
fit for drinking. It abounds in trout, and enters
the Pacific Ocean in lat. 33° 43' 2" S.
MAIRAN (John-James D'Ortous de), an emi-
nent French writer, descended of a noble family
at Besiers, and born in that city in 1678. He
was one of the most illustrious members of the
Academy of Sciences, and of the French Academy.
In 1641 he succeeded Fontenelle as secretary to
the academy. This station he filled with the
most distinguished success till 1744. The chief
of his works are, 1. Dissertation sur la Glace,
1749, 12mo., since translated into German and
Italian. 2. Dissertation sur la Cause de la Lü-
miere des Phosphores, 1717, 12mo. 3. Traité
Historique et Physique de l'Aurore Boreale,
12mo. 1733; afterwards much enlarged in 4to.
in 1754. 4. Lettre au Pere Parennin, conte-
nant Diverses Questions sur la Chine, 12mo, 5.
A great number of the papers in the Memoirs of
the Academy of Sciences, of which he published
some volumes. 27. The Eloges of the Acade-
micians of the Academy of Sciences, who died
in 1741, 1742, 1743, in 12mo., 1747. His re-
putation extended into foreign countries. He
was a member of the Imperial Academy at Pe—
tersburg, of the Royal Academy of London, of the
institution at Bologne, of the royal societies of
Edinburgh and Upsal, &c. The chancellor, Da-
guesseau, appointed him president of the Journal
des Sgavans; a station which he filled very much
to the satisfaction of the public. He was ready at
repartee. Being asked what an honest man was,
“an honest man, said he, is one whose blood is
refreshed with the recital of a good action.’ He
died at Paris of a defluxion of the lungs, in 1771,
aged ninety-three. .
MAIRE, LA, STRAITs of, a narrow channel
or passage from the Atlantic to the Pacific, be-
tween Terra del Fuego and Staten Land, so
called from the name of a navigator, who dis-
covered it in the year 1616. It is about fifteen
miles long, and as many broad. According to
Cook, the entrance of the straits should not be
attempted, but with a fair wind and moderate
weather, and upon the very beginning of the
tide of flood, which happens here at the full and
change of the moon, about one or two o'clock:
and it is best to keep as near to the Terra del
Fuego shore as the winds will admit.
MAISTRE (Louis Isaac le), called also Sacy,
was born at Paris in 1613. He was made priest
MAI 45
8 |MAI
-n 1648, and soon after chosen director of the
religieuse of Port Royal des Champs. As these
were accused of Jansenism, the Jesuits persecuted
them; and in 1661 he was obliged to conceal
himself; and in 1666 was committed to the
Bastile. During his confinement he is said to
have composed the book Figures de la Bible.
To le Maistre's confinement the public are in-
debted for a French translation of the Bible,
finished in 1668, the evening before the feast of
All Saints; when he recovered his liberty, after
an imprisonment of two years and a half. He
was presented to the king and the minister; and,
all the favor he asked from them was, that they
would send several times a year to examine the
state of the prisoners in the Bastile. He con-
tinued at Paris till 1675, when he retired to Port
Royal, which place he was again obliged to leave
in 1679. He then settled at Pompone, where he
died January 4th, 1684, aged seventy-one. His
works are, 1. La Traduction de la Bible, with
explanations of the spiritual and literal meaning
from the fathers; chiefly by Du Fosse, Hure,
and Tourneaux. This is one of the best French
translations that have yet appeared, and the best
edition is that of Paris in 32 vols. 8vo. 1682, &c.
2. Une Traduction des Pseaumes selon l’Hebreu
et la Vulgate, in 12mo. 3. Une Version des
Homelies de St. Chrysostome sur St. Matthieu,
3 vols. 8vo. 4. La Traduction de l’Imita-
tion de Jesus Christ (sous le nom de Beuil,
prieur de St. Val), Paris, 1663, 8vo. 5. Celle
de Phedre, 12mo. (sous le nom de St. Aubin).
6. Detrois Comedies de Terence, in 12mo. 7.
Des Lettres de Bongars (sous le nom de Brian-
ville). 8. Du Pöeme de St. Prosper sur les in-
grates, in 12mo. en vers et en prose. 9. Les
Enluminures de l'Almanach des Jesuites, 1654,
12mo, and 1733. 10. Heures de Port-Royal,
in 12mo. 11. Lettres de Piété, Paris, 1690, 2
vols. 8vo. - - ...'
MAITEA, the native name of a small bpt
populous island of the South Pacific Ocean,
supposed to have been discovered by Quiros in
1606, who called it Dezana; Bougainville called
it Boudoir; captain Wallis, who visited it in
1769, called it Osnaburg. It is in subjection
to the sovereign of Otaheite, and belongs to the
chief of Teiarraboo. It is situated to the east of
that peninsula, at the distance of more than
twenty leagues; and, being lofty, is always ob-
served by ships which approach Otaheite from
the eastward. It is not above three miles in
circuit: the southern side descends gradually,
and has a border of low land next the sea. Pearls
are procured here in exchange for iron. To the
eastward it is enclosed by a coral reef. Tong.
148° 12' W., lat. 17°53' S.
|MAITLAND (Sir Richard), a Scottish poet
and eminent public character, born in 1496. He
was educated at St. Andrews, and went to
France to study the laws. Upon his return,
says Mackenzie, he became a favorite of James
V., and was made an extraordinary lord of ses-
ision in 1553. By a letter of James VI. it ap-
pears that “Sir Richard had served his grandsire,
goodsire, goodam, his mother, and himself,
faithfully, in many public offices.’ He became
blind before 1561, or his sixty-fifth year; not-
withstanding which he was made a senator of the
college of justice, by the title of lord Lethington,
November 12th 1561; and on the 20th of De-
cember, 1562, one of the council and lord privy
seal, which last office he held till 1567, when he
resigned it in favor of John his second son.
Sir Richard continued a lord of session during
all the troublesome times of the regents, in the
minority of James VI, till 1584, when he re-
signed: he died March 20th 1586.
|MAITLAND (William), F.R.S., an eminent
Scottish antiquarian, born in Brechin in 1693.
He was originally brought up as a hair merchant,
but gave up business’ and came to London,
where he published an extensive history of this
metropolis, in one volume folio, which was
reprinted after his death, with additions, in two
volumes. His other works were, The History
of Edinburgh, in one volume folio; and a treatise
on the History and Antiquities of Scotland, in
one volume folio. A second volume of this work
was afterwards published by Dr. Granger. Mr.
Maitland travelled into some of the northern
countries of Europe, and died at Montrose in
1757, unmarried. -
MAITSHA, a district of Abyssinia, in the
province of Gojam, consisting of the country on
both sides of the Abyssinian Nile, previous to
its falling into the lake of Dembea. It is flat
and marshy, and has been abandoned by the
Agows, its original possessors, to colonies of the
Galla. It produces little or no corn, but de-
pends entirely, for subsistence upon a plant
called ensete. The inhabitants rear large fine
cattle, and some indifferent horses.
MAITTAIRE (Michael), A.M., a learned
writer, born in 1668. Dr. South, canon of
Christ Church, made him a student of that
house, where he took the degree of A. M. March
23d 1696. From 1695 till 1699 he was second
master of Westminster school. In 1706 he
published Graecae Linguæ Dialecti, in usum
Scholae Westmonasteriensis, 1706, 8vo.; reprinted
at the Hague in 1738; and in 1712 the English
Grammar, applied to and exemplified in the
English Tongue, 8vo. In 1711 he published
Remarks on Mr. Whiston's Account of the
Convocation's proceedings with relation to him-
self, 8vo, ; and An Essay against Arianism, and
some other Heresies; or a Reply to Mr. W.
Whiston's Historical Preface, &c., 8vo. In 1709
he gave the first specimen of his skill in typo-
fº antiquities, by publishing Stephanorum.
Histori Vitas Ipsorum ac Libros Complectens,
8vo. This was followed, in 1717, by Historia
Typographorum aliquot Parisiensium, Vitas et
Libros Complectens, 8vo. In 1719 Annales
Typographici, ab artis inventae origine, ad an-
num M.D. 4to. The second volume, continued
to 1536, was published at the Hague in 1720;
with an introductory letter of John Toland de
Prima Typographiae Inventione: as was also the
third, continued to 1556, and by an Appendix
to 1664, in 1725. In 1733 was published at
Amsterdam the fourth volume, continued to
1662. In 1741 the work was completed at
London, by the publication of the fifth and last
volume, with an index to the whole. These last
four volumes were in two parts each. In the
MAK
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459
intermediate years he was employed on various
useful works. In 1713 he published, by sub-
scription, Opera et Fragmenta Veterum Poeta-
rum, in 2 vols. folio.
Greek Testament, in 2 vols. The classics, which
he published separately, with indexes, came out
in the following order:-In 1713 Christus Pa-
tiens, Justin, Lucretius, Phaedrus, Sallust,
Terence. In 1715 Catullus, Tibullus, Propertius,
C. Nepos, Florus, Horace, Juvenal, Ovid,
Virgil. . In 1717 Caesar, Martial, Q. Curtius.
In 1718, and 1725, Welleius Paterculus. In
1719 Lucan. In 1720 Bonefonii Carmina. In
1721 Batrachomyomachia Graece ad Veterum
Exemplarium fidem Recusa: Glossa Graeca;
var. lect. vers. Lat. &c. illustrata, 8vo. In 1722,
Miscellanea Graecorum aliquot Scriptorum Car-
mina, cum vers. Lat. et Notis, 4to. In 1725
and 1741, Anacreon in 4to. In 1724 he com-
piled, at the request of Dr. Freind, an index to
the splendid folio edition of Aretaeus, in 1723.
In 1726 he published Petri Petiti Medici
Parisiensis in tres priores Aretaei Cappadocis
Libros Commentarii; nunc primum editi, 4to.;
a work found among the papers of Graevius.
From 1728 to 1733 he published Marmorum
Arundelianorum, Seldenianorum, aliorumque
Acad. Oxon. Donatarum, una cum Commeritariis
et Indice, folio, with an Appendix. His Epistola
ad D. P. des Maizeaux, in quâ Indicis in
Annales Typographicos Methodus explicatur,
&c., is printed in the Present State of the Re-
public of Letters, August 1733, p. 142. His
life of R. Stephens in Latin, with a complete
list of his works, is prefixed to the improved
edition of R. Stephens's Thesaurus, 4 vols.
folio, in 1734. In 1736 appeared Antiquae In-
scriptiones dua, folio; being a commentary on
two large copper tables discovered near Hera-
clea in the bay of Tarentum. . In 1739 he
addressed to Anne, empress of Russia, a small
Latin poem, entitled Carmen Epinicium Au-
gustissimae Russorum Imperatrici Sacrum. In
1741 he published anonymously Plutarch's
Apophthegmata, 4to. His last publication was
Senilia, sive Poetica aliquot in Argumentis varii
Generis Tentamina, in 4to., 1742. He died in
1747, aged seventy-nine. His valuable library,
which had been fifty years in collecting, was
sold by auction in 1747 and 1748.
MAIZE, n. s. A native name for Indian
wheat.
The whole maize plant has the appearance of a
reed. This plant is propagated in England only as
a curiosity, but in America it is the principal sup-
port of the inhabitants, and consequently propagated
with great care. Miller.
Maize affords a very strong nourishment, but more
viscous than wheat. Arbuthnot on Aliments.
MAIze, or Indian corn. See ZEA.
MAKE, v. a., v. n. & n. s. Sax. macan,
MAKE-BATE, n. s. machian; Teut.
MAKER, n. S. machen ; Belg.
MAKE-PEACE, meken, as Mr.
MAKE-weIGHT. Thomson Sug-
gests, from Goth. meiga, to have power or effi-
ciency. To create; form; produce; compose;
force; effect; establish; incur; gain; incline or
tend to ; amount to ; reach ; put or place; give;
In 1714 he published a .
regard. The following are idiomatic phrases.
derived from this important word:—“To make
away,’ which is, to transfer; ‘to make away
with,’ to expend : “make account,' or make ac-
count of to reckon, esteem, or regard: “make
free with,’ to treat unceremoniously or rudely:
“make good,' maintain; fulfil: “make light of.”
consider lightly, or as of no consequence : “make
much of,’ to treat as important or of conse-
quence; cherish : “make of,’ to understand re-
specting; consider: “make over,’ to transfer;
settle: “ make out,’ clear; explain ; prove:
“make up,' to gather together; compose; shape;
also to reconcile; repair; compensate. As a
neuter verb, to make signifies to operate; con-
tribute; have effect; travel; tend : “to make
away with,’ to destroy: “make for,” advantage;
favor: “make up for,’ to compensate: “make
with,’ to concur: make, as a substantive, is form;
nature; appearance; stature. Dr. Johnson
well observes, “This is one of the words so fre-
quently occurring, and used with so much lati-
tude, that its whole extent is not easily compre-
hended, nor are its attenuated and fugitive
meanings easily caught and restrained. The
original sense, including either production or
formation, may be traced through all the varieties
of applićation.’ r -
A make-bate is a breeder of quarrels: make-
peace, a reconciler of them: make-weight, any
small substance designed to make up a given
weight.
And theiseyden to him whi the disciplis of Jon
fasten ofte and maken preieris, also and of the Fa-
risees, but thin eten and drynken 3 Luk. v.
Alle thingis weren maad by hym, and withouten
him was madd nothing, that thing that was maad.
Wiclif. Jon.
Let us make man in our image. Gen. i. 26.
Joseph made ready his chariot, and went up to
meet Israel. - Genesis.
She made haste, and let down her pitcher.
Gen. xxiv. 46.
I have made thee a god to Pharaoh.
- Exod. vii. 1.
He fashioned it with a graving tool, after he had
made it a molten calf. Erod. xxxii. 4.
He shall make amends for the harm that he hath.
done. Leviticus.
Joshua and all Israel made as if they were beaten
before them and fled. Josh. viii. 15.
Give unto Solomon a perfect heart to build the
palace for the which I have made provision. . . .
- * 1 Chron. xxix. 19.
Wealth maketh many friends; but the poor is se-
parated from his neighbour. Prov. xix. 4.
I sought for a man among them that should make
up the hedge, and stand in the gap before me for the
land. Ezekiel.
They made light of it, and went their ways.
- Matth. xxii.
They all began to make excuse. Luke xiv. 18.
The man hath servid you of his conninges
And forthrid well your law in his makinges.
Chaucer. Legende of Good Women.
You be indeed makers or marrers of all men's
manners within the realm. Ascham's Schoolmaster.
He will not let slip any advantage to make away
him whose just title, ennobled by courage and
goodness, may one day shake the seat of a never-
secure tyranny. Sidney. '
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The king, hearing of their adventure, suddenly
falls to take pride in making much of them, extolling
them with infinite praises. Id.
Love in her passions, like a right makebate, whis-
Pered to both sides arguments of quarrel. Id.
Clarence was, by practice of evil persons about
, the king his brother, called thence away, and soon
after, by sinister means, was clean made away.
º * Spenser on Ireland.
There lavish nature, in her best attire,
Pours forth sweet odours, and alluring sights;
And art with her contending, doth aspire
Tº excel the natural with made delights. Spenser.
Seeing they judge this to make nothing in the world
for them. Hooker.
Whatsoever, to make up the doctrine of man's
Salvation, is added as in supply of the scripture's
insufficiency, we reject it. º
She may give so much credit to her own laws, as
to make their sentence weightier than any bare and
naked conceit to the contrary. Id.
Antiquity, custom, and consent, in the church of
God, making with that which law doth establish, are
themselves most sufficient reasons to uphold the same,
unless some notable publick inconvenience enforce
the contrary. Id.
My mother I slew at my very birth, and sinc
have made away two of her brothers, and haply to
make way for the purposes of others against myself.
- Hayward.
Make on, upon the heads
Of men, struck down like piles, to reach the lives
Of those remain and stand.
Ben Jonson’s Catiline.
The Venetians, provoked by the Turk with divers
injuries, both by sea and land, resolved, without
delay, to make war likewise upon him. Knolles.
The grand master, guarded with a company of
most valiant knights, drove them out again by force,
and made good the place. Id.
Xaycus was wonderfully beloved, and made of, by
the Turkish merchants, whose language he had
learned. Id.
One of my fellows had the speed of him ;
Who, almost dead for breath, had scarcely more
Than would make up his message. Shakspeare.
He's in for a commodity of brown pepper; of
which he made five marks ready money. Jal.
If I suspect without cause, why then make sport
at me; then let me be your jest. Id.
This is the night,
That either makes me, or fordoes me quite. Id.
A hundred pound or two, to make merry witha.
Id.
! Some undeserved fault
I’ll find about the making of the bed.
He may have a likely guess,
How these were they that made away his boº
d.
Id.
Id.
This letter doth make good the friar's words.
The bird is dead
That we have made so much on 1
Id. Cymbeline.
The reasons you alledge do more conduce
To the hot passion of distempered blood,
Than to make up a free determination
*Twixt right and wrong.
- Id. Troilus and Cressida.
Is not the lady Constance in this troop 3
—I know she is not; for this match made up,
Her presence would have interrupted much.
Shakspeare.
Oh me, lieutenant what villains have done this?
—I think, that one of them is hereabouts,
And cannot make away. Id.
To be a makepeace shall become my age. Id.
You must make a great difference between Her-
cules's labours by land, and Jason's voyage by sea
for the golden fleece. - Bacon.
Lye not erect but hollow, which is in the making
of the bed; or with the legs gathered up, which is
the more wholesome. Id.
The wind came about, and settléd in the west for
many days, so as we could make little or no way.
- Id.
The king went to Latham, to make merry with his
mother and the earl. Id. Henry VII.
Trajan would say of the vain jealousy of princes
that seek to make away those that aspire to their
succession, that there was never king that did put
to death his successor. Bacon.
They made no account but that the navy should
be absolutely master of the seas.
Id. War with Spain.
Warily provide, that while we make forth to that
which is better, we meet not with that which is
WOISE. Id. Essays.
A wonderful erroneous observation that maketh
about, is commonly received contrary to experience.
Bacon.
None deny there is a God, but those for whom it
maketh that there were no God. Id. Essays.
A gentleman and his wife will ride to make merry
with his neighbour, and after a day those two go to
a third ; in which progress they encrease like snow-
balls, till through their burthensome weight they
break. Carew's Survey of Cornwall.
Behold: to have made the least clod of nothing
is more above wonder than to multiply a world.
Bp. Hall.
It makes to this purpose, that the light conserving
stones in Italy must be set in the sun before they re-
tain light. - Digby.
All the actions of his life were ripped up and
surveyed, and all malicious glosses made upon all he
had said, and all he had done. Clarendon.
He was the more inflamed with the desire of
battle with Waller, to make even all accounts. Id.
Remember'st thou
Thy making, while the Maker gave thee being 3
Milton.
I have made wa •
To some Philistian lords, with whom to treat.
I was assured, that nothing was designed
Against thee but safe custody and hold;
That made for me, I knew that liberty
Would draw thee forth to perilous enemie,
d.
On Wednesday the general account is made up
and printed, and on Thursday published. Graunt.
The Phoenicians inade claim to this man as theirs,
and attributed to him the invention of letters.
Hale. '
Making any similitudes in order to worship is pro-
hibited. - Barrow.
Widows, who have tried one lover,
Trust none again till th’ have made over. -
- Hudibras.
I borrowed that celebrated name for an evidence to
my subject, that so what was wanting in my proof
might be made up in the example. Glanville.
Those mercurial spirits which were only lent the
earth to shew men their folly in admiring it, possess
delights of a nobler make and nature, which antedate
immortality. . Id.
A pint of salt of tartar, exposed unto a moist air;
will make more liquor than the former measure will
contain. º Browne.'
MAK
MAK
461
Acosta recordeth, they that sail in the middle can
make no land of either side. -
Browne's Vulgar Errours.
Give poets leave to make themselves away.
- - & Roscommon.
The heaven, the air, the earth, and boundless sea,
Make but one temple for the Deity. Waller.
Debtors,
When they never mean to pay, -
To some friend make all away. Id.
When he comes to make good his confident under-
taking, he is fain to say things that agree very little
with one another. Boyle.
A thing may make to my present purpose. Id.
We are to vindicate the just providence of God in
the government of the world, and to endeavour, as
well as we can, upon an imperfect view of things, to
make out the beauty and harmony of all the seeming
discords and irregularities of the divine administra- .
tion. Tillotson's Sermons.
The stone wall which divides China from Tartary
is reckoned nine hundred miles long, running over
rocks, and making way for rivers through mighty
arches. - Temple.
The easy and the lazy make much of the gout ;
and yet, making much of themselves too, they take
care to carry it presently to bed, and keep it warm.
I passed the summer here at Nimeguen, without
the least remembrance of what had happened to me
in the spring, till about the end of September, and
then I began to feel a pain I knew not what to make
of, in the same joint of my other foot. Id.
- Both combine -
To make their greatness by the fall of man.
- Dryden.
What hope, O Pantheus! whither can we run ?
Where make a stand? and what may yet be done
. Id.
While merchants make long voyages by sea
To get estates, he cuts a shorter way. Id.
I bred you up to arms, raised you to power,
Permitted you to fight for this usurper;
All to make sure the vengeance of this day,
Which even this day has ruined, -
I’ve made the port already,
And laugh securely at the lazy storm.
Now mark a little why Virgil is so much con-
cerned to make this marriage; it was to make way
for the divorce which he intended afterwards.
º Id. Æneid.
Deep in a cave the sybil makes abode.
Dryden.
Each element his dread command obeys,
Who makes or ruins with a smile or frown. Id.
The loss was private that I made ;
'Twas but myself I lost; I lost no legions.
Id.
I will neither plead my age nor sickness in excuse
of the faults which I have made. Id.
Gomez' what makest thou here with a whole bro-
therhood of city-bailiffs Id. Spanish Fryar.
Tºll either die, or I'll make good the place.
- - Dryden.
Makes she no more of me than of a slave? Id.
Make out the rest,--I am disordered so,
I know not farther what to say or do. Id.
The wise betimes make over their estates. Id.
The bull
His easier conquest proudly did forego;
And making at him with a furious bound,
From his bent forehead aimed a double woº,
Is our perfection of so frail a make,
As every plot can undermine and shake 1 "Id.
*
Id.
Upon the decease of a lion the beasts met to chuse
a king: several put up, but one was not of make for
a king; another wanted brains or strength. -
- L’Estrange.
Our desires carry the mind out to absent good,
according to the necessity which we think there is
of it, to the making or encrease of our happiness.
- Locke.
In respect of actions within the reach of such a
power in him, a man seems as free as it is possible
for freedom to make him. Id.
How will the farmer be able to make up his rent
at quarter day ? Id.
They mow fern green, and, burning of them to
ashes, make the ashes up into balls with a little
Water. Mortimer.
TMe lonely sitting, nor the glimmering light
Of makeweight candle, nor the joyous task
Of loving friend delights. Phillips.
A monstrous boar rusht forth; his baleful eyes
Shot glaring fire, and his stiff-pointed bristles
Rose high upon his back; at me he made,
Whetting his tusks.
. Smith's Phedra and Hippolitus.
I desired he would let me see his book: he did
so, smiling: I could not make any thing of it.
Tatler.
Zeal should be made up of the largest measures of
spiritual love, desire, hope, hatred, grief, indigna-
tion. - Sprat.
Men of wit and parts, but of short thoughts and
little meditation, distrust every thing for fiction that
is not the dictate of sense, or made out immediately
to their senses. - Burmet.
Egypt, mad with superstition grown,
Makes gods of monsters. Tate's Juvenal.
He is to encounter an enemy made up of wiles and
stratagems; an old serpent, a long experienced de-
ceiver. - º South.
Those who are wise in courts,
Make friendships with the ministers of state,
Nor seek the ruins of a wretched exile. Rowe.
Old mouldering urns, racks, daggers, and distress
Make up the frightful horror of the place. Garth.
These are the lineaments of flattery, which do to-
gether make up a face of most extreme deformity.
Government of the Tongue.
Make some request, and I, w
Whate'er it be, with that request comply.
- Addison.
How happy each of the sexes would be, if there
was a window in the breast of every one that makes
or receives love, o
What multitude of infants have been made away
by those who brought them into the world! Id.
There is another statue in brass of Apollo, with a
modern inscriptions on the pedestal, which I know,
not what to make of. ld.
My waist is reduced to the depth of four inches
by what I have already made over to my neck.
w Id. Guardian.
Oh he was all made up of love and charms;
Whatever maid could wish, or man admire.
• Addison.
The women of Greece were seized with an unac-
countable melancholy, which disposed several of
them to make away with themselves. Id.
Several lies are produced in the loyal ward of
Portsoken of so feeble a make, as not to bear carriage
to the Royal Exchange. Id. Freeholder.
Did I but purpose to embark with thee,
While gentle zephyrs play in prosperous gales ;
But would forsake the ship, and make the shoar,
When the winds whistle, and the tempests º -
TºU7's
MAK
MAK
462
Age and youth cannot be made over : nothing but
time can take away years, or give them. Collier.
He was to make up his accounts with his lord, and
by an easy undiscoverable cheat he could provide
against the impending distress. Rogers's Sermons.
In the º from divines, most of the reason-
ings which make out both my propositions are already
suggested. º Atterbury.
There must needs be another state to make up the
Anequalities of this, and to solve all irregular º
3.0CeS. d.
Were it permitted, he should make the tour of th
whole system of the sun. Arbuthnot.
If it is meant of the value of the purchase, it was
very high ; it being hardly possible to make so much
of land, unless it was reckoned at a very low º
'Id.
A catapotium is a medicine swallowed solid, and
most commonly made up in pills. Id. On Coins.
It is the unanimous opinion of your friends, that
you make as if you hanged yourself, and they will
give it out that you are quite dead. Arbuthnot.
Thus wisely she makes up her time,
Mis-spent when youth was in its prime.
Glanville.
Antiquaries make out the most ancient medals
from a letter with great difficulty to be discerned.
- Felton.
The second mercy-made over to us by the second
covenant, is the promise of pardon. Hammond.
The same who have made free with the greatest
names in church and state, and exposed to the world
the private misfortunes of families. Dunciad.
It may be with superior souls as with gigantick,
which exceed the due proportion of parts, and, like
the old heroes of that make, commit something near
extravagance. • * Pope.
This the divine Cecilia found, -
And to her Maker's praise.confined the sound. Id.
I dare promise her boldly what few of her makers
of visits and compliments dare to do. Id. Letters.
You conceive you have no more to do than,
having found the principal word in a concordance,
introduce as much of the verse as will serve your
turn, though in reality it makes nothing for you.
- Swift.
Upon one side were huge pieces of iron cut into
strange figures, which we know not what to make of
Moor, to whom that patent was made over, was
forced to leave off coining. & Id.
I dare engage to make it out, that they will have
their full principal and interest at six per cent. Id.
The parties among us are made up on one side of
moderate whigs, and on the other of presbyterians.
I
Blinded he is by the ‘love of himself to believe
that the right is wrong, and wrong is right, when it
makes for his own advantage. 'Id.
Outrageous party-writers are like a couple of
makebates, who inflame small quarrels by a thousand
stories. - ld.
The child taught to believe any occurrence to be a
good or evil omen, or any day of the week lucky,
hath a wide inroad made upon the soundness of his
understanding. Watts.
The power of reasoning was given us by our Maker
to pursue truths. Id. Logick.
‘He is not that goose and ass that Walla would
make him. Baker.
Nature no such hard task enjoins: she gave
A make to man directive of his thought;
A make set upright, pointing to the stars,
As who shall say, ‘Read thy chief lesson there.”
Young.
MAKE, n. s. Sax. maca, gemaca. Com-
panion; favorite, Obsolete. q.
And if so fall the chevetain be take.
On eyther side or elles sleth his make,
No longer shall the tournaying ylast.
- Chaucer. Cant. Tales.
The elf wherewith astonied,
Upstarted lightly from his looser make,
And his unsteady weapons 'gan in hand to take.
Faerie Queene.
Bid her therefore herself soon ready make,
To wait on love amongst his lovely crew;
Where every one that misseth then her make, .
Shall be by him amearst with penance due.
& Spenser.
For since, the wise town,
Has let the sports down,
Of May games and morris,
The maids and their makes,
At dances and wakes,
|Had their napkins and posies,
And the wipers for noses.
Ben Jonson’s Owls.
MAKO, a market town and bishop's see of
Hungary, in the palatinate of Csanad, on the
river Marosch. The Greeks and Calvinists have
churches here; and the population is estimated
at 7000. It is nine miles west by north of
Csanad.
MAKOOA, a people of Eastern Africa, de-
scribed by the Portuguese as inhabiting the
country behind Mozambique. They are very
warlike and barbarous, but have gained a know-
ledge of musketry, which they use skilfully, as
well as spears and the bow: they tattoo their
skins, file their teeth, and have on the whole a
most forbidding appearance. | *
MAKRI, a sea-port of Asia Minor, situated
on a gulf of the same name. The harbour is ex-
cellent, and the gulf affords deep and safe navi-
gation. At this place, travellers from Constan-
tinople, and expresses sent by the Turkish
government, embark for Egypt. Fire-wood is
also sent to that country; and timber, tar, cattle,
and salt, to Rhodes. There is therefore always
a good deal of shipping here. Provisions are
cheap, and easy to be procured. The air, how-
ever, is unhealthy; and a complete malaria pre-
vails. When Sir Sidney-Smith was there, in the
'Tigre, he had in one week 100 placed on the
sick list. This unhealthiness appears to arise
partly from the ruins with which its site is
covered, and partly from the high mountains
which, rising on all sides, place it as it were in
the bottom of a pit. The most remarkable object
in the town of Makri consists of the ruins of
Telmessus, upon which it is built, and of which
an immense theatre alone remains conspicuous.
It was built on the side of a mountain, to whose
shelving sides the structure is adapted. In
front extended a noble terrace, to which a mag-
nificent flight of steps conducted from the sea.
The sides of the mountains appear also hewn
into magnificent tombs; not only the chambers,
but the columns in front, being cut out of the
solid rock. The stones enclosing the place
where the bodies' are deposited have been so
nicely joined, that it is now impossible to dis-
cover the place where the entrance had been.
There are also large vaulted caves, in the cornér
M A L A C C A.
463
of which is a recess, whence it is supposed the
ancient, soothsayers uttered responses, which
appeared supernatural to the credulous votaries
who came to consult them. - - -
"No place was more renowned in antiquity
than this for the art of divination. There is also
a monument, consisting of huge masses of stone,
placed together without cement, and bearing
every appearance of having supported some
enormous obelisk or pyramid. Dr. Clarke
thinks this may not impossibly have been the
mausoleum of Artemisia. Nothing can exceed
the gloomy grandeur of the aspect of this part of
Asia Minor. The inhabitants are remarkably
rude, lawless, and daring; which calls for pecu-
liar precautions in the vessels which come here
for water or provisions. 125 miles south-east of
Smyrna. ... Long. 29° 30' E., lat. 36° 58' N. .
, MALABAR, a maritime province of Hindos-
tan, situated between 10° and 13° of N. lat. It
is bounded on the north by the province of
Canara, on the south by the rajah of Cochin's
territories, to the east it has the chain of lofty
mountains denominated the Western Ghauts,
and on the west it is washed by the sea. That
portion of this, province which borders on the
sea is a level and of a poor soil; but many of
the hills and intervening valleys of the interior
are extremely fertile. This country is intersected
by a number of mountain streams which over-
flow their banks during the rainy season; but
their channels are frequently dry, except as far
as the tide reaches, and their courses generally
short. The chief produce is timber, sandal-
wood, cocoa nuts, coir, and black pepper. The
principal towns Calicut, Tellichery, and Cana-
nore. The villages are numerous, and neatly
built of mud, washed with lime, and thatched
with palmira leaves, : * :
This was the first part of India visited by
Europeans; Vasco de Gama having landed at
Calicut in the month of May 1498. He found
the country governed by different Hindoo princes;
the principal of whom is called by the Portu-
guese the Zamorin rajah. Previously to this there
seem to have been, several colonies of oriental
Christians, Jews, and Mahometans, established
here, each...of whom have since increased in
number. The bulk of the inhabitants are, how-
ever, Hindoos of various castes; as the Nam-
bourine Brahmins; the military tribe of Nairs,
of which are the rajahs, and among whom exist
the systems of polyandri, and the inheritance
devolving to the children of the sister, no man
knowing his own child. The inferior caste is
the Parian or Pariar; contemned by all the rest,
and being in great proportion slaves. There,
however, exists a yet more wretched class, the
Niadis, who are not permitted to enter towns or
villages, but reside in the woods, and live by
hunting and robbing, -
The descendants of Europeans, particularly
the Portuguese, are numerous; as also those of
the Arabic Mussulmans, or their converts called
Māpillas. About the year 1766, Malabar was
subdued by Hyder Aly; during the war the
rajah of Călicut committed suicide, and the
other chiefs were compelled to abandon their
territories, and take refuge in the mountains. In
by Chinese, Malays, and Chulias.
indeed found established in almost all the prin-
the war between Tippoo Sultan and the British,
in 1790, several of these chiefs joined our army;
and, when Tippoo had been compelled to relin-
quish a large portion of his territories, the pro-
vince of Malabar was placed under the govern-
ment of Bombay; on which the different Nair
chiefs were reinstated in their former possessions,
but they failed in all their engagements as
to the revenues, and their mode of government
was found to be wretched in the extreme. They
were in consequence deprived of authority, and
allowed one-fifth of the revenues for their sup-
port. On their subsequent revolt, the province
was transferred to the government of Madras,
which have divided it into two collectorships; and
since this arrangement the country has been
much improved: in the year 1807 it yielded a
revenue of nearly twenty-five lacs of rupees.
MALABAR CAPE, or Sandy Point, a strip of
land projecting out from the south-east part of
Cape Cod, in Massachusetts, about eight miles
south by west. Long. 70°3' W., lat. 41° 33' N.
MALABAR Point, a promontory on the island
of Bombay, near which there, is a celebrated
Hindoo temple, the object of pilgrimage, and a
rock containing a fissure, by passing through which
the superstitious believe they are purified from
sin. The neighbouring village is inhabited by
Brahmins. *
MALACCA, or MALAYA, a considerable
country of India, beyond the Ganges, south-east
of Siam, is 200 leagues long and forty in its
greatest breadth. Its absolute limits are not,
however, strictly defined; the narrow tract that
separates the bay of Bengal from the gulf of
Siam, called the isthmus of Kraw, is its connect-
ing point in that country. The interior is occu-
pied by mountains, covered with impenetrable
forests, and apparently, almost uninhabited ; the
highest summit is that named Mount Ophir,
south-east of Malacca. These mountains, con-
tain tin mines, and give rise tº numerous rivers,
most of which are navigable by small vessels,
and some of them for vessels of burden. The
coasts seem to be divided into seven petty
sovereignties, of which Queda, Pera, Salangore,
are on the west; Johore at the east extremity;
and Pahang, Tringano, and Patany on the east.
The first place on the west coast is Bangri in
9°; it has a considerable native trade, but is
seldom visited by Europeans. •: ,
Queda, or Qualla Batrang, one of the chief
trading places of the peninsula, is in 6° N. Its
river's mouth is crossed by a mud bank with
twelve feet water at spring tides, but vessels of
300 tons can ascend it. The banks of the river
are swampy, and covered with jungle towards
its mouth." Seven miles up it is a brick fort and
village, named Allestar, the residence of the
rajah. It contains about 300 houses, inhabited
Chinese are
cipal Malay towns. Its trade has greatly de :
clined since the establishment of Prince of
Wales's Island. Provisions, particularly bul-
locks and poultry, with fruit and vegetables, are
abundant here. -
Qualla Moorba, six leagues south of Queda,
is a large, deep, and rapid river, with a great
464
M A L A C C A.
sand-bank before it; it descends from mountains
abounding in tin. Pry, River succeeds, and has
a Malay town at its entrance, which, together
with a district eighteen miles up the river, and
three miles in breadth, was ceded in 1800 by the
rajah of Queda to the East India Company,
and is dependent on Prince of Wales's Island.
MALAccA, the chief town of the peninsula, is
situated on the small river Crysorant, which can
only be entered by the Malay proas. The fort
or.citadel of St. Paul, built by the Portuguese,
is on an elevation on the left bank of the river,
and contains all the government buildings, and a
garrison of 500 troops. The town on the oppo-
site side of the river (which is crossed by a bridge
of several arches) is surrounded by entrench-
ments, to protect it from the Malays: it contains.
about 100 Europeans, 250 half caste, 5000
Chinese, 6000 Malays, and 600 Chulias. The
road is entirely open, and lårge ships are
obliged to anchor three miles from the town,
from the shoalness of the water closer in. The
country a little way inland is hilly; and to the
east of the town rises the lofty mountain of
Ledang, also called Queen's Mountain, and
Ophir. The land near the shore is low, and
thickly covered with wood, which it might be
supposed would render the town unhealthy; on
the contrary, however, it is one of the most
healthy places of India, in no part of which are
there more instances of longevity. Malacca was
formerly a great trading place for tin, but which
is now carried to Prince of Wales's Island. It
is, however, an excellent place for ships to touch
at, provisions being in great abundance, and
fruits in an unparalleled profusion and variety.
Amongst them is the delicious mangustine, of
which this seems to be the western limit.
Johore River is near the extremity of the
Malay peninsula; it is of considerable size, with
two channels in, formed by the large island of
Sincapore. The town where the rajah resides is
twenty miles up the river, and is a considerable
Malay native trading place, but seldom visited
by Europeans.
Point Romania, Oojong Tanah of the Malays,
is the south-east point of the peninsula, and is a
low point with a hummuck, named Mount Bar-
bucet, west of it. Off it is a cluster of rocky
islets, and on the west side of the point is Ro-
mania River, with but two or three feet at its
narrow entrance at low water.
Point Romania is also the east limit of the
strait of Sincapore, which forms the communi-
cation between the strait of Malacca and the
China Sea. This extremity of the peninsula is
uninhabited and covered with wood, the retreat
of wild elephants, buffaloes, deer, hogs, monkeys,
peacocks, &c. The rivers are full of alligators
and guanas, and the rocks covered with oysters.
In the middle of the strait of Sincapore is
Pedro Branco, or the White Rock, named from
its being whitened by the dung of seabirds. It
is surrounded by sunken rocks.
Malacca has a partial dependence upon Siam.
Formerly the Siamese monarchy had its supre-
macy owned by the whole peninsula; but, since
it sunk under the power of the Burmans, all the
southern part has shaken off the yoke. The
Malays are well known, and widely diffused
throughout all the east. They are said, however,
not to have been natives of this country, origi-
nally, but to have come from the district of Pa-
lembang in Sumatra, on the banks of the river
Malaya, and thence to have founded the city of
Malacca in 1252. The supreme internal power
resides in a rajah, who assumes the title of
Sultan, and who has under him a number of
dattoos or nobles, but the whole system is of a
very precarious and particular character. The
people are the terror of Asia as pirates. In the
pursuit of plunder or conquest, they show them-
selves daring, vindictive, and insatiable; merci-
less to enemies and strangers, and capricious to
their friends and associates. That which can
be construed into an insult drives them to fury;
and has often impelled them to deeds of frenzy,
known by the name of running amok, peculiar
to themselves. He who has resolved upon this,
begins by taking a dose of opium, till he is half
intoxicated; he then throws loose his long black
hair, draws his crise, and rushes into the streets,
crying “kill, kill,’ and in fact kills every one
that encounters him in his career. But under
the British government this practice has gene-
rally disappeared. Some writers indeed wholly
attribute it to the oppressions of their former
conquerors, and assert that the Malays possess
higher sentiments of honor, greater fidelity to
their word, and upon the whole a more estimable
character than the natives of India. “They are
even mild and courteous in their domestic de-
portment, and, to masters who treat them well,
make faithful and attached domestics. Piracy is
the irregular habit which is most deeply rooted
in their nature ; to it their ideas attach no dis-
grace; on the contrary its successful prosecution
is considered as glorious.' '
Their language is distinguished for its smooth-
ness and softness, and appears to have a basis of
Sanscrit, with a tincture of Arabic. It has
become, like the French in Europe, a sort of
current dialect over all the sea coasts, and in all
mercantile societies of the east.
Besides the Malays, who inhabit the coasts,
the peninsula in its interior tracts, maintains
another race, conceived to have been its original
inhabitants, who seem to be a variety of the
Papuas or oriental negroes. They have the
woolly hair, jet black skin, thick lip, and flat
nose, of the African, and are called by the
Malays Samangs. Those established in the
lower districts, plant a little rice, and exchange
the resin, bees' wax, and honey of their forests
for clothes and food. The Samangs of the
mountains, on the contrary, are said to be com-
plete savages, who have no fixed abodes. They
subsist entirely by hunting and plunder. Ma-
lacca also contains colonies from several of the
neighbouring countries and islands.
MALACHI, Heb. *5°so, i. e. my messenger,
the last of the twelve minor prophets. He pro-
phesied about 300 years before Christ, reproving
the Jews for their wickedness after their return
from Babylon, and condemning the priests for
being careless in their ministry; at the same
time encouraging the few who maintained their
integrity. He distinctly prophesies of the Mes-
M A L A G A.
465
siah, as well as his forerunner, who should come
in the spirit and power of Elijah.
MALADY. Fr. maladie. A disease; dis-
temper; sickness.
Better it is to be private
In sorrow’s torments, than ty'd to the pomp of a
palace, -
Nurse inward maladies, which have not scope to
be breathed out. Sidney.
Physicians first require, that the malady be known
thoroughly, afterwards teach how to cure and re-
dress it. Spenser.
Say, can you fast 3 your stomachs are too young :
And abstinence engenders maludies. Shakspeare.
Love's a malady without a cure;
Fierce love has pierced me with his fiery dart;
He fires within, and hisses at my heart.
Dryden.
An accidental violence of motion has removed
that malady that has baffled the skill of physicians.
South.
Unnumbered maladies his joints invade,
Lay siege to life, and press the dire blockade;
But unextinguished avarice still remains,
And dreaded losses aggravate his pains. Johnson.
MALAGA, a considerable city of Spain, in
the kingdom of Granada, on the coast of the Me-
diterranean. It is said to be the third city of
Spain in commercial importance, and stands at
the head of a deep bay, having a large plain to
the north, and being sheltered east and west by
lofty mountains.
Mr. Jacob, who visited it from Gibraltar dur-
ing the late peninsular war, has given the best
modern description of it with which we are ac-
quainted. Like all Spanish towns, he says, it
is a most beautiful object at a distance, but will
not bear a near inspection. The Alameyda is the
only part of the town which is handsome, and
that is truly magnificent. It consists of a foot-
walk in the middle, about eighty feet wide, with
orange and oleander trees planted on each side:
without these are good carriage roads, and on
both sides a row of sumptuous and eleganthouses.
When the trees grow to a size large enough to
afford shade it will be a charming spot, but at
present they are not much taller than shrubs.
At the end of this walk is placed a beautiful
marble fountain, consisting of three basins ranged
above each other, and gradually diminishing in
size: from the lower basin a column rises, sup-
ported by beautiful female figures, on which the
second rests: the third basin is raised on a similar
column, supported by other groups of figures,
and the whole work is beautifully executed. It
is said to have been a present from the republic
of Genoa to the emperor Charles V.; on its pas-
sage it was captured by an Algerine corsair, and
afterwards retaken by Don Berandino de Men-
doza, who landed it at this city. *
The streets of Malaga are very narrow, while
each house, surrounding a court into which the
windows look, is very large. There is only one
square in the town, and that is neither spacious
nor handsome; and the churches and convents
are so crowded among the houses, that whatever
beauty they may possess is nearly concealed. An
ancient castle in good preservation, built by the
Moors, called Gibralfaro, stands on the side of
a hill communicating with the city: from many
Vol. XIII.
Roman inscriptions found here, especially by our
countryman Carter, it is evident that this fortress.
tº
was the site of a Roman temple and castle, and
the bricks, in some parts of the foundation, are
manifestly the work of that people; but the
whole superstructure is purely Arabic. The
entrances are protected by a contrivance gene-
rally found in the Moorish fortresses; over each
door and window a kind of chimney is con-
structed the bottom of which is level with the
upper part of the entrance, and the top termi-
nates at the parapet; through these chimneys the
besieged could shoot their arrows on the heads.
of their assailants, and be themselves secure from
their attacks. The modern art of fortification, if
applied to this castle, would make it impregna-
ble; and, as it commands the city, it would be
of the greatest military importance. During the
wars in 1487 the capture of this castle, and the
submission of the Moorish garrison to the arms
of Ferdinand, caused the ultimate success of the
Christians. There is another Moorish building
which is outwardly in great perfection; it was
formerly a kind of dock, in which the Moorish
gallies were laid up, but it is now converted into
storehouses. An Arabian palace, the Alcasaba,
stood formerly near the shore, but it has been
partly destroyed, to make room for a modern
structure, which is now nearly completed : it is
the new custom-house, and stands near the
water; the style is purely Spanish, and is very
beautiful. -
The cathedral is a fine object, and said to be
as large as St. Pauls. Its style of building is a
mixture of Roman and Gothic, though it was
erected long after the power of those nations was
extinct; for it was begun in 1529, and conse.
crated in 1588. Being closely surrounded with
houses, it is not seen to advantage. “Catholic
churches generally,’ says our traveller, “appear
less in size than Protestant cathedrals, from
the choir being placed in the centre, and the
high altar in another part of the building. The
number of chapels also, as well as the images
and pictures, which abound in the former, con-
tribute to this effect. The interior of this church
is finished with exquisite taste : it is an oblong
spheroid, with a row of Corinthian pillars,
around which is the nave; these pillars support
a lofty roof of well turned arches, with the sky
painted in the compartments. The high altar and
the pulpit are of beautiful flesh-colored marble,
and the choirs so singularly fine, that Palomino,
the biographer of Spanish artists, calls it the eighth
wonder of the world. It contains about fifty
stalls, curiously carved in cedar and mahogany,
and a considerable number of statues of saints,
the work of Alonzo Cano, and of his pupil
Pedro de Mena, whose celebrity is little inferior
to that of his master. The paintings in this
church are but inferior. There are some few
marble monuments, particularly one to the me-
mory of the late bishop, Don Jesse de Molina,
who is celebrated for having expended in church
plate, and in ornamenting this edifice, the
enormous sum of 1,500,000 reals, or nearly
£20,000 sterling: the revenue of the see Mr.
Jacob found to be about 100,000 dollars annu-
ally, principally derived from tithes # wine,
2
466
M A L A G A.
which are sold by auction just before the vintage.
There are two fine organs in this cathedral,
which add much to its beauty; the pipes are not
perpendicular, but project from the instrument,
and their terminations are in the form of the
large end of a trumpet, so that they appear like
a range of trumpets over the top of the choir,
diminishing gradually in length. The church,
within the walls, is 400 feet in length, and 260
in breadth; the height, from the floor to the
arches, is 140 feet. The palace of the bishop
forms one side of a small square in front of the
cathedral, but the majestic height and grand di-
mensions of the latter make the palace, which
in another situation would appear a handsome
building, look small. The other churches and
monasteries contain nothing worth describing.
“It is not, however, the edifices constructed
by human labor that render Malaga an interest-
ing spot,” says Mr. Jacob, “but the benign cli-
mate and fruitful soil with which providence has
blessed it, and which the industry of the people
has been exerted to improve. The rivers Gua-
dalmedina and Guadalorce, which empty them-
selves at this place into the ocean, wind round
the mountains, and pass through valleys the rich-
est and most fertile in the world; and it is upon
the banks of these rivers that the prodigious
quantity of figs, almonds, oranges, lemons, olives,
sumach, juniper berries, wax, and honey, are
produced, which, with the dried raisins and wines
from the mountains, and the cork of the hills,
form the foundation of the natural external com-
merce of Malaga. The productions with which
Europe is supplied from the western world, such
as coffee, cotton, cocoa, indigo, and pimento,
had been all cultivated in this part of Spain for
many ages before America was discovered; and,
though it has only been of late years that any
great increase in their cultivation has taken
place, yet, from the productiveness of the soil,
from the specimens that have been produced,
and the political prospects of the world, the hope
is entertained that this part of Spain may in
time be rendered capable of superseding the
necessity of cultivating the West India Islands
by the labor of slaves.” - th +
. The commerce of Malaga was very flourishing
during the year of its closer intercourse with
Great Britain. The peace with England opened
a vent for its commodities, which was improved
with assiduity, and the exports of wines and
fruits during 1809–10, amounted to nearly three
times as much as in any preceding year. In all
periods the trade to America from Malaga was
much less extensive than from Cadiz, but, in pro-
portion to its extent, of far more benefit to the
country; because eleven parts in twelve of its
exports eonsist of native productions; whereas,
at Cadiz, the goods imported from foreign
countries constitute rather more than three-fifths
of its exports, Malaga may, as we have said,
in point of commercial consequence, be consi-
dered as the third port in Spain; Cadiz having
been very far before every other at all periods;
Bareelona follows; then this city. But one sin-
gular difference exists between them: the exports
in this place exceed the imports, because there
is much to part with, and few wants to be sup-
woollen cloths, but all on a small scale.
plied. But at Cadiz, Bacelona, Corunna, St.
Andero, and even Alicant, the imports from
America have every year exceeded the exports.
Several manufactured articles, exported hence,
are made in this city and Granada. The flax
and hemp grown here are remarkably good, and
a considerable quantity of linen and sail-cloth is
sent to the colonies. The silk in this part of the
country is manufactured into sattins, velvets,
taffetas, ribands, and silk stockings (principally
at Granada indeed) for home consumption, and
some part is exported. There are also manu-
factories of paper, leather, soap, hats, tapes, and
The
port of Malaga is very good for shipping; and
within the last thirty years an additional mole
has been constructed, which encloses on three
sides one of the best artificial harbours in the
world : it is not large, but there is sufficient
depth of water for a ship of the line, which may
lie close to the pier. The fishermen are very
skilful in the management of their boats, and
form a numerous body.
Malaga was built by the Phoenicians several cen-
turies before the Christian era, and is said to
have been called Malacha, or Malaca, on account
of the great quantities of salt fish sold here. In
process of time it passed under the dominion of
the Carthaginians, Romans, Goths, and Moors.
Strabo says a great quantity of salt, manufac-
tured in its environs, was disposed of on the op-
posite coast of Africa. That it was a place of
importance, under the Romans, we may infer
from the monuments that have been discovered
in its vicinity. It was not till the year 1487 that
Ferdinand and Isabella recovered it, after an ob-
stinate resistance, from the dominion of the
Moors: and its importance has been ever since
as well appreciated as any of the advantages of
this fine country.
MALAGRIDA (Gabriel), an Italian Jesuit,
born in 1686. He was appointed to conduct
missions into Portugal. To great eloquence he
added the most ardent zeal for the interest of the
society. He soon became respected as a Saint,
and consulted as an oracle. When a conspiracy
was formed by the duke of Aveiro against the
king of Portugal, it is said that he and other two
Jesuits were consulted concerning the measure,
and gave it as their opinion, that it was only a
venial crime to kill a king who persecuted the
saints. About that time the king of Portugal
banished the Jesuits from his kingdom ; and
three of them were apprehended, viz. Malagrida,
Alexander, and Mathos, who were accused of
having approved his murder. But either the
trial could not be proceeded in without the con-
sent of the pope, or no proof could be sufficient
to condemn Malagrida; and he therefore was
delivered to the inquisition, as having formerly
advanced some propositions bordering on heresy
Two publications which he acknowledged, and
which gave the fullest indications of complete
insanity, were the foundation of these suspi:
cions. The one was written in Latin, entitled
Tractatus de vità et imperio Antichristi; the
other in Portuguese, entitled The life of St.
Anne, composed with the assistance of the
blessed Virgin Mary and her most holy Son.
MAL
MAL
467
They are full of extravagance and absurdity.
This enthusiast pretended to have the gift of
miracles. He told the judges of the inquisition,
that God himself had declared him his ambassa-
dor, apostle, and prophet; that he was united to
God by a perpetual union; and that the Virgin
Mary, with the consent of Jesus Christ and of
the whole Trinity, had declared him to be her
son. For such extravagances this unfortunate
wretch was condemned by the inquisition; but
his death was hastened by a vision which he
eagerly revealed. Upon the death of the mar-
quis of Tancourt, commander of Estremadura,
discharges of cannon were made in honor of him
by the castle of Lisbon, and by all the forts on
the banks of the Tagus. These being heard by
Malagrida in his dungeon, he supposed, from
their happening during the night, that the king
was dead. Next day he demanded an audience
from the members of the inquisition, when he
told them that he had been ordered by God to
show the minister of the holy office that he was
not a hypocrite, for the king's death had been
revealed to him, and he had seen in a vision the
torments to which his majesty was condemned
for having persecuted the religious of his order.
This was sufficient to accelerate his punishment;
he was burnt on the 21st of September, 1761, in
his seventy-fifth year, not as a conspirator, but as
a false prophet.
MALAGUETTA, a name that has been some-
times given to the Grain or Pepper Coast, a
country of Guinea, bounded by Sierra Leone on
the west, and the Ivory Coast on the south-east,
extending about 300 miles along the Atlantic.
MALANGARA, CAPE, anciently called Ol-
miæ, a promontory of Greece, in the isthmus of
Corinth, forming a sort of peninsula.
MALAR, or MALER, a long and irregular lake
of Sweden, to the north and west of Stockholm,
about eighty miles in length, and of various
breadth. It is said to contain upwards of 1200,
great and small, islands; and forms a variety of
gulfs and bays. It communicates with the Baltic
at Stockholm, and on the south side a canal has
been made, which communicates with an inlet of
that sea at Suder-Telge.
MAL'APERT, adj. Mal and pert. Saucy;
impudent. -
Beware your conntinaunce be sene,
Nor ovirlight, ne rechelesse, ne bolde,
Ne malapert, ne rennyng with your tong,
For she will you obeisin, and be holde.
Chaucer's Court of Love.
Peace, master marquis, you are malapert;
Your fire-new stamp of honour is scarce current.
Shakspeare.
If thou dar'st tempt me further, draw thy sword.
—What, what? nay, then, I must have an ounce
or two of this malapert blood from you.
Id. Twelfth Night.
Are you growing malapert? Will you force me to
make use of my authority ? *.
Dryden's Spanish Fryar.
MALATE, a salt formed by the combination
of the Malic acid with various bases. See CHE-
MISTRY.
MALATIA, the ancient Melitene, once the
capital of Armenia Minor, a town of Asia Minor,
about fifteen miles to the west of the Euphrates.
It stands in a fine plain, between that river
and the Melas, and contains a considerable popu-
lation. The spot is celebrated for a great battle
fought in 572, between Justinian and Chosroes.
Ninety miles W. N.W. of Diarbekir.
MALDA, a small district or hundred of Ben-
gal, situated in Rajemahal, on the north-east side
of the Ganges. Its principal towns are Malda
and Pundua, called also Purrua, which in the
fourteenth century was the capital of Bengal.
MALDA, the chief town of the above district,
the residence of the commercial agent of the East
India Company, is a modern place, and has
been built out of the ruins of Gour. The vicinity
abounds with mulberry trees, on which are reared
an immense number of silk-worms. It carries on
a very considerable trade in raw silk, and mixed
cotton and silk goods. The East India Com-
pany established a factory here early in the
seventeenth century. Long. 88° 4' E., lat. 25°
3' N.
MALDEN, or MALDoN, a borough and mar-
ket town of Essex, seated on an eminence at the
conflux of the Chelmer and Blackwater, where
they enter the sea. It is thought by some anti-
quaries to have been the ancient Camelodunum,
the first Roman colony in Britain. The town
consists of one principal street, nearly amile long,
with another smaller, from which run several
lanes. It was besieged, plundered, and burnt,
by queen Boadicea; but the Romans repaired it.
It was again ruined by the Danes, but rebuilt by
the Saxons. It is governed by two bailiffs, six
aldermen, eighteen capital burgesses, a steward,
recorder, and above 400 commoners, who all
vote for its members of parliament. It has a con-
venient haven for vessels of 400 tons; and carries
on a good trade in coals, iron, corn, and deals.
It has two parish churches, and a large library
for the use of the minister and the neighbouring
clergy. The custom of Borough English is still
preserved here; that is, the youngest, and not the
eldest son, succeeds to the burgage tenure at the
death of his father. Here formerly stood a Car-
mélite priory, and an hospital for lepers. The
town was incorporated in the reign of Philip and
Mary, and has sent two members to parliament
ever since the 2nd of Edward III. Here is a
grammar school, a charity workhouse, a market
on Saturday, and a fair on the 18th of September.
Malden Water is navigable up to the town, which
lies eight miles east of Chelmsford, and thirty-
seven north-east of London.
MALDIVA. ISLANDs. The Maldiva Islands
are a large chain, lying south-west of Cape Co-
morin, between the latitude of 7° 30' N. and the
equator. They are said to be upwards of 1000
in number, divided into several groups, called
by the natives attolons, of which there, are thir-
teen principal ones. Though so near the coast
of India, this archipelago is very little known to
us, and the only account we have been able to
procure of it is contained in the relation of the
shipwreck of Pyrard, a Frenchman, and which
we shall translate in his own manner. ‘It is
marvellous,’ says he, “to see each of these attolons
encompassed by a great bank of rock all round,
there being no human artifice which could so
well shut with walls a space of ground like this.
- 2 H 2
MAL
MAL
468
These attolons are all round or oval, having each
thirty leagues circumference, some a little more,
others a little less, and are all close to each
other, without any of them touching; between
each two are channels of the sea, some broad,
others very narrow. Being in the middle of an
attolon, you see round you this great bank of
rocks, which, as I have said, surrounds and de-
fends the islands against the impetuosity of the
sea. But it is a frightful thing, even to the most
courageous, to approach this bank, and to see,
coming from a great distance, the waves, break-
ing with fury all around; for this, I assure you,
is a thing that I have seen an infinity of times.
The surf is greater than a house, and as white as
cotton; so that you see round you like a white
wall, principally when the tide is at the full.”
He also adds, that each separate island is sur-
rounded by its own reef; and that the currents
which set through these narrow channels are so
violent, that it would be impossible for the in-
habitants to communicate from island to island,
if nature had not provided for this purpose.
Each attolon is divided by two channels, which
cut it diagonally, and of which the extremities
unite with the great channels that separate the
attolons; so that to pass from one attolon to
another, when the current sets from the west,
you quit the attolon you are on by the eastern
diagonal channel, where the water is smooth,
and you are carried by the current to the opposite
attolon, which you enter by the diagonal channel
on the west. There are several ship channels
between the attolons, of which those best known
are the Cardiva Channel on the north, the Equi-
noctial Channel, and the One and Half Degree
Channel.
The inhabitants are Mahommedans, in their
appearance resembling the Moors of India, and
are considered quiet and inoffensive. They trade
in their own boats, made of cocoa-nut trees, and
of the burden of thirty tons, to Bengal, and other
places; exchanging the produce of their islands,
consisting of cocoa-nuts, coir, cocoa-nut oil,
cowries, and tortoise-shell, for betel-nut, china-
ware, opium, coffee, iron, and other articles of
domestic consumption; they also send large
quantities of dried bonito to Achen. They make
very fine mats for sleeping on. -
The principal island is named Male, or King's
Island, being the residence of a chief, whose
house is two stories high; the dwellings of his
subjects are scattered about the island, built of
wood, and covered with the leaves of the cocoa
palm. There are many cannon on this island,
particularly near the king's residence, where is
their principal magazine. The anchorage is very
close to the shore, on a coral bottom ; the native
boats, lie inside the rocks, the channels being
closed by booms at might.
The following account of the currents among
these islands is from Mr. Horsburgh's Directory.
“In March and April the current sets generally
to the E.N. E. about the south attolon, from the
equator to latitude 4° or 5° S., and extends far
to the east and west of the meridian of the
islands. This current is sometimes strong, from
fifty to sixty miles in twenty-four hours, at other
times weak and fluctuating. From the equator
in the same months, to latitude 8° or 9° N., the
current sets mostly to the south-west. In May
the current sets strong to the eastward near the
equator, sometimes from fifty to seventy miles
in twenty-four hours, in the track near the Mal-
divas, from latitude 2° N. to 2° S., the winds
being then variable, but mostly from the west-
ward. In the latter end of June and July, when
the south-east trade approaches the equator, the
currents set often to the W. N.W. about the
south end of the Maldivas, particularly to the
south of the equator. In October, November,
and December, the current sets strong to the
west, at times in the track between Ceylon and
these islands.’
MALDONADO, a small river of the province
'of Buenos Ayres, which enters the sea in the
bay of Maldonado.
MALDoNADo, an island of the Atlantic Ocean,
situated near the coast of Buenos Ayres, at the
entrance of the La Plata.
MALDoNADo, a town of Buenos Ayres, South
America, is situated on a bay formed by a neck
of land, exposed to the south-west winds. The
isle Goretta, off the bay, is strongly fortified with
four batteries mounting twenty-four pounders,
which command the whole bay and the ship
channel on the east, between the island and neck
of land. The population of Maldonado is about
2000; it was founded in 1730. -
MALDONAT (John), a Spanish Jesuit, born
in 1534. He was accused of heresy, and of pro-
curing a fraudulent will, by seducing the presi-
dent St. Andre at Paris to bequeath his estate to
the Jesuits. Peter Gondi acquitted him of the
first charge, and the parliament of Paris of the
other. He retired after these troubles to Bourges;
but went to Rome, by order of pope Gregory
XIII, to superintend the publication of the
Septuagint; and there, after finishing his com-
mentary on the Gospels in 1582, he died in the
beginning of 1583. He also wrote commentaries
on Jeremiah, Baruch, Ezekiel, and Daniel; a
treatise on the sacraments, on grace, on original
sin; and several other pieces printed at Paris in
1677, in folio. . His style is clear, lively, and
easy. He does not servilely follow the scholas-
tic divines; but is free, and sometimes singular,
in his sentiments.
MALE, adj. & n.s. Fr. male.
one of the masculine sex.
Masculine:
As it is writun in the lawe of the Lord, for every
male kynde openynge the wombe schalle be clepid
holy to the Lord. Wiclif. Luk. ii.
Male and female created he them. Gen. i.
In most the male is the greater, and in some few
the female. - . Bacon.
We are no sooner born thine than we are perse-
cuted. If the church travail and bring forth a male,
she is in danger of the Dragon’s streams.
- . Bp. Hall.
There be more males than females, but in dif-
ferent proportions. Graunt’s Bills of Mortality.
Which shall be heir of the two male twins, who,
by the dissection of the mother, were laid open to
the world 7 Locke.
You are the richest person in the commonwealth :
you have no male child; your daughters are all mar-
ried to wealthy patricians. , Swift.
MAL
MAL
469
MALE, an island in the Indian Ocean, the
principal of the Maldives, about four miles in
circumference, and situated nearly in the centre.
It is the most fertile, and contains a town, which
is the residence of the prince. Long. 73° 10' E.,
lat. 6° 20' N.
MALEADMINISTRATION, m. s. Lat.
male ; old Fr. male, bad. Bad management of
affairs.
A general canonical denunciation is that which is
made touching such a matter as properly belongs to
the ecclesiastical court, for that a subject denounces
his superior for maladministration, or a wicked life.
- Ayliffe's Parergon.
From the practice of the wisest nations, when a
prince was laid aside for maladministration, the nobles
and people did resume the administration of the su-
preme power. Swift.
MALEBRANCHE (Nicholas), an eminent
French metaphysician, the son of Nicholas Male-
branche, secretary to the French king, was born
in 1638, and admitted into the congregation of
the oratory in 1660. He at first studied philology
and history; but afterwards, meeting with Des
Cartes's Treatise on Man, he applied himself en-
tirely to philosophy. In 1699 he was admitted
an honorary member of the Royal Academy of
Sciences at Paris. Although of a delicate con-
stitution, he enjoyed tolerable health till he died
in 1715, aged seventy-seven. He meditated with
his windows shut, to keep out the light, which dis-
turbed him. His works are celebrated; particularly
his Recherche de la Verité, i.e. Search after truth.
Locke styles him an “acute and ingenious author;”
who has “many very fine thoughts, judicious rea-
Sonings, and uncommon reflections, in his Re-
cherche,' yet he refutes the chief principles of his
system. Malebranche wrote many other pieces,
to confirm his doctrine, and to clear it from ob-
Jections. -
MALECA, or MELEccA, a cape on the north
coast of the island of Candia, anciently the Pro-
montorium Ciamum. Long. 24° 4' E., lat. 35°
32° N. .
MALECONTENT", adj.
Male and con-
MALEcontenT'ED, tent. Discon-
MALEconTENT'EDNESS, n.s.) tented; dissatis-
fied. -
Brother Clarence, how like you our choice,
That you stand pensive, as half malecontent?
- Shakspeare.
Poor Clarence | Is it for a wife
That that art malecontent 7 I will provide thee.
Id.
The king, for securing his state against mutinous
and malecontented subjects, who might have refuge
in Scotland, sent a solemn ambassage to conclude a
peace. Bacon.
The other mutiny was of some few malecomtents,
perhaps those strangers which sought their own pro-
tection under the wing of Israel. Bp. Hall.
The malecontent is neither well full nor fasting ;
and, though he abound with complaints, yet nothing
dislikes him but the present; for what he condemns
while it was, once passed, he magnifies, and strives
to recal it out of the jaws of time. Id.
They would ascribe the laying down my paper to
a spirit of malecontentedness. Spectator.
They cannot signalize themselves as malecontentº,
without breaking through all the softer virtues.
Addison's Freeholder. .
The usual way in despotick governments is to
confine the malecontent to some castle. Addison.
MALEDIC"TION, n. s. Fr. malediction ;
Lat. maledictio. Curse; execration; denuncia-
tion of evil.
Then let my life long time on earth maintained
be,
To wretched me, the last, worst malediction.
- Sidney.
The true original cause, divine malediction, laid by
the sin of man upon these creatures which God hath
made for the use of man, was above the reach of
natural capacity. s Hooke”.
In Spain they staid near eight months, during
which Buckingham lay under millions of maledic-
tions; which, upon the prince's arrival in the west,
did vanish into praises. Wotton.
MALEFACTION, m. s. Lat. male and
facio. A crime; an offence.
- Guilty creatures at a play.
Have, by the very cunning of the scene,
Been struck so to the soul, that presently
They have proclaimed their malefactions.
- Shakspeare.
A jaylor to bring forth
Some monstrous malefactor.
Id. Antony and Cleopatra.
God uses not the rod, where he means to use the
sword. The pillory or scourge is for those malefactors
which shall escape execution. Bp. Hall.
Fear his word,
As much as malefactors do your sword.
Roscommon.
If their barking dog disturb her ease,
The unmannered malefactor is arraigned.
- Dryden.
The malefactor goat was laid, 3.
On Bacchus’ altar, and his forfeit paid. Id.
It is a sad thing when men shall repair to the
ministry, not for preferment but refuge; like male-
factors flying to the altar, only to save their lives.
South.
MALEFIC, adj. Lat. maleficus. Mis.
MALEFIQUE'. łaºu. ; hurtful. *.
MALESHERBES (C.W. de Lamoignon de),
a French statesman and advocate, descended from
a family eminent for its talents and probity, was
the son of William de Lamoignon, chancellor of
France, and born at Paris in 1721. He studied
at the Jesuits’ college, and first became a coun-
sellor in the parliament of Paris. He succeeded
his father in 1750 as president of the court of
aids, and was made at the same time superin-
tendant of the press. On the suppression of
parliaments, and of the court of aids, Male-
sherbes was cKiled to his country seat, where he
devoted his leisure to the study of statistics and
agriculture. On the accession of Louis XVI. he
resumed his presidentship over the revived tri-
bunal, and was appointed a minister of state in
1775; but, finding his plans counteracted, he
resigned his office in the May of the following
year, and went to Switzerland. Recalled to
the king's councils, in 1786, he drew up me-
moirs, “On the Calamities of France and the
Means of repairing them;' but, his advice being
rejected, he took a final leave of the court. In
1790 he published An Essay on the Means of
accelerating the Progress of Rural Economy in
France; and took no part in the public proceed-
ings of the government, until the decree of the
MAL
MAL
470
National Convention for the trial of the king,
when he nobly offered himself as the advocate of
his unfortunate master. This generous attachment
naturally excited the jealousy of the demagogues
now in power; and scarcely had he returned
home, when his daughter, madame Lepelletier
Rosambo, and her husband, were arrested and
conducted to Paris; and his own arrest, and
that of his grand-children, soon followed. Male-
sherbes himself was beheaded April 22d, 1794,
and bore his sufferings with an equanimity be-
coming his character. His bust was afterwards
ordered to be placed with those of the great men
who have reflected honor upon France. Besides
the tracts above named he was the author of Ob-
servations sur l’Histoire Naturelle de Buffon, 2
vols. 8vo., published after his death. -
MALEV'OLENCE, m. s.) Lat. malevolentia.
MALEv’oleNT, adj. }: will; inclina-
MALEv’ol ENTLY, adv. tion to hurt others;
malignity.
The son of Duncan
Lives in the English court; and is received
Of the most pious Edward with such grace,
That the malevolence of fortune nothing
Takes from his high respect.
Shakspeare. Macbeth.
The oak did not only resent his fall, but windi-
cate him from aspersions malevolently cast upon him.
Howel.
I have thee in my arms,
Though our malevolent stars have struggled hard,
And held us long asunder.
& r Dryden's King Arthur.
This frequently cuts off charity from the greatest
objects of compassion, and inspires people with a
malevolence towards those poor decrepit parts of our
species, in whom human nature is defaced by in-
firmity and dotage. Addison.
MALHERBE (Francis de), the first French
poet of his age, was born at Caen about 1556,
of a noble family. He quitted Normandy at
seventeen years of age; and went into Provence,
where he attached himself to the family of Henry
D'Angouleme, the natural son of king Henry
II., and was in the service of that prince till he
was killed in 1586. Cardinal de Perron, being
informed of his merit and abilities, introduced
him to Henry IV., who took him into his service.
After that monarch's death, queen Mary de Me-
dicis settled a pension of 500 crowns upon our
poet, who died at Paris in 1628. The best and
most complete edition of his works is that of
1666, with Menage's remarks. Boileau con-
siders him as the father of French poetry; but
he composed with great difficulty.
MALIC ACID, an acid. abounding in the
juice of unripe fruits, particularly in apples; so
named from Latin malum, an apple. See CHE-
MISTRY. -
MALICE, n.s. & v. a.
MALIc'Ious, adj.
MALIC'Iously, adv.
MALIC'IousNess, m. s.
gard with ill will.
Fr. malice ; Lat.
(malitia. Evil inten-
tion; badness of de-
sign; grudge; to re-
The cause why he this fly so maliced,
Was that his mother which him bore and bred,
The most fine-fingered workman on the ground,
Arachne, by his means, was vanquished.
- º Spenser,
harm.
Duncan is in his grave;
Malice domestick, foreign levy, nothing
Can touch him further 1 Shakspeare. Macbeth.
I grant him bloody,
Sudden, malicious, smacking of every sin
That has a name. .
We must not stint
Our necessary actions in the fear
To cope malicious censures; which eve
As rav’nous fishes do a vessel follow
That is new-trimmed. Id. Henry VIII.
Malice scorned, puts out
Itself; but argued, gives a kind of credit
To a false accusation. Massinger.
Not out of envy or maliciousness, g
Do I forbear to crave your special aid.
. Herbert.
When Satan, who late fled before the threats
Of Gabriel out of Eden, now improved
In meditated fraud and malice bent
On man's destruction, maugre what might hap
Of heavier on himself, fearless returned. Milton.
Thou knowest what malicious foe,
Envying our happiness, and of his own
Despairing, seeks to work us woe and ºne,
God hath forgiven me many sins of malice, and
therefore surely he will pity my infirmities.
t Taylor's Holy Living.
The air appearing so malicious in this morbifick
conspiracy, exacts a more particular regard.
> + Harvey on Consumptions.
ld.
I have loved :
W at can thy ends, malicious beauty, be 2 i.
Can he who killed thy brother, live for thee?
JD ryden.
A man might do this now if he were maliciously
disposed, and had a mind to bring matters to ex-
tremity. t - ld.
An intrigue, between his majesty and a junto of
ministers maliciously bent against me, broke out, and
had like to have ended in my utter destruction.
Swift.
Wit loses its respect with the good, when seen in
company with malice. Sheridan.
MALICE, in ethics and law, is a formed design
of doing mischief to another; it differs from
hatred. In murder, it is malice makes the
crime; and if a man, having a malicious intent
to kill another, in the execution of his malice
kills a person not intended, the malice shall be
connected to his person, and he shall be ad-
judged a murderer. The words ex malitia prae-
cogitata are necessary to an indictment of murder,
&c. And this malitia praecogitata, or malice
prepense, may be either express or implied.
Express malice is, when one, with a sedate, de-
liberate mind, and formed design, kills another;
which formed design is evidenced by external
circumstances, discovering that intention; as ly-
ing in wait, antecedent menaces, former grudges,
and concerted schemes to do him some bodily
Besides, where no malice is expressed,
the law will imply it; as where a man wilfully
poisons another: in such a deliberate act the
law presumes, malice, though no particular en-
mity can be proved. And if a man kills another
suddenly, without any, or without a considerable
provocation, the law implies malice: for no
person, unless of an abandoned heart, would be
guilty of such an act upon a slight cause. -

MAL
MAL
47 i
MALIGN', adj. & v. a. , Y
MALIG/NANCY, n. s.
MALI'GNANT, adj. & n.s.
MALIG'N ANTLY, adv.
MALIGN'ER, n. s.
MALIG’NITY, |. envy or ill
MALIG'NANTLY, adv. j will : hence to ca-
tumniate: malignant is used as synonymous
with malign, as also for dangerous or destruc-
tive; also for a person of evil dispositions: his-
torically it was a cant word of opprobrium in the
civil wars for the adherents of Charles I. and
the church of England. t -
Strangers conspired together against him, and
maligned him in the wilderness. Ecclus. xlv. 18.
Fr. maligne ;
Lat. malignus.
Evil disposed;
unfavorable; ma-
licious : to regard
The people practise what mischiefs and villanies.
they will against private men, whom they malign, by
stealing their goods, or murdering them.
Spenser on Ireland.
It is hardly to be thought that any governor
should so malign his successor, as to suffer an evil to
grow up which he might timely have kept under,
- Id.
Occasion was taken, by several malignants, secretly
to undermine his great authority in the church of
Christ. Hooher.
My stars shine darkly over me; the malignancy
of my fate might, perhaps, distemper yours; there-
fore I crave your leave that I may bear my evils
alone. Shakspeare.
O malignant and ill-boding stars!
Now art thou come unto a feast of death. Id.
Not friended by his wish to your high person,
His will is most malignant, and it stretches
Beyond you to your friends. Id. Henry VIII.
- Now arriving
At place of potency, and sway o' the state,
If he should still malignantly remain
Fast foe to the plebeians, your voices might
Be curses to yourselves. Id. Coriolanus.
Witchcraft may be by operation of malign spirits.
* Bacon.
He that turneth the humours back, and maketh
the wound bleed inwards, endangereth malign ulcers
and pernicious imposthumations. Id. Essays.
Whether any tokens of poison did appear, reports
are various ; his physicians discerned an invincible
ymalignity in his disease. Hayward.
. No redress could be obtained with any vigour
proportionable to the malignity of that far-spread
disease. King Charles.
Then it follows that original sin is of less malig-
nity than the least actual sin in the world.
." - Jeremy Taylor.
They inveighed against the malignant party, that
had sought to cause jealousies between them and
their brethren of Scotland. Clarendon.
If in the constellations war were sprung,
Two planets, rushing from aspect malign
Of fiercest opposition, in mid sky
Should combat, and their jarring spheres confound.
Milton.
To good malignant, to bad men benign. Id.
Such as these are philosophy's maligners, who
3ronounce the nost generous contemplations need-
less unprofitable subtleties. Granville.
They hold, that the cause of the gout is a malig-
nant vapour that, falls upon the joint; that the
swelling is a kindness in nature, that calls down
humours to damp the malignity of the vapours, and
thereby assuage the pain. Temple
Let the learned begin s
The enquiry, where disease could enter in ;
How those malignant atoms forced their way,
What in the faultless frame they found to make their
prey ! Dryden.
If it is a pleasure to be envied and shot at, to be
maligned standing, and to be despised falling; then
is it a pleasure to be great, and to be able to dispose
of men's fortunes. . South.
Of contempt, and the malign hostile influence it
has upon government, every man’s experience will
inform him. Id.
This shews the high malignity of fraud, that in
the natural course of it tends to the destruction of
common life, by destroying trust and mutual con-
fidence. - Id.
The infection doth produce a bubo, which, accord-
ing to the degree of its malignancy, either proves
easily curable, or else it proceeds in its venom.
Wiseman's Surgery.
Deeds are done which man might charge aright
On stubborn fate, or undiscerning might,
Had not their guilt the lawless soldiers known,
And made the whole malignity their own. Tickel.
Lest you think I rally more than teach,
Or praise malignly arts I cannot reach;
Let me for once presume to instruct the times.
Pope.
I thought it necessary to justify my character in
point of cleanliness, which my maligners call in ques-
tion. Swift.
They have seen all other notions besides their own
represented in a false and malignant light; where-
upon they judge and condemn at once.
Watts's Improvement of the Mind.
Where shrieks, the roaring flame, the rattling
chain, *
And all the dreadful eloquence of pain,
Our only song; black fire's malignant light,
The sole refreshment of the blasted sight.
MALKIN, n.s. From mal, moll, Mary, and
kin the diminutive termination. A kind of rag-
mop made for sweeping ovens; thence any scare-
crow figure; thence a dirty wench.
The kitchen malkin pins
Her richest lockram 'bout her reechy neck,
Clamb’ring the walls to eye him.
Shakspeare. Coriolanus.
MALL, n. S. & v. a. Y. Lat. malleus, a ham-
MALL'EABLE, adj. mer; Fr. malleable.
MALLEABILITY, n. s. Mall and mallet are
MALL’EABLENESS, ſboth used for a kind
MALL'EATE, v. a. of heavy club or ham-
MALL’ET, n.s. J mer: Spenser uses the
former for a heavy blow: other writers have
used it as a verb for to strike or beat with a
mall: malleable is, capable of, or apt to, spread
by beating; ductile : Butler uses it satirically for
cowardly : malleability and malleableness, the
guality of enduring or spreading under the
hammer: to malleate is to forge or shape by the
hammer.
Young.
With mighty mall,
The monster merciless him made to fall.
- - Faeriè Queene.
Make it more strong for falls, though it come not to
the degree to be malleable. Bacon.
- Give that reverend head a mall
Or two, or three, against a wall.
+ Hudibras,
The beaten soldier proves most manful,
That like his sword endures the anvil;
And justly’s field more formidable,
The more his valour's malleable. º . Id.
MAL
MAL
472
The vessel soldered up was warily struck with a
wooden mallet, and thereby compressed. Boyle.
Their left hand does the caulking iron guide,
The rattling mallet with the right they lift.
s - - Dryden.
Supposing the nominal essence of gold to be a
body of such a peculiar colour and weight, with the
malleability and fusibility, the real essence is that
constitution on which these qualities and their union
depend. Locke.
The bodies of most use that are sought for out of
the earth are the metals which are distinguished from
other bodies by their weight, fusibility, and mallea-
bleness. . Id.
He took a mall, and after having hollowed th
handle, and that part which strikes the ball, he
enclosed in them several drugs.
Addison's Spectator.
If the body is compact, and bends or yields inward
to pression without any sliding of its parts, it is hard
and elastick, returning to its figure with a force
rising from the mutual attraction of its parts: if the
parts slide upon one another, the body is malleable
or soft. - Newton's Opticks.
He first found out the art of melting and malle-
ating metals, and making them useful for tools.
** Derham.
MALL, n. s. Goth. and Swed. mal, is an en-
closed place: another origin of this word may
be, a level ground for playing with malls and
balls; a promenade or public walk.
This the beau monde shall from the mall survey,
And hail with musick its propitious ray. Pope.
MALLEABILITY. Different metals are pos-
sessed of this quality in different degrees. The
following table of their malleability and ductility
from Thenard may be found useful. *

Arranged nearly in the Arranged nearly in the
Ductile and Malleable | Brittle in alphabetical order of facility with order of facility with
in alphabetical order. order. which they pass through which they pass through
the wire-plate. the laminating cylinders.
Cadmium Antimony Gold Gold
Copper Arsenic Silver Silver
Gold Bismuth Platinum Copper
Iridium Cerium Iron Tin
Iron Chromium Copper Platinum
Lead Cobalt Zinc Zinc
Mercury Columbium Tin Iron
Nickel Manganese Lead Nickel
Osmium Molybdenum Nickel Palladium ?
Palladium Rhodium Palladium? Cadmium?
Platinum Tellurium Cadmium ?
Potassium Tungsten r
Silver Titanium
Sodium , Uranium
Tin
Zinc
MALLEOLI, or Pyroboli, in the ancient
art of war, were bundles of combustible mate-
rials, set on fire to give light in the night, or to
annoy the enemy: when they were employed for
the latter purpose they were shot out of a bow,
or fixed to a javelin, and thus thrown into the
enemy's engines, ships, &c., in order to burn
them. Pitch was always a principal ingredient
in the composition.
MALLEOL1, in anatomy, the ancle bones. See
ANATOMY.
MALLET, or MALLoch, (David), an English
poet, but a Scotchman by birth, born about
1700. By the penury of his parents, he was
compelled to be janitor of the high school at
Edinburgh; but he surmounted the disadvantages
of his birth and fortune; for, when the duke of
Montrose applied to the college of Edinburgh
for a tutor to educate his sons, Mallet was re-
commended. When his pupils went abroad,
they were entrusted to his care; and, having con-
ducted them through their travels, he returned
with them to London. While residing in their
family, he began to give specimens of his poetical
talents. In 1733 he published a poem on Ver-
bal Criticism: in 1740 he wrote a Life of Lord
3acon, which was prefixed to an edition of his
works. After the death of Pope, lord Boling-
broke employed Mallet to blacken his memory,
in revenge for clandestinely printing his Patriot
King. In reward for this service, his lordship
left him his works, which in 1754 he published
in five volumes, quarto, but which not only in-
volved him in difficulties, on account of certain
sentiments contained in them subversive of the
principles of revealed religion, but which did
not produce to the editor any profit. The old
duchess of Marlborough assigned in her will the
task of writing the duke's life, to Glover and Mal-
'let, with a reward of £1000, and a prohibition to
insert any verses. . Glover is said to have re-
jected the legacy with disdain, so that the work
devolved upon Mallet; who had also a pension
from the duke's son to promote his industry, and
was continually talking of the discoveries he had
made, but left not, when he died, any historical
labors behind him. When Frederick prince of
Wales was driven from the palace, and kept a
separate court by way of opposition, to increase
his popularity by patronising literature, he made
Mallet his under secretary, with a salary of £200
a year. Thomson, likewise, had a pension; and
they were associated in the composition of the
masque of Alfred, which in its original state was
MAL
MAL
473
played at Cliefden in 1740. It was afterwards
almost wholly changed by Mallet, and brought
upon the stage of Drury Lane in 1751, but with
no great success. He had before published two
tragedies; Eurydice, acted at Drury Lane in
1731; and Mustapha, acted in 1739. It was
dedicated to the prince, and well received, but
never revived. His next work was Amyntor and
Theodora, 1747, a long dull story in blank verse;
but in which there is elegance of language and
vigor of sentiment. In 1753 his masque of
Britannia was acted at Drury Lane, and his
tragedy of Elvira in 1763, when he was ap-
pointed keeper of the book of entries for ships in
the port of London. In the beginning of the
French war, in 1756, when the nation was ex-
asperated by ill success, he was employed to
turn the public vengeance upon admiral Byng,
, and wrote a letter of accusation under the cha-
ter of A Plain Man. This paper was with great
industry dispersed, and Mallet was rewarded
with a considerable pension, which he retained
to his death. Towards the end of his life he went
with his wife to France; but, finding his health
declining, he returned alone to England, and
died in April 1765. He was twice married, and
by his first wife had several children. His stature
was diminutive, but, being regularly formed, his
appearance, till he grew corpulent, was agreeable,
and his conversation elegant and easy. “Nothing,’
says his biographer, “elevated or dignified can
be discerned in his character or principles. As
a poet he may lay claim to elegant diction,
splendid imagery, and pathetic sentiment, but
he is deficient in energy and judgment.’—John-
son's Lives of the Poets.
MALI.ET (Edmund), was born at Melun in
1713, and enjoyed a curacy near that place till
1751, when he went to Paris to be professor of
theology in the college of Navarre, of which he
was admitted D. D. Boyer Bishop of Mirepoix,
who had been at first much prejudiced against
him, conferred upon him the see of Verdun.
Jansenism had been imputed to him by his
enemies, and the Ecclesiastical Gazette accused
him of impiety; both imputations equally ground-
less. He died in Paris in 1755, at the age of forty-
two. The principal of his works are, 1. Prin-
cipes pour la lecture des Poètes, 1745, 2 vols,
12mo. 2. Essai sur l'Etude des Belles Lettres,
1747 12mo. 3. Essai sur les bienseances ora-
toires, 1753, 12mo. 4. Principes pour la lec-
ture des Orateurs, 1753, 3 vols. 12mo. 5.
Histoire des Guerres civiles de France sous les
regnes de Francois II, Charles IX., Henri III.,
et Henri IV., translated from the Italian of
D'Avila. His style, like his mind and manners,
was easy and unaffected; and his attachment to
his friends, his candor, moderation, gentleness,
and modesty, rendered him truly amiable. He
was employed to write the articles on theology
and the belies lettres in the Encyclopedia. He
was preparing two important works, viz. Une
Histoire generale de nos Guerres depuis le com-
mencement de la Monarchie; and Une Histoire
du Conseil de Trente, in opposition to that of
Father Paul, when he died in Paris in 1755.....
MALLET Du PAN (Jaques), a modern politi-
cal writer, was the son of a clergyman of Geneva,
and born in 1749. Having completed his edu.
cation at college, he first entered on the study o.
law, but soon deserted it for the belles lettres.
He was invited in 1772 to fill the chair of history
and French literature at Cassel. Not long after
we find him in Switzerland, where he published
a political and literary journal, and other works
of reputation: so that he was invited to Paris
to conduct the political department of the Mer-
cure de France. Here he continued during the
years 1789, 1790, and 1791, animadverting with
freedom on the public affairs; but he found it
necessary to quit France in May 1792, and re-
tired to his native city; and afterwards to Berne,
where he published several tracts. His appre-
hensions from the French Directory induced him
finally to take refuge in England, where he pub-
lished, under high patronage, a journal entitled
Mercure Britannique, from 1796 till the 15th of
March 1800. He died the 10th of May, in the
latter year, at Richmond, Surrey.
MALLET, MALL, or MAULE in ancient armour,
was a weapon much used both by the English
and Scots. In the memorable combat fought in
Bretagne, in the year 1515, between thirty cham-
pions on the part of the English and the like
number on that of the French, one of the Eng-
lish champions named Billefort, was armed with
a leaden mallet weighing five-and-twenty pounds.
We learn also from father Daniel, that the Eng-
lish archers continued to use mallets in the time
of Louis XII., who began his reign in 1515,
and died in 1524. In the ancient poem of the
battle of Flodden, the mention of leaden mallets
often occurs:— t
Then on the English part with speed
The bills stept forth, and bows went back;
The Moorish pikes and malls of lead
Did deal there many a dreadful thwack.
Ralph Smith equips an archer with a ‘maule
of lead, five feet long, and a pike with the same,
hanging by a girdle with a hook; ' meaning,
probably, by this description, that the handle of
the mall should be of this length, the end armed
with a pike or spike; and this implement, we
may imagine, was worn at the back, hung by a
hook fixed in the centre of its handle, with a
loop, or some other contrivance to keep it nearly
perpendicular. This weapon seems to have
been of French extraction; for we find that in
the reign of Charles VI., on occasion of a riot,
the populace forced open the arsenal, and armed
themselves chiefly with mallets, whence they
were styled “Mailliotins.” Mallets were tre-
mendous weacons in the hands of strong active
Iſleſ).
MALLETs are much used by artificers who
work with chisels, as sculptors, masons, and
stone cutters, whose mallet is ordinarily round;
and by carpenters, joiners, &c., who use it square.
There are several sorts of mallets used for dif-
ferent purposes on ship-board. The caulking
mallet is chiefly employed to drive the oakum
into the seams of a ship, where the edges of the
planks are joined to each other in the sides,
deck, or bottom. The head of this mallet is
long and cylindrical, being hooped with iron to
prevent it from splitting in the exercise of caulk-
MAL
MAL
474
ing. There is also the serving mallet, used in
serving the rigging, by binding the spun yarn
more firmly about it than could possibly be done
by hand, which is performed in the following
manner: the spun yarn being previously rolled
up in a large ball or clue, two or three turns of
it are passed about the rope, and about the body
of the mallet, which for that purpose is furnished
with a round channel in its surface, that con-
forms to the convexity of the rope intended to
be served. The turns of the spun yarn being
strained round the mallet, so as to confine it
firmly to the rope, which is extended above the
deck, one man passes the ball continually about
the rope, whilst the other, at the same time,
winds on the spun yarn by means of the mallet,
whose handle acting as a lever strains every
turn about the rope as firm as possible.
MALLICOLO, or MALLIcollo, one of the
New Hebrides of captain Cook, is an island of
the South Pacific Ocean, south-east of Espritu
Sancto. It is ten leagues long, mountainous,
well wooded and watered. The natives appear
to be a different race from the other islanders,
and are described as more nearly resembling
baboons than human beings. Their hair is friz-
zled; and their language a barbarous combi-
nation of consonants, aspirations, and hissings,
that defy the vocal organs of a European to
imitate. They are probably of the New Holland
race, some individuals of which chance might
have thrown on this island. The other islands
of this archipelago form a closely connected chain,
beginning with the Sir Joseph Banks's Islands of
captain Edwards, on the north. The harbour of
Sandwich, on the north-east side of Mallicolo,
is in long. 167°57' E., lat. 16° 25' S.
MALLOW, a manor and borough town of
Ireland, in Cork, about 120 miles from Dublin.
It was incorporated by charter in 1688, and
sends one member to the imperial parliament.
It is pleasantly situated on the north bank of the
Blackwater, over which there is an excellent
stone bridge. It has a good church, a market
house, and barracks for a troop of horse. Not
far distant is a fine spring of moderately tepid
water, which bursts out of the bottom of a fine
limestone rock, and approaches very near in all
its qualities to the hot well waters of Bristol.
Mallow is a post town, and has five fairs.
MALLow, in botany. See MALvA.
MALLOWS, n. s. Y Sax. maelebe; Lat.
MAL'vACEOUS, adj. 5 malva; Gr. paxaxm. A
plant: malvaceous, is, relating to, or like, mal-
lows. 4
Shards or mallows for the pot,
That keep the loosened body sound.
Dryden.
MALMEDY, a town of the Prussian pro-
vince of the Lower Rhine, in the government of
Aix-la-Chapelle, on the Recht. It has consider-
able tanneries, and manufactures of cotton stuffs.
Twenty miles south of Aix-la-Chapelle. Popu-
lation 4400.
MALMOHUS-LAN, or GovernmeNT of
MALMoHUS, one of the new divisions of Sweden,
lies along the Sound and fhe Baltic, in the south-
west of the kingdom, including a great part of
the ancient Schonen or Scania. Its area is
about 1380 square miles. Population 137,000.
The arable land forms about a third of the
whole. -
MALMSBURY, a town of Wiltshire, ninety-
five miles from London, situated on a hill, with
six bridges over the river Avon at the bottom;
with which, and a brook that runs into it, it is
in a manner encompassed. It formerly had a
castle and walls, which were pulled down to en-
large the abbey, whose abbots sat in parliament.
The Saxon king Athelstan granted the town large
immunities, and was buried under the high altar
of the church: his monument still remains in
the nave of it. The memory of the celebrated
Aldhelm, its first abbot, is still kept up by a
meadow near this town, called Aldhelm's Mead.
By charter of king William III, the corporation
consists of an alderman, chosen yearly, twelve
capital burgesses, and four assistants. There is
an alms house for four men and four women,
and near the bridge an hospital for lepers, where
it is supposed there was formerly a nunnery.
This town carries on a considerable trade in
woollen manufactures, has a market on Satur-
day, and three fairs. It has sent members to
parliament ever since the twenty-sixth of Ed-
ward I.
MALM'SEY, n.s.
sia: a sweet wine. w
MALO (St.), or St. MAcLou the son of a
British gentleman, and cousin to St. Magloire,
was educated in a monastery in Ireland, and
afterwards chosen bishop of Gui-Castel, a dig-
nity which his humility prevented him from
accepting. The people wishing to compel him
he went into Brittany, and put himself under the
direction of a holy anchoret, called Aaron, in
the neighbourhood of Aleth. Some time after,
about 541 he was chosen bishop of that city.
He afterwards retired to a solitude near Xaintes,
where he died November 15th, 565. From him
the city of St. Malo derives its name; his body
having been carried thither, after the reduction
of Aleth to a small village called Guidhalet or
Guichalet, and the tranference of the episcopal
see to St. Malo.
MALOES, or MALo (St.), a sea-port in the
department of the Ille and Vilaine, France.
It is situated on the island of Aaron, which com-
municates with the continent by means of a mole
or causeway of three-quarters of a mile in length,
but only fifty-four feet in breadth. The entrance
to the town at the end of the mole is defended
by a castle, flanked with towers, which, together
with four bastions and the ramparts around the
town, render it a place of considerable strength.
On the north side it is inaccessible, in conse-
quence of rocks and the fortifications erected on
them. The town is of an oblong form, its length
being from north to south. The houses are high,
and in general of stone. The principal public
buildings, as the cathedral, the hotel de ville,
and the episcopal palace, are in the market
place. The harbour is large and well frequented,
but difficult of access. The trade is chiefly with
England, Holland, Spain, the north of Europe,
the colonies, and in the Newfoundland fishery.
It exports the products of the surrounding
country, and a few manufactures of straw, thread
From the island Malva-
MAL
MAL
475
woollens, and linen. Population 10,000. The
adjacent town of St. Servan, separated by an
inlet of the sea, and situated on higher ground,
is sometimes reckoned a suburb of St. Maloes.
Forty-five miles north by west of Rennes, and
225 west of Paris. -
MALONE (Edmund), was born in Dublin on
the 4th of October, 1741, and educated at the
school of Dr. Ford in Molesworth Street. He
went thence in the year 1756 to the univer-
sity of Dublin, where he took the degree of
bachelor of arts. Here his talents very early
displayed themselves; and he was distinguished
by a successful competition for academical
honors with several young men, who afterwards
became the ornaments of the Irish senate and
bar. In 1763 he became a student in the Inner
Temple; and in 1767 was called to the Irish
bar. With a view to those superior opportuni-
ties for information and study, and the society
which London affords, he soon after settled in
this metropolis; and, among the many eminent
men with whom he became acquainted, he was
naturally drawn by the enthusiastic admiration
which he felt for Shakspeare, and the attention
which he had already paid to the elucidation
of his works, into an intimate connexion with
Mr. Steevens. This gentleman having published
a second edition of his Shakspeare in 1778,
Mr. Malone, in 1780, added two supplemen-
tary volumes, which contained some additional
notes, Shakspeare's poems, and seven plays,
which have been ascribed to him. There
appears up to this time to have been no in-
terruption to their friendship; but, on the
contrary, Mr. Steevens, having formed a design
of relinquishing all future editorial labours, most
liberally made a present to Mr. Malone of his
valuable collection of old plays, declaring that
he himself was now become a dowager commen-
tator. While Malone, however, was engaged
on Shakspeare, he received from Mr. Steevens a
request of an extraordinary nature. To a third
edition of Johnson and Steevens's Shakspeare,
which had been published under the superin-
tendance of Mr. Reed in 1785, Mr. Malone had
contributed some notes, in which Mr. Steevens's
opinions were occasionally controverted. These
he was now desired to retain in his new edition,
exactly as they stood before, in order that Mr. S.
might answer them. Malone replied, that he
could make no such promise; that he must feel
himself at liberty to correct his observations,
where they were erroneous; to enlarge them,
where they were defective; and even to expunge
them altogether, where, upon further consider-
ation, he was convinced they were wrong; in
short, he was bound to present his work to the
public as perfect as he could make it. But he
added, that he was willing to transmit every
note of that description in its last state to Mr.
Steevens, before it went to press. But Steevens
persisted in requiring that they should appear
with all their imperfections on their head; and,
on this being refused, declared that all commu-
nication on the subject of Shakspeare was at an
end between them. In 1790 Mr. Malone's
edition at last appeared; and was sought after
and read with the greatest avidity. In 1795 he
t
was called upon to display his zeal in defence of
his author, against the fabrications with which
the Irelands endeavoured to delude the public.
Mr. Malone, it is said, saw through the falsehood
from its commencement; and laid it open in a
volume which was written in the form of a letter
to his friend lord Charlemont. Although his
attention was still principally directed to Shak-
speare, and he was gradually accumulating a
most valuable mass of materials for a new edition
of that poet, he drew together from various
sources the prose works of Dryden, which had
lain scattered about, and published them in
1800. In 1808 he prepared for the press a few
productions of his friend William Gerard Hamil-
ton, with which he had been entrusted by his
executors; and prefixed to this also a brief but
elegant sketch of his life. When he was just on
the point of going to the press with a new edition
of his Shakspeare, he was interrupted by an ill-
ness, which proved fatal on the 25th of May,
1812, in the seventieth year of his age. -
MALOUIN (Paul James), a French physi-
cian, born at Caen in 1701, was professor of
medicine in the Royal College of Paris, physi-
cian to the queen, and a member of the Aca-
demy of Sciences of Paris, and fellow of the
Royal Society of London. He strictly prac-
tised the preservative part of medicine, which
is much more certain in its effects than the re-
storative. To this regimen he was indebted for
a healthy old age and an easy death. He died
at Paris of an apoplexy, 3d of January 1778,
aged seventy-seven. By his will he left a le-
gacy to the faculty, on condition of their holding
a public meeting annually, and giving an ac-
count of his labors and discoveries. His prin-
cipal works are, 1. Traité de Chimie, 1734,
12mo. 2. Chimie Medicinale, 2 vols. 12mo.
1755; a book full of curious observations.
3. Some of the Arts in the Collection published
by the Academy of Sciences. 4. The Chemical
articles in the Encyclopædia. He was a labo-
rious chemist, and well informed for the age he
lived in.
MALMESBURY (James Harris, earl of),
K.B., was the son of the author of Hermes, see
HARRIs; and born at Salisbury in 1746. He
was educated at Merton College, Oxford, where
he was created doctor of civil law, and in 1768
was sent as secretary of embassy to Madrid. He
was afterwards minister at Brussels; and went
envoy extraordinary to Berlin in 1772. In 1776
he was appointed to the same post at St. Peters-
burgh; and in 1784 ambassador to the Hague.
In this quality he signed the treaty with Prussia
and Holland in 1794; and was next employed
to negociate the marriage of his present majesty,
then prince of Wales, with the late unfortunate
princess Caroline of Brunswick. In October,
1796, he became minister plenipotentiary to the
French republic; but his mission in that charac-
ter to Paris, and his negociations at Lisle, were
alike fruitless. He was, however, created earl
of Malmesbury in 1800, and appointed governor
of the Isle of Wight, and lord-lieutenant of
Hampshire in 1807. , His death took place in
1820. Lord Malmesbury was the author of An
Introduction to the History of the Dutch Repub-
476
M A L T A.
lic; and a memoir of the life of his father,
accompanying an edition of his works in 2
vols. 4to. t
MALPIGHI (Marcellus), an eminent Italian
physician and anatomist in the seventeenth cen-
tury. He studied under Massari and Mariano.
The duke of Tuscany invited him to Pisa, to be
professor of physic. In this city he formed an
intimate acquaintance with Borelli. He went
back to Bologna, the air of Pisa not agreeing
with him. Cardinal Antony Pignatelli, who had
known him while he was legate at Bologna, be-
ing chosen pope in 1691, under the name
of Innocent XII, immédiately sent for him
to Rome, and appointed him his physician. He
died in 1694; and his works, with his life, writ-
ten by himself, prefixed, were first collected and
printed at London, in folio, in 1667. See
ANATOMY.
MALPIGHIA, Barbadoes cherry, a genus of
the trigynia order, and decandria class of plants;
natural order twenty-third, trihilatae : CAL. pen-
taphyllous, with melliferous pores on the outside
at the base. There are five petals, roundish, and
anguiculated : the berry unilocular, trispermous.
There are many species, all shrubby evergreens
of the warm parts of America, rising with
branchy stems from eight or ten to fifteen or
twenty feet high, ornamented with oval and
lanceolate entire leaves, and large pentapetalous
flowers, succeeded by red cherry-shaped, eatable
berries, of an acid and palatable flavor. Three
of these species are reared in our gardens, and
make a fine variety in the stove. They retain
their leaves all the year round; and begin to
flower about the end of autumn, continuing in
constant succession till the spring; after which
they frequently produce and ripen their fruit,
which equals the size of a small cherry. The
flowers are of a pale red or purple color.
These plants are propagated by seeds, which
must be sown in spring, in pots of rich earth;
then plunged into a hot-bed, and, when three or
four inches high, put in separate small pots,
watered and plunged in the bark-bed of the
stove; where, after they have remained a year
or two, they may be placed in any part of it.
They may even be placed in the open air during
a month or two of the hottest weather in summer:
but must be carefully supplied with water
during the whole year.
MALPLAQUET, a village of France, in the
department of Gemappes, famous for a most
bloody hattle fought on the 11th of September,
1709, between the French under marshal Villars,
and the allies under prince Eugene and the duke
of Marlborough. The French army amounted
to 120,000 men; and were posted behind the
woods of La Marte and Taniers, in the neigh-
bourhood of Malplaquet. They had fortified
their situation in such a manner with lines,
hedges, and trees laid across, that they seemed
to be quite inaccessible. In this situation they
expected certain victory; and even the soldiers
were so eager to engage, that they flung away
the bread which had just been given them,
though they had taken no sustenance for a whole
day before. The allied army began the attack
early in the morning, favored by a thick fog.
Their chief impression was made upon the left
of the enemy; and with such success, that, not-
withstanding their lines and barricadoes, the
French were, in less than an hour, driven from
their entrenchments. But on the right the com-
bat was sustained with much greater obstinacy.
The Dutch, who carried on the attack, drove
them from their first line, but were repulsed
from the second with great slaughter. The prince
of Orange, who headed that attack, persisted in
his efforts with incredible perseverance and intre-
pidity, though two horses had been killed under
him, and the greater part of his officers slain and
disabled. At last, however, the French were
obliged to yield, Villars being dangerously
wounded; but they made an excellent retreat
under Boufflers, and took post near Guesnoy and
Valenciennes. -
MALT, n.s. & v. n. Y
MALT'DRINK, a. s.
Sax. meal'c ; Swed.
malt ; Belg. mout; Teut.
MALT'DUST, n. s. maltz. Grain steeped
MALT'FLOUR, }-and dried in prepara-
MALT'HoRSE, tion for brewing: to
MALT'MAN, make or be made malt:
MALT'STER. J the malt-horse appears
in Shakspeare's times to have been often hard-
ridden, and so have become proverbial for a
dull, doltish person: the other compounds ex-
plain themselves. See MALTING.
You peasant swain, you whoreson, you malthorse
drudge. Shakspeare, Taming of the Shrew.
Mome, malthorse, capon, coxcomb, idiot, patch.
Shakspeare.
Beer hath malt first infused in the liquor, and is
afterwards boiled with the hop.
Bacon’s Natural History.
Malt-dust is an enricher of barrenland, and a great
*. of barley. Mortimer's Husbandry.
mpty the corn from the cistern into the malt-
01°, Id.
To house it green it will mow-burn, which will
make it malt worse. Id.
All malt-drinks may be boiled into the consistence
of a slimy syrup. Floyer on the Humours.
Sir Arthur the maltster 1 how fine it will sound !
Swift.
Tenderness, or friability in malt, is a property that
is indispensable; for, unless the whole interior of the
seed be converted into a farinaceous or mealy sub-
stance, the unmalted part of the grain will deteriorate,
by absorbing part of the extract.
w Reynoldson on Malting.
MALTA, an important island of the Mediter-
ranean, twelve leagues distant from Cape Pas-
saro, in Sicily, the passage between being called
the Channel of Malta. It is about twenty miles
in length, by twelve broad; and is in long. 14°
12. E., and lat. 35° 50' N. An act of the Bri-
tish parliament has declared it to belong to Europe.
The base of the island is a white free stone,
abounding in petrifactions, fossil shells, and
remains of enormous fishes; it is generally level,
but with some hills. The soil is, in few spots,
more than six inches deep, and has been in great
part brought from Sicily. It is, however, exceed;
ingly fruitful, producing corn for six months
consumption of its population, which, for its ex-
tent, is greater than that of any other part of the
world, being, in 1798, 90,000 souls. The island
has no river, but some good springs; and water
is to be had by digging, but rain water preserved
M A L T A.
. 477
in cisterns is most generally used. Besides corn
and vines, the island produces a considerable
quantity of cotton, and the finest oranges in the
Mediterranean; together with a variety of other
fruits, roots, and herbs in great profusion. The
rocks washed by the sea afford abundance of the .
fucus proper for dyeing (fucus venucosus tincto-
rius). It has no venomous reptiles, which the
inhabitants ascribe to the miraculous interven-
tion of St. Paul, who, when he visited it, deli-
vered it for ever from all animals of this kind |
The west and north-west coasts are bounded by
perpendicular precipices, forming a natural for-
tification. The climate is healthy, though very
warm. Malta or Maleta is a small place in the
middle of the island. - -
Malta was given, by the emperor Charles V.,
to the knights of St. John of Jerusalem, when
driven out of Rhodes by the Turks in 1530.
They were required to be of noble birth by both
parents for four generations, and were under
vows of celibacy and perpetual war with the
infidels. The grand master was elected for life,
and possessed the attributes of a sovereign
prince. They were divided into eight langues,
or torgues, of which three were French, two
Spanish, one Italian, one German, and originally
one English; but, on the Reformation, suc-
ceeded by the Anglo Bavarian. The number of
knights was unlimited : the badge of the order,
a white cross of eight points, worn on the left
side. The gradual relaxation of the discipline of
the order paved the way for its downfal; luxury
succeeded to the noble simplicity of warriors,
and the effeminacy of cities to the hardihood
of camps. The war with the Turks had long
been reduced to a phantom, and the summer
cruises of their galleys had become parties of
pleasure. These vessels were at last profusely
ornamented with carved work and gilding; the
sails striped blue and white, with a large red
cross on each. Some of them carried 800 men.
The defence of this vast fortress was entrusted
to foreign mercenaries; and the energy of union,
on which the renown of the order had been
founded, being extinguished, the French found
it easy to corrupt the chiefs, and, in 1798, made
an almost unresisted conquest of the island.
After a two years' blockade it capitulated to the
English. By the treaty of Amiens it was stipu-
lated, that the island should be restored to the
knights under the guarantee of Russia : and the
non-compliance with this stipulation by the
English was the ostensible cause of France com-
mencing hostilities in 1803. Some abortive pro-
jects for reviving it have been since agitated.
The Maltese are partly of Arabic origin, and
speak that language mixed with Italian. They
are described as generally temperate, industrious,
and brave, but also vindictive and jealous of their
wives, who, by a natural re-action, seek and find
not unfrequent opportunities to be unfaithful.
The ancient capital, named Citta Notabile, or
the city of nobles, but more commonly Citta
Vecchia, or the old city, is situated on the highest
point and nearly in the centre of the island. The
modern capital is La Valetta, so named from
the grand master its founder, and has about
30,000 inhabitants. It is near the middle of
island contains about 70,000 inhabitants.
the north-east side, and built on several rocky
points projecting into five of the finest harbours
in the world: the entrance, which is not a quarter
of a mile broad, is defended by immense forti-
fications, as is the town, so that the whole island
may be considered as an impregnable fortress, to
be reduced only by famine.
The other principal landing places are Melcha
Bay; St. Paul's Bay, sheltered by the group of
Solomon's Island, with a depth of two to six
fathoms; old and new Salt Ports; Port St.
Mau: all on the north. Port Magdalen, Marza
Scala, and Port St. Thomas, on the north-east.
Marza Scirocco, on the south-east, is a bay divi-
ded into two branches by a projecting point. In
the east branch the depth is eight fathoms, and
in the west twenty-two fathoms. The whole
Gozo
(Galus or Guadus) is five miles north-west of
Malta. It, as well as Malta, has considerable
Imanufactures of cotton. In the channel between
Malta and Gozo are the little islands Cumino
(Heppestia) and Cuminotta: the passage between
them and Malta is called the Strait of Friuli.
The islands of Lampedosa (Lipadusa) and Lam-
pion belong to Malta, between which and the
coast of Africa they are situated.
This island was anciently called Melita; and
is supposed by Cluverius, from its situation and
other particulars, to be either Ogygia, or Hype-
ria, mentioned by Homer, which last is most
probable, as the poet places the mountain Melita
in that island. See HYPERIA. The most ancient
possessors of Malta, of whom we have any cer-
tain account, were the Carthaginians; from whom
it was taken by the Romans: and yet, during
the whole time that it continued under the power
of these nations, it was almost entirely barren.
Its chief products were figs, melons, honey, cot-
ton, and some few other fruits and commodities,
which the inhabitants exchanged for corn. It
labored also under great scarcity of water and
fuel. According to an ancient tradition, Malta
was first possessed by an African prince named
Battus, an enemy to queen Dido, from whom it
was taken by the Carthaginians, as may be in-
ferred from several Punic inscriptions to be seen
on stone pillars and other monuments yet stand-
ing. The Arabs seized it in 828; and were driven
out of it in their turn by Roger the Norman, earl
of Sicily, who took possession of it in 1190;
from which time it continued under the dominion
of the Sicilian princes till the time of Charles
V., when it fell under his power, along with Na-
ples and Sicily. - -
The knights of Rhodes, afterwards of Malta,
originated from a religious military order, called
Hospitallers of St. John of Jerusalem. Some
time before the journey of Godfrey of Bouillon
into the Holy Land, some Neapolitan merchants,
who traded to the Levant, obtained leave of the
caliph of Egypt to build a house for those of
their nation who came thither on pilgrimage,
upon paying an annual tribute. Afterwards they
built two churches, and received the pilgrims
with great zeal and charity. This example being
followed by others, they founded a church in
honor of St John, and an hospital for the sick;
whence they took the name of hospitallers. A
#
478
M A L T A.
little after Godfrey had taken Jerusalem, in 1099,
they began to be distinguished by black habits
and a cross with eight points; and, besides the
ordinary vows, they took another, to defend the
pilgrims against the insults of the infidels. This
foundation was completed in 1104, in the reign
of Baldwin; and so their order became military.
Many persons of quality entered into it, and
changed their name of hospitallers into that of
knights. When Jerusalem was taken, and the
Christians lost their power in the east, the knights
retired to Acre or Ptolemais, which they de-
fended valiantly in 1290. Then they followed
the king of Cyprus, who gave them Limisson in
his dominions, where they staid till 1310. That
same year they took Rhodes, under the grand
master Poulques de Villaret, a Frenchman; and
next year defended it against an army of Sara:
cens: since which the grand masters have used
these four letters, F. E. R.T. i. e. Fortitudo ejus
Rhodum tenuit; and the order was thence called
knights of Rhodes. In 1522, Soliman II. having
taken Rhodes, the knights retired into Candia,
and thence into Sicily.
In 1530, being destitute of a home, they ac-
cepted the offer made them by Charles V. of the
island of Malta; which they took possession of
on the 26th October. At this time neither Vil-
liers, the grand master, nor the knights his com-
panions, had any intention of making this island
the place of their residence. But having made
an attempt on Modon, a rich and populous
town of the Morea, which was attended with no
other success than the acquisition of considerable
plunder, and the capture of 800 women, they
considered the issue of their enterprise as an in-
dication of the will of heaven, and set about
fortifying Malta as their future abode. After
this the first expedition they engaged in was
against the Turks, in 1532 and 1533, under the
celebrated Andrew. Doria; when they took
Coran. In 1534 the grand master Williers died,
and Perino de Ponte, a native of Ast in Italy,
was elected his successor. About this time the
successes of the pirate Barbarossa, in Africa, had
given just cause of alarm. The new grand mas-
ter, therefore, sent an embassy to the emperor
Charles V., which, with another from Muley
Hassen the deposed king of Tunis, easily pre-
vailed upon him to carry his arms into Africa.
Agreat number of the bravest knights embarked,
with eighteen brigantines of different sizes, four
of the best Maltese galleys, and their vessel called
the great carrack. In this expedition the knights
distinguished themselves in an eminent manner.
At the siege of Goletta, after having made a
breach by their cannon in the great tower, they
jumped out of the galleys into their long
boats, and thence into the sea sword in hand,
marched with the greatest resolution through a
galling fire, and showers of all kinds of missile
weapons; and, having gained the shore, quickly
ascended the breach, on the top of which they
planted their great standard. The emperor de-
clared that the taking of Goletta was cliefly
owing to their valor. The city of Tunis soon
after surrendered; whereupon the emperor, de-
signing to return to Europe, took his last dinner
on board the great carrack. They were now
º
allowed to import corn and other provisions from
Sicily, without paying duty; and the emperor
engaged that none of the order should enjoy any
of the estates or revenues due to the Maltese
knights throughout his dominions, unless they
were lawfully authorised by the grand master
and his council. Mean time the grand master
died, and was succeeded by Didier de Tolon de
St. Jalle, a native of Provence, then grand prior
of Thoulouse, a man of great conduct and bravery,
which he had shown at the siege of Rhodes.
During his mastership the knights assisted Boti-
gella, prior of Persia, in repulsing the Turkish
corsairs, who had attempted, under Hayradin,
lord of Tagiora, the brother of Barbarossa, to
take Tripoli. They afterwards raised the strong
tower of Alcaid; captured Adabus; on their
way back took a rich Turkish galley, worth
160,000 crowns; and landed in triumph, loaded
with plunder. Soon after this John de Homedes
became grand master. The Maltese still con-
tinued to behave with their usual valor against
the Turks; but, through the negligence of
Charles V., almost all the places held by the
Christians on the African coast were reduced by
the infidels, and the valor exerted by the Maltese
served only to destroy great numbers of them.
At last the emperor's affairs in Africa were totally
ruined by his unsuccessful expedition against
Algiers: but to the last the Maltese knights be-
haved with great intrepidity. The Maltese com-
mander, with the remains of his knights, arrived
in three shattered vessels at the port of Malta,
about the end of November 1548. The island
was, during this expedition, terribly annoyed
by Turkish and other corsairs: but they soon
avenged themselves, and their admiral Simeoni
sent home a great number of the corsair captains
in chains. Having learned that great prepara-
tions were made by the Turks at Tachora for the
siege of Tripoli, they applied to the emperor, to
cause the fortifications of Tripoli to be repaired;
till at last Soliman resolved to expel the knights
from Malta, as he had before done from Rhodes.
La Valette, the grand master, being apprised
of Soliman's designs, ordered every member of
the order to repair to Malta, which they did to
the amount of 600, attended by retinues of ser-
vants that were excellent soldiers, and a body of
above 2000 foot from Italy. Those whom age
or sickness prevented from attending personally,
sold their most valuable effects, to assist in the
defence of the island; and Don Garcia, viceroy
of Sicily, was ordered by the king of Spain to
have 20,000 men ready to co-operate with the
Maltese. On the 18th of May, 1565, the Otto-
man fleet appeared, consisting of 159 large gal-
leys, and carrying above 30,000 effective men,
besides slaves, under Mustapha Basha, an expe-
rienced but cruel commander. This formidable
force landed near St. Borgo, and ravaged all the
neighbouring country with fire and sword, but
met with a check from de Copier, marshal of the
order, who, falling unexpectedly on detached
parties, cut off 1500 Turks with the loss of only
eighty men. Meantime Mustapha, dreading the
arrival of the Spanish reinforcement, and desirous
to get possession of a harbour where his troops
could place themselves in a better posture of de-
M A L T I N G.
479
fence, attacked the port of St. Elme. The gar-
rison was soon reduced to such extremity, that
the knights sent to the grand master for per-
mission to evacuate the place. To this he
would by no means consent, but sent them
every night fresh supplies of men and ammu-
nition. The Turks, however, whose numbers
were increased by the arrival of twenty galleys
with above 2500 troops on board, raised new
batteries in the most advantageous situations,
and kept up a continual fire on the fort. The
besieged, on the other hand, had their courage
renewed and excited to the highest pitch, by the
arrival of numerous volunteers from the town,
under Constantine Castriot, a Greek prince, de-
scended from the celebrated Scanderbeg. The
master also supplied them with a new kind of
fire-works, called burning-hoops, which, when
set on fire and thrown among the besiegers, did
dreadful execution. In spite of these new and
dreadful engines of destruction, however, the
Turks cast a bridge over the ditch, and began to
undermine the wall. From the 17th of June to
the 14th of July, not a day passed without some
rencounter, but the Turks were repeatedly re-
pulsed. At length Mustapha adopted the des-
perate measure of extending his trenches and
batteries on the side next the town, though he
thus exposed his troops to the double fire of St.
Elme and St. Angelo; he succeeded, however,
in his great object of cutting off all communica-
tion between the fort and the town. On the 21st
he made four different assaults, but was as often
repulsed by the valor of the knights; at last, on
the 23d, he took the fort, though not till every
man of the garrison had perished at his post.
The few sick and wounded who remained were
barbarously massacred by the inhuman victor,
who caused them to be ript up alive, their hearts
torn out, and, as an insult to their religion, their
bodies were gashed in the form of crosses. In
retaliation for this barbarity, La Valette massacred
his Turkish prisoners, and, putting their heads
into his largest cannon, shot them into the Turkish
camp. In this siege the order lost about 1500
men, including 130 of the bravest knights; but
the loss of the Turks was incalculable. Musta-
pha, however, being reinforced by Hassem, the
son of Barbarossa, with 2500 select soldiers called
the bravoes of Algiers, resolved to attack Fort St.
Angelo, and entrusted the assault of Fort St. Mi-
chael to Hassem, and his lieutenant Candelissa,
an old corsair, who attacked it by sea, while
Hassem made an assault by land. But the
knights defended the fort with such determined
resolution, that, although equal valor was dis-
played by the Turks, the latter were every where
repulsed with immense slaughter, so that of 4000
men scarcely 500 remained. Nor was Mustapha
himself more successful in the siege of St. Angelo,
although at one period a majority of the knights
were of opinion, that the town was not tenable.
This, however, was denied by La Valette, to
whose determined courage and resolution (though
in his seventy-first year), the preservation of the
town and island was owing. At this crisis, Don
Garcia sent over a body of Spaniards, on the
report of whose arrival the Turks immediately
raised the siege and embarked. Learning, how-
ever, after going on board, that the number of
the Spaniards was only 6000, they again disem-
barked, and gave them battle; but were driven
to their ships with the loss of 2000 men. Such,
after four months’ continuance, was the conclu-
sion of the siege of Malta, which will be for
ever memorable as a display of the most heroic
valor on the part of the knights; by which,
though so few in number, they were enabled to
baffle the most vigorous efforts of one of the
most powerful monarchs in the world. Congra-
tulations were sents them from every part of
Christendom; and in many states public rejoic-
ings were celebrated on account of their success.
We have already adverted to the modern history
and the dissolution of the order. -
MALTHA. The mineral tallow of Kirwan,
said to have been found on the coast of Finland.
It resembles wax. Its specific gravity is 0.77.
It is white, brittle, stains paper like oil, melts
with a moderate heat, and burns with a blue
flame and much smoke. It dissolves readily in
oil, and imperfectly in hot alcohol.
M. A. L T I N G.
MALTING, as a commercial pursuit, may be
considered as an artificial mode of inducing
vegetation in certain grains, terminated by ex-
posure to the heat of a drying kiln. The grain
most commonly malted is some species of hord-
eum, or barley.
We know of no pursuit, of equal commercial
and financial importance, to which so little of
scientific attention has been directed. Yielding
the largest revenue of all our internal imposts to
government, it is unfortunately fettered by those
legal restrictions which debar all experiment and
improvement, and are calculated, as has been
plainly seen of late, to diminish the consump-
tion of malt-liquor: while its connexion with
the fluctuations consequent on the wretched sys-
tem of our corn laws, renders any steady reliance
on a commercial profit in this trade impossible.
We look, however, to the liberality of the legis-
lature for speedy and important alterations in
both respects.
The best malts are required for the brewing of
fine, pale ale, the strength of which will not per-
mit a deterioration of the grain on the floor, nor
the color an exposure to excessive or ill-managed
heat on the drying kiln. The writer of this
article had the happiness of a long personal
acquaintance with the managing maltster and
brewer of a considerable ale establishment of
this kind; and to the practical observations de-
rived from this source, connected with his per-
sonal attention to malting for some years, the
present paper principally owes its origin.
It were a fruitless endeavour to attempt to de-
fine the various changes induced by the living
process of germination, seeing that they differ
essentially from those changes which are pro-
duced by chemical affinities on inanimate sub-
48U
M A L T 1 N G.
*
stances. The seed possesses, in embryo, all the
characteristics of the perfect plant: and that food
which nature has provided for its nourishment
and sustentation is, by a peculiar attraction and
decomposition, under the salutary influence of a
proper temperature, ingrafted into the very na-
ture, and forms a part of the seed itself. If due
supplies of nourishment be withheld, at proper
intervals, the plant becomes languid; disease
and death ensue of course. No person would
attempt to explain what that power is, which
enables a vegetable to produce these changes;
such a power however there is.--It may be said
to bear some resemblance to the vital power of
living animals, by which their food is converted
into chyle, and that chyle into blood; which
gives out many secretions containing compounds
by no means to be obtained from the aliment
they receive, or by any other agency, even when
the air which they breathe is also taken into the
a CCOunt.
The boldest barley with a full skin is always to
be preferred for malting: and weight is a more cer-
tain test of the value of barley than of malt. Barley
being in its simple unaltered state, it may fairly
be admitted that the heaviest is the best. That
which is bold, of a fine skin, and perfectly dry,
will necessarily be heavier than in those instances
where any of these properties are deficient. The
counties of Nottingham, York, and Lincoln, pro-
duce barleys of a quality equal to any in the
kingdom ; but Kent, Essex, Norfolk, and Suffolk,
principally supply the London market.
Maltsters and brewers generally concur in
opinion that barley from light land is the best in
quality. However on this circumstance our sen-
timents are different; though it must be allowed
there is scarcely any general rule without some
exception; but the reverse is the fact; particu-
larly under the genial influence of a fruitful
season, and a dry harvest. Small enclosed fields
and the high management of arable land, so ge-
nerally introduced into the practice of husbandry
of late years, have greatly contributed to deprive
us of those bold barleys which were the produce
of the open fields. There is however a difference
which deserves attention between the barleys that
are thin from a luxuriant crop, by the forcing in-
fluence of rich manure liberally administered,
and the barleys that are slender from the impo-
verishing effects of a light sandy soil, as is the
case with a great part of the Norfolk barley; or
from a poor unkind clay soil, which may be
found in some particular parts of the northern
counties. Farmers in general prefer the seed for
their future crops more on account of its “clear-
ness’ than from a regard to its boldness.
There is an essential difference between lean
barley from an enriched soil, and barley which is
thin from its natural type; and as the future
crop must necessarily partake of the features and
properties of the seed, all the properties of the
seed should be duly appreciated. IIowever it is
manifest that the boldest seed will endure the
greatest vicissitude, and will more generally in-
sure a productive crop to the farmer than barley
of a meagre cast, especially if its impoverished
shape be the result of a natural conformation.
Malting may now be considered under the
successive processes of steeping, couching, floor
management, and drying.
I. OF STEEPING THE BARLEY.—It must be
granted, that the boldest and heaviest barleys will
require more water in the cistern, a greater
length of time to meliorate them in the process
of malting, and an additional supply of water by
sprinkling, to bring them to the greatest perfec-
tion. Were the quick growing barleys of Hert-
fordshire and of the other southern counties to be
immersed in water sixty hours, the time necessary
for the stouter barleys of Lincolnshire, Notting-
hamshire, and Yorkshire, it would greatly dete-
riorate their quality. On the contrary were the
maltsters in those northern counties to conduct
the malting process without sprinkling, when the
barleys were injured in the field, their malt would
be little better than a heap of putrid vegetables.
It may clearly be deduced, from the varieties
of barleys, arising from different management of
the lands—from the variation of the soils—and
from different climates, as well as from the great
difference with respect to the condition of the
grain at the time of steeping, that no par-
ticular period can be limited for its being im-
mersed in water. Yet the legislature directs that
barley shall not be steeped less than forty hours;
although it might be shown that this time is by no
means sufficient to secure the duty which it ought
to pay to the revenue. Good barley, which has
been well harvested, continues to rise in the cis-
tern at least sixty hours; and, as the duty is
charged from the greatest gauge, the maltsters
who steep their barley but forty hours will not
pay so much as those who steep it sixty. Those
maltsters who consider the profits of their trade
as the principal object of their pursuit, rather than
the quality of their malt, will avail themselves
of this advantage; hence the revenue suffers,
the public are deceived, and the fair trader is
deprived of the opportunity of vending his ma-
nufacture. -
When barley has been gathered too hastily,
before it was sufficiently dry (either with rain or
dew upon it), it has been found necessary to ex-
pose it a short time to a very gentle heat upon
the kiln; this will dispel that morbid moisture
which ben "mbs the vegetative principle, and pre-
vents the barley from absorbing its necessary
portion of fresh water in the cistern; but it is a
very delicate operation, and the purchaser of
barley for malting should avoid this kind of
grain.
It was formerly a customa with maltsters to ex-
amine their barley during the time of steeping;
and when, on pressing the two ends of the grain
between the finger and thumb, the skin separated
from the kernel, they judged it had been sufficiently
steeped. But since the law regulating the time
of the day for steeping has been enacted, this
test has gradually fallen into disuse; and malt-
sters are now more governed by the act of par-
liament in steeping it the shortest time possible
which the law permits. The reason is very ob
vious: the malt thus made will evidentsy pay
less duty; but it certainly cannot be so good.
For making perfect malt it is necessary that
the barley should be completely saturated with
water in the cistern. The water absorbed there
M A L T H N G.
48 k
by the pores of the skin is destined for the for-
mation of the root. If the barley come short of
a complete saturation, the injury can never be
repaired; because no water administered on the
floor, particularly before the root is formed to
attract it, can be equally distributed—some of
the grains will get too much, and others will
come short of their proper portion. Indeed to
sprinkle water upon the grain before the root is
completely formed is a most pernicious practice.
But unless the barley be steeped its proper time
the assistance of sprinkling must be resorted to,
or it would get too dry; and, under such preca-
rious management, the roots at best will be ex-
tremely irregular and imperfectly formed.
New barley requires to be steeped longer than
old; and many maltsters were formerly in the
habit of changing the water once or twice during
the steeping, but here again the legislature inter-
feres; the maltster is obliged to give notice when
he will “change liquor,’ as it is called, and is only
ordinarily suffered to do it once. While in the
steep-cistern the exciseman repeatedly gauges the
grain.
In this stage of the process, a considerable
quantity of carbonic acid is evolved. . ‘If the
steep-water be mixed with lime-water,’ says Dr.
Thomson, “the whole becomes milky, and car-
bonate of lime is deposited. If the steep-water
be agitated, it froths on the surface like ale. If
it be heated, it gives out carbonic acid gas,
which may be collected over mercury, . In gene-
ral, there is reason to believe, that nearly all the
carbonic acid evolved in the steep remains in
solution in the water, or at least is extricated
from the water in an imperceptible manner.
From the observations of Saussure, it seems
probable, that the formation of carbonic acid in
the steep is owing to the oxygen gas held in solu-
tion by the steep-water.”
II. OF THE Couch. ING.—This is but a transi–
tory and comparatively unimportant stage of the
process; except that, in England, the average
gauges of the couch have, until lately, furnished
the data upon which the malt duty has been
charged. The couch is a rectangular frame, ge-
nerally made of moveable boards, erected edge-
wise round a certain portion of the malt-floor
near the cistern. Here the grain is thrown and
levelled, remaining in this stage about twenty-six
hours. Dr. Thomson says, the duty is seldom
levied for the couch gauge. We suppose he
means in Scotland.
III. OF THE FLoor MANAGEMENT.—When
the barley has remained its appointed time in the
frame it is turned out, and is then called a floor.
The skill of the maltster is now most loudly called
for. On his management the formation of the
root depends, and to the formation of a perfect
root all the future perfections of the malt are in-
debted. In this moist state, were the barley
heaped too thick, or were it to remain unturned
too long, an undue heat would be generated,
which would cause the radicle, or root, suddenly
to send forth long and weak shoots, or filaments,
and the work would be injured. The heat of the
young pieces upon the floors should never exceed
45° by Fahrenheit's scale.
Vol. XIII.
Some maltsters keep their young floors thick
to retain the moisture: but, instead of this, were
they permitted to have the advantage of a re-
newal of water, when that which was absorbed
in the cistern was expended, there would be no
necessity to pursue such a measure; which evi-
dently tends to the deterioration of the malt in
the most critical period of its growth. t
Premising that the barley has been duly
steeped, the working maltster will find it neces-
sary gradually to spread his young pieces thin,
and to turn them very frequently, never less than
three times in the course of the day; in warm
weather, or when the root shows a prompt dispo-
sition to send forth its filaments, they will require
turning more frequently. In some parts of the
kingdom the maltsters make use of a piece of
wood of a particular form (by them called a
plough), which they run along the floors, to stir
them up, as a substitute for turning. In the
older pieces, when the roots are most apt to en- .
twine round each other, this practice is very de-
fective; to the young pieces it can only be of
little use. The plough is but a temptation for
the working maltster to neglect the turning of his
floors; by which alone the form of the root can
be duly preserved, the proper degree of heat be
retained, and the process of germination, for the
obtaining the most valuable properties of the
malt, can be conducted to perfection. -
Some object to the production of a large root,
contending that it exhausts the grain. However,
if the root be diminutive, it is a certain proof that
the barley has not had sufficient moisture. The
form of the root, more than either the weight or
dimensions, should engage our attention. A
short and bushy radicle, which sends out many
fibres, is the only root from which good and
tender malt can be made. But if at any time the
young piece acquires too much heat, the shoots
will be long and weak. The roots of barley in
the field do not receive their mourishment from
any considerable depth in the earth; but from the
moisture near to the surface: therefore their most
perfect form, as just described, is best suited to
their situation: the more numerous, short, and
strong, are the filaments, the greater portion of
pabulum will they impart to the plumula.
If malting be an imitation of the process of
germination while the grain remains in the earth,
and if new accessions of moisture be not needful
after the root is formed, then the moisture of
the ground (whence the root is extracting constant
supplies of mourishment) is certainly injurious.
Under the salutary influence of the mimic
shower of the watering pan, the powers of vege-
tation, when they begin to languish from the
expenditure of its absorbed moisture in the cis-
tern, would now perform important functions.
But here excise philosophy forbids the further
conformity to nature; and, destitute of moisture,
the roots become of no use.
It is important to remark, that the generation
or accumulation of heat during the malting pro-
cess, as in fermentation, should be gradual. The
greatest heat of the youngest piece, as we have
already observed, should not exceed 45°. It
early watering were permitted, a greater frºm
- 2 | -
482
M. A. L T I N G.
to the air, and a lower heat, would be preferable.
The heat of the oldest piece ought not to ex-
ceed 50°. l. -
The smell of the grain, as well as the appear-
ance of the floors, will always indicate to the ex-
perienced maltster when his malts ought to be
turned. When they are closely bedded together,
the application of the shovel is indispensable.
The floors should be turned even, which can only
be performed by the peculiar art of a dexterous
maltster, by which the malt is spread like the
drops of rain from a descending shower. Thus
opened, and exposed to the atmospheric air, the
floors will be light; and the air, as well as the
water, will perform its important office in the
work assigned to it. A continued retention of
moisture would be pernicious to the malt. When,
therefore, a supply is administered, sufficient to
furnish the imperative demands of every part of
the floor, the malt should be frequently turned:
and it should be spread and laid so light in the
act of turning, that the air may co-operate with
the water, in order that the germination may be
perfect, and the malt be complete.
When the newly steeped barley smells sour,
as it frequently does in the spring, the process of
germination will soon convert the unsavory acid
into an agreeable smell. But when the older
floors begin to smell unpleasantly, and the odor
of youthful effusions is gone, it is evident a re-
cruit of water is necessary. The unpleasant
smell is occasioned by the emission of hydrogen,
which can only be retained by the judicious re-
newal of those principles which water, in combi-
nation with the atmospheric air, yields to the or-
ganic plant. .
• It is evident to all who understand the process
of malting, and give it that attention which is
necessary to the attainment of perfection in the
operation, that the uninterrupted influence of
water and air is absolutely necessary throughout
the whole process. -
‘'The charge of forcing is strongly urged against
the sprinkling system, to prove that it is per-
micious. But the mere sound of words must not
assume the province of fair and liberal discus-
sion. ... If by the act of forcing, the applica-
tion of heat, above the medium prescribed by
the laws of nature, as best adapted to organic
life; be the thing intended—then, a greater
heat must necessarily be excited when water is
withheld than when it is applied to the floors.
If hastening the process by an improper excite-
ment of heat under the powerful co-operation
of water, by which the exciting power is more
rapid in its effects, such a practice would be
highly injurious. But if it be asserted that the
sprinkling is a forcing system, merely because
the interior of the grain is thereby more speedily
malted, we deny the position. The fact is, if
water, air, heat, and light, be freely admitted,
and a due proportion be preserved of the native
and combined influences of water, of heat (light
may be admitted, but it cannot be influenced),
and of the atmospheric air, the process of
germination, and theſigradual, but progressive
and uninterrupted, growth of the acrospire must
necessarily ensue. But if water be denied, which
is its principal food, the growth of the acrospire
will cease—the unmalted part of the grain can
then be made friable only by excessive heat
(which certainly is forcing), the process is ren-
dered more tedious, and the acrospire is despoiled
of the treasure it had reserved for the most es-
sential purposes of the brewing process. That
the collision or operation of more principles than
one, in their decomposition by the vital action,
is the efficient cause, by which the interior of
the grain is converted into a compound sac-
charum, is abundantly evident. . . .
It may here also be remarked that the supposed
danger of extending the acrospire of small barley
to the end, must arise from the difficulty of pre-
serving, an equal vegetation in such grain; for so
long as the blade remains within the husk,
whether the grain be large or small, the farther it
extends, and the bolder it is, so much more will
the malt be nourished. * *
It has been intimated that the heat acquired
by germination, in the making of malt, should be
progressive. If at any time the floors get too
warm, the operation may be impeded by a sud-
den exposure to the air; but notwithstanding the
utmost efforts of the manufacturer, and all;the
management of which he is capable, the malt
will be unkind or flinty. The maltsters of the
old school may perhaps feel displeased to find
that their favorite practice is discountenanced;
but yet faithfulness demands of us to bear a tes-
timony against the system of withering malt on
the floor: and especially against the still more
pernicious practice of heaping it, before it is re-
moved to the drying kiln. Both these practices
were adopted for the purpose of making malt
tender; and that it might “brew dead in the tub.’
To the subject of tenderness, as a perfection in
malt, we have paid particular attention; that
those modes might be hereafter disused which
are adopted in the malting office, to the evident
injury of the article. It has been remarked that,
for the benefit of the brewer, water ought to be
administered sufficiently to answer the demand
of the languishing seed, after the root is formed
We are not advising a departure from the exist.
ing, though galling, restrictions of the legislature,
but we here write in the hope of these restric-
tions being in due time removed. In that case,
the method of supplying the malt with water,
that it may be as regularly saturated as possible,
will become a subject of no inferior consideration.
The roots, possessing a powerful attraction for
moisture (the natural food of the plant), will
readily-combine with it, and by this mean it will
prevent its settling to the bottom of the floor.
But when it is understood that as much as three
quarts of water ought to be administered, by the
watering pan, to every bushel of the bold barleys
of the midland and northern counties, particular
care should be taken that every part of the malt
may receive an equal supply. In order that the
water be equally distributed, one-half of the
quantity intended to be sprinkled should first be
applied; after which, the malt being turned over,
it will be ready for the remainder; and, that it
may be well opened, anothér immediate turning
will be necessary. It will then fall and continue
light on the floor, giving the roots every possible
opportunity of absorbing a needful supply. This
M A L T I N G.
483
operation ought always to be performed early
in the morning in the first place; and then
in a little time (suppose immediately after
breakfast) it will again be necessary to turn
the fiewly watered malt. In mild weather
it will require to be turned three or four times’
in the course of the first day of watering; and
in cold weather still oftener, because the dispo-
sition of the roots to attract the water is weaken-
ed; and consequently without more, frequent
turning it would subside, and injure the malt by
an unequal operation. Hence it must necessa-
rily be inferred, that when the malt is fully sa-
turated with water, on being removed from the
cistern, or when it has been replenished with the
watering pan, close attention and frequent turn-
ings are indispensable. -
It is impossible to accelerate the progress of
the floors, further than the gradual operations of
nature will admit, without manifest injury to the
malt. By keeping the floors immoderately
thick, too much heat is generated; and to apply
a profusion of water by way of correcting the
error, must certainly be very injudicious. If
due attention is not paid in regularly turning the
floors, when necessary, the malt of course can-
not be so good. When the floors are of a proper
thickness, and well managed by regularly turn-
ing, a judicious maltster will know the necessity
of sprinkling with propriety. Where the sprink-
ling system is practised great attention is neces-
sary; where it is not practised the malt is
unavoidably injured; because without sprinkling
the barley cannot be rendered friable or floury. "
Some maltstérs prefer sparing and frequent
sprinklings. Perhaps this method might be
less dangerous, and equally beneficial, were
we permitted to sprinkle after the sixth or seventh
day. Malt from the stoutest barleys might, by
such early application of water, when the roots
are completely formed, be matured in about
fourteen days, without the smallest degree of
forcing; and the blade by that time would be
bold and completely worked up. From the
sixth, there would be eight complete days: in
three of which sprinkling might be occasionally
repeated. In the other five days, the moisture
would be sufficiently expended for the malt to
be exposed to a gentle fire upon the drying kiln.
But, as the law now stands, the maltster must
make the best use of his time. When the malt
has been deprived of water for nine days, there
is considerable difficulty in keeping the whole
alive. An immediate and equal application of
water is indispensable to renovate the drooping
powers of vitality, that time may be gained to
prepare the malt for the fire of the kiln.
Some maltsters who dislike the system of wa-
tering upon the floors (for want of knowing bet-
ter) contend, that by a contrary practice they
actually preserve the principle of vitality in full
perfection, until their malt is sufficiently tender
for drying. But, when mere assertions contradict
the unequivocal testimony of the operation of
the laws of nature, we need not seek for any'far-
ther proof of their futility. Further, some malt-
sters from prejudice and ignorance confidently
assert, that if they were to sprinkle their malt, it
would turn mouldy. Now the very acknowledg-
*
ment that their malt turns mouldy from the ap-
plication of water, is a direct proof that vegeta-
tation had ceased previously to the mould taking
place; and that the putrefactive process had ac-
tually commenced. It is truly wonderful that
such a manifest error should exist in this age of
general enquiry and information.
There is no doubt but that much injury may
be done by sprinkling, without considerable at-
tention and judgment. If, from an avaricious
principle, maltsters do not supply their barley
in the cisterns with a sufficient quantity of water,
but instead of it an early and profuse appli-
cation on the floors, by the watering pan, is sub-
stituted for that purpose, the consequence is
evident: the malt must be materially injured.
But the advantages that may be derived from the
use of water in the making of malt, administered
at proper times, are not to be lightly estimated.
By sprinkling it acquires an increase of bulk of
one in ten ; and; with this increase, it also trea-
sures up a valuable portion of the inflammable
principle. The malt being thus swelled by ab-
sorption will produce as much saccharine matter
per quarter, ascertained by the instrument, as
malt that has not been sprinkled; although the
weight of the latter per bushel is considerably
more. Therefore, if we only calculate by mere
weight and measure, one quarter of barley in ten
is lost to the community, in all instances, when
the Hertfordshire system of making malt is
adopted. . . .” - r -
Will not the brewer, who makes his own
malt, likewise reflect that he can procure
eighty-eight pounds of fermentable matter from
a quarter of malt (ascertained by Mr. Richard-
son's instrument) while he could only gain
eighty pounds were he not to adopt the sprink-
ling system ' ' ' . . .
The brewer who buys his malt, when he finds
that he can save 8s. per quarter, and the sprink-
led malt will yield him' as much saccharine mat-
ter, of a sweeter, richer, and vastly superior fla-
vor; he will, of course, by all the saving in the
price of the malt, be enabled to bring his liquor
cheaper to market.
A gentleman, in his evidence before the com-
mittee of the house of commons said, that the
pale malts, he brewed produced eighty-four
pounds of fermentable matter per quarter: but
when he was requested to inform them of the
mode by which his worts were weighed, he an-
swered, ‘by Quin’s instrument.’ It appeared,
from a further enquiry, that Quin's hydrometer
varies from Mr. Richardson's as much as five
per cent. and that in fact, the eighty-four pounds
of extracted fermentable matter; were but eighty.
To reconcile such apparent disparity with respect
to the weight of the worts by different instru-
ments, is by no means the object of the present
work. Those who are solicitous for more copi-
ous information must enguire for themselves.
Competition between different persons produces
a kind of necessity to abandon many customs,
which had obtained a sort of privilege, from
those prejudices which have been adopted from
our ancestors: It is from prejudice contracted
in this way, that maltsters and brewers long re-
tain their provincial habits: hence the innumer-
2 I 2
484
M A L T I N G.
able methods of making malt, and brewing malt
liquor, which of course give occasion to an equal
variety of the qualities and flavors of those re-
spective manufactures, which are to be found in
different parts of the kingdom. But it is the united
province of natural philosophy and of chemistry
to rescue the manufacture of these valuable pro-
ductions from the hands of fastidious ignorance,
and to establish certain rules, founded upon
rational principles, for the uniform attainment of
that perfection in the art, which the subject will
admit. This question therefore ought to un-
dergo an immediate and a thorough investigation,
by unprejūdiced and intelligent minds.
When we consider the health of individuals
in this populous country, together with the best
use that might be made of the produce of so
great a part of the land, which the growth of
barley necessarily requires; and further, when
we contemplate, that a most important branch of
the public revenue is also immediately connect-
ed with the art of making malt and brewing malt
liquor, Surely these are considerations not un-
worthy the attention of the legislature.
If one uniform method were established, for
conducting the process of germination in making
malt according to the sprinkling system, we may
venture to affirm, that the article might, be
brought to market eight shillings a quarter lower,
and likewise of a superior quality to malt made
by a contrary process: consequently it would be
a saving to the public of so much money. It
would be a means of easing the burden of the
present heavy, though necessary tax on malt;
and, to descend lower in the scale of public
utility, the individual consumer would also ob-
tain his share of those advantages already enu-
merated, particularly in having his malt liquor
cheaper, and of a better quality by one penny
per gallon (or nearly so) and in many instances by
twopence. Ale brewed from malt manufactured
according to the sprinkling system (judiciously
managed) is more nutritious and invigorating, in
consequence of its abounding more with the in-
flammable principle, or ardent spirit; which is
an essential constituent in brewing ale of a prime
quality.
Vegetation is the first agent employed, in se-
parating the inflammable principle from its mix-
ed and, neutral combination with the other
elements; and which necessarily constitutes so
valuable a part of those liquors which are de-
signed to renovate the vital powers of man.
By fermentation, the decomposition is rendered
as perfect as the efforts of art can perform.
The following practical observations on this
}. of the subject occur in the able Report of
rs. Thomson, Hope, and Coventry, to the Excise
Board of Scotland:—
While the malt is on the floor, a variety of in-
teresting changes happen. 1. The grain, at a
certain period, becomes moist and exhales at the
same time an agreeable odor. 2. Soon after
this period the roots begin to make their appear-
ance 3. The plumula, future stem, or acrospire,
begins to swell, and gradually advances under
the husk from the same end of the seed where
the roots are observed to spring, till it reaches
the other extremity. 4. The kernel becomes
dryer, friable, opake, white, and sweet-tasted.
5. Each grain of corn loses a certain portion of
its weight. The whole secret of malting depends
upon the proper regulations of these changes.
This is done chiefly by, 6. Keeping the temper-
ature as equal as possible; which again depends
on 7. The time and number of the turnings. It
will be necessary to take a short view of each of
these particulars, in order to form precise no-
tions of the nature of malting.
1. After the grain has been cast out of the
steep, and put into the couch, it gradually
becomes dry externally, the moisture that ad-
hered being either dissipated or absorbed. The
temperature in the mean time gradually rises,
and in about ninety-six hours will usually be
found to have increased about 10°. This rise of
temperature in the heat depends in some mea-
sure on the state of the atmosphere. If the air
has become colder since the period of casting,
the malt does not become so warm as it would
otherwise do ; while, on the other hand, if the ,
air has become milder, the temperature of the
malt experiences a corresponding increase: 10°
may be stated as nearly the medium of the dif-
ferent experiments. The smallest rise observed
was 5°, the greatest 18°; the most common
from 8° to 12°. It must be observed, however,
that the rise of temperature depends greatly
upon the choice of the maltster, who can check
it at pleasure, by turning over the grain, and .
spreading it thinner upon the floor.
About ninety-six hours after casting, the grain
which had become seemingly quite dry on the
surface of the husks, turns again so moist, that
it will wet the hand if we thrust it into the malt-
ing heap. The appearance of this moisture,
which happens regularly after the malt has been.
some days on the floor, is called sweating by the
maltsters: it continues for one day or two, and
then disappears. During its continuance a
pretty strong odor is exhaled, rather agreeable,
and not unlike that of apples. If at this period
a portion of the malt be distilled, in a steam bath,
a little spirits will be found in the liquid which
comes over. They may be made more apparent.
by mixing this liquid with sulphuric acid, and
distilling a second time.
Unless the malt be turned pretty frequently,
as soon as the sweating comes on, the tempera-
ture increases with great rapidity. In one case,
the turning was omitted for about fourteen hours,
and the temperature was observed as high as
30°.
It is just about the time of the sweating that
the roots begin to make their appearance; each,
at first, like a small white prominence at the
bottom of the seed, which soon divides itself into
three rootlets, and at last into four, five, or even
seven. These roots are, at first, very soft and
tender; but in a few days they begin to wither .
and to acquire hardness. Many of them are
broken off during the turning of the malt, and,
in that case, new roots generally succeed them,
at least in the earliest stages of the process”
of malting. When the radicles have divided
themselves into three roots, and have acquired
some length (which usually happens in one, two,
or three days after their appearance, according to :
{}
M A L T I N G.
485.
circumstances), the apple-like smell goes off,
and is succeeded by another not unlike that of
the common rush, when newly pulled. This
smell continues during the whole time that the
malt is on the floor; unless it be overpowered
by a peculiar mouldy smell, which happens only
when the grain is bad, and contains seeds
incapable of germinating; or when a part of the
malt has been bruised during the turning, from
the carelessness of the workmen. The length,
number, and progress of the roots called com-
mings by the maltsters, vary much according to
circumstances. It is well known that when bar-
ley is sown in a good soil, of a proper texture,
the roots continue moderately short, and the
chief effort of vegetation seems to be directed to
the advancement of the stem; but, in loose
ground, the former shoot out to a greater length,
and the latter makes a less rapid progress. In
malting again, the roots have a much greater
tendency to lengthen than even in the poorest or
most open soils. Accordingly, if allowed to
take their course on the malting floor, in a moist,
warm heap, they grow to a great length; in
Some cases not less than two or three inches.
The prime object of the maltster is to check this
inordinate length, and this he accomplishes by
frequently turning over the malt. By such treat-
ment its temperature is kept uniform, and
the moisture is equally exhaled. There is, how-
ever, a considerable difference in the practice of
maltsters in this respect. Some allow the roots
to get to seven-eighths of an inch long; others
never wish to see them above half that length.
As the roots are afterwards separated from the
malt and thrown away, and as their length does
not contribute to the progress of malting, the
latter method seems preferable.
The fourth or fifth day from the casting, and
about a day after the sprouting of the roots, the
rudiment of the future stem may be seen to
lengthen. It rises from the same extremity with
the root, and, advancing within the husk, at last
issues from the opposite end of the seed, and as-
sumes the form of a green blade of grass. But
the process of malting is brought to a conclusion
Some time before the stem has made so much
progress as to burst the husk. This rudiment
of the stem is called by botanists plumula, but
maltsters give it the name of acrospire. The
progress of the acrospire is at first very rapid,
like that of the roots. By the eighth day after
casting it will have usually reached rather more
than one-half the length of the grain. But after
this time its progress becomes much more slow,
so that frequently another week elapses, or even
more, before it has made its way to near the end
of the seed, when it is understood to be proper
to finish the malting: were the malt allowed to
lie longer on the floor, the progress of the acros-
pire becomes again rapid, so that it soon pushes
its way out of the husk and puts on a leafy ap-
pearance. When grain is in the earth, the pro-
gress of the acrospire is much more uniform and
rapid. In that case the supply of nourishment
is abundant and constant, whereas, on the malt
floor, the very contrary is the case.
As the acrospire shoots along the grain, the
appearance of the kernel, or mealy part of the
corn, undergoes a considerable change. The
glutinous and mucilaginous matter, which per-
haps bind together the starchy particles, is taken
up and removed. The color becomes white, and
the texture so loose that the kernel crumbles to
powder between the fingers. This change is
progressive: it begins at that end of the seed
where the roots are, and gradually proceeds on-
ward to the other extremity; so that one portion
of the kernel often appears in a friable state,
while the other still retains the appearance of
raw barley. It is the common opinion of malt-
sters, that this change of the grain always keeps
pace with the acrospire; each seed being altered
as far as the point of the acrospire extends, and
no further. And this opinion has been rather
confirmed by our observation. The whole object
of malting is to produce this change in the ker-
nel. As soon as it has taken place, the seed is
no longer in the state of raw grain, but of malt.
The kernel is originally composed chiefly of
starch, the particles of which seem to be en-
veloped by a species of gluten and mucilage.
This cement (or, perhaps, cellular membrane) is
taken up and expended, in the first place, for the
purposes of vegetation, and thus the starch is
set at liberty, not, however, in the state of com-
mon starch, for its taste is somewhat sweetish,
and it is completely soluble in water, which is
not the case with the other. The object of
malting being to procure this modified or altered.
starch, the process ought to be stopped as soon
as it is fully disengaged and prepared. If the
process has been rightly conducted, this object,
will be attained, as already mentioned, by the
time the acrospire has come within a little of the
end of the seed; but, if it proceed farther, a Sud-
den and very considerable loss occurs. Shortly
after the acrospire has made its way out of the
seed, the starchy matter undergoes a farther
change, becomes milky, and is very soon ab–
sorbed ; leaving nothing but the empty husk.
While the malt lies on the floor each corn
loses a certain portion of its weight. A part of
this loss is only apparent, and occasioned by the
exhalation of the moisture which had been im-
bibed in the steep; but, besides this, there is also
a real loss of weight. If a given weight of the
corn, 500 grains troy, for example, while malting,
be taken daily from the floor, weighed accurately,
and then dried upon a steam-bath till it ceases
to lose weight, the loss at first will be consider-
ably more than two-thirds of the weight; but, as
the malting advances, the loss becomes less, and
at last approaches very nearly to two-thirds.
“The loss of weight, as well as the progress of
the malting, depends much upon the temperature;
two things respecting which require attention:—
1. To keep it as equal as possible; and, 2. To keep
it at the proper pitch, neither too high nor too.
low. Unless the first precaution be attended to,
the progress of the malt is very unequal, some
parts being fully ready before others have ad-
vanced half way. This inequality is attended
with a great loss of weight, because many of the
farthest advanced corns must be sacrificed to the
progress of the rest. It is chiefly prevented by
keeping the thickness of all parts of the malt as
equal as possible, and by turning it over without:
delay, whenever an inequality of temperature:
can be detected in any portion of it.
**
486
M A L T I N G.
* A high temperature is more injurious at the
beginning * of the flooring,” than after the malt
has made some progress. Should the heat be in
excess, the radicles advance too rapidly while
the kernel does not undergo the wished—for
change, but becomes clammy, like birdlime, a
condition which is most apt to supervene in the
early stage of the process, when the grain is very
moist. Hence the proper temperature may be
judged of pretty correctly, from the rootlets or
‘commings.' . If they be pretty equal, and do
not exceed half an inch in length, we may consi-
der the temperature as having been proper; but,
when, they lengthen suddenly and unequally,
there must have been an excess of heat.”
IV. OF KILN-DRYING.—Fire is an agent so
powerful in its operations, that without the great-
est watchfulness all the skill and labor bestowed
on the previous work would be defeated in the
destruction, or deterioration, of those properties
which are the first characteristics of perfect malt.
And here the construction of the kiln—the nature
of the fuel employed—the state of the malt at
the time of its first exposure to the fire—the
proper times for turning the malt, with the pro-
per management of the fire at those times—are
considerations of great moment.
1. In the first place the construction of the dry-
ing kiln demands our particular attention. The
floor of the kiln on which a given quantity of
malt can be dried, with the least fuel in the
shortest time, without injuring the color, is un-
doubtedly the best.
Every maltster knows that a drying kiln is
composed of an open area, or room, about
twelve or fourteen feet high, having a floor of
perforated tiles, or iron, on which the malt is
dried. In the centre of the area, and in propor-
tion to its dimensions, there is an enclosure, for
the purpose of retaining the heat of the fire, that
the whole may be regularly distributed to every
part of the drying floor.
In order to construct the fire-place to the most
advantage, so that there be no profuse expendi-
ture of fuel, nor delay of time (both of which are
pernicious to the malt, yet moist upon the kiln,
and subject to the action of the fire), it should
be so contrived that no more fresh air be ad-
mitted in that direction, that is necessary to pre-
serve the free and uninterrupted combustion of
the fuel. The grate should also be brought for-
ward into the area of the room, beneath the dry-
ing-floor, projecting from the enclosure intended
to confine the heat: because, the fresh fuel being
laid chiefly in; the front of the fire, a great por-
tion of the sulphur will be consumed, in passing
over the intenser heat at the back of the fire.
For the drying of pale malts it is of conse-
quence to obtain the modifying influence of the
external air. And in order that it may be suf-
ficiently diffused, and equally heated, before it
reach the malt floor, it is necessary that two small
apertures be made; the dimensions of which
may be from eight to twelve inches square: one
on each side of the grate below the fire, and as
near to the ground as possible. The external
air, entering by these apertures, will mix with
the current of heated air from the fire; when the
whole, being of one temperature, will be quali-
fied to effect the operation of drying, without
risk of injuring the color of the malt. These
apertures being constructed with sliding doors,
the admission of air may be regulated at the plea-
sure of the maltster, for all the purposes of his
business. } + -
If the fire be placed at a proper distance from
the drying-floor, which ought to be sufficiently
elevated above the kiln, there will be no neces-
sity for a spark stone to diffuse the heat equally;
the malt itself, being spread upon the floor, is
quite adequate to perform this necessary part of
the work. If the draught of a drying kiln be so
violent and irregular as to require foreign aid to
modify the current, it is constructed upon erro-
neous principles. It is therefore obvious that the
old plan, of the fire-grate being within the enclo-
sure, which retains the heat, is not calculated to
preserve the purest and most valuable properties
of malt; for, in such instances, the sulphuric
fumes of a fire newly replenished with fuel, will
rise in that state, and impregnate the malt, to the
manifest injury of its flavour. . .
A drying kiln, formed on the plan here recom-
mended, having the room where the malt is dried
well secured from the external air; and sufficiently
ventilated to facilitate the escape of the heated
air, will produce every shade of color that may
be required. But, in order that the draught of
heated air, properly modified, may be sufficiently
copious and regular, the area beneath should
be liberally supplied with atmospheric air, by
large or numerous apertures (for the above men-
tioned purpose) which should be so situated,
that the air flowing in may not disturb the regu-
lar operations of the fire. . . . . . . . *
2. Of the nature of the fuel employed, it is
only needful to remark that the finest, containing
the least sulphur, is the best; wood and straw
are inadmissible, except in the making of porter
malt; and then they should be used, but spar-
ingly. * * * * =
3. To the state of the malt, at the time it is
first exposed to the action of the fire, particular
attention should be directed. That the malt on
the working floor should not be so much ex-
hausted of moisture as to interrupt the process
of germination, will not admit a dispute: and, in
proportion as the moisture abounds, the dangers
to be apprehended from the influence of the fire
are multiplied. The exact medium cannot be
well described, farther than, in reference to the
primary injunction not to stop the growth of the
malt; that it be as free from moisture as thi
precaution may admit. . . . . . . *:: : -
It is scarcely necessary to repeat that the
acrospire should be worked to the end of the
grain: for, except the malt has been withered,
or heaped, that part of the grain which the blade
has not reached is barley. Withering, or heap-
ing the malt, will make such parts tender, in-
deed, without the aid of the acrospire; but then,
strictly speaking, it is not malt : nor does it ap-
pear that friability, produced in this way, will
yield such a portion of spirit in the liquor as
might otherwise be expected; and consequently
it will be deficient in those exhilarating qualities
so highly esteemed by the consumer.
4. The best and most lively malts being
M A L T I N G.
487
moist, when they are first exposed to the action
of the fire, of course the heat of the kiln, at the
commencement of the operation of drying, should
be very moderate; and it may be increased,
progressively, as the moisture is liberated. At
the first, frequent turning is absolutely indispen-
sable: and it is also equally necessary to ob-
serve, that the malt should always be not only
laid upon the kiln, and turned at proper times,
but finally discharged, when the fire is perfectly
clear. Neither should the fire be neglected, nor
the kiln get cool, before the malt be turned off;
the warmer it is heaped together, after drying,
the more perfectly will it be cured, or deprived
of all its moisture: and the more securely will it
be preserved from the subsequent action of the
atmosphere. When the draught of the kiln is
rapid, and the heated air is regularly diffused, the
surface of the malt will be nearly as warm as the
interior part; and, through the action of the cir-
culating air, it will be light on the floor.
Under these combined circumstances and salu-
tary precautions, when the roots of the malt are
short, bushy, and strong, the fire will have free
access to the malt, surrounding every individual
grain. By the powerful influence of the fire
the moisture, constantly exuding, will be regu-
lally dissipated; and the dry heated air, from
beneath, following in regular succession. Thus
the work, without interruption, under good ma-
nagement of the fire, will go on until the malt
be perfectly dry. . * . .
Upon a kiln where you can have a powerful
draught, which may be modified and regulated
at discretion, any tint or shade of color may be
obtained, which is necessary for the various pur-
poses of the brewer.
It is scarcely necessary to remark, that high
dried malt, which has obtained a deep color by
heat, is of less value than pale malt: because a
portion of that principle which affords spirituosity
to the beverage is destroyed, to the injury of the
fermentation; consequently, the higher the shade
the greater is the loss sustained in proportion.
A current of dry heated air must constantly be
passing in a regular and rapid succession through
the volume of the malt, to carry off the moisture
without the least interruption; because, during
the process of drying, the moisture ought to be
constantly evaporating; therefore, when heated
plates are used, or any other mode of drying is
practised, without such current of air to carry off
the evaporation, the malt will be entirely spoiled,
and rendered unfit for the purposes of the mash
turn.
There is a medium, necessary to be observed,
as to the thickness of the volume of malt on the
kiln: too much would impede the draught;
and, if it were laid too thinly upon the kiln, the
action of fire upon every part might produce a
sudden fixation of the interior parts, before all
the moisture was dissipated. Where there is a
good draught, the malt may be about four inches
deep upon the kiln. The time required for
completely drying the palest malts is from sixty
to seventy hours.
It has been intimated, that the heat upon the
kiln, as well as upon the floor, should be in-
creased progressively. In the drying of malts,
for every shade of color, particular attention
should be paid to the state of the fires, for the
first twenty-four hours. Deep colored malt is
obtained when the moisture is nearly expended.
A sudden application of heat is injurious when
malt is moist; it partially fixes the kernel, and
imprisons a part of the moisture, by the action
of an increased heat, uniformly applied at the
conclusion of the work. By such injudicious
mode of drying the malt, it is converted into a
hard substance, which by the maltsters is called
flint. • * -
The business of the drying kiln seems to con-
sist in completely evaporating the moisture,
which otherwise would propel the acrospire be-
yond the limit of the husk, and, consequently,
impoverish the malt beyond all calculation.
Heat and moisture are absolutely necessary to
vegetation. As the proportions between these
two agents vary, the process will be more or less
perfect. Without moisture, heat will only con-
tribute to the fixation of the parts: and, without
the proper degree of heat, moisture would ab-
stract the mucilage from the seed, and dissolve
its substance. By this we learn that fire dissipates
the moisture, when the business of germination is
accomplished, for the production of malt: and
that those principles, which were necessary to
constitute its utmost perfection, become fixed,
and cannot be altered or disturbed, but by the
influence of heat, of moisture, or of the air of the
atmosphere. Malt, therefore, when perfectly
cured, cannot be kept too thick, nor too close.
But the general rule respecting heat, air, and
moisture, applies as well to the working of malt
upon the floor, as to the process of drying it
upon the kiln. If...water be withheld, in that
proportion which may be necessary to supply
the demands of the vegetable fibres, and to con-
duct the process to perfection, the floors must
be kept thick. In this case excess of heat can
only producefriability in the malt, in combination.
with the diminished portion of moisture that still
remains. - - -
Again, if moisture be applied too profusely,
or at improper intervals, through the vital in-
fluence, it will increase a disposition to generate
heat; and, consequently, the conducting of the
process will be rendered more difficult, and
more dangerous. When, therefore, the malt is.
Saturated with water, either on its recent removal
from the cistern, or when it has just been
$prinkled, its appearances and propensities.
should be diligently watched, that the desired
effects may be obtained. In this stage of the
business the influence of skilful management,
dictated by the unchanging laws of nature, will
be necessary to conduct the operation with pro-
priety. - 4.
It may not be unnecessary to observe, as
the administration of water furnishes the growing
malt with greater powers to exercise its functions,
and to perform its appointed work—that greater
watchfulness will be required under the sprinkling.
system, than when such emergies are not aroused
into action. When sprinkling is not used, and
the malt gets tolerably dry, the floors may re-
main unmolested for a whole day; nothing more
being needful than to lighten them up with a
488.
M A L T I N G.
plough, an instrument formed for that purpose:
and, so long as such malt is preferred at the
market, we need not wonder that both master
and servant should adhere to a mode of opera-
tion, which is attended with the least trouble
and attention, and which seems to claim its
preference from the prescriptive right of ancient
CuSt0m.
Whether these pages may, in any degree, con-
tribute to shorten the reign of the instrument for
ploughing malt, is not for the author to antici-
pate. The power of reason, and the demonstra-
tions of truth, are frequently incompetent to
effect the salutary changes they propose, for the
general advantage and comfort of mankind.
But what reason cannot achieve, necessity will
perform.
‘The last process,’ say Drs. Thomson, &c.,
“is the cleaning of the malt. While still warm upon
the kiln, it is usually trodden upon by the work-
men, to separate the radicles or commings;
which are at that time brittle, but soon become
tough by absorbing moisture. The commings,
thus detached, are afterwards separated by pass-
ing the malt through the common fanners; or,
instead of this mode of cleaning, an instrument
called the harp, well known to the brewers, is
employed. The quantity of rootlets and broken
parts of husks, thus detached from the malted
grain, varies according to circumstances, but is
always considerable. The malt thus obtained
weighs about one-fifth less than the raw grain
from which it was produced; but this diminu-
tion of weight varies somewhat according to the
temperature of the kiln ; the least in our trials
was nineteen per cent, the greatest twenty-seven,
the average about twenty-three.
“A great part of this loss of weight is to be
ascribed to the kiln-drying; and consists of
nothing less than the moisture which previously
existed in the raw grain, and of which it would
have been deprived by the heat of the kiln, as
well as the malt. In order to ascertain how
much of the loss was owing to this cause, the
raw grain should have been kiln-dried and
weighed just before it was put into the steep. In
that case, the difference between the weight of
the malt and of the kiln-dried grain, would have
indicated the quantity of loss of substance really
sustained by grain during the process of malting.
As this method was not practicable in pursuing
trials. On a large scale, we had recourse to another,
Hess precise indeed, but sufficient to give us a no-
tion of the loss of weight actually sustained by the
malt. Portions of the raw grain, and of the newly
dried malt, were exposed to the same tempera-
ture upon a steam-bath. The loss of weight sus-
tained by the grain being called a, and that by the
malt b, it is obvious that a-b represents the loss
of weight which the grain would have sustained,
had it been dried on the kiln at the same tempe-
rature as the malt. This subtracted from the dif-
ference between the weight of the raw grain and
the malt, gave the real loss of weight sustained
by the grain during the process of malting. The
difference between the raw grain and the malt
may be called the apparent loss, as much of it
was owing to moisture, which the malt gradually
imbibes again when exposed to the air. -
“In the trials made by the authors of the
Scotch report, theioss of weight proceeding from
the dissipation of moisture, varied from eight to
eighteen per cent, and the real loss from six to
twelve according to the process. Theaverage loss,
from the dissipation of moisture, may be considered
as fourteen per cent., and the average real loss
may be stated at eight per cent. About four-
tenths of this loss must be ascribed to the com-
mings which are separated by cleaning the malt.
If they be deducted, the loss sustained in malting
does not exceed an average of five per cent. If
we reckon the loss in the steep at one per cent.
and a half, there will remain three per cent. and
a half for loss upon the floor; but for this, one
per cent. and a half may be safely reckoned for
waste, consisting chiefly of small corns and com-
mings, lost during the kiln-drying, and the trans-
porting of the malt from place to place. From
this statement, it follows that, at an average,
100 pounds of barley will yield seventy-eight of
newly dried malt; so that there is a loss of about
twenty-two pounds. Of this loss, fourteen pounds
are to be ascribed to moisture, a considerable por-
tion of which the malt receives again by standing.
The real loss consists of the remaining eight
pounds, which are thus accounted for:—
Lost in steep I
1%
Lost in floor 3
Commings ſº 3
Waste wº tº 0;
8
‘The bulk of the malt generally exceeds that
of the raw grain, though this does not always
happen. The average, for instance, of all our
maltings of Scotch barley gave almost exactly
bulk for bulk, yet, in some instances, 100 bushels
of barley yielded 109 of malt. Others, of course,
must have fallen as much short. The average of
, the English barley was 105 bushels of malt from
100 of grain; that of the bigg ninety-nine. The
greatest produce was 112 bushels of malt from
100 of barley; the least ninety-three. Probably,
too, the inequality might be owing partly to the
unequal degrees in which, in different cases, the
malts, or both the grain and malts, had been
cleaned. In our trials, the bigg did not deviate
so far from equality as the barley. The weight
of the malt varies also considerably; but in ge-
neral a bushel of good malt, when newly dried,
weighs about three-fourths of a bushel of the
raw grain.”
The late Mr. Baverstock, in vindication of
the public breweries, makes the following re-
marks founded on his own very considerable
experience:—
* It is well known to chemists, to distillers,
(and to the rightly informed among the brew-
ers), that it would not be more futile to attempt
to make bread from chalk, than to make any sort
of vinous liquor (such as beer, wine, or intox-
icating spirits), from any matters whatsoever;
except from some substance that is “saccharine."
For no other matters will yield an extract, or
solution, that is capable of the vinous fermen:
tation. Without such fermentation no spiritu-
osity, or strength, can be produced ; and, pro-
M A L T 1 N G.
489
vided the fermentations be properly and simi-
larly conducted, the quantity of vinous spirit
obtained is ever in proportion to the quantity
of “sweet,” contained originally in, or drawn
from, the subject or matter employed. Of all
the saccharine and fermentable matters, whether
native or foreign, that are procurable in these
kingdoms, the three cheapest are “malt, treacle,
and sugar.’ The portion of the desirable matter
for producing beer, or spirit, from these three
subjects, is discoverable with ease, and to cer-
tainty, by the specific gravity of the solutions of
any given quantity of each or either of them.
And the question, as to which is the cheapest, is
then decided by the “quantum of fermentable
matter yielded, in conjunction with a consider-
ation of their respective costs.” -
‘Barley, in its raw or unmalted state, consists
chiefly of mucilage, with but a very small por-
tion of saccharine matter. By the germination
in malting it the greatest part of the mucilage
is converted into sugar, which then becomes so
abundant as to form six parts in ten of the actual
weight of the malt. The remaining four parts
consist of mucilage, with the husks, or draft, of
the grain. The saccharine property in malt is
so much more readily extracted, in brewing,
than the mucilage (under due precautions with
regard to the heats of the water applied in the
several mashings), that the latter may be disre-
garded, as affecting the gravity of the solution.
Wort may, therefore, be considered as consist-
ing of sugar dissolved in water, and the strength
of wort is always proportioned to the quantity
of the Saccharine matter contained in a given
measure of the liquid. And hence the gravity
of worts, when compared with the gravity of
water, may, in all cases, be received and trusted
to, as the measure of their value; which is con-
firmed, incontrovertibly, in the practice of both
distillers and brewers. The first of whom find
the proportion of proof spirit, obtained from
any given quantity of their wash, to be in an
exact ratio to the gravity of such wash, under
correct uniformity in all the parts of the process.
And, under the same circumstances, the brewer
obtains a greater or less price for his beer, ac-
cording to the gravity of his worts; or, (which
is the same) according to the quantity of malt
allotted to make such worts.
* A bushel of ripe and well-cleaned barley
will weigh from fifty to fifty-two pounds; of
which weight one-fifth part is lost by germi-
nation and evaporation in malting, and not
more, provided it be malted with a view to the
quality, rather than to an injurious increase of
measure. In the latter case, a full fourth part
of the original weight of the barley is lost in
the malting. From a bushel of perfect malt,
weighing forty to forty-two pounds, may be
drawn twenty-five pounds of solid extract, of
equal value for the purposes of making beer and
distilled spirits, as twenty-five pounds of dry
powder sugar, or thirty pounds of treacle. , Qr
each and either of them will make a barrel of
wort, of ten pounds to eleven pounds heavier
than water, because the water, which is displaced
by the extract (viz. six quarts) weighs fifteen'
pounds. Estimating the costs of the several
quantities at the wholesale prices of each articles
and according to the terms on which a brewer
can, at this time (September 1813) purchase
100 or 500 quarters of malt, viz. at 96s. the
quarter, treacle at 48s, and sugar at 90s. the
112 pounds of each, it will be found that to
equal a quarter of malt, at 96s, will require 240.
pounds of treacle, costing 103s., or 200 pounds.
of sugar, costing 1658. - -
“ Until this statement can be disproved, or
until some article, equally saccharine and fer-
mentable as malt, can be discovered, and obtain-
ed at less cost, it may be submitted to the reader,
whence can arise any temptation to a brewer to
exchange malt for any other matter to make
beer. Sugar is, by act of parliament 1812,
permitted to be used in the breweries, but treacle
is still prohibited, under such penalties as would
be ruinous. No pale beer brewer could use
treacle without discovery, by the color and taste
of the beer. - -
* Sugar being manufactured uniformly by
boiling it to a given and equal consistence, very
little or no variation is found in a given weight
of the same sorts of it, although the quality of
the came juice, from whence it is made, differs
greatly, according to the wetness, or dryness of
the season in the West Indian Islands; and the
same may be said, or nearly so, of the treacle:
but the malts from barley differ very much,
according to the condition of the grain, and the
skill and integrity of the maltster. The prices
also of all the three are, we know, continually
fluctuating, yet the advantage will be found to
remain with the malt, by those who will take
the trouble to make calculations on the contem-
porary prices of each. And this, either with or
without taking into consideration, that if sugar
or treacle were to be used, in but a trifling pro-
portion in the breweries, the prices of them
would be immediately and greatly advanced,
and malt would be in a proportionate degree
cheaper. But, although sugar has been allowed
to be used in the breweries for more than a year
past (as also on some former occasions), it has
not been found that any consumption of it takes.
place among the well-informed part of the trade,
to make beer. - -
The statement here given of the comparative
value of the three “sweets,’ differs so widely
from the motions generally entertained by the
public, that it is to be expected the correctness
of it will be doubted. The truth of it, how-
ever, is proved by distillation; for, so very
exact is the proportion of vinous spirit pro-
ducible from the wort, to its gravity in its first
state, that the practical distillers may ascertain,
to a single gallon, what will be the produce of
proof spirit, from 10,000 gallons, or any greater
or less quantity of their fermented liquor, pre-
viously to committing it to the stills; which
rule is founded on the known number of
pounds of fermentable matter required to pro-
duce each gallon of spirit, whether the ferment-
able matter were drawn from malt, from sugar,
or from treacle. The whole of which would be
impracticable, if there were any distinction in
the vinous properties of the different extracts;
or if the gravity of the worts were not, in alk
490
M. A. L T I N G.
the cases, a correct criterion of their value. This
rule extends also to; and is practicable in, the
brewery.” ; ; ". . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
On the subject of instruments he afterwards
adds:– By simple evaporation, malt wort is
brought first to the consistence of treacle, and
finally to a fixed and solid extract. Dycas's
hydrometer shows the exact number of pounds
of such extract, which is contained in thirty-six
gallons of wort, each pound whereof occupies
the space of '06 parts of a gallon; of the water.
Quin's, Richardson's, and Dring's instruments
show, merely, the addition of gravity,in a barrel
of wort, caused by the difference between, the
weight of the extract and the weight of the
water so displaced. All of the last three instru-
ments differ in a slight degree from each other in
their indications, yet not so materially but that
all of them may be made similarly useful in the
hands of judicious practitioners in the distilleries
or breweries. - . . . .
“Taking the average indications of Quin's, Ri-
chardson's, and Dring's hydrometers, each pound
of additional gravity.(to the water) shows the ex-
istence of two-sixths of a pound of extract accord-
ing to Dicas's rule. g. And thus a wort of thirty
pounds per barrel heavier than water contains
seventy-eight pounds of saccharine extract, which
is shown at one wiew, by Dicas's instrument.
Dring and Fage's improved instrument, con-
structed according to the principles laid down by
Dr. Thomson in the valuablereport before alluded
to, shows by means of a sliding rule, given with
it, the quantity of dry extract per cent, con-
tained in any given quantity of malt. .. . .
‘A barrel, or thirty-six gallons, beer measure,
of rain water, should weigh 367.2 pounds at the
rate of 1000 ounces for each cubic foot; which is
concluded to be the precise specific gravity of
such water. But, that which is in general use
being somewhat harder and heavier, it will be
nearer the truth to fix it on 369 pounds as the
weight of a barrel of water in the breweries. Hence,
what is called a barrel of wort of thirty pounds,
weighs actually 399 pounds: viz. 369 pounds
the water, and thirty pounds additional for the
wort. Dicas's instrument shows that the consti-
tuents of a barrel of such wort are seventy-eight
pounds of fermentable extract, which, occupying
the space of 4.68 gallons of the liquid, at 66 for
each pound, leaves 31-32 gallons of water, the
weight whereof, at 10:25 pounds per gallon,
amounts to 321 pounds, to which, adding the ex-
tract of seventy-eight pounds, we find the total
weight to be 399 pounds, as by the others. An
exact quart of raw wort, 76.5 pounds, by Dicas,
was evaporated to dryness; and, as the extract
could not be cleanly separated from the vessel
employed, the whole was put into a scale and
weighed 24:25 ounces. The vessel (when per-
fectly cleaned with hot water, which brought the
extract again to the state of sweet wort) weighed
15.75 ounces, thereby showing that the actual
quantity of extract contained in the quart of wort
was 8.5 ounces, which, multiplied by 144, the
quarts in thirty-six gallons, gives 1224 ounces,
which, divided by sixteen, gives 76.5 pounds;
four ounces of powder-sugar, on being dissolved
in a glazed earthen vessel (previously weighed),
and brought to a solid extract, lost one-eighth
part of its weight, by evaporation in the process.
We may hence reasonably conclude that each
pound of malt extract is of equal value and use-
fulness to a distiller or to a brewer, as one pound
of sugar, in the state that the last is sold in, the
shops. For the saccharine matter contained in
the extract of malt, is not more (if so much) di-
minished by the very small portion of mucilage,
which mingles with it, when running from the
mashing-tun, than the sugar is weakened by its
hydrogenous or watery particles; and, if this be
granted, it follows that Dicas's hydrometer shows,
at once, the number of pounds (or half pounds)
of “sugar,’ contained in each thirty-six gallons
of malt wort. Further, if the exhausted grains
in a brewing of malt were deprived of their
moisture, by drying them on a kiln, it would be
found that a bushel of them would be so much
lighter than the malt (in its dry state) as the
amount of the extract, drawn from each bushel,
WIZ. 2- - - - . . . .
Sav Malt. Extract. Grains. º
y . . .'; per bushel.
‘This has been proved satisfactorily, and may
be experienced in little time, and without much
trouble, because on a small scale. And such
examination of the separate parts of a bushel of
malt is further satisfactory, inasmuch as it con-
firms the amount of fermentable matter extracted
from this, or any given quantity of malt, as the
same may have been shown by Dycas's hydro-
meter.’ -
MALT DUTIES.–In June, 1802, the whole
amount of the duties on malt was only 10s. 6d. per
quarter; it was then raised to the following sums
per bushel: -
S. d.
* . 4 4 or 100
Malt of Scotch barley .. 3 8% or 84.856
Malt of Scotch big . 3 0% or 69.472
But 2s. of this was considered a war-tax, and to
continue only to six months after a general peace.
In 1816 therefore it was taken off; but in 1819
a new duty was imposed which raised it to 28s.
per quarter. Since which the 3d Geo. IV., c. 18,
has reduced it to 8s, per bushel, or 20s, per quar-
ter. The new Malt Consolidation Act was so
extravagant in its provisions and restrictions,
that it prevented the whole of the respectable
part of the maltsters commencing, operations at
the usual period in 1827, and diminished the
quarter's revenue, we understand, full £60,000.
Under these circumstances the lords of the
treasury have seen it proper to suspend a con-
siderable part of its provisions; and the whole
measure is to be remodelled at the meeting of
parliament. . . . . . . . . . .
English malt
MAL
MAM
491
MALTON, a borough, and market town in
the North Riding of Yorkshire, seventeen, miles
and a half north-east from York, and 217 north
by west from London, situate on the river Der-
went, over which it has a handsome stone
bridge. The town is about half a mile long,
and has two parish churches, besides three places
of worship for Quakers, Presbyterians, and
Methodists. Here are also a handsome suite of
public rooms and a theatre. The river is navi-
gable up to the town, by which large quantities
of corn, butter, and hams, are sent to different
parts of the kingdom. Malton, has returned
two members to parliament ever since the twenty-
third of Edward T., the right of election being
vested in the holders of burgage tenures. The
town is governed by a bailiff. . It has two iron
foundries, and the manufactures of malt, linen,
hats, and gloves, are carried on here. Markets
on Tuesday and Saturday, . . . . . . . . .
º:TMALVA, the mallow, a genus of the poly-
andria order, and monadelphia class of plants;
natural order thirty-seventh, columniferae : . cAL.
double, exterior one triphyllous; the arilli
numerous and monospermous. There are nu-
merous species; consisting of herbaceous peren-
nials, biennials, and annuals, for medical, eco-
nomical, and ornamental uses; rising with erect
stalks from about half a yard to ten or twelve
feet high, garnished with large, roundish, lobated
leaves, and quinquepetalous flowers. They are
all raised from seed. - ;
M. communis, the common mallow. The
leaves are reckoned the first of the four emollient
herbs: decoctions of them are sometimes em-
ployed in dysenteries, heat, and sharpness of
urine ; and, in general, for obtunding acrimo-
nious humors: their principal use is in emol-
lient glysters, cataplasms, and fomentations.
The leaves enter the officinal decoctions for
glysters, and a conserve is prepared from the
flowers. ...
M. crispa, Maurisiana, and Peruviana, when
macerated like hemp, afford a thread superior to
hemp for spinning, and which is said to make
more beautiful cloths and stuffs than even flax.
From the crispa, which affords stronger and
longer fibres, cords and twine have also been
made. From these species, likewise, a new sort
of paper was fabricated by M. de l'Isle. On
this invention, Messrs. Lavoisier, Sage, and Ber-
thollet, in name of the Academie des Sciences,
observe, that “it is not probable the paper made
by M. de l’Isle will be substituted for that made
from rags, either for the purpose of printing or
writing. Yet paper from the mallows may be
used for these purposes, if we can judge from a
volume printed on it presented to the academy.
The great utility of M. de l'Isle's invention is
for furniture, which consumes a great quantity
of rags; and his papers have a natural hue,
much more solid than can be given by coloring
matter, and this hue may serve as a ground for
other drawings.' . . . . . . . . .
MALVASIA, an island of Greece, on the east
coast, famous for Malmsey and other wines;
fifty miles south-east of Misitra, and seventy-five
south of Athens. Napoli is the capital.
MALVERN CHASE, an extensive district of
England, containing upwards of 7000 acres in
Worcestershire, 600 in Herefordénire, and 100 in
Gloucestershire. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . fºr . . . . . .
..., MALveRN, GREAT, a town of Worcestershire,
in which was formerly an abbey, whereof no-
thing, remains but the gateway . and church.
JPart of, it was a religious cell for hermits before
the conquest; and the greatest part, with the
tower, built in the reign of William I. Its out-
ward appearance is yery striking. It is 171
feet in length, sixty-three in breadth, and sixty-
three in height. In it are ten stalls; and it is
supposed to have been rebuilt in 1171. The
nave only remains in part, the side aisles being
in ruins. The windows have been beautifully
enriched with painted glass, and in it are re-
mains of some very ancient monuments.
MALveRN HILLS, lofty mountains in the
south-west part of Worcestershire, rising, one
above another, for about seven miles, and divid-
ing that county from Herefordshire. On these
hills are two medicinal springs. They run from
north to south, the highest pºint 1815 feet above
the surface of the Severnaf Hanley, and appear
to be of limestone and quartz. On the summit
of these hills is a camp with a treble ditch, sup-
posed to be, Roman, and situated on the Here-
fordshire side of the hills. ...,
MALVERN, LITTLE, a town of Worcestershire,
seated in a cavity of the above hills, three miles
from Great Malvern. It had an elegant abbey
and church. Henry VII, his queen, and his two
sons were so delighted with this place, that they
beautified the church and windows, part of
which remain, though mutilated. In the lofty
south windows of the church are historical pas-
sages of the Old Testament; and in the north
windows are pictures of the principal events of
our Saviour's life, from his birth to his ascension.
Our Saviour's passion, is painted in the east
window of the choir, at the expense of Henry
VII., who is represented with his queen. In
the west window is a noble piece of the day of
judgment.
MAEWERSATION, n.s. Fr. malversation.
Crookedness of conduct; artifice; trick.
The malversation of the unjust steward is not exhi-
bited for our imitation, but his prudence. -
, Lessons of Prudence.
MALVEZZI (Virgil), marquis of Malvezzi,
was born at Bologna in 1599, and became LL.D.
in 1619. He was well versed in literature,
music, law, physic, and mathematics. He served
also in a distinguished post in the army of Phi-
lip IV. of Spain, and was employed by him in.
some important negociations. He died at Bo-
logna, in 1654, leaving several works in Spanish
and Italian. His Discourses on the First Book
of Tacitus have been translated into English.
MALUS (Stephen Louis), a military engineer
in the French service, was born at Paris in 1775.
At seventeen years of age he produced a tragedy
on The Death of Cato, but chiefly devoted him-
self to the mathematics, and was admitted into.
the school of engineers. When, however, he
was about to obtain a commission some political
obstacle occurred, and he entered the army as a
private soldier. Shortly after, his abilities being
observed, he was sent to the Polytechnic school,
of which he became a professor, and accom-
panied the expedition of Buonaparte to Egypt,
NIAM
MAM
492
called the attention of the Institute of France to
the phenomenon of double refraction, they made
it the subject of a prize, which Malus gained;
and made some important experiments on the
polarity. This gained him admission into the
Institute. He also wrote a memoir on a disco-
very he made of a branch of the Nile, forming
part of the first volume of La Decade Egypti-
enne. Malus died in 1812.
MALWAH, a province of Hindostan, situ-
ated between 22° and 23° of N. lat. On the
north it is bounded by Ajmeer and Agra, on the
east by Allahabad and Gundwaneh, on the south
by Khandeish and Berar, and on the west by
Ajmeer and Gujerat, being in length about 250
miles, and in breadth 150. Till recently it was
in the occupation of the Mahrattas, and con-
tained the capitals of Dowlet Row Scindia, and
Holkar. Numerous rivers have their sources
here: as the Chumbul, Narbudda, Sopra, and
Cane: the land is fertile, the soil being in gene-
ral a fine black mould, and produces cotton,
indigo, opium, sugar, fine tobacco, and all the
grains of India. Here is also pasture for nume-
rous herds of cattle, and flocks of sheep. It
has two harvests, the first or superior ending in
April, the second in October. The tobacco,
particularly that of the district of Bilsah, is
carried to all parts of the east.
Bickermajeet, a famous rajah of Hindostan,
reigned over Malwah, and overran so many
other provinces, that the Hindoos have adopted
his reign as one of their eras. It commenced
fifty-seven years before the birth of Christ. His
capital was about a mile to the northward of
Oujain. The Mahommedans conquered this
province in the middle of the thirteenth cen-
tury; but on the death of the emperor Balin, in
1286, Dilavur Khan rebelled, and laid the foun-
dation of an independent kingdom, which lasted
upwards of 170 years. Its capital was Mundu,
an extensive city, situated in the hills, south of
Oujain. Malwah was subdued by the Mogul
emperor Homayon, in the year 1534, and re-
mained annexed to Delhi till after the death of
Aurungzebe in 1707, when it was by degrees
taken possession of by the Mahrattas, by whom
it was divided into several states. See MAH-
RATTAs. The ancient landholders, called Gras-
siah, yet retain possession of some of the hill forts.
MAM, n.s. Lat. mamma; Gr. Happa;
MAMIE', Arab. and Heb. mam; Pers. ma-
MAMMA’, (ma. All the eastern, and most
MAM MET. J of the northern languages, have
this kind of compellation for mother: mammet
is a doll or puppet.
Kate' this is no world
To play with mammets, and to tilt with lips.
- Shakspeare.
Poor Cupid sobbing scarce could speak;
Indeed, mamma, I did not know ye;
Alas! how easy my mistake,
I took you for your likeness Chloe. Prior.
Little masters and misses are great impediments to
servants; the remedy is to bribe them, that they
may not tell tales to papa and mamma. Swift.
And now she works her mamie's wark,
And aye she sighs wi' care and pain;
Yet wistna what her ail might be,
Or what wad mak her weel again. Burns.
as an officer of engineers. Having on his return
masters of the place.
MAMBRUN (Peter), a learned French Je-
suit, born in Clermont in 1581. He was one of
the most perfect imitators of Virgil in Latin
poetry, and his poems are of the same kind.
Thus he wrote Eclogues, Georgics, together with
a heroic poem entitled Constantine, or Idolatry
overthrown. He showed also great critical abi-
lities in a Latin Peripatetical Dissertation on
Epic Poetry. He died in 1661.
MAMERTINI, a mercenary band of soldiers
who passed from Campania into Sicily at the
request of Agathocles. When they were in the
service of Agathocles, they claimed the privilege
of voting at the election of magistrates at Syra-
cuse, and had recourse to arms to support their
demands. The sedition was appeased by some
leading men, and the Campanians were ordered
to leave Sicily. In their way to the coast they
were received with great kindness by the people
of Messana, and soon returned perfidy for hos-
pitality. They conspired against the inhabitants,
murdered all the males in the city, married their
wives and daughters, and rendered themselves
After this violence they
assumed the name of Mamertini, and called their
city Mamertum, or Mamertium, from a provincial
word which in their language signified martial or
warlike. The Mamertines were afterwards de-
feated by Hiero.
MAMMAE. See ANATOMY, Index.
MAMMALIA, in natural history, the first
class of animals in the Linnean system, divided
into seven orders. See ZooLOGY.
MAMMOCK, n.s. & v. a. Span. machan, or
Ital. maccarl, to pound; beat small. A shape-
less mass: to break, or tear to pieces.
I saw him run after a gilded butterfly ; and he did
so set his teeth, and did tear it! Oh, I warrant,
how he mammockt it. Shakspeare. Coriolanus.
The ice was broken into large mammocks.
- James's Voyage.
MAMMON, n.s. R Gr, uappovac, of Heb.
MAM'Mon IST. $ tox. Riches. Milton
makes him a fallen angel, but few retain more
power.
Ye cannot serve God and mammon. Matt. vi. 24.
Mammon is so proud a boaster, that his clients,
which believe in him, cannot chuse but be confident
of him; for what doth he not brag to do? Yet, if
we weigh his power aright, we shall conclude of
mammon, as Paracelsus doth of the devil, that he is
a base and beggarly spirit. Bp. Hall.
That great mammonist would say, he is rich that
can maintain an army: a poor man would say, ac-
cording to that Italian inscription, ‘He is rich that
wants not bread.” Id.
MAMMOTH, MAMMUTH, or American ele-
phant, a huge animal, now unknown, if not ex-
tinct, to which have belonged tusks, bones, and
skeletons of vast magnitude, which have been
often found in different parts of Siberia, Russia,
Germany, and North America. Many speci-
mens of them are seen in the Imperial cabinet at
Petersburgh; in the British, and Dr. Hunter's
museums, and in that of the Royal Society.
Mr. Pennant thinks it “more than probable, that
it still exists in some of those remote parts of the
vast new continent, impenetrated yet by Euro-
peans.’ The Ohio Indians have the most absurd
and ridiculous traditions respecting it, and pre-
M A M M Q T H C A V E.
493
tend that it required an exertion of even omnipo-
tent power to extirpate them. Sir Hans Sloane,
Gmelin, Daubenton, Buffon, and other eminent
naturalists, are of opinion that these prodigious
bones and tusks have really belonged to ele-
phants; and many modern philosophers have
held the mammoth to be as fabulous as the
centaur. The great difference in size they en-
deavour to account for as arising from difference
in age, sex, and climate: and the cause of their
being found in those northern parts of the world
where elephants are no longer natives, nor can
even long exist, they attribute to the great revo-
lutions which have happened in the earth, by
earthquakes and inundations. In 1767 Dr.
Hunter, with the assistance of his brother Mr. J.
Hunter, investigated more particularly this part
of natural history, and proved, that these fossil
bones and tusks are not only larger than the
generality of elephants, but that the tusks are
more twisted, or have more of the spiral curve,
than elephants' teeth; and that the thigh and
jaw bones differ in several respects from those of
the elephant: but what put the matter beyond
all dispute was the shape of the grinders, which
clearly appeared to belong to a carnivorous
animal, or at least to an animal of the mixed
kind; and to be totally different from those of
the elephant, which is well known to be of the
graminivorous kind. North America seems to be
the quarter where the remains abound most.
On the Ohio, and in many parts farther north,
tusks, grinders, and skeletons of unparalleled
magnitude, which can admit of no comparison
with any animal at present known, are found in
vast numbers, some lying on the surface of the
earth, and others a little below it. A Mr. Stan-
ley, taken prisoner by the Indians near the
mouth of the Tennessee, relates, as Mr. Jefferson
informs us, that after being transferred through
several tribes, from one to another, he was at
length carried over the mountains, west of
Missouri to a river which runs west; that these
bones abounded there; and that the natives
described to him the animal to which they
belonged as still existing in the northern parts of
their country. Bones of the same kind have
been found some feet below the surface of the
earth, in Salines on the north Holston, a branch
of the Tennessee, about lat. 36°30' N. Where-
ever the grinders are found, there also we find
the tusks and skeleton; but no skeleton of the
hippopotamus nor grinders of the elephant.
Mr. Jefferson urges the following among other
decisive arguments, that the mammoth is quite a
different animal: 1. ‘The skeleton of the mam-
moth bespeaks an animal of five or six times the
cubic volume of the elephant, as M. de Buffon
has admitted. 2. The grinders are five times as
large, are square, and the grinding surfacestudded
with four or five rows of blunt points: whereas
those of the elephant are broad and thin, and
their grinding surface flat. 3. I have never
heard an instance of the grinder of an elephant
being found in America. 4. From the known
temperature and constitution of the elephant, he
could never have existed in those regions where
the remains of the mammoth have been found.
The elephant is a native only of the torrid zone
and its vicinities: if, with the assisance of warm
apartments and warm clothing, he has been
preserved in life in the temperate climates of
Europe, it has only been for a small portion of
what would have been his natural period, and no
instance of his multiplication in them has ever
been known. But no bones of the mammoth
have been ever found farther south than the
salines of the Holston, and they have been found
as far north as the arctic circle.’ Mr. Jefferson
concludes, that, ‘To whatever animal we ascribé
these remains, it is certain such a one has existed
in America, and that it was the largest of all the
terrestrial beings of which any traces have ever-
appeared.” Notes on the State of Virginia, p. 65.
MAMMOTH CAVE, a stupendous cavern of Ken-
tucky, near Green River, 130 miles S.S.W. of
Lexington. An interesting account of it has
been published by Dr. Nahum Ward. Having
determined to explóre this subterranean phe-
nomenon, he provided himself with guides,
lamps, a compass, and refreshments, and de-
scended a pit about forty feet deep, which leads
to the mouth of the cavern. This is about forty
or fifty feet high, and thirty feet wide, but soon
grows narrower, after which it expands again to
nearly the same width, but only about half the
height, which dimensions it preserves for about
a mile, when it reaches the first hoppers, where
a manufacture of salt-petre has lately been estab-
lished. From this place to the second hoppers,
about two miles from the entrance, the width of
the gallery is forty feet, and its height sixty.
Along nearly the whole of this length walls have
been built, of loose limestone, and the bottom is
Smooth and hard. In all the galleries, indeed,
which the Dr. traversed, the sides were nearly
perpendicular, and the arches regular, and so
strong that they have even withstood the shocks
of earthquakes. In 1802 these phenomena were
severely felt in this part of Kentucky; and the
workmen stationed at the second hoppers, about
five minutes before each shock, heard a heavy
rustling noise, like a strong wind, rushing from
the cave. When that ceased, the rocks cracked,
and the whole appeared as if upon the point of
immediate destruction. Large rocks also fell in
Some parts of the cavern, but none of the men
were injured. - -
From this part the passage runs for about a
mile towards the west, and then changes to south-
west till it reaches the chief area or city, about
six miles from the mouth of the cave. From the
second hoppers to this place the gallery is nearly
100 feet high, and of a corresponding width.
The floor is level, and is covered with loose
stones and salt-petre earth. Dr. W. then ob-
serves, “when I reached this immense area (called
the chief city), which contains upwards of eight
acres, without a single pillar to support the arch,
which is entire over the whole, I was struck
dumb with astonishment.—Nothing can be more
sublime and grand than this place, of which but
a faint idea can be conveyed, covered with one
solid arch, at least 100 feet high, and to all ap-
pearance entire.’ Having explored this area,
five passages were found leading from it, and
varying in width from sixty to 100 feet, and
generally about forty feet high.
494
M A M M o T H C A v E.
... The first of these galleries they entered, after
several winding avenues, the extent of which
they estimated at five miles, brought them again
to the city. Here they rested a short time, and,
having trimmed their lamps and taken some re-
freshments, they entered another of the openings,
and after about two miles arrived at the second
city. This was covered with a single arch,
nearly 200 feet high in the centre, and was simi-
lar to the great area they had just left, except in
having only two outlets instead of five. One of
these they entered, which, after nearly a mile,
brought them to a third area, which was a square
of about 100 feet each way, and fifty in height,
with a stream of pure water issuing from one
side of the well; about thirty feet high, and falling
upon a broken surface of 'stones, where it was
lost... A few yards beyond this sheet of water,
the party found the end of the avenue. Having
returned a short distance, they entered another
gallery which branched from that they had passed,
and after having traversed this and another pas-
sage uncommonly black, for more than a mile,
a steep ascent brought them to the fourth city,
which was not inferior to the second, and was
canopied by an arch that covers at least six acres:
In this last avenue, the extremity of which they
thought could not be less than four miles from
the chief city, and ten from the mouth of the cave,
they found more than twenty large piles of salt-
... petre earth on one side, and heaps of broken
limestone on the other, which were evidently the
work of human hands. Having returned once
more to the chief area, though past ten at night;
the Dr. entered, the fifth and last avenue that
leads from it, and, proceeding about 900 yards,
he reached the fifth area, the arch of which
covers more than four acres of level ground,
strewed with limestones, and having fire-beds of
uncommon size, with brands of cane interspersed.
Another avenue, on the opposite side, led to one
of much greater dimensions, the walls of which
were more perfect than they had yet been seen.
This was level, and about a mile and a half long,
and covered with an elegant arch. Towards the
end a kind of vertical passage was found, which
led into a chamber at least 1800 feet in circum-
ference, and the centre of its arch 150 feet high.
It was midnight when the Dr. entered this cham-
ber of eternal darkness, and when he reflected
that he was several miles buried in the recesses
of this awful cavern, which most likely had been
the grave of millions of human beings, he felt a
kind of shivering horror at his situation. The
avenue or passage that led to the opposite side
of this chamber was as large as any of the others
he had passed through; but, after having been
sixteen hours in the cave; his lights were almost
exhausted, and he could not trace it to its source;
he therefore made the best of his way to the chief
area, trimmed his lamps for the last time, and
reached the entrance of the cavern about three in
the morning, after nineteen hours constant fa-
tigue. The air of theinterior is rendered very pure
by the nitre contained in the cave; and the Dr.
says his pulse beat stronger, but not so quick,
while he exhaled it, as when he breathed the at-
mospheric air. It is supposed that the Green
River, a stream which is navigable for several
hundred miles, passes over three of the branches
of this noted cave, yet no sympton of its oosing
through the strataseems to have been discovered.
Here Dr. W. observes, that he has scarcely
described half the cave, as he has not given any
account of the avenues that branch off between
the mouth and the second hoppers. These in-
clude many passages and galleries, some of which
have obtained particular names; as the ‘Glauber-
salt room,’ from the salt of that kind being found
there; the sick-room, the flint-room, and the bat-
room, with a winding passage that branches off
near the second hoppers, and runs between the
west and the south for nearly two miles. This is
called the “haunted chamber,’ from the echo that
is heard within it. The arch is beautifully in-
crusted with limestone spar; and in many places
elegant columns of the same materials extend
from the top to the floor. Near the centre of this
chamber there is a dome apparently fifty feet
high, which appears as if hung with drapery fes-
tooned in the most fanciful manner, and reflecting
the light of the lamps in the most brilliant colors.
In the vicinity of the “haunted chamber' a cata-
ractis heard; and, at the extremity of the avenue,
is a reservoir of water, very clear and grateful to
the taste, but without any apparent outlet. Near
this were found columns of the most brilliant
description, sixty or seventy feet high, and stand-
ing in basins of water, which the Dr. considers
unrivalled. He brought with him a mummy
from the second hoppers, whither it had been
removed from another cave for preservation. It
was presented to him by his friend Mr. Wilkins,
the proprietor of the cavern, with its apparel,
jewels, music, and whatever was about it, and is
now in the Washington Museum. '.
This is certainly one of the most singular and
stupendous caverns yet discovered; but whether
the gloom through which the Dr. must have
seen the large areas he describes (having only
two lamps) may not have induced him to think
them greater than they really are, must be left
for the judgment of the reader; one fact deserves
particular attention, it is that he traversed the
Cave with very little intermission for nineteen
hours, a fact of itself that gives it an indisputable
claim to the most extensive subterranean wonder
yet known. -
MAMORE, a large river of Quito, in the pro-
vince of Moxos. According to some accounts
it has its rise in an interior lake, and, after being
joined by various fivers, enters the Madera on
the west side, in lat. 11° 55' S.; by other ac-
counts it assumes the name of Madera, after
passing 14° of S. lat. There is also a river of
this name in the province of Santa Cruz de la
Siería. - p
MAMORONI, a river of South America, in
the plains which border the Amazons. It runs
east, and enters the Madera. ! .
MAMRE, an Amorite, brother of Aner and
Eshcol, and friend of Abraham. (Gen. xiv. 13).
See ANER. Māmre dwelt near Hebron, and
communicated his name to great part of the
country round about. Hence we read (xiii. 18,
xxiii. 17, &c.) that Abraham dwelt in Mamre,
and in the plain of Mamre. But it is observed,
that what we translate the plain should be ren-
MAN
MAN
495
&ered the oak, of Mamre, because the word eion
signifies an oak or tree of long duration. Sozo-
men says, that this tree was still extant, and
famous for pilgrimages and annual feasts, even
in Constantine's time; that it was about six
miles from Hebron; that some of the cottages
which Abraham built were still standing near it;
and that there was a well likewise of his digging,
whereunto both Jews, Christians, and Heathens,
did at certain seasons resort, either out of devo-
tion or for trade, as a great mart was held there.
To these superstitions Constantine the Great put
a stop. * g * i. -
MAN, n.s. & v. a.
MAN'-EATER, n. s.
MAN'FUL, adj.
MAN'FULLY, adv.
MAN'FULNESS, n.s.
Sax. man, mon; Goth.
Swed. and Arm. man;
perhaps of Goth. manne,
magn, strength. A human
being; and used generi-
MAN’HATER, cally for all mankind:
MAN'HEAD, a human being of the
MAN’Hood, male sex; a full grown
MAN'IRIN, human male; a servant,
MAN’KILLER, or attendant: a term of
MANKIND", >familiar address; any
MAN'LEss, adj. } one; a well-qualified or
MAN'LIKE, | wealthy man : , hence,
| perhaps, ‘a man of war,’
a ship well qualified in
MAN'LINESS, n.s.
£ tº
MAN'Ly, adj.
MAN'NISH, this way: to man is
MAN'QUELLER, to furnish, guard, as-
MAN's LAUGHTER, sault, or strengthen with
MAN'-SLAYER, men; to attend; to tame
MEN, plu. (as a hawk, particularly).
MEN-PLEASER. J Manikin is a diminutive
man (Belg, manniken): mannish, masculine;
bold : man-Queller, a man-killer, or murderer :
manslaughter is explained at length below: the
other compounds seem obvious in their meaning.
What profitith it to a man if he wynne all the
world, and suffre peyring of his soul? or what
chaungyng schal a man give for his soul?
* f Wiclif. Matt. xvi.
. But whanne the benygnyte and the manheed of
our sauvyour god apperide, not of werkis of rightwise-
nesse that we diden, but bi his merci he maad us Saaf.
* Id. Tyte iii.
Every man child shall be circumcised.
- Gen. xvii. 10.
Cities for refuge for the manslayer. Numbers. :
Thou art but a youth, and he a man of war from
his youth. • , 1 Sam. xvii. 33.
God hath made man upright; but they have sought
out many inventions. Eccles. vii. 29.
Servants be obedient to them that are your mas-
ters: not with eye-service, as men-pleasers; but as
the servants of Christ, doing the will of God from
the heart. . . . - Eph. vi. 6.
Al her limmis so wel answering
Werin to womanhode, that creature
Was never lesse mannishe in seeming. ' '.'
, , , , Chaucer. Troilus and Creseide.
Manners maketh man. William of Wickam.
The whole pleasure of that book standeth in open
manslaughter and bold bawdry. . . . . Ascham.
Wits live obscurely, men know not how ; or die
obscurely, men mark not when. t Id.
a-Such a right manlike man, as nature often erring,
yet shows she would fain make. . Sidney.
Nature had proportioned her without any fault;
yet altogether seemed not to make up that harmony
that Cupid delights in ; the reason whereof might
seem a mannish countenance, which overthrew that
lovely sweetness, the noblest power of womankind,
far fitter to prevail by parley than by battle. Sidney.
Nothing so hard but his valor overcame; which he
so guided with virtue, that although no man was
spoken of but he for manhood, he was called the
courteous Amphialus. Id.
What a piece of work is man How noble in rea-
son How infinite in faculties In form and moving,
how express and admirable ! Shakspeare.
My brother's servants *
Were then my fellóws, now they are my men. Id.
I had so much of man in me,
But all my mother came into mine eyes,
And gave me up to tears. Id. Henry V.
You may partake of any thing we say:
We speak no treason, man. Id. Richard III.
Bring forth men children only!
For thy undaunted metal should compose
Nothing but males. d. Macbeth.
I dare do all that may become a man ;
Who dares do more is none. Id.
There would this monster make a man ; any
Strange beast there makes a man. Id. Tempest.
Your ships are not well manned ;
Your mariners are muleteers, or reapers.
Shakspeare.
See, how the surly Warwick mans the wall. Id.
Man but a rush against Othello's breast,
And he retires. Id. Othello,
A mankind witch hence with her, out o' door:
A most intelligency bawd! Id. Winter’s Tale.
As did Æneas old Anchises bear,
So I bear thee upon my manly shoulders.
Shakspeare.
I slew him manfully in fight,
Without false 'vantage, or base treachery.
Tetchy and wayward was thy infancy;
Thy school days frightful, desp'rate, wild, and furi-
Ous ;
Thy prime of manhood daring, bold, and venturous.
Id.
A woman, impudent and mannish grown,
Is not more loathed than an effeminate man. Id.
Such gentlemen as are his majesty's own sworn
servants should be preferred to the charge of his
majesty's ships; choice being made of men of valour
and capacity rather than to employ other men's men.
Raleigh's Essays.
Their ships go as long voyages as any, and are
for their burdens as well manned. Id.
In Seth was the church of God established ; from
whom Christ descended, as touching his manhood.
- - Raleigh.
Plato witnesseth; that soon after mankind began
to increase they built many cities. Id.
He had manned it with a great number of tall sol-
diers, more than for the proportion of the castle.
--- * Bacon.
Sir Walter Raleigh was wont to say, the Spa-
niards were suddenly driven away with squibbs, for
it was no more but á stratagem of fire-boats manless,
and sent upon the Armada at Calais by the favour
of the i. in the night, that put them in such ter-
ror, as they cut their cables. , , , , f -, *.x. Nº e
It hath been agreed, that either of them should
send certain ships to sea well manned, and apparelled
to fight. . . . . . . . . . * Hayward.
* They distil their husbands’ land
In decoctions, and are manned
With ten empiricks in their chamber,
Lying for the spirit of amber.
Ben Jonson’s Forest.
A Flemish man of war lighted upon them, and
overmastered them. Carew's Survey of Cornwall.
MAN *
496 MAN
Artemisia behaved herself manfully in a great
fight at sea, when Xerxes stood by as a coward.
- Abbot.
Glasses that are once cracked, are soon broken :
such is a man's good name, once tainted with just
+eproach. - Bp. Hull.
A navy, to secure the seas is manned;
And forces sent. Daniel’s Civil War.
I and my man will presently go ride
Far as the Cornish mount. Cowley.
No man shall dare to say at doomsday unto God.
that he made him to sin, or made it unavoidable.
Jer. Taylor.
In man the god descends, and joys to find
The narrow image of his greater mind. , Creech.
He thought fit that the king's affairs should en-
‘tirely be conducted by the soldiers and men of war.
Clarendon.
Advise how war may be best upheld,
Manned by her two main nerves, iron and gold,
In all her equipage. Milton.
Erewhile perplexed with thoughts what would be-
COſſlé
Of me and all mankind; but now I see
His day, in whom all nations shall be blest. Id.
Not therefore joins the Son
Manhood to Godhead, with more strength to foil
Thy enemy. Id. Paradise Lost.
To overcome in battle, and subdue
Nations, and bring home spoils with infinite
Manslaughter, shall be held the highest pitch
"Of human glory. Id
A handful
It hath devoured 'twas so manful. Hudibras.
They man their boats, and all their young men
3.TIſl. Waller.
A man in an instant may discover the assertion to
be impossible. More's Divine Dialogues.
What poor man would not carry a great burthen
of gold to be made a man for ever? Tillotson.
He is a good-natured man, and will give as much
as a man would desire. Stillingfleet.
A creature of a more exalted kind
Was wanted yet, and then was man designed,
Conscious of thought. Dryden’s Ovid.
Ceneus, a woman once, and once a man,
But ending in the sex she first began.
- Id. Æneid.
Serene and manly, hardened to sustain
The load of life, and exercised in pain. Dryden.
'Tis in my pow'r to be a sovereign now,.
And, knowing more, to make his manhood bow.
Id.
To kill mankillers man has lawful power,
But not the extended licence to devour. Id.
When mannish Mevia, that two-handed whore,
Astride on horseback hunts the Tuscan boar. Id.
A combination of the ideas of a certain figure
with the powers of motion and reasoning joined to
substance, make the ordinary idea of a man.
Locke.
Young master, willing to shew himself a man,
lets himself loose to all irregularities; and thus
courts credit and manliness in the casting off the
modesty he has till then been kept in. Id.
He that with this Christian armour manfully fights
against, and repels, the temptations and assaults of
his spiritual enemies; he that keeps his conscience
void of offence, shall enjoy peace here, and for ever.
Ray on the Creation.
The summons take of the same trumpet’s call,
To sally from one port, or man one publick wall.
Tate.
The pleasure of the religious man is an easy and
portable pleasure, such an one as he carries about in
his bosom, without alarming either the eye or the
envy of the world. South.
Will reckons he should not have been the man he
is, had not he broke windows, and knocked down
constables, when he was a young fellow.
Addison's Spectator.
The Venetians could set out thirty men of war, a
hundred gallies, and ten galeases; though I cannot
conceive how they could man a fleet of half the .
number. - Id. on Italy.
What hinders then, but that you find her out,
And hurry her away by manly force? Id. Cato. :
Theodosius, having manned his soul with proper
reflections, exerted himself in the best manner he
could, to animate his penitent. Id. Spectator.
On human actions reason though you can,
It may be reason, but it is not man.
Pope's Epistles.
All mankind alike require their grace,
All born to want ; a miserable race.
Id. Odyssey.
By fraud or force the suitor train destroy,
And, starting into manhood, scorn the boy. Pope.
A long time since the custom began, among peo-
ple of quality, to keep men cooks of the French na-
tion. t Swift.
. How is it possible to expect that mankind will
take advice, when they will not so much as take
warning 3 Id.
In matters of equity between man and man, our
Saviour has taught us to put my neighbour in the
place of myself, and myself in the place of my
neighbour. Watts's Logick.
Whenever man is put over men, as the better
nature ought ever to preside in that case more par-
ticularly, he should as nearly as possible be approx-
imated to his perfection. Burke.
It is not from his form, in which we trace
Strength joined with beauty, dignity with grace,
That man, the master of this globe, derives
His right of empire over all that lives. Cowper.
MAN, the head of the animal creation, is a
being who feels, reflects, thinks, contrives,
and acts; who has the power of changing
his place upon the earth at pleasure ; who pos-
sesses the faculty of communicating his thoughts
by speech ; and who has dominion over all other
creatures on the face of the globe. Animated
and enlightened by a ray from the divinity, he
surpasses in dignity every material being. He
spends less of his time in solitude than in-
society, and in obedience to those laws which he
himself has framed. See HoMo.; and ANATOMy,
an article devoted of course to the human ama-
tomy, principally.
The Isle of MAN is situated in the Irish
Channel, within sight of the three kingdoms of
England, Scotland, and Ireland, at the distance
from the point of Ayre, its north point, to Bees-
head in Wales, of ten leagues; from the same
point of Ayre to Burrowhead in Scotland of five
leagues; and from the south-west coast to Kerry
Point in Ireland of nine leagues. Snaffield Hill,
near the east coast, is the highest point of the
island, being 1740 feet above the sea.
The island is ten leagues long, and three to
four broad, containing about 30,000 inhabitants
in seventeen parishes. The hilly tracts afford
only pasture, but the low land is well cultivated.
It has mines of iron, lead, and copper, none of
which are worked; but the quarries of marble,
slate, and building stone, particularly the last
I S L E O F
M A N. 497
two, are productive. The climate differs little
from that of the north of England, and is gene-
rally healthy. * - -
In the middle ages the Isle of Man was the
rendezvous of the Scandinavian pirates, in their
descents on the neighbouring coasts of Great
Britain and Ireland, and the kings of Man were
for some centuries masters of these seas. About
1623 Alexander king of Scotland, having defeated
the Danes, obliged Owen, or John, king of
Man, to do homage, and the island continued
tributary to Scotland till reduced by Edward I. ;
since when the kings of England have been the
paramount sovereigns, though it continued to be
governed by the descendants of its Danish
princes until Edward III. dethroned the last
queen, and bestowed the island as a fief on
Montagu earl of Salisbury, whose honors and
estate being forfeited, Henry bestowed Man first
on the Percy family, which being also attainted,
then on Sir John Stanley, earl of Derby, whose
descendant earls of Derby enjoyed it till by
failure of heirs male it devolved on the duke of
Athol, as husband of the sister and heiress of
the last earl of Derby.
The position of this island, between the three
kingdoms, long rendered it the emporium of
smuggling, on which account the British govern-
ment in 1765 purchased the regalities of the
island from the duke of Athol for £70,000, the
duke retaining his territorial property, and the
island some of its privileges, particularly that of
freedom from arrest for debts contracted in Eng-
land, and hence it is the asylum of many insol-
vent debtors. The Manks language, still spoken
by the common islanders, is a corrupted Erse.
The island, besides herrings, exports some
corn, cattle, butter, bacon, lead, kelp, coarse
linen, and spun cotton. Barley and oats are
raised in considerable quantities; and the Laugh-
ton breed of sheep in this island is admired for
its wool. Poultry of all kinds is also cheap and
abundant. The boats engaged in the herring
fishery exceed 400 in number, and are called,
collectively, the Manks fleet, and are under the
command of an admiral and vice-admiral, who
are annually chosen for the season, and receive
a small allowance from government. These
boats seldom exceed eight tons burden, and
cost, with the whole of their outfit, about
eighty guineas each. The fishery generally occu-
pies 4000 or 5000 of the male population, in
whose absence, their wives and children attend
to the labors of the field, particularly the culture
of potatoes. The fishermen shoot their nets at
night, one edge being buoyed up by inflated
bladders, made of dried skins, and smeared over
with tar. The herrings are caught in such
numbers that a boat frequently returns with
25,000 or 30,000; and one successful night's
fishing, of the whole fleet, sometimes yields a
produce of from £3000 to £5000 in value.
The Isle of Man is now subject to the king of
England as land proprietor, and is ruled by a
governor, a council of public affairs, and the
house of keys, the representatives of the people.
These together form what is called a Tynwald
court, whose accordance is essential to every
legislative act. The members of the house of
Vol. XIII. -
keys are twenty-four in number. They were at
one time elected by the people, but now form a
permanent self-elected body. For the adminis-
tration of justice, the island is divided into two
districts, over which preside the two deemsters, or
chief judges of the island, who are officers of
great dignity, the one in the northern, the other
in the southern division, and each holding a
court of justice weekly. These districts are
subdivided into six sheadings, over each , of
which is appointed a coroner, with very exten-
sive powers, analogous in many respects to those
of our sheriffs. The other courts are the court
of chancery, the court of general jail delivery,
the court of exchequer, the common law court,
the court of admiralty, and the courts of the
high bailiffs at the four towns; and from these
courts an appeal lies to the house of keys, to the
staff of government, and to the king in council.
The whole island is under the ecclesiastical
jurisdiction of a bishop, who is styled bishop of
Sodor and Man, is sole baron of the isle, and
possesses other important privileges. All ex-
ports to Great Britain and Ireland are duty free,
as are all imports for the use of the manufactures.
Castletown, the seat of the government, is at
the south-east extremity, and is a neat town with
wide and clean streets ; in the middle of the
town is Castle Rusher, a magnificent fortress of
free-stone, the ancient residence of the kings of
Man. Douglas, at the mouth of a rivulet, is the
most populous and commercial place in the
island, having 4000 inhabitants, and a good pier
haven for vessels of 500 tons. The bay also
affords shelter in winds from north-west to south.
There is a handsome light-house on the pier.
Ramsea is a neat town of 300 houses at the
north-east side of the island, at the mouth of the
river Selby, which falls into a fine bay sheltered
from all winds but north-east, having on the
south Maughold's Head, a bold rocky promon-
tory, under which is a celebrated well. In this
bay an excellent port might be made for the
largest ships, by running out a mole to a rock.
Small craft enter the Selby, and lie dry at low
water, Here is a light-house. Laxey is a group
of cottages in a glen ät the bottom of a creek,
opening into an extensive bay, which might be
made a good harbour. Peel, on the west side
of the island on the river Neb, is a meat town of
280 houses; the south extrêmity of its bay is
bounded by Peel Island, with a castle and the
ruins of a cathedral. - -
Derby Haven, on the south-east end north of
Castletown, is formed by St. Michael's Island,
joined to the main island by a causeway 100
yards long. Off the south end of the island is
the islet called the Calf of Mau, three miles in
circuit, and surrounded by rocks. Here a
great number of sea fowl are found.
MANAAR, an island off the north-west coast
of Ceylon, to which it is almost united at low
water. A bank of sand also runs from it to
Ramiseram, twelve leagues off, called Adam's
Bridge, said by the Hindoos to have been con-
structed by their god Ram, when he invaded
Ceylon. Between these two islands small boats
constantly ply. It was occupied by the Portuguese
in the year 1560, and taken from them by the
2 K.
MAN
MAN
498
Dutch in 1658, who made it a place of banish-
ment for criminals. Long 79° 58' E., lat. 9°6' N.
MAN’ACLES, n.s. Fr. manicles; Lat.
MAN’ACI.E. v. a. łº, from manus.
Chain for the hands'; shackles: to manacle is to
, bind with chains.
Doctrine unto fools' is as fetters on the feet, and
like manacles on the right hand. Ecclus. xxi. 19.
For my sake wear this glove;
It is a manacle of love.
Shakspeare. Cymbeline.
Thou
TMust, as a foreign recreant, be led
With manacles along our streets.
u , Id. Coriolanus.
I'll manacle thy neck and feet together.
- Shakspeare.
The law good men count their ornament and pro-
tection ; others, their manacles and oppression.
King Charles.
Learn, O vain men, that there is nothing but im-
potence, nothing but greaves and manacles in the
freest sins. t Bp. Hall.
Is it thus you use this monarch, to manacle and
shackle him hand and foot ? Arbuthnot and Pope.
MAN’AGE, v. a., v. m., & m.s. Y Fr. mena-
MAN'AGEABLE, adj. gº ºngº
MAN'AGEABLENESS, n.s. Urie; of Lat.
MAN'AGEMENT, n. s. ſ manu-agere;
MAN'AGER, . | Span. mane-
MAN'AGERY. Jjar. To con-
duct; train; guide; wield; continue; govern;
husband: as a neuter verb, to superintend affairs;
transact: manage is an obsolete synonyme of
management, which signifies, guidance; adminis-
tration; and particularly able or prudent adminis-
tration of affairs: managery is another (deservedly
obsolete) synonyme of this signification: manage-
able is tractable; easy to be managed.
He rode up and down gallantly mounted, manag-
ing his horse, and charging and discharging his
lance. Knolles.
For the rebels which stand out in Ireland,
Expedient manage must be made, my liege,
Ere further leisure yield them further means.
- Shakspeare.
In thy slumbers
I heard thee murmui tales of iron wars,
Speak terms of manage to the bounding steed. Id.
Young men, in the conduct and manage of actions,
embrace more than they can hold, and stir more
than they can quiet. Bucon.
The conditions of weapons and their improvement
are, that they may serve in all weathers; and that
the carriage may be light and manageable.
Id. Essays.
The horse you must draw in his career with his
manage and turn, doing the curvetto. Peacham.
The court of Rome has, in other instances, so well
attested its good managery, that it is not credible
crowns are conferred gratis. Decay of Piety.
They who most exactly describe that battle, give
so ill an account of any conduct or discretion in the
managery of that affair, that posterity would receive
little benefit in the most particular relation of it.
Clarendon.
This name, or title, Sabaoth, primitively seems to
import God's universal conduct and managery of all
creatureS. Barrow.
This disagreement may be imputed to the greater
or less exactness or manageableness of the instruments
employed, Boyle.
…”
made over his principality to France.
The fathers had managed the charge of idolatry
against the heathens. Stillingfleet.
A prince of great aspiring thoughts: in the main,
a manager of his treasure, and yet bountiful, from
his own motion, wherever he discerns merit.
* Temple.
There is no more to manage 1 If I fall,
It shall be like myself; a setting sun
Should leave a track of glory in the skies.
Dryden.
Mark with what management their tribes divide;
Some stick to you, and some to t'other side. Id.
The most severe censor cannot but be pleased with
the prodigality of Ovid’s wit ; though he could have
wished, that the master of it had been a better ina-
mager. &
Whenever we take a strong bias, it is not out of
a moral incapacity to do better, but for want of a
careful manage and discipline to set us right at first.
L’Estrange.
The conduct of our lives, and the management of
our great concerns, will not bear delay. Locke.
The plea of a good intention will serve to sanctify
the worst actions; the proof of which is but too ma-
nifest from that scandalous doctrine of the Jesuits
concerning the direction of the intention, and like-
wise from the whole manage of the late rebellion.
South.
A skilful manager of the rabble, so long as they
have but ears to hear, needs never enquire whether
they have any understanding. Id.
Notwithstanding it was so much his interest to
manage his protestant subjects in the country, he
Addison.
The manager opens his sluice every night, and
distributes the water into the town. Id.
He had great management with ecclesiasticks in
the view of being advanced to the pontificate.
Id, on Italy.
Let her at least the vocal brass inspire,
And tell the nations, in no vulgar strain,
What wars I manage, and what wreaths I gain.
- Prior.
Long tubes are cumbersome, and scarce to be
easily managed. Newton.
Very long tubes are, by reason of their length, apt
to bend, and shake by bending so as to cause a con-
tinual trembling in the objects, whereas by contriv-
ance the glasses are readily manageable. Id.
Let us stick to our point, and we will manage Bull
I’ll warrant you. Arbuthnot's John Bull.
An artful manager, that crept between
His friend and shame, and was a kind of screen.
Pope.
The wrong management of the earl of Goſſin
was the only cause of the union.. Swift.
They vault from hunters to the managed steed.
Young.
MANASSEH, Heb. nuin, i.e. not forgotten,
the eldest son of Joseph, and grandson of the
patriarch Jacob (Gen. xli. 50, 51.), was born
A. M. 2290, and A. A. C. 1714.
MANASSEH, the fifteenth king of Judah, the
son and successor of Hezekiah. His acts are
recorded in 2 Kings xx. xxi., and 2 Chron.
xxxiii. .
MANASSEH, THE TRIBE of, the descendants of
the patriarch. They came out of Egypt, in
number 32,200 men fit for battle, upwards o'
twenty years old, under the conduct of Gama-
liel, son of Pedahzur. Numb. ii. 20, 21. This
tribe was divided at their entrance into the land
of Canaan. One half had its portion beyond
M A N C H E S T E R.
499
the Jordan, and the other half on this side of it.
The half tribe of Manasseh which settled be-
yond the river possessed the country of Bashan,
from the river Jabbok to mount Libanus (Numb.
xxii. 33, 34, &c.), and the other half tribe of
Manasseh, on this side Jordan, obtained for its
inheritance the country between the tribe of
Ephraim on the south, and the tribe of Isaachar
on the north, having the river Jordan on the east,
and the Mediterranean Sea on the west. Josh.
xvi. xvii.
MANATI, in zoology. See TRICHECUs.
MANATOULIN Islands, a series of islands,
which stretch easterly from the western shore of
Lake Superior, for 160 miles, many of them
measuring from twenty to thirty miles in length,
by ten, twelve, and fifteen in breadth, on some of
which the land rises into considerable elevations.
Long. 81° 50' to 84° W., lat. 45°20 to 45° 49' N.
MAN Bote, in the Anglo-Saxon laws, com-
pensation for killing a man. In king Ina's laws,
rates are fixed for the expiation of this crime
according to the quality of the person slain.
MANCA, in English antiquity, was a square
piece of gold coin, commonly valued at thirty
pence: and mancusa was as much as a mark of
silver, having its name from manucusa, being
coined with the hand (Leg. Canut.) But the
manca and mancusa were not always of that
value; for sometimes the former was valued at
six shillings, and the latter, as used by the
Anglo-Saxons, was equal in value to our half
crown. Manca sex solidis aestimetur, Leg. H.
1, c. 69. Thorn, in his Chronicle, tells us, that
mancusa est pondus duorum solidorum et sex
denariorum; and with him agrees Du Cange,
who says, that twenty mancae make fifty shillings.
Manca and mancusa are promiscuously used in
old books for the same money.
MANCENILLA, a large bay on the north of
the island of St. Domingo, about 4000 fathoms
long from west to east, and 2800 broad from
north to south. 'The river Massacre, the former
point of separation between the Spanish and
French colonies on the north of the island, enters
the east part of this bay, in long. 71°50' W.,
lat. 19° 50' N.
|MANCENION, i. e. the place of tents, an
ancient town of South Britain, which stood on
the site of the present Castlefield, near Manches-
ter. Relics of the castle wall and ditch are still
visible. Knock castle was the seat of the Ro-
man castrum. See MANCHESTER.
MANCESTER, a village in Warwickshire,
anciently a Roman station on Watling Street,
where ancient Roman coins are still found. It
lies near Atherston.
MANCHA, LA, a central province of Spain,
lying to the south of Old Castile, and to the
north of Andalusia. It is surrounded with
mountains, and contains an area of 8000 square
miles, and 206,000 inhabitants. It is divided
into the Upper and Lower La Mancha; the chief
of the former being Ciudad Real, and of the latter
Ocana. It has, however, no large rivers; though
traversed by the Tagus, the Guadiana, and the
Xucar, for none of them are of large size in this
part of their eourse. The interior consists al-
most entirely of a barren flat, without trees,
shelter, or water. The soil is a light sand, but
wheat and barley are cultivated, though not
sufficiently for the wants of the thinly scattered
inhabitants. The Mesa is a large fertile plain,
and olives and the oak thrive in some places.
The quantity of wine is also pretty large. Other
vegetable productions are honéy, saffron, and
spartum or bass-weed, which is used in making
mats. The flocks of sheep and mules are nu-
merous; but the traveller is generally conveyed
in a cart drawn by oxen. The most extensive
meadows lie between Ciudad Real and Santa
Cruz de Mudela. Other principal towns are
La Guardia, Almagro, Terrablique, and Manza-
nares. The minerals are silver, iron, ochre,
rock crystal, calamine, antimony, and cinnabar.
The chief natural curiosity is the disappearance
of the Guadiana under ground. See GUADI-
ANA. The manufactures are very limited; but
the spinning of wool gives employment to nearly
16,000 persons; and the yarn is exported.
Lace is made at Almagro, soap at Ocana, and
flannel at Almagro, Ocana, and Campo de
Criptana. -
MANCHE, LA, or the Channel, a department
of the north-west of France, taking its name
from the English Channel, by which it is bounded
west and north. On the south-east it joins the
departments of Calvados; on the south that of
Ille and Vilaine. Its superficial extent is 2500
square miles; and its population 583,500. This
department, comprising the western part of
Normandy, is long and narrow, and contains a
number of small towns and large villages. The
face of the country is but partly hilly. The
principal promontory is Cape la Hogue. It is
watered by the Taute, Vire, Soulle, Coesnon,
and Douve, and has a few small lakes and
marshy tracts. The climate is temperate, but
humid : the products are corn, fruit, flax, and
hemp. Of mineral productions salt is the most
extensive; but iron and copper are found. The
department is well fitted for pastare, and ac-
cordingly rears great numbers of cattle and
horses. A great quantity of aider is made, and
the fisheries on the coast are prosecuted with
success. The chief manufacture and export is
linen; other articles of export are butter, cheese,
horses, cattle, cider, and dried fruits. The de-
partment belongs to the fourteenth military
division, to the diocese of Coutances, and the
jurisdiction of the cour royale of Caen. It is
divided into six arrondissements, viz. St. Lo
(the capital), Coutances, Cherburg, Valogne,
Avranches, and Mortain; which are subdivided
into forty cantons, and 668 communes. St. Lo
is the capital, but Cherburg the largest town.
MANCHESTER, a market town in the hun-
dred of Salford and county of Lancaster, the
chief emporium of the cotton trade, and the most
considerable manufacturing town in the kingdom.
In an historical point of view, the annals of
Manchester are not important. Whitaker, how-
ever, considers it to have been an ancient British
station, settled 500 years before the Christian era.
After the invasion of this island by the Romans,
it became one of the fortified retreats of the un-
disciplined natives, and was called Mancenion,
or ‘the place of tents:’ Agricola, who conquered
2 K 2
500
M A N C H E S T E R.
it A. D. 79, changed its name to Mancunium; i
afterwards written Manduesuedum, and Man-
castre. The Romans built a noble castle on the
spot still called Castle Field, situated near the
conflux of the Medlock and Irwell; but every
vestige of the building has disappeared. After
having retained ‘it for more than four centuries,
the declining fortunes of the empire compelled
the Roman eonquerors of Manchester to abandon
it to its old possessors, who soon again yielded
it to new conquerors and tyrants in the Danes
and Saxons. Manchester was now several times
the scene of military conflict, being seated on the
confines of the Northumbrian kingdom; and Ed-
ward the Elder, king of the Mercians, fortified
and rebuilt a considerable part of it. In the time
of William the Conqueror, according to the
Domesday survey, two churches existed here,
called St. Mary's and St. Michael's; and Albert
de Gresley obtained from the Conqueror the
lordship of the manor. His grandson Thomas
granted, in 1301, a charter to “his burgesses of
Manchester,’ constituting the town a freeborough.
Lord de la Warr, the last male heir of this family,
laid the foundation of the collegiate church in
1422, and endowed it liberally. This town was
one of the eight places of sanctuary to which that
privilege was confirmed by Henry VIII. But in
1541 this privilege was removed to Chester, which
the statute says “had a strong gaol and a mayor,
and had not the wealth, credit, great occupings,
and good order which Manchester had.” On the
breaking out of the civil wars of Charles I's. reign,
Manchester espoused the cause of the parliament,
and resisted several sieges of the royal army.
The inhabitants, however, seem to have rejoiced
heartily in the restoration of Charles II.
The present town stands on both sides of the
river Irwell, which receives the Irk at the north-
west angle of the town, near the collegiate
church. Salford is a distinct township, the
Southwark of Manchester, with which it commu-
nicates by three bridges. The Old, ‘Hanging,’
or Salford Bridge, is supposed to have been a
Roman foundation : the principal part of it was
erected in the time of Edward III.; but in 1778
it underwent a thorough repair. There is Black-
friars Bridge of wood, flagged with stone, for foot
passengers only ; and a very superior structure,
called the New Bailey Bridge, which was found-
ed in 1785, and constructed wholly of stone. It
consists of three large arches, and a fourth of
smaller dimensions, left open in support of the
duke of Bridgewater's right to a towing path:
in 1822 an act of parliament was obtained for
improving Market Street, and building a fourth
bridge across the Irwell from Water Street.
There are six bridges also across the Irk, and
nine over the Medlock, which runs through the
south suburb : various other bridges cross
branches of the canal navigation, which pene-
trate the town; and at Knottmill, near the Cas-
tle-field, is a noble tunnel, through which the
Rochdale Canal passes. The town altogether is
about two miles and a half long, by two wide;
divided into fourteen parochial districts. It did
not contain a fifth part of its present population,
nor a twentieth part of its present wealth, at the
commencement of the eighteenth century.
The Old Town is a motley assemblage of nar-
row streets and new and old houses: even the
streets of modern parts of Manchester have been
injudiciously restricted in breadth; but, among
the latter, Portland Place and Grosvenor Square
rival those of London itself; Mosley Street is
also of imposing appearance, and Ardwick
Green, and Salford Crescent, are pleasant and
genteel residences.
The collegiate church is a handsome structure
in the richer Gothic style, ornamented with a
beautiful carved roof, rich remains of painted
windows, and several family chapels and chant-
ries. The collegiate body consists of a warden,
four fellows, two chaplains, two clerks, four
choristers, and four singing men; and the great
rise in the appropriated property has rendered it
a very opulent ecclesiastical establishment. St.
Mary's church is also an elegant structure, built
originally at the expense of the clergy of the
collegiate church: the spire is much admired.
The lantern is particularly striking, being com-
posed of eight noble Ionic pillars, surmounted
by a large globe, upon which is placed a massy
cross. St. John's church is in the modern Gothic
style. In the vestry are several pictures, and a
beautiful window of stained glass. Two of the
windows in the body of the church have also
fine painted glass. Other churches worth notice
are St. Paul's in Turner Street; St. James's in
George Street; St. Michael's in Angel Street;
St. Clement's in Lever Street; St. Stephen's
near Bolton Street; St. George's near Newton
Lane; and St. Peter's, which terminates the
prospect down Mosley Street. At Salford are
Trinity church and St. Stephen's, besides a spa-
cious Catholic chapel, Friends' meeting-house,
and chapels, as in Manchester, for all the prin-
cipal Dissenting denominations.
The various excellent charitable institutions of
Manchester evince that the benevolence and public
spirit of its inhabitants have fully equalled their
mercantile prosperity. Among these, Chetham's
Hospital, commonly called the College, is first
deserving of notice. It owes its existence and
chief support to the munificent bequest of Hum-
phrey Chetham, esq., of Clayton, by will dated
the 16th of December 1651. The number of
boys clothed and educated here amounted at first
only to forty; but, from an increase in the value
of the estates, the number was augmented more
than forty years ago to eighty. The hospital is
situated on a lofty rock, near the confluence of
the rivers Irk and Irwell, immediately adjoining
the collegiate church on the spot, where as Mr.
Whitaker supposes, was placed the Roman
praetorium, or summer camp. Here is a public
library, founded by Mr. Chetham, which now
contains upwards of 15,000 volumes in almost
every branch of science or literature, besides
some valuable MSS. The infirmary, dispen-
sary, lunatic hospital, and asylum, are in-
cluded in one spacious building, in Lever's
Row, the foundation of which was laid in 1753,
for the reception of forty patients ; but the num-
ber was soon afterwards doubled. The lunatic
hospital was opened in 1766; the dispensary
in 1792; the lying-in hospital in 1790. The an-
nual subscriptions, for the support of these insti-
M A N C H E S T E R.
501
tutions, amount to several thousand pounds.
Here are also two poor-houses, one of which was
erected in 1792, on the side of the Irk, nearly
opposite the college ; and the other built the
year following, at the upper end of Greengate in
Salford. Both of them are fine buildings, and
admirably fitted up. The free grammar school,
endowed by Hugh Oldham, bishop of Exeter,
and a native of Manchester bears the name and
appearance of a college. The new prison is a
spacious building, erected on the plan of the
philanthropic Howard.—Nor is Manchester de-
ficient in literary institutions. Of the latter de-
scription is the literary and philosophical Society,
which was instituted in 1781, and has published
several volumes of valuable Memoirs.
In 1767 was established the Manchester Agri-
cultural Society; it publishes annual reports of
its premiums. Institutions connected with the
public business of the town are, the exchange, a
very fine and spacious Doric building, fronting
the market-place in Exchange Street, and erected
by subscription in 1808. In the lower floor is
the news-room, a magnificent hall, comprising an
area of 4060 feet. The upper rooms, for public
dinners, meetings, &c., are on a noble scale.
The portico is a beautiful Ionic building, built
in 1803, and much frequented by professional
gentlemen; it contains a very commodious news-
.room. The theatre is a very neat building, and
the company which performs very respectable.
The circus, for equestrian exhibitions, is also a
handsome erection. Here are two market-places,
the old and the new, which are well supplied on
Tuesdays and Saturdays; the latter is the prin-
cipal, the former being mostly for transacting
the manufacturing business of the town and
country traders. The town is abundantly sup-
plied with water from a reservoir, about two miles
from the market-place, containing, when full,
upwards of 212,000 tons of water.
Of the manufactures, to which Manchester.
owes its opulence, by far the principal, and the
source of most of the rest, is that of cotton ; of
which the raw material is transported hither up-
wards of 2000 miles, most of it to be returned,
in a finished state, to the place of its production.
To perform its various operations, this trade has
given birth in this place to the greatest and
most complete system of machinery that ever
existed ; and which besides employs, next to
agriculture itself, more people than any other
trade in the kingdom. Manchester is also the
general depôt from which the raw material is
distributed through all parts of the district, and
in which all this scattered merchandise is again
collected, when finished, into a centre, to be again
expanded over a wider circle; to be sent to
Hull, Liverpool, and London, and thence all
over the world.
The principal articles of manufacture here at
present are velvets, velverets, fustians, dimities,
talicoes, checks, tickings, jeans, shirtings, ging-
hams, quiltings, handkerchiefs, nankeens, diapers,
muslinets, muslims, cambrics, and every kind of
fancy cotton, and cotton and silk goods. The
spinning trade is becoming every year more ex-
tensive, and almost entirely performed by machi-
hery, aided by a number of boys and girls. The
cotton, carried to the mill in its rudest state, is
made to pass through a succession of rollers,
spindles, &c., and to undergo the various opera-
tions of cleaning, carding, drawing, stretching,
and twisting, until the mass of chaotic fibres
comes out a continuous thread of the utmost
fineness, of very great strength, and of value
augmented a thousand fold. Weaving is also
carried on to a great extent; and power-looms,
worked by machinery, have extended it consider-
ably. Even the erection and keeping up of this
various and complicated machinery is itself a
source of very great business, and gives rise to
iron foundries, steam engine, and other factories,
and works of a similar kind, as well as to the in-
vention even of new machines. Of these the
wire-card manufactory is one of the most curious.
The printing, dyeing, and bleaching businesses
are also carried on to a very great extent in and
around Manchester; the hat manufacture, and
several well-managed sulphuric acid, or oil of vi-
triol works. The silk manufacture has also been
taken up here of late with great spirit.
Manchester, notwithstanding its extent and
importance, is not a corporate town, the govern-
ment being vested in a headborough, called the
boroughreeve, and two constables. These are
chosen annually by a jury impannelled by the
steward of the manor, at the courts leet, which
are held by the lord of the manor twice every
year at Easter and Michaelmas. The boroughreeve
is usually one of the gentlemen who has served
as constable for the preceding year. His chief
duty is to preside at public meetings, and to dis-
tribute certain charities, all the judicial functions
connected with the police being executed by the
constables and deputies. A court of requests is
held every month for the recovery of small debts;
and every Wednesday and Saturday respectable
magistrates sit in the court-room of the New-
Bayley for the administration of justice in pleas
of almost every description, whether civil or cri-
minal. Quarter sessions also are held four times
a-year. Manchester is 186 miles from London,
by Derby and Leek, and 188 by Lichfield.
MANchestER House, a factory of the Hudson
Bay Company, 100 miles west of Hudson's
House, and seventy-five south-east of Bucking-
ham House, in the north-west part of North
America. It stands on the south-west side of
Saskashawan River. Long. 109° 20' W, lat.
53° 14' 18" N.
MANCHET, n.s. Fr. michet.—Skinner: or
more probably from Fr. manche, a sleeve. A
small loaf of fine bread.
Take a small toast of manchet, dipped in oil of
swéet almonds. * Bacom.
I love to entertain my friends with a frugal colla-
tion: a cup of wine, a dish of fruit, and arºmanchet.
- More's Dialogues.
MANCHINEEL TREE. See HIPPOMANE.
MANCIPATE, v. a. Lat., mancipo. To
MAN'cipation, n.s. 5 enslave; bind; tie-
Seldom used.
Although the regular part of nature is seldom va-
ried, yet the meteors, which are in themselves more.
unstable, and less mancipated to stated motions, are
oftentimes employed to various ends. Hale.
MAN
MAN
502
MANCIPATIO, a term used in the ancient
Roman law, which may be thus explained:—
Every father had such a regal authority over his
son, that, before the son could be released from
his subjection and made free, he must be three
times over sold and bought, his natural father
being the vender. The vendee was called pater
fiduciarius. After this ficticious bargain, the
pater fiduciarius sold him again to the natural
father, who'could then, but not till then, manu- .
mit or make him free. The imaginary sale was
called mancipatio; and the act of giving liberty
or setting him free after this was called emanci-
patio. w
MANCIPATIo also signifies the selling or alie-
nating of certain lands for money paid by weight,
in the presence of five witnesses. This mode of
alienation took place only among Roman citizens,
and that only in respect to certain estates si-
tuated in Italy, which were called mancipia.
MA'NCIPLE, n.s. Lat. manceps. The stew-
ard, or purveyor of a commºnity, particularly
used of the purveyor of a college.
A gentil manciple was ther of a temple
Of which achatours mighten take ensemple
For to ben wise in bying of vitaille.
© Chaucer. Cant. Tales.
Their manciple fell dangerously ill,
Bread must be had, their grist went to the mill:
This simkin moderately stole before,
Their steward sick, he robbed them ten times more.
Betterton’s Miller of Trompingham.
MANCIPLE means also a clerk of the kitchen.
An officer in the inner temple seems anciently to
have been so called, according to the above ex-
tract from Chaucer, the ancient English poet,
some time a student of that house.
MANCUS (from manu cusus), in antiquity,
an Anglo-Saxon gold coin, equal in value to two
solidi, and a half, or thirty pence, and in weight
to fifty-five Troy grains. The first account of
this coin that occurs in English history is about
the close of the eighth century, in an embassy of
Kenwulf king of Mercia, to Leo III., requesting
the restoration of the jurisdiction of the see of
Canterbury: this embassy was enforced by a
present of 120 mancuses. Ethelwolf also sent
yearly to Rome 300 mancuses; and these coins
are said to have continued in some form or other
till towards the conclusion of the Saxon govern-
ment. The heriots of the nobility are chiefly
estimated by this standard in Canute's laws. It
came originally from Italy, where it was called
ducat ; and is supposed to have been the same
with the drachma or miliarensis current in the
Byzantine empire. -
A MANDAMUS issues out of the court of
king's bench, and is sent to a corporation, com-
manding them to admit or restore a person to his
office. This writ also lies where justices of the
peace, refuse to admit a person to take the oaths
to qualify himself for any post or office; or where
a bishop or archdeacon refuses to grant a pro-
bate of a will, to admit an executor to prove it,
or to swear a churchwarden, &c.
MANDANES, an Indian prince and philoso-
pher, who, for the renown of his wisdom, was
invited by the ambassadors of Alexander the
Great to the banquet of the son of Jupiter. A
reward was promised him if he obeyed, but he
was threatened with punishment in case of a re-
fusal. Equally unmoved by both, the philoso-
pher dismissed them with observing, that, though
Alexander ruled over a great part of the universe,
he was not the son of Jupiter, and that he cared
not for the presents of a man who possessed not
wherewithal to content himself. “I despise his
threats,’ added he ; * if I live, India is sufficient
for my subsistence, and to me death has no ter-
rors; for it will only be an exchange of old age
and infirmity for the happiness of a better life.’
MANDARINS, a name given to the magis-
trates and governors of provinces in China, who
are chosen out of the most learned men, and
whose government is always atra great distance
from the place of their birth, See CHINA.
MAN'DATARY, n.s.
MAN'DATE,
Latin, mando, to
command. A man-
MAND’ATOR, datary is an ecclesias-
MAN'DATORY, adj. tic, to whom the pope
has by his prerogative given a mandate for his
benefice: mandate is command; precept; corn-
mission; charge: mandator, director; comman-
der: mandatory, of the natuie of a command.
Her force is not any where so apparent as in ex-
press mandates or prohibitions, especially upon ad-
vice and consultation going before. Hooker.
Who knows, *
If the scarce-bearded Caesar have not sent
His powerful mandate to you. Shakspeare.
- This Moor,
Your special mandate for the state affairs,
Hath hither brought. Id. Othello.
The necessity of the times cast the power of the
three estates upon himself, that his mandates should
pass for laws, whereby he laid what taxes he pleased.
Howel's Vocal Forest.
He thought the mandate forged, your death con-
cealed. Dryden.
This dream all-powerful Juno sends, I beat
Her mighty mandates, and her words you hear. Id.
A person is said to be a €lient to his advocate, but
a master and mandator to his proctor. Ayliffe.
MANDATE, in the canon law, a rescript of
the pope, commanding an ordinary collator to
put the person therein named in possession of
the first vacant benefice in his collation.
MANDATS, or MANDATs TERRITORIA Ux, a
species of paper currency issued by the French
government, to supply the place of the assignats,
in March 1796, when they had lost credit and
suffered an enormous depreciation. See Assig-
NATs. To prevent jobbing, they were ordered
to be taken at par with specie; and instead of
resting their credit on the whole national pro-
perty, as the assignats had been, they were bot-
tomed upon so much of it as was equivalent in
value to the amount of the mandats issued. A
list of the lands thus appropriated, which could
be immediately acquired by the holders of man-
dats, was printed, and copies dispersed through
the republic. The mandats thus operated a ten-
porary restoration of the credit of the republic.
MANDATUM, in Roman antiquity, was a
fee or retainer given the procuratores and advo-
MAN
MAN
503
cati. It was a necessary condition, without
which they had not the liberty of pleading.
MAN DAVIA, a large and strong town of
Iſindostan, in the province of Cutch; on the
north-east shore of the Indian Ocean. It carries
butter, grain, and cotton ; its principal imports
are sugar, pepper, spices, raw silk, and piece
goods. It is subject to the Balooch chief of
Cutch.
MANDELIQUE, MANDALIG, or Devil's
Rock, an island about half a league from the
north coast of Java. In the east monsoon
ships are detained long here by contrary winds.
The passage between this and the coast has
three and a half or four fathoms water; but is
too narrow to be safe. Long. 110° 56' E., lat.
6° 27' S. -
MANDEVILLE (Bernard de), M. D., an
eminent writer of the eighteenth century, born in
Holland, where he studied physic, and took his
degree. He afterwards came over into England,
and in 1714, published a poem, entitled The
Grumbling Hive, or Knaves turned Honest;
he afterwards re-published it with additions, un-
der the title of The Fable of the Bees, or Private
Vices made Public Benefits; with an Essay on
Charity and Charity Schools, and a Search into
the Nature of Society. This book was presented
by the jury of Middlesex in July the same year,
and severely animadverted upon, in A Letter to
the Right Hon. Lord C., printed in the London
Journal of Saturday, July 27, 1723. Our author
published a Vindication. His book was attacked
by several writers. He published other pieces,
and died in 1723. *
MANDEVILLE (Sir John), an English physician,
celebrated for his travels, was born at St. Alban's,
about the beginning of the fourteenth century.
He had a liberal education, and left Fngland in
1332. He did not return till 1364. His friends,
who had long supposed him dead, did not know
him when he appeared. He had travelled through
almost all the east, and made himself master of
a great variety of languages. He particularly
visited Scythia, Armenia the Greater and Less,
Egypt, Arabia, Syria, Media, Mesopotamia,
Persia, Chaldea, Greece, Dalmatia, &c. His
disposition even after this did not suffer him to
rest; for he left his own country a second time,
and died at Liege in the Netherlands in 1372.
He wrote An Itinerary, or an Account of
his Travels, in English, French, and Latin, so
amply stored with marvellous relations and
events, that the name of Mandeville is become
proverbial for a fabulous and exaggerating tra-
veller. But what he himself observed is worth
attention; and he makes many remarks which
show an able and scientific mind. -
MANDEURE, a town of France, in the late
principality of Montbeliard, anciently the ca-
ital of the Mandubii; five miles south of
Kººij, now in the department of the
Maritime Alps.
MAN’DIBLE, n.s.
Lat. mandibula, man-
MANDIB'ULAR, duco, of mando, to chew.
MAN DUCATE, v.a. (The jaw; mandibular is
MANDUCATION. relating, or belonging to,
the jaw; manducate, to chew; eat.
on trade with Bombay and Arabia, in clarified and it cannot be denied.
no town of consequence, except Kamalia.
Either we manducate the accidents only, or else
substance of bread, or the substance of Christ's
body. If we manducate only the accidents, then
how do we eat Christ's body? If we manducate
bread, then 'tis capable of all the natural alterations,
Jer. Taylor.
As he who is not a holy person does not feed upon
Christ, it is apparent that our munducation must be
spiritual, a .d therefore so must the food, and conse-
quently it cannot be natural flesh.
Taylor's Worthy Communicant.
He saith only the crocodile moveth the upper jaw,
as if the upper mandible did make an articulation
with the cranium. Grew.
Manducation is the action of the lower jaw in
chewing the food, and preparing it in the mouth be-
fore it is received into the stomach. Quincy.
MANDING, or MANDINGo, a territory of
Central Africa, bounded on the east by Bam-
barra, on the north by Fooladoo, and on the south
and west by Gadou and Jallonkadoo. The
country is hilly, rocky, and barren, and contains
Gold
dust is found in the sands of the rivers, which
the women extract by agitation. The whole re-
gion is watered by the Niger, and Mr. Park was
told that the source of that river was at Sankari,
in Manding. It is divided into a number of
small republics, each village, with a territory
around it, being nearly independent.
The Mandingoes, who derive their name from
this territory, are widely spread over other parts
of Africa, and are, perhaps, the most numerous
race of negroes in the western regions of that
continent. They are tall, slender, and not so
bright a black as the Jaloffs. Though subject to
few diseases they seldom attain old age. A gay,
lively, inquisitive, and credulous people; like
their neighbours, the Jaioffs, they are very dexte-
rous in appropriating any thing which they fancy
to their own use. The females appear to be dis-
tinguished by kindness and humanity. Many
of the Mandingoes are Mahommedans, and in
most of their towns there are two public buildings,
the mosque, and a large kind of stage, under
some tree, where the common business of the
village is transacted. Their houses consist of a
circular wall of earth, about four feet high, roofed
with bamboo, and covered with grass or leaves.
Polygamy is common; and, as each wife has a se-
parate hut, several generally belong to the same
family, and the group is usually enclosed with a
fence. Both sexes among the Mandingoes are
further removed from barbarism than many of the
other tribes, and are clothed in cottons of their
own manufacture. The dress of the men con-
sists of a loose shirt or frock, with drawers, a cap,
and sandals. The females make use of two
pieces of cloth, one of which they wrap rôund
the waist, the other is thrown over the shoulders.
Besides their common domestic avocations, they
are employed in dressing and spinning cotton,
which is woven into cloth, and died of a rich
permanent blue, by means of indigo. The men
are partially occupied in agriculture, hunting,
and fishing. Many of them are also engaged in
commerce, and almost every district of Western
Africa is traversed by troops of Mandingo mer-
chants. Their language is, therefore, widely
diffused, and is one of the most copious and po-
MAN
MAN
*
504
lished of the negro dialects. They are said to
have bards who sing the praises of their chiefs.
The taste of the negroes, and particularly the
Mandingoes, for poetry of the most simple and
plaintive kinds, has been proved by many ex-
amples; but it will be sufficient to refer to that
well-known song, on ‘the poor white man, faint
and weary, sung extempore over the distressed
Park. The only regular trades among them are
working in leather and metals, both of which
they execute with dexterity. Many of those
who have not become converts to the faith of
Mahomet seem to have some notion of a Su-
preme Being, and a future state of rewards and
punishments; but on this, as well as on all ab-
stract subjects, their ideas are but confused.
MANDINGA, a river of Panama, South Ame-
rica, which runs east until it enters the large and
well-sheltered bay of Mandinga. There is a
settlement of the same name on the banks of the
river, where there is a watch-tower, to give notice
to the governor of Panama of vessels that may
appear.
MANDIOLY, one of the Gilolo Islands, in
the Eastern Seas. It is of a semicircular form,
and may be estimated at twenty miles in length
by four the average breadth. It is separated
from the west coast of Gilolo, by the straits of
Patientia. The equinoctial line crosses near the
centre. Long. 124° E. -
MANDOE, OLD and NEw, two small islands
belonging to Denmark, on the west coast of
Sleswick. Long. 8° 32' E., lat. 55° 10' N.
MANDOW, or MUNDU, a district of Hindos-
tan, in Malwah, situated among the Vindaya
Mountains, between the twenty-second and
twenty-third degrees of northern latitude. It is
much infested by freebooters; on which account
it is not so well cultivated. Its chief towns are
Mundu, Bajulpoor, and Dectan.
MANDow, or MUNDU, the capital of the above
district, and formerly the capital of an Afghaun
dynasty. With its suburbs and gardens, it was
once twenty-two miles we are told in circumfer-
ence. The fortress, situated on a mountain, for-
merly contained many handsome monuments
and mosques. In 1534 it was attacked by the
emperor Homayon, and during the night, 300
Moguls having scaled the walls, the garrison,
consisting of several thousand men, took flight.
The works are now fallen much to decay, and
the town is in ruins. Twenty-five miles south
of Oujéin.
MANDRAGORA, in botany. See ATRoPA.
MANDRAGORITIS, a surname of Venus.
MAN’DRAKE. Lat. mandragora; Greek
Havöpayopag. A plant. See below.
And Reuben went, in the days of wheat harvest,
and found mandrakes in the field. Gen. xxx. 14.
Not poppy, nor mandragora,
Nor all the drowsy syrups of the world,
Shall ever med'cine thee to that sweet sleep.
- Shakspeare.
And shrieks like mandrakes, torn out of the earth,
That living mortals, hearing them, run mad. . Id.
Among other virtues, mandrake has been falsely
celebrated for rendering barren women fruitful: it
has a soporifick quality, and the ancients used it
when they wanted a narcotick of the most powerful
kind. . . Hill's Materia Medica.
MANDRAKE, in botany. See ATROPA and
MUSA. - e
MA'NDREL, n.s. Fr. mandrin. An instru-
ment to hold in a lathe the substance to be
turned. -
Mandrels are made with a long wooden shank, to
fit stiff into a round hole that is made in the work
that is to be turned; this mandrel is a shank, or pin-
mandrel. Moron.
A MANDREL is a kind of wooden pulley, and
member of the turner's lathe. Of these there are
several kinds; as flat mandrels, which have three
or more little pegs or points near the verge, and
are used for turning flat boards on. Pin man-
drels, which have a long wooden shank to fit
stiff into a round hole made in the work to be
turned. Hollow mandrels, which are hollow of
themselves, and used for turning hollow work.
Screw mandrels, &c.
MANDURIA, an ancient town of Naples, in
the Basilicata. It was formerly called Casale
Nuovo, which name it retained till 1790, when
the inhabitants petitioned the king to change it
to the ancient name of Manduria. It suffered in
1783 severely from an earthquake. Inhabitants
4000. Six miles north-east of Cassano.
MANDUBII, a people of Gaul, who inhabit-
ed the country afterwards called Burgundy.
Many of them served in Caesar's army. Cºps. de
Bell. Gall. 5, c. 20.
MANDUBRATIUS, a British prince, who
joined Caesar in Gaul, his father being killed by
Cassibelan.
MANE, n.s. Goth. and Belg. maen ;
MANED', adj. 5 Teut. mahne ; Swed. mahn;
Dan. man. (Goth. maen, is the neck). The
flowing hair of horses', and other animals'
necks.
A currie comb, maine come, and whip for a jade.
Tusser.
Dametas was tossed from the saddle to the mane
of the horse, and thence to the ground. Sidney.
The horses, breaking loose, ran up and down with
their tails and manes on a light fire. I(nolles.
When his eyes did her behold,
Her heart did seem to melt in pleasures manifold.
Spenser.
For, quitting both their swords and reins,
They grasped with all their strength the manes.
Hudibras.
A lion shakes his dreadful mane,
And angry grows. Waller.
MAN-EATER. See ANTHROPOPHAGI, and
CANN IBAL.
MA'NES, n.s. Lat. manes. Spirit; ghost;
shade. See below.
Hail, O ye holy manes' hail again,
Paternal ashes | Dryden's Virgil.
MAN Es, or MANICHAEUS, one of the Persian
Magi, who, having embraced Christianity, min-
gled his own philosophical opinions with its
doctrines, and thus became the founder of the
Manichaean system. See MANICHEI. . Manes
flourished about A. D. 277. St. Epiphanius
says, his original name was Cubricus, and that
he changed it for manes, which, in the Persian
or Babylonish language, signifies vessel. A rich
widow, whose servant he had been, dying with-
out issue, left him her fortune; after which he
assumed the title of the apostle or envoy of Jesus,
M A N G A N E S E.
505
Christ. He next assumed that of the Paraclete,
whom Christ had promised to send; which
Augustine explains by saying, that Manes en-
deavoured to persuade men, that the Holy
Ghost did personally dwell in him with full au-
thority. He left several disciples, and among
others Addas, Thomas, and Hermes. These he
sent in his lifetime into several provinces to
preach his doctrine. Manes, having undertaken
to cure the son of Sapor king of Persia, and not
succeeding, was put in prison upon the young
prince's death, whence he made his escape; but
was apprehended soon after, and flayed alive.
However, the oriental writers, cited by D'Her-
belot and Hyde, tell us, that Manes, after having
been protected in a singular manner by king
Hormizdas, who succeeded Sapor, but who was
not able to defend him against the united perse-
cutions of the Christians, the Magi, the Jews,
and the Pagans, was shut up in a strong castle
to preserve him from his enemies. They add,
that after the death of Hormizdas, Varames I., his
successor, first protected Manes, but afterwards
gave him up to the fury of the Magi, whose re-
sentment against him was owing to his having
adopted the Sadducean principles, as some say;
while others attribute it to his having mingled
the tenets of the Magi with the doctrines of
Christianity. However, it is certain that the
Manicheans celebrated the day of their master's
death. St. Epiphanius gives a catalogue of se-
Veral pieces published by Manes, and adds ex-
tracts out of some of them. These are the Mys-
teries, Chapters, Gospel, and Treasury.
MANES is a poetical term, signifying the
shades or souls of the deceased. The heathens
used a variety of ceremonies and sacrifices to ap-
pease the manes of those who were deprived of
burial. See LEMUREs.
MANES DII were the same with Inferi, or the
infernal gods, who tormented men; and to these
the heathens offered sacrifice to assuage their in-
dignation. The heathen theology is a little ob-
scure with regard to the gods manes. Some
hold, that they were the souls of the dead; others
that they were the genii of men; which last opi-
nion suits best with the etymology of the word.
The heathens, in fact, used the word in several
senses; sometimes for ghosts of the departed,
sometimes for the infernal or subterraneous
deities; and in general for all divinities that pre-
sided over tombs. The evocation of manes of
the dead seems to have been very frequent among
the Thessalians; but it was expressly prohibited
by the Romans. See LAREs. *
MANETHO, an ancient Egyptian historian,
who pretended to take his history from the sacred
inscriptions on the pillars of Hermes Trismegis-
tus. He was high priest of Heliopolis under
Ptolemy Philadelphus, at whose request he wrote
his history in Greek, beginning from their gods,
and continued it down to near the time of Darius
Codomanus.
brated work, often quoted by Josephus and other
ancient authors. Julius Africanus gave an
abridgment of it in his Chronology. Manetho's
work is however lost; and there only remain
some fragments, extracted from Julius Africanus,
which are to be found in Eusebius's Chronica.
His history of Egypt is a cele-
MANFREDI (Eustace), a celebrated mathe-
matician, born at Bologna in 1674,” where he
was elected mathematical professor in 1698. He
was made a member of several academies, and
acquired great reputation by his Ephemerides,
4 vols. 4to, as well as by other works. He died
in 1739.
MANFREDONIA, a town of Naples, in the
Capitanata, on the bay of Manfredonia. It was.
founded in the thirteenth century, has a good
harbour, and exports corn. Population 5000.
110 miles W. N. W. of Naples.
MANGALORE (Codeal Bunder) is a large.
town of Hindostan, in the province of Canaro,
built round the shores of a peninsula, in the
elevated centre of which is a citadel. This
peninsula projects into an extensive salt lagoon,
separated from the sea by a narrow beach of
sand, in which was formerly an opening capable
of admitting vessels of burden, but recently this
channel has diminished in depth, so as to admit
only vessels of ten feet; and a second one has
been formed, which has still less water. The
lake abounds with fish. Two peaked hills rise
behind it, called by seamen the Ass's Ears.
Mangalore was the chief port of Tippoo's domi-
nions, where his navy rendezvoused, and which
at one time consisted of several frigates, besides
line-of-battle ships building. It chiefly exports
rice by Arab vessels to the Persian Gulf and Red
Sea, pepper, areka, &c. Ulala is a large town
on the south shore of the lagoon of Mangalore.
Mangalore was early known to the Arabs; but
does not appear to have been subject to the Ma-
hommedan power in India until 1763, when it
was taken by Hyder Aly. The British took it
once from Hyder (in 1768), and once from
Tippoo (1783), but it was restored. It came
finally into our possession in 1799, and is the
station of a judge, collector, &c., of South Canaro.
MANGANESE, a metal of a dull whitish co-
lor when broken, but which soon grows dark by
oxidation, from the action of the air. It is hard
and brittle, though not pulverisable, and rough
in its fracture; so difficultly fusible, that no heat
yet exhibited has caused it to run into masses of
any considerable magnitude. Its specific gra-
vity is 8-0. When broken in pieces, it falls
into a powder by spontaneous oxidation. . .
Manganese, heated in oxygen or chlorine,
takes fire and forms an oxide or chloride. . . It
has been thought difficult to decide on the oxides
of manganese. According to Sir H. Davy there
are two oxides only, the olive and the black;
Mr. Brande has three, the olive, dark red, and
black; M. Thenard has four, the green, the
white (in the state of hydrate), the chestnut-
brown, and the black; Berzelius has five, the
first gray, the second green, the third and
fourth are not well defined, and the fifth is the
black. -
Two oxides, however, are well known...
1. The first oxide may be obtained by dissolv-
ing common black manganese in sulphuric or
nitric acid, adding a little sugar, and precipitating
by solution of potash. A white powder is ob-
tained, which being heated to redness, out of the
contact of air, becomes yellow, puce-colored,
and lastly red-brown. To be preserved, it should
MAN
MAN
506
be washed in boiling water, previously freed
from air, and then dried by distilling off the
moisture in a retort filled with hydrogen. The
dark olive oxide, when examined in large quan-
tities, appears almost black; but when spread
upon white paper, its olive tint is apparent. It
takes fire when gently heated, increases in weight,
and acquires a browner tint. It slowly absorbs
oxygen from the air, even at common tempera-
tures. It dissolves in acids without efferves-
cence. ' The white powder obtained above is.
the hydrated protoxide. The different tints
which it assumes by exposure to air are ingeni-
ously supposed by Sir H. Davy to depend on
the formation of variable quantities of the black-
brown oxide, which probably retains the water
contained in the white hydrate, and is hence
deep puce-colored.
2. The black peroxide. Its specific gravity is
4. It does not combine with any of the acids.
It yields oxygen when heated; and by intense
ignition passes in a great measure into the pro-
toxide. According to Sir H. Davy, the olive
oxide consists of -
Manganesium ... 79
Oxygen º e º . 21
And the black oxide of
Manganesium g º . 69
Oxygen, about . . . 31
He considers the first as a deutoxide, whence
the prime equivalent is inferred to be 7.533.
The olive oxide . . 7:533 met. -- 2' ox.
Or . . . . 80. +20.
The black oxide will be 7.533 + 3'
Or . . . 71.5 +28.
The compound of the first
with water is a deuto- --
hydrate, or 7:533 + 2.25 w.
The olive oxide becomes green by the action
of potash, whence Sir H. accounts for the mis-
takes of chemists relative to a green oxide. See
CAMELEON MINERAL.
By Dr. Thomson's experiments, with which
Dr. Ure's also agree, the protoxide consists of
3.5 metal + 1 oxygen ; the second of 3.5 + 2 ;
whence the prime equivalent appears to be 3.5.
The chloride may be conveniently obtained
by igniting the muriate of manganese. It thus
appears as a pale pink-colored substance, semi-
transparent, and in brilliant scales. According
to Dr. John Davy it is a compound of 3,766
metal + 4.5 chlorine.
Sir H. Davy is inclined to believe that the
olive oxide is the only one which enters into
combination with vitrifiable substances.
The salts of manganese have been little studied.
They are mostly soluble in water.
Ferroprussiate of potash gives a white precipitate.
Hydrosulphuret . white
Sulphureted hydrogen - O.
Gallic acid º O
Succinate and benzoate of ammonia 0
Concentrated sulphuric acid attacks manga-
nese, at the same time that hydrogen gas is dis-
engaged. If sulphuric acid be added, and drawn
off by distillation several times from the black
oxide, by a heat nearly approaching to ignition,
in a glass vessel, it is found that oxygen gas is
disengaged toward the end of each process, and
part of the oxide is dissolved. The solution
of the sulphate made from the metal itself is
colorless. If it be made from the black oxide,
it is a purplish-red; but this color is destroyed
by the light of the sun, and again restored
by removing the solution into the dark. Sul-
phurous acid dissolves the oxide, taking part of
its oxygen, which converts it into sulphuric acid,
thus forming a sulphate with the remaining oxide.
Nitric acid dissolves manganese with efferves-
cence, and the escape of nitrous gas. A spongy,
black, and friable matter remains, which is a
carburet of iron. The solution does not afford
crystals. The oxide is more readily soluble in
nitrous acid. Manganese is dissolved in the
usual manner by muriatic acid. The solution of
manganese in muriatic acid scarcely affords
crystals; but a deliquescent saline mass by
evaporation, which is soluble in alcohol. In the
dry way, the oxide of manganese combines with
such earths and saline substances as are capable
of undergoing fusion in a strong heat. These
experiments are most advantageously performed
by the BLow-PIPE, which see. This metal
melts readily with most of the other metals, but
rejects mercury. Gold and iron are rendered
more fusible by a due addition of manganese ;
and the latter metal is rendered more ductile
Copper becomes less fusible, and is rendered
whiter, but of a color subject to tarnish.
The ore of manganese, which is known in
Derbyshire by the name of black wadd, is re-
markable for its spontaneous inflammation with
oil. It is of a dark brown color, of a friable
earthy appearance, partly in powder, and partly
in lumps. If half a pound of this be dried before
a fire, and afterward suffered to cool for about
an hour, and it be then loosely mixed or knead-
ed with two ounces of linseed oil ; the whole, in
something more than half an hour, becomes gra-
dually hot, and at length bursts into flame. This
effect wants explanation. It seems, in some
measure, to resemble the inflammation of oils by
the nitric acid.
Manganese was used chiefly by glass-makers
and potters, but the important discovery of
chlorine has greatly extended its utility. See
BLEACHING.
MANGE, n.s. Fr. demangeaison, itching.
MAN'GY, adj. } The itch or scab in cattle.
The sheep died of the rot, and the swine of the
mange. Ben Jonson.
Away thou issue of a mangy dog'
I swoon to see thee.
Shakspeare. Timon of Athens.
Tell what crisis does divine
The rot in sheep, or mange in Swine 2
- Hudibras.
MANGE. Dogs are subject to the mange from
being fed too high, and allowed no exercise or any
opportunity of refreshing themselves with dog.
grass; or by being starved at home, which will
cause them to eat the vilest stuff abroad, such as
carrion, or even human excrement; or by want
of water, and sometimes by not being kept clean
in their kennel, or by foundering and melting it.
MAN
MAN
507
their grease. Any of these will heat the blood
to a great degree, and make them mangy. The
cure may be effected by giving brimstone, pow-
dered fine, either in milk or mixed up with
butter, and rubbing them well every day for a
week with an ointment made up of some of the
brimstone and pork lard, to which add a small
quantity of oil of turpentine.
ounces of quicksilver in two quarts of water to
half the quantity; bathe them them every day
with this water, and let them have some of it to
lick till the cure is perfected. Or, a small quari-
tity of trooper's ointment rubbed on the parts on
its first appearance will cure it. It will also
free lousy puppies from their lice. Or, take two
ounces of euphorbium, flour of sulphur, Flanders
oil of bays, and 'soft soap, each four ounces.
Anoint and rub the dog with it every other day;
give him warm milk, and no water. The cure
will be performed in about a week. Or, take
two handfuls of wild cresses, and as much ele-
Campane, and also of the leaves and roots of
roerb and sorrel, and two pounds of the roots of
fodrels; boil these well together in lie and vine-
gar; strain the decoction, and put into it two
pounds of gray soap, and when it is melted rub
º dog with it four or five days, and it will cure
1II] .
MANGEART (Thomas), a Benedictine of the
congregation of St. Vanne and St. Hidulphe,
whose learning was an ornament to his order,
and procured him the offices of antiquarian, li-
brarian, and counsellor, to Charles duke of Lor-
rain. He was preparing a very considerable
work, but died, A. D. 1763, before he had quite
finished it; and it was then published by abbé
Jacquin, in 1763, entitled Introduction à la
Science des Medailles, pour servir à la connois-
sance des Dieux, de la Religion, des Sciences,
des Arts, et de tout ce qui appartient à l’Histoire
ancienne, avec les preuves tirées des Medailles.
The elementary treatises on the numismatic
science were not sufficiently extensive, and the
particular dissertations were by far too prolix.
His work may serve as a supplement to Mont-
faucon's Antiquity Explained. He likewise
wrote a volume of Sermons; and a Treatise on
Purgatory; Nancy, 1739, 2 vols. 12mo.
MANGEEA Is LAND, an island of the South
Pacific Ocean, south of Wateeoo, in long, 201°
53', and lat. 21°57' S., is five leagues in circuit,
rising in the middle to hills, visible ten leagues.
The south-west shore is composed of cliffs of
sand-stone ten feet high, with many caverns worn
by the sea. The north shore is composed, of
broken land, with ravines and intervals of sandy
beach. Captain Cook found neither anchorage
nor landing place. The natives resemble those
of Wateeoo and the Society Isles.
MANGEL-WURZEL, or the root of scarcity,
a root much celebrated as food for cattle. It is
a species of beta. See BETA.
plant; the root is large and fleshy, sometimes a
foot in diameter. It rises above the ground seve-
ral inches, and is thickest at the top, tapering
gradually downward. The colors of the roots
vary; being white, yellow, and red. It is good
fodder for cows, and for rabbits; and produces
great plenty of leaves, which are very palatable
#
Or, boil four
It is a biennial
and wholesome for cattle. It is chiefly cultivated
in Germany.
MAN’GER, n. s. Fr. mangeoire, manger ;
Lat. mando, to cut. ' The place or vessel in
which animals are fed with corn.
Ye shall find the babe wrapped in swaddling
clothes, lying in a nanger. Luke ii. 12.
There lies the babe in the stable, crying in the
manger, whom the angels came down from heaven to
proclaim. Bp. Hall.
A churlish cur got into a manger, and there lay
growling to keep the horses from their provender.
- L'Estrange.
MANGER, in a ship of war, is a small apart-
ment, extended athwart the lower deck imme-
diately within the hause-holes, and fenced on the
after-part by a partition, which separates it from
the other part of the deck behind it. This par-
tition serves as a fence against the water, which
occasionally gushes in at the hause-holes, or falls
from the wet cable whilst it is heaved in by the
capstern. The water, thus prevented from run-
ning aft, is immediately returned into the sea by
several small channels, called scuppers, cut
through the ship's side within the manger. The
manger is therefore particularly useful in giving
a contrary direction to the water that enters at
the hause-holes, which would otherwise run aft
in great streams upon the lower deck, and render
it extremely wet and uncomfortable, particularly
in tempestuous weather, to the men who mess
and sleep in different parts of it. *
MANGET (John James), an eminent phy-
sician, born in Geneva, in 1652. The elector of
Brandenburgh made him his first physician in
1699; in which post he continued till he died,
at Geneva, in 1742. He wrote many works;
the most known of which are, 1. A collection of
several Pharmacopoeias, in folio; 2. Bibliotheca
Pharmaceutico-Medica; 3. Bibliotheca Anatomi-
ca; 4. Bibliotheca Chemica; 5. Bibliotheca
Chirurgica; 6. A Bibliotheca of all the Authors
who have written on Medicine, in 4 vols. folio.
All these works are in Latin. Daniel le Clerc,
the author of a History of Physic, assisted him
in writing them. -
MANGIFERA, the mango tree, in botany, a
genus of the monogynia order, and the pentandria
class of plants: coP. pentapetalous; the plum
kidney-shaped. There is but one species, a na-
tive of many parts of the East Indies, whence it
has been transplanted to Brasil and other warm
parts of America. It grows to a large size; the
wood is brittle; the bark rough when old; the
leaves are seven or eight inches long, and more
than two inches broad. The flowers are pro-
duced in loose panicles at the ends of the
branches, and are succeeded by large oblong
kidney-shaped plums. The fruit, when fully
ripe, is greatly esteemed in the countries where
it grows; but in Europe we have only the unripe
fruit brought over in pickle. All attempts to
propagate the plant have hitherto proved inef-
fectual; and Miller is of opinion that the stones
will riot vegetate unless they are planted soon
after they are ripe. He thinks therefore that the
young plants ought to be brought over in boxes
of earth; after which they may be kept in the
tan-bed of the stove.
508
M A N I C H AE I.
MAN’GLE, v. a. & n.s. Swed. mangla,
MAN'GLER, n. s. }º Teut. man-
MANG'LING, n. s. gen, mangeln of
Goth, manga, to mutilate. L. B. mangonale was
a powerful warlike machine, and hence probably
applied to the heavy machine that presses linen.
To cut in piece-meal; lacerate; tear; to press
or smooth linen under a loaded machine.
Cassio, may you suspect
Who they should be, that thus have mangled you?
Shakspeare.
Your dishonour
Mangles true judgment, and bereaves the state
Of that integrity which should become it. . Id.
Thoughts, my tormenters, armed with deadly
stings,
Mangle my apprehensive tenderest parts,
Exasperate, exulcerate, and raise
Dire inflammation, which no cooling herb,
Or medicinal liquor can assuage.
Milton’s Agonistes.
Mangle mischief. Don Sebastian.
The triple porter of the Stygian seat, -
With lolling tongue, lay fawning at thy feet,
And, seized with fear, forgot his mangled meat.
Dryden.
What could swords or poisons, racks or flame,
But mangle and disjoint this brittle frame 3
More fatal Henry’s words; they murder Emma's
fame. Prior.
Since after thee may rise an impious line,
Coarse manglers of the human face divine;
Paint on, till fate dissolve thy mortal part,
And live and die the monarch of thy art. Tickel.
It is hard, that not one gentleman’s daughter
should read her own tongue ; as any one may find
who can hear them when they are disposed to mangle
a play or a novel, where the least word out of the
common road disconcerts them. Swift.
They have joined the most obdurate consonants
without one intervening vowel, only to shorten a
syllable ; so that most of the books we see now-a-
days, are full of those manglings and abbreviations.
Id.
Inextricable difficulties occur by mangling the
sense, and curtailing authors. Baker on Learning.
f MAN’GO, n, s. Fr. mangosten. A pickled
ruit. •
The fruit with the husk, when very young, makes
a good preserve, and is used to pickle like mangoes.
Mortimer.
What lord of old would bid his cook prepare
Mangoes, portargo, champignons, cavare King.
MANHEIM, or MANNHEIM,the capital of the
circle of the Neckar, in the grand duchy of Ba-
den, is situated at the confluence of the Neckar
and the Rhine: over the former is a bridge of
boats, and a flying bridge over the Rhine. It is
built with great regularity, in four parts; and has
been called the finest town in Germany. Of an
oval form, it was at one time surrounded with
ramparts. These were levelled by the French
in the end of the last century, and are now laid
out in gardens. The palace of the grand duke
occupies the bank of the Rhine, and is built of
a red stone intermixed with a white, and is said
on the whole to resemble in external appearance
that of Hampton Court. In the bombardment
of 1795 it was greatly injured; and has suffered
by neglect since the court has been withdrawn
to Munich; but it still contains a gallery of
paintings, cabinets of antiquities and natural
history, and a library of 60,000 volumes. The
observatory is a noble building, with a curious
tower. The custom-house, surrounded with ce-
lonades, under which are shops, is also a very
superior building. Other public buildings are,
the secularised convents of the Augustines and
Capuchins; the arsenal; theatre; merchants’
hall; the Lutheran, Calvinist, and Catholic
churches; the three hospitals; the workhouse,
and orphan house; and the Jesuits’ church.
Here is also a gymnasium, with drawing and music
schools; and a mercantle school; a society for
the cultivation of German literature; an academy .
of painting and sculpture; and military and sur-
gical academies. Manheim has been thought
well situated for trade; but it has never flou–
rished in this respect: when the court were here
it was noted for its manufacture of gold tinsel;
and aromatic waters; the latter is still a consi-
derable article of commerce. The chief manu-
factures are linens, shawls, ribands, tobacco, and
playing cards: there are also some large tanne-
ries, and bleaching grounds. Population 18,000.
It is thirty-four miles north of Carlsville, and
thirty-six south by west of Mentz. It was first
chosen for the site of a town in 1606 by the
reigning elector palatine, and colonised by emi-
grants from the Netherlands. In the war termi-
mated by the peace of Westphalia, in 1648,
Manheim underwent a siege, and fell into the
vindictive hands of count Tilly. A succeeding
elector palatine was induced, in 1719, to leave
Heidelberg on account of religious disputes, and
to make Manheim his residence. The palace,
still remaining, was now built, and the town for-
tified according to the plan of Coehorn. The
extinction of the palatine family, in 1777,
caused the incorporation of their states with
Bavaria and the removal of the court from
this place to Munich. The provincial offices
only remained : and the military operations in the
war of the French revolution were still more in-
jurious. In 1795 it was bombarded by the
French, to whom it surrendered: it was after-
wards besieged and taken by the Austrians. In
1802 it was assigned to the grand duchy of Ba-
den. Manheim presents a very fine view from a
distance.
MA’NIAC, n.s. & adj. Lat. maniacus; Gr
MANIACAL, adj. $ plavia. Raging with
madness; mad to rage : a maniac is a furious
madman.
And in his gere, for al the world he ferd
Nought only like the lover's maladie
Of Ereos, but rather ylike manie,
Engendered of humours melancolike,
Béforne his bed in his celle fantastike.
Chaucer. Cant. Tales.
Epilepsies and maniacal lunacies usually conform
to the age of the moon. . Grew's Cosmologia.
MANICHAEI, MANICHEANs, or MANICHEES,
a sect of ancient heretics, who asserted two prin-
ciples; so called from their author Manes or,
Manicheus. See MANEs. This heresy had its
first rise about A. D. 277, and spread principally
in Arabia, Egypt, and Africa. St. Epiphanius
treats of it at great length. It was a motley
mixture of the tenets of Christianity with the
ancient philosophy of the Persians, in which
M A N I
C H AE I. 509
Manes had been instructed during his youth.
He combined these two systems, and applied
and accomodated to Jesus Christ the characters
and actions which the Persians attributed to the
god Mithras. He established two principles,
a good and an evil one: the first a most pure
and subtile matter, which he called light, did no-
thing but good; and the second a gross and
corrupt substance, which he called darkness,
nothing but evil. This philosophy is very
ancient; and Plutarch treats of it at large in his
Isis and Osiris. Our souls, according to Manes,
were made by the good principle, and our
bodies by the evil one; these two principles being,
according to him, co-eternal and independent of
each other. Each of these is subject to the do-
minion of a superintendent being, whose existence
is from all eternity. The being who presides over
the light is called God; he that rules the land of
darkness bears the title of hyle or daemon. The
ruler of the light is supremely happy, and in
consequence thereof benevolent and good: the
prince of darkness is unhappy in himself, and
desirous of rendering others partakers of his
misery, and is evil and malignant. These two
beings have produced an immense number of
creatures, resembling themselves, and distributed
them through their respective provinces. After
a contest between the ruler of light and the
prince of darkness, in which the latter was de-
feated, this prince of darkness produced the first
parents of the human race. The beings engen-
dered from this original stock consist of a body,
formed out of the corrupt matter of the kingdom
of darkness; and of two souls, one of which is
sensitive and lustful, and owes its existence to
the evil principle: the other rational and
immortal, a particle of that divine light which
had been carried away in the contest by the
army of darkness, and immersed into the mass
of malignant matter. The earth was created by
God out of this corrupt mass of matter, in order
to be a dwelling for the human race, that their
captive souls might by degrees be delivered
from their corporeal prisons, and the celestial
elements extended from the gross substance in
which they were involved. With this view God
produced two beings from his own substance,
viz. Christ and the Holy Ghost: for the Mani-
cheans held a consubstantial Trinity. Christ, or
the glorious intelligence, called by the Persians
Mithras, subsisting in and by himself, and resid-
ing in the sun, appeared in due time among the
Jews, clothed with the shadowy form of a human
body, to disengage the rational soul from the
corrupt body, and to conquer the violence of
malignant matter. The Jews, incited by the
prince of darkness, put him to an ignominious
death, which he suffered not in reality, but only
in appearance, and according to the opinion of
men. When the purposes of Christ were accom-
plished he returned to his throne in the Sun,
appointing apostles to propagate his religion,
and leaving his followers the promise of the Pa-
raclete or Comforter, who is the Persian Manes.
Those souls who believe Jesus Christ to be the
son of God renounce the worship of the god of
the Jews, who is the prince of darkness, and
obey the laws delivered by Christ, and illustrated
who represented Jesus Christ.
by Manes the comforter, are gradually purified
from the contagion of matter; and their purifi-
cation, being completed, after having passed
through two states of trial, by water and fire,
first in the moon and then in the sun, their bo.
dies return to the original mass—for the Mani-
cheans derided the resurrection of bodies—and
their souls ascend to the regions of light. But
the souls of those who have neglected the salu-
tary work of purification pass after death into the
bodies of other animals or natures, where they
remain till they have accomplished their proba-
tion. Some, however, more perverse and ob-
stinate, are consigned to a severer course of trial,
being delivered over for a time to the power of
malignant aerial spirits, who torment them in
various ways. After this a fire shall break forth
and consume the frame of the world; and the
prince and powers of darkness shall return to
their primitive seats of anguish and misery, in
which they shall dwell for ever. These mansions
shall be surrounded by an invincible guard, to
prevent their ever renewing a war in the regions
of light. Manes borrowed many of his tenets
from the ancient Gnostics; on which account
many authors consider the Manicheans as a
branch of the Gnostics. In truth, the Manichean
doctrine was a system of philosophy rather than
of religion. They made use of amułets, in imita-
tion of the Basilidians; and denied that Jesus
Christ, who was only God, assumed a true hu-
man body, and maintained that it was only ima-
ginary; and therefore denied his incarnation,
death, &c. They pretended that the law of
Moses did not come from God, or the good
principie, but from the evil one; and that for this
reason it was abrogated. The rest of their errors
may be seen in St. Epiphanius and St. August n :
the latter, having been of their sect, may be pre-
sumed to have been thoroughly acquainted with
them. The rule of life and manners, which
Manes prescribed to his followers, was most ex-
travagantly rigorous and severe. He, however,
divided his disciples into two classes; one of
which comprehended the perfect Christians,
under the name of the elect; and the other
the imperfect and feeble, under the title of
auditors or hearers. The elect were obliged to
observe a rigorous and entire abstinence from
flesh, eggs, milk, fish, wine, all intoxicating drink,
wedlock, and all amorous gratifications; and to
live in a state of the severest penury, nourishing
their emaciated bodies with bread, herbs, pulse,
and melons, and depriving themselves of all
comforts. The auditors were allowed to possess
houses, lands, and wealth, to feed on flesh, to
enter into the bonds of conjugal tenderness;
but this liberty was granted them with many li-
mitations, and under the strictest conditions of
moderation and temperance. The general assem-
bly of the Manicheans was headed by a president,
There were
joined to him twelve rulers or masters, who were
designed to represent the twelve apostles, and
these were followed by seventy-two bishops, the
images of the seventy-two disciples of our Lord.
These bishops had presbyters or deacons under
them, and all the members of these religious or-
ders were chosen out of the class of the elect.
MAN
MAN
510
Their worship was simple and plain; and con-
sisted of prayers, reading the Scriptures, and
hearing public discourses, at which both the au-
ditors and elect were present. They observed
baptism and the eucharist; and kept the Lord's
day, observing it as a fast. They likewise kept
Easter and Pentecost. Towards the fourth cen-
tury the Manicheans concealed themselves under
various names, which they successively adopted
and changed in proportion as they were disco-
vered by them. Thus they assumed the names
of Encratites, Apotactics, Saccophori, Hydropa-
rastates, Solitarii, and several others, under
which they lay concealed for a certain time; but
could not, however, long escape the vigilance of
their enemies. About the close of the sixth cen-
tury this sect gained very considerable influence,
particularly among the Persians. Towards the
middle of the twelfth century the sect of Mani-
chees assumed a different aspect, one Constan-
tine, an Armenian, taking upon him to suppress
the reading of all other books besides the Evan-
gelists and the Epistles of St. Paul, which he
explained to contain a system of Manicheism.
He entirely discarded all the writings of his
predecessors; rejecting the chimeras of the Va-
lentinians, and their thirty atons; the fable of
Manes with regard to the origin of rain, and
other dreams; but still retaining the impurities
of Basilides. In this manner he reformed Ma-
nicheism, insomuch that his followers rejected
Addas and Terebirth, the contemporaries and
disciples, as some say, and, according to 'others,
the predecessors and masters of Manes; and even
Mames himself, Constantine being now their
great apostle; he was at last stoned by order of
the emperor. This sect prevailed in Bosnia and
the adjacent provinces about the close of the fif-
teenth century; propagated their doctrines with
confidence, and held their religious assemblies
with impunity. -
MANICHORD, or MANIcoPDON, a musical
instrument in form of a spinet; with forty-nine
or fifty stops, and seventy strings; which, like
those of the clavichord, are covered with little
pieces of cloth to deaden as well as to soften
their sound, whence it is also called the dumb
spinet. The strings bear on five bridges.
MAN’IFEST, adj. m. s. & v. a. Y. Lat. mani-
MANIFESTA’Tion, n. s. festus. Clear;
MANIFEST’ABLE, adj. | plain; open;
MAN'IFESTLY, adv. ſ detected;
MAN’IFESTN ESS, n.s. used by Dry-
MANI FES'To. J den with of:
a declaration: to make clear, or plain; to ex-
pose ; discover : , manifestable is capable or
easy of manifestation: manifesto, synonymous
with manifest, n. s.
He that loveth me I will love him, and manifest
myself to him, John xiv. 21.
That which may be known of God is manifest in
them ; for God hath shewed it unto them.
Rom. i. 19.
They all concur as principles, they all have their
forcible operations therein, although not all in like
apparent and manifest manner. Hooker.
Though there be a kind of natural right in the
noble, wise, and virtuous, to govern them which are
of servile disposition; nevertheless, for manifestation
of this their right, the assent of them who are to be
governed seemeth necessary. Hooker.
Thy life did manifest thou lov’dst me not ;
And thou wilt have me die assured of it.
Shakspeare.
We see manifestly that scunds are carried with
wind Bacon'.
The English did believe his dame was therein
abused; which he manifested to be true, by disavow-
ing it openly afterwards. Hayward.
He full
Resplendent all his father manifest
Expressed. Milton’s Paradise Lost.
This is munifestible in long and thin plates of
steel perforated in the middle, and equilibrated.
Browne.
As the nature of God is excellent, so likewise is
it to know him in those glorious manifestations of
himself in the works of creation and providence.
Tillotson.
I saw, I saw him manifest in view,
His voice, his figure, and his gesture knew.
Dryden
Calistho there stood manifest of shame,
And, turned a bear, the northern star became. Id.
You authentick witnesses I bring
Of this my manifest: that never more
This hand shall combat on the crooked shore.
- Ji tº e
It . be part of our employment, in eternity, to
contemplate the works of God, and give him the
glory of his wisdom manifested in the creation.
Ray on the Creation.
It was proposed to draw up a manifesto, setting
forth the grounds and motives of our taking arms.
Addison.
The secret manner in which acts of mercy ought
to be performed requires this public manifestation
of them at the great day. Atterbury.
He was pleased himself to assume, and manifest
his will in our flesh, and so not only as God from
heaven, but God visible on earth, to preach reforma-
tion among us. Hammond.
Sects, in a state, seem to be tolerated because
they are already spread, while they do not manifestly
endanger the constitution. Swift.
MANIFOLD, adjº Of MANY (which see)
MAN'IFolDED, andfold. Many in num-
MAN'IFold LY, adv. $ ber, or species; com—
plicated.
They receive manifold more in this present time,
and in the world to come life everlasting.
Luke xviii. 30.
They were manifoldly acknowledged the savers of
that country. * . Sidney.
When his eyes did her behold,
Her heart did seem to melt in pleasures manifold.
Spenter.
Terror of the torments manifold,
In which the damned souls he did behold. Id.
His puissant arms about his noble breast,
And manifolded shield, he bound about his wrist.
Faerie Queene.
If that the king
Have any way your good deserts forgot,
Which he confesseth to be manifold,
He bids you name your griefs. Shakspeare.
If any man of quality will maintain, upon Ed-
ward earl of Glo'ster, that he is a manifold traitor,
let him appear. . . Id.
To represent to the life the manifold use of friend:
ship, see how manythings a man cannot do himself
- Bacon’s Essays.
MAN
MAN
511
They not obeying
Incurred, what could they less the penalty;
And manifold in sin deserved to fall. Milton.
My scope in this experiment is manifold. Boyle.
We are not got further than the borders of the
mineral kingdom, so very ample is it, so various and
manifold its productions. - Woodward.
MANILIUS (Marcus), a Latin poet, whose
poem lay buried in the German libraries, and
was never heard of till Poggius, about 1580,
published it from some old MSS. he found there.
There is no account to be found of him but what
can be drawn from his poem, which is called As-
tronomicon; and contains a system of the ancient
astronomy and astrology, together with the philo-
sophy of the Stoics. It consists of five books;
but there was a sixth, which has not been re-
covered. The best editions of Manilius are, that
of Joseph Scaliger in 1600; and that of Bentley,
at London, in 1738.
MANILLA, the chief city of Lacon, one of the
Philippines, and of the possessions of Spain in
this part of the globe, is situated near the mouth
of the river Passig, which issues from the lake of
the bay, and which was formerly navigable for
the largest ships to Manilla, but at present it is
crossed by a sand-bank, with but fifteen feet at
high water, The streets of Manilla are wide and
straight: the basements of the houses only are of
stone, on which is erected a superstructure of
wood, put together like the frame of a ship, so as
to cede to the shocks of earthquakes, which are
almost continual here. The population is chiefly
composed of Spanish Creoles, Chinese, and Ma-
lays, in the proportion of 1200 Spaniards and
35,000 Malays. The Chinese who newly arrive,
and intend to remain, are obliged to get them-
selves baptised, when they are allowed to marry
a Malay Christian woman, never bringing their
women with them, and to carry on the profes-
sions of shopkeepers or mechanics, for they are
prohibited from being proprietors or cultivators
of land.
The fortifications of Manilla are irregular,
having been built at different periods, without
any original plan. The castle is separated from
the town by a ditch, and is surrounded by a wall
with outworks: the usual garrison is 400 to 500
regular troops, of whom one-third are seldom
Europeans. The port of Cavita, two leagues
from the town, is sheltered by a point of land on
the south-west; and vessels when obliged to quit
the road of Manilla, in the south-west monsoon,
find perfect security moored close under the walls
of Cavita, a town containing about 200 Spaniards
and half-caste, and 1000 Chinese. It has two
churches, and three immense convents of monks.
The royal naval arsenal is situated on the point
of the tongue of land that forms the port: it is
strongly fortified and protected by the citadel of
St. James.
The naval force stationed at Manilla during
the late wars never exceeded four sail of the
line, five frigates, and some small vessels, with a
flotilla of thirty to sixty gun boats. The latter
are intended to cruize against the pirates, but
they seldom venture out of harbour, and the ships
of war are badly equipped and not half manned.
The exports from Manilla are cordage, resin,
pitch and tar, tobacco, cloths, rushes, rattans,
indigo, rice, and cotton. The sugar-cane thrives
well, but is little cultivated. Tobacco is manu-
factured into cigars, principally for the use of the
ladies of the place. Cocoa too is much cultivated
and consumed. To Bengal Manilla exports
copper, indigo, and cochineal, with a large por.
tion of treasure. In 1645 great part of this city
was destroyed by an earthquake, and 3000
people perished. In 1762 it was taken by the
English ; when, to save it from destruction, it as
agreed to pay £1,000,000 sterling for its ransom.
Long 120° 54' E., lat. 14° 38' N.
MANILLE, in commerce, a large brass ring
in the form of a bracelet, either plain or en-
graven, flat or round. The natives of the Gold
Coast wear them as ornaments on the Small of the
leg, and on the thick part of the arm above the
elbow. The chiefs wear manilles of gold and
silver; which are made in the country by the
nati VeS. +
MANIPULE, MANIPULUs, among the Ro-
mans, was a small body of infantry, which in the
time of Romulus consisted of 100 men; and in
the time of the consuls, and first Caesars, of 200.
The word properly signifies a handful; and, ac-
cording to some, was first given to the handful
of hay which they bore at the end of a pole, as
an ensign, before the custom was introduced of
bearing an eagle for their ensign ; and hence
also the phrase, ‘a handful of men.” But Vegetius,
Modestus, and Varro, gave other etymologies of
the word : the last derives it from manus, a small
body of men following the same standard. Ac-
cording to the former, this corps was called ma-
nipulus, because they fought hand in hand or
all together. Each manipule had two centurions
or captains, called manipularii, to command it;
one whereof was lieutenant to the other. Each
cohort was divided into three manipules, and
each manipule into two centuries. Aulus Gellius
quotes Cincius, an old author, who lived in the
time of Hannibal (whose prisoner he was), and
who, writing on the art of war, observes, that
then each legion consisted of sixty centuries, of
thirty manipules, and of ten cohorts. Varro and
Vegetius mention it as the least division in the
army, only consisting of the tenth part of a cen-
tury; and Spartian adds, that it contained only
ten men. This shows that it was not always the
Saſſ, e.
MANIPULUS, in ecclesiastical affairs, an or-
nament worn by the priests, deacons, and sub-
deacons in the Romish church. It consists of a
little fillet in form of a stole, three or four inches
broad, and made of the same stuff as the cha-
suble; representing a handkerchief, which the
priests in the primitive church wore on the arm,
to wipe off their tears for the sins of the people.
There still remains a mark of this usage in a
prayer rehearsed by those who wear it; Mereor,
T}omine, portare manipulum fletus et doloris.
The Greeks and Maronites wear two manipules,
one on each arm.
MANIPULUs, among physicians, is used to sig-
nify a handful of herbs or leaves, or so much as
a man can grasp in his hand at once; and is
often denoted by the abbreviature M, or m.
MANIS, the scaly lizard, in zoology, a genus
MIAN 5
12 MAN
of quadrupeds belonging to the order of bruta,
the characters of which are these: they have no
fore teeth; the tongue is long and cylindrical;
the snout is long and narrow; and the body is
covered with hard scales. There are according
to Dr. Gmelin two species.
i. M. pentadactyla, the five-toed or short-
tailed manis, with five toes on each foot. The
head is smaller than the neck; the eyes are very
small; the length of the body, including the tail,
is from six to eight feet. The whole body is
covered with hard scales, excepting the under
Tart of the head and neck, the breast, the belly,
and the internal side of each leg. Betwixt the
scales of this animal there are some hairs like the
bristles of a hog, brownish at the points. The
scales are of a reddish color, very hard, convex
above, and concave below. All the parts which
want scales are naked. The scales are uncon-
nected ; and the animal can raise or lower them
at pleasure, like the quills of the porcupine.
When irritated he erects his scales, and rolls
himself up like a hedgehog. In this situation,
neither the lion, tiger, nor any other animal, can
hurt him. It is said to destroy the elephant by
twisting itself round his trunk, and compressing
that tender organ with its hard scales. It feeds
on lizards and insects; turns up the ground with
its nose ; walks with its claws bent under its
feet; grows very fat; and is esteemed delicate
eating; and makes a noise like a kind of snort-
ing. It is a mild inoffensive creature, is slow of
motion, and has no other method of escaping the
pursuit of man, but by concealing itself in cran-
nies of rocks, and in holes which they dig in the
ground, and where they bring forth their young.
It is a native of the East Indies, and is very rare.
It lives in woods and marshy places; feeds on
ants, which it takes by laying its long tongue
across their paths, which is covered with a vis-
cous saliva, so that the insects which attempt to
pass over it cannot extricate themselves.
2. M. tetradactyla, the four-toed or long tailed
manis, with four toes on each foot. This species
is very similar to the former; only the tail is
much longer in proportion; and such parts as
want scales, instead of being naked, are covered
with a soft hair. It inhabits Guinea, and is also
found in the East Indies. .
MANLEY (Mrs.), the celebrated author of the
Atalantis, was the daughter of Sir Roger Manley,
the reputed author of the first volume of the
Turkish Spy, and born in Guernsey. She lost
her parents very early; and having been deluded
into a false marriage by her guardian, who was
her cousin, and afterwards deserted her, she was
patronised by the duchess of Cleveland (mistress
of Charles II). But the duchess, being a woman
of a very fickle temper, grew tired of Mrs. Man-
ley in six months; and discharged her upon a
suspicion that she intrigued with her son. After
this she wrote her first tragedy, called Royal
Mischief, which was acted with great applause
in 1696; and, her apartment being frequented by
men of wit and gaiety, she soon engaged in va-
rious amours. She now became as licentious in
her writings as in her morals; and a prosecution
was commenced against her for her first men-
tioned work, but, those in power being ashamed
|
to bring her to trial, she was discharged; and, a
total change of ministry ensuing, Mrs. Manley
lived in high reputation and gaiety, amusing her-
self with the conversation of wits, and writing
plays, poems, and letters. After this she wrote
Lucius king of Britain, a tragedy; letters and
other works. She died in 1724.
MANLIUS, Capitolinus (Titus), a renowned
Roman consul and general, who saved the
capitol when it was attacked by the Gauls in
the night; being alarmed by the cries of geese,
which were ever after held sacred. But, being
afterwards accused of aspiring at the sovereignty,
he was thrown from the Tarpeian rock. See
Romſe.
MANLIUS TorquaTUs (Titus), a celebrated
consul and Roman general, had great wit, but a
difficulty in expressing himself, which induced
Manlius Imperiosus, his father, to keep him
almost by force in the country. Pompey, tribune
of the people, enraged at this instance of severity,
formed a design of accusing Manlius the father
before the judges; but young Manlius, being in-,
formed of it, went to that tribune, and, with a
poniard in his hand, made him swear that he
would not proceed in that accusation against him
to whom he owed his life. At length Manlius
was made military tribune, and killed a soldier
of the Gauls in single combat, from whose neck
he took a gold chain, whence he was surnamed
Torquatus. He was consul in the war against
the Latins; when he ordered his own son to be
beheaded, for fighting contrary to his orders,
though he had gained the victory. He con-
quered the enemies of the republic, and was
Several times made consul; but at last refused
the consulship, saying, ‘That it was no more
possible for him to bear with the vices of the
people, than it was for the people to bear with
his severity.’
MAN’NA, n. s. Arab. mann ; Heb. ºn; Gr.
pavva, first used in the Septuagint. Josephus
says, Antiq. lib. iii., The Hebrews call this
food manna (uavva), for the particle man in our
language is the asking of a question, ‘What is
this ' An extraordinary kind of food with
which the Israelites were supplied in the wil-
derness. See Exod. xvi. A gum. See below.
It would be well inquired, whether manna doth fal:
but upon certain herbs, or leaves only. Bacon.
The outward manna fell not at all on the Sabbath.
Bp. Hall.
The same hand that rained manna upon their
tents, could have rained it into their mouths and
laps. God loves we should take pains for our spi-
ritual food. ld.
The manna in heaven will suit every man's palate.
Locke.
Manna is properly a gum, and is honey-like juice
concreted into a solid form, seldom so dry but it ad-
heres to the fingers: its colour is whitish, or brownish,
and it has sweetness, and with it a sharpness that
renders it agreeable; manna is the product of two
different trees, both varieties of the ash : when the
heats are free from rain, these trees exsudate a white
juice. It is but lately that the world were convinced
of the mistake of manna being an aerial produce, by
covering a tree with sheets in the manna season, and
the finding as much manna on it as on those which .
were open to the air. - Hill.
M A N N A.
513
MANNA, in sacred history, a miraculous kind
pf food which fell from heaven for the support
of the Israelites in their passage through the wil-
derness, being in the form of coriander seeds, its
color like that of bqellium, and its taste like
honey. Asaph styles it the bread of heaven, and
the food of angels, Psal. lxxviii. 25. The author
of the Book of Wisdom says, xvi. 20, 21, that
..manna so accommodated itself to every one's
taste, that every one found it pleasing to him;
and that it included every thing that was agree-
able to the palate and fit for good nourishment;
which expressions some have taken in the literal
sense, though others understand them figuratively.
Critics are divided about the original of the word
manna. Some think that man is put instead of
the Hebrew word mah, which signifies, ‘What
is this?’ and that the Hebrews, then first seeing
that new food which God had sent them, cried to
one another ºn to, man-hu, instead of mah-hu,
What is this 1 Mr. Saumaise, Burckhardt, and
others, maintain, that the Hebrews very well knew
what manna was ; and that, seeing it in great
abundance about their camp, they said one to
another, Man-hu, This is manna. They imagine
that the manna which God sent the Israelites
was nothing else but that fat and thick dew which
still falls in Arabia, which presently condensed,
and served for food to the people; that this is
the same thing as the wild honey, mentioned
Matth. iii. 4, wherewith John the Baptist was
fed ; and that the miracle did not consist in the
production of any new substance, but in the
exact and uniform manner in which the manna
was dispensed for the maintenance of such a
great multitude. But the Hebrews and Orientals
believe, that the fall of the manna was wholly
miraculous. The Arabians call it the sugar-plums
of the Almighty; and the Jews pronounce a
curse against all who deny the interposition of a
miraculous power. Our translation, and some
others, make a contradiction in relating this
miracle, by rendering it thus: And when the
children of Israel saw it, they said one to another,
It is manna; for they wist not what it was:
Exodus xvi. 15. Whereas the Septuagint, and
several authors ancient and modern, have trans-
lated the text according to the original: “The
Israelites seeing this, said one to another, What
is this? for they knew not what it was.” The
word by which they asked, what is this? was in
Hebrew man, which signifies likewise meat ready
provided; and therefore it was always afterwards
called man or manna. It was truly miraculous;
because 1. It fell but six days in the week. 2.
It fell in such a prodigious quantity, as sustained
nearly 3,000,000 souls. 3. There fell a double
quantity every Friday, to serve them the next
day, being Sabbath. . 4. What was gathered on
the first five days, stunk and bred worms if kept
above one day; but that which was gathered
on Friday kept sweet for two days. And, lastly,
It continued falling while the Israelites abode in
the wilderness, but ceased as soon as they came
out of it, and had corn to eat in the land of Ca-
naan.
MANNA, in the materia medica, the juice of
several different trees of the ash kind, either na-
turelly concreted on the plants, or exsiccated
Voſ. XIII.
and purified by art. There are several sorts of
manna in the shops. The larger pieces, called
flake, manna, are usually preferred; though the
smaller grains are equally good, provided they
are white, or of a pale yellow color; very light,
of a sweet, not unpleasant taste, and free from
any visible impurities. Some injudiciously pre-
fer the fat honey-like manna, but this has either
been exposed to a moist air, or damaged by
water. This kind of manna is said to be some-
times counterfeited by a composition of sugar
and honey mixed with a little scammony; there
is also a factitious manna, which is white and
dry, said to be composed of sugar, manna,
and some purgative ingredient, boiled to a
proper consistence. This may be distinguished
by its weight, solidity, untransparent whiteness,
and by its taste, which is different from that of
manna. Manna is a mild agreeable laxative;
and may be given with safety to children and
pregnant women: though, in some constitutions,
it produces ſlatulencies and distensions of the
viscera; but these inconveniences may be pre-
vented by the addition of any warm aromatic.
It operates so weakly, that it does not produce
the full effect of a cathartic, unless taken in large
doses; and hence it is rarely given by itself. It
may be commodiously dissolved in the purging
mineral waters, or joined to the cathartic salts,
senna, rhubarb, or the like. Geoffroy recom-
mends acuating it with a few grains of emetic
tartar; by this management, he says, bilious se-
rum will be plentifully evacuated, without any
nausea, gripes, or other inconvenience. Vallis-
nieri says, that the efficacy of this drug is greatly
promoted by cassia. See CASSIA.
MANNA TREE, a species of the, ash, and a na-
tive of Calabria. See FRAxINUs. The shoots
of this tree are much shorter, and the joints
closer together, than those of the common ash ;
the small leaves are shorter, deepersawed on their
edges, and of a lighter green. The flowers come
out from the side of the branches, which are of
a purple color, and appear in the spring before
the leaves come out. The tree is of humble
growth, seldom rising more than fifteen or six-
teen feet high in this country. A great quantity
of fine manna is gathered at Carini in Sicily,
oozing from a kind of ash tree with a bark
similar to that of the ebony, and a leaf somewhat
like the acacia. M. Denon says, it is produced
from young trees about seven or eight years old,
when only about eight feet high. Incisions are
then made horizontally in the bark, and from
these the manna flows. These are made from the
earth to the top of the tree, and are repeated
every two days from the end of July till the cir-
culation is stopped in the course of the year, or
till the manna becomes worse in quality. It
exudes first as a white frothy liquor extremely
light, pleasant to the taste, and of an agreeable
flavor, which is coagulated by the heat of the sun,
and assumes an appearance somewhat resembling
stalactites. This is the best kind, and by the
people of that country is called lachrymatory or
cane manna. The inferior kind appears first in
the form of a glutinous and higher colored
liquor, which is received on the leaves of the
Indian fig, placed for that purpose at º foot of
2
*
MAN
MAN
514
the tree. This also congeals by the heat of the
sun; though it is more heavy, purgative, and of
much less value than the former. . It is called
fat manna : in this part only resides the faint and
disagreeable flavor observable in manna; for the
cane manha is of an agreeable flavor, and is an
excellent stomachic. It is got off from the bark
of the tree by bending and shaking it. In rainy
seasons it must be gathered every day, which
both lessens the quantity and renders it of infe-
rior quality. When the stem of the tree is en-
tirely covered with incisions, they cut it down
close to the ground ; after which it pushes out
new tufts, one or two stems of which are pre-
served, and at a proper age produce manna as
before. This tree is propagated by seed, and
afterwards transplanting it. The wood is hard
and heavy, of a bitter taste, and recommended
in the dropsy. It thrives only in hot climates,
and requires to be exposed to the north winds to
make it productive; but M. Denon is of opinion
that it might be propagated, and would produce
manna, in Provence in France. The Sicilian
manna is dearer and more esteemed than that of
Calabria, though the latter is more generally
known and cultivated. The tree does not grow
in, any other part of the island excepting about
Carini, where it is a native.
MAN’NER, m. s.
MAN'NERLY, adj.
Fr. maniére; Ital.
maniere ; Span. ma-
MAN'NERLINESS, n. s. (neire, mamera. Mode;
MAN'NERs, plu. method; habit; cus-
tom; peculiarity of any kind; hence sort; kind;
character of the mind, or behaviour; proper
behaviour. ‘Taken in the manner' seems written
for taken in the mainour. See MAINoUR.
And thei clipiden hem and denounciden to hem,
that on no maner theischulden speke, neither teche
in the name of ihesus. Wiclif. Dedis. iv.
What manner of men were they whom ye slew
Judges.
The bread is in a manner common.
1 Sam. xxi. 5.
It is in a manner done already ;
For many carriages he hath dispatched
To the sea-side. Shakspeare. King John.
All manner of men assembléd here in arms against
God’s peace and the king's : we charge you to repair
to your dwelling-places. Id. Henry VI.
Our griefs and not our manners reason now. Id.
Ungracious wretch,
Fit for the mountains and the barbarous caves,
Where manners ne'er were preached. Id.
Dear Kate, you and I cannot be confined within
the weak list of a country's fashion: we are the
makers of manners, Kate. - Id.
Tut; tut; here's a mannerly forbearance. Id.
If the envy be general in a manner upon all the
ministers of an estate, it is truly upon the state it-
self. , - - Bacon’s Essays.
The kinds of musick have most operation upon
manners: as, to make them warlike; to make them
soft and effeminate. Bacon.
If I melt into melancholy while I write, I shalſ
be taken in the manner; and I sit by one too tender
to these impressions. - Donne.
The same act varies in the manner of doing, and
in the intention of the doer. . Bp. Hall.
What must our complete traveller stake down for
this goodly furniture of his gentry? If not loss,
danger; danger of the best part, if not all: a dou-
º,
ble danger; of corruption of religion, and deprava-
tion of manners, both capital. Id.
It can hardly be imägined how great a difference
was in the humour, disposition, and manner, of the
army under Essex, and the other under Waller.
- Clarendon.
This universe we have possest, and ruled,
In a manner at our will, the affairs of earth.
Milton.
Others out of mannerliness and respect to God
though they deny this universal soul of the universe,
yet have devised several systems of the universe.
- Hale's Origin of Mankind.
In my divine Emilia make me blest.
Find thou the manner, and the means prepare;
Possession, more than conquest, is my care.
Dryden.
Good manners bound her to invite
The stranger dame to be her guest that night.
Id.
Every fool carries more or less in his face the sig-
nature of his manners, more legible in some than
others. m L’Estrange.
The real honest man, however plain or simple he
appears, has that highest species, honesty itself, in
yiew ; and, instead of outward forms or symmetries,
is struck with that of inward character, the harmony
and numbers of the heart, and beauty of the affec.
tions, which form the manners and conduct of a truly
social life. - Shaftesbury.
None but the careless and the confident would
rush rudely into the presence of a great man ; and
shall we, in our applications to the great God, take
that to be religion, which the common reason of
mankind will not allow to be manners? South.
His princes are as much distinguished by their
nanners as by their dominions; and even those
among them, whose characters seem wholly made up
of courage, differ from one another as to the particut.
lar kinds. Addison.
Fools make a mock at sin, affront the God whom
We serve, and vilify religion; not to oppose them,
by whatever mannerly names we may palliate the of.
fence, is not modesty but cowardice, and a traitorous
desertion of our allegiance to Christ. Rogers.
The temptations of prosperity insinuate them-
selves after a gentle, but very powerful, manner.
- Atterbury.
As a man is known by his company, so a man's
company may be known by his manner of expressing
himself. Swift.
Your passion bends
Its forces against your nearest friends;
Which manners, decency, and pride,
Have taught you from the world to hide. Id.
Some men have a native dignity in their manners,
which will procure them more regard by a look, than
others can obtain by the most imperious commands.
Clarissa.
charge.
* - Baker.
It is with books as with women, where a certain
plainness of manner and of dress is more engaging,
than, that glare of paint, and airs, and apparei,
which may dazzle the eye, but reaches not the af.
fections. Hume.
The force of his comick scenes has suffered little
diminution from the changes made by a century and
Augustinus does in a manner confess the
a half in manners or in words.
Johnson. Preface to Shakspeare.
Fear, being an apprehension of pain or death, it
operates in a manner that resembles actual nain.
Burke.
MAN
MAN
5 15 •
*
When Cromwell fought for power, and while he
reigned
The proud protector of the power he gained,
Religion harsh, intolerant, austere,
Parent of manners like herself severe,
Drew a rough copy of the Christian face,
Without the smile, the sweetness, or the grace.
Cowper.
MANNER, in painting, a habitude that a man
acquires in the three principal parts of painting, the
management of colors, lights, and shadows;
which is either good or bad according as the
painter has practised more or less after the truth,
with judgment and study. But the best painter
is he who has no manner at all. The good
or bad choice he makes is called gout.
MANNHARTSBERG, a mountain chain in
Austria, extending from north to south, begin-
ning at the frontier of Moravia, and terminating
at the Danube. It divides the part of Lower
Austria lying to the north of the Danube, into
the quarter above and the quarter under the
Mannhartsberg; the former comprehending the
tract extending from the above mountain on the
east, to the frontier of Upper Austria west, and
having an area of 1850 square miles. It is
well cultivated and populous; the chief products
being corn, saffron, and an inferior wine. The
Danube forms its southern boundary, and the
principal town is Crems.
The quarter under the Mannhartsberg extends
between the above mountain on the west, and
the Hungarian frontier. Its form is square; its
area about 1900 square miles, and its produc-
tions similar to those of the above quarter: but
in the South-east district an immense quantity of
poultry is bred for Vienna. It is watered north
by the Theya, south by the Danube, and east by
the March. The chief town is Kloster-Neuburg.
MANNING (Owen), a celebrated antiquarian
writer, was born at Orlingbury in Northampton-
shire in 1721. He received his education at
Queen's College, Cambridge, of which society
he became fellow, and took the degree of B. D.
in 1753. In 1760 he obtained a prebend in the
cathedral of Lincoln. In 1763 he was presented
to the living of Godalming, and in 1769 to that
of Pepperharrow in Surrey. He died in 1801.
Mr. Manning published the Saxon Dictionary,
begun by Mr. Lye; Illustrations of the Will of
Alfred; and two sermons. After his death his
History and Antiquities of the County of Surrey
was completed by Mr. Bray, in 3 vols. folio.
MANNING THE YARDS (Fr. ranger du monde
sur les vergues), the act of ranging the people
on the yards, rigging, &c., either in honor of some
illustrious visitor, upon hoisting the flag of some
favorite admiral, or in commemoration of some
splendid victory. This exhibition has often
proved fatal to some of our brave seamen, and
therefore ought to be dispensed with, unless
upon very particular occasions, as from its very
nature it must always be attended with consider-
able danger; and it is well known that many of
our admirals are too firmly convinced of the
attachment of their tars to require such a testi-
mony of their zeal or affection; and, much to
their credit, have forbidden such a compliment
to be paid them.
MANOMETER, or MANoscope, from Havoc,
rare or thin, and perpeo, to measure; an in-
strument to show or measure the alterations in
the rarity or density of the air. The manometer
differs from the barometer in this, that the latter
only serves to measure the weight of the atmo-
sphere, or of the column of air over it; but the
former, the density of the air in which it is .
found; which density depends not only on the
weight of the atmosphere, but also on the action
of heat and cold, &e. Authors, however, gene-
rally confound the two together; and Boyle
himself gives a very good manometer, under the
name of a statical barometer. Manometers of
a different kind were made use of by colonel
Roy, in his attempts to correct the errors of the
barometer. “They were,’ says he, ‘of various
lengths, from four to upwards of eight feet:
they consisted of straight tubes, whose bores were
commonly from one-fifteenth to one-twenty-fifth
of an inch diameter. The capacity of the tube
was carefully measured, by making a column of
quicksilver, about three or four inches long,
move along it from one end to the other. These
Spaces were severally marked with a fine-edged
file on the tubes; and transferred from them to
long slips of pasteboard, for the subsequent con-
struction of the scales respectively belonging to
each. The bulb, attached to one end of the
manometer at the glass-house, was of the form of
a pear, whose point being occasionally opened,
dry or moist air could be readily admitted, and
the bulb sealed again, without any sensible alter-
ation in its capacity. The air was confined by a
column of quicksilver, long or short, and with
the bulb downwards or upwards, according
to the nature of the proposed experiment. Here
it must be observed that, from the adhesion
of the quicksilver to the tube, the instrument
will not act truly, except it be in a vertical
position; and even then it is necessary to give it
a small degree of motion, to bring the quicksilver
into its true place; where it will remain in
equilibrio between the exterior pressure of the
atmosphere on one side, and the interior elastic
force of the confined air on the other. Pounded
ice and water were used to fix a freezing point
on the tube; and, by means of salt and ice, the
air was farther condensed, generally 4°, and
sometimes 5° or 6° below zero. The ther-
mometer and manometer were then placed in a
tin vessel among water, which was brought into
violent ebullition; where having remained a
sufficient time, and motion being given to the
manometer, a boiling point was marked thereon.
After this the fire was removed, and the gradual
descents of the piece of quicksilver, correspond-
ing to every 20° of temperature in the thermo-
meter, were successively marked on a deal rod
applied to the manometer. It is to be observed,
that both instruments, while in the water, were
in circumstances perfectly similar; that is, the
ball and bulb were at the bottom of the vessel.
In order to be certain that no air had escaped by
the side of the quicksilver, during the operation,
the manometer was frequently placed a second
time in melting ice. If the barometer had not
altered between the beginning and end of the
experiment, the quicksilver alº *
- º 2
MAN
MAN
516
stationary at or near the first mark. If any sud-
den change had taken place in the weight of the
atmosphere, during that interval, the same was
noted, and allowance made for it in afterwards
proportioning the spaces. Long tubes, with
bores truly cylindrical, or of any uniform figure,
are scarcely ever met with. Such, however, as
were used in these experiments generally tapered
in a pretty regular manner from one end to the
other. The observed and equated manometrical
spaces being laid down on the pasteboard con-
taining the measures of the tube, the 212° of the
thermometer, in exact proportion to the sections
of the bore, were constructed alongside of them ;
hence the coincidences with each other were
easily seen, and the number of thermometrical
degrees answering to each manometrical space
readily transferred into a table prepared for the
purpose.' -
MAN’OR, m. s. Old Fr. manoir ; barbarous
Lat. manerium. A legal rule or government.
See below.
Trouthe him selfe over al and al
Had chose his manor principal
In her, that was his resting place.
Chaucer's Dreme.
My parks, my walks, my manors that I had,
Ev’n now forsake me; and of all my lands
Is nothing left me. Shakspeare. Henry VI.
In these days, a manor rather signifies the jurisdic-
tion and royalty incorporeal, than the land or site:
for a man may have a manor in gross, as the law
terms it, that is, the right and interest of a court-
baron, with the perquisites thereto belonging.
- Cowell.
If parliament were to consider the sporting with re-
putation of as much importance as sporting on ma-
nors, and pass an act for the preservation of fame,
there are many would thank them for the bill.
Sheridan.
MANOR, from maneo, to stay, as being the
usual residence of the owner, seems to have been
a district of ground held by lords or great person-
ages; who kept in their own hands so much land
as was necessary for the use of their families.
These lands were called terrae dominicales, or
demesne lands; being occupied by the lord, or
dominus manerii, and his servants. The other,
or tenemental lands, they distributed among
their tenants; which, from the different modes
of tenure, were called and distinguished by two
different names. 1st. book land, or charter
land, which was held by a deed under certain
rents and free services, and in effect differed
nothing from free soccage lands; and hence have
arisen most of the freehold tenants who hold of
particular manors, and owe suit and service to
the same. The other species was called folk
land, which was held by no assurance in writing,
but distributed among the common folk at the
pleasure of the lord, and resumed at his dis-
cretion; being indeed land held in villenage.
See VILLEN AGE. The residue of the manor,
being uncultivated, was termed the lord's waste,
and served for public roads, and for common of
pasture to the lord and his tenants. Manors
were formerly called baronies, as they still are
lordships; and each lord or baron was empow-
ered to hold a domestic court, called the court
baron, for redressing misdemeanors and nui-
sances within the manor, and for settling disputes
of property among the tenants. This court is
an inseparable ingredient of every manor; and
if the number of suitors should so fail as not to
leave sufficient to make a jury or homage,
that is, two tenants at the least, the manor
itself is lost. See Court. In early times the
king's greater barons, who had a large extent of
territory held under the crown, granted out fre-
quently smaller manors to inferior persons to be
held of themselves; which therefore now con-
tinue to be held under a superior lord, who is
called in such cases the lord paramount over all
these manors; and his seignory is frequently
termed an honor, not a manor; especially if it
has belonged to an ancient feudal baron, or
has been at any time in the hands of the crown.
In imitation whereof these inferior lords began
to carve out and grant to others still more minute
estates, to be held as of themselves, and were so
proceeding downwards in infinitum, till the
superior lords observed that, by this method
of subinfeudation, they lost all their feudal profits
of wardships, marriages, and escheats, which fell
into the hands of these mesne or middle lords,
who were the immediate superiors of the terre.
tenant, or him who occupied the land; and also
that the mesne lords themselves were so impov-
erished thereby, that they were disabled from
performing their services to their own superiors.
This occasioned, first, that provision in the
thirty-second chapter of Magna Charta, 9 Hen.
III., that no man should either give or sell his
land, without reserving sufficient to answer the
demands of his lord; and, afterwards, the statute
of Westminster 3, or quia emptores, 18 Edw. I.
c. 1, which directs that, upon all sales, or feoff-
ments of land, the feoffee should hold the same,
not of his immediate feoffer, but of the chief lord
of the fee, of whom such feoffer himself held it.
But, these provisions not extending to the king's
own tenants in capite, the like law concerning
them is declared by the statutes of praerogativa
regis, 17 Edw. II. c. 6, and of 34 Edw. III. c.
15, by which last all subinfeudations, previous
to the reign of Edward I., were confirmed; but
all subsequent to that period were left open to
the king's prerogative. Hence it is clear, that
all manors existing at this day must have existed
as early as Edward I., for it is essential to a
manor that there be tenants who hold of the
lord; and, by the operation of these statutes, no
tenant in capite since the accession of that
prince, and no tenant of a common lord since
the statute of quia emptores, could create any
new tenants to hold of himself. See VILLEN AGE.
MANRESA, MINoroSA, or MANxes, a large
town of Spain, in Catalonia, on the river Car-
dener, which a little beiow this place falls into
the Llobregat. It has a castle, six convents,
and a church, together with various manufac-
tures of silk (on an extensive scale), hats, gun-
powder, sugar of lead, and hair-cloth. Population
9000. Twenty-nine miles N. N.W. of Barcelona.
MANS, LE, a considerable town of France,
the capital of the department of the Sarthe, stands
on an eminence by the side of that river. The
streets, though narrow, are airy and clean; the
market-place is spacious; and there are several
º
MAN -
MAN
5 : 7
agreeable promenades. The public buildings
and institutions worth notice are the cathedral,
and other churches, a public library, and muse-
um, and the hospitals. Here are considerable
manufactures of linen, sail-cloth, serge, flannel,
druggets, and wax candles; and smaller manu-
factures of leather, gloves, paper, and soap.
This town was a place of consequence in the
reign of Charlemagne, and has suffered severely
from fires, and the civil wars of the thirteenth
and sixteenth centuries. Population 18,500.
Twenty miles south of Alençon, and seventy-five
west by north of Orleans.
MANSAROWAR, MANAs-SARowAR, or, as it
is called by the Tartars, Mapang, the lake of
Brahma, is situated on the northern side of the
Himmalaya Mountains, and is considered by the
Hindoos one of the most sacred of their various
places of pilgrimage. In the mythological poems
mention is frequently made of two lakes, situated
among the Himmalaya Mountains, named the
Mana Sarovara and the Windu Sarovara, from
which issue several of their sacred rivers.
According to Prawn Poory, a travelling devo-
tee, the Mansarowar Lake is situated on an ele-
vated plain, covered with long grass, to the
north of which is a conical hill, dedicated to
Mahadeva. The Tartars are said to carry a
portion of the ashes of their friends from a
very great distance, to be thrown into the Ma-
pang. For a long period it was supposed that
this lake was the source of the Ganges; but it
has been well ascertained that that river rises
from under a bed of snow on the south side of
the Himmalaya chain. See GANGES.
Mr. Moorcroft visited this lake in 1812, and
is of opinion that it has no considerable outlet.
II is stay was, however, too short to allow of his
making the complete circuit of it; and it has
been conjectured, that although no river runs
from it, it may nevertheless have some drains
which carry off its superfluous waters into the
Rawan Lake, situated some miles to the west,
and from which the river Suttelege, or Sutlege,
has its rise. Mansarowar, or Mapang, is sup-
posed to be situated about 31° of N. lat., and
81° of E. long. It is of an oval form ; being
about fifteen miles in length from east to west, and
eleven broad from north to south. The water is
very clear and wholesome.
MANSE, m. s. Lat. mansio. A residence;
MAN's Ion. 3. farm and farm-house; par-
sonage-house: the lord's house in a manor; any
important house or abode. -
All these are but ornaments of that divine spark
within you, which, being descended from heaven,
could not elsewhere pick out so sweet a mansion.
Sidney.
A fault no less grievous, if so be it were true, than
if some king should build his mansion-house by the
model of Solomon's palace. Hooker.
To leave his wife, to leave his babes,
His mansion, and his titles in a place
From whence himself does fly he loves us not.
- Shakspeare.
These poets near our princes sleep,
And in one grave their mansions keep. Denham.
Thy mansion wants thee, Adam ; rise,
First man, of men innumerable ordained;
First father! called by thee, I come thy guide
To the garden of bliss, thy seat prepared. Milton.
A mansion is provided for thee ; more fair
Than this, and worthy Heaven's peculiar care,
Not framed of common earth. Dryden.
Nor fears to crave -
Death, instant death, impatient for the grave,
That seat of peace, that mansion of repose,
Where rest and mortals are no longer foes.
- Young.
And such in ancient halls and mansions drear
May still be seen ; but perforated sore,
And drilled in holes, the solid oak is found,
By worms voracious eaten through and through.
Cowper.
MANSFELD (Peter Ernest), count of, was
descended from one of the most illustrious fami-
lies in Germany. In 1552 he was taken prisoner
at Ivoy, where he commanded. He was after-
wards of great service to the Catholics at the
battle of Montcontour. Being made governor of
Luxemburg, he maintained tranquillity in that
province, while the rest of the Netherlands was
a prey to civil war. He was afterwards ap-
pointed to the command of the Netherlands, and
made a prince of the empire. He died at Lux-
emburg March 21st, 1604, aged eighty-seven.
His mausoleum in bronze, in the chapel bearing
his name, at Luxemburg, is an admirable' work.
Abbé Schannat wrote his life in Latin, Luxem-
burg, 1707.
MANSFELD (Ernest de), the illegitimate son of
the count, by a lady of Malines, was educated at
Brussels in the Roman Catholic religion. He
was employed in the service of the king of Spain
in the Netherlands, and in that of the emperor
in Hungary, together with his brother Charles,
count of Mansfeld. He was legitimated on
account of his bravery by Rodolphus II. ; but
his father's posts and possessions in the Spanish
Netherlands having been refused him, contrary to
promise, he, in 1610, joined the Protestant
princes. Being now become a most dangerous
enemy of the house of Austria, who called him
the Attila of Christianity, he placed himself in
1618 at the head of the insurgents in Bohemia,
and obtained possession of Pilsen in 1612. Though
his troops were defeated in several battles, he
penetrated into the palatinate, took several
towns, ravaged Alsace, made himself master of
Haguenau, and defeated the Bavarians. At
length he was totally defeated by Walstein at
Dassau, in April, 1626. He gave up the com-
mand of his remaining troops to the duke of
Weimar, intending to pass into the Venetian
states, but died in a village between Zara and
Spalatro, A. D. 1626, aged forty-six. He was
bold, intrepid in danger, and the most skilful
negociator of his age. He possessed a natural
eloquence, and knew how to insinuate himself
into the hearts of those whom he wished to gain.
He was greedy of others’ wealth, and prodigal of
his own. Not wishing to die in his bed, he
dressed himself in his finest robes, put on his
sword, sat up, leaning upon two domestics, and in
this position breathed his last. Having received
information that Cazel, in whom he placed the
greatest confidence, had communicated his plans
to the Austrian chief, he gave him 300 rix.
dollars, and sent him to count Buquoy, with a
MAN
MAN
3 | 8
letter in these words, “Cazel being attached to
you and not to me, I send him to you, that you
may have the benefit of his services.’
MANSFELD, a district of Saxony, to the west
of Leipsic, formerly a county of the German
empire, and dependent, as a fief, on Magdeburg
aid Saxony. The area is 420 square miles, and
population 60,000.
MANSFELD, or THAL MANSFELD, a town of
Prussian Saxony, on the Thalbach, in the go-
vernment of Merseburg. Population 1300.
Forty-two miles W. N. W. of Leipsic.
MANSFIELD, a market town of Notting-
hamshire, in the forest of Sherwood, 139 miles
from London. It was anciently a royal demesne.
It has a market on Thursday, and two fairs. By
an ancient custom of this manor, the heirs were
declared of age as soon as born. It is a well-built
town, and carries on a good trade in malt. Its
market is well stocked with corn, cattle, &c. It
has a charity-school for thirty-six boys. It has a
small manufactory of stockings, and was for-
merly noted for its soap.
MANSIO, a term often mentioned in itinera-
ries, denoting inns on the public roads to lodge
in, at the distance of eighteen miles from each
other. (Lactantius.) In the lower ages it came
to denote an encampment for one night. (Lam-
pridius.)
MANsio, or MANSUS, was sometimes also
used in the same sense with hide ; that is, for
as much land as one plough could till in a
€3]".
MANSIR, a beautiful town of Hindostan, in
the province of Lahore, belonging to the Seiks.
It is situated on the side of a large sheet of water,
containing a variety of fishes, which are held
sacred, and live unmolested by the natives. Long.
74° 20' E., lat. 32° 50' N.
MANSLAUGHTER may be either voluntary,
upon a sudden heat; or involuntary, but in the
commission of some unlawful act. These were
called, in the Gothic constitutions, homicidia
vulgaria; quae aut casu, aut etiam sponte com-
mittuntur, sed in Subitaneo quodam iracundiae
calore et impetu. Hence, in manslaughter, there
can be no accessories before the fact; because it
must be done without premeditation.
MANSLAUGHTER, IN volunTARY, differs from
homicide excusable by misadventure, in this:
that misadventure always happens in consequence
of a lawful act, but this species of manslaughter
in consequence of an unlawful one. As if two
persons play at sword and buckler, unless by the
king's command, and one of them kills the
other: this is manslaughter, because the original
act was unlawful; but it is not murder, for the
one had no intent to do the other any personal
mischief. So where a person does an act, lawful
in itself, but in an unlawful manner, and without
due caution and circumspection; as when a work-
man flings down a stone or piece of timber into
the street, and kills a man; this may be either
misadventure, manslaughter, or murder, accord-
ing to the circumstances under which the origi-
nal act was done. If it were in a country village,
where few passengers are, and he calls out to all
| P: to have a care, it is a misadventure only :
ut if it were in London, or other populous
•owns, where people are continually passing, it
is manslaughter, though he gives loud warning;
and murder, if he knows of their passing and
gives no warning at all, for then it is malice
against all mankind. In general, when an invo-
luntary killing happens in consequence of an
unlawful act, it will be either murder, or man-
slaughter, according to the nature of the act
which occasioned it. If it be in prosecution of
a felonious intent, or in its consequences naturally
tending to blood shed, it will be murder; but, if
no more was intended than a merely civil tres-
pass, it will only amount to manslaughter.
MANSLAUGHTER, VolunTARY. If, upon a
sudden quarrel, two persons fight, and one ol
them kills the other, this is manslaughter: and so
it is if they, lipon such an occasion, go out and
fight in a field; for this is one continued act of
passion: and the law pays that regard to human
frailty, as not to put a hasty and deliberate act.
upon the same footing with regard to guilt. So
also if a man be greatly provoked, as by pulling
his nose, or other great indignity, and immedi-
ately kills the aggressor; though this is not ex-
Cusable se defendendo, since there is no absolute
necessity for doing it to preserve himself; yet
neither is it murder, for there is no previous
malice; but it is manslaughter. But in this, and
in every other case of homicide upon provoca-
tion, if there be a sufficient cooling-time for pas-
sion to subside and reason to interpose, and the
person so provoked afterwards kills the other, this
is deliberate revenge, and not heat of blood, and
accordingly amounts to murder. So, if a man
takes another in the act of adultery with his wife,
and kills him directly upon the spot; though this
was allowed by the law of Solon, as likewise by
the Roman civil law (if the adulterer was found
in the husband's own house), and also among the
ancient Goths; yet in England it is not abso-
lutely ranked in the class of justifiable homicide,
as in case of a forcible rape, but it is manslaugh-
ter. It is, however, the lowest degree of it; and
therefore in such a case the court directed the burn-
ing in the hand to be gently inflicted, because
there could not be a greater provocation. Man-
slaughter, therefore, on a sudden provocation,
differs from excusable homicide se defendendo in
this: that in one case there is apparent necessity,
for self-preservation, to kill the aggressor; in the
other no necessity at all, being only a sudden act
of revenge.
MANSLAUGHTER, PUNISHMENT OF. As to the
punishment of this degree of homicide: the crime
of manslaughter amounts to felony, but within
the benefit of clergy; and the offender shall be
burnt in the hand, and forfeit all his goods and
chattels. But there is one species of manslaughter,
which is punished as murder, the benefit of clergy
being taken away from it by statute; namely,
the offence of mortally stabbing another, though
done upon sudden provocation. See STABBING
and MURDER.
MANSOURA, a considerable town of Lower
Egypt, built by the Saracens in the time of the
crusades. It was the scene of several actions
sustained by the French and English; and is sup-
posed by Dr. Pocock to be the Zoan or Tanis of
more ancient times. Lord Valentia speaks of it
as beautifully situated on a high bank of the Nile,
and adorned with numerous mosques. The
MAN 5
19 MAN
streets narrow, and the houses built of brick;
out a fourth part of it is in ruins. The trade is
carried on by Syrian Christians, who export fine
rice from the lake Menzaleh, and sal ammoniac.
Hatching chickens, by means of ovens, is carried
on here to a great extent. Twenty-four miles
S. S. W. of Damietta.
MANSOURAH, a river of Algiers, anciently
the Sisaris, which falls into the sea, about eigh-
teen miles to the east of Boujeiah. There was
formerly a town of the same name at its mouth.
MANSTEIN (Christopher Herman de), was
born at Petersburgh, September 1st, 1711, and
served long with great distinction as a colonel in
the Russian armies.
service of the king of Prussia; was appointed
major-general of infantry in 1754; and distin-
guished himself on all occasions by his bravery
and military knowledge. He was wounded at
the battle of Kolin, and soon after killed near
Leutneritz, in 1758. He devoted his leisure
moments to study, and was acquainted with al-
most all the languages of Europe. He wrote
Historical, Political, and Military Memoirs of
Russia, in French; published at Lyons, 1772, in
2 vols. 8vo., with plans and charts.
1727, and end in 1744. A supplement is added,
which goes back to the times of the ancient Czarz.
Mr. Hume caused these memoirs to be translated
into English, and published at London; and soon
after a German translation was published at
Hamburgh; a French edition was published by
M. Huber at Leipsic, in 1771; and a new and
enlarged edition in 1782.
MANSUETE, adj. Lat. mansuetus. Tame;
MAN's UETUDE, n.s. : gentle; not ferocious or
wild : tameness; gentleness.
The angry lion did present his paw,
Which by consent was given to mansuetude ;
The fearful hare her ears, which by their law
Humility did reach to fortitude. Herbert.
This holds not only in domestick and mansuete
birds, for then it might be thought the effect of ci-
curation or institution, but also in the wild.
Ray on the Creation.
MANSUS. See MANSE.
MANSUS PRESBYTERI is a parsonage or vica-
rage house for the incumbent to reside in. This
was originally, and still remains, an essential part
of the endowment of a parish church in Scotland,
together with the glebe and tythes. It is some-
times called Presbyterium. -
MANTA, in ichthyology, a flat fish men-
tioned by Ulloa, and others, as exceedingly hurt-
ful to the pearl-fishers, and which seems to be the
same with that which Pliny has described under
the name of nubes or nebula: ipsi ferunt (Uri-
natores) et nubem quandam crassescere super
capita, planorum piscium similem, prementem
eos, arcentemque a reciprocando et ob Stilos
praeacutos lineis annexos habere sese ; quia nisi
perfossae ita, non recedant caliginis et pavoris,
ut arbitror, opere. Nubem enim sive nebulam
(cujus nomine id malum appellant) inter anima-
fia haud ullam reperit quisquam. (Hist. Nat.
lib. ix. cap. 46). This account is much the same
with that which the divers in the American seas
give of the manta, and the name of nubes, or the
cloud, is perfectly applicable to it, as it really
In 1745 he entered into the
These me-
moirs commence with the death of Catherine I.
seems to be a cloud to those who are in the water
below it: the swimmers likewise carry long
knives, or sharp sticks, to defend themselves
against these fish. -
MANTA, BAY OF, on the west coast of South
America, in the province of Guayaquil, and king-
dom of Quito. It is twenty miles south of the
equator, and had formerly pearl fisheries of con-
siderable extent and success. The fish called
manta abounds here, and is said to have deterred
the fishers from diving.
MANTEGNA (Andrew), was born in a village
near Padua in 1451, and at first employed in
keeping sheep. He was placed with a painter,
who adopted him, and made him his heir. At
the age of seventeen he was employed to paint
the altar of St. Sophia in Padua, and the four
evangelists. James Bellini, who admired his
talents, gave him his daughter in marriage. Man-
tegna painted, for the duke of Mantua, the Tri-
umph of Caesar, which is his chief-d'oeuvre, and
has been engraved in nine plates. The duke
made him knight of his order. The invention of
engraving prints with the graver is ascribed to
Mantegna. He died at Mantua in 1517.
MAN"TEL, or Sax. maen-
MAN'TLE, n. s., v. a. & v. n. ( cil; Swed. and
MAN TELET', Teut. mantel ;
MAN'TEL-TREE. Old Fr. man-
tel; Ital. and Span. manta; barbarous Lat. man-
tellum. A cloak or cover: mantel and mantel-tree
are the cover or work that conceals a chimney;
a particular kind of fortification: to mantle is to
cover ; disguise; protect; spread or diffuse;
gather on a surface; to spread out the wings:
mantelet is a diminutive of mantel.
His cote armure was of a cloth of tars,
Couched with perles white, and round and grete;
His sandel was of brent gold new yhete ;
A mantelet upon his shoulders hanging
Bret-ful of rubies Ted, as fire sparkling.
Chaucer. Cant. Tales.
By which the beauty of the earth appears,
The divers-coloured mantle which she wears.
l - - Sandys.
We, well-covered with the night's black mantle,
At unawares may beat down Edward’s guard,
And seize himself. Shakspeare. Henry VI.
Poor Tom drinks the green mantle of the standing
pool. Id. Ring Lear.
As the morning steals upon the night,
Melting the darkness; so the rising senses
Begin to chace the ignorant fumes, that mantle
Their clearer reason. Id. Tempest.
There are a sort of men whose visages
Do cream and mantle like a standing pond;
And do a wilful stillness entertain, .
With purpose to be drest in an opinion
Of wisdom, gravity, profound conceit.
My frail fancy fed with full delight
Doth bathe in bliss, and mantleth most at ease ;
Ne thinks of other heaven, but how it might
Her heart's desire with most contentment please.
Spenser.
The herald and children are cloathed with mantles
of sattin; but the herald's mantle is streamed with
old. Bacon.
It drinketh fresh, flowereth, and mantleth exceed-
ingly. . Id.
From the Italians we may learn how to raise fair
manters within the rooms, and how to disguise the
shafts or chimnies, - Wotton.
Shakspeare.
. MAN
MIAN
520
Their actions were disguised with mantles, very
usual in times of disorder, of religion and justice.
- Hayward.
The swan with arched neck,
Between her white wings mantling, rows
Her state with oary feet. Milton's Paradise Lost.
The pair that clad
Each shoulder broad, came mantling o'er his breast
With regal ornament. Id.
The mantling vine
Lays forth her purple grape, and gently creeps
Luxuriant. Id.
Before the sun,
Before the heavens thou wert, and at the voice
Of God, as with a mantle didst invest
The rising world of waters dark and deep,
Won from the void and formless infinite. Milton.
I saw them under a green mantling vine,
That crawls along the side of yon small hill,
Plucking ripe clusters. Id.
Upon loosening of his mantle the eggs fell from
him at unawares, and the eagle was a third time
defeated. L’Estrange.
When mantling blood
Flowed in his lovely cheeks; when his bright eyes
i. with youthful fires; when every grace
Shone in the father, which now crowns the son
Smith.
A specious veil from his broad shoulders flew,
That set the unhappy Phaeton to view ;
The flaming chariot and the steeds it shewed,
And the whole fable in the mantle glowed.
Addison.
Dan Pope for thy misfortune grieved,
With kind concern and skill has weaved
A silken web; and ne'er shall fade
Its colours: gently has he laid
The mantle o'er thy sad distress,
And Venus shall the texture bless. Prior. ,
You'll sometimes meet a fop, of nicest tread,
Whose mantling peruke veils his empty head. Gay.
And where his mazy waters flow,
He gave the mantling vine to grow
A trophy to his love.
Fenton’s Ode to Lord Gower.
If you break any china on the mantletree or cabi-
net, gather up the fragments. Swift.
From plate to plate your eye-balls roll,
And the brain dances to the mantling bowl. Pope.
His friends around the deep affliction mourned,
Felt all his pangs, and groan for groan returned,
In anguish of their hearts their mantles rent,
And seven long days in solemn silence spent.
Young.
Earth receives
Gladly the thickening mantle ; and the green
And tender blade, that feared the chilling blast,
Escapes unhurt beneath so warm a veil. Cowper.
MANTEL, or MANTLE-TREE, in architecture,
the lower part of a chimney, or that piece of
timber which is laid across the jambs, and sus-
tains the compartments of the chimney-piece.
MANTES, a well built town in the depart-
ment of the Seine and Oise, and on the banks of
the former river. The principal street is termi-
nated by an elegant bridge; and a fine chateau
is embosomed in woods, on the other side of the
Seine. Population 4300. Thirty-one miles
W. N. W. of Paris.
MANTICHORA, a name given by the Roman
authors to a fierce and terrible creature, which
they describe from the Greeks, who call it some-
times also mantichora: but, when they write more
correctly, martichora and martiora. The name
man-tiger is formed on the sound of the Roman
name, though expressing a very different sense.
The whole story of this animal seems founded on
that affection for the marvellous so common to
travellers; and probably the mantichora was only
a species of the large hyaena, which being at first
ill described, afterwards more and more wonders
were added, till all shadow of truth was lost.
MANTINGEA, in ancient geography, a town
situated in the south of Arcadia, on the confines of
Laconia (Ptolemy), called afterwards Antigonea,
in honor of king Antigonus. It is memorable
for a battle fought in its neighbourhood, between
the Thebans and Spartans, in which fell the
celebrated commander Epaminondas. See
THEBEs. *
MANTIS, in entomology, a genus of insects
belonging to the order of hemiptera, the charac-
ters of which are these : the head is unsteady,
and appears, from its continual nodding motion,
to be but slightly attached to the thorax: the mouth
is armed with jaws, and furnished with filiform
palpi: the antennae are setaceous: the four wings
are membranaceous, and wrapped round the
body; the under ones folded: the anterior or first
pair of feet are compressed, armed on the under
side with teeth like a saw, and terminated by a
single mail or crochet: the four hindermost are
gressorii, or forméd rather for advancing slowly
than for performing quick movements. The
thorax is extended to a considerable length, nar-
row, and throughout of equal size. The name
mantis denotes soothsayer, because it has been
imagined that this insect, by stretching out
its fore feet, divined and pointed out those things
that were asked of it. The insect often rests on
its four hinder legs only, and, holding the two
fore ones raised up, joins them together, which
has occasioned its being called by the people of
Languedoc, where it is very common, pregadieu,
as if it prayed to God. They also say, that this
creature shows the way when asked, because it
stretches its fore legs sometimes to the right, and
sometimes to the left: and indeed it is considered
as almost sacred, and smust not be hurt. Its
color is all over of a brownish green. The young
ones have more of the green, the old more of the
brown, cast. It deposits its eggs collected into
a hemispherical parcel, flat on one side; and con-
taining two rows of oblong eggs placed trans-
versely, and one row of shells placed longitudi-
nally, in form of a roof, one over the other, which
cover the joining of the two rows of eggs. The
whole parcel is light, and as it were composed of
very thin parchment. The insects, in their most
perfect state, are generally of very beautiful green
colors, which soon fade, and become the color of
dead leaves. Their elytra, bearing so strong a re-
semblance to the leaves of some plants, have
procured them the name of creeping or walking :
leaves. See ENToMoLOGY. w
MANTLE, or MANTLING, in heraldry, that ap-
pearance of folding of cloth, flourishing, or dra-
pery, which in any achievement is drawn about
a coat of arms. See HERALDRY.
MANTO, in fabulous history, the daughter of
Tiresias, and like her father strongly inspired with
prophecy. She was so highly esteemed, that,
MAN
MAN
521
when the Argives pillaged Thebes, they thought
they could not acquit their vow of consecrating
to Apollo the most precious thing in their plunder,
without offering to him this young woman. She
was therefore sent to the temple of Delphi. But
this did not engage her in any vow of contin-
ency; for she bore a son called Amphilochus to
Alcmeon, who had been generalissimo of the
army which took Thebes; and a daughter named
Tisiphone. These children were the fruits of ar,
amour carried on during the madness which had
seized Alcmeon, after he had put his mother to
death. Virgil says she went into Italy, and had
a son who built Mantua.
MAN"TUA, n.s. & Fr. manteau ; Spanish
MAN'TUAMAKER. $ manto, a mantle. A lady’s
gown or dress : a dress maker. -
By profession a mantuamaker: I am employed by
the most fashionable ladies. Addison's Guardian.
Not Cynthia, when her mantua's pinned awry,
Ełer felt such rage, resentment, and despair,
As thou, sad virgin for thy ravished hair.
How naturally do you apply your hands to each
other's lappets, ruffles, and mantuas. Swift.
MANTUA, a province of Austrian Italy, ad-
{...; the duchies of Parma and Modena. It
as a superficial extent of 880 square miles; and
a population of 214,000. The surface of the
country is level and fertile, being watered by the
Po, the Oglio, the Mincio, the Sechio, and several
smaller streams. The chief products are corn,
rice, hemp, flax, fruit, and vines. Little wood
Pope.
is found in this province; and some marshy
tracts are unproductive : the mineral productions
are also inconsiderable. The former duchy was
of larger extent than the present province of this
name. The Gonzaga family acquired it in the
fourteenth century, and continued to govern it
until the war of the Spanish succession, when the
reigning duke espoused the Bourbon cause, and
lost this territory to Austria in 1706. In 1796,
being seized by the French, it was formed into
the department of the Mincio, in the temporary
kingdom of Italy, but was restored to the empire
in 1814.
MANTUA, in ancient and modern geography, a
city of Italy, and now the capital of the Austrian
districtor delegation of this name. It was anciently
a town of Gallia Transpadana, and situated on
the Mincius, a river running from the lake Bena-
cus. It is said to have been founded even before
Rome, by Bianor or Ocnus, the son of Manto;
and was the ancient capital of Etruria. When
Cremona, who had followed the interest of Bru-
tus, was given to the soldiers of Octavius, Man-
tua also, which was in the neighbourhood, shared
the common calamity, and many of the inhabit-
ants were tyrannically deprived of their posses-
sions. Virgil, who was among them, and a native
of the town, applied for redress to Augustus, and
obtained it on account of his poetical talents.
In modern times it has always held a distin-
guished rank, and is a large city, having eight
gates and about 20,000 inhabitants. The streets
are broad and straight, and the houses well
built. It is very strong by situation as well as
by art; lying in the middle of the Lago di
Mantua, formed by the river Mincio. This lake
is twenty miles in circumference, and two broad
having four different ramifications, called the
lakes of Mezo, Paivolo, Sopro, and Sotto.
There is no access to the city but by two cause-
ways which cross this lake, and which are
strongly fortified; so that the city has been con-
sidered as one of the strongest in Europe; and
the allies in 1745, though their army was in the
duchy, durst not undertake the siege. On the
main land opposite is the important suburb of
Cerese. Mantua was besieged, however, by the
French in 1796, and first invested by order of
Buonaparte on the 4th of June. On the 16th
of July the garrison made a sortie, but were
forced to retreat with the loss of 600 men. On
the 18th the French opened their trenches, and
on the 19th set fire to the city in various places.
On the 29th general Wurmser attacked the
French lines, destroyed their trenches, relieved -
the fort, raised the siege, and took 140 pieces of
cannon. But on the 24th of August following,
the French, under general Sahuguet, again block-
aded the town; and on the 15th of September
forced the Austrians to retire into it, with a loss
of 2500 men, twenty cannon, &c., and took Fort
St. George. On the 23d of November general
Wurmser made a third sortie, with the loss of
200 men; and at last, after having been reduced
to such straits that 5000 horses were killed and
eaten during the siege, he surrendered it to the
French by capitulation, on the 2d of February
1797, with 559 cannon, 17,115 small arms, a
vast quantity of other military stores, and the
whole remains of his army. In July 1799 Man-
tua was again besieged by the Austrians under
general Kray, to whom it at last surrendered.
The public squares are spacious and elegant.
Of the latter, the most noted is the Piazza di
Virgilio, used as a promenade. In its centre is
a column of marble called Virgil's monument,
resting on a pedestal of the same material, with
a hronze statue of the poet at top. On the four
sides of the pedestal are suitable inscriptions.
The cathedral of Mantua is a beautiful build-
ing, nearly on the same plan as the church of
Santa Maria Maggiore at Rome. It is sur-
mounted by a fine dome, and adorned in the
interior with Corinthian pillars, and a number
of paintings. Of the other churches of the city
the only one that deserves notice is that of St.
Andrew, the interior of which is finely painted.
The other buildings are the Palazzo della Gius-
titia; the palace of the Gonzaga family; the one
which, from its shape, bears the name of the
Palazzo di T.; and the Corte with its hall. Be-
sides these, may be mentioned the university,
an arsenal, the Jewish synagogue, and the public
library. Mantua also contains several valuable
collections of paintings, and a gallery of anti-
quities, belonging to the Academy of Arts.
Between 4000 and 5000 Jews live in a dis-
tinct quarter of the town, and have a consider-
able share of the trade : which in the silk manu-
factory and its adjuncts is still considerable;
those of leather and woollens are also of import-
ance. In summer and autumn, from the stag-
nation of the waters of the lake, the air becomes
unhealthy, and the better classes retire to the
neighbouring shores. It is seventy miles W. S.
MAN.
2 MAN:
5
W. of Vienna, and the same distance E. S. E.
of Milan.
MANTUAN (Baptist), a famous Italian poet,
born at Mantuasin 1448. He took his name
from the town, being an illegitimate child. In
his youth, he applied to Latin poetry, which he
cultivated all his life. He entered among the
Carmelites, and became general of the order;
though he quitted that dignity upon some dis-
gust in 1515, and died the year following.
The duke of Mantua, some years after, erected a
marble statue to his memory crowned with lau-
rel, and placed it next to that of Virgil. . His
works were collected and published at Paris, in
3 vols. folio, in 1513, with the commentaries of
St. Murrhon, S. Brant, and I. Badius.
MAN’UAL, adj. & n.s.) All of Lat. manus,
MAN'UARY, the hand. Manual
MANU'BRIUM, is, performed or used
MANUDUCTION. by the hand; a small
book, or one that may be conveniently carried in
the hand: manuary is used as a substantive, by
Bishop Hall, as synonymous with manual: manu-
brium, a handle: manuduction, guidance by the
hand. *
For what learning is that, which the seas, or Alps,
or Pyrenees have engrossed from us? what profession,
either liberal or manuary, wherein the greatest masters
have not been at least equalled by our home-bred
islanders?, Bp. Hall.
The treasurer obliged himself to procure some
declaration under his majesty's sign manual.
Clarendon.
This manual of laws, stiled the confessor's laws,
contains but few heads.
Hale's Common Law of England.
That they are carried by the manuduction of a rule,
is evident from the constant regularity of their mo-
tion. Glanville.
We find no open tract, or constant manuduction, in
this labyrinth. Browne's Vulgar Errours.
Though the sucker move easily enough up and
down in the cylinder by the help of the manubrium,
yet, if the manubrium be taken off, it will require a
considerable strength to move it. Boyle.
In those prayers which are recommended to the use
of the devout persons of your church, in the manuals
and offices allowed them in our own language, they
would be careful to have nothing they thought scan-
dalous. Stillingfleet.
The speculative part of painting, without the as-
sistance of manual operation, can never attain to that
perfection which is its object. Dryden's Dufresnoy.
This is a direct manuduction to all kind of sin, by
abusing the conscience with undervaluing persuasions
concerning the malignity and guilt even of the º
+ Oulh.
MANUAL is a service book used in the church
of Rome, containing the rites, directions to the
priests, and prayers used in the administration
of the sacraments, the form of blessing holy
water, and the service used in processions.
The MANUAL and PLAToon EXERCISE, in the
army, no longer makes a regular part of a review,
but only is gone through, when particularly
called for by the reviewing general. Sentries
posted with shouldered arms are permitted after-
wards to support, but not to slope them. On
the approach of an officer they immediately
carry their arms, and put themselves into their
proper position, which is not to be dome, at the
instant he passes, but by the time he is within
twenty yards of their post, so that they may be
perfectly steady before he comes up. Corporals
marching with reliefs, or commanding detach-
ments, or divisions, will carry their arms ad-
vanced; for which purpose, a soldier, when
promoted to that rank, must be taught the posi-
tion of advanced arms. There are some peculiar
words of command at the manual exercise of
the grenadiers, when apart from the battalion,
and also for the cavalry and artillery.
MANUDUCTOR, from Latin, manus, hand,
and duco, I lead, an ancient officer in the Latin
church, who, from the middle of the choir, gave
the signal for the choristers to sing, and marked
the measure, beat time, and regulated the music.
The Greeks called him Mesachoros, because
seated in the middle of the choir. -
MANUEL (Pierre), a demagogue of the
French revolution, born in low life, was yet
well educated, and, going to Paris young, com-
menced his career as an author, by publishing
Essai Historique et Politique sur la Vie de St.
Louis. He then became tutor in a banker's fa-
mily, from which he obtained a small pension.
Resuming his pen, he produced several pam-
phlets, among which was one called La Police
Devoilée, for which he was sent for a short time
to the Bastile. On the occurrence of political
commotions, he became a partizan of the jacobin
principles. In 1789 he had an office under the
municipality of Paris; and in November 1791
obtained the place of attorney of the commune.
He was for a time one of the most active and
dangerous enemies of royalty, and appears to
have been deeply implicated in the massacres
which took place in the beginning of September
1792. Immediately, after he was nominated a
deputy to the national convention, when he de-
tached himself from the jacobin party; and on
the trial of the king voted for his imprisonment
during the war. Other unpopular measures
which he advocated obliged him to resign in
January 1793, and he retired to Montargis his
native place, we believe, where he narrowly es-
caped being assassinated : a few months after
he was arrested, and sent to the scaffold Novem-
ber 14th, 1793.
MANUFACTURE, n.s. & *** Fr. ma-
MANUFAc'ToRY, n.s. nufacture ,
MANUFACTURER. § Lat. manus,
and facio, to make. The art or practice of con-
structing any piece of workmanship; any thing
made by art: to make by art or labor; employ
in work, or work up : a manufactory is a place
where such work is ordinarily performed : a ma-
nufacturer, the proprietor, conductor, or work-
TO3. In ,
Heaven's power is infinite: earth, air, and sea,
The manufacture mass the making power obey.
Dryden.
The peasants are cloathed in a coarse kind of can-
vas, the manufacture of the country. Addison.
In the practice of artificers and the manufacturers
of various kinds, the end being proposed, we find out
ways of composing this for the several uses of human
life. Watts.
May not the peaceable, the industrious inhabitant
of Manchester say, I call upon the laws to afford me
MAN
MIAN
523
protection; and, if the laws in this country cannot
afford it, depend upon it, I and my manufactures
must emigrate to some country where they can.
Canning.
MAN'UMISE, v. a. \ Lat. manumitto. To
MANUMIS's Ion, n.s. X set free; dismiss or dis-
MANUMIT', v.a. 5 charge from bondage:
the first of these verbs seems altogether redun-
dant in our language: manumission is the act
or instrument whereby liberty is given.
A constant report of a danger so imminent run
through the whole castle, even into the deep dun-
geons, by the compassion of certain manumised slaves.
- Knolles.
Slaves wore iron rings until their manumission or
preferment. Browne’s Vulgar Errours.
He presents |
To thee, renowned for piety and force,
Poor captives manumised, and matchless horse.
* Waller.
Thou wilt beneath the burden bow,
And glad receive the manumitting blow
On thy shaved slavish head.
Dryden's Juvenat.
Manumit and release him from those drudgeries to
vice, under which those remain who live without God.
Government of the Tongue.
The pileus was somewhat like a night-cap, as the
symbol of liberty, given to slaves at their manumission.
Arbuthnot.
Happy day that breaks our chain;
That manumits ; that calls from exile home.
.. - Young.
MANUMIssion is derived from the Latin
manus, hand, and mittere, to send ; quia servus
mittebatur extra manum seu potestatem domini
sui. Some authors define manumission an act
by which a lord enfranchises his tenants, who
till that time had been his vassals, and in a state
of slavery. Among the Romans, the manu-
mission of slaves was performed three ways:
1. When, with his master's consent, a slave had
his name entered in the census or public register
of the citizens. 2. When the slave was led be-
fore the praetor, and that magistrate laid his
wand, called vindicta, on his head. 3. When
the master gave the slave his freedom by his
testament. Servius Tullius is said to have set
on foot the first manner; and P. Valerius Pub-
licola the second. A particular account is given
of the third in Justinian's Institutes. It was
not necessary that the praetor should be on his
tribunal to perform the ceremony of manumis-
sion : he did it any where, in his house, in the
street, &c. He laid the rod on the slave's head,
pronouncing these words, Dico eum liberum
esse more Quiritum, ‘ I declare him a freeman,
after the manner of the Romans.’ This done,
he gave the rod to the lictor, who struck the
slave with it on the head, and afterwards with
his hand on his face and back; and the notary
or scribe entered the name of the new freeman
in the register, with the reasons of his manu-
mission. The slave had likewise his head shaved,
and a cup given him by his master as a token
of freedom. Tertullian adds, that he had then
also a third name given him: if this were so,
three names were not a token of nobility, but of
freedom. Constantine ordered the manumissions
at Rome to be performed in the churches. Of
manumission there have also been various forms
in England. In the time of William I. villeins
were manumitted, by the master delivering them.
by the right hand to the viscount, in full court,
showing them the door, giving them a lance and
a sword, and proclaiming them free. Others
were manumitted by charter. There was also
an implicit manumission; as, when the lord
made an obligation for payment of money to the
bondman at a certain day, or sued him where he
might enter without suit, and the like.
MANURE', v.a. & m. s. Fr. manouvrer ;
MANU'RABLE, adj. Lat. manu operor.
MANU'RANCE, n.s. To cultivateor dress
MANURE'MENT. by manual labor :
hence to dung, or fatten land by art; the dung
or compost so used : manurable is capable of or
fit for cultivation : manurance and manurement,
cultivation; improvement.
As the fertilest ground must be manured ; so must
the highest flying wit have a Daedalus to guide him.
Sir P. Sidney.
Although there should none of them fall by the
sword, yet they being kept from manurance, and their
cattle ‘from running abroad, by this hard restraint
they would quickly devour one another. -
Spenser on Ireland.
The manurement of wits is like that of soils, where,
before the pains of tilling or sowing, men consider
what the mould will bear. Wotton on Education.
They mock our scant manuring, and require
More hands than ours to lop their wanton growth.
Milton.
This book gives an account of the manurable lands
in every manor. Hale's Origin of Mankind.
When the Nile from Pharian fields is fled,
The fat manure with heavenly fire is warmed.
Dryden.
Mud makes an extraordinary manure for land that
is sandy. Mortimer’s Husbandry.
Revenge her slaughtered citizens,
Or share their fate: the corps of half her senate
Manure the fields of Thessaly, while we
Sit here, deliberating in cold debates. Addison.
Fragments of shells, reduced by the agitation of
the sea to powder, are used for the manuring of land.
Woodward.
MANURE. See RURAL EconoMY.
MAN’USCRIPT, n.s. Fr. manuscrit; Latin
manuscriptum. A written book; any writing.
Any manuscript roll, written by the hand of a fa-
mous man, is laid up amongst our jewels.
Bp. Hall.
Her majesty nas perused the manuscript of this
opera, and given it her approbation. Dryden.
A collection of rare manuscripts, exquisitely written
in Arabick, and sought in the most remote parts by
the diligence of Erpenius, the most excellent linguist,
were upon sale to the jesuits. Wottom.
He grinds divinity of other days
Down into modern use : transforms old print
To zig-zag manuscript, and cheats the eyes
Of gallery critics by a thousand arts. Cowper
A MANUSCRIPT is a book or paper written
with the hand; by which it stands opposed to a
printed book or paper. A manuscript is usually
denoted by MS. and in the plural by MSS.:
public libraries are principally valuable for the
number of ancient MSS. deposited in them. In
examining MSS. that were written before the
invention of printing, it is necessary to know
MIAN &
5
MAN
24
their nature, to be able to read them freely and
without error, and to judge of their antiquity.
As there are scarcely any of the ancient codes
now remaining written on the Egyptian paper,
or on wood, ivory, &c., we have only to consider
those that are written on parchment or vellum,
membraneos, and such as are written on paper,
chartaceos. The former are in most esteem.
With regard to the character, these codes are
written either in square and capital letters, or in
half square, or round and small letters. Those
of the first kind are the most ancient. There
are no intervals between the words, no letters
different from the others at the beginning of any
word, no points, nor any other distinction. The
codes that are written in letters that are half
square resemble those we have in Gothic cha-
racters, as well for the age as the form of the
letters. Such as are written in round letters are
not so ancient as the former, and are not older
than the ninth or tenth century. These have
spaces between the words, and some punctu-
ation. They are likewise not so well written as
the preceding, and are frequently disfigured
with comments. The codes are divided, accord-
ing to the country, into Lombard, Italian,
Gaulic, Franco-Gaulic, Saxon, Anglo-Saxon, &c.
In the ancient Greek books, they frequently ter-
minated the periods of a discourse, instead of
other divisions, by lines; and these divisions
were called in Latin versus, from vertendo: for
which reason these lines are still more properly
named versus than lineae. At the end of a work,
they put down the number of verses of which
it consisted, that the copies might be more easily
collated : and it is in this sense we are to under-
stand Trebonius, when he says, that the pandects
contain 150,000 pene versuum. These codes
were likewise vel probae vel deterioris notae,
more or less perfect, not only with regard to the
calligraphy or beauty of the character, but to the
correction of the text. In ancient codes, the
abbreviations are distinguished according as
they have been used in different centuries. Thus, .
for example, A. signifies Aulus; C. Caius; D.
Decimus; Ap. Appius; Cn. Cneius; Aug. Imp.
Augustus Imperator. The characters that are
called notae are such as are not to be found in
the alphabet; but which, notwithstanding, sig-
nify certain words. All these are explained in a
copious manner by Vossius, and in the Chro-
nicon Gotvicense. See ABBREv1ATION. Lastly,
the learned divide all the ancient codes into
codices minus raros, rariores, editos, et anec-
dotos. w
MANUTIUS (Aldus), the first of those cele-
brated Venetian printers who were as illustrious
for their learning as for their great skill in their
profession. He was born at Bassano in Italy
about the middle of the fifteenth century; and
hence is sometimes called Bassianus, though
generally better known by the name of Aldus.
He was the first who printed Greek neatly and
correctly; and acquired so much reputation by
it, that whatever was finely printed was prover-
bially said to have “come from the press of
Aldus.’ He published a Greek grammar; with
Notes upon Homer, Horace, &c. He died at
Venice in 1516. -
MANUTIUS (Paul), the son of Aldus, was
brought up as a printer, and acquired, by a con-
tinual reading of Tully, such a purity in writing
Latin, that even Scaliger allows has been scarcely
ever exceeded. Pope Pius IV, placed him at
the head of the apostolical press, and gave him
the charge of the Vatican library. His Epistles
are highly labored and very correct. He had
also a very profound knowledge of antiquity;
and he published an edition of Cicero's works,
with Commentaries, in 4 vols. folio, Venice,
1523. He also published an original work, De
Legibus Romanorum; which is reckoned his
masterpiece. He died in 1574.
MANUTIUS (Aldus), the Younger, the son of
Paul, was esteemed one of the most learned
men of his time. Clement VIII. gave him the
direction of the Vatican printing-house; but
probably the profits of that place were very small,
as Manutius was obliged to accept of a profes-
sorship of rhetoric, and to sell the excellent
library which his father and uncle had collected
with extraordinary care, and which contained
80,000 volumes. He died in Rome in 1597.
He wrote, 1. Commentaries on Cicero. 2. A
Treatise on Orthography. 3. Three books of
Epistles; and other works in Latin and Italian,
which are esteemed.
MAN'Y, adj. & n.s. Y
MAN'Y-color ED, adj.
MAN'Y-coRNERED,
Sax. maenig ; writ-
ten also in Saxon, ac-
to Mr. Lye, maenezeo,
A
MAN'Y-HEADED, } manego, magnized,
w
MAN'Y-LANGUAGED, manizo, maenizu,
MAN'Y-PEOPLED, maenlo, manlu, mae-
MAN'Y-TIMES, adv. J nyseo, mane geo, ma-.
nigu, manize, manigo, memexeo, menego, me-
negu, menigeo, menigo, mentsu, menlo, menu:
all of which Mr. Thomson traces to the Goth.
ma, much, and anig, some or any. Numerous;
several; considerable or indefinite in number;
powerful: a multitude; a large number, taken
collectively: the compounds do not seem to
require explanation.
For manye Schulen come in my name, and schulen
seye, I am Crist; and thei Schulen dissceyve manye.
Wiclif. Matth. xxiv.
Both men and women, as many as were willing-
hearted, brought bracelets. Exodus xxxv. 22.
He from the manypeopled city flies;
Contemns their labours, and the divers cries.
Sandys.
Some of the wiser, seeing that a popular licence is
indeed the manyheaded tyranny, prevailed with the
rest to make Musidorus their chief. Sidney.
After him the rascal many ran,
Heaped together in rude rabblement.
Faerie Queene.
The proud Duessa came,
High mounted on her manyheaded beast.
Q thou fond many 1 with what loud applause
Did'st thou beat heaven with blessing Bolingbroke.
Shakspeare.
A care-craz'd mother of a many children. Id.
Thou art a collop of my flesh,
And for thy sake have I shed many a tear. Id.
He hears not me, but on the other side,
A manycoloured peacock having spy'd,
Leaves him and me. Donne.
When many atoms descend in the air, the same
cause which makes them be manu, makes them be
light in proportion to their multitude. Digby.
Id.
M. A
S.
f YD
525
The manyheaded beast hath broke,
Or shaken from his head, the royal yoke.
- Denham.
This yet I apprehend not, why to those
Among whom God will deign to dwell on earth,
So many and so various laws are given;
So many laws argue so many sins. Milton.
The vulgar and the many are fit only to be led
or driven, but by no means fit to guide themselves.
South.
So many, and many more than I can express,
vastly great and precious advantages do accrue from
piety. Barrow.
The apostles never give the least directions to
Christians to appeal to the bishop of Rome for a
determination of the many differences which, in
those times, happened among them. Tillotson.
Broad were their collars too, and every one
Was set about with many a costly stone.
-- Dryden.
, “There, parting from the king, the chiefs divide,
And wheeling East and West, before their many ride.
Id.
Search those manycornered minds,
Where woman’s crooked fancy turns and winds.
Id.
Those were the preludes of his fate,
That formed his manhood to subdue
The hydra of the manyheaded hissing crew. Id.
He is beset with enemies, the meanest of which is
not without many and many à way to the wreaking
of a malice. L’Estrange.
Many a child can have distinct clear ideas of two
and three long before he has any idea of infinite.
Loche.
Seeing a great many in rich gowns, he was amazed
to find that persons of quality were up so early.
Addison's Freeholder.
They are Roman catholick in the device and le-
gend, which are both manytimes taken out of the
Scriptures. Addison.
The hoary majesty of spades appears;
Puts forth one manly leg, to sight revealed,
The rest his manycoloured robe concealed. Pope.
Seek Atrides on the Spartan shore;
He, wand'ring long, a wider circle made,
And manylanguaged nations has surveyed. Id.
Near yonder copse, where once a garden smiled,
And still where many a garden flower grows wild;
There, where a few torn shrubs the place disclose,
The village preacher's modest mansion rose.
Goldsmith.
Thus many a sad to-morrow came and went,
Till, all my stock of infant sorrow spent,
I learned at last submission to my lot,
But, though I less deplored thee, ne'er forgot.
Cowper.
MAOUNA, or MASSAcRE ISLAND, one of the
Navigator's islands of the South Pacific Ocean,
discovered by Bougainville, and visited by La
Perouse, who calls it a beautiful and fertile
island, producing the bread-fruit, orange trees,
cocoa-nut, banana, guava, and plenty of fowls,
hogs, and dogs. In the space of twenty-four
hours he procured 500 hogs here, and an im-
mense quantity of fruit. But the inhabitants,
when M. Langle, commander of the Astrolabe,
landed, attacked him; and, in the course of the
conflict which ensued, he and ten companions
were killed, and twenty others wounded. Ed-
wards calls this island Otutuela. Long. of the
anchoring place 189° 1' E., lat. 14° 22' S.
MAP, m. s. & v. a. Barb. Lat. mappa, a
MAP PERY, or {* cloth; Ital. Span.
MAP'PING, n. s. and Port. mappa; Fr.
mappe ; Belg. map. A delineation or picture of
some part of the earth's surface : and hence of
the heavens; to delineate; or draw such picture;
mappery and mapping mean the art of making
º
maps. -
Zelmane earnestly entreated Dorus, that he would
bestow a map of his little world upon her, that she
might see whether it were troubled with such unha-
bitable climes of cold despairs, and hot rages, as
hers was. Sidney.
I will take the map of Ireland, and lay it before
me, and make mine eyes my schoolmasters, to give
my understanding to judge of your plot. Spenser.
I am near to the place where they should meet,
if Pisanio have mapped it right.
Shakspeare’s Cymbeline.
The still and mental parts,
That do contrive how many hands shall strike
When fitness calls them on ; {}
They call this bedwork, mappery, closet war.
Shakspeare.
Old coins are like so many maps for explaining
the ancient geography. . Addison on Ancient Coins,
O'er the map my finger taught to stray,
Cross many a region marks the winding way,
From sea to sea, from realm to realm I rove,
And grow a mere geographer by love. Tichel.
Opening the map of God's extensive plan,
We find a little isle, this life of man ;
Eternity's unknown expanse appears
Circling around and limiting his years. Cowper.
MAPs are amongst the contrivances of art not
strictly scientific: being designed to represent
on a plane surface that which is in reality sphe-
rical, i.e. some portion or the whole of the
earth's surface. It is clear that on a globe alone
can such a representation be accurately made ;
but, on a scale which would make the map of
England extend only about six inches from north
to south, i. e. giving one degree of latitude to an
inch, the diameter of a globe, on which the whole
surface of the earth should be delineated, would
be upwards of nine feet and a half; while such
a map must omit all the minute divisions of the
countries of the earth; together with a vast body
of geographical and statistical distinctions, invalu-
able to geography as a science. For all the ordinary
purposes, therefore, of representation, and even
for the proper investigation and communication
of numerous geographical discoveries, recourse
has been had to the various descriptions of plane
maps; and the most eminent geographers have
devoted their attention to the projection or ar-
rangement of the proportional parts of them.
The principal projections that have been sug-
gested, are, 1. By development; 2. The ortho-
graphic; 3. The stereographic ; 4. The globular;
5. Mercator's. The central projection, so called
because it places the eye of the spectator in the
centre of the sphere and the plane of projection
tangential to its surface, may be also here men-
tioned; but it so distorts by enlargement the
portions of land and sea near the margin of the
map, that it is rarely used.
1. The projection by development demands our
first consideration, not from its being in such
constant use as those which follow, but for its
526 M. A
P. S.
néarer approximation to the actual form of the
earth's surface. It is therefore the basis of the
construction of the spindles or gores of artificial
globes. See our article GLoBEs.
The cone and the cylinder are both approxi-
mations in shape to the sphere; and, in regard
to maps, as Mr. Jamieson observes, each has its
advantage and disadvantage as a basis of deve-
lopment. The conic method of development
is best adapted to represent countries to any
extent in the difference of longitude, or round
the whole circumference of the earth, if required
to a certain extent in difference of latitude; and
the cylindric method is well adapted to represent
countries contained between any two parallels of
latitude, but not having any considerable differ-
ence of longitude.
The comical projection is, however, the most
simple and easy of construction, on account of
the facility of describing the parallels of latitude
in concentric, circles, and the meridians instraight
lines. In comparing a spherical zone to a trun-
cated cone, in order to construct its develop-
ment, we view the parallels as circles described
from the summit of the come taken as a common
centre; and the meridians are right lines sub-
jected to pass through that point. It is evident
that the result will approach the nearer, in pro-
portion as the map shall embrace less extent in
lat-tude.
In this projection it may be supposed that the
cone is tangential to the middle parallel of the
inap, and in consequence exterior; or that it
may be in part inscribed in the sphere, that is to
say, formed by the secants in the meridians. In
the first case, the map will only be exact on the
middle parallel, which will preserve in its deve-
lopment the length which it really possesses on
the sphere; but the parallels placed above and
beneath will exceed those on the sphere, which
are correspondent. The Rev. Patrick Murdoch
proposes (Philos. Trans. vol. 50, Part II., for
1758, p. 553), to substitute to the tangent cone,
a cone partly inscribed and determined by this
condition, “that the part of the area compre-
hended in the map should be equivalent to that
of the spherical zone which it represents.’
It may be difficult, at first sight, to conceive
that the surface of the globe can be represented
by a part of the surface of a cone; yet, we may
easily form the surface of a cone, of any plain
piece of paper cut into a circular form or base;
and can as easily conclude, that if a cone, about
twice the height of the semi-diameter of the
globe, were to be conceived as standing on the
same base with the hemisphere, namely, on the
equator, the surface of such a cone would in part
lie within the surface of the globe; and then,
that the surface of the globe, at so small a dis-
tance from the surface of the cone, might be
very easily projected or delineated on it; and, in
such a case, the projection of the countries and
their bearings, distances, &c., will be very nearly
the same on the surface of the included part of
the cone, as on that of the globe itself.
Mr. Murdoch observes, that when any portion
of the earth's surface is projected on a plane, or
transferred to it by whatever method of descrip-
tion, the real dimensions, and often the figure,
and position of countries, are much altered and
misrepresented. In most works of this kind we
find the linear dimensions visibly false, and the
intersections of the circles oblique; so that a
quadilateral space shall often "be represented
by an oblique angled rhomboid figure, whose
diagonals are very far from equal ; and yet, by a
strange contradiction, you shall see a scale of
distances inserted in such a map.
* The last of these blemishes,’ says Mr. .
Jamieson, “is removed, and the other lessened,
in some maps of Schenk's of Amsterdam, a map
of the Russian empire, the Germania Critica of
the famous professor Meyer, and a few more.
In these the meridians are straight lines, con-
verging to a point, from which, as a centre, the
parallels of latitude are described, and a rule
has been published for the drawing such maps.
But, as that rule appears to be only an easy and
convenient approximation, it remains still to be
enquired, what is the construction of a particular
map that shall exhibit the superficial and linear
measures in their truest proportions?'
In answer to this question he proposes the
following construction:—Suppose that A P R
(fig. I. plate 1, MAPPING) is one half of a sphere
or globe of one inch and nine-tenths in diame-
ter, and that we are to develope one-half of this
half sphere on a plane surface; the develop-
ment would be one-half of the whole sphere or
globe, of which A P R is a half. But, were this
half sphere cut in two, A PR would be its plane
of projection, being the plane of that meridian in
which the semi-sphere was bisected, and we
should then consider A PR merely as an arc of
a great circle of the sphere; it would be a semi-
circle. Let, then, this semicircle be bisected by
the perpendicular K P; let the quadrant A P be
divided into nine equal parts in the points
B, C, D, &c.; let the radii KB, KC, &c., be
drawn; and draw also the tangents B b, C c, &c.,
to meet the perpendicular K P produced indefi-
nitely towards S. Now from A as a centre (fig.
2), with a division of the quadrant, fig. 1, set off
on fig. 2 the equal spaces AB, BC, CD, &c.
With the radius AP, fig. 2, describe the semi-
circle l Pl, and this semicircle shall be a deve-
lopment of the semi-spheric surface A PR;
that is, l Pl shall be a development of the fourth
part of that sphere of which A PR is one-fourth
part. For, if we draw chords to the divisions or
arcs, A B, BC, &c., fig. 1, the quadrantal arc
AP will then circumscribe the fourth part of a
polygon of thirty-six sides; and if we transfer
those chords to fig. 2, by the distances AB, BC,
&c., the whole line A.P, fig. 2, shall be equal to
the sum of all the chords of the arc of the quad-
rant AP, fig. 1; and, therefore, the semicircle
lPl, fig. 2, shall be a development of the sphe-
ric surface APR, fig. 1.
To draw the parallels in the semicircle, fig. 2,
produce AP indefinitely beyond P, and on this
line transfer the tangents of latitude, that is Bºb,
Cc, D d, &c., from fig. 1, and they will be cen-
tres about which to describe the parallels of fig.
2. Thus, for example, the tangent Bºb, fig. 1,
being the radius of the parallel that passes
through B, fig. 2, you must in AP (fig. 2) pro-
duced, set off with your compasses a space equal
*-
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* M. A
P S. 527
to the tangent Bb, fig. 1; and from the point
beyond P, fig. 2, as a centre, describe the paral-
lel passing through B. Do the same by the
others, and all the parallels will be drawn.
To describe the meridians, divide All, Al, each
into nine equal parts; do the same with each of
thé other parallels, and draw curvilinear lines
through the corresponding divisions of the paral-
lels; so shall the meridians be drawn for fig. 2:
Fig. 3 shows how a map of this kind may be
constructed, when you are not going to develope
any given spheric surface.
with any radius O C, describe the semicircle
A PC; draw O Pat right angles to A.C.; divide
the radii OA, OC, OP, each into nine equal
parts; through the points of division in OP
draw from the point A the diverging lines A10,
. A 20, &c.; and from O draw the radii () 10, O20, .
&c., to the points where those diverging lines are
terminated by the arc C.P. Then, from the ex-
tremities of the radii O 10, O 20, &c., draw the
tangents 10, 20, &c., meeting OP produced in-
definitely; so shall the points 10, 20, 30, &c., in
OP produced, be centres, about which to de-
scribe the parallels of latitude.
Having drawn these parallels, divide each of
them into nine equal parts, and through the cor-
responding divisions of each parallel draw cur-
vilinear lines, which will be the meridians
required. The other semicircle, following the
same process, will complete the planisphere
according to the method of development. But
it must be observed that, as the meridians are not
subject to any geometrical problem for describ-
ing a circle, they must be drawn with a steady
hand through their respective points.
‘This is avery near approximation to the truth,'
says our author, “a very near development of
the surface of the globe. All the meridians and
parallels intersect each other at right angles. The
successive quadrilaterals between any two meri-
dians are nearly equal in area, and similar to
those on the globe; those adjoining the central
meridian are almost exactly the same as their
correspondents on the sphere. Every parallel of
latitude is equally divided by the meridians as
they are on the globe; and every parallel, as
terminated by two meridians on the map, is ex-
ceedingly near the same length as the corres-
ponding part on the globe itself. It must, how-
ever, be observed, that the meridians are here
represented of different lengths, all longer than
those on the globe, except AP, the central one.
In this respect the method of development is
the converse of every meridional projection
of the sphere, every meridional projection dimin-
ishing the meridians as they approach the centre
of the map : but even in this respect it is less
defective in the lengths of the meridians than is
Mr. Murdoch's with respect to the parallels of
latitude. However, since the central meridian
answers as a scale, the length of every meridian
can be correctly ascertained ; and the method of
development may, upon the whole, be con-
sidered the most correct and the easiest of con-
struction of any yet published. It may be em-
ployed in the construction of the largest maps as
well as the smallest, and will be the more exact,
in proportion as the difference of longitude is less.'
From O as a centre,
Euler investigated the properties of the coni-
cal projection, with a design to render the errors
at the two extreme parallels of the map equal to
those at the middle parallel. That these con-
ditions might be fulfilled, he found that the dis-
tance of the common centre of all the parallels
from the surface of the sphere should be equal
to 5° of lat. ; that the angle comprised between
two meridians, which include 1° of lat. on the
globe, is reduced on the map to 48. 44"; and
that the difference between the arc of a great
circle, which measures the least distance between
two points on the globe, and the right line which
represents it on the map, is such, that an arc of
90° has upon the map a length equal to 90°79.
Some geometers, as Delisle (in the construction
of his general Map of the Russian Empire),
adopted for the cone, the surface of which was to
be developed, that which cut the sphere in two
parallels of latitude, equi-distant from the ex-
tremes and the middle parallel. By this means
the map had the same extent on these two cir-
cles as upon the corresponding parts of the
globe; and the extent of the whole map differed
little from that of the spherical surface it was de-
signed to represent; the excess towards its ex-
tremities being nearly compensated by the defect
in the middle, which formed the inscribed por-
tion of the conical surface. Delisle's map ex-
tended from the lat. of 40° to 70° ; the middle
parallel, therefore, answered to 55°, and the two
parallels common to the map and the globe
were those of 47° 30', and 62° 30'. This pro-
jection presents several advantages in maps of
considerable extent, as those of a large empire.
Then if L and L' denote the latitudes of the two
parallels which are common to the map and the
globe, it has been shown (Puissant's Topogra-
phie) that the radii, R. and R', of the respective
parallels are expressed by the following formula,
WIZ. - -
cosine L , cosine L’
=–ºf–tº–, and R = −
Tsine , (L-HL) sine 3 (L + L').
Hence, if L demote the latitude of the greater of
the two parallels above-mentioned, and the radius
of the globe be considered as unity, we shall
have the radius of the projection of that parallel
in known terms, or -
_cos. 47° 30'.
T sine 5.5°
2. The orthographic projection suppose the
eye of the spectator at an infinite distance from
the plane of the projection, and as this plane
passes through the centre of the globe, and is
perpendicular to all the visual rays, they, ac-
cording to the supposed situation of the eye, are
parallel to each other. The surface of a hemis-
phere is thus reduced to that of a great circle of
the sphere, or only half its hemispherical area;
and consequently all parts of that surface are
contracted, while equal parts of the spherical
surface are not reduced to equal spaces on the
map. Indeed, while the parts near the central
ray experience but a small contraction, this, on
approaching the extremities, becomes rapidly in-
creased; so that this projection, though it is oe-
casionally used for astronomical purposes, is
almost exploded in the construction of geogra-
528 M A
P S.
phical maps. Fig. 4, plate I., will exhibit this ;
the arc a b is represented by the line a'b' - bc by
b'c', and so on in succession, until, at A, i A di-
minishes into nothing.
3. The stereographic projection supposes the eye
to be situated somewhere upon the surface of
the sphere to be represented, and looking to-
wards the opposite concave surface. That is, if
we imagine there is before us a glass sphere,
hung, like the terrestrial globe; in the position of
a right sphere; that this glass sphere has cut upon
its circumference all the lines and circles of the
globe, and that these lines and circles are opaque;
that within this glass sphere there is a glass
plane, coinciding with the points Aries, and Li-
bra, and, by consequence, with the wooden hori-
zon of the frame in which the sphere is supposed
to be hung; then this glass plane meeting the
inner surface, or circumference, of the sphere,
would represent the plane of a great circle of the
sphere passing through. Aries, the north pole,
Libra, and the south pole. Let us imagine, also,
that there is a perpendicular drawn from the cen-
tre of this glass plane or circle, to meet the sur-
face of the sphere precisely where the meridian
of 90° is intersected by the equator, reckoning
the degrees to commence at the first point of
Aries. Suppose then that the eye is placed in
this point of the surface, that is, exactly at the
extremity of the aforesaid perpendicular, and that
we are looking towards the opposite hemisphere,
on which we should see all the opaque meri-
dians and parallels, and that straight lines were
drawn from those meridians and parallels respec-
tively to the eye, those straight lines would
necessarily pass through the glass plane within
the sphere, and on this glass plane would be
drawn the true representation of all the lines
upon the surface of the concave hemisphere.
This then would be the stereographic projection
of the sphere: and, when we look at a skeleton
planisphere, we have before us this identical pic-
ture.
The globular projection is the most useful
and important modification of the stereographic,
originally suggested by La Hire. We adopt Dr.
Myers' able description of it. Instead of con-
ceiving the eye to be placed at the surface of
the sphere, this supposes the radius of the
globe, perpendicular to the plane of projection,
to be produced, and the point of view to be in
this line, and at a distance from the surface of
the sphere equal to the sine of 45°. By this
means the radius of the plane of projection is
bisected by the line which joins this point and
the division of the arc answering to 45°. If
C E, plate II. MAPPING, fig. 1, be produced to
P, till EP be equal the sine of 45°, and the
quadrantal arc A. D be bisected in F, and PF
be joined, then A C will also be bisected in G.;
and, by drawing lines from P to every 10° of the
quadrant, all the other parts of the line A C
will also be nearly equal to each other. But, as
the sine of 45° is equal to 3 r V 2, where r is
the radius of the circle, its value is always an
irrational quantity, and therefore the line EP,
which is to be equal to this quantity, cannot be
set off with accuracy. This, however, is no real
inconvenience in practice, for 3 r V 2 =
‘7071 r, and, consequently, if E P be made
equal ‘7 r, or '71 r, it will not introduce any
sensible error into the construction. Another
easy method of finding the point P is to con-
struct an equilateral triangle A BP, on the dia-
meter A B, which will also give the point P with
sufficient accuracy for any practical purpose;
for in that case C P = } A B V 3 = r y 3 =
17321.-Hence C P – C E = EP – 1732 r
— r = 732 r ; which only differs from the sine
of 45° by '0249 r, a quantity which is too small
to introduce any material error into the construc-
tlOn.
M. Parent observed that, though the radius
of the plane of projection was bisected by the
line P E, it still required to be ascertained
where the point P must be placed that the ine-
qualities between the divisions of the diameter
A B might be the least possible. To answer
this condition, he found EP – 595 r, for which
six-tenths of the radius may be taken in any
practical case. The same geometer also found
that, when it is required that the zones of the
hemispherical map should occupy spaces re-
spectively proportional to those they have on
the sphere which they represent, the point of
view P must be removed to 1-105 r beyond E,
that is, EP must be made equal to 1-105 r, or
very nearly eleven-tenths of the radius. Hence
it may be observed, that while these modi-
fications of the stereographic projection sacrifice
the advantage of the meridians and parallels of
latitude, cutting each other at right angles, and
change the circles into ellipses, they do not accu-
rately preserve the equality of the space, or the
similarity of the configurations.
In the globular projection, however, or in
either of M. Parent's modifications of it, these
inequalities are much reduced, for the divisions
on the equator and the central meridian are
equal to each other; and therefore equal spaces
on the sphere are represented by nearly equal
spaces on the map; a circumstance which ren-
ders this projection the most proper for geogra-
phical purposes. The meridians and parallels
of latitude, being ellipses of such small eccen-
tricity, they are generally made circular, which
facilitates the construction, without distorting
the map. Since the late invention of the excel-
lent instrument for drawing ellipses, however,
this approximation has been rendered unne-
cessary, by the facility with which these curves
of any size and eccentricity may now be
drawn. 4.
The stereographic projection has been consi-
dered as embracing three distinct cases, in
reference to the plane of the primitive circle.
1. That upon the plane of the equator, which is
called the polar projection because the eye is
supposed to be in one of the poles. 2. That
upon the plane of the meridian, (generally that
of the island of Ferro), which divides the globe
into two hemispheres, the one containing the
old and the other the new continent. This is
usually called the meridional projection. 3.
That upon the plane of the rational horizon of
any place whatever, which supposes the eye to
be situated at that place. This is the horizontal
projection. The method of constructing each
#e323.7%Z.Z3.
MAPPING, JPLATE II.
S
**
.**
• **
... ... • * *****
Aondon, Puážshazzy ZŽoznasſº.73%eapºzze March, ZZóżó. J.Shurysculp.


M. A
P. S. 529
shall therefore be explained, after the elegant
constructions in Puissant's Topographie as
abridged by Myers.
Construction of the polar projection.—In this
projection the eye is supposed to be in one of
the poles, and consequently in the point where
all the meridians intersect each other. As the
plane of the equator is the plane of projection,
the meridians are necessarily represented by radii
of that circle; and, as the parallels of latitude are
all parallel to the equator, they are represented
as concentric circles, the common centre of which
is that of the primitive circle. -
To project the meridians.—Let AP (fig. 2)
represent the radius of the terrestrial sphere, and
A CBD one of the great circles of that sphere;
then the centre P being taken for the projection
of the optic axis, or the point of view which is
placed at the pole, the circumference A CBD
will be the projection of the equator. Now, as
the planes of the meridians all intersect each
other in the axis of the earth, the projection of
the first meridian may necessarily be represented
by any diameter of the primitive circlé. Let
this diameter be AB; and divide the circumfe-
rence ACBD into the required number of equal
parts, in the points a, b, c, &c., and a, b, c, &c.
If the meridians and parallels are to be drawn
to every 10°, the number of these parts will, of
course, be nine in each quadrant. Then, through
the centre P, and each pair of these corresponding
points, draw the diameters aa', bb, cc, &c., and
they will be the meridians required. Hence, the
difference of longitude of each pair of consecu-
tive meridians will be measured by the arcs Aa,
ab, b.c.; or Ba', a b', b'c', &c. #
To project the parallels.--To describe the pa-
rallels, corresponding to the above division, draw
the diameter CD perpendicular to A B, and join
the points Da, Db, D c, &c.; then these lines
will cut the diameter A B in the points n, n, n",
&c. With P as a centre, and Pn, Pn', Pºn", &c.,
as radii, describe circles, and they will be the
parallels required. If Cp be set off equal to
23° 30' and D p be joined, cutting AP in p', and
with Pas a centre, and Pp as a radius, if a circle
be described, it will be the projection of one of
the polar circles. In this method D is the point
of view, and the points n, n', n", &c., are the ste-
reographic projections of the corresponding
points a, b, c, &c., belonging to the required pa-
rallels; for if the circle A CBD be conceived to
turn about the diameter A B, until it make a
right angle with the plane of the figure, the ra–
dius PD will be perpendicular to that plane,
the point C will be the pole opposite the point
of view D, and the arcs Aa, Ab, Ac, &c., will
be the respective latitudes of the parallels a, b, c,
&c. Consequently, the traces m, n, n”, &c., of
the visual rays Dn, Dºn', Dn", &c., will repre-
sent the points a, b, c, &c., upon the perspective
plane A CBD. Having thus constructed the
hemisphere, it only remains to mark the positions
of places according to their latitude and longi-
tude, to delineate the contours of lakes and seas,
and to trace the courses of rivers, according to
the same data. In this projection the meridians
and parallels of latitude cut each other in the
same manner as on the surface of the sphere.
*. Vol. XIII. e
But it should be remarked that, though the
spaces contained between two meridians and two
consecutive parallels, near the centre of the map,
are represented on the plane of projection with-
out much defect, those that are situated near the
margin are greatly enlarged, in consequence of
the increased obliquity of the visual rays as they
recede from the optic axis. +
Construction of the meridional projection.—
When the primitive circle is a meridian, the
point of view is upon the circumference of the
equator, the projection of which is a right line,
perpendicular to the axis of the earth, or to the
central meridian of the map. This construction
also embraces two distinct operations, the pro-
jection of the meridians, and that of the parallels
of latitude. *-
To project the meridians.—Let AB (fig. 3)
be the projection of the equator, PP' the axis
of the earth, and C the centre of the map, or the
projection of the point of view P, upon the plane
of the meridian APB P', considered as the pri-
mitive circle. All the meridians have PP' for
their common intersection, and their projections
being circles, the circumferences of these circles
will necessarily pass through the points P and P'.
When the distance between each pair of the me-
ridians is to be 10°, divide the arc B P’ into nine
equal parts in the points a, b, c, &c., and join
Pa, Pb, Pc, &c.; then the points 1, 2, 3, &c.,
where these lines intersect CB, will be the points
in that line through which the meridians must
respectively pass. Consequently, the method
by which they are to be drawn is reduced to that
simple problem in the elements of geometry, by
which a circle is described through three given
points. Now, if P 1 be joined, the angle A1 P',
will evidently be equal to the angle A1 P, and
consequently the line A B, which bisects the angle
P1 P', will pass through the centre of the circle
described through the three points. The same is
also true with respect to the angles P2P", P3 P',
&c., and therefore the centres of all the meri-
dians will be in the right line AB, or in that
line produced. If the lines P1, P2, P3, &c.,
be bisected, and perpendiculars drawn to these
lines, at the points of bisection, it is evident,
from the princples of geometry, that these per-
pendiculars will pass through the centres of the
circles described through these points; and, since
the line AB also passes through the centres of
the same circles, their intersections will neces-
sarily determine these respective centres. Now,
since a line drawn parallel to the base of any
triangle cuts the other two sides proportionally,
bisect PC in p, and draw p q parallel to C B,
which will evidently bisect all the lines P 1, P2,
P3, &c., in the points q, r, s, &c. From these
points draw the perpendiculars q0, ro', so", &c.,
intersecting AB in the points o, o', o', &c., then
will these points be the centres required.—
Hence, with the points o, o, o', &c., as centres,
and the lines o 1, o' 2, 0” 3, &c., as radii, describe
the circles P1 P', P2P", P3 P', &c., which will
be the meridians of the required hemisphere.
From the symmetry of the figure, it is obvious
that, if the distances Co, Co, Co", &c., be set
off on the line CB, from C towards B, and cir-
cular arcs be described from P to P', * op-
2
530
M A P. S.
posite side of PP, they will be the meridians
corresponding to P1 P, P2P, P3 P', &c.
To project the parallels. – Divide the qua-
drants PA and PB, so as to make the parts Pa,
a'b', b cº, &c., respectively equal to the parts Ba,
ab, b.c., &c.; then, since the parallel circles ought
to pass through the corresponding points aſ a ,
b'b', it is evident that their centres will be upon
the axis PP, produced. Join Ca', C b, Cc',
&c., and draw the lines a n, bºn', cºn", &c., per-
pendicular to Ca', C b', C.c', &c., and then it
may easily be proved, by the elements of geo-
metry, that these lines a n, bºn', c'n", &c., are the
radii of the respective parallels a a', bºb, c cº,
&c. Hence with n, n, n”, &c., as centres, and
the lines na', n' b, nº cº, as radii, describe the
circles a'a', b’b, c'c', &c., which will be the pa-
rallels required. If C P be produced, and the
distances Pn, Pn', Pn", &c., be set off from P',
they will give the centres of the corresponding
parallels to be described about the pole P'.
The following elegant construction is given,
by M. Puissant, in his Topography. To project
the meridians.—Let AB (fig. 4) be the projec-
tion of the equator, PP' the axis of the earth,
and C the centre of the map, or the projection
of the point of view upon the plane of the meri-
dian APB P', considered as the primitive circle.
Then the centres of all the meridians will be in
the line A B as before.—Divide the are AP into
any number of equal parts Aa, ab, b c, &c.;
draw the diameter a d", and through its extremi-
ties draw P'a and P'a', which will cut A B, and
A B produced, respectively, in the points n and
m. These points will be the respective projec-
tions of the extremities of that diameter of the
meridian passing through a point, of which the
longitude, with respect to the first meridian
PAP', is measured by the arc Aa. If, therefore,
from the middle of m n, as a centre, and with a
radius equal to half m n, the arc Pn P' be de-
scribed, it will be the projection of the required
meridian. Employing the same construction for
the points b, c, &c., we evidently have the pro-
jections of the other meridians; and, in conse-
quence of the symmetry of the figure, the same
method which answers for the semicircle PAP',
will also serve for P B P'. The meridian which
has its plane perpendicular to the plane of pro-
jection, APB, will evidently be represented by
the axis PP". If any difficulty be experienced
in comprehending this construction, it will only
be necessary to conceive, as in the preceding
case, the circle APB P' to turn about A B, so as'
to take a position perpendicular to the plane of
the figure; then the radius CP will be perpen-
dicular to that plane, P’ representing the point
of view, and the circle A P B P the equator, di-
vided into any given number of equal parts.
When the meridians are to be drawn through
every 10°, the number of these parts will be 36.
Now, if through the points of division a, b, c,
&c., we suppose the visual rays P’a, P’b, P’ c,
&c., to be drawn, their traces n, n', n”, &c., upon
the place of projection, will represent the corre-
sponding points of the meridians.
To project the parallels.-These circular curves
ought to pass through the corresponding points
of division hi', gg', f", &c., and their centres will
necessarily be situated on the prolongation of
the axis PP, and may be determined as follows.
Draw the right lines Bh and Bh', the first cut-
ting PP in r", and the other in r, and rr' will be
the diameter of the parallel. Since the three
points h, r", h', are upon the parallel h h', all is
given that is necessary for describing it. There-
fore, if with o, the middle of r r', as a centre,
and a radius equal to oh', the arch r" h' be de-
scribed, it will be the parallel answering to the
latitude h; and consequently if each of the di-
visions be 10°, it will be that to latitude 80°.
The same construction will give all the other pa-
rallels gg', f', &c.
Construction of the horizontal projection.—In
this construction the rational horizon is the
plane of projection; the point of view is the
pole of that horizon, and the meridian which
passes through the place for which the map is to.
be constructed is a right line, and is called the
principal meridian.
To project the meridians.—Let AIDBE (fig. 5)
be the horizon of the place; its centre C will be
the projection of the point of view, or of the pole
of that horizon. Let A B, also, be the diameter
which represents the principal meridian, or that
which passes through the middle of the map.
If the angle PCA be equal to the height of the
pole, and DE perpendicular to A B, the right
line P E cuts AB in a point p, which will be the
projection of the elevated pole of the globe P.
If EP’ be drawn and produced to meet the pro-
longation of AB in p', this point will be the pro-
jection of the depressed pole P'. The projection
of the meridians, all which intersect each other
in the points p and p", have their centres upon
the right line SS', perpendicular to the middle
of pp', at F. This line SS is called the line of the
centres of the meridians; and it is remarkable
that CF is equal to AT, which is the tangent of
the arc that measures the height of the pole. To
render the principles of this construction more
evident, suppose, as in the preceding cases, the
circle ADB E to be turned about AB, till it
becomes perpendicular to its primitive position.
In that state, PP” will represent the axis of the
earth, the radius C E will be perpendicular to
the plane of the figure, the point E, considered
as the point of view, will be projected into C ;
and the visual rays EP and EP' will evidently
meet the plane of projection in the points p and
p'. To determine the projection of the meri-
dians, a third point is requisite, and is thus
found. The meridian that has its plane perpen-
dicular to the principal meridian AB, cuts the
horizon in the right line DE, which is perpendi-
cular to A.B. Therefore, if from the point F as
a centre, and with the radius FD, the arc Dp E
be described, it will be the projection of the me-
ridian passing through 90° of longitude, reckoned
from the principal meridian A.B. The projec-
'tion of the equator does not present greater diffi-
culty; for, if the diameter QQ' be drawn per-
pendicular to PP', it will be that of the equator
and its projection upon the map will be qq.
Consequently, if from the middle of the line gº',
as a centre, and with a radius equal to # q6', or
equal to the cosecant of the latitude from the
centre of the map, the arc D q E be described,
Rí A
P S. 53}.
this arc will be the projection of half the equator.
One of the properties of the stereographic pro-
jection being that the angle formed by the pro-
Sections of two meridians, is equal to the angle
formed by these meridians on the surface of the
sphere, or rather by the intersection of their
planes in the axis of that sphere, from the point
p, as a centre, and with any arbitrary radius, as
p F, for example, describe a circle, divide it into
, as many equal parts as there are meridians to be
drawn, commencing at AB; if these are to be
10° from each other, the number will be 36.
Through all the points of division, draw radii,
prolonging them till they meet the line of centres
SS, in the points w, w, a ", &c., which will be
the centres of the projections of the meridians.
It is evident, however, from the symmetry of
the figure, that it will be sufficient to draw the
rådii in the first quadrant of the circle. But this
process becomes inconvenient in practice, on ac-
count of the great increase of the radius, when
the divisions approach the extremities of the
quadrants. In this case, the points where the
meridians meet the plane of projection may be
determined in the following manner. From any
point in the line A B, or its prolongation, as F,
for instance, let fall a perpendicular FK, upon
the line PP', and set off F k from F to k'; then
with this last point, as a centre, and a radius
equal to k'F, or with any other radius taken at
pleasure, but rather large, describe a circle, and
divide it into the same number of equal parts as
before. Next, draw the secants k n, k'n', k'n",
&c., through all the points of this division, and
their extremities, n, n, n", &c., in the line SS' are
upon the projections of the planes of the meri-
dians. Therefore, draw the right lines n Cu,
n' Cu', n"C u", &c., and the diameters um, u m',
u"m", &c., will be the projections required. We
shall consequently have three points u, p, m, &c.,
in each meridian of the map, from which the
curves themselves are easily drawn, by the me-
thod already explained.
To project the parallels—The parallels of lati-
tude in this projection are easily described; for,
their planes being perpendicular to the princi-
pal meridian A B, the diameters of their projec-
tions are obtained in the same manner as that of
the equator itself. Hence, after having divided
the circumference into the given number of
equal parts, draw right lines from the point of
view E to every two corresponding points of the
division. In the present instance E 1, and E1'.
The interval v vſ, intercepted between these right
lines, taken upon the meridian A B, will be the
diameter of a parallel. Here it evidently belongs
to the parallel drawn through the first division
from the pole, or 80°, since the arc AP measures
the height of the pole. But, for the parallels
which are very distant from the elevated pole-P,
this construction cannot be practised, because the
point v is then so distant from the centre of the
map. To obviate this inconvenience, the inter-
sections of the planes of the parallels with the
plane of projection AD BE may be traced.
These are necessarily parallel to D E, and
their distance from it is ,
_ sin. latitude of the parallel.
* † cos. altitude of the pole.
When the latitude is south, the pole. P being the
north pole, the value of a becomes negative;
then, instead of setting off the value on CA, it
must be set off on C B. It follows from this
that, if at the distance a from the line D E of the
diagram the parallel de be drawn, the points d
-y º
Cº. --~~
s
N
/ |\ \
AH-Hº-p
*— §:
&
F.
and e, which are common to that parallel, and
the circumference ADB E, belong to the parallel
required; but this circle also passes through a
point, as v, determined by the preceding me-
thod. We have, therefore, the three points ne-
cessary for describing the arc.
The inequality of the spaces as given by the
stereographic projection, observes Dr. Myers,
does not admit the employment of a rectilineal
scale for measuring the distance fiom one place
to another, which is always the are of a great
circle, but, by means of the graduation itself, the
distance between the centre of the map and any
other place may always be determined. Thus,
in a horizontal projection for London, the dis-
tance between that capital and any other place in
the hemisphere of which it is the centré may be
readily found, by means of this graduation. This
property results from the circumstance that all
the great circles passing through the centre of the
map cut each other in the optic axis, and have
right lines drawn through, this centre for their
projections. Hence they admit of a similar
graduation to that of the equator, in the hemi-
spheres constructed on the plane of the meridian.
Construction of the globular projection.—Ac-
cording to the explanation of this projection, and
its advantages, the distance EP, plate II. fig, 1,
being equal to Fg, which is the sine of 45°, let
the arc BID be divided into any number of equal
parts (10° each, for example) in the points a, b, c,
&c., and join Pa, Pb, Pc, &c. Then these lines
will cut the diameter AB in the points 1, 2, 3,
&c., and make the several divisions nearly equal
to each other. If, therefore, circles be described
through the points D.1 E, D 2 E, D3E, &c., by
the methods already explained, they will consti-
tute the meridians required. For, though these
meridians are not actually circles, the eccentricity
of the ellipses is so small that it is usually neg-
lected; but the elliptic meridians may be easily
drawn when the required accuracy renders it
necessary. The curvature of the circular meri-
dians near the middle of the map becomes so
small, and their radii, in consequence, so great,
that recourse must frequently be had to methods
of drawing them without compº Que of
- * 2 M 2

532 M A
P. S.
the most convenient instruments for this purpose
is two rulers, AC and B C (fig. 25), united to-
gether by a joint at C, so as to permit them to
form any given angle with each other, When
this simple machine is to be used, a steel pen, or
other suitable instrument for drawing lines, must
be fixed in the centre of motion C; and, the
map being stretched upon a smooth surface, this
centre is made to coincide with the point n (fig.
22); the edges of the rulers A B and BC resting
against two pins of metal fixed at the poles P
and P'. Then, without varying the angle ACB,
the point C is to be moved from n to P and P’
respectively, while the edges of the rulers are
still pressed against the pins at these two points,
and it will describe, the are PnP required.
With the new instrument already mentioned,
the elliptic meridians may be drawn with great
facility. In order to describe the parallels of
latitude, let AB (fig. 1) be produced to P' till
BP' be equal to Fg. Divide the quadrant AE
like BD, into any number of equal parts in the
points a, b, c, &c. Then if P'a', P’b, P'c', &c.,
be joined, these lines will cut CE in the points
1’, 2’, 3, &c., through which the parallels of la-
titude are to be drawn as before. As no con-
struction can represent a spherical surface with
accuracy on a plane, that which preserves the
greatest equality of ratio between the spaces
themselves and their representatives should be
preferred for geographical purposes. On this
account, the suggestions of . M. Parent, for di-
viding the diameters AB and DE (fig. 1) of the
plane of projection, as well as the circumscrib-
ing circle A E B D, into equal parts, deserve par-
ticular attention in constructing maps of all
extensive regions.
Mercator's projection is chiefly confined to
navigation charts. In this projection the meri-
dians, parallels, and rhumbs, are all straight lines;
but, instead of the degrees of longitude being
every where equal to those of latitude, as is the
case in plain charts, the degrees of latitude are
increased as we approach towards either pole,
being made to those of longitude in the propor-
tion of radius to the sine of the distance from
the pole, or cosine of latitude; or, what is the
same thing, in the secant of the latitude to ra–
dius. Hence, all the parallel circles are equal
and parallel straight lines; and all the meridians
are parallel lines also ; but these increase inde-
finitely towards the poles. . This proportional
increase of the degrees of the meridian makes
the length of an arc of the meridian, beginning
at the equator, proportional to the sum of all the
secants of the latitude ; or the increased meri-
dian bears the same proportion to its true arc, as
the sum of all the secants of the latitude to as
many times the radius. The increased meridian
is also analogous to a scale of the logarithmic
tangents, though this is not at first very evi-
dent.
The meridian line in the chart is, therefore, a
scale of logarithmic tangents of half co-latitudes.
The differences of longitude on any rhumb are
the logarithms of the same tangents, but of a
different species; those species being to each
other as the tangents of the angles made with
the meridian. Hence, any scale of logarithmic
tangents is a table of the differences of longi-
tude to several latitudes upon some one deter-
minate rhumb; and, therefore, as the tangent of
the angle of such a rhumb : tangent of any
other rhumb :: the difference of the logarithms
of any two tangents : difference of longitude on
the proposed thumb, intercepted between the
two latitudes, of whose half complements the
logarithmic tangents were taken.
This projection, it is clear, cannot be used for
ascertaining the distances of countries, or their
true figure, for the regions distant from the
equatorial line are enlarged prodigiously; in the
solution of geographical questions relative to a
ship's course, this, however, is not material.
The meridional increase is now generally calcu-
lated by tables of increasing latitude. See LA-
TITUDE.
Roads on maps are indicated by two parallel
lines, either plain or dotted, or frequently by
only one plain line. Rivers by undulating lines;
and both banks shown when the breadth is suffi-
cient to be measured from the scale. This is
often the case near their mouths, where the es-
tuary becomes greatly enlarged. Canals are
distinguished from natural rivers by representing
them by lines devoid of inflections. Coasts are
variously expressed; as by a single line, or a
line accompanied by shading towards the water;
but, in nautical charts, the shading is towards
the land. The boundaries of kingdoms, states,
and provinces, are usually marked by dotted
lines; and, to make these divisions still more
conspicuous, different colors are frequently em-
ployed. -
* In estimating the extent of a country or king-
dom,’ observes Dr. Myers, “the two following
cases must be distinguished from each other. When
the projection represents equal regions on the
surface of the earth by equal spaces on the map,
their areas are calculated, like those of plane
figures, by inscribing rectangles or triangles in
the spaces included within their boundaries; or,
by reducing them, by approximation to the case
of regular figures. In the other instance, when
equal regions on the globe are not represented
by equal spaces on the map, the superficies must
be estimated by means of the quadrilaterals
formed by the meridians and parallels.’ .
Maps also exhibit the face of the country, by
showing the form and variations of the terrestrial
surface, as the principal chains, or groups, of
mountains, the insulated summits, the lakes, and
other appearances. Various methods of denot-
ing the elevations have been devised. Buache
adopted the method of sections or profiles, drawn
according to given lines, to represent the inequa-
lities of the terrestrial surface. Dussain Triel
devised the method of tracing lines on the map
through all the points of the same altitude above
the level of the sea, and which would evidently
become coasts, could the sea by any means be
elevated to the altitudes at which these lines are
traced, in the same manner as the lines, which
join the equal soundings in nautical charts, would
become banks if the ocean were to sink to that
level. But into the minute delineation of these,
and other methods which have been devised for
this purpose, we cannot enter. -
M A R A C A I B O.
533
MAPALLA, a convenient bay on the coast fall in teaching, to the marring and maiming of the
of the Pacific, in the province of Ficaragua, and
not far from the lake of that name.
MAPLE, n. s. Sax, mapel ; Goth. mappel.
A tree of the acer genus. See AcER.
- The platane round,
The carver holme, the mapple seldom inward sound.
Spenser.
The pris'ner with a spring from prison broke;
Then stretched his feathered fans with all his might,
And to the neighb'ring maple winged his flight.
Dryden.
Of the rottenest maple wood burnt to ashes they
make a strong lye. Mortimer's Husbandry.
The maple-tree hath jagged or angular leaves; the
seeds grow two together in hard-winged vessels;
there are several species; the greater maple is falsely
called the Sycamore tree : the common maple is fre-
quent in hedge-rows. $ Miller,
His dwelling a recess in some rude rock,
Book, beads, and maple-dish, his meagre stock;
In shirt of hair and weeds of canvass dressed,
Girt with a bell-rope that the Pope has blessed.
Cowper.
MAPLE. See AcER.
MAPLETOFT (Dr. John), descended from a
good family in Huntingdonshire, was born in
1631. He studied physic, was educated at Tri-
nity College, Cambridge, and in 1675 was chosen
professor of medicine at Gresham College. He
translated Dr. Sydenham's Observationes Medicae
circa Morborum Acutorum Historiam et Cura-
tionem into Latin, and Sydenham dedicated
them to him. He married in 1679, and soon
after studied divinity, took orders, obtained the
vicarage of St. Lawrence Jewry, with the lecture-
ship of St. Christopher's in London; and, having
been a considerable benefactor to Sion College,
was in 1707 elected president. He continued to
preach till he was above eighty years of age;
and, in 1710, published The Principles and
Duties of the Christian Religion, &c., 8vo. ; and
sent a copy to every house in his parish. Besides
other pieces on moral and theological subjects,
there are, in the Appendix to Ward's Lives,
three of his Latin lectures on the origin and his-
tory of medicine. ---
MAPPA, in the public games of the Roman
circus, was a napkin hung out at the praetor's or
other great magistrate's seat, as a signal for the
race or other diversions to begin. The mappa
was received by the mapparius, from the consul,
praetor, or other great officer. Notice was an-
ciently given by sound of trumpet; but Nero is
said to have introduced the mappa, by throwing
his napkin out of the window to satisfy the peo-
ple, who grew noisy at the delay of the sports
while he was at dinner.
MAPPARIUS, in Roman antiquity, the
officer who gave the signal to the gladiators to
begin fighting, by throwing a handkerchief that
he had received from the emperor or other ma-
gistrate.
MAR, v. a. Sax. mennan, amynnan; Belg.
marren : Span. marrar; Gr. apapreo, sell apap-
rava, Minsheu. To spoil; hurt; injure; da-
mage.
His visage was so marred more than any man.
Isa. lii. 14.
The master may here only stumble, and perchance
scholar in learning. Ascham’s Schoolmaster.
Loss is no shame, nor to be less than foe,
But to be lesser than himself, doth mar
Both loser's lot, and victor's praise also.
Spenser's Faerie Queene.
I pray you mar no more trees with writing songs
in their barks. -
—I pray you mar no more of my verses with reading
them illfavouredly. Shakspeare.
The ambition to prevail in great things is less
harmful than that other, to appear in every thing;
for that breeds confusion, and marrs business, when
great in dependencies. Bacon's Essays.
'O' could we see how cause from cause doth
spring !
How mutually they linked and folded are :
And hear how oft one disagreeing string
The harmony doth rather make than marr. Davies.
Beware thine honour, be not then disgraced,
Take care thou mar not when thou think'st to mend.
Fairfar.
How too like is this (cracked) bell to a scandalous
and ill-lived teacher His calling is honourable ; his
noise is heard far enough ; but the flaw, which is
noted in his life, mars his doctrine, and offends those
ears which else would take pleasure in his teaching.
Bp. Hall.
Aumarle became the man that all did mar,
Whether through indiscretion, chance, or worse.
Daniel.
Ire, envy, and despair,
Marred all his borrowed visage, and betrayed
Him counterfeit. Milton's Paradise Lost.
Mother |
'Tis much unsafe my sire to disobey:
Not only you provoke him to your cost,
But mirth is marred, and the good cheer is lost.
Dryden.
An envious World will interpose its frown,
To mar delights superior to its own;
And many a pang, experienced still within,
Reminds them of their hated inmate, Sin.
Cowper,
And where the future mars or makes,
Its glance dilate o'er all to be,
While sun is quenched or system breaks,
Fixed in its own eternity. Byron.
MARACAIBO, or MARACAY Bo, a province
of Colombia, South America, which surrounds
the lake of that name. It is bounded on the
west by Santa Marta in New Grenada; on the
east by Coro and Venezuela; on the north by
Santa Marta and the Gulf of Maracaibo, and on
the south by Merida and Santa, Marta. Owing
to the great extent of the lake, this province ex-
tends but a short distance inland to the east and
west: its length is about 100 leagues.
The soil is unfruitful on the banks of the lake.
The east shore is dry and unhealthy; and, on the
west, the land does not begin to be fertile for
more than twenty-five leagues south of the city.
South of the lake, the country may vie with the
richest lands of this continent. The climate is in
general hot and unhealthy, excepting in the
southern parts, which border on the snowy
mountains of Merida.
Near the borders of the lake, west, notwith-
standing the heat of the climate, and the insalu-
brity of the air, several whites have fixed their
habitations to cultivate cacao; they are much
scattered, but have a chapel placed in the centre
o:4
M A R A C A 1 B O.
of their settlement, to which they all occasionally
TeSOIt.
The lake is navigable for vessels of any burden;
but this advantage is sometimes rendered useless
by a dangerous sand-bank across the entrance,
which is narrow, and on which vessels drawing
twelve feet water will occasionally touch ground.
Several small rivers empty themselves into this
lake; but the country is uninhabited excepting
by Indians; and, immediately on the shores,
nothing is known with accuracy concerning them.
The savage Goahiros from La Hacha prevent all
access on the western side, and keep the settlers
in alarm. It was from the Indian towns, built
on posts of iron-wood on the lake of Maracaibo,
that the Spaniards gave the country the name of
Venezuela, or Little Venice. Four of these are
yet standing, the iron-wood on which they are
founded becoming like a mass of stone from the
petrifying quality of the water. These villages
are situate on the east part of the lake, at unequal
distances from each other, and have a church,
which is also built in the water on piles, and to
which the inhabitants of the villages resort. The
population of this province is estimated at
174,000 souls. The chief towns, beside the
capital, are Truxillo, Gibraltar, La Barbacos,
and San Pedro.
MARAcAIBo, a city of Colombia, and the chief
town of the above province, is situated in N.
lat. 10° 30', and W. long. 71° 46', on the wes-
tern side of the strait which leads into the lake,
at about six leagues from the sea. . The soil
of the neighbourhood is sandy, and the climate
so much the more hot, as the sea breezes here
are faint, and far from regular. The soil is not
watered by any kind of running stream. From
the month of March to October the heats are
excessive; but those of August and July are in-
supportable. The air breathed at this period
appears as if it had issued from a furnace. The
trade-winds blow in general from the commence-
ment of March till June or July. August and
September are calm months, unless when they
are interrupted by the south wind, which in the
country they denominate, on account of its insa-
lubrity, the destroyer. They remark that, when
the breezes are moderate, the year is rainy; and,
when violent, that they are succeeded by droughts.
Maracaibo is very subject to tempests. The
thunder breaks with frightful explosion, and the
lightning sometimes strikes and consumes houses,
ships, and every thing which it meets. They do
not, however, experience earthquakes, nor those
furious hurricanes which often seem to threaten
the very existence of the Antilles. The deluges
of rain, which some of these tempests produce,
are so great, that they form a torrent, which tra-
verses the city with a rapidity which is incon-
ceivable, bearing trees along with it, and causing,
in proportion to its rise, desolation to houses,
and every thing in its course.
The principal part of this town is on the shore
of a small gulf, a league in length, which extends,
on the south, towards the broad part of the lake:
the other part is built on the neck to the north,
where the lake is only three leagues in width.
The place where the town begins is named
Maracaibo Point; that where the gulf commences,
Arieta Point; and opposite to that is Point Santa
Lucia. -
Many of the houses, built of lime and sand,
are in good taste; but most of the inhabitants.
adhere obstinately to the opinion, that tiles render
the houses destructive to the persons who inhabit
them, and continue in the custom of covering the
handsomest houses with a kind of reed, called
by the Spaniards enea. This mixture of houses,
covered with tiles and reeds, gives to the city the
air of a village, and offers to the flames food that
keeps it in constant danger. Maracaibo contains
one parish church, a chapel, and a convent of
Franciscans. -
As there are neither fountains, wells, nor river,
the people drink no other water than that of the
lake, which in taste is not agreeable, but in quality
by no means bad, except during the breezes of
the months of March and April. These drive up
the water of the sea against the current, and ren-
der that of the lake excessively brackish. The
poor can, in this case, quench their thirst only
with water which they procure by excavations in
the earth; but this is very far from wholesome.
The higher ranks have cisterns or jars in their
houses to collect the rain water. It was calcu-
lated, in 1807, that Maracaibo contained 25,000
inhabitants. Certain noble families here boast
of having descended from the first conquerors of
the province; but there are very few of these
primitive houses that now enjoy even an easy
mediocrity. Almost all experience so much
misery, that the idea of their illustrious origin is
the most grateful support with which they are
fed; for a Spaniard of that kind, once reduced to
indigence, is so for life. The shame of labor,
and love of indolence, makes him brave like a
hero all the horrors of want. The whites, not
noble, are Europeans or Creoles. This is the
class that lives with the greatest comfort, because
it is the only one which labors, and applies itself
to agriculture, navigation, commerce, the fisheries,
&c. The number of negroes at Maracaibo does
not exceed 5000. They exercise all kinds of
trades, are joiners, tailors, shoemakers, carpen-
ters, masons, and Smiths. The natives of the
town have, in the Spanish colonies, the reputa-
tion of being very witty. The Jesuits had a col-
lege here, which produced some distinguished
scholars, and it became the literary town of
America; but, with that order of clergy, their es-
tablishments fell. r
“In allowing that the inhabitants of Maracaibo
have activity, courage, and genius,’ says Depons,
‘we have nothing more to say in their favor.
They are reproached with having very little re-
gard to their word, and with thinking themselves
not bound by their signature, until after they
have in vain endeavoured to release themselves
from it by law. Their reputation in this respect
is so well established, that all strangers, whom
business draws to Maracaibo, say it is much
better to form connexions of interest with the
women than with the men, because they alone
have there that good faith and firmness which,
in every other part, is the peculiar heritage of
the men. Since the course of description has led
me,’ he adds, “to speak of the women of Mara-
caibo, I ought not to let it be unknown that they
MAR
5 MAR
o
53
are in their youth paragons of modesty; and, in
marriage, faithful wives, and excellent mothers
of families. Affection for their husbands, the
cares of their households, and the education of
their children, are the objects which divide all
their moments, and occupy all their solicitude.
They know not, however, before marriage, any
other amusement than music. Their favorite in-
strument is the harp. There are few houses in
which the harmonious sound of this instrument is
not heard every evening, and every day of festival.’
Maracaibo, we should add, is thought, on the
whole, a healthy residence. There are no epi-
demic complaints; and a man once seasoned to
the climate preserves his health as well and better
than in many other places where the heats are
less intense, and the means of refreshing himself
more multiplied. In July and August the most
usual preventive for the ill effects of the climate
is constant bathing in the lake.
The citizens of Maracaibo contract from their
infancy a taste for navigation, and repair in
crowds to Porto Cavello, Guayra, and the other
ports. They perform, with equal ability, coasting
of longer voyages. In those intervals when war
suspends their commercial enterprises they ein-
bark on board privateers. The neighbourhood
of the lake, in the waters of which they exercise
themselves in their early years, renders them as
excellent swimmers as expert divers. Those who
resist the attractions of the sea, raise herds of
cattle, or take care of those of their fathers.
Nothing better evinces their aptitude to this oc-
cupation than the immense number of beasts
with which the savannahs of Maracaibo are
covered. The principal ones are those of Jobo,
Ancon, Palmares, and Cannades. We ought to
mention, that there is more merit in raising cattle
in the savannahs of Maracaibo than in any other
place in these provinces, because, having neither
rivers nor ponds that never dry up, drought oc-
casions the death of many, in spite of the precau-
tions they take, in cases of this sort, to drive them
towards those parts where they can with con-
Venience water them. ---
At this port a bar of sand, which is but ten or
twelve feet under water, entirely excludes large
vessels, and with difficulty admits small ones.
Neither should any attempt to enter without a
pilot. As soon as she clears the bar, a vessel
has plenty of water, and good harbour. Three
forts protect the harbour. The best schooners
which sail on the Spanish Main are built in this
city. -
MARACANDA in ancient geography, the
capital of Sogdiana; now thought to be Samar-
cand, a city of Usbec Tartary, the royal residence
of Tamerlane. See SAMARCAND.
MARACAY, or MoRAcAo, a town of Colom-
bia, in the province of Venezuela, and situated
on the east side of the lake Valencia, in the val-
ley of Aragoa. Its sandy soil renders it, like
Maracaibo, healthy, but hot. Three-fourths of
the houses are built of stone, and with consi-
derable elegance as well as solidity : but the
streets are not paved. There is but one parish
church. The inhabitants are active and indus-
trious, possessing numerous plantations of cotton,
indigo, coffee, corn, &c. . Population 8400.
MARAGA, a well-built city of Persia, in
Aderbijan, pleasantly situated in a low valley,
opening to the large lake of Urumea, from which
it is distant about twelve miles. It has a spa-
cious bazaar, a glass manufactory, and a hand-
some public bath; and is encompassed with a
high wall. Inhabitants 15,000, of the Turkish
tribe of Mukudim. The gardens and plantations
are watered by canals, communicating with a
small river, over which there are two bridges.
The place is distinguished by the tomb of Hola-
kon, or Hulagon, a prince of the dynasty of
Zinghis Khan, who made this the place of his
residence. He built an observatory on a moun-
tain, close to the city, for the use of Naserul
Deen, the most famous astronomer of his age,
and the author of tables of latitudé and longi-
tude. Maraga has also several extensive excava-
tions, dedicated to religious purposes. It is
sixty-eight miles north of Tabreez. -
MARALDI (James Philip), a learned mathe-
matician and astronomer of the academy of sci-
ences at Paris, born in the county of Nice, in
1665. His mother was Angela Catharine Cassini,
the sister of the famous astronomer. His uncle
Cassini sent him to France in 1687, where he
acquired great reputation by his observations.
He made a catalogue of the fixed stars, which is
more exact than Bayer's ; and gave a great num-
ber of interesting observations in the Memoirs
of the Academy; particularly on bees and petri-
factions. He also assisted his uncle in construct-
ing the great meridian through France. He died
in 1729.
MARANA (John Paul), an ingenious writer
of the seventeenth century, of a distinguished
family, born in Genoa, where he was educated,
and made great progress in the sciences. Having
been engaged in the conspiracy of Raphael della
Terra, to deliver up Genoa to the duke of Savoy,
he was in 1670, when twenty-eight years of age,
imprisoned in the tower of that city. Being libe-
rated, in 1674, he was ordered to write the his–
tory of that conspiracy; but, when finished, he
was forbidden to publish it. When the republic of
Genoa was at variance with the court of France,
Marana, afraid of being imprisoned a second
time, retired to Monaco, where he again wrote
the history of the conspiracy in Italian; and, in
1682, went to Lyons to get it printed. From
Lyons he went to Paris, where his merit soon
acquired him powerful friends. Here he spent
the rest of his life in the society of men of learn-
ing: and died in 1693. His history of the con-
spiracy contains many interesting anecdotes, no
where else to be found. He also wrote several
other works; the best known of which is the
Turkish Spy, in 6 vols. 12mo., which was, in
1742, augmented to 7 vols. Of this ingenious
work there is an excellent English translation.
MARANHAM, or MARANAN, a province of
Brasil, comprehending the island of that name,
and part of the adjacent continent. It is bound-
ed on the east by Seara, north by the Brasilian
Sea, west by Para, and south by the country in-
habited by the Indians. There are annexed to
it, besides Maranham, the islands of Sipotuba,
Santa Ana, and Ygarapatoe. The climate, though
the country is so nearly under, the equinoctial
MAR
MAR
536
line, is pleasant and healthy, producing all kinds
of grain and fruits, cotton, sugar, and rice : of
maize there are two crops in the year; and the
dye woods are excellent. The tree which pro-
duces the annatto is also common.
MARANHAM, THE ISLAND OF, in the great gulph
of the same name, is twenty-six leagues in cir-
cuit, extremely fertile, and has 25,000 inhabi-
tants. The city of St. Louis, founded by the
French in 1612, is on the south side of the island,
and contains 10,000 inhabitants. It is the seat
of government of the three northern provinces,
and the centre of their commerce with Europe:
vessels of burden not venturing up to Para.
MARANTA, Indian arrow root, a genus of
the monogynia order, and monandria class of
plants; natural order eighth, scitamineae: cor.
ringent and quinquefid, with two segments
alternately patent. There are three species, viz.
M. arundinacea, comosa, and galanga, all her-
baceous perennial exotics of the Indies, kept
here in hot-houses for curiosity: they have thick,
knotty, creeping roots, crowned with long, broad,
arundinaceous leaves, ending in points, and up-
right stalks, half a yard high, terminated by
bunches of monopetalous, ringent, five-parted
flowers. They are propagated by parting the
roots in spring, and planting them in pots of
light rich earth, and then plunging them in the
bark bed. The root of the galanga is used by
the Indians to extract the virus communicated
by their poisoned arrows; from whence it has
its name of arrow root The arundinacea, or
starch plant, rises to two feet, has broad pointed
leaves, small white flowers, and one seed. It is
cultivated in gardens and in provision grounds
in the West Indies; and the starch is obtained
from it by the following process described by
Dr. Wright: ‘The roots, when a year old, are
dug up, well washed in water, and then beaten
in large deep wooden mortars to a pulp. This
is thrown into a large tub of clean water. The
whole is then well stirred, and the fibrous part
wrung out by the hands, and thrown away. The
milky liquor being passed through a hair, sieve,
or coarse cloth, is suffered to settle, and the clear
water is drained off. At the bottom of the vessel
is a white mass, which is again mixed with clear
water and drained : lastly, the mass is dried on
sheets in the sun, and is pure starch.' A decoc-
tion of the fresh roots, the doctor informs us,
makes an excellent ptisan in acute diseases.
MARASA, or MARASNA, a central town of
Africa, described by the Arabian writers of the
twelfth century as of great magnitude, and situ-
ated on the southern branch of the Niger, which
encompasses Wangara. -
MARAS'MUS, n. S. Gr. Hapaguoc from
pagatva', to turn flaccid. A consumption, in
which persons waste mnch of their substance.
Pining atrophy,
Marasmus, and wide-wasting pestilence. Milton.
A marasmus imports a consumption following a
fever; a consumption, or withering of the body, by
reason of a natural extinction of the native heat, and
an extenuation of the body, caused through an im-
moderate heat. Harvey.
MARAT (Jean Paul), one of the most bloody
of the French revolutionists, and a deputy to the
national assembly. He was assassinated in his
own house, while bathing, by Charlotte Cordé, on
the evening of the 13th of July, 1793. Marat
was the most violent enemy to the Brissotimes,
and, on the 12th of April 1793, proposed to ex-
terminate the conspirators. He was the con-
ductor of an inflammatory Journal, which
increased the discontents of the people, and con-
tributed much to the bloody scenes that fol-
lowed. As to his talents, he seems to have been
rather a man of activity than of genius; rather
quick than profound, and possessing more pene-
tration than judgment. . . .
MARATEA, a town of Naples, in Basilicata,
situated on the gulf of Policastro, and divided
into Maratea Inferiore, with 3600 inhabitants,
and Maratea Superiore, with 500. Ten miles
south-east of Policastro.
MARATHON, in ancient geography, one of
the hamlets of Attica; about twelve miles north-
east of Athens, towards Boeotia, near the sea.
The plain of Marathon, famous for the victory
of Miltiades over the Persians, is long and nar-
row, but consists chiefly of level ground, and
therefore admits the operations of cavalry, which
formed the main strength of the barbarian army,
and with which the Greeks were very poorly
provided. Here the Persians, under Datis,
pitched their camp, by the advice of Hippias the
banished king of Athens, who had solicited the
expedition, and had a perfect knowledge of the
country. The Persian army consisted of 100,000
infantry, and 10,000 horse. The Athenians were
in the utmost consternation. They had, upon
the first appearance of the Persian fleet, sent to
implore assistance from the other nations of
Greece; but some had submitted to Tarius, and
others trembled at the very name of the Persians.
The Lacedemonians alone promised troops; but
various obstacles prevented them from imme-
diately forming a junction with those of the
Athenians. This city, therefore, could only rely on
its own strength, but it possessed three brave ge-
nerals, viz. Miltiades, Aristides, and Themisto-
cles, who, by their patriotic exertions, kindled
the flame of heroism in the minds of the Athe-
nians. Levies were immediately made. Each
of the ten tribes furnished 1000 foot soldiers
with a commander. No sooner were the troops
assembled than they marched into the plain of
Marathon, where the inhabitants of Plataea in
Boeotia sent them a reinforcement of 1000 infan-
try. Scarcely were the two armies in sight
of each other, when Miltiades proposed to at-
tack the enemy. Aristides and several others
warmly supported this measure; but the rest,
terrified at the excessive disproportion of the
armies, were for waiting for the succors from.
Lacedaemon. Opinions being divided, they had
recourse to that of the polemarch, or chief of the
militia, to decide the matter. Miltiades addressed
him with the ardor of a man deeply impressed
with the importance of the existing circum-
stances:—‘Athens,’ said he, “is on the point of
experiencing the greatest of vicissitudes; ready
to become the first power of Greece, or subjected
to the tyranny and fury of Hippias. From you
alone, Callimachus, she now awaits her destiny.
If we suffer the ardor of the troops to cool, they
MAR
MAR
537
will shamefully bow beneath the Persian yoke;
but, if we lead them on to battle, the gods and
victory will favor us. A word from your mouth
must now precipitate your country into slavery
or preserve her liberty.” Callimachus gave his
suffrage, and the battle was resolved on. To in-
sure success, Aristides, and the other generals
after his example, yielded to Miltiades the honor
of the command which belonged to them in ro-
tation. Miltiades drew up his troops at the foot
of a mountain, on a spot of ground scattered over
with trees to impede the Persian cavalry. The
Plataeans were placed on the left wing; Callima-
chus commanded the right; Aristides and The-
mistocles were in the centre, and Miltiades every
where. An interval of nearly a mile separated
the Grecian army from that of the Persians. At
the first signal the Greeks advanced over this
space running. The Persians astonished at a
mode of attack so new, for a moment remained
motionless; but to the impetuous fury of the
enemy they soon opposed a more sedate and not
less formidable fury. After an obstinate conflict,
of some hours, victory began to declare for the
Grecian army. The right wing dispersed the
enemy in the plain, while the left drove them
back on a morass that had the appearance of a
meadow, in which they stuck fast and were lost.
Both these bodies of troops now flew to the suc-
cour of Aristides and Themistocles, ready to
give way before the flower of the Persian troops
in the centre. From this moment the route be-
came general. The Persians, repulsed on all
sides, found their only asylum in the fleet. The
conquerors pursued them with fire and sword,
and took, burnt, or sunk the greater part of their
vessels: the rest escaped by dint of rowing. The
Persians lost about 6400 men; the Athenians
only 192. Miltiades was wounded; Hippias
was left dead on the field, as were Stesileus and
Callimachus, two of the Athenian generals.
Scarcely was the battle over, when a soldier, worn
out with fatigue, resolved to carry the first news
of the victory to the magistrates of Athens, and,
without quitting his arms, he runs, flies, arrives,
announces the victory, and falls dead at their
feet. This battle was fought on the sixth of
Boedromion, in the third year of the seventy-se-
cond Olympiad, or 29th September, A. A. C.
490. The next day 2000 Spartans arrived, who,
in three days and nights, had marched 1200
stadia. The Athenians neglected nothing to
eternise the memory of those who fell in the bat-
tle. It had been usual to inter the citizens who
perished in war, at the public expense, in the
Ceramicus, without the city; but these were
deemed uncommonly meritorious. They were
buried, and a barrow was erected on the spot
where their bravery had been manifested. Their
names were engraven on half columns erected
on the plain of Marathon. In the intervals be-
tween them were erected trophies bearing the
arms of the Persians. An artist of eminence
painted all the circumstances of the battle in one
of the most frequented porticoes of the city: Mil-
tiades was there represented at the head of the
generals, exhorting the troops to fight for their
country. Pausanias examined the field of battle
about 600 years after this event; and found, on
the barrow ºf the Athenians, pillars containing
the names of the dead under those of the tribes
to which they belonged; another for the Platteen-
sians and slaves; and a distinct monument of
Miltiades, who survived the battle. The Mara-
thonians worshipped those who were slain in
battle. Many centuries have elapsed since the
age of Pausanias; but the principal barrow still
towers above the level of the plain. It is of
light fine earth, and has a bush or two growing
On 1 t.
MARATI, a nation of pirates, who inhabit the
northern coast of Madagascar, and have almost
laid desolate the Comorro Isles. They have
canoes forty-five feet long, by ten or twelve
broad, carrying from fifteen to thirty-five men.
In common years they send only thirty canoes;
but every fifth year they make a grand expedi-
tion of 100, and once occupied and destroyed
one with the Querimba Islands. They have even
threatened Mosambique. They wear crises like
the Malays, and use them dexterously.
MARATTI (Charles), a celebrated painter,
born at Camorano, near Ancona, in 1625. He
came a poor boy to Rome, when only eleven
years old ; and at twelve recommended himself
to Andrew Sacchi, by his drawings, after Ra–
phael in the Vatican. Sacchi received him into
his school, where he continued twenty-five years
till his master's death. He was often employed
in painting madonas and female Saints. From
the finest statues and pictures, he made himself
master of the most perfect forms, and the most
charming airs. He produced a noble variety of
draperies, more artfully managed, more richly
ornamented, and with greater propriety, than
even the best of the moderns. He was inimitable
in adorning the head, and the disposition of the
hands and feet. In his younger days he etched a
few prints, with equal spirit and correctness.
It would be endless to enumerate his celebrated
paintings. Innocent XI. appointed him keeper
of the paintings in his chapel and the Vatican.
Maratti erected two noble monuments for Ra-
phael and Hannibal Caracci, at his own expense,
in the pantheon. He died at Rome in 1713,
aged eighty-eight. -
MARATUBA, a cluster of six islands in the
Eastern Seas, off the east coast of Borneo. The
largest is about twenty-four miles in length from
north to south. It varies in breadth from twelve
to four miles. Long. 118° 35' E., lat. 2° 15' N.
MARAUDERS, in a military sense, a party
of soldiers, who, without any order, go into the
neighbouring houses and villages, when the army
is either in camp or garrison, to plunder and de-
stroy, &c. Marauders are a disgrace to the
camp, to the military profession, and deserve no
better quarter from their officers than they give
to the poor peasants, &c.
MARAVEDI, a little Spanish copper coin,
worth somewhat more than a French denier, or
half a farthing English. The Spaniards still cal-
culate by maravedis, both in commerce and in
their finances, though the coin itself is no longer
current among them. Sixty-three maravedis are
equivalent to a rial of silver; so that the piastre,
or piece of eight rials, contains 504; and the
pistole of four pieces of eight, 2016 maravedis.
In the laws of Spain, we meet with several kinds
of maravedis; Alphonsine maravedis, white
538
M A R B L E.
maravedis, maravedis of good money, maravedis
Combrenos, black maravedis, and old maravedis.
When we find maravedis albne, and without any
addition, it is to be understood of those mentioned
above. The rest are different in value, fineness
of metal, time, &c. Mariana asserts, that this
coin is older than the Moors; that it came from
the Goths; that it was anciently equal to a third
part of the rial, and consequently of twelve times
the value of the present maravedi. See CoINs.
MARAVI, a lake and country of Eastern
Africa, behind Mosambique, extending parallel
to the coast of the Indian Ocean, at the distance
of about 300 miles. The breadth of the lake is re-
ported not to exceed thirty or forty miles; its
length is not known, nor any details of the country.
MARAWAS, MARAvASA, a district of Hin-
dostan, in the Southern Carnatic, situated prin-
cipally between 9° and 10° of N. lat. To the
north it has Tanjore and the Polygar territory;
to the south Tinnevelly; to the west Madura; and
on the east the sea. In length it may be estimated
at eighty miles, by thirty the average breadth.
It is comprehended in the collectorship of Din-
digul.
This district possesses great advantages for ex-
ternal commerce from its maritime situation, and
the permanent establishment of a large public in-
vestment of cloth which employs its manufactures.
The southern division is well supplied with water
from streams and tanks. Near the coast the coun-
try is in general well cultivated, and is uniformly
flat. This district exhibits many magnificent re-
mains of the ancient Hindoo religion. At small
distances on the public roads are choultries and
pagodas, in the front of which are gigantic fi-
gures of ornamented horses, formed of bricks
covered over with chunam, and shaded by fruit
and lofty banyan trees. The principal towns are
Ramnad, Shevagunga, Armacotta, and Tripatoor.
It belonged at a remote period to the Hindoo
Pandean empire; in modern times it first is
traced into the possession of the rajahs of She-
vagunga and Ramnad ; the first of whom was
called the Great Marawa, and the second the
Little Marawa, both tributary to the nabob of
the Carnatic. The East India Company col-
lected the tribute of the two Marawas from the
year 1792; and, in 1801, by treaty with the
nabob of Arcot, obtained the complete sove-
reignty.
MARBURG, a town of Germany, the capital of
that part of Upper Hesse which belongs to Hesse-
Cassel, is situated chiefly on the right side of the
Lahn, on the side of a hill. At the top is a for-
tified castle, in which the landgrave once resided.
It has a Lutheran, Calvinist, and Catholic church,
a hospital, two infirmaries, an orphan-house, and
a work-house, with a school of industry. A uni-
versity was established here in 1527, which has
still 200 students, and large revenues; and at-
tached are a library, a botanical garden, a lying-
in-hospital, a chemical laboratory, and a veteri-
mary school. Population 6500. Forty-five miles
south-west of Cassel. •
MARBURG, a town of Styria, in Austria, on
the river Drave. It is the capital of a circle of
this name, and has a large old castle, a gymna-
sium, and a high school. It has also a brisk
trade in corn and wine, and well-frequented
annual fairs. Inhabitants 5000. The circle lies
between those of Gratz and Cilley, has an area
of 1330 square miles, and 173,000 inhabitants.
116 miles south by west of Vienna.
MAR’BLE, n.s., adj., & v. a. Fr. marbre;
MARBLEHEARTED. $Lt. 7/1(17°77207". .
A superior species of limestone, used in elegant
buildings and in statues; a small globe of stone,
used in play: made of marble; variegated ; also,
metaphorically, hard; unfeeling: to marble is
to variegate or make like marble.
There were white, green, and blue hangings,
fastened with cords of fine linen and purple, to silver
rings and pillars of marble: the beds were of gold
and of silver, upon a pavement of red, and blue, and
white, and black marble. + Esth. i. 6.
Thou marble hewest, ere long to part with breath,
And houses rearest unmindful of thy death. Sandys.
Shall I see far-fetched inventions? shall I labour
to lay marble colours over my ruinous thoughts? or
rather, though the pureness of my virgin mind be
stained, let me keep the true simplicity of my word.
Sidney.
He plies her hard, and much rain wears the marble.
- * Shakspeare.
Ingratitude thou marblehearted fiend,
More hideous when thou shewest thee in a child,
Than the sea monster. Id. King Lear.
What pity it was to see those goodly cedars of the
temple flaming up higher than they stood in Leba-
non! to see those curious marbles, which never felt
the dent of the pick-axe or hammer in the laying,
wounded with mattocks, and wounding the earth in
their fall ! * Bp. Hall.
A greater favour this disorder brought
Unto her servants, than their awful thought
Durst entertain, when thus compelled they prest
The yielding marble of her snowy breast. Waller.
Pigmalion's fate reverst is mine,
His narble love took flesh and blood,
All that I worshipped as divine,
That beauty now ’tis understood,
Appears to have no more of life
Than that whereof he framed his wife. Id.
Very well sleeked marbled paper did not cast any
of its distinct colours upon the wall with an equal
diffusion. Boyle.
Some dry their corn infected with the brine,
Then grind with marbles, and prepare to dine.
- Dryden.
The two flat sides of two pieces of marble will
more easily approach each other, between which
there is nothing but water or air, than if there be a
diamond between them ; not that the parts of the
diamond are more solid, but because the parts of
water, being more easily separable, give way to the
approach of the two pieces of marble. Locke.
Marian •
Marbled with sage the hardening cheese she pressed,
And yellow butter Martin's skill professed, Gay.
Marbles taught them percussion, and the laws of
motion ; nutcrackers the use of the leaver.
Arbuthnot and Pope.
The appendix shall be printed by itself, stitched,
and with a marble cover. Swift.
A fourth as marble, statue-like and still,
Lay in a breathless, hushed, and stony, sleep. Byron.
MARBLE, in natural history, a genus of fossils,
being bright and beautiful stones composed of
small separate concretions, moderately hard, not
giving fire with steel, fermenting with and soluble
in acid menstrua, and calcining in a slight fire.
M A R B L E.
539
The Latin word marmor is derived from the
Greek pappapsw, to shine or glitter. The co-
lors by which marbles are distinguished are
almost innumerable; but the most remarkable
are; 1. The black marble of Flanders. 2. Plain
yellow. 3. Yellow with some white veins. 4.
Yellow with black dendrites. 5. Yellow with
brown figures resembling ruins. 6. Black and
yellow. 7. Black and white. 8. Pale yellow,
with spots of a blackish-gray color. 9. Yellow,
white, and red. 10. Pale yellow. 11. Olive
color, with deeper colored cross lines, and den-
drites. 12. Brownish red. 13. Flesh-colored
and yellow. 14. Common red marble. 15.
Crimson, white, and gray. 16. Reddish-brown
lumps on a whitish ground.
18. Snowy white. The varieties of marble, nu-
merous as they are, have been improperly aug-
mented by virtuosos, and some people who
collect specimens for the sake of gain. The
Italians are particularly curious in this way; and
most of the names imposed upon marbles are
given by them. Every marble brought from an
unknown place is called by them antico; when
distinguished by a number of bright colors it is
called brocatello, or brocatellato. When they
want some of the originals to complete a whole
set of marbles they either substitute others which
have the nearest resemblance to them; or, lastly,
they stain white marbles according to their own
fancy, and impose them on the world as natural.
The finest solid modern marbles are those of
Italy, Blankenburg, France, and Flanders. Very
fine marble is also found in some of the Western
Islands of Scotland. Those of Germany, Nor-
way, and Sweden, are of an inferior kind, being
mixed with a kind of scaly limestone; and even
several of those above mentioned are partly
mixed with this substance, though in an inferior
degree. The specific gravity of marble is from
2700 to 2800; that of Carriera, a very fine
Italian marble, is 2717. Black marble owes its
color to a slight mixture of iron. Mr. Bayen
found some which contained five per cent. of the
metal; notwithstanding which the lime prepared
from it was white, but in time it acquired an
ochry or reddish-yellow color. Marble, when
chemically examined, appears to consist of cal-
careous earth; and is, iike limestone or chalk,
capable of being converted into a strong quick-
lime. Dr. Black derives the origin of marbles,
as well as limestone and marl, from the same
source, viz. from the calcareous matter of shells
and lithophyta. In one kind of limestone,
known by the name of Portland stone, and con-
sisting of round grains united together, it was
supposed to be composed of the spawn of fish;
but comparisons of other phenomena have ex-
plained it. It is plain that it has been produced
from a calcareous sand, which is found on the
shore of some of the islands in the southern cli-
mates. By the constant agitation the softer parts
are worn off, and the harder parts remain in the
form of particles that are highly polished, and
which are afterwards gradually made to concrete
together by causes of which we have yet no know-
ledge. There are indeed some few of the lime-
stones and marbles in which we cannot discover
any of the relics of the shells; but there are many
17. Bluish gray.
signs of their having been in a dissolved or lique-
fied state; so we cannot expect to see the remains
of the form of the shells; but, even in many of
the marbles that have the greatest appearance of
a complete mixture, we still find often the con-
fused remains of the shells of which they have
been originally composed. We should still find it
difficult to conceive how such masses should have
derived their origin from shells; but, considering
the many collections that we have an opportunity
of seeing in their steps towards this process, and
a little concreted together, so that by their going
a step farther they might form limestone and
marbles, we may see the possibility of their
being all produced in the same manner. Thus
vast quantities of shells have been found in the
ci-devant province of Touraine in France: and
indeed there is no place where they have not
been found. The lithophyta likewise seem to be
a very fruitful source of this kind of earth. In
the cold climates, where the moderate degree of
heat is not so productive of animal life, we have
not such an opportunity of observing this; but
in the hot climates the sea as well as the land
swarms with innumerable animals; and, at the
bottom, with those that produce the corals and
madrepores. We learn, from the history of a
ship that was sunk in a storm in the Gulf of
Mexico, the vast growth there is of these bodies.
About thirty years after they attempted to dive
into it, to get out a quantity of silver; but they
found great difficulty in getting it, from the ship
being overgrown with coral. Sir Hans Sloane
in the Philosophical Transactions, and in his
History of Jamaica, observes that the ship's
timber, the iron, and money, were all concreted
by the growth of the calcareous matter. So in
a tract of many thousands of years the quantity
of it should be very great ; and, as this is going
on through a very great extent of the bottom of
the sea, it will produce very extensive as well as
massy collections of calcareous matter. Accord-
ing to Sir William Hamilton, many variegated
märbles and precious stones are the produce of
volcanoes. See Philosophical Transactions, vol.
lviii. 12. -
MARBLE, ARTIFICIAL. The stucco of which
they make statues, busts, basso-relievos, and
other ornaments of architecture, ought to be
marble pulverised, mixed in a certain proportion
with plaster; the whole well sifted, worked up
with water, and used like common plaster. See
Stucco. A kind of artificial marble is also
made of the flaky selenites, or a transparent
stone resembling plaster; which becomes very
hard, receives a tolerable polish, and may
deceive a good eye. This kind of selenites
resembles Muscovy talc. Another kind is
formed by corrosive tinctures, which, penetrating
into white marble to the depth of a line or more,
imitate the various colors of dearer marble.
There is also a preparation of brimstone in imi-
tation of marble. To do this, provide a flat and
smooth piece of marble; on this make a border
or wall, to encompass either a square or oval ta-
ble, which may be done either with wax or clay.
Then, having several sorts of colors, as white,
lead, vermilion, lake, orpiment, masticot, smalt,
Prussian blue, &c., melt on a slow fire some
540.
M A R B L E.
brimstone in several glazed pipkins; put one
particular sort of color into each, and stir it well
together; then, having before oiled the marble
all over within the wall, with one color, quickly
drop spots upon it of larger and less size; after
this take another color, and do as before, and so
on till the stone is covered with spots of all the
colors you design to use. When this is done,
consider what color the mass or ground of the
table is to be ; if of a gray color, then take fine
sifted ashes, and mix it up with melted brim-
stone; or if red, with English red ochre; if
white, with white lead; if black, with lamp or
ivory black. The brimstone for the ground
must be pretty hot, that the colored drops on the
stone may unite and incorporate with it. When .
then the ground is poured even all over, put a
thin wainscot board upon it, while the brim-
stone is hot, making also the board hot, which
ought to be thoroughly dry, to cause the
brimstone to stick the better to it. When the
whole is cold, take it up, and polish it with a
cloth and oil, and it will look very beautiful.
MARBLE, CoLoRING. This is a nice art; and,
to succeed in it, the pieces of marble on which
the experiments are tried must be well polished,
and free from the least spot or vein. The harder
the marble is, the better will it bear the heat me-
cessary in the operation; therefore alabaster and
the common soft white marble are very impro-
per for performing these operations upon. Heat
is always necessary for opening the pores of
marble, so as to render it fit to receive the co-
lors: but the marble must never be made red
hot; for then the texture of it is injured, and the
colors are burnt, and lose their beauty. Too
small a degree of heat is as bad as one too
great; for in this case, though the marble receive
the color, it will not be fixed in it, nor strike
deep enough. Some colors will strike even
cold; but they never sink in so well as when a
just degree of heat is used. The proper degree
is that which, without making the marble red,
makes the liquor boil upon its surface. The
menstruums used to strike in the colors must be
varied according to the nature of the color to be
used. A lixivium made with horses' or dogs'
urine, with four parts of quicklime and one of
potashes, is excellent for some colors; common
lye of wood ashes is very good for others; for
some spirit of wine is best; and lastly, for others,
oily liquors, or common white wine. The co-
lors which succeed best with the peculiar men-
struums are these:—Stone blue dissolved in six
times the quantity of spirit of wine, or of the
urinous lixivium, and litmus dissolved in com-
mon lye of wood ashes. An extract of saffron,
and that color made of buckthorn berries, called
by painters sap green, both succeed well when
dissolved in urine and quicklime, and tolerably
well when dissolved in spirit of wine. Vermilion,
and a very fine powder of cochineal, also succeed
very well in the same liquors. Dragons' blood
succeeds in spirit of wine, as does also a tincture
of logwood in the same spirit. Alkanet root
gives a fine color; but the only menstruum to
be used for it is oil of turpentine; for neither
spirit of wine nor any lixivium will do with it.
There is another kind of sanguis draconis com-
monly called dragons’ blood in tears, which,
mixed with urine, gives a very elegant color
There are other colors which must be laid on
dry and unmixed. These are—dragons' blood,
of the purest kind, for a red; gamboge for a
yellow ; green wax for a green; common brim-
stone, pitch, and turpentine, for a brown color.
The marble for these experiments must be made
considerably hot, and then the colors are to be
rubbed on dry in the lump. Some of these co-
lors, when once given, remain immutable, others
are easily changed or destroyed. Thus the red
color given by dragons' blood, or by a decoction
of logwood, will be wholly taken away by oil of
tartar, and the polish of the marble not hurt by
it. A fine gold color is given in the following
manner:—Take crude sal ammoniac, vitriol, and
verdigris, of each equal quantities. White vitriol
succeeds best ; and all must be thoroughly
mixed in fine powder. The staining of marble
to all the degrees of red or yellow, by solutions
of dragons' blood or gamboge, may be done by
reducing these gums to powder, and grinding
them with the spirit of wine in a glass mortar.
But, for smaller attempts, no method is so good
as mixing a little of either of these powders with
spirit of wine in a silver spoon, and holding it over
burning charcoal. A fine tincture may thus be
extracted, and, with a pencil dipt in this, the finest
traces may be made on the marble while cold ;
which on heating it afterwards, either on sand or
in a baker's oven, will sink very deep, and remain
distinct on the stone. It is very easy to make the
ground color of the marble red or yellow, and
leave white veins in it. This is to be done by
covering the places where the whiteness is to re-
main with some white paint, or even with two or
three folds only of paper; either of which will
prevent the color from penetrating. All the de-
grees of red are to be given to marble by this
gum alone; a slight tincture of it, without the
assistance of heat to the marble, gives only a
pale flesh color; but the stronger tinctures give
it deeper : to this the assistance of heat adds
greatly. The addition of a little pitch to the
tincture gives it a tendency to blackness, or any
degree of deep red that may be desired. A blue
color may be given also to marble by dissolving
turnsol in lixivium, in lime and urine, or in the
volatile spirit of urine; but this has always a
tendency to purple, made in either of these ways.
A better blue is furnished by the Canary turnsol,
which needs only to be dissolved in water, and
drawn on with a pencil : . it penetrates very
deeply into the marble, and the color may be
increased by drawing the pencil, wetted afresh,
several times over the same lines. This color is
apt to diffuse itself irregularly, but may be kept
in regular bounds by circumscribing its lines
with beds of wax, or any such substance. It
should always be laid on cold, and no heat given
even afterwards to the marble. One great
advantage of this color is, that it is easily
added to marbles already stained with other co-
lors, is a very beautiful tinge, and lasts a long
time.
MARBLE, ELASTic, an extraordinary species o
fossil, of which there are several tables preserved
in the house of prince Borghese at Rome, and
M A R B L H N G.
541
snown to the curious. F. Jaquer, a celebrated
mathematician, has given a description in the
Literary Gazette of Paris. There are five or six
tables of it; their length is about two feet and a
half, their breadth about ten inches, and the
thickness a little less than three. They were dug
up, says abbé Fortis, in the feod of Mondragone;
the grain is either of Cararese marble, or of the
finest Greek. They seem to have suffered some
attack of fire. They are very dry, do not yield
to external impression, resound to the hammer
like other congenerous marbles, and are perhaps
susceptible of a polish. Being set on end, they
bend, oscillating backward and forward; when
laid horizontally, and raised at one end, they
form a curve, beginning towards the middle: if
placed on a table, and a piece of wood, or any
thing else, is laid under them, they make a sa-
lient curve, and touch the table with both ends.
Notwithstanding this flexibility, they are liable
to be broken if indiscreetly handled; and there-
fore one table only, and that not the best, is
shown to the curious. Formerly they were alto-
gether in the prince's apartment on the ground
floor. º
MARBLES, ARUNDEL. See ARUNDELIAN
MARBLES.
MARBLES For PLAYING, or MARBLE Bow LS,
are mostly imported from Holland; where it is
said they are made by breaking the stone alabas-
ter, or other substance, into pieces or chips of a
suitable size; they are put into an iron mill
which turns by water: there are several parti-
tions with rasps within, cut floatways, not with
teeth, which turn constantly round with great
swiftness; the friction against the rasps makes
them round, and, as they are formed, they fall
out of different holes, into which size or chance
throws them. -
MARBLED CHINA-wARE, a species of porcelain
or china-ware, which seems to be full of cemented
flaws. It is called by the Chinese, who are very
partial to it, tsou tehi It is generally plain
white, sometimes blue, and has exactly the ap-
pearance of a piece of china which had been
first broken, and then had all the pieces cemented
in their places again, and covered with the origi-
nal varnish. The manner of preparing it is easy.
Instead of the common varnish of the chima-ware,
which is made of what they call oil of stone and
oil of fern mixed together, they cover this with a
simple thing made of a sort of coarse agates, cal-
cined to a white powder, and separated from the
grosser parts by water, after long grinding in
mortars. When the powder has been thus pre-
pared it is left moist, or in form of a sort of cream,
with the last water that is suffered to remain in
it, and this is used as the varnish. Our crystal
would serve full as well as those coarse agates.
The occasion of the singular appearance of this
sort of porcelain is, that the varnish never spreads
evenly, but runs into ridges and veins. Those
often run naturally into a sort of Mosaic work,
which can scarcely be taken for the effect of chance.
If the marbled china be desired blue, they first
give it a general coat of this color by dipping
the vessel into a blue varnish, and, when this is
thoroughly dry, they add another coat of this
agate oil. - -
MARBLEHEAD, a post town and sea-port of
Essex county, Massachusetts, four miles and a
half south-east of Salem, sixteen north-east of
Boston, and from Washington 456 miles. Po-
pulation 5900. It contains a bank, a custom
house, two insurance offices, a market house,
alms house, two rope walks, an academy, and
five houses of public worship, two for Congre-
gationalists, one for Episcopalians, one for Me-
thodists, and one for Baptists. o
The academy was incorporated in 1792, an
is a respectable and flourishing seminary, having
a limited number of pupils, thirty of each sex,
under the care of a preceptor and preceptress.
The building is a spacious and handsome edifice.
The bank house is a superb edifice, erected in
1766 for a private mansion, at the expense of
f10,000 sterling, including furniture. It is
sixty-six feet long, forty-four broad, and thirty-
five high, of three stories; and contains the bank,
the custom house, and an insurance office.
This town is much more largely concerned in
the bank fisheries than any other in the United
States, and the business is carried on with great
spirit and enterprise. There are now employed
in the bank and coast fisheries 103 vessels, car-
rying 7739 tons, and giving occupation to 760
men; eighty of these vessels, of sixty tons and
upwards, are engaged in the fishery of the Grand
Bank and of Newfoundland. The shipping em-
ployed in foreign commerce amounts to .3794
tons. The total amount belonging to this port is
12,301 tons. The harbour lies in front of the
town, a mile long from north-east to south-west,
and half a mile wide, and is formed by a narrow
strip of land making a semicircle at the south-
west. It is very excellent, and may be en-
tered at all times, but is considerably exposed
to north-east storms. It is defended by fort
Sewall, which stands on a point near the entrance
of the harbour, and is one of the finest forts in the
country. It is formed by two angular batteries
of earth and stone, with a stone and brick wall
in their rear. The pieces mounted are two
twenty-four, and ten eighteen pounders. The
barracks, which are bomb proof, are capable of
accommodating a garrison of sixty or seventy
men, which is about the number now stationed
here.
Few towns in the United States suffered so
much as this during the revolutionary and the
late war. At the peace of December, 1814, no
fewer than 500 of her sons were in foreign prisons.
The situation of the town is remarkably salu-
brious. The average number of births in a year
is about 200: of deaths, including those abroad,
120.
MARBLETOWN, a town of Ulster county,
New York; ten miles south-west of Kingston.
Population 3363. -
‘MARBLING, the art of preparing and coloring
marbled paper. There are several kinds of mar-
bled paper; but the principal difference of them
lies in the forms in which the colors are laid on
the ground: some being disposed in whirls or
circumvolutions; some in jagged lengths; and
others only in spots of a roundish or oval figure.
The general manner of managing each kind is,
nevertheless, the same; the paper is dipped in a
542
M A R B L I N G.
solution of gum tragacanth, or, as it is commonly
called, gum-dragon; over which the colors, pre-
viously prepared with ox-gall and spirit of winé,
are first spread. The peculiar apparatus neces-
sary for this purpose is, a trough for containing
the gum tragacanth and the colors; a comb for
disposing them in the figure usually chosen; and
a burnishing stone for polishing the paper. The
trough may be of any kind of wood; and must
be somewhat larger than the sheets of paper, for
marbling which it is to be employed; but the
sides of it need only rise about two inéhes above
the bottom; for, by making it thus shallow, the
less quantity of the solution of the gum will serve
to fill it. The comb may be also of wood, and
five inches, long, but should have brass teeth,
which may be about two inches long, and placed
at about a quarter of an inch from each other.
The burnishing stone may be of jasper or agate;
but, as these stones are very dear when of suffi-
cient size, marble or glass may be used, provided
their surface be polished. The solution of gum
tragacanth must be made by putting a sufficient
proportion of the gum, which should be white,
and clear from all foulnesses, into clean water,
and letting it remain a day or two, frequently
breaking the lumps, and stirring it till the whole
appear dissolved and equally mixed with the
water. The consistence of the solution should
be nearly that of strong gum water used in mi-
niature painting; and, if it appear thicker, water
must be added; or, if thinner, more of the gum.
When the solution is thus brought to a due state,
it must be passed through a linen cloth; and, being
then put into the trough, it will be ready to re-
ceive the colors. The colors employed for red
are carmine, lake, rose pink, and vermilion; but
the last two are too glaring, unless they be mixed
with rose pink or lake, to bring them to a softer
cast; and carmine and lake are too dear for com-
mon purposes. For yellow, Dutch pink and
yellow ochre may be employed: for blue, Prus-
sian blue and verditer: for green, verdigris, a
mixture of Dutch pink and Prussian blue, or
verditer, in different proportions: for orange, the
orange lake, or a mixture of vermilion, or red
lead, with Dutch pink: for purple, rose pink
and Prussian blue. These colors should be
ground with spirit of wine till they be of a proper
fineness; and then, at the time of using them, a
little fish-gall, or the gall of a beast, should be
added, by grinding them over again with it. The
proper proportion of the gall must be found by
trying them; for there must be just so much as
will suffer the spots of color, when sprinkled on
the solution of the gum-tragacanth, to join toge-
ther, without intermixing or running into each
other. The solution of the gum-tragacanth must
then be poured into the trough; and the colors,
being in a separate pot, with a pencil appropri-
ated to each, must be sprinkled on the surface of
the solution, by shaking the pencil, charged with
its proper color, over it; and this must be done
with the several kinds of color desired, till the
surface be wholly covered. When the marbling
is proposed to be in spots of a simple form no-
thing more is necessary: but, where the whirls or
snail-shell figures are wanted, they must be made
by a quill; which must be put among the spots
*
to turn them about, till the effect be produced.
The jagged lengths must be made by the comb,
which must be passed through the colors from
one end of the trough to the other, and will give
them that appearance: but, if they be desired to
be pointed both ways, the comb must be again
passed through the trough in a contrary direc-
tion; or, if some of the whirls or snail-shell figures
be required to be added, they may be yet made
by the means before directed. The paper should
be previously prepared for receiving the colors,
by dipping it over-night in water, and laying the
sheets on each other with a weight over them.
The whole being thus ready, the paper must be
held by two corners, and laid in the most gentle
and even manner on the solution covered with
the colors; and there softly pressed with the hand,
that it may bear every where on the solution: after
which it must be raised and taken off with the
same care, and then hung to dry across a proper
cord, subtended near at hand for that purpose;
and in that state it must continue till it be per-
fectly dry. It then remains only to give the paper
a proper polish: in order to which, it is first rub-
bed with a little soap; and then must be tho-
roughly smoothed by the glass polishers, such as
are used for linen, and called the calendar glasses.
After which it should be again rubbed by a bur-
nisher of jasper or agate, or of glass highly
polished; for on the perfect polish of the paper
depend in a great measure its beauty and value.
Gold or silver powders may be used, where de-
sired, along with the colors, and require only the
same treatment as they, except that they must
be first tempered with gum water.
MARBLING of Books or PAPER is performed
thus: dissolve four ounces of gum arabic into
two quarts of fair water; then provide several
colors mixed with water in pots or shells; and,
with pencils peculiar to each color, sprinkle them
by way of intermixture upon the gum water,
which must be put into a trough, or some broad
vessel; then with a stick curl them, or draw them
out in streaks, to as much variety as may be
done. Having done this, hold the book or books
close together, and only dip the edges in, on the
top of the water and colors, very lightly; which
done, take them off, and the plain impression of
the colors in mixture will be upon the leaves;
doing the ends and the front of the book in the
Same manner. . .
MARBLING THE Covers of Books is perform-
ed by forming clouds with aquafortis or spirit of
vitriol mixed with ink, and afterwards glazing
the covers. See Book-BINDING.
MARCA (Peter de), one of the greatest orna-
ments of the Gallican church, was born in Bearn,
of an ancient family, in 1594. He first studied
the law, was made president of the parliament of
Bearn, and, going to Paris in 1639, was made a
counsellor of state. His literary merits appear
from his History of Bearn. By the king's order
he published a work, De Concordia Sacerdotii
et Imperii, sive de libertatibus Ecclesiae Gallicae,
in refutation of a book that appeared under the
title of Optatus Gallus: and on this account,
when, on the death of his wife, he was nominated
bishop of Conserans, the pope refused the bulls
in his favor, until by another work he explained
MAR
MAR
543
away all he had said to the limitation of the
papal power. He obtained his confirmation,
after seven years suspense, in 1648; was trans-
lated to the archbishopric of Thoulouse in 1652;
and was made minister of state in 1658. He
was made archbishop of Paris in 1662; and died
there soon after. His Posthumous Works, with
prefaces, notes, &c., were published by M. Ba-
luze. He is deservedly censured for accommo-
dating his learning and talents to his views of
interest and ambition.
MAR’CASITE, n. s. Fr. marcassite. An
old and exploded term for various ores difficult
of reduction. See below. -
Here marcasites in various figures wait,
To ripen to a true metallic state.
f Garth's Dispensatory.
The acid salt dissolved in water is the same with
oil of sulphur per campanam, and abounding much
in the bowels of the earth, and particularly in mar-
casites, unites itself to the other ingredients of the
marcasite, which are bitumen, iron, copper, and
earth, and with them compounds alum, vitriol, and
sulphur; with the earth alone it compounds alum;
with the metal alone, and metal and earth together,
it compounds vitriol; and with the bitumen and
earth it compounds sulphur : whence it comes to
pass, that marcasites abound with those three mine-
rals. Newton's Opticks.
The writers of minerals give the name pyrites and
marcasites indifferently to the same sort of body : I
restrain the name of pyrites wholly to the nodules, or
those that are found lodged in strata that are sepa-
rate: the marcasite is part of the matter that either
constitutes the stratum, or is lodged in the perpendi-
cular fissures. Woodward.
The term marcasite has been very improperly used
by some for bismuth, and by others for zinc: the
more accurate writers, however, always express a
substance different from either of these by it, sul-
jº. and metallick. The marcasite is a solid
ard fossil, naturally found among the veins of ores,
or in the fissures of stone : the variety of forms this
mineral puts on is almost endless. There are, how-
ever, only three distinct species of it; one of a bright
gold colour, another of a bright silver, and a third of
a dead white: the silvery one seems to be peculiarly
meant by the writers on the Materia Medica. Mar-
casite is very frequent in the mines of Cornwall,
where the workmen call it mundick, but more in
Germany, where they extract vitriol and sulphur
from it. Hill.
MARCASITE; in mineralogy, is a name that has
long been given indifferently to all sorts of
minerals ; to ores, pyrites, and semimetals.
Lately it seems to be confined to pyrites; and
Wallerius proposes to confine it to such pyrites
as are regularly formed. See PYRITEs.
MARCEL (G.), advocate to the parliament
of Paris, a French chronological writer of the
seventeenth century. He published, 1. Tablettes
Chronologiques, Contenant, avec ordre, l'etat. de
l'Eglise en Orient et en Occident; Amsterdam,
1696, 16mo. 2. Tablettes Chronologiques, Con-
tenant la suite des Papes, Empereurs, et Roys,
qui ont Regné depuis la naissance de Jesus
Christ en Europe, jusq'au present: 24mo. Paris,
1699, elegantly engraved on copper; both dedi-
cated to Louis XIV.
MARCELLIANS, a sect of ancient heretics
who flourished about the end of the second cen-
tury, so called from Marcellus of Ancyra, their
leader, who was accused of reviving the errors of
Sabellius. St. Epiphanius observes, that theres
was a great deal of dispute with regard to the
real tenets of Marcellus; but that, as to his fol-
lowers, it is evident they did not own the three
hypostases; for Marcellus considered the Son
and Holy Ghost as two emanations from the
divine nature, which, after performing their re-
spective offices, were to return again into the
substance of the Father; an opinion altogether
incompatible with the belief of three distinct
persons in the Godhead.
MARCELLO (Benedict), a celebrated musi-
cian, descended from one of the most illustrious
families in Venice. He lived in the beginning
of the eighteenth century, and composed an-
thems, cantatas, and other works, which the con-
noisseurs rank as high as any of the musical
compositions which the Italian school has pro-
duced. ‘He is the Pindar of music,’ says M.
de la Borde. “In analysing his works we dis-
cover a profound knowledge and great address;
but there is a difficulty attending the execution
of them which is almost insurmountable. It re-
quires a voice possessed of great powers, and
accustomed to the most extraordinary intervals.’
MARCELLUS (Marcus Claudius), a famous
Roman general, who, after the first punic war,
conducted an expedition against the Gauls. Here
he obtained the Spolia Opima, by killing, with
his own hand, Viridomarus, the king of the
Gauls. This success rendered him popular, and
soon after he was entrusted to oppose Hannibal
in Italy. He was the first Roman who obtained
Some advantage over this celebrated Carthagi-
nian, and showed his countrymen that Hannibal
was not invincible. The troubles which were
raised in Sicily by the Carthaginians, at the death
of Hieronymus, alarmed the Romans; and Mar-
cellus, in his third consulship, was sent with a
powerful force against Syracuse. He attacked it
by sea and land; but his operations proved long
ineffectual, and the invention and industry of
Archimedes baffled all the efforts, and destroyed
all the stupendous machines and military engines
of the Romans during three successive years.
The perseverance of Marcellus at last obtained
the victory. After this conquest Marcellus was
called to oppose Hannibal a second time. In
this campaign he behaved with greater vigor than
before; the greatest part of the towns of the
Samnites, which had revolted, were recovered
by force of arms, and 3000 of the soldiers of
Hannibal made prisoners. Some time after, in
an engagement with the Carthaginians, Marcel-
lus had the disadvantage; but on the next day a
more successful skirmish vindicated his military
character and the honor of the Roman soldiers.
Marcellus, however, was not sufficiently vigilant
against the snares of his adversary. He impru-
dently separated himself from his camp, and was
killed in an ambuscade, in the sixtieth year of
his age, in his fifth consulship, A.U. C. 544.
His body was honored with a magnificent fune-
ral by the conqueror, and his ashes were con-
veyed in a silver urn to his son.
MARCELLUs, a post town of Onondaga county,
New York, ten miles west of Onondaga, and 157
MAR 544
MAR
wº
west of Albany. Population 4725. This is a
large and valuable agricultural town, has some
manufacturing establishments, and contains two
considerable villages, Marcellus and Skenea-
‘tiles. r
MARCH, v. n., v. a., & n.s. Sax, meanc; Fr.
marcher; as Junius thinks, from Mars, the god of
war; others, from he Goth. markga, to go in
a measured pace. See MARK. To move in an
orderly or military manner: put in military or
regular movement: such movement, a soldier's
journey; a signal to march; a deliberate or
laborious walk.
He marched in battle array with his power against
Arphaxad. Judges i. 13.
lexirtus finding that, if nothing else, famine
would at last bring him to destruction, thought bet-
ter by humbleness to creep where by pride he could
Inot march. Sidney.
The drums presently striking up a march, they
make no longer stay, but forward they go directly.
Knolles.
- Well march we on,
To give obedience where tis truly owed.
Shakspeare.
Doth York intend no harm to us,
That thus he marched with thee arm in arm 2 Id.
Our bodies every footstep that they make,
March towards death, until at last they die.
Davies.
These troops came to the army harassed with a
long and wearisome march, and cast away their arms
and garments, and fought in their shirts.
Bacon's War with Spain.
Who is there so incurably heartless, so desperately
sluggish or stupid, whom the sight of a valiant
leader, marching before into the mouth of danger,
will not infuse fire and vigor into ? Barrow.
Cyrus marching his army for divers days over
mountains of snow, the dazzling splendor of its
whiteness prejudiced the sight of very many of his
soldiers. Boyle on Colors.
My father, when some days before his death
He ordered me to march for Utica,
Wept o'er me. Addison’s Cato.
We came to the roots of the mountain, and had a
very troublesome narch to gain the top of it.
Addison on Italy.
March them again in fair array,
And bid them form the happy day;
The happy day designed to wait
On William's fame, and Europe's fate. Prior.
Who should command, by his Almighty nod,
These chosen troops unconscious of the road,
a farm-house.
And unacquainted with the appointed end,
Their marches to begin, and thither tend. Blackm.
Waller was smooth, but Dryden taught to join
The varying verse, the full resounding line, {
The long majestic march, and energy divine.
Pope.
In a fortnight or three weeks, added my tºle
Toby, smiling, he might march—He will never march,
an' please your honour, in this world, said the cor-
poral.—He will march, said my uncle Toby, rising
up from the side of the bed, with one shoe off:—An’
please your honour, said the corporal, he will never
march but to his grave. Sierme.
Had he continued in that station, I must have
marched off to be one of the little underlings about
Burns.
MARCH, n.s. Lat. martius, of Mars. See
below. Fr. Mars ; Teut. Mertz. The third month
of the year.
March is drawn in tawny, with a fierce aspect, a
helmet upon his head, to shew this month was dedi-
cated to Mars.
MARCH, MARTIUs. Among the Romans,
March was the first month; and in some eccle-
siastical computations that order is still pre-
served; particularly in reckoning the number of
years from the incarnation of our Saviour, from
the 25th of March. Romulus divided the year
into months; to the first of which he gave the
name of his supposed father, Mars. Ovid, how-
ever, observes, that the people of Italy had the
month of March before Romulus's time; but
that they placed it very differently, some making
it the third, others the fourth, some the fifth, and
others the tenth month of the year. In this
month the Romans sacrificed to Anna Perenna;
began their comitia; adjudged their public farms
and leases; the mistresses served the slaves and
servants at table, as the masters did in the Sa-
turnalia; and the vestals renewed the sacred fire.
This month was always under the protection of
Minerva, and consisted of thirty-one days. The
ancients held this an unhappy month for marriage,
fearing lest, as in some of our modern dwel-
lings, Mars should intrude himself amongst the
household gods.
MARCH, in the military art. In the marches
of the Jewish armies they made use of trumpets,
to the different sounds of which they prepared
them by packing up their baggage, putting them-
selves in readiness, and attending at the stand-
ards to wait the signal for "marching. The
Rabbies suppose that the Israelites marched in
the same order they were placed in the camp.
The Greeks never marched against their enemies
till favorable omens encouraged their enterprise.
An eclipse of the moon, or any untoward acci-
dent, or the intervening of what they esteemed
an unlucky day, entirely prevented their march.
But of all the Greeks the Lacedemonians were
the most nice and scrupulous. The heavenly
bodies directed all their motions; and it was an
invariable maxim with them never to march be-
fore the full moon. The Greeks are particularly
remarked by Homer for marching in good order
and profound silence; whereas the barbarian
forces were all noise, clamor, and confusion.
Peacham.
The marches of the Roman armies were per-
formed with the greatest order and despatch,
insomuch that their unexpected presence often
damped the spirits of their enemies. The Ro-
man soldiers were inured to the military pace,
that is, to walk twenty miles in five hours, though
they carried burdens of sixty pounds weight.
Of all the mechanical parts of war, in modern
times, none is more essential than that of march-
ing. It may be justly called the key which leads
to all sublime motions and manoeuvres of an
army; for they depend entirely on this point. A
man can he attacked in four different ways; in
the front, on both flanks, and in the rear; but
he can defend himself, and annoy the enemy,
only when placed with his face towards him.
Hence it follows that the general object of
marching is reduced to three points only ; to
march forwards, and on both sides, because it is
impossible to do it for any time backwards, and
by that means face the enemy, wherever he pre-
MAR
MAR
545
sents himself. The order of march of the troops
must be so disposed, that each should arrive at
their rendezvous, if possible, on the same day.
The quarter-master general, or his deputy, with
an able engineer, should reconnoitre the country,
to obtain a perfect knowledge of it and the enemy,
before he forms his routes. Before a march, the
army generally receives several days’ bread. The
quarter-masters, camp color-men, and pioneers,
parade according to orders, and march immedi-
ately after, commanded by the quarter-master
general or his deputy. They are to clear the
roads, level the ways, make preparations for
the march of the army, &c. The general, for
instance, beats at two o'clock, the assembly at
three, and the army is to march in twenty mi-
nutes after. Upon beating the general, the vil-
lage and general officers, guards, quarter and
rear-guards, join their respective corps; and the
army pack up their baggage. Upon beating the
assembly, the tents are to be struck, and sent,
with the baggage, to the place appointed, &c.
The companies draw up in their several streets,
and the rolls are called. At the time appointed,
the drummers are to beat a march, and fifers
play at the head of the line, upon which the
companies march out from their several streets
form battalions as they advance to the head
of the line, and then halt. The several batta-
lions are formed into columns by the adju-
tant-general, and the order of march, &c., is
given to the general officers who lead the co-
lumns. The cavalry generally march by regi-
ments or squadrons. The heavy artillery always
keep the great roads in the centre of the columns,
escorted by a strong party of infantry and ca-
valry. The field pieces accompany the columns.
Each soldier generally marches with thirty-six
round of powder and ball, and two good flints;
one of which is to be fixed in the cock of his
firelock. The routes must be formed so that no
columns cross one another on the march.
MARCHAND (John Lewis), a native of
Lyons, who shares with the celebrated D'Aquin
the glory of having carried the art of playing on
the organ to the highest perfection. When very
young he went to Paris; and, happening to be
in the chapel of the college of Louis XIV.
when they were waiting for the organist, he
offered to supply his place. His playing gave
so great satisfaction, that the Jesuits kept him in
the college, and supplied him with every facility
for improvement. He continued to play the
organ of their chapel; and, though many advan-
tageous places were offered him, he refused to
accept them. He died in Paris in 1732, aged
sixty-three. He composed two books of Pieces
for the Harpsichord, much esteemed by the con-
noisseurs. -
MARCHAND (Prosper), was brought up in Paris
to the profession of a bookseller, and in the
knowledge of books. He corresponded with
several learned men, among whom was Bernard,
the continuator of the Nouvelles de la Republique
des Lettres, and furnished him with the literary
anecdotes of France. Marchand, having em-
braced the Protestant religion, went to join Ber-
nard in Holland, where, by his knowledge of
books, he was so eminently distinguished, that
Vol. XIII. º
he was consulted from all parts of Europe. He
was also one of the principal authors of the Jour-
nal Literaire, and furnished extracts for the other
journals. He died at an advanced age, June
14th, 1756, and left his fortune to a society insti-
tuted at the Hague for the education of poor
people. His library and MSS. were left by his
will to the University of Leyden. He wrote, 1.
The History of Printing; a work full of erudition
and critical discussions ; Hague, 1740, 4to.
Abbé Mercier, of Saint-Leger de Soissons, gave,
in 1776, 4to., a supplement to this history, which
is equally curious and accurate. 2. A Histori-
cal Dictionary, or Memoirs Critical and Lite-
rary; Hague, 1758, 2 vols. folio. 3. A new
edition of Bayle's Dictionary; and, 4. Letters
on the Cymbalum Mundi, &c.
MARCHAND ISLAND, an island of the South
Pacific Ocean, discovered by captain Marchand,
and forming one of a group called by him Revo-
lution Islands. It was only seen at a distance,
and appeared to be mountainous. Long. 142°
19'W., lat. 9° 21' S.
MARCHANTIA, in botany, a genus of the
natural order of algae, and cryptogamia class
of plants: MALE CAL. peltated, and covered be-
low with monopetalous corollae; the antherae are
multifid: FEMALE CA[.. sessile, campanulated,
and polyspermous. There are eight species, the
most remarkable are,
1. M. conica, or conic mushroom merchantia,
with warted leaves, grows on moist shady banks
by the sides of rivulets. The leaves are broad,
flat, about two inches long, dichotomous, obtusely
lobed, and lie upon one another. Their surface
is of a pale green glossy color, curiously tessel-
iated with rhomboidal and hexagonal tubercles,
each having a white vesicle in the centre, with a
puncture on its head. The leaves have a pecu-
liarly strong fragrant smell, and acrid aromatic
taste. They are said to possess the same attenu-
ating quality as the polymorpha, but in a higher
degree. They are also recommended as anti-
scorbutic.
2. M. polymorpha, or great star-handed mar-
chantia, is a native of Britain, growing on the
banks of rivulets, on shady moist rocks, the sides
of wells, and sometimes bogs. The leaves are
about three inches long; from half an inch to an
inch broad, lying flat on the ground, and adher-
ing closely to it by numerous downy radicles,
which grow out of the middle and base of the
leaf on the under side. These leaves are situated
on their edges, their upper surface of a dark,
shining, green color, reticulated with numerous,
minute, rhomboidal, or lozenge-like scales; vari-
ously divided into obtuse lobes, and in the
middle by a blackish purple vein; their under
side is paler, and their substance coriaceous, and
nearly opaque. There are three varieties, from
one of which is produced a yellow powder,
showing a most curious mechanism by the micro-
scope. The leaves have a strong aromatic smell,
and acrid taste; and are recommended, in a
decoction of skimmed milk, for the jaundice and
disorders of the liver.
, MARCHE, a town of the Netherlands, in the
province of Liege. Population 1400. Thirty
miles south of Namur. N :
• 2
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MAR
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546
MARCHERS, or Lords MARCHERs, were no-
blemen who lived on the marches of Wales or
Scotland, and, according to Camden, had their
laws and potestatem vitae, &c., like petty kings,
which are abolished by the stat. 27 Hen. VIII.,
c. 26, and 1 Edw. VI. c. 10. In old records the
lords marchers of Wales were styled Marchiones
de Marchia Walliae.
MARCH'ES, n.s. Q Sax, meanc, Fr. marche;
MARCH'ER, n.s. 5 Goth. marcu. Borders;
limits; confines: the marcher was the ruler or
president of the marches.
They of those marches
Shall be a wall sufficient to defend
Our inland from the pilfering borderers.
Shakspeare.
The English colonies were enforced to keep con-
tinual guards upon the borders and marches round
them. Davies.
Many of our English lords made war upon the
Welshmen at their own charge ; the lands which
they gained they held to their own use; they were
called lords marchers, and had royal liberties. Id.
MARCHES (marchia, from the German march,
i.e. lines, or from the French marque, a sign),
the notorious distinction between two coun-
tries or territories. Marches, in British geogra-
phy, are the limits between England and Wales,
or between England and Scotland, which last
are divided into west and middle marches;
by 4 Hen. V. c. 7; 22 Ed. IV. c. 8; 24 Hen.
VIII. c. 9. There was formerly a court called
the court of the marches of Wales, where pleas
of debt or damages, not above the value of £50,
were tried and determined; and if the council
of the marches held pleas for debts above that
sum, &c., a prohibition might be awarded.
MARCHET, or MARCHETTA, a pecuniary
fine, anciently paid by the tenant to his lord, for
tne marriage of one of the tenant's daughters.
This custom obtained, with some difference,
throughout all England and Wales, as also in
Scotland; and it still continues to obtain in some
places. According to the custom of the manor
of Dinover, in Caermarthenshire, every tenant
at the marriage of his daughter pays 10s. to the
lord; which, in the British language, is called
gwahrmercned, i. e. maid's fee. In Scotland,
and the north of England, the custom was for
the lord to pass the first night with the bride of
his tenant; but this abominable usage was abro-
gated by king Malcolm III., at the instance of
his queen; and instead thereof a mark was paid
by the bridegroom to the lord ; whence it was
called marchetta mulieris, See Borough, ENG-
LISH.
MARCHIONESS, n.s. From Lat. marchio.
The lady of a marquis.
I thought I wol with other maidens stond,
That ben my felawes, in our dore, and see
The marchisesse. Chaucer. Cant. Tales.
The king's majesty +
Does purpose honour to you, no less flowing
Than marchioness of Pembroke.
Shakspeare. Henry VIII.
From a private gentlewoman he made me a march-
ioness, and from a marchioness a queen, and now he
intends to crown my innocency, with the glory of
martyrdom. Bacon's Apophthegms,
t
The lady marchioness, his wife, solicited very dili-
gently the timely preservation of her husband.
- - - - Clarendon.
MARCH'PANE, n.s. Fr. massepane. Cor-
rupted from Lat. massa panis. A kind of sweet
bread or biscuit. t -
Along whose ridge such bones are met,
Like comfits round in marchpane set. Sidney.
MARCIANUS I., emperor of Constanti-
nople, a native of Thrace, born of an obscure
family. After he had for some time served in
the army, as a common soldier, he was made
private secretary to one of the officers of Theo-
dosius. His address and talents raised him,
and on the death of Theodosius II., A. D. 450,
he was invested with the imperial purple. He
showed himself active and resolute; and when
Attila, the barbarous king of the Huns, demand-
ed the annual tribute, which his cowardly prede-
cessors had regularly paid, he firmly said, that
‘ he kept his gold for his friends, but that iron
was the metal which he had prepared for his
enemies.’ In the midst of universal popularity
Marcianus died, after a reign of six years, in
the sixty-ninth year of his age, as he was making
preparations against the barbarians that had
invaded Africa. His death was long lamented;
and his reign has been called the golden age.
He married Pulcheria the sister of Theodosius.
In the years of his obscurity he found a man
who had been murdered, and had the humanity
to give him a private burial: from which cir-
cumstance he was accused of the homicide,
imprisoned, and condemned to death ; and the
sentence would have been executed had not the
real murderer been discovered.
MAR’CID, adj. Lat. marcidus.
ing; withered.
A burning colliquative fever, the softer parts being
melted away, the heat continuing its adustion upon
the drier and fleshy parts, changes into a marcid
fever. Harvey. .
He on his own fish pours the noblest oil;
That to your marcid dying herbs assigned,
By the rank smell and taste betrays its kind.
Dryden.
MARCION, the founder of the Marcionites,
a native of Pontus, and son of a bishop. He
at first made profession of the monastic life, but
was excommunicated by his father, who would
never admit him again into the communion of
the church. On this he abandoned his own
country, and retired to Rome, where he began
to preach. He laid down two principles, the
one good, the other evil; between these he ima-
gined an intermediate kind of deity of a mixed
nature, who was the creator of this inferior
world, and the god and legislator of the Jewish
nation. The other nations, who worshipped a
variety of gods, he supposed to be under the
empire of the evil principle. These two con-
flicting powers exercise oppressions upon rational
and immortal souls; and therefore the Supreme
God, to deliver them from bondage, sent to the
Jews a being more like unto himself, his son
Jesus Christ, clothed with a certain shadowy
resemblance of a body: this celestial messenger
was attacked by the prince of darkness, and by
the god of the Jews, but without effect. Those
Lean; pin-
MAR
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547
who follow the directions of this celestial con-
ductor, mortify the body by fastings and auste-
rities, and renounce the precepts of the god of
the Jews, and of the prince of darkness, shall
after death ascend to the mansions of felicity and
perfection. The rules which Marcion prescribed
to his followers were excessively austere, ex-
pressly prohibiting wedlock, wine, flesh, and all
the external comforts of life. Marcion denied
the real birth, incarnation, and passion of Jesus
Christ, and held them to be all apparent only.
He denied the resurrection of the body; and
allowed none to be baptised but those who pre-
served their continence; but these might be
baptised three times. In many things he follow-
ed the sentiments of Cerdon, and rejected the
law and the prophets. He pretended the gospel
had been corrupted by false prophets, and allowed
none of the evangelists but St. Luke, whom also
he altered in many places, as well as the epistles
.0f St. Paul.
MARCIONI$TAE, MARCIONISTs, or MARCI-
oNITES, a very ancient and popular sect of here-
tics, who, in the time of St. Epiphanius, spread
over Italy, Egypt, Palestine, Syria, Arabia, Per-
sia, and other countries: so named from their
author Marcion.
MARCOMANNI, an ancient people of Ger-
many, who seem to have taken their name from
their situation on the marches, east of the Upper
Rhine, and north of the Danube. Cluverius
allots to them the duchy of Wurtemburg, a part
of the palatinate between the Rhine and the
Neckar, the Brisgau, and a part of Suabia, lying
between the springs of the Danube and the Bre-
gentz : they afterwards removed to the country
of the Boii, whom they drove more to the east,
occupying what is now called Bohemia.-Strabo,
Villeius.
MARCOSIANS, or Colobarsians, an an-
cient sect in the church, a branch of the Valen-
tinians. St. Irenaeus speaks at large of the leader
of this sect, Marcus, who was reputed a great
magician. The Marcosians had a great number
of apocryphal books, which they held cano-
nical.
MARCOUR, n.s. Lat. marcor.
the state of withering; waste of flesh.
Considering the exolution and languor ensuing the
action of venery in some, the extenuation and mar-
cour in others, it much abridgeth our days.
Browne's Vulgar Errours.
A marcour is either imperfect, tending to a lesser
withering, which is curable; or perfect, that is, an
entire wasting of the body, excluding all means of
cure. - - Harvey,
MARE, n.s. Sax. mane; Dan. mar; Goth.
mer (while, oddly enough, Goth. mare is a
horse). The female of a horse.
A pair of coursers born of heavenly breed,
Whom Circe stole from her celestial sire,
By substituting mares, produced on earth,
Whose wombs conceived a more than mortal birth.
- - t Dryden.
MARE, n, s. Sax. maene; Goth. maer; Dan.
and Teut. mare. Also designated as the night
maré, or incubus; an oppression felt on the sto-
mach in sleep. The northern nations called
any female elf or phantom bv. the name of
Leanness;
mare, Minsheu says “because they that be
troubled with this disease in the night are so
pressed that they seem to have a whole horse laid
on them; or that horses, or chiefly mares, are.
troubled herewith, that in the morning you shall
find them all in a sweat.”
Mab, his merry queen by night,
Bestrides young folks that lie upright,
In elder times the mare that hight,
Which plagues them out of measure.
Drayton.
Mushrooms cause the incubus, or the mare in the
stomach. Bacon's Natural History.
MARE. See EQUUs, and IHoRSE. Before a
mare is covered, she should be in the house
about six weeks, during which time she should
be well fed with good hay, and oats well sifted;
and, to render her conception the more certain,
nearly a quart of blood may be taken from each
side of her neck, about five or six days before
covering. Another method to bring a mare in
Season and make her retain is to give her, for
eight days before you bring her to the horse,
about two quarts of hemp seed in the morning,
and as much at night; and, if she refuses to eat
it, to mingle it with a little bran or oats, or else
to lether fast for a while. After covering, let her,
for three or four weeks have the same diet as
before, and be kept clean in the stable, with her
feet well pared and thin shod. If the mare has
but little milk, boil as much as you can get from
her with the leaves of lavender and spike, and
bathe the udder with it warm, till the knobs and
knots are dissolved. She should now drink only
white water, which is bran put into water; give
her also sweet mashes, and, a month after foaling,
let her have a mash with some brimstone or savin
in it.
MARECHAL (Peter Sylvanus), a miscel-
laneous French writer, born at Paris in 1750,
was brought up to the bar. He was librarian to
the Mazarin College, but towards the close of
his life retired into the country, and died at
Montrouge in 1805. His principal works are,
Livre echappé au Deluge, a collection of Psalms,
which was the pretext of his dismissal from his
office of librarian to the Mazarin College; Pro-
phetie d'Arlamek; Fragmens d'un Poeme Moral
sur Dieu, ou la Nouvelle Lucrece; Tombeau
de J. J. Rousseau; De Bergeries; Le Temple
de l'Hymen; Bibliotheque des Amans; Le Livre
de tous les Ages; L’Age d'Or; Paris, et la Pro-
vince : ou Choix des plus beaux Monumens
d’Architecture en France; Le Pantheon, ou les
Figures de la Fable avec leurs Histoires; Al-
manac des Honnètes Gens, a publication for
which he was imprisoned; Dictionnaire d'A-
mour; Tableau de la Fable; Costumes civils
actuels detous les Peuples; Recueil des Poetes
moralistes Français; Catechisme du Curé Mesr
lier; Dictionnaire des Athées; Voyage de
Pythagore; Decades du Cultivateur; &c.
MAREMMA LA, a long tract of country in
Italy, extending from Leghorn on the north along
the south-west coast as far as Terracina on the
Neapolitan frontier. It is marshy, and much
affected with the malaria. - - . . . .
MARENGO, a village now.belonging to the
Sardinian states, in the Milanese, º the Bor-
2 N 2
MAR
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548
mida. It stands at the entrance of a great
plain, on which was fought, on the 14th of June
1800, the important battle of Marengo, between
the French under the command of Buonaparte
and the Austrians under general Melus. The
battle was contested until noon, when the French
began to retreat, and continued till six P. M.
At this hour they were joined by Dessaix, when
, they rallied, and drove the Austrians from their
position with great slaughter. Dessaix was
mortally wounded, but an armistice followed,
which terminated in the peace of Luneville.
Population 2200. Five miles south-east of
Alessandria, and fifty east by south of Turin.
MARENNES, a trading town of France, in
the department of the Lower Charente, at the
mouth of the Seudre. It carries on a brisk
traffic in brandy, wine, and salt. Population
4700. Twenty-five miles south of Rochelle.
MAREOTIS, a lake of Egypt, to the south
of Alexandria, running parallel to the Mediter-
ranean, on a narrow strip of land near which
that city stands. On the east it is separated by
a neck of land equally narrow from the lake of
Aboukir; and through this space flows the canal
of Alexandria, which the British army, during
the siege of that city, united with the lake so as
to cause the waters of the one to flow into the
other, and prevent them from reaching Alex-
andria. This cut was open at a recent period.
MAR’ESCHAL, n.s. Fr. mareschal. De-
rived by Junius from mare, the female of a
horse. But see MARSHAL. A chief commander
of an army.
O William, may thy arms advance,
That he may lose Dinant next year,
And so be mareschal of France. Prior.
MARGARET, countess of Richmond and
HDerby, the learned and pious mother of Henry
VII., was born at Bletsoe, in Bedfordshire, in
1441; and was the sole heiress of John Beaufort
duke of Somerset, grandson to John of Gaunt.
Her mother was the heiress of lord Beauchamp
of Powick. While very young she was solicit-
ed by the king for his half-brother Edmund earl
of Richmond, to whom she gave her hand.
Henry VII. was the sole fruit of this marriage,
his father dying when he was but fifteen weeks
old. Her second husband was Sir Henry Staf-
ford, Knight, second son to the duke of Buck-
ingham, by whom she had no issue. Soon after
his death, in 1482, she married a third husband,
Thomas lord Stanley, who was created earl of
Derby by her son. He died in 1504 without
issue, being then high constable of England.
She died at Westminster in June 1509, aged
sixty-nine, and was buried in Henry VII.'s
ehapel; on the south side of which was erected
to her memory an altar tomb of black marble,
with her statue of brass, Bishop Fisher, her
confessor, says, “she possessed almost all things
that were commendable in a woman.” She un-
derstood the French language perfectly, and had
some knowledge of the Latin. She was devout
even to austerity, in humility romantic, and
profuse in the encouragement of learning. She
wrote, 1. The Mirroure of Golde for the sinful
Soule; translated from the French, London,
4to., with cuts on vellum. 2. Translation of the
fourth book of Dr. Gerson's Imitation of our
Saviour, 1504. 3. A Letter to the King, in
Howard's collection. She also made the
orders for great estates of ladies and noble
women, for their precedence, and wearing of
barbes at funerals, over the chin and under the
S8.IIlê.
MARGARET, duchess of Newcastle, a lady
famous for her voluminous writings, was born
about the end of king James I.'s reign. She
was the youngest sister of lord Lucas, and mar-
ried the duke of Newcastle abroad, in 1645.
On their return after the Restoration she wrote
the life of her husband; with a great number of
plays, poems, &c., amounting to about 12 vols.
folio. She died in 1673.
MARGARET of ANJou, daughter of Regnier
of Anjou, king of Naples, and wife of Henry
VI., king of England; an ambitious, enter-
prising, courageous woman. Intrepid in the
field, she signalised herself by heading her troops
in several battles against the house of York; and
if she had not been the authoress of her husband's
misfortunes, by putting to death the duke of
Gloucester his uncle, her name would have been
immortalised for the fortitude, activity, and po-
licy with which she supported the rights of her
husband and son, till the fatal defeat of Tewks-
bury; which put an end to all her enterprises:
She died at Anjou in 1482. See ENGLAND:
MARGARET (St.), a celebrated virgin, who is
said to have suffered martyrdom at Antioch, A. D.
275. The ancient martyrologists make no men-
tion of her name, and she did not become famous
till the eleventh century. There is no more foun-
dation for what is said concerning her relics and
girdles, than for the stories which are told of her
life. A festival, however, is still held in honor
of her memory on the 20th of July. The ori-
entals pay reverence to her by the name of
Saint Pelagia, or Saint Marina, and the western
church by that of Saint Geruma, or Saint Mar-
garet. *
MARGARITA, an island and government of
Colombia,separate from that of Cumana, on whose
shores it lies. It is dependant on Caraccas, and
lies in N. lat. 10° 56', and in 64° and 65° W.
long. It is sixteen marine leagues in its greatest
length; six in its greatest breadth; in some parts
only two or three leagues broad; and its surface
is thirty-one square leagues.
It was first discovered by Columbus in 1498.
The pearls found on the coasts of this and the
neighbouring isle of Cubagua soon rendered it
famous; and the fishery was carried on at the
expense of vast numbers of Indians, who lost
their lives here. The Dutch at last burnt the
town and fort of this island.
The island is divided into two parts, which
communicate with each other by a natural cause-
way, that is scarcely more than from eighty to
100 paces broad, and in some parts from ten to
twelve feet only above the level of the sea. The
mountain of Macanon, the most elevated part of
the island, is above 2000 feet high according to
Humboldt, who measured it trigonometrically,
and is composed of micaceous schistus. It is an
important point for navigators to make who go
from Europe, or from North or South America,
MAR.
9 MAR
54
to Cumana, Barcelona, and La Guayra, as they
are obliged to sail between Margarita and the
islet of Coche, to avoid running the risk of being
carried to leeward by the currents.
The possession of Margarita is an object of
some consequence: it forms the channel through
which all vessels, coming from Europe or wind-
ward to Cumana, Barcelona, and La Guayra,
must pass; a channel not navigable in its whole
breadth; the rocky island Coche, between it and
the continent, leaving only a narrow pass of two
leagues, but which is seldom dangerous, owing
to the general calmness that reigns in this part of
the Caribbean Sea. It might become, under a
system of free commerce, the general entrepôt of
Cumana, Barcelona, Caraccas, Guayra, and all
the cities of the interior.
Margarita has three ports. The most important
is that of Pampatar, situate on the south-east
coast. It is a large and fine basin, in which
vessels are defended from winds and tempests.
Its entrance is protected on one side by a fortress,
and on the other by batteries. These are the
principal fortifications of the island. Pueblo de
la Mar another port, or, to speak more correctly,
an open roadstead, is a place of little trade, and is
situate at a league and a half westward of Pam-
patar. Pueblo del Norte is, as its name indicates,
a village situate in the northern part of the island.
A coral reef renders the entrance of this port dif-
ficult to mariners who are not accustomed to it.
Two batteries defend its entrance against priva-
teers. Near this port is a village inhabited only
by fishermen. r
Along the coast of Margarita the land is in
general rocky and steep; but the interior is more
fertile, and covered with groves. Its climate
though very hot is wholesome ; the greatest in-
convenience experienced by the inhabitants being
a want of good fresh water.
Asumpcion is the capital and the residence of
the governor. It has two parish churches, and a
convent of Recollets. The valleys of San Juan,
Santa Margarita, and Los Robles, have each a
village which bears their name.
Margarita had, in 1807, a population of 8000
whites, 5500 mixed blood, 1800 Indians, and
about 900 Negroes; making a total of 16,200
persons. The island has only three rivulets,
which, however, are sufficiently large to turn
mills. Their waters are limpid. That of the
little river which runs by the town of Asump-
cion, and which in some places passes over a bed
of amphibolic schistus, contains sulphureted iron,
magnesia, &c. The inhabitants prefer drinking
the turbid water from ponds.
The agriculture scarcely suffices for the main-
tenance of its inhabitants. Maize, cassava, and
bananas, are their principal resources. The ba-
nanas are excellent, but very small, owing to the
aridity of the soil and dryness of the climate.
The inhabitants cultivate, in small proportions,
and for their own consumption only, all the
productions of the Antilles—the sugar-cane,
coffee and cocoa trees. They rear a great many
goats and sheep, which, though lean, give deli-
cious milk, owing to the aromatic herbs on which
, they feed. They have all kinds of fowls at a
very trifling price. Living is said to be still
pay 1d. per da
cheaper at Margarita than at Cumana or Ca-
Iſa CCaS. *
Fowls, turkeys, and all kinds of poultry, are
exported to the continent by the lower classes;
and the island is celebrated for its beautiful par-
rots and other curious birds. They fabricate
cotton stockings, and hammocks of a very su-
perior quality. -
The fisheries produce the principal object of
trade here: they are placed at the islet of Coche,
which belongs to government, and the product
is said to be immense. Two merchants of Mar
garita had the privilege of this fishery in 1807;
and they carried it on at Coche. The men who
were employed in it were Indians of Margarita.
It was not freely, but by order of government,
that those natives worked in the fishery at the
scanty pay of a real (fivepence) per day, and
bread of maize or cassava. They ate also as
much fresh or salt fish as they chose. More than
300 Indians of both sexes and all ages were em-
ployed there in 1807. The salt works of Mar-
garita are also important.
MAR/GARITE, n.s. Fr. marguerite ; Latin
margarita. A peari. -
The kyngdom of hevenes is lyk to a merchaunt that
seehith gode margaritis, but whanne he hath founde
so precious margarite, he wente and solde all thingis
that he hadde and bought it. Wiclif. Matt. 13.
Silver is the second metal, and signifies purity;
among the planets it holdeth with luna, among pre-
cious stones with the margarite or pearl. Q
- Peacham on Blazoning.
MARGARITI, the ancient Gytanae, a town of
European Turkey, in Albania, situated about two
miles from the sea coast. Population 6000.
MARGATE, a market town and sea-bathing
place on the coast of Kent, in the parish of St.
John in the liberties of Dover and Isle of
Thanet, is seventy-two miles east from London.
The town is seated on the ascent of two hills;
that part of it which was originally the little
fishing town, called St. John, being now the
High Street. There was another detached vil-
lage, lying in a valley called Lucas-Dane, but it
is now also attached to the town by some hand-
some buildings. The principal improvements
of Margāte have taken place since 1787, when
an act of parliament was obtained to rebuild the
pier, a theatre was constructed, and the tºwn
underwent considerable improvements. After
this, from the increase of company, new build-
ings became necessary, and almost a new, town
has sprung up to the southward of the old one.
The pier having suffered greatly by storm in
January, 1808, which swept away the bathing
rooms, and part of the High Street, a sum of
f5000 was granted by parliament for repairing
the loss: the inhabitants, in 1810 and 1812,
also obtained leave of parliament to increase the
droits and pierage, in order to pay the interest of
the sums borrowed for these improvements, and
a new pier has since been completed at the
expense of £90,000. On it there is a handsome
raised and enclosed walk, which forms, the
fashionable promenade, for which the company
. Steam packets are so largely
employed in sailing daily to and from Lºndon;
that the sailing vessels are superseded. This easy
MAR
MAR
550
and expeditious conveyance has much con-
tributed to the support of the town: the packets
on Saturday frequently bringing down 1000
persons. There are fourteen marble warm baths
filled from the sea, which may be brought to
any temperature. The church of St. John
stands about half a mile from the lower end of
the town, and is a large building of flint, rough
cast, consisting of three ſong low aisles. At the
west end of the north aisle is a square tower,
with a low spire, containing six bells. It has
many monuments of antiquity, with a good
organ. Here are also meeting-houses for the
Baptists and Wesleyans. Among the public
buildings is Cecil Square, arected in 1769, con-
sisting of very spacious houses, and commo-
dious shops; Hawley Square in a contiguous
field; the Union Crescent, opposite Cecil Square,
is perhaps the most elegant among the new
buildings. Northward of the town, on a spot
called the Fort, which had formerly a battery,
Neptune Square has been erected. On Hooper's
Hill, opposite, are also various good buildings.
The assembly room, belonging to Howe's London
Royal Hotel, stands at the south corner of Cecil
Square, and is eighty-seven feet long, and forty-
three broad ; it is adorned with busts of his late
majesty, and the late duke of Cumberland;
attached are corresponding tea-rooms, card-
rooms, billiard-rooms, &c., and the house is one
of the best conducted and largest taverns in the
kingdom. The York Hotel, on the Marine
• Parade, is another excellent tavern. A general
sea-bathing infirmary was opened in 1796, at
Westbrook, under the patronage of the king,
and projected by Dr. Lettsom. Persons are
admitted during the season, after having been
examined by the medical board, at the court-
room of the London workhouse, and remain
eight weeks, adults being provided with board at
5s. per week, and children at 2s. 6d. The
libraries are in the first style of elegance. That
situated at the north-west corner of Hawley
Square is a new and fine structure; a second is
on the north-east side of Cecil Square, and the
third at the lower end of High Street, command-
ing a most delightful prospect of the sea. At-
tached to the Prospect Hotel, on Hooper's Hill,
is a large bowling-green, fitted up for tea-parties.
Traper's Hospital, standing on a rising ground,
erected in 1709, by a quaker, has nine dwellings,
and the generality of the pensioners are of that
community. In the middle of the building is a
meeting-house. About a mile and a half from
the town stands Dandelion, where are the remains
of an ancient fortification, of great strength.
Between this place and Draper's Hospital is the
mansion of Salmstone, formerly belonging to
Christ Church, Canterbury; the lessee of which
is bound to pay several charities, amongst others
a dish of peas to every poor person who claims
them between the 3d of May and 24th of June.
The mayor of Dover appoints a deputy for
Margate, but he is invested with no other power
than that of constable. This appointment has
been often opposed by the inhabitants. Market
on Wednesday and Saturday, which is well sup-
plied with all sorts of provisions. An act was
passed in May, 1824, for lighting the town with
gas.. To the ordinary number of inhabitants,
about 8000, there are added in the season about
40,000 visitors. - z
MARGE. m.s. Lat. margo. A border;
MAR'GENT, brink; edge: marginal is
MA'RGIN, written in or pertaining to
MAR'GINAL, adj. W. a margin: marginated, hav-
MAR'GINATED. Ding a margin. .
He drew his flaming sword, and struck
At him so fiercely, that the upper marge
Of his sevenfold shield away it took. -
Faerie Queene.
We cannot better interpret the meaning of these
words than pope Leo himself expoundeth them, whose
speech concerning our Lord's ascension may serve
instead of a marginal gloss. Hooker.
As much love in rhime,
As would be crammed up in a sheet of paper
Writ on both sides the leaf, margent and all.
Shakspeare.
An airy crowd came rushing where he stood,
Which filled the margin of the fatal flood.
Dryden.
All the advantage to be gathered from it is only
from the evenness of its margin ; the purpose will be
as fully answered by keeping that under only.
Sharp's Surgery.
Reconcile those two places, which both you and
the margins of our bibles acknowledge to be parallel.
º Hammond.
He knows in law, nor text, nor margent.
Swift.
What remarks you find worthy of your riper ob-
servation note with a marginal star, as being worthy
of your second year's review. Watts.
MAR'GRAVE, n.s. Teut. marck and graff, a
title of sovereignty in Germany; in its original
import, keeper of the marches or borders.
The reigning margrave of this principality (Ans-
pach) has a seat and a voice in the council of the
princes of the empire, and is also co-summonary
prince of the circle of Franconia. Dr. A. Rees.
MARGUENAT (Anna Theresa de), mar-
chioness of Courcelles, an elegant moral writer,
was the only daughter of Stephen Marguenat
lord of Courcelles. In 1666 she married Henry
de Lambert, lieutenant-general of the army;
and afterwards remained a widow with a son
and a daughter, whom she educated with great
care. Her house was a kind of academy, to
which persons of distinguished abilities resorted
She died in Paris in 1733, aged eighty-six. Her
works, which are written with much taste, judg-
ment, and delicacy, are printed in 2 vols. The
advices of a Mother to her Son and Daughter
are particularly esteemed.
MARGUERITE, a small island of the Me-
diterranean belonging to France, and included
in the department of War. It is opposite to
Antibes, and has a strong castle, where the “man.
in the iron mask' was for some time confined.
Long. 7° 3’ E., lat. 43° 31' N.
MARIAMNE, the daughter of Alexandra,
grand-daughter of Hyrcanus II., and the be-
loved wife of Herod the Great; who, however,
murdered her and most of her relations. See
HERoD. -
MARIAN, or Ladrone Islands. See LA-
I) RONE. -
MARIANA (John), a learned Spanish histo-
rian, born at Talavera, in the diocese of Toledº.
* MAR
MAR
551
He entered among the Jesuits in 1554, at seven-
teen years of age; and became one of the most
learned men of his time. He was a great divine,
and profoundly versed in civil and ecclesiastical
history. He taught in Rome, Sicily, Paris, and
in Spain; and died at Toledo in 1624. His
principal works are, 1. A History of Spain in
thirty books; which he wrote first in Latin, and
afterwards in Spanish. 2. Scholia, or short
notes on the Bible.
changes the specie has undergone in Spain; for
which he was imprisoned by the Spanish minis-
ter. 4. A Treatise de rege et regis institutione,
which was condemned by the parliament of
Paris, to be burnt by the hangman, for his as-
serting that it is lawful to murder tyrants. 5. A
work on the faults of the government of the
society of Jesuits, which has been translated into
Spanish, Latin, Italian, French, &c.
MARIA SANTA, a cape of the western ex-
tremity of the island of St. Domingo.—2. A
cape which forms the south point of entrance
into the La Plata, on the coast of Brasil.—3. An
island near the coast of Brasil, in the province
of Rio Janeiro, between the city of this name
and Punta Negro.—4. An island on the coast of
Chili, at the mouth of the entrance into Coñcep-
tion Bay. It is about four miles in length; and
there are on it many wild horses and hogs. Lat.
37° 10' S.
MARIA's Island, an island of the southern
ocean, lying off the east coast of Van Diemen's
Land. It is penetrated by two deep bays, on
opposite sides; that on the east side, called
Oyster Bay, being both safe and capacious.
Part of the east coast presents lofty granitic
walls, rising from 300 to 400 feet perpendicu-
larly, and penetrated by deep caverns, into
which the sea rolls with great noise. On the
opposite side the shore is flat, and here the navi-
gator finds an immense quantity of sea-weed,
which grows from the bottom of the sea, to the
height of 250 or 300 feet, and covers the sur-
face. Seals and zoophytes abound on the shore.
The inhabitants, who wear only a slight covering
of skin thrown over their shoulders, are of a
lively but treacherous disposition. This island
was first discovered by Tasman in 1642. Long.
143°29′ E., lat. 42°42' S.
MARIA’s ISI.AND is also the name of three
considerable islands of the North Pacific Ocean.
The largest and most northern is thirteen miles
long, its high part toward the south, whence it
gradually descends, and terminates in a long low
point. A small low detached islet, and a re-
wnarkably steep white cliffy rock, lie off this
point, whose shores are also composed, particu-
larly on its south-west side, of steep white rocky
cliffs: the same substance seemed to be its prin-
cipal component part. The next in size, Prince
George's island, is about twenty-four miles; and
the third, or southernmost, about mine miles in
circuit. Between Prince George's and the north-
westernmost island, is a passage about six miles
wide, with soundings of from twenty, to forty
fathoms, sandy bottom. These islands were
visited by Vancouver in a boat, who found the
soil on Prince George's Island to be of a sandy
mature, on which the most valuable production
3. A Treatise on the
was lignum vitae; besides which was an almost
impenetrable thicket, and some plants of the
orange and lemon tribe, the whole growing close
to the water side. Some of the lignum vitae
which was cut close to the beach, and brought
on board, worked up full eight inches diameter
at heart; was very ponderous, and of a close
black grain. Many birds were seen; and turtle
tracks, but no quadrupeds. A variety of fish,
common to the tropical regions, were also in
great numbers about the shores, particularly
some very daring sharks, but no traces of human
beings. Long. of anchoring place 253°54' E.,
lat. 21°28' N. -
MARIAs LAs TREs, on the shore of Guadalax-
ara, Mexico. The three Maria Islands lie north
of St. Blas. The middle, named St. George, is
nine miles long, and has good anchorage on the
east; St. John's, the northernmost, is thirteen
miles long. These islands are elevated, covered
with wood, particularly lignum vitae. Between
them and the main are some small islands
named Isabellas. The south cape of the eastern-
most of the Tres Marias is in lat. 21° 16' N,
long. 106° 17' W. -
MARIENBERG, a mining town of Saxony.
Silver, iron, vitriol, and tin, are still wrought,
though considerably declined. Its situation is
at the height of nearly 2000 feet. Population
2600: thirty-five miles south-west of Dresden.
MARIENBURG, a town of West Prussia,
in the government of Dantzic, on the river,
Nogat. It is surrounded by a rampart; but on
the outside are two suburbs and its castle, for-
merly the residence of the grand master of the
Teutonic knights. Here are some small manu-
factures of woollen, cotton, linen, and leather,
and extensive breweries and distilleries. There
is also a brisk traffic in corn, timber, fish, quills,
and hogs' bristles. In one of the suburbs are
the Muhlengraben, or town mills, on the princi-
ple of the old German hydraulics. It contains
7200 inhabitants, Lutherans, and Catholics:
twenty-six miles S. S. E. of Dantzic.
MARIENWERDER, one of the two modern
governments of West Prussia, consists of a long
tract of country, lying to the north of Poland,
south of Pomerania, and the government of
Dantzic. Its area is 6880 square miles, and
population 302,000. It is divided into the cir-
cles of
Marienwerder, Michelau, Deutsche Kron,
Calm, Konitz, Neuenberg,
Thorn, Kammin, Christburg.
See PRUSSIA, WEST. -
MARIEN werDER, a neat town of West Prussia,
he capital of a government and circle, stands on
an eminence on the Nogat, about three miles
from the Vistula. It has four suburbs, and con-
tains 5100 inhabitants. It has some manufac-
tures of woollens, hats, soap, and leather, but its
breweries and distilleries are more considerable:
forty-three miles south of Dantzic, and ninety
South-west of Konigsberg.
MARIENZELL, a town of the Austrian
States, in Upper Styria, near the borders of
Austria Proper. It is insignificant in size, but
of some note as the resort of pilgrims. The
erowds who come to a chapel here are immense,
552
M. A. R. "I N E S
being said to amount to 80,000 persons annually,
and the offerings made were formerly of great
value. Joseph II. suppressed the institution, and
seized the property: still the number of pilgrims
who resort hither is great.
MARIGALANTE, an island of the West
Indies, one of the least of the Caribbees, twelve
miles south of Guadaloupe. The soil, produce,
and climate, are much the same as the other
Caribbees. Columbus discovered it in his
second American voyage in 1483, and called it
by the name of his ship, Maria Galanta, or
Gallant Mary. It is about six leagues long, and
between three and four broad. Viewed at a
distance, from on board a ship, it appears like a
floating island, because, as it is for the most part
flat, the trees seem to swim; but a nearer pros-
pect shows it to be intersected by some rising
grounds, which give a fine variety to the land-
scape. The French settled here in 1647; and it
was taken by the English in 1691, but the French
soon got possession of it again. It was retaken
by the British in 1759, but restored at the peace
of 1763. Once more taken by us in the late
war, it was restored to France at the general
peace. It was thought, on its first discovery, to
want water; but a running stream has been
discovered, on the banks of which are some
wealthy planters, and excellent plantations of
Sugar, indigo, and tobacco. A little village in a
small bay is the capital of the island, and here
the commandant resides. The whole island is
very capable of improvement; the soil being
almost all equally good, and the land rising
nowhere too high. The coast affords many little
bays, and safe anchorage and shelter to ships.
Long. 61° 15' W, lat. 16° 32' N. The official
value of the imports in 1810 was £7832.
MAR’IGOLD, n.s. Mary and gold. Latin
caltha. A yellow flower, devoted, I suppose,
says Dr. Johnson, to the virgin.
Your circle will teach you to draw truly all sphe-
rical bodies. The most of flowers: as, the rose and
marigold. Peacham.
The marigold, whose courtier's face
Echoes the sun, and doth unlace
Her at his rise. Cleaveland.
Fair is the marigold, for pottage meet. Gay.
The marigold hath a radiated discous flower; the
petals of them are, for the most part, crenated, the
seeds crooked and rough ; those which are uppermost
long, and those within short; the leaves are long,
intire, and for the most part succulent. Miller.
MARIGoLD. See CALENDULA.
MARIGOLD, AFRICAN. See TAGFTEs.
MARIGoLD, CoRN. See CHRYSANTHEMUM.
MAR’INATE, v. a. Fr. mariner. To salt
fish, and then preserve them in oil or vinegar.
Why am I styled a cook, if I’m-so loath
To marinate my fish, or season broth 2
- King’s Cook.
MARINE, adj. & n.s. Q Lat. marinus; Fr.
MAR'INER, n.s. $ marin, marine. Of or
belonging to the sea; a sea soldier: mariner is
a seaman or soldier.
The merry mariners unto his word
Soon hearkened, and her painted boat straightway
Turned.to the shore. Faerie Queene. .
The king was desirous that the ordinances of Eng.
|
land, and France, touching marine affairs, might be
reduced into one form. Hayward.
The stubbornest Israelite and the most godless'
mariner could call upon God in his trouble.
- Bp. Hall.
We oft deceive ourselves, as did that mariner who,
mistaking them for precious stones, brought home his
ship fraught with common pebbles from the Indies.
& Glanville.
His busy mariners he hates,
His shattered sails with rigging to restore.
Dryden.
No longer Circe could her flame disguise,
But to the suppliant God marine replies. Garth.
Nearchus who commanded Alexander's fleet, and
Onesicrates his intendant-general of marine, have
both left relations of the state of the Indies at that
time. Arbuthnot.
What mariner is not afraid,
To venture in a ship decayed ? Swift.
MARINE is a general name for the navy of a
kingdom or state; the whole economy of naval
affairs; and whatever respects the building,
rigging, arming, equipping, navigating, and
fighting ships. It comprehends also the govern-
ment of naval armaments, and the state of all
the persons employed therein, whether civil or
military. The history of the marine affairs of
any one state is a very comprehensive subject.
See NAVY.
MARINE ACID, or MURIATIC ACID.
MURIATIC ACID.
MARINE CHAIR, a machine invented by Mr.
Irwin, for viewing the satellites of Jupiter at
sea, and of course determining the longitude by
their eclipses. An account of it is given in the
Journal Estranger for March 1760. An account
of its accuracy was published in 1761 by M.
de l'Isle, astronomer in the Imperial academy
of Petersburg: but, notwithstanding the enco-
miums bestowed upon it by this gentleman, it
has never-come into general use.
MARINE DISCIPLINE is the training up sol-
diers for sea-service, in such exercises as the
various positions of the firelock and body, and
teaching them every manoeuvre that can be per-
formed on board ships of war at sea.
MARINE FoRCEs, or MARINES, a body of soldiers
raised for the sea-service, and trained to fight either
in a naval engagement, or in an action a-shore.
The great service of this useful corps was mani-
fested frequently in the course of the German
war, particularly at the siege of Bellisle, where
they acquired a great character, although lately
raised, and hardly exercised in military dis-
cipline.
The first authentic account of a regiment of
this description appears in the Army List of 1684,
and from the return of the general review on
Putney Heath, on the 1st of October in that year:
but neither the exact era of its establishment, or
that of the other maritime forces, is clearly as-
certained. The return above-mentioned runs
thus: “The lord high admiral of England, his
royal highness the duke of York and Albany's
Maritime regiment of foot, commanded by the
Hon. Sir Charles Littleton, called also the Ad-
miral's Regiment.’ This regiment consisted of
twelve companies, without any grenadiers; the
officers of which were, one colonel, one lieutenant-
See
M A R IN E S.
553
colonel, one major, twelve captains, twelve lieu-
tenants, twelve ensigns, one adjutant, one quarter-
master, one surgeon, and one surgeon’s-mate.
They had yellow coats lined with red, and
their colors were, a red cross with rays of the
sun issuing from each of its angles. They stood
the third in seniority in the line of that day; and
it may be presumed from its subsequent reduc-
tion, that a step was obtained in it by the 4th,
then the regiment of Holland, commanded by
John, the second lord Mulgrave, and now called
the Old Buffs.
Between 1687 and 1698 there were several
maritime regiments raised for the purposes, and
under the regulations, before mentioned. They
were colonels Mordaunt, Colt, Seymour, and
Brudenell's ; also Sir Cloudesley Shovel's, my
lord Torrington's, and the marquis of Carmar-
then’s; all of which were disbanded during the
currency of 1697 and 1698.
In the early part of 1756 the French had col-
lected immense forces upon their coasts, with the
avowed object of invading England; conse-
quently measures of precaution and defence
were adopted by a regular and annual increase of
seamen and marines. The following are the
numbers of marine corps voted by parliament.
for the service, from 1756 to 1763, both years
inclusive:–
Year. Marine Corps.
For 1756 9,138
1757 11,419
1758 - e. e. 14,845
1759 º º º 14,845
1760 e tº º 18,355
1762 & º 19,061
1763 . . . . . . 4,287
The naval establishment for the year 1762 con-
sisted of 70,000 seamen, including the 19,061,
or thirty-six companies of marine corps.
The merits of the latter became conspicuous
by the most zealous and spirited services, on either
element; but it was not until the year 1771 that
the corps of marines felt the fostering influence
of a steady patron in earl Sandwich, then at the
head of the admiralty. From him originated the
colonels commandant of divisions, and many of
those interior regulations, which, for their economy
and wisdom, do honor to the establishment. His
lordship, by a memorial to the throne, soon after
his accession to power, obtained an order in
council to enlarge the number of field officers.
By a train of considerate attentions the corps was
placed on a respectable footing; its discipline be-
came much improved; and his lordship soon saw
, those objects of his tender care surpassed by no
troops in the world, for subordination, intre-
pidity, and cool valor.
From the era of 1764 may be dated the fatal
American revolution.
The total number of marine corps voted by
parliament for the service, from 1778 to 1782,
both years inclusive, were:—
Year. Marine Corps.
For 1778 . . . . . . 11,000
1779 . . 17,389
1780 . . . . . . 18,779
* 1781 . . . . . . 20,317
1782 * * * * * 21,305
At the close of the last year a general peace
was ratified between America and Great Britain,
and all her contending powers. -
Towards the close of the year 1792 a small ad-
dition was granted to the corps of marines, and
a much greater took place the following year, in
consequence of the intermeddling policy of
France, and the war which succeeded it.
The narrow views that had influenced so great
a reduction, at the peace of 1782, were bitterly felt
at the commencement of hostilities. It is to the
faithful marine soldier, who knows not the mean-
ing of desertion, that the nation, under such
sudden emergencies, is often obliged to have re-
course in equipping, as well as manning her
fleets; for it is not in human nature to place con-
fidence in that man who has been constrained to.
serve, and who recognises neither a voluntary
will nor a sacred obligation to discharge his al-
lotted duties.
Several additional companies were now deemed
absolutely necessary to the marine corps. The
following are the numbers voted by parliament
for the service, from 1794 to 1801, both years in-
clusive:— -
Year. Marine Corps.
For 1794 12,115
1795 15,000
1796 18,000
1798 20,000
1800 . . . . . . 20,000
1801 . . . . . . 30,000
The latter number was kept up till March
1802. On the 29th of April following, his
majesty, in order to mark his approbation of the
very meritorious and loyal conduct of the marine
corps, during the late war, was graciously pleased
to direct that, in future, the corps shall be styled
“The Royal Marines.’
Besides the many useful reforms adopted by
earl St. Vincent, for the internal economy of the
navy, his lordship turned his attention to the
royal marine corps. On the 18th of March,
1803, a new code of instructions was published
for their regulation when on shore, which vests in
the four senior captains of each division the
management and superintendence of many con-
cerns that had formerly been placed under sepa-
rate departments.
In the early part of 1803 we again took up
arms in defence of our dearest birthrights; when
the lords of the admiralty judged it necessary to
augment the royal marine corps to the war es-
tablishment; it having been reduced, during the
short peace of 1802, to 100 companies, each con-
taining 100 men, exclusive of officers.
In August, 1804, three companies of artillery
(being one to each division) were ordered to be
formed for the purpose of serving afloat, with
additional pay for officers and men. The officers
belonging to this small corps were not separated
from the general marine list, neither were they
promoted, except in their turn with the others.
On attaining the rank of full major, they lost
their appointment in the artillery.
By a warrant from the admiralty, dated the
15th of August 1805, another division was estab-
lished, called the 4th, or Woolwich division,
554.
M. A. R. I.N. E. "I N S U R A N C E.
consisting of forty-one companies, including one
of artillery. It had the same number of field
officers, pay captains, &c., as the other divisions.
Few alterations of material consequence took
place from that period to the end of the war,
except that, during the administration of lord
Mulgrave, four additional colonel commandants
on second were appointed, one to each division,
making the whole number of second comman-
dants eight: and forage was allowed for one
horse for lieutenant-colonels, majors, and adju-
tants.
The entire establishment of royal marines in
January 1813 was 32,668; including ten boys to
each company, or 1830.
t
The CoMPLEMENT OF ROYAL MARINES IN EACH
RATE.
E|3: .35 | E | 3 || 3 || $ -:
Rates. ălăH §, É. ă .# #
§ - || || 3 |f| = | F.
O || 3 ||5||7 |O |º
CNR
First Rate, 100 guns
if a flag . . .] 1 || 1 || 2 |4|4|2|156|170
Do. without a flag . 1 — 3|4|4|2|156|170
Second Rate, 98 || 1 ||—| 3 || 3 || 3 |2||138||150
Third Rate, 80 . 1 —| 2 || 3 || 3 || 2 |130|141
Ditto, 74 . . . .] 1 – 2 | 3 || 2 || 2 |115||125
Ditto, 64 . . . .] 1 – 2 || 2 || 2 || 1 || 82| 90
Fourth Rate, 50 . . 1 ||—| 2 || 2 || 2 || 1 || 52 60
Ditto, 44 . . . . .] 0 || 1 || 1 || 2 || 2 | 1 || 47| 54
Fifth Rate, 38 ... O | 1 || 1 || 2 || 2 || 1 || 41| 48
Ditto, 32. . . 0 || 1 || 0 || 1 || 1 || 1 || 38|| 42
Sixth Rate, 28 . .] 0 || 1 || 0 || 1 || 1 || 1 || 27| 31
Ditto, 20 . ... O || 1 || 0 || 1 || 1 || 1 || 26|| 30
Sloops . . ... O || 0 || 0 || 1 || 1 || 0 | 18| 20
Gun-brigs ..] 0 || 0 || 0 || 1 || 1 || 0 || 13| 15
MARINE INSURANCE. The laws relating to ma-
rine insurance comprise a very important branch
of the commercial code, and especially of that
part which respects foreign commerce. Marine
transactions constitute the most material depart-
ment of insurance, being, indeed, almost co-ex-
tensive with the vast trade carried on by the
shipping of this country, either along the coasts
of Great Britain or to parts beyond the sea. The
object of these insurances, by dividing the risk,
is to prevent the ruinous loss which would fall
upon the individual owners of the property in-
sured. The effect is highly beneficial to trade in
general; for by judicious management those fluc-
tuations in the property of individuals are
avoided which must necessarily take place, if each
incurred the risk of the whole adventure; and,
though the profit is diminished of a successful
voyage, the larger portion is absolutely secured;
and, in case of loss, the amount, being divided
amongst a considerable number of persons, falls
with comparative lightness on each. By this
means, also, commerce is greatly extended, since,
by protecting the capital embarked, the trader is
encouraged to enlarge and continue his ship-
Iments.
The persons who engage to pay the loss are
called the underwriters or insurers. Those whose
º
property is secured are termed the assured or in-
sured. The contract by which the insurance is
made is called the policy. The other terms used
in these transactions will be explained succes-
sively under their proper heads in the course of
the present article.
The law relating to the parties who may enter "
into these contracts has of late been verv mate-
rially altered. As it stood prior to the year
1824, namely, by the 6 Geo. I. c. 18, charters
were granted to the Royal Exchange Insurance.
Company, and the London Assurance Company;
and the statute prohibited any other society or
partnership from underwriting policies of in-
surance. Consequently insurances were effected
either with these companies or with individual
underwriters, and all others were void. Even
a company of ship owners, engaging to insure
each others ships, was held to be illegal. The
effect of this statute was to grant a monopoly in
marine insurances to these companies, the policy,
as well as justice of which, like all other mono-
polies, is very questionable. The evil, however,
was much diminished, and a considerable degree
of competition introduced, by the extensive bu-
siness transacted at Lloyd's Coffee House, by in-

dividual underwriters, to whom the insurance
brokers and other connexions introduced a vast
mass of insurances.
Now by the 5 Geo. IV. c. 114, the previous sta-
tute is so far repealed as to allow any other cor-
poration, or any persons in partnership, to grant
policies of insurance on ships or goods at sea,
and also to make contracts of bottomry. º
The subjects of marine insurance are usually
ships, cargoes, freight, and sometimes commis- . .
sions. Bottomry and respondentia, as well as
expected profits and bounties may also be in-
sured; but they must be specifically named in
the policy. -
Property of some kinds is not insurable, for
the particulars of which see sect. V.
In proceeding to state the principal details of
the subject, we shall consider the nature of the
contract of insurance—the losses total and par-
tial for which the insurers are liable—the pro-
cedure to enforce payment—and, lastly, in-
surances which are void and illegal.
SECT. I.—OF THE NATURE OF THE ContRACT OF
INSURANCE.
1. Of the policy, its conditions, and construc-
tion.—It is necessary, by 28 Geo. III. c. 56, that
the name or firm of one or more of the parties.
interested in the insurance should be inserted in
the policy, or the name or firm of the consignor
or consignee, or of the person receiving the order
for or effecting the insurance; or of the person
giving directions to effect the same. Policies
without some one of these requisites are void.
The names of the ship and master must also
be stated, unless the insurance be general : that
is, that the goods may be shipped on board of
“any ship or ships, which should accordingly be
so expressed in the contract. The description of
the property insured must be specified, whether
on the ship, goods, or merchandise. A policy
on goods does not include goods lashed on deck,
the captain's clothes, or the ship's provisions.
M A R I N E IN S U R A N G E.
555
But a policy on the ship and furniture includes
the provisions for the use of the crew. It is
also necessary to state the name of the place at
which the goods are to be laden, and to which
they are bound, and the ports or places at which
the vessel may touch or stay. Next, it is essen-
tial to specify the time when the risk commences
and when it is to end. Again, the various perils
against which the underwriter insures are to be
enumerated, namely, perils of the sea, fire, ene-
mies, &c., and all other perils. In the next place,
the premium, or consideration for the risk, is ex-
pressed to be received at the time of under-
writing, though, according to the usage of trade,
the broker who effects the policy keeps an account
with the underwriter in which he enters the pre-
mium. The date of the execution of the policy
is the next requisite. Lastly, the policy must
be duly stamped, according to the amount of the
sum insured.
The conditions comprised in a policy consist
of the warranty that a certain thing shall hap-
pen or be done, otherwise there is no valid con-
tract. Thus it may be engaged that the ship shall
be safe on a certain day. There is a material
distinction between a representation and a war-
ranty. The warranty must be expressed in
the policy. A detached paper operates only as
a representation; and a representation made
without fraud, if not false in a material point,
does not vitiate the contract; whilst a warranty
must be strictly fulfilled, whether material or
In Ot.
The general cases of warranty are, the time of
the vessel's sailing; the sailing with convoy; the
neutrality of the property.
(1.) Upon a warranty to sail on a particular
day, the insurer is discharged if the vessel sails
subsequently; and the effect is the same if the
condition be to sail after a certain time and she
sails previously. It is not yet decided, but it
seems, that Gravesend is the limit of the port of
London, from which the departure must take
place on the day stipulated. It is there that
vessels receive their final clearance by the cus-
tom house regulations.
(2.) A ‘convoy’ means a naval force under
the command of the person whom government or
any one authorised by them may appoint. A
departure from Spithead with convoy is held
within the meaning of a warranty from the port
of London. The convoy must continue through-
out the voyage, though the words in the contract
are “depart or sail with convoy only.' An un-
foreseen separation, however, from the convoy
does not exempt the insurer; and, even if the
vessel insured be entirely prevented by tempes-
tuous weather from joining the convoy, still the
insurance is valid.
(3) The condition of neutral property is very
strictly enforced. If not fulfilled, the contract is
void ab initio for fraud, because, as the fact must
be known at the time of the insurance, the mis-
representation is a deliberate falsehood. If, how-
ever, the property be neutral when the risk com-
mences, the underwriter takes upon him the
chance of war during the voyage.
A policy, being a contract of indemnity, is
construed as nearly as possible according to the
intention of the parties, and not according to the
strict meaning of the words; and the usage of
trade is generally the rule by which such ques-
tions are guided. According to the authority of
lord Mansfield, ‘the insurer, at the time of un-
derwriting, has' under his consideration the na-
ture of the voyage, and the usual manner of
doing it; and what is usually done by such a
ship, with such a cargo, in such a voyage, is
understood to be referred to by every policy.”
And on another occasion the same learned judge
observed, that “every underwriter is presumed
to be acquainted with the practice of the trade
he insures; and, if he does not know it, he ought
to inform himself.’ Still these contracts are con-
strued by the same rules as other instruments,
unless, by the known usage of trade, certain words
have acquired a peculiar sense, distinct from the
ordinary and popular sense.
1. Of the commencement of the risk.--When an
insurance is “at and from ' any place, it protects
the vessel not only during her preparation for the
voyage, but from her first arrival.
An insurance from a port commences when
the ship breaks ground ; and if it set sail; and be
driven back and lost in the port, the underwriters
are liable. -
An insurance on freight commences when the
goods are put on board.
The risk on goods does not terminate in gene-
ral till they are landed. If sent on shore by the
long-boat they are protected in their transit; but
if removed to another vessel, or sent on board a
lighter, they are no longer at the risk of the un-
derwriter. When the words in the policy are
‘till moored twenty-four hours in safety,' the in-
surance of course expires with the period spe-
cified.
2. Of the assurances and double assurances.—
By the 19 Geo. II., c. 37,' re-assurances are de-
clared unlawful, unless the assurer or underwriter
should be insolvent, become a bankrupt, or die;
in either of which cases such assurer, his execu-
tors, administrators, or assigns, may make re-
assurance to the amount before by him assured,
expressing in the policy that it is a re-assurance,
and the statute extends to re-assurances on fo–
reign ships previously insured by foreign under-
WrlterS. - -
3. Double insurances of the same sum upon the
same property, are not void, but considered as
an increase of the security; yet only one satis-
faction, to the amount of the real loss, can be
recovered. The assured may recover against
which set of underwriters he chooses, and the set
which pays the loss may call upon the others to
contribute in due proportion. Different persons,
however, may insure their several interests in the
same property, and each to the whole value of
his interest; as the master for wages, the owner
for freight; one person for goods, and another
for bottomry, &c.
It is said in the Encyclopædia Britannica (but
we do no find the authority on which the state-
ment rests), that if there be several policies on
the same subject of different dates, the earlies:
one is valid, and the others must be vacated, and
if they be of the same date they must be vacated .
in equal proportions. -
556
*3
M A R IN E H N S U R A N C E.
In general, when a loss occurs, the actual va-
lue, at prime cost, of the property must be
proved; but the parties may provide otherwise
by what is termed a “valued policy, the effect
of which is the same as if the value were admitted
at the trial s
SECT. II.-OF ToTAL LossEs.
Total losses may happen by capture, by barra-
try, by detention, or by the general perils of the
Seas
1. By capture, that is, when the ships or goods
of dne country are taken by another in a state of
public war, and they are considered as lost,
though not condemned or carried to any port or
fleet of the enemy, and the underwriter must
pay the loss. If the vessel be retaken, the owner
may recover the salvage which he has paid ; and,
if an English ship retake the vessel, the owner is
entitled, on payment of salvage, to restitution.
If the loss be paid, the underwriter stands in the
place of the assured, and is equally entitled to
restitution. The right of the original owner,
upon re-Čapture, continues for ever, upon paying
from one-eighth to half the value to the re-cap-
tors, according to the time during which it has
been in possession of the enemy. See Salvage,
Sect. III.
2. By barratry, which is defined any act of
the master or mariners, of a criminal nature, or
which is grossly negligent, tending to their own
benefit, to the prejudice of the owners of the ship,
and without their consent or privity. It is bar-
ratry in the master to smuggle on his own ac-
count, and so also, perhaps, is the breach of an
embargo, unless the act be done for the benefit
of his owners. It is not barratry if the act of the
captain be with the knowledge of the owners of
the ship, though without that of the owner of the
goods. If the master be also the owner, he can-
not be guilty of barratry: the crime can only be
committed against the owner of the ship. The
moment the ship is carried from the proper track,
with an evil intent, barratry is committed. If
the owner of a ship freight it for a specific
voyage, the freighter is considered as owner pro
hac vice; and it is barratry if the master act cri-
minally without his privity, though with the
knowledge of the original owner.
3. By detention, or, as expressed in the policy,
‘damages arising from the arrests, restraints, and
detainments of kings, princes, or people.” Em-
bargoes by the authority of a state are included
in this provision, though it be a neutral state.
Detention of a neutral ship for the purposes of
search is within the policy, and the underwriter
is liable to the expenses. For detention on ac-
count of non-payment of customs, the insurer is
not liable. Particular ordinances, not a part of
the general law of nations, under which a deten-
tion occurs, form a risk within the policy. It is
not decided, though it is probable, that a deten-
tion by the state to which the ship belongs is
included in the risk. The owner must abandon
to the underwriter all claim to the property in-
sured, before he can recover a loss for detention.
If a seizure be made for transgressing the laws
of a foreign country, the underwriters are not
liable for the detention.
4. By perils of the sea, that is to say, by acci-
dents happening by the force of wind or waves;
by thunder and lightning, by driving against
rocks, or by the stranding of the ship, or any
other violence that human prudence could not
foresee, nor human strength resist. Losses oc-
casioned by these means fall upon the under-
writers. Amongst the exceptions to this general
rule, may be mentioned the following:—The
captain of a slave-ship missed the island for
$
which he was bound, and, water being deficient,
some of the slaves were thrown overboard to
preserve the rest. It was held that the mistake
of the captain was not a peril of the sea. So
the death of slaves by failure of provision, oc-
casioned by extraordinary delay from bad wea-
ther, is not a loss within the policy.
A ship which is never heard of after her
departure, shall be presumed to have perished at
sea. According to the usage of merchants, a
vessel is deemed lost if not heard of within six
months after departure for any port of Europe,
or within twelve if for a greater distance. If the
vessel arrives, the underwriter may recover back
the money paid by him.
SECT. III.-OF PARTIAL LOSSES.
Partial losses consist of damages which the
ship may have sustained from some of the perils
enumerated in the policy, or which the cargo
may have suffered from storm &c., although the
whole or greater part may arrive in port. Ac.
cording to the terms of the policies used in Lom-
don, the under-writers are liable only when the
loss amounts to three per cent., unless the claim
be a general average or contribution to a general
loss. For the partial damage, the under-writer
must pay in proportion to the prime cost. The
rule of calculation is the difference between the
gross and not the nett proceeds. The under-
writer is not liable to fluctuations in the market
or to charges after the arrival at the port of des-
tination. Where the property is of various kinds,
an account must be taken of the value of the
whole, and the insurers are liable for the due
proportion of the amount of the goods lost.
The underwriters by express stipulation usually
exempt themselves from any partial loss to perish-
able commodities, as corn, fish, salt, fruit, flour,
or seed, unless it arise by way of general average
or in consequence of standing. The two insur-
ance companies do not make the latter exceptions
It has been determined that so long as these
commodities specifically remain, though wholly
unfit for use, the loss shall not be deemed total
so as to charge the insurers.
Of averages.—Small or petty average consists
of such charges as the master is obliged to pay,
according to custom, for the benefit of the ship
and cargo, as pilotage, beaconage, &c. These
charges do not fall upon the underwriter.
General average arises when goods are thrown
overboard in a storm to lighten the ship, and the
owners of the ship and goods saved are to con-
tribute to those whose goods have been ejected.
To render the destruction legal, that which is
condemned must be 1. in consequence of a vo-
luntary deliberate concurrence both of the mas-
ter and men. 2. The ship must be in actual
M A R IN E . IN SU R A N C E.
557
distress and the sacrifice necessary. 3. The
saving the ship and cargo must be owing to the
means used with that view. If the ship, being
once preserved by such means, be afterwards
lost, the property, if any, saved from the second
accident, must contribute to the loss occasioned
by the former. -
Diamonds and jewels must contribute accord-
ing to their value, if they form part of the cargo.
But jewels belonging to the person, wearing
apparel, and ship provisions, are not liable to
contribute. Nor are sailors' wages, or bottomry,
or respondentia bonds, liable.
The calculation of the average is thus made:
taking the value of the whole ship, freight, and
cargo, if no jettson (or throwing over) had taken
place, then the ship, freight, and cargo, are to bear
, an equal and proportionable part of the loss.
Of salvage, which is an allowance for saving
a ship or goods from the perils of the sea, fire,
or enemies. By the law of England reasonable
Salvage, to be ascertained by three justices of the
peace, shall be allowed to those who save the
ship or any of the goods.
n re-capture the salvage is regulated by act
of parliament. If retaken by one of his majesty's
ships the amount is one-eighth of the value. To
a privateer, when the ship has been in posses-
sion of the enemy twenty-four hours, also one-
eighth; if above twenty-four and less than forty-
eight hours one-fifth; if above forty-eight, and
under ninety-six hours, one-third; and if above
ninety-six hours, a moiety or half part. If the
ship retaken has been fitted out by the enemy
as a ship of war, the Salvage in all cases is a
moiety. -
The wearing apparel of the master and seamen
is excepted from the allowance of salvage.
Of abandonment.—The property insured, or
the residue of it, must be abandoned to the un-
derwriter before a total loss can be claimed.
The underwriter, having discharged his liability,
stands in the place of the assured, and is entitled
to the ship or goods, if not totally lost or after-
wards restored by re-capture.
The abandonment must be made within a rea-
sonable time after the receipt of the intelligence
which justifies it, otherwise the right is waived
and a total loss cannot be reeovered. It has
been held that notice given five days after infor-
mation received of the loss was too late. Where
the salvage is high, and the object of the voyage
defeated, the assured may abandon. But a loss
of voyage by perils of the sea is not a ground of
abandonment where the cargo is in safety and not
of a perishable nature.
Of returning the premium.—It is not clearly
settled whether the assured be entitled to a re-
turn of premium in case the insurance be void
for fraud. Where the insurance is declared il-
legal by statute, it seems the premium cannot be
recovered, nor where the fraud is of a gross na-
ture; but if the fact or circumstance which vi-
tiates the policy, though termed in strictness of
law a “fraud,' be a mistake, or an act not wilful
the premium ought, it appears, to be returned.
Insurances may be classed into void and illegal.
—In the latter no premium can be reclaimed.
In the former the right depends upon the ques-
i. whether the transaction were bonā or malā
6.
If the value of the property be less than the
sum insured, the assured may claim a return of
premium in proportion to the excess. *
The underwriters are entitled to retain hal
per cent, for their trouble when the policy is
vacated.
SECT. III.—OF THE PROCEDURE To ENFORCE
PAYMENT OF LOSSEs.
There was formerly a particular court for the
trial of insurance causes in a summary way.
The judge of the admiralty, the recorder of Lon–
don, two doctors of the civil law, two common
lawyers, and eight merchants, constituted the
court, and an appeal was allowed to the court of
chancery. These questions are, however, now
decided like all others by a jury in the courts of
common law. Those of equity have no jurisdic-
tion, the demand being clearly a demand at law.
The policies of the Royal Exchange, and
London Assurance companies are under seal.
The actions therefore must be in debt or cove—
nant. Against other underwriters, who merely
sign the policy, the action is indebitatus as-
sumpsit. -
By a regulation introduced by lord Mansfield,
called a consolidation rule, all the actions which
are brought on the same policy against the indi-
vidual underwriters, except one, may be stayed,
by which great expense is saved. The under-
writers, in return for this advantage, engage not
to file any bill in equity or bring any writ of er-
ror for delay. The underwriters are also enabled
to pay into court so much money as they deem
proper, and if the assured does not recover a
larger sum he is liable to the costs of the de-
fendant. -
The form of the pleadings, in such actions, it is
unnecessary to state in a work of this nature.
Of the evidence, however, a few particulars may
not be inappropriate. The assured must prove
his interest in the property insured by the usual
documents, which consist of bills of sale of the
ship, and of bills of parcels, and bills of lading
of the cargo. In a “valued’ policy it is only
necessary to prove that the goods were on board.
It is then open to the defendant to show that the
interest was only colorable or the goods greatly
overvalued. The next point is that the voyage
insured has been performed, so far as it extended,
according to the terms of the policy. The proof of
the loss must be in exact conformity to the way
in which it is alleged in the pleadings to have
taken place. The sentences of foreign courts of
admiralty are frequently received as evidence.
These must be properly authenticated; and if they
have issued from a competent tribunal, and ap-
pear complete in themselves, the courts here will
not receive evidence to disturb, the decision.
The coquet, which is a document issued by the
custom house, should be produced to show that
the goods were actually shipped. The evidence
of a vessel having sailed with convoy is the pro-
duction of the sailing orders which are given to
the master. -- -
556
M A R IN E I N S U R A N C E.
SECT. IV.--Of VoID INSURANCEs.
1. Offraud by misreprescntation and conceal-
ment.—Both parties are bound to disclose the true
state of the circumstances within their knowledge
so far as they enhance the risk. The assured
must state the accidents that have befallen the
vessel. The underwriter, if he knows that it has
safely arrived, must disclose the fact. Frauds are
divided into 1. the allegatio falsi; 2. the sup-
pressio viri; and 3. misrepresentation, which
though not wilful yet if in a material point
equally vitiates the insurance.
Of the first kind are representations that the
property insured belongs to a neutral when in
fact it belongs to an enemy.
Of the second class is the concealment of ma-
terial circumstances, such as that a ship described
like the one proposed for insurance was taken,
or was spoken to at sea in a leaky state, or any
causes of more than common danger.
But there are several things which the assured
need not communicate because they either are
or ought to be known by the underwriter. For
the latter is bound to know all perils depending.
on war or peace—the nature and danger of the
voyage, &c. With respect to other information,
it is enough to communicate the facts: the
underwriter is not entitled to know the as-
sured's conclusions, nor his fears and appre-
hensions. • .
As to the third kind of fraud, it consists not of
wilful, falsehood, nor suppression of the truth;
but of a material mistake in the representation
made. The underwriter, having computed the
risk upon a certain state of things, is released
from his obligation if they have been misrepre-
sented, however innocently. The misrepre-
sentation of an agent is equally fatal as that of
the principal, even though unknown to the
latter. -
The fraud must be fully and satisfactorily
proved in order to set aside the policy, and the
burthen of proof lies on the party who seeks
advantage from it.
2. Of a deviation in the voyage ; which is a
voluntary departure, without necessity, or rea-
sonable cause, from the usual course. By this
the underwriters are discharged. To support
this defence, it is not necessary that the loss.
should have happened in consequence of the
deviation, because the voyage has been deter-
mined by the change; and it is immaterial whe-
ther the owner consented or not to the deviation.
Putting into an unusual port, or staying an un-
usual time, is a deviation. The deviation for a
single hour is fatal.
The justifications for a deviation are: to re-
pair the vessel,-to avoid an impending storm,
-to escape from an enemy,+or to seek convoy.
When that is done which is for the general bene-
fit of the parties concerned, the act is within the
policy. The motives, end, and consequence of
the act are the grounds of determining whether
the deviation be justifiable or Lot. An intention
to deviate does not affect the policy.
3. Changing the ship, or substituting another
for that mentioned in the policy, befere the voy-
age commences, annuls the contract; and if
during the vovage the property be removed from
nature of it, be illegal.
one ship to another, without the underwriter's
consent, or unavoidable mecessity, the implied
condition is broken.
4. Of unseaworthiness.--Every ship, by an
implied warranty, must be able to perform the
voyage, unless some accident should occur; and
if she have a defect, though unknown to the
owner, the contract is vacated. If, however,
the decay did not commence till after the insur-
ance, the liability of the insurer will attach how-
ever soon the loss may happen. Seaworthiness
includes every necessary equipment. The want
of a pilot, where the navigation usually requires
one, will discharge the underwriter. The vessel
must also be properly manned, that is, she must
have on board a sufficient number of skilful
mariners for the usual purposes of navigation.
SECT. V.—OF ILLEGAL INSURANCES.
It is necessary that the risks which are insured
against should be such as may legally be incur-
red. The contract may, in the very terms and
The voyage during
which the danger is incurred may also be con-
trary to law. And, lastly, the property sought
to be insured may be, of a prohibited nature.
Of these each in its order.
1. Of wager policies, or policies upon interest
or no interest. The performance of a voyage in
a reasonable time is here the only object of in-
surance, and they were always looked upon with
great jealousy by the courts of law. . The courts
of equity considered them as absolutely void.
The statute 19 Geo. II., c. 37, declares them
illegal, but contains an exception for insurances
on private ships of war fitted out solely against
his majesty's enemies, and also provides for the
insurance of merchandise from any ports in
Europe or America in the possession of the
crowns of Spain and Portugal. It has also been
decided that the act does not extend to insur-
ances of foreign property.
2. Of illegal voyages, or such as are expressly
prohibited by the common, statute, or maritime
law, and which are consequently void. In those
cases it is not material whether the underwriter
knew that the voyage was illegal or not. Even
a neutral ship cannot be insured when the voyage
is prohibited by embargo.
3. Of prohibited goods, insurances upon which
are illegal, the importation of them being prohi-
bited. These consist of such foreign merchan-
dises as are declared contraband. The insur-
ance of articles prohibited from being exported
is also void, as wool, woolfels, &c. So also
insurances which in any way defraud the reve-
nue, obstruct the navigation acts, or contravene
the royal proclamation in time of war, or relate
to things which in their nature are contraband,
as arms or ammunition to an enemy, are null
and void. An insurance of prohibited goods
against the risk of seizure by the government is
void. Lastly, slaves and the property of enemies
are not insurable, and no action can be main-
tained thereon. For respondentia and bottomry,
see RESPONDENTIA. -
MARINE SURVEYor, a machine contrived by
Mr. H. de Saumerez for measuring the way of a
ship in the sea. This machine is in the form of
MAR
9. , . MAR
55
the letter Y, and is made of iron or any other
metal. At each end of the lines which constitute
the angle, or upper part of that letter, are two
pallets, resembling the figure of the log; one of
which falls in the same proportion as the other
rises. The falling or pendant pallet, meeting a
resistance from the water, as the ship moves, has
thereby a circular motion under water, which is
faster or slower according as the vessel moves.
This motion is communicated to a dial within
the ship, by a rope fastened to the tail of the Y,
and carried to the dial. The motion being thus
communicated to the dial, which has a bell in it,
it strikes exactly the number of geometrical
paces, miles, or leagues which the ship has run.
Thus the ship's distance is ascertained; and the
forces of tides and currents may also be dis-
covered by this instrument; which has, however,
been very little used. -
MARINELLA (Lucretia), a Venetian lady of
the seventeenth century, who published, 1. The
Life of the Virgin Mary; 2. The Life of St.
Francis; and, 3. A curious tract in which she
maintains the superiority of the female sex over
the male: with several other works. 3.
MARINGUES, a manufacturing and trading
town of France, in the department of the Puy de
Dome. It has a brisk trade in corn, and 3800
inhabitants; fourteen miles north-west of Thiers.
MARINO (John Baptist), a celebrated Italian
poet, born at Naples in 1569. His father, who
was an able civilian, obliged him to study the
law; at which, being disgusted, he left his parents,
and retired to the house of Sieur Manzi, who
was a friend to all men of genius. He at length
became secretary to Matthew of Capua, great
admiral of Naples, and contracted a friendship
with Tasso. He went soon after to Rome, and
entered into the service of cardinal Aldobran-
dini, nephew to pope Clement VIII., who took
him with him to Savoy. Marino was in great
favor with the court of Turin; but afterwards
created himself many enemies there, the most
furious of whom was the poet Gaspard Murtola,
who, attempting to shoot him with a pistol,
wounded one of the duke of Savoy's favorites.
Marino, being obliged to leave Turin, went to
Paris at the desire of queen Mary de Medicis,
and published there his poem on Adonis. He
afterwards went to Rome, where he was made
prince of the academy of the humoristi; and
thence to Naples, where he died while he was
preparing to return home. He had a very
lively imagination, but littke judgment. His
works, which are numerous, have been often.
printed. t
MARINo (St.), a.native of Dalmatia, originally
brought up a mason, who flourished in the fifth
century; and, having turned hermit, retired to
the mountain which still bears his name. His
devotion and austerity soon procured him such
a high reputation for sanctity, that the Italian
princess, on whose property the mountain was
situated, made him a present of it; whereupon
great numbers of people, out of veneration for
he saint, took up their residence upon it, and
thus laid the foundation of the town and re-
public of St. Marino. He is venerated as the
greatest of the saints, next to the Virgin Mary,
and to speak disrespectfully of him is punished as
blasphemy. -
MARINO (St.), a small republic of Italy,
said to be founded by the saint above named,
and consisting only of a mountain, a town, and
a few hills about the bottom of it, six miles in
extent. The number of the inhabitants is about
7000. The mountain yields good wine, but they
have only rain or snow water. In the whole
territory there are only three castles, three con-
vents, and five churches. The largest of the
churches is dedicated to the saint, and contains
his ashes and his statue. All that are capable of
bearing arms are exercised. In the ordinary
course of government, the administration was in
the hands of the council of sixty, which, however,
consisted only of forty members, one half of
whom are of noble families, and the other of
plebeian. On extraordinary occasions, however,
the arengo, or great council, in which every house
has its representative, is called together. The
two principal officers are the capitaneos, who are
chosen every half year; next to them is the com-
missary, who judges in civil and criminal matters,
and is joined in commission with the capitaneos.
When an ambassador is sent to any foreign state,
he is allowed about 1s. a day. In the year 1100
the republic purchased the castle of Pennarosta,
and in 1170 that of Casalo. About 1460 it as-
sisted pope Pius II. against Malatesta lord of
Rimini; in return for which he made over to it
the forts of Serravale, Faetano, Mont Giardino,
and Florentino. During all the late various re-
volutions of Italy this republic preserved its
liberty and a nominal independence; upon the
peace, in 1802, the citizens new-modelled their
constitution, by adding one-fourth to the number
of the little council, and increasing that of the
great council to 300. It acknowledges the pope
as its protector. -
MARINUS, an engraver who flourished about
1630, and resided principally at Antwerp. His
plates are executed in a very singular style, with
the graver only: the strokes are very fine and
delicate, and crossed over each other in a lozenge-
like form, which he filled up with thin long dots.
His prints, though generally very neat, are defec-
tive in the determination of the folds of the dra-
peries and the outline of the human figure; the
'extremities of which are heavy, and not marked
with precision. Fine impressions from his best
plates are, however, much sought after by collec-
tors; those especially after Rubens and Joardens
are held in very high estimation. * * *
MARION AND CRozet's ISLANDs, four islands
in the Indian Ocean, discovered by Marion and
Crozet, French navigators in 1772, by whom they
were called Cavern Island (situated in long. 32°
11' E., lat. 46° 45' S.), Bold Island, Possession
Island, and Arid Island. They were afterwards
seen by captain Cook in 1776.
MA'RJORAM, n.s. Lat. marjorama; Fr.
marjolaine. A fragrant plant.
The nymphs of the mountains would be drawn,
upon their heads garlands of honeysuckles, wood-
bine, and sweet marjoram. lº Peacham.
MARJoRAM, in botany. See ORIGANUM.
• MARIQUITA, a city of South America, in
New Granada, formerly celebrated for its mines'
560
M A R IT IM E L A W.
of gold and silver, These, however, having been
long abandoned, its population is much reduced.
It has a good parish church, and several other
edifices. Eighty miles south of Santa Fe.
MARISH, n.s. Fr. marais; Sax. menre;
Belg. maersche; Teut. march. A bog; fen ;
swamp; morass; moor. See MARSH.
When they had avenged the blood of their brother,
they turned again to the marish of Jordan.
1 Mac. ix. 42.
. The fen and quagmire so marish by kind,
Are to be drained. Tusser's Husbandry.
His limbs he coucheth in the cooler shades;
Oft, when heaven's burning eye the fields invades,
To marishes resorts. Sandys's Paraphrase.
Lodronius, carried away with the breaking in of
the horsemen, was driven into a marish; where, being
sore wounded, and fast in the mud, he had done the
uttermost. Knolles.
From the other hill -
To their fixed station, all in bright array,
The cherubim descended; on the ground
Gliding meteorous, as evening mist
Risen from a river, o'er the marish glides,
And gathers ground fast at the labourer's heels.
* Milton.
It hath been a great endangering to the health of
some plantations, that they have built along the sea
and rivers, in marish and unwholesome grounds.
º Bacon's Essays.
The flight was made towards Dalkeith ; which
way, by reason of the marish, the English horse were
least able to pursue. Hayward.
MARITAGIUM, in the feudal customs, as
contradistinguished from matrimonium, signifies
the power which the lord or guardian in chivalry
had of disposing of his infant ward in matri-
mony. For, while the infant was in ward, the
guardian had the power of tendering him or her
a suitable match without disparagement or in-
equality; which, if the infants refused, they for-
feited the value of the marriage, valorem mari-
tagii, to their guardian; that is, so much as a
jury would assess, or any one would bonā fide
give to the guardian for such an alliance: and if
the infants married themselves without the guar-
dian's consent, they forfeited double the value,
duplicem valorem maritagii.
MAR’ITAL, adj. . Lat. maritus. Of, or per-
taining to, a husband.
If any one retains a wife that has been taken in
the act of adultery, he incurs the guilt of the crime
of bawdry. But because repentance does consist in
the mind, and since Christian charity, as well as
marital affection, easily induces a belief thereof, this
law is not observed. Ayliffe.
It has been determined, by some unpolite profes-
sors of the law, that a husband may exercise his ma-
*ital authority so far, as to give his wife moderate
correction. Art of Tormenting.
MARITIMAL, adj. Lat. maritimus; Fr.
MAR'ITIME, adj. $nº Performed
on, or pertaining to, the sea; bordering on the
Sea ; marine.
I discoursed of a maritimal voyage, and the pas-
sages and incidents therein. Raleigh's Essays.
The friend, the shores maritimal
Sought º º bed, and found a place upon which
playe $
The mºis billows. Chapman’s Iliad.
At the parliament at Oxford his youth, and want
of experience in maritime service, had somewhat been
shrewdly touched. Wotton.
Ercoco, and the less maritime kings j
Monbaza and Quiloa. Milton.
Neptuneupbraided them with their stupidityandig-
norance, that a maritime town should neglect the Pa-
tronage of him who was the god of the seas. Addison.
MARITIME EAw. Under the article LAw
we have briefly enumerated the courts maritime,
and the general nature of the injuries cognizable
therein. It remains for us in this place to pre-
sent the reader with a summary of the legal pro-
visions which relate to foreign trade; the registry
of ships; their hire and mortgage; the liabilities
of the master; the mutual obligations of the
several owners of ships and cargo; and the lien
of creditors upon the ship, and other remedies.
SECT. I.-OF THE LAws RELATING TO For EIGN
TRADE.
The objects or policy of the navigation acts of.
Great Britain are stated to be the following:
first, to secure to our own shipping the carrying
trade. Secondly, to confine our trade to the
capital of our own merchants, by excluding
foreigners from being intermediate negotiators,
except those who are the subjects of the countries
of which the articles are the produce or manu-
facture. Thirdly, to encourage our own manufac-
tures by checking the introduction into the same
market of foreign articles.
These objects are in a very considerable de-
gree attained by enforcing the employment of
British shipping under the regulations prescribed
by the several navigation acts.
It may be necessary to state that ‘ a British-
built ship' is legally defined to be such as has
been built in Great Britain or Ireland, Guern-
sey, Jersey, or the Isle of Man, or in some of the
colonies, plantations, islands, or territories, in
Asia, Africa, or America, which, at the time of
building the ship, belonged to, or were in the
possession of, the crown of England; or any ship
whatsoever which has been taken and condemned
as lawful prize. But a British built vessel, cap-
tured by an enemy, and afterwards purchased by
a subject, cannot be registered as a British ves-
sel, though ships actually re-captured may be so
registered.
By the 6 Geo. IV., c. 109, no goods are to be
exported from the United Kingdom to any British
possession in Asia, Africa, or America, except in
British ships.
It is also required, by the same statute, that
British registered ships must be navigated, dur-
ing the whole voyage, by a British master, and
three-fourths of the crew are also to be British
seamen. On a coasting voyage, or in passing
between Guernsey, Jersey, Sark, Alderney, or
Man, the whole of the crew must be British. Ape-
nalty of £10 is inflicted for each foreign seaman
beyond the proportion.
Goods cannot be imported into any British
settlement in Asia, Africa, or America, in any
foreign ship, unless it belong to the country
where the goods were produced.
Amongst other regulations, in the maritime
law, it may not be immaterial to mention the
following, which relates to the carrying of pas.
sengers between Great Britain and Ireland.
According to the provisions of the 4 Geo. IV.,
c. 88, merchant-vessels of not more than 100
f
M A R IT IM E L A W.
561
tons burthen are not to carry more than ten pas-
sengers. Those of not more than 200 tons are
limited to twenty passengers. The penalty for
each person beyond these numbers is £5. Ves-
sels are licensed by the collector of the customs
from the port of sailing in the following propor-
tions: five adult persons, or ten children under
fourteen years, or fifteen children under seven,
for every four tons burden. If the vessel be
partly laden, the same proportion takes place for
every four tons unladen. The penalty for carry-
ing more than twenty, without license, is £50;
and, if licensed, £5 for each person beyond the
above proportion.
SECT. II.-OF THE LAws RELATING To SHIPs.
1. Of their registry.—The 6 Geo. IV., c. 110,
provides for the registry of vessels with the col-
lector and comptroller of the customs, without
which the ship is not entitled to the privileges
of British shipping under the act for its en-
couragement, and vessels are liable to forfeiture
which exercise the rights of registered ships
before they are duly registered. The name of
the vessel must be painted on the stern under a
penalty of £10, and no change can take place
in the name without a new register. A do-
cument called “the ship's register,’ or certi-
ficate of registry, is granted by the custom-
house, which, whilst the vessel continues to
belong to the original owner, is the best evidence,
of title. When a transfer takes place, the ven-
der executes a “bill of sale,” which must be
registered at the custom-house, and the transfer
indorsed on the ship's register, within a certain
time, when in port or after her arrival. -
As often as the master of a ship is changed a
memorandum must be indorsed on the certificate
of registry.
If the certificate be lost or mislaid, or if a
ship be altered in form or burden, or from one
denomination of vessel to another, by rigging or
fitting, it must be registered de novo, and a new
certificate obtained. The masters of ships must
produce the certificate of registry, on demand, to
the principal officer in any port within the king's
dominions, or to the British consul, or chief
officer, in any foreign port. For refusal they are
liable to a penalty of £100.
2. Of letting and hiring the ship.–This is
effected by a contract, termed a charter party,
between the master and freighters, in which the
ship and voyage is described, and the time and
conditions of performing it are ascertained. The
freightis most frequently determined for the whole
voyage, without respect to time. Sometimes it
depends on the time. In the former case it is
either fixed at a certain sum for the whole cargo;
or so much per ton, barrel bulk, or other weight
or measure, or so much per cent. on the value of
the cargo. The invoices are produced to ascer-
tain the value. The burden of the ship is gene-
rally mentioned in the contract, in this manner,
100 tons or thereabouts; and the number men-
tioned ought not to differ above five tons, at
most, from the exact measure. If a certain sum
be agreed on, for the freight of the ship, it must
all be paid, although the ship, when measured,
should prove less, unless the burden be war-
VoI, XIII.
ranted. -
cattle, at so much a head, and some of them die
If the ship be freighted for transporting
on the passage, freight is only due for such as
are delivered alive; but, if for lading them, it is
due for all that were put on board. When a
whole ship is freighted, if the master suffers any
other goods besides those of the freighter to be
put on board he is liable for damages. It is
common to mention the number of days that
the ship shall continue at each port to load or
unload. The expression used is work weather
days; to signify that Sundays, holydays, and
days when the weather stops the work, are not
reckoned. If the ship be detained longer a
daily allowance is often agreed on in name of
demurrage. If the voyage be completed in the
terms of the agreement, without any misfortune,
the master has a right to demand payment of the
freight before he delivers the goods. But, if the
safe delivery be prevented by any fault or acci-
dent, the parties are liable according to the fol-
lowing rules. If the merchant do not load the
ship within the time agreed on the master may
engage with another and recover damages. If the
merchant load the ship, and recal it after it has
set sail, he must pay the whole freight; but if
he unload it before it sets sail he is liable for
damages only. If a merchant loads goods which
it is not lawful to export, and the ship be pre-
vented from proceeding on that account, he
must pay the freight notwithstanding. If the
ship-master be not ready to proceed on the
voyage at the time agreed on, the merchant may
load the whole, or part of the cargo, on board
another ship, and recover damages. If an em-
bargo be laid on the ship before it sails, the
*.
charter party is dissolved, and the merchant pays
the expense of loading and unloading ; but, if
the embargo be only for a short limited time, the
voyage shall be performed when it expires, and
neither party is liable for damages. If the ship-
master sails to any other port than that agreed
on, without necessity, he is liable for damages;
if through necessity, he must sail to the port
agreed on at his own expense. If a ship be
taken by the enemy, and retaken or ransomed,
the charterparty continues in force. If the mas-
ter transfer the goods from his own ship to an-
other, without necessity, and they perish, he is
liable for their value; but, if his own ship be in
imminent danger, the goods may be put on
board another ship at the risk of the owner. If a
ship be freighted out and home, and a sum
agreed on for the whole voyage, nothing is due
till it return; and the whole is lost if the ship
be lost on the return. If a certain sum be spe-
cified for the homeward voyage, it is due, al-
though the factor abroad should have no goods
to send home.
3. Of pledging or hypothecating the ship—The
master of the ship has power to pledge or hypo-
thecate the ship, and also the goods, or either of
them, in case the vessel springs a leak at sea, or
is in danger from any other cause of being lost.
But his authority extends only to instances in
which the safety of the ship and the due prose-
cution of the voyage is concerned. Consequently
the master cannot incumber, either the ship or
goods for his own debt. He is at º COſlº.
2
562
M A R IT IM E L A W.
sistently with this principle to pledge the ship
for necessary repairs during a voyage; and this
mortgage or hypothecation is implied by the
maritime law, when such debts are contracted.
This regulation is necessary, and is therefore
adopted by all commercial nations; for, other-
wise, the master might not find credit for neces-
sary repairs, and the ship might be lost. If re-
pairs be made at different places, the last which
are made are preferable. The relief against the
ship is competent, to the court of admiralty in
England, only when repairs are furnished during
the course of a voyage, for the necessity of the
case extends no further.
SECT. III.-OF THE LIABILITIES OF THE
MASTER.
The master is liable, 1st. for damages or loss
sustained by the non-performance of the charter
party; 2dly, for the debts he incurs on behalf of
the ship, but which, as already stated, he has
power to secure by its hypothecation.
In the case of a ship freighted to Madeira,
Carolina, and home, a particular freight was fixed
for the homeward voyage, and an option reserved
for the factor at Carolina to decline it, unless the
ship arrived before the 1st of March. The ship-
master foreseeing he could not arrive there
within that time, and might be disappointed of a
freight, did not go thither at all. He was found
liable in damages, as the obligation was absolute
on his part, and conditional only on the other.
If the goods be damaged, without fault of the ship
or master, the owner is not obliged to receive
them and pay freight, but he must either receive
the whole, or abandon the whole, he cannot
choose those that are in best order, and reject
the others. If the goods be damaged through
the insufficiency of the ship, the master is liable ;
but, if it be owing to stress of weather, he is not
accountable. It is customary for ship masters,
when they suspect damage, to take a protest
against wind and weather at their arrival. But,
as this is the declaration of a party, it does not
bear credit unless supported by collateral circum-
stances. If part of the goods be thrown over-
board, or taken by the enemy, the part delivered
pays freight. The shipmaster is accountable for
all the goods received on board by himself or
mariners, unless they perish by the act of God,
or of the king's enemies. Shipmasters are not
liable for leakage on liquors; nor accountable
for the contents of packages, unless packed and
delivered in their presence. Upon a principle
of equity, that the laborer is worthy of his hire,
differences arising with regard to freight, when
th_case is doubtful, ought rather to be determined
in favor of the shipmasters.
SECT. IV.-OF THE MUTUAL OBLIGATIONs of
THE Own ERs of SHIP AND CARGo.
There is a mutual obligation which subsists
between the owners of a ship and cargo. In
time of danger, it is often necessary to incur a
eertain loss of part for the greater security of the
rest; to cut a cable; to lighten the ship, by
throwing part of the goods overboard; to run it
ashore, or the like; and, as it is unreasonable that
the owners of what is exposed for the common
safety should bear the whole loss, it is defrayed
by an equal contribution among the proprietors
of the ship, cargo, and freight. This is the famous
lex Rhodia de jactu, and is now called a general
average. The custom of valuing goods which
contribute to a general average is not uniform
in all places. They are generally valued at
the price they yield at the "port of destina-
tion, charges deducted; and goods thrown over-
board are valued at the price they would have
yielded there. Sailors' wages, clothes, and money
belonging to passengers, and goods belonging
to the king, pay no general average; but pro-
prietors of gold and silver, in case of goods being
thrown overboard, contribute to the full extent of
their interest. The following particulars are
charged as general average: Damage sustained
in an engagement with the enemy; attendance
on the wounded, and rewards given for service
in time of danger, or gratuities to the widows
or children of the slain; ransom, goods given to
the enemy in the nature of ransom; charges of
bringing the ship to a place of safety when in
danger from the enemy, or waiting for convoy;
charges of quarantine; goods thrown overboard;
masts or rigging cut; holes cut in the ship to
clear it of water; pilotage when a leak is sprung;
damage when voluntarily run aground, and ex-
pense of bringing it afloat; goods lost by being
put in a lighter; the long boat lost in lightening
the ship in time of danger; hire of cables and
anchors; charges of laying in ballast, victualling,
and guarding the ship when detained; charges at
law in reclaiming the ship and cargo: interest
and commission on all these disbursements.
Though goods put on board a lighter, and lost,
are charged as a general average; yet if the
lighter be saved, and the ship with the rest of the
goods be lost, the goods in the lighter belong to
their respective proprietors without being liable
to any contribution. If part of the goods be
plundered by a pirate, the proprietor or ship-
master is not entitled to any contribution. The
essential circumstances that constitute a general
average are these : the loss must be the effect of
a voluntary action, and the object of that action
the common safety of the whole.
SECT. V.-OF THE RIGHTs of THE SHIP's CRE-
DITORS.
Of their lien on the ship, and their remedies
against the owners.--When debts are contracted
for provisions or repairs to a ship, or arise from a
failure in any of the obligations stipulated in
the charter party, the ship and tackle, and the
owners are liable for the debt, as well as the
master. By the mercantile law, the owners are
liable in all cases without limitation; but by
statute they are not liable for embezzlement, be-
yond their value of ship, tackle, and freight.
If a ship be repaired at home (e.g. upon the
Tay or Thames) the creditor is only entitled to
relief at common law. The creditor may sue
either the master or owners; but, if he undertook
the work on the special promise of the one, the
other is not liable. If the master buys provisions
on credit, the owners are liable for the debt,
though they have given him money to pay for them.
If a ship be mortgaged, and afterwards lost at sea,
MAR
MAR
563
the owners must pay the debt; for the mortgage
is only an additional security, though there be
no express words to that purpose in the covenant.
If a ship be taken by the enemy, and ransomed,
the owners are liable to pay the ransom; though
the ransomer die in the hands of the captors.
The ship owners are not liable for more than
the value of the ship and freight, on account of
damages sustained by the loss of goods. Where
there are several owners, and one disagrees from
the voyage, he is not liable to any action subse-
quently for miscarriage or otherwise.
For other branches of the maritime law, see
MARINE INSURANCE, QUARANTINE, RESPONDEN-
TIA, WRECK, &c.
MARIVAUX (PeterCarlet de), a French dra-
matic writer, born of a good family in Paris in
1688. A fine understanding, improved by edu-
cation, distinguished him early. . He met
with the highest success in comic productions,
which, with the merit of his other works, pro-
cured him a place in the French Academy. He
died in Paris in 1763, aged seventy-five. His
works consist of 1. Pieces de Theatre, 4 vols.
12mo, ; 2. Homere travesti, 12mo.; 3. Le Spec-
tateur Français, 2 vols. 12mo.; 4. Le Philo-
sophe Indigent, 12mo, ; 5. Vie de Marianne, 2.
vols. 12mo.; one of the best romances in the
French language; 6. Le Paysan Parvenu, 12mo, ;
7. Pharsamon.
MARIVELAS, or MARIvELLE, one of the
smaller Philippine Islands, with a village on it of
the same name, consisting of about forty houses,
built of bamboo. The floor of these houses is
also made of small bamboos, which do not touch
each other, and which give them the appearance
of bird cages. The mode of ascending them is
by a ladder. The island was invaded by the
Moors in 1810, who destroyed the village, and
made slaves of all the Indians. Since this pe-
riod, the inhabitants have never applied to indus-
try; and are wretchedly poor.
MARIUPOL, a town of European Russia, on
the sea of Azoph, in the government of Ekater-
inoslav, at the mouth of the Kalmius. Popula-
tion 2000. 140 miles south-east of Ekaterinoslav.
MARIUS (Caius), a Roman general, and
seven times consul, but who sullied his great
military reputation by savage barbarities. He
was born at Arpinum, of obscure parents. He
signalised himself under Scipio, at the siege of
Numantia. The Roman general saw his courage
and intrepidity, and foretold his future greatness.
By his intrigues at Rome, while he exercised the
inferior offices of the state, he first rendered him-
self known; and his marriage with Julia, who
was of the family of the Caesars, contributed to
raise him to consequence. He went to Africa as
lieutenant to the consul Metellus against Jugur-
tha, and there ingratiated himself with the sol-
diers; and having raised enemies to his benefactor,
he returned to Rome and canvassed-for the con-
sulship. By his extravagant promises to the
people, and his malevolent insinuations against
Metellus, he proved successful. He was ap-
pöinted to finish the war against Jugurtha, and
showed his military talents by defeating Jugur-
tha. See JUGURTHA. The Roman provinces
being suddenly invaded by an army of 300,000
barbarians, Marius was elected consul, and sent
against the Teutones. The war being prolonged,
Marius was a third and fourth time invested with
the consulship. At last two engagements were
fought, and not fewer than 200,000 of the forces
of the Ambrones and Teutones were slain in the
field of battle, and 90,000 made prisoners in
A.U.C. 650. In 651 the Cimbri, another horde
of barbarians, were defeated; 140,000 of them
were slaughtered by the Romans, and 60,000
taken prisoners. After these victories Marius,
with, his colleague Catullus, entered Rome in
triumph; and Marius received the appellation
of the third founder of Rome. He was elected
consul a sixth time; but his restless ambition
began to raise seditions, and to oppose the
power of Sylla. This was the foundation of a
civil war. Sylla refused to deliver up the com-
mand of his forces, with which he was empowered
to prosecute the Mithridatic war; and con-
sidered the demand as arbitrary and improper.
He marched to Rome, and Marius was obliged
to fly. Adverse winds prevented him from seek-
ing a retreat in Africa, and he was left on the
coast of Campania, where Sylla's emissaries dis-
covered him in a marsh, into which he had
plunged himself, leaving only his mouth above
the surface for respiration. He was dragged to
the neighbouring town of Minturnae; and the
magistrates, being in the interest of Sylla, passed
sentence of death on their illustrious prisoner.
A Gaul was commanded to cut off his head in
the dungeon; but the stern countenance of
Marius disarmed the courage of the executioner:
and when he heard him say, Tune, homo, audes
occidere Caium Marium? the dagger dropped
from his hand. Such an adventure moved the
compassion of the inhabitants of Minturnae.
They liberated Marius, and favored his escape
to Africa, where he joined his son, who had
been arming the princes of that country in his
cause. Marius landed near the walls of Car-
thage, but his retreat was soon known; and the
governor of Africa, to conciliate the favor of
Sylla, compelled Marius to fly to a neighbouring
island. He soon after learned that Cinna had
embraced his cause at Rome, where the Roman
Senate had stripped him of his consular dignity,
and bestowed it upon one of his enemies. . Ma-
rius set sail to assist his friend at the head of only
1000 men. His army, however, was soon in-
creased, aud he entered Rome like a conqueror.
His enemies were inhumanly sacrificed to his
fury; Rome was filled with blood; and he, who
once had been called the father of his country,
marched through the city, attended by a number
of assassins, who slaughtered all those whose
salutations were not answered by their leader.
When Marius and Cinna had sufficiently grati-
fied their rage they made themselves consuls: but
Marius, already worn out with old age and in-
firmities, died sixteen days after he had been
elected consul the seventh time, A.U.C. 666,
and A. A. C. 86. Brought up in poverty, and
among peasants, he always retained his native
rusticity, and despised in others those polished
manners which education had denied him. Being
himself illiterate, he hated the conversation of
the learned; and hissobriety and tempº Were
2 O 2
MAR 564 - MAR
-----horses.
owing to the obscurity in which he had lived
at Arpinum. His countenance was stern, his
voice firm and imperious, and his disposition
untractable. He was in his seventieth year when
he died; and Rome rejoiced at the fall of a man
whose ambition had proved so fatal to many of
her citizens. His only qualifications were those
of a great general; and these rendered him the
most powerful of the Romans, because he was
the only one whose ferocity seemed able to op-
pose that of the barbarians.
MARIUS (M. Aurelius), a native of Gaul;
who, from being a blacksmith, became one of
the generals of Gallienus, and at last caused
himself to be saluted emperor. Three days after
this elevation, a man, who had shared his poverty
without partaking of his prosperity, assassinated
him with a sword which Marius himself had
made in his obscurity. Marius has been cele-
brated for his great strength; and it is reported
that he could stop, with one finger only, the
wheel of a chariot in its most rapid course.
MARIUS, an ancient British monarch, the son
of king Arviragus, whom he succeeded A. D. 74.
He conquered the Picts, and erected a stone
upon Stanmere in memory of his victory. Dr.
Anderson says he married a daughter of the
celebrated queen Boadicea. He died A. D. 125,
after having reigned fifty-one years.
MARIZZA, or MARISSA, the ancient Hebrus,
a river of European Turkey, in Romania, which
has its source in the Haemus Mountains, passing
by Philippopoli, Adrianople and Trajanopoli, and
discharging itself by two mouths into the Gulf
of Enos. Its banks are in general fertile, and in
its course it receives the waters of various small
rivers.
MARK, n.s., v. a., & v. n. Sax. meance;
MARKS MAN, m. s. Belg. mercke ;
Teut. and Swed. mark; Fr. marque; Ital. marca.
A sign; token; proof; notice; butt ; impression:
hence a coin of the value of 13s. 4d: to mark is
to impress, or notify, by, or as by, a sign or
token; to note; heed : as a neuter verb, to take
notice: a marksman is a skilful man at hitting a
mark.
Worche ye not mete that perischeth, but that
dwellith into euerlastinge lyf, which mete mannes
sone schal geue to you : for God the father hath
markyd him. Wiclif. Jon vi.
Mark them which cause divisions contrary to the
doctrine which ye have learned, and avoid them.
- Romans xvi. 17.
Once was proclaimed throughout all Ireland, that
all men should mark their cattle with an open several
mark upon their flanks or buttocks, so as, if they
happened to be stolen, they might appear whose they
WeI6. - Spenser on Ireland.
- The laws
Stand like the forfeits in a barber's shop,
As much for mock as mark. Shakspeare.
We give thee for reward a thousand marks. Id.
In sadness, cousin, I do love a woman.
—I aimed so near when I supposed you loved.
—A right good marksman. Id.
Alas, poor country! -
Where sighs, and groans, and shrieks, that rend the
alr, &
Are made, not marked. Id. Macbeth. '
At two years old cometh the mark of tooth in
- Bacon's Natural History.
* .
Men mark when they hit, and never mark when
they miss, as they do also of dreams. Id. Essays
Whom nothing can procure,
When the wide world runs bias from his will,
To writhe his limbs, and share, not mend the ill:
This is the marksman, safe and sure,
Who still is right, and prays to be so still. Herbert.
Thirty of these pence make a mancuss, which some
think to be all one with a mark, for that manca and
mancusa is translated in ancient books by marca.
Camden’s Remains.
France was a fairer mark to shoot at than Ireland,
and could better reward the conqueror. Davies.
Upon the north sea bordereth Stow, so called, per
eminentiam, as a place of great and good mark and
scope. Carew's Survey of Cornwall.
That which was once the index to point out all
virtues, does now mark out that part of the world
where least of them resides. Decay of Piety.
Be made the mark
For all the people's hate, the prince's curses
- Denham.
Incurable are the wounds which the slanderer in-
flicteth, irreparable the damages which he causeth,
indelible the marks which he leaveth, Barrow.
But cruel fate, and my more cruel wife,
To Grecian swords betrayed my sleeping life;
These are the monuments of Helen's love,
The shame I bear below, the marks I bore above.
º Dryden.
Here are marriage vows for signing;
Set your marks that cannot write.
Mark a little why Virgil is so much concerned to
make this marriage; it is to make way for the divorce
which he intended afterwards.
Now swear and call to witness
Heaven, hell, and earth, I mark it not from one
That breathes beneath such complicated guilt.
Smith.
For our quiet possession of things useful, they are
naturally marked where there is need.
.* Grew's Cosmologia.
In the present form of the earth there are certain
marks and indications of its first state; with which,
if we compare those things that are recorded in
sacred history, we may discover what the earth was
in its first original. Burnet.
The Argonauts sailed up the Danube, and from
thence passed into the Adriatick, carrying their ship
Argo upon their shoulders; a mark of great ignorance
in geography among the writers of that time.
Arbuthnot on Coins.
Lorenzo signed the bargain with his mark.
Young.
And, if he doom that people with a frown,
And mark them with a seal of wrath pressed down,
Obduracy takes place; callous and tough,
The reprobated race grows judgment proof. Cowper.
MARK is used among us for a money of
account, and in some other countries for a coin.
See Mon EY. The Scottish mark is 13%d.
MARK, or MARC, denotes also a weight used
in several states of Europe, and for several com-
modities, especially gold and silver. When gold
and silver are sold by the mark, it is divided
into twenty-five carats.
MARK (St.), the evangelist, was descended of
the tribe of Levi. He is supposed to have been
converted by St. Peter, to whom he was a con-
stant companion in all his travels, supplying the
place of an amanuensis and 'interpreter. He
was by him sent, into Egypt, fixing his chief
residence at Alexandria, where he converted
M AR
MAR
565
great multitudes. He afterwards removed west-
ward, towards Lybia, travelling through Mar-
morica, Pentapolis, &c., where, notwithstanding
the barbarity and idolatry of the inhabitants, he
planted the gospel. Upon his return to Alex-
andria, he set in order the affairs of that church,
and there suffered martyrdom. About Easter,
when the solemnities of Serapis were celebrated,
the idolatrous people broke in upon St. Mark,
while he was performing divine service, and,
binding him with cords, dragged him through the
streets, and thrust him into prison. . Next day
they dragged him about till he expired under
their hands. Some add, that they burnt his
body, and that the Christians interred his bones
and ashes near the place where he used to
preach. This happened A. D. 68. Some say
that his remains were afterwards translated from
Alexandria to Venice, where he has a rich and
stately church erected to his memory, being the
patron of the state. He is author of the gospel
that bears his name. n
MARK, (St.), CANoNs of, a congregation of
regular canons founded at Mantua by Albert
Spinola, a priest, towards the end of the twelfth
century. Spinola formed rules for them, which
were approved, corrected, and confirmed by
several succeeding popes. About the year 1450
they were reformed, and followed only the rule
of St. Augustine. This congregation, having
flourished by the space of 400 years, declined by
degrees, and is now become extinct.
MARK (St.), Gospel of, a canonical book of
the New Testament, one of the four gospels. St.
Mark wrote his gospel at Rome, whither he
accompanied St. Peter, A. D. 44. Tertullian
and others assert that St. Mark was only amanu-
ensis to St. Peter, who dictated this gospel to
him; others affirm that he wrote it after St.
Peter's death. Nor are the learned less divided
as to the language it was written in ; some affirm-
ing that it was composed in Greek, others in
Latin. Several of the ancient heretics received
only the gospel of St. Mark : others, among the
Catholics, rejected the last twelve verses of this
gospel.
MARK, (St.), KNIGHTs of, an order of knight-
hood in the state of Venice,
under the protection of St.
Mark the evangelist. The
arms of the order were,
gules, a lion winged or ;
with this device, Pax tibi
Marce Evangelista. This
order was never conferred
but on those who had done
some signal service to the
commonwealth. The badge
of the order is represent-
ed in the annexed diagram.
MARK, a county of Westphalia, in the Prus-
sian states, bounded on the north by the princi-
pality of Munster, and on the south and west by
Berg. It is about sixty-seven miles long, and
forty-five broad, and has a superficial extent of
about 667 square miles. It is traversed by the
Lippe and Roer, and several inferior rivers,
The Roer was rendered navigable in 1775, and
divides the county into two parts, called the Hel-
weg and the Sauerland. The former is a fertile
level of meadows and arable land, in which
corn, leguminous plants, rape, and turnip seed,
and flax and hemp abound. The southern
division is bleak and rugged, its principal riches
being the minerals of the mountains, which yield
coal, iron, lead, Copper, and a little silver ore.
This county in 1806 fell into the hands of the
French; but in 1814 was restored to Prussia.
Inhabitants 132,000. The chief town is Hamm.
MARKET, n. S. & v. a. Y Sax. mancer ;
MAR'KETABLE, adj. Danish, market;
MAR’KET.BELL, n.s. Swed. markand;
MAR’KET.BETER, Teutonic, marckt,
MAR'KETCROSS, from MARK (an
MAR'KETDAY, assigned place of
MAR'KETFOLK, meeting), which
MAR'KETMAN, see. A public
MAR'KETMAID, place, or time, for
• MAR'KETPLACE, buying and sell-
| MAR’KETPRICE, ing; act of pur-
MAR'KETRATE, chase or sale ;
MAR'KET-Town, rate; price; to
deal at a market: marketable, is saleable; cur-
rent in the market: market-beter, according to
Upton, means, in Chaucer, one who raises the
market price: marketman and maid are servants,
or agents attending a market: market-rate, the
current price of a commodity at market. The
extracts will explain the other compounds.
They are like unto children sitting in the market-
place and calling one to another, and saying, we have
piped unto you and ye have not danced.
- Luk. vii. 32.
They counted our life a pastime, and our time
here a market for gain. Wisd. xv. 12.
Round was his face and camuse was his nose.
As pilled as an ape was his skull;
He was a market-beter at the full. &
- Chaucer. Cant. Tales.
The king, thinking he had put up his sword, be-
cause of the noise, never took leisure to hear his
answer, but made him prisoner, meaning the next
morning to put him to death in the market-place.
Sidney.
It were good that the privilege of a market were
given, to enable them to their defence ; for there is
nothing doth sooner cause civility than many market-
towns, by reason the people repairing often thither
will learn civil manners. Spenser
Mistress, know yourself, down on your knees,
And thank Heaven, fasting, for a good man's love;
For I must tell you friendly in your ear,
Sell when you can, you are not for all markets.
Shakspeare.
Id.
Poor marketfolks that come to sell their corn. Id
Enter, go in, the marketbell is rung.
Be wary how you place your words,
Talk like the vulgar sort of marketmen,
That come to gather money for their corn. Id.
These things you have articulated,
Proclaimed at marketcrosses, read in churches,
To face the garment of rebellion
With some fine colour.
You are come
A marketmaid to Rome, and have prevented
The ostentation of our love. .
Id. Antony and Cleopatra.
Id. Henry IV.

MAR
MAR
566
The pretorian soldiers arrived to that impudence,
that after the death of Pertinax they made open sale
of the empire, as if it had been of common marketable
Wares, Decay of Piety.
With another year's continuance of the war, there
will hardly be money left in this kingdom to turn the
common markets or pay rents. Temple.
Fool that I was, I thought imperial Rome
Like Mantua, where on marketdays we come,
And thither drive our lambs. Dryden's Virgil.
- The precious weight
Of pepper and Sabaean incense take,
‘...."with post-haste thy running market make,
Be sure to turn the penny. Id. Persius.
The gates he ordered all to be unbarred,
And from the market-place to draw the guard.
Dryden,
Money governs the world, and the market-price is
the measure of the worth of men as well as of fishes.
g L’Estrange.
If one bushel of wheat and two of barley will, in
the market, be taken one for another, they are of
equal worth. Locke.
The marketable value of any quantities of two com-
modities is equal, when they will exchange one for
another. Id.
The eye of God is upon men, not only when they
are at church praying and healing, but when they are
in their markets and fairs, and upon the exchange,
buying and selling. Henry.
He ordered all the Lucquese to be seized that were
found on a marketday in one of his frontier towns.
Addison on Italy.
No, no, the pope's mitre my master Sir Roger
seized, when they would have burnt him at our
market-town. Gay.
Behold the marketplace with poor o’erspread,
The man of Ross divides the weekly bread. Pope.
The MARKET, CLERK OF THE CourT OF, an
officer incident to every fair and market in Eng-
land, to punish misdemeanors therein. A court
of pie-poudre is to determine all disputes relating
to private or civil property. The object of this
jurisdiction (see stat. 17 Car. II. cap. 19; 22
Car. II. cap. 8; 23 Car. II. cap. 12), is princi-
pally the cognisance of weights and measures, to
try whether they be according to the true stand-
ard thereof or no; which standard was anciently
committed to the custody of the bishop, who ap-
pointed some clerk under him to inspect the
abuse of them more narrowly; and hence this
officer, though now usually a layman, is called
the clerk of the market. If they be not according
to the standard, then, besides the punishment of
the party by fine, the weights and measures
themselves ought to be burnt. This is the low-
est court of criminal jurisdiction in England.
MARKLAND (Jeremiah), one of the most
learned scholars and critics of his age, was born
in 1692, and educated in Christ's Hospital. He
became first publicly known by his Epistolae
Criticae, addressed to bishop Hare. In this he
gave many proofs of his extensive erudition. He
afterwards published an edition of Statius, and
some plays of Euripides; and assisted Dr. Tay-
lor in his editions of Lysias and Demosthenes,
by notes. He also elucidated some passages in
the New Testament, which may be found in Mr.
Bowyer's edition of it; and was author of a very
valuable volume of remarks on the epistles of
Cicero to Brutus, and of an excellent treatise
entitled Quaestio Grammatica. He died in 1775
at Milton, near Dorking, in Surrey; and was
equally valued for his learning and primitive
simplicity of manners. .
MARL, n.s. & v. a. Sax. meng is marrow,
says Dr. Johnson, to which he traces this word:
but the root marg or margel is found to express
its exact modern signification in all the Gothic
dialects. A fat clay used as manure: to manure
with marl.
So ferd another clerk with astronomie ;
He walked in the feldes for to prie
Upon the sterres, what ther shulde befalle,
Till he was in a marle pityfalle
He saw not that. Chaucer. Cant. Tales.
Marl is the best compost, as having most fatness,
and not heating the ground too much. Bacon.
Uneasy steps
Over the burning marl not like those steps
On heaven’s azure. Milton.
Improvements by marling, liming, and draining,
have been since money was at five and six per cent.
Child.
Sandy land marled will bear good pease.
º - Mortimer.
The oak thrives best on the richest clay, and
will penetrate strangely to come at a marly º
* d.
Marl is a kind of clay, which is become fatter, and
of a more enriching quality, by a better fermentation,
and by its having lain so deep in the earth as not to
have spent or weakened its fertilizing quality by any
product. Marl is supposed to be much of the nature
of chalk, and is believed to be fertile from its salt and
oily quality. Quincy.
Several others, of different figures, were found ;
part of them in a rivulet, the rest in a marlpit in a
field. Woodward.
We understand by the term marls simple native
earths, less heavy than the boles or clays, not soft
and unctuous to the touch, nor ductile while moist,
dry and crumbly between the fingers, and readily
diffusible in water. Płill.
MARL, or MARLE, a kind of calcareous earth,
very much used in agriculture as a manure.
Marl is dug in many places of Great Britain and
Ireland. In digging for it in Ireland they meet
with horns and other curious fossils. The marl
always lies in the bottoms of low bogs, and is
found by boring with augers made for that pur-
pose. It usually lies at five, seven, or nine feet
deep. The obtaining it in many places is
attended with very considerable expense in
draining off the water. The manner of digging
for it is this: six able laborers and a supernu-
merary cut up a hole of twelve feet square,
which is a pit that this number of men can
manage in one day. Two men dig, two
throw it up, and two throw it by, and the super-
numerary man supplies defects on all occasions.
For the first three feet they dig through a furzy
earth, fit for making turf or fuel. Under this
lies a stratum of gravel, of about half a foot;
under this often, for three feet more, there is a
more kindly moss, which would make better
fuel. This lower stratum is always full of fossil
wood, which is usually so soft that the spade
cuts as easily through it as through the earth it
lies in. Under this, for the thickness of about
three inches, is found a series of leaves, princi-
pally of the oak. These appear very fair to the
M. A. R. L. B O R O U G. H.
567
eye, but fall to pieces on being touched; and
this stratum is sometimes interrupted by vast
heaps of seed, of broom, or furze. In some
places there appear berries of different kinds,
and in others several species of sea-plants;
all lying in the same confused manner as the
oak leaves. Under this vegetable stratum lies
one of blue clay, half a foot thick, and usually
full of sea-shells. This blue clay is not so tough
as common clay; but is thrown carefully up,
and used as marl in some places. Under this
always appears the true marl ; the stratum
of which is usually from two to four feet thick,
and sometimes much more. This marl looks
like buried lime, and is full of shells, which are
usually of a small size, and of the periwinkle
kind; but there are several other sorts at times
found among them. Among this marl, and often
at the very bottom of it, are found great numbers
of very large horns of the deer kind, vulgarly
called elks' horns. These, where they join to the
head, are thick and round; and at that joining
there grows out a branch, which is about a foot
long, and seems to have hung just over the
creature's eyes; it grows still round for about a
foot above this, and then spreads out broad, and
terminates in branches long and round, termi-
nating with a small bend. There are also at
times found the leg-bones and other parts of the
skeletons of the same beasts; but this more
rarely, only a few together, and but in few
places. Black is of opinion that all kinds
of marl derive their origin from the calcareous
matter of shells and lithophyta. Shell marl,
says he, is composed of the shells of aquatic
animals, which are sometimes very entire, and
often decayed or mixed down with other earthy
substances. Examining this matter, as occurring
in different places, it may be distinguished into
fresh water marl, and the marl of sea-shells. Of
the first we have an example in the meadow at
Edinburgh. Wherever the soil is turned up, to
the depth of six inches, a quantity appears. It
is composed of the shells of a small fresh-water-
snail or well. This animal, when alive, is not
easily discernible, the shell being much of the
same obscure color as the stones covered with
the water. But we can observe a great number
of them in all running brooks and other collec-
tions of fresh water; and, as the animal dies, the
shells are deposited where the water stagnates in
very great quantities.
shells constitutes greater collections, that are
found in innumerable places now far removed
from the sea. That most particularly described
by Reaumur is a collection of this kind, in
a province of France, and at Turin. That, part
of the country where it is found is computed to
contain eighty square miles of surface; and,
wherever they dig to a certain depth, they find
this collection of shells: the country at present
is 108 miles from the sea. They find the marl
eight or nine feet below the surface, and they dig
it to the depth of twenty feet. It is still deeper,
but they find it too expensive to search for it.
He supposes it to be only eighteen feet deep;
and even at this depth the quantity will appear
enormous. It will amount to 140,000,000 of
cubic fathoms of shells that are mostly decayed
That composed of sea-
and broken into fragments, and mixed with other
marine productions, as millepores, madrepores,
and other coralline bodies, which are all produc-
tions of the sea. The qualities of marl have
been proved by chemical analysis to be precisely
the same with those of lime. - -
MARLBOROUGH, an ancient borough and
"market town of Wiltshire, near the source of the
Kennet, at the foot of a chalky'hill; so named
from its chalky marly soil. It was a Roman
station. In 1627 a parliament was held in the
castle here, whence those laws are called Marl-
borough statutes. There are still some remains
of its walls and ditch. The town is an ancient
borough by prescription, and sends two members
to parliament. It is governed by a mayor, two
justices, twelve aldermen, twenty-four burgesses,
a town clerk, &c. It consists chiefly of one
broad street, with piazzas all along one side of
it, two churches, and several commodious inns,
being the grand thoroughfare from London to
Bath and Bristol. At the western extremity of
the High Street stands the guildhall, supported
on pillars, which enclose a space for the corn,
cheese, and butter market, and above which are
the council chamber, sessions-hall, and elegant
assembly rooms. To the south are some relics
of a priory, and the site of a Roman castrum,
where Roman coins have been discovered. The
ditch is still in some parts twenty feet wide;
and towards the river, without the garden walls,
one angle of the castrum is very visible, with the
rampart and ditch entire. The mount at the
west end of the town, which was the main-guard
of the castle, is converted into a handsome spiral
walk, at the top of which is an octagon summer-
house. This town has often suffered by fire,
particularly in 1690. It has markets on Wed-
mesday and Saturday, and a charity school,
erected in 1752, for forty-four children. It lies
forty-three miles east of Bristol, and seventy-four
west of London.
MARLBoRough (John Churchill, duke of),
one of the greatest generals and most famous
statesmen of this, or perhaps any, country, was
the son of Sir Winston Churchill (distinguished
for his attachment to Charles I. and II.), and
was born at Ashe, in Devonshire, on Midsum-
mer-day, 1650. He was educated in his father's
house under the care of a clergyman: and, when
only twelve years old, his father took him to
court. He became page and favorite to the
duke of York; and, when sixteen years of age,
was presented with a pair of colors in the guards.
His first actual service was at the siege of Tan-
gier, and from this time he seems to have devoted
himself to the military profession. On his re-
turn to England, he continued his attendance at
court, and received from the king, as well as
from the duke, marks of kindness and favor.
The duchess of Cleveland made him a present
of £5000, with which he immediately purchased
an annuity; and his favor with the duke of
York was secured by means of his sister, the
mistress to that prince. In 1672, the duke of
Monmouth commanding a body of English auxi-
liaries in the service of France, Mr. Churchill
attended him, and soon after became captain of
grenadiers in his grace's regiment. He was en-
568
M A R L B O R O U G H.
gaged in all the actions of that campaign, and, at
the siege of Nimeguen, so distinguished himself,
that he obtained the particular notice of marshal
Turenne. For his conduct at Maestricht he re-
ceived the public thanks of the king of France;
and the duke of Monmouth, in relating to his
father what had happened at the attack, acknow-
ledged that he was indebted to captain Churchill
both for his glory and his life. On his return
home he was promoted to a lieutenant-colonelcy
by the king, and the duke made him gentleman
of his bedchamber. As a courtier, he now acted
his part with great wariness. In 1669 and 1670
he attended the duke of York to the Low Coun-
tries, and into Scotland, where he received every
respect from the nobility: a regiment of dragoons
was at this period given him; and in a short time
afterwards he married the beautiful Sarah Jen-
nings, then an attendant upon the princess Anne,
In the spring of 1682 he suffered shipwreck with
the duke of York in a passage to Scotland. In
the same year he obtained other preferments;
and, on the accession of James II. to the throne,
was sent ambassador to France, to notify the
event. In a short time afterwards he was raised
to an English peerage by the title of baron
Churchill of Sundridge. He now with great
prudence avoided public business, and, for a
considerable time, hesitated to declare himself.
At length, when it was impossible for a person
of his rank to remain neuter, he joined in the
invitation to the prince of Orange. To obviate
the charge of ingratitude, it is generally believed
that he had often declared, if the king attempted
to overturn the established religion he would
leave him. James, however, all this time, had
no doubt of his fidelity, and entrusted him with
the command of 5000 men to oppose the pro-
gress of the prince. When first informed of his
disloyalty, the infatuated king gave no credit to
the report, till he, with the duke of Grafton and
some other officers, withdrew from the royal
quarters; and, by his advice, prince George of
Denmark and the princess Anne took the same
step. Lord Churchill was received with due
marks of respect by William, and in the ensuing
year was rewarded with the earldom of Marlbo-
rough, Having assisted at the coronation of that
prince, he was soon after appointed to command
the English forces in Holland, and displayed
great military talents at the battle of Walcourt:
the next year he served in Ireland with his usual
reputation. The ensuing campaign he was on
the continent, and penetrated the enemy's designs
of besieging Mons, in which the Dutch deputies
had been deceived. Suddenly he received a
message, that the king had no further occasion
for his services, followed by his commitment to
the tower, on a charge of high treason. He was
bailed, and no proceedings were followed up
against him, the principal author of the accusa-
tion, then a prisoner in Newgate, being convicted
of perjury, and punished. It is now, however,
believed that a correspondence had been carried
on at this time between him and the exiled king.
On the death of queen Mary, Churchill was
made a privy counsellor, and, in 1698, appointed
governor to the duke of Gloucester: when the
king is stated to have said to him, ‘My lord,
in detail.
make him but what you are, and my nephew
will be all I wish to see him.’ He continued,
during the remainder of this reign, to receive
constant expressions of the royal regard.
On the accession of queen Anne in 1702 the
earl of Marlborough was created a duke, had a
pension granted him by the queen for her life,
and received the thanks of parliament for his
conduct. His good fortune was clouded, how-
ever, by the loss of an only son, a youth of
eighteen, then at Cambridge, when he sought re-
lief in the high duties of his high station. Of his
ever-memorable campaigns, it has been said,
that he never drew his sword but victory attended
him. That of 1704 was, however, so celebrated,
that we must be allowed to exhibit it somewhat
Having marched in fifty days from
the frontiers of Holland, he arrived, unexpectedly,
at the lines of Schellenburgh, defended by
20,000 men, which he instantly attacked, and
forced ; bringing on the famous battle of Hocstett,
or Blenheim, fought August 2nd, between the
allied army, under his own command, and that
of prince Eugene, and the French and Bavarians,
commanded by marshal Tallard and the elector
of Bavaria. Nothing could be more complete
than the victory of the allies. See BLENHEIM.
The pride of the French monarch received a
check which it never recovered; the French were
pursued till they crossed the Rhine; Landau was
taken, and France itself was put in jeopardy.
The substantial cxpressions of his country's grati-
tude consisted in the public gift of the honor of
Woodstock and hundred of Wotton to his grace,
and the erection of a magnificent palace for his
abode. The duke employed the latter end of the
next year in visiting the courts of Berlin, Hano-
ver, and Vienna, where his talents for negociation
were very useful to the common cause: the em-
peror Joseph presented him with the principality
of Mindelheim, and the title of prince of the
empire. At last he was able to meet the French
under marshal Villeroy; and on the 11th of May,
1706, gained the decisive battle of Ramillies,
followed by the reduction of all Brabant,
Antwerp, Ostend, Menin, Dendermonde, and
Aeth. The duke was now at the climax of his
fame; and a bill was passed to settle his honors
on the male and female issue of his daughters.
In 1707 he was opposed to the duke of Ven-
dome, over whom he was able to gain no material
advantage, and was much mortified, in a con-
ference at Frankfort, at the coldness of the allies.
On returning to England, he had the mortifica-
tion of finding his duchess supplanted in the
affections of her mistress. Once more, in con-
junction with prince Eugene, he made, in 1708,
a successful campaign against the French, who
were commanded by the dukes of Burgundy and
Vendome. They were defeated at the battle o.
Oudenard; Lisle was afterwards invested, and,
though it resisted several months, at length sur-
rendered. The duke also recovered Ghent,
Bruges, and several places of inferior considera-
tion, taken by the French at the opening of the
campaign. Next year, after an abortive negocia-
tion for peace, the duke of Marlborough was op-
posed to marshal Villars, whom he defeated at
the battle of Malplaquet, fought on the 31st of
MAR
MAR
56()
August. This was one of the most destructive
and decisive actions of the war. It cost the al-
lies 18,000 men, killed and wounded : Mons was
captured; but the English nation began to be
weary of such dear and unprofitable contests:
a total breach had also now taken place between
the duchess of Marlborough and the queen.
The duke took the field again, however, early in
1710, and captured several places of importance;
but his visits to England became increasingly
mortifying. His influence at court was destroyed,
yet he seemed willing to retain his command in
the army. At length he was charged, in the
house of commons, with peculation, and re-
moved from that command he had so nobly sus-
tained. His enemies, jealous of his power, were
determined to heap every possible indignity
upon him: no serious charge, however, could be
supported; but, to escape the personal mortifica-
tions he was exposed to, he paid a visit, in 1712,
to the Low Countries. Upon the accession of
George I. he was again summoned to court, re-
instated in the supreme military command, and
his advice was taken and acted upon in the re-
bellion in 1715. This business was the last in
which he engaged. His faculties now began to
droop, and at length he sunk into second child-
hood. This great man died at Windsor Lodge,
16th of June, 1722, leaving behind him a nu-
merous posterity by his four daughters.
MAR/LINE, n.s. Fr. merlen; Belg. marl-
MAR'LINESPIKE, $ ing. Hemp-wreaths dipped
or smeared with pitch: an iron for fastening
ropes together.
Some the galled ropes with dawby marline bind,
Or searcloth masts with strong tarpawling coats.
- Dryden.
MARLOE (Christopher), an English dramatic
author, who studied at Cambridge; but after-
wards, turning player, trode the same stage with
Shakspeare. He wrote six tragedies, one of
which, called Lust's Dominion, or the Lascivious
Queen, was altered by Mrs. Behn, and acted
under the title of Abdelazar, or the Moor's Re-
venge. Some time before his death he had
made a considerable progress in a poem entitled
Hero and Leander ; afterwards finished by
George Chapman. Anthony Wood represents
him as a deist, and gives the following account
of his death:-Falling deeply in love with a low
girl, and having for his rival a fellow in livery,
Marloe, imagining that his mistress granted him
favors, was fired with jealousy, and rushed upon
him in order to stab him with his dagger; but
the footman avoided the stroke, and, seizing his
wrist, stabbed him with his own weapon; of
which wound he died in 1593.
MARLOW, a town of Buckinghamshire,
under the Chiltern Hills, in a marly soil. It is a
large borough, and has a bridge over the Thames,
near its conflux with Wycomb; a handsome
church and town hall, and a charity school for
twenty boys. It first sent members to parliament
in the reign of Edward II. Bone lace is its
chief manufacture. The Thames brings goods
hither from the neighbouring towns, great quan-
tities of meal and malt from High Wycomb,
and beech from several parts of the country.
In the neighbourhood are frequent horse races;
celebrity as an author.
and here are several corn and paper mills, parti-
cularly on the river Loddon, between this town
and High Wycomb. There are, besides, the
Temple mills, for making thimbles, and for
pressing oil from rape and flax seeds. Its
market is on Saturday, and fair October 29th.
It is seventeen miles south of Aylesbury, and
thirty-one west of London. . .
MAR'MALADE, n.s. Fr. marmalude; Port.
marmelada ; Span. mermelada: perhaps of Port.
marmels, a quince. A conserve of oranges or
quinces. -
Marmalade is the pulp of quinces boiled into a
consistence with sugar: it is subastringent, grateful
to the stomach. - Quincy.
MARMARICA, a country of Africa, an-
ciently inhabited by the Lybians. It was bounded
on the east by Egypt, on the west by Cyrenaica,
on the south by Sahara, or the desert of Lybia.
Interior, and on the north by the Mediterranean;
and was reckoned a part of Egypt. There is no
distinct history of the country.
MARMONTEL (John Francis), a celebrated
miscellaneous French writer, was born in 1723
at Bort, a small town in the Limousin. The
eldest son of a large family, in à humble situa-
tion of life, he owed to his mother his early
mental cultivation; and by her means he was
sent to a Jesuits’ College. At the age of fifteen
his father placed him with a merchant; but, hav-
ing expressed his dislike of his situation, he was
enabled to obtain admission into the college of
Clermont, where he took pupils; and, his father
Soon after dying, he took upon himself the care
of the family. He now engaged as a teacher of
philosophy at Toulouse, and became a distin-
guished candidate for the prizes at the Floral
games, which acquired him the notice of Vol-
taire. At his recommendation he went to Paris
in 1745, and after some vicissitudes brought out
a tragedy in 1748, which at once raised him to
The less honorable
fame of various amours belongs also to this
part of Marmontel's life : the celebrated actress,
mademoiselle Clairon, was the heroine of one of
them. Having been recommended to madame
Pompadour, he was appointed secretary of the
royal buildings, under her brother, the marquis
de Marigny, and now wrote his well known tales
to assist his friend Boissy, then editor of the Mer-
cure de France. On the death of the latter it
was given to our author, who resigned for it his
post of secretary, and took up his abode with
madame Geoffrin. He afterwards lost this paper
by repeating in company a joke upon the duke
d'Aumont, and was even committed to the bas-
tile, for some days, because he would not give
up the author. In 1763, after much vexatious
opposition, he succeeded Marivaux as a member
of the French Academy. His next production
was Belisaire, which, in consequence of its liberal
sentiments, was censured by the Sorbonne. He
now worked up several little stories into comic
operas, which were all acted with great success;
and was so far restored to favor, that on the death
of Duclos, without any solicitation on his own
part, he was appointed to succeed him, as histo-
riographer of France. At the age of fifty-four
he married a young lady of eighteen. On the
MAR
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570
death of d’Alembert, in 1783, he was elected
secretary to the academy. On the breaking out .
of the revolution he was for a short time a mem-
ber of the electoral assembly; but, his income
being diminished, he retired, when the poli-
tical confusion increased, to a cottagé in Nor-
mandy. Here he engaged in the composition
of a series of tales of a serious cast; together
with Memoirs of his own Life.
1797, he was chosen representative to the Na-
tional Assembly for the department of the Eure.
But, the election being declared null, he finally
retired to his cottage, where he died of an apo-
plexy in December 1799, in the seventy-seventh
year of his age. Marmontel's character has
been ably drawn in a modern periodical work.
E. R. p. 386, 7.
MAR'MOSET, n.s. Fr. marmouset. A small
monkey.
I will instruct thee how
To snare the nimble marmozet.
Shakspeare. Tempest.
MARMOT', or \ Ital
MARMOT'To, n.s. 5 e
The marmotto, or musalpinus, as big or bigger than
a rabbit, which absconds all winter, doth live upon
its own fat. Ray.
See below.
MARMoTTO, MARMOTA, or MARMOT, a genus
of quadrupeds of the class mammalia, and order
of glires, ranked by Linnaeus under the genus of
mus, or murine quadrupeds, but separated and
described as a distinct genus, under the name
of arctomys, by Pennant, Gmelin, and Kerr.
See ARCToMYS.
MARNE, THE, a considerable river of France,
which rises about three iniles south of Langres,
in the department of the Upper Marne; and
passing by Chaumont, Joinville, Chalons sur
Marne, Epernay, Chateau, Tierny, Meaux,
Lagny, and Pont de St. Maur, falls into the
Seine at Charenton. This river is navigable
from St. Dizier to its mouth; and serves for the
transport of the wines of Champagne, vege-
tables, corn, fruit, hay, timber both whole and
in planks, firewood, charcoal, iron, and different
sorts of stone. Its course is about 240 miles,
in which it receives the Rognon, the Orgain,
the Ourcq, the two Morins, and several other
StreamS.
MARNE, a department of France, consists
of a great part of the old province of Cham-
pagne, and takes its name from the river Marne,
which divides it nearly into two equal parts.
The principal place of this prefecture is Chā-
lons; it contains five arrondissements or sub-
prefectures, Châlons having 36,995 inhabitants;
Epernay 83,519; Rheims 108,176; St. Mene-
hould 32,617; and Vitry sur Marne 48,137;
comprising a total population of 309,444 souls,
on a superficial extent of 3645 square miles.
It is in the second military division, yielding a
revenue of 16,290,000 francs, belongs to the
royal court at Paris, has an archbishopric at:
Rheims, and is divided into three electoral arron-
dissements, which send five members to the
chamber of deputies. This department is
bounded on the north by that of the Ardennes;
on the east by that of the Meuse; on the south
by those of the Upper Marne and the Aube,
In April
and on the west by those of the Seine-et-Marne
and the Aisne.
Two-thirds of the surface of this department
present only vast plains, covered with an almost
barren soil; attempts have been made for years.
to plant these chalky and dry lands with wild
pines and Scotch firs, and there is some reason
to hope that such attempts will succeed, and
that one day these immense districts where we
scarcely meet with a single shrub, or a few poor
withered trees, will be covered with fine woods,
that before the end of the century may become a
source of great riches to this part of France.
The remainder of this country although gene-
rally unproductive in corn, yields rye of a tole-
rably good quality, barley and other small grain,
pot herbs and excellent fruit. . There are some
pools well stocked with fish, and on the banks of
the Marne numerous meadows, with extensive
forests rising beyond them. The greatest riches
of this department, however, consist in its vines,
which produce wines justly renowned for their
quality, and much in request among all the sur-
rounding nations. These are cultivated in all
the arrondissements; but it is in those of Rheims
and Epernay that the most esteemed red and
white Champagne is made. Their wines are
distinguished into those of the river, the best of
which are those of Marcuil, Ay, Dºzy, &c., and
the inferior sorts those of Avenay, Menil,
Avise, &c.; and those of the mountain, such as
those of Ambonay, Bouzy, Villers, Marmery,
&c.; of which those of Sillery are the most
esteemed. The soil, which is cultivated with
horses, yields a very insufficient supply for its
population; there are 81,589 hectars of forest
land (chiefly oak and birch), and 20,600 of
vineyards, producing twenty-francs sixteen cen-
times per hectar of cultivated ground. The
hectar is one-fifth less than an English acre.
Besides the productions already mentioned,
there are various sorts of vegetables, onions,
melons, mushrooms, white mustard, rape seed,
chestnuts, curious plants, hemp, flax, different
sorts of forage, game, horses, black cattle, merino
and other sheep, cashmere goats, and bees.
They have also turf pits and fine quarries of the
best millstone in Europe, graystone, chalk, and
white and gray potters' clay. There is a bota-
nical garden at Châlons. The inhabitants carry
on manufactures of woollen counterpanes, cloths,
coarse stuffs called eversins, merinoes, flannels,
shawls in imitation of cashmere, hats, bolting
cloths, horse girths, leather, paper, wax candles,
soap, oil, and gingerbread. They have also
large woollen and cotton spinning factories, dye
houses, potteries of different kinds, glass houses,
forges and blast furnaces, as well as chemical
laboratories for various acids. There is likewise
a royal school for arts and manufactures. A
considerable trade is carried on in the above
articles, in colonial produce, and wood and char-
coal for the supply of the metropolis.
The principal rivers of this department are,
the Marne and the Aube navigable; the Aisne,
the Suippe, the Vesle, the Ardre, the Cole, the
Auge, and the Great and Little Morin. It is
crossed by the great roads of Troyes, Chaumont,
Metz, Laon, and Paris. •,
MAR
MAR -
57.1
MARNE, THE UPPER, a department of France,
is formed out of the former province of Cham-
pagne, and takes its name from its physical
situation, the river Marne rising in it. The
chief place of this prefecture is Chaumont, and
it is divided into three arrondissements, Chau-
mont containing 77,295 inhabitants; Langres
94,435; and Vassy 61,528; being a total popu-
lation of 233,258 souls, on a superficial extent
of 2835 square miles. It also contains twenty-
eight cantons and 552 communes, forms part of
the eighteenth military division, yields a terri-
torial revenue of 13,652,000 francs, has a royal
court, or court of the "second order, and a bi-
shopric at Dijon, and consists of two electoral
arrondissements, sending four members to the
chamber of deputies. This department is
bounded on the north by that of the Meuse, on
the north-west by that of Marne, on the east
by that of the Vosges, on the south-east by that
of the Upper Saone, on the south-west by that
of Côte d'Or, and on the west by that of the
Aube.
This country is generally elevated and inter-
sected by many small mountains, at the foot of
which several rivers take their rise. Between
these are fine valleys abounding in excellent
pasturage, plains fruitful in grain of every kind,
and small hills covered with vines, that yield to-
lerably good wine. Forests of considerable extent
spread over a great part of this territory; but
its principal riches consist in its iron mines,
which are both very abundant, and excellent in
the quality of the metal ; fifty-one blast furnaces,
Supplied from these mines, are constantly at
work, and furnish more than 320,000 quintals
of cast iron annually; and these, through the me-
dium of forges, flatting mills, foundries, &c.,
supply every year 190,000 quintals of forged
iron and steel articles, that employ the labor of
6000 workmen. The soil is cultivated with
horses, and yields a sufficient supply for its inha-
bitants, containing 215,910 hectars of forest
Hand, chiefly oak and beech, and 17,600 of
vineyards, every hectar of cultivated ground
producing about sixteen francs ninety-three cen-
times.
This country also supplies dry vegetables,
turnips, rape seed, black and white mustard,
mushrooms, hemp, dyers' weed, gentian, and
other plants, cherry and walnut trees, roebucks,
stags, wild boars, foxes, wolves, small game,
fine fresh-water fish, horses, good milch cows,
small sheep renowned for the delicate flavor of
their flesh, goats, bees, and turkeys. It has
quarries of marble, mock alabaster, grindstones,
paving stone, gypsum, potters' clay, marl,
pyrites, and turf. Bourbonne les Bains is
much frequented on account of its warm springs;
and at Montier-en-Der there is a depôt of stand-
ard measures. The inhabitants have manufac-
tories of drugget, leather gloves, knit woollen
stockings, much esteemed cutlery, ironmongery,
brandy, and wax candles, as well as bleaching
houses for wax, woollen yarn factories, brass
foundries, vinegar breweries, tanyards, curriers'
shops, paper mills, &c. They likewise carry on
a considerable trade in all the above articles.
The principal rivers that water this department
are, the Marne, which is here navigable, the
Meuse, the Aube, the Aujon, the Blaise, and the
Rognon; and it is traversed by the great roads.
of Troyes, Dijon, Besançon, Vesoul, Nancy, and
Bar-le-Duc.
MAROBUDUM, in ancient geography, the
royal residence of Marobuduus, king of the Mar-
comanni; and hence the appellation. Supposed
now to be Prague the capital of Bohemia.
MAROLLES (Michael de), born in 1600,
was the son of Claude de Marolles, a French
military hero. Michael entered early into the
church, and by the interest of his father obtain-
ed two abbeys. From 1619, when he published
a translation of Lucan, to 1681 the year of his
death, he was constantly employed in writing
and printing; but his translations of ancient Latin
writers, especially the poets, are deficient in
taste and spirit. He was certainly, however, a
man of great learning, and was one of the first
who paid any attention to prints. He collected
about 100,000, which made part of the orna-
ments of the late French king's cabinet; and
are now in the National Museum. He wrote
memoirs of his own life, which were published
by the abbé Goujet, 1755, in 3 vols.
MARONITES, in ecclesiastical history, a sect
of eastern Christians, who follow the Syrian rite,
and are subject to the pope; their principal
habitation being on Mount Libanus. Mosheim
says, that the doctrine of the Monothelites, con-
demned by the council of Constantinople, was
adopted by the Mardaites, a people who inha-
bited Mounts Libanus and Antilibanus, and who,
about the conclusion of the seventh century,
were called Maronites, after John Maro their
first bishop, who was originally a monk in the
famous convent of St. Maro, upon the banks of
the Orontes. Tyrius and others inform us, that
the Maronites retained the opinions of the Mo-
nothelites until the twelfth century, when, re-
nouncing their doctrines, they were re-admitted,
in 1182, into the Roman church. Faustus
Nairon, a Maronite settled at Rome, has pub-
lished an apology for Maron and the rest of his
nation. He says that they took their name from
Maron, who lived about A. D. 400, and is men-
tioned by Chrysostom, Theodoret, and in the
Menologium of the Greeks. He adds, that the
disciples of this Maron spread themselves
throughout all Syria; that they built several
monasteries, and, among others, one that bore
the name of their leader; that all the Syrians
who were not tainted with heresy took refuge
among them; and that for this reason the here-
tics of those times called them Maronites.
Mosheim says, that the subjection of the Maro-
nites to the spiritual jurisdiction of the Roman
pontiff was agreed to, with this express condi-
tion, that the pope should not pretend to change
or abolish any thing that related to their ancient
rites, moral precepts, or religious opinions ; so
that in reality there is nothing among the Maro-
mites that savors of popery, if we except their
attachment to the Roman pontiff, who pays very
dear for their friendship. For, as the Maronites
live in the utmost poverty, under the tyrannical
yoke of the Mahommedans, the pope is under
the necessity of furnishing them with such sub-
$
MAR
MAR
572
f
sidies as may appease their oppressors, procure
a subsistence for their bishop and clergy, provide
for the support of their churches and the exer-
cise of public worship, and contribute in general
to lessen their misery. One body, however, of
the non-conforming Maronites retired into the
valleys of Piedmont, where they joined the Wal-
denses; another, above 600 in number, with a
bishop and several ecclesiastics at their head, fled
into Corsica, and implored the protection of the
republic of Genoa against the violence of the
inquisitors. The Maronites have a patriarch,
who resides in the monastery of Cannubin, on
Mount Libanus, and assumes the title of patri-
arch of Antioch, and the name of Peter, as
successor of that apostle. He is elected by the
clergy and the people, but confirmed by the
pope. He observes a perpetual celibacy, as
well as the bishops his suffragans; but the rest
of the ecclesiastics are allowed to marry before
ordination, though the monastic life is in great
esteem among them. Their monks, are of the
order of St. Anthony, and live in the most ob-
scure places in the mountains. As to their faith,
they agree principally with the eastern church.
Their priests do not say mass singly, but all to-
gether, 'standing round the altar. They com-
municate in unleavened bread; and the laity
partake in both kinds. In Lent they eat nothing
after sun-rising: their other fastings are very
IłUl IſleFOUIS.
To MAROON, to put one or more sailors
ashore upon a desolate island.
MAROS WASARHELY, or SZEKELY WASARHELY,
or Neumark, a large town of Transylvania, the
capital of the district of Marosch. It is agree-
ably situated, partly on an eminence surrounded
with walls, and partly in an open plain. It has
several elegant buildings: among others, the pa-
lace of count Teleky, with a library of 60,000 .
volumes, and a good collection of minerals,
which are open to the public. The number of
inhabitants is about 10,000, principally Calvin-
ists; and the town is the seat of the college be-
longing to the Calvinists, founded originally at
Weissenburg. It has also a Catholic gymnasium
and seminary. Fifty-two miles north-east of
Carlsburg.
MAROT (Clement), the first French poet of
his age, was born at Cahors in 1495; and was
the son of John Marot, valet de chambre to
Francis I., and poet to queen Ann of Brittany.
He enjoyed his father's post, and in 1521 follow-
ed Francis I. into Italy, and was wounded and
taken prisoner at the battle of Pavia. On his
return to Paris he was accüsed of heresy, and
imprisoned; but delivered by Francis I. He
retired to Navarre, and afterwards to Ferrara,
and in 1536 returned to Paris; but, declaring for
the Calvinists, he was obliged to fly to Geneva:
and, retiring to Piedmont, died in Turin in 1544,
aged fifty. He translated part of the psalms
into verse which were continued by Beza, and
are still sung in the Protestant churches abroad.
MARQUARD (Freher), an eminent German
civilian, born at Augsburg in 1565. He studied
at Bourges, under the learned Cujas; and ac-
quired great skill in literature and law. At his
return to Germany, he became counsellor to the
elector palatine, and professor of law at Heidel-
burg; and was afterwards sent by the elector
Frederic IV., as his minister, into Poland, to
Mentz, and several other courts. He died at
Heidelburg in 1614. He wrote many works
which are esteemed; the principal of which are,
1. De Re Monetariá Veterum Romanorum, et
hodierni apud Germanos Imperii. 2. Rerum
Bohemicarum Scriptores. 3. Rerum Germanico-
rum Scriptores. 4. Corpus Historiae Franciae, &c.
MARQUE, or LETTERs of MARQUE, in mili-
tary affairs, are letters of reprisal, granting the
subjects of one prince or state liberty to make
reprisals on those of anothèr. They are so called
from the German marcke, i.e. limit, frontier: as
being jus concessum in alterius principis marckas
seu limites transeundi, sibique jus faciendi; as
being a right of passing the limits or frontiers of
another prince, and doing one's self justice.
Letters of marque are also extraordinary commis-
sions granted by authority for reparation to mer-
chants taken and despoiled by strangers at sea;
and reprisals are only the retaking, or taking of
one thing for another. The form in these cases
is, the sufferer must first apply to the lord privy
seal, and he shall make out letters of request under
the privy seal; and if, after such request of satisfac-
tion made, the party required do not, within conve-
nient time, make due satisfaction or restitution to
the party grieved, the lord chancellor shall make
him out letters of marque under the great
seal ; and by virtue of these he may attack and
seize the property of the aggressor nation, with-
out hazard of being condemned as a robber or
pirate.
MARQUESAs, MARQUIS OF MENDOZA's Is-
LANDs, or MENDogA's ISLANDs, a cluster of islands
discovered by Mendana, a Spanish navigator, in
1595, in the South Pacific Ocean, who named
them Marquesas de Mendoga, in honor of Men-
doga, viceroy of Peru. Captain Cook touched,
at them in 1774; and they have been since
visited. They consist of five in number : San
Pedro, or O-Niteo, in the language of the coun-
try; Santa Christina, or Wahitaho; and La Do-
minica, or O-hivahoa, forming a group ; La
Madalena, at the distance of eight leagues to the
south' by east, from the middle of the group ;
and Hood's Island, distant five leagues and a
half from the most eastern point of La Domi-
nica. This group extends from 138°45' to 140°
30' of W. long, and from 8° 30' to 10° 30' S.
lat. They have a bold and almost rugged as-
pect. Some voyagers represent them as fertile
and beautiful in the extreme ; while later visitors
describe them as high and mountainous, of a
barren aspect, and exhibiting numerous volcanic
appearances. In most, if not in all of them, there
are bays, or coves, which afford harbour for ship-
ping; but access to them is difficult, owing to
the frequent sudden squalls of wind. According
to captain Cook, the trees, plants, and other pro-
ductions of these islands are nearly the same as
those of the Society Isles. The inhabitants are
said to be a beautiful race, but dirty in their
habits. Their canoes are very far inferior in
structure and appearance to those of the Otahei-
tans, and composed of three pieces, rather rudely
wrought, badly sewed together, and leaking
2
MAR
MAR
573
throughout. They are from twenty to thirty
feet long, by a foot or eighteen inches broad;
their stem being terminated by a projecting
piece, which imitates very imperfectly the flat-
tened head of a fish: the stern is formed by two
planks four inches in thickness, placed an-end,
and rising under the figure of an S, elongated
and reclined. Sometimes two of these canoes
are joined together. The inhabitants have been
estimated at about 40,000.
MARQUETRY, or inlaid-work, is composed
of pieces of hard fine wood of different colors,
fastened in thin slices on a ground, and some-
times enriched with other matters, as tortoise-
shell, ivory, tin, and brass. There is another
kind of marquetry made, instead of wood, of
glasses of various colors; and a third, where no-
thing but precious stones and the richest marbles
are used: but these are more properly called
mosaic-work. The art of inlaying is very an–
cient; and is supposed to have passed from the
east to the west as one of the spoils brought by
the Romans from Asia. Indeed it was then very
simple, nor did it arrive at any tolerable perfec-
tion till the fifteenth century among the Italians;
it however arrived at its height in the seven-
teenth century among the French. Till John of
Verona, a contemporary with Raphael, the finest
works of this kind were only black and white,
white are what we now call Marescoes; but he
stained his wood with dyes or boiled oils, which
penetrated it. He went no farther, however,
than representing buildings and perspectives,
which require no great variety of colors. Those
who succeeded him not only improved his in-
vention of dyeing the wood, by a secret which
they found of burning them without consuming,
which served exceedingly well for the shadows,
but had also the advantage of a number of fine
new woods of naturally bright colors, by the dis-
covery of America. With these assistances the
art is now capable of imitating almost any thing;
whence some call it the art of painting in wood.
The wood to be used, being reduced into leaves,
of the thickness of a line, is either stained with
some color, or made black for shadow; the con-
tours of the piece are formed according to the
parts of the design they are to represent. The
last is the most difficult part of marquetry, and
that wherein most patience and attention are re-
quired. The two chief instruments used herein
are the saw and the vice; the one to hold the
matters to be formed; the other, to take off re-
dundances from the extremes. The vice is of
wood, having one of its chaps fixed; the other
moveable, and is opened and shut by the foot,
by a cord fastened to a treadle. The leaves to
be formed (for there are often three or four of the
same kind formed together) are put within the
chaps of the vice, after being glued on the outer-
most part of the design whose profile they are to
follow : then the workman, pressing the treadle,
and thus holding fast the piece, with his saw runs
over all the outlines of the design.—By thus join-
ing and forming three or four pieces together,
they not only gain time, but the wood is likewise
the better enabled to sustain the efforts of the
saw; which, how delicate soever it may be, and
how lightly soéver the workman may conduct it,
without such a precaution would be apt to raise
splinters, to the ruin of the work. When the
work is to consist of one single kind of wood or
of tortoise-shell, on a copper or tin ground, or
vice versä, they only form two leaves on one
another, i.e. a leaf of metal, and a leaf of wood
or shell ; this they call sawing in counter parts;
for, by filling the vacuities of one of the leaves
by the pieces coming out of the other, the metal
may serve as a ground to the wood, and the wood
to the metal. All the pieces thus formed with
the saw, and marked to know them again, and
the shadow given in the manner already mention-
ed, they veneer or fasten each in its place on
the common ground, using for that purpose the
best English glue. The whole is put in a press
to dry, planed over, and polished with the skin
of the sea dog, wax, and shave-grass, as in sim-
ple veneering; with this difference, however, that
in marquetry the fine branches, and several of
'the more delicate parts of the figures, are touch-
ed up and finished with a graver.
MA'RQUIS, n.s. Fr. marquis ; Lat. mar-
MAR'QUISATE. 5 chio. In England one of
the second order of nobility; next in rank to a
duke : Shakspeare uses it for marchioness: the
state or dignity of a marquis.
You shall have
Two noble partners with you : the old duchess
Of Norfolk, and the lady marquess Dorset.
Shakspeare.
None may wear ermine but princes, and there is a
certain number of ranks allowed to dukes, marquissés,
and earls, which they must not exceed.
Peacham on Drawing.
MARQUIs. The office of a marquis was to
guard the frontiers and limits of the kingdom,
which were called the marches, from the Teuto-
nic word marche, a limit; as, in particular, were
the marches of Wales and Scotland, before their
union with England. The persons who had com-
mand there were called lords marches, or mar-
quesses; whose authority was abolished by Stat.
27 Hen. VIII. c. 27, though the title had long
before been made a mere honor, Robert Were
earl of Oxford, being created marquis of Dublin
by Richard II, in the eighth year of his reign.
A marquis is created by patent; his mantle, is
double ermine, three doublings and a half; his
title is most honorable; and his coronet has
pearls and strawberry leaves intermixed round,
of equal height. - -
MARRACCI (Lewis), a very learned Italian,
born at Lucca in 1612. He entered into the con-
gregation of regular ‘clerks of the mother, of
God,' and distinguished himself early by his
learning and merit. He taught rhetoric seven
years, and attained the knowledge of the Greek,
the Hebrew, the Syriac, the Chaldee, and the Ara-
bic; which last he taught at Rome. Pope In:
nocent XI. chose him for his confessor. He died
at Rome in 1700, aged eighty-seven. He was
the author of several tracts in Italian ; but the
work which has made him deservedly famous is
his edition of the Koran, with a Latin version,
notes, and confutation of his own, It was beau-
tifully printed in 2 vols. folio, at Padua in 1698.
His Latin version of it, with notes, and a synop:
sis of the Mahommedan religion, was published
574
M A R. R. I. A G E.
by Heineccius at Leipsic, 1721, in 8vo. Mar-
racci had also a hand in the Biblia Sacra Ara-
bica; Romae, 1671, in 3 vols. folio.
MAR'RIAGE, n.s. Y Fr. marriage; Ital.
MAR'RIAGEABLE, adj. maritaggio; barba-
MAR'RIAGE-BED, n.s. rous Lat. maritagium,
NIAR’ſ 1AGE-cHAMBER, of Lat. marito, to
MAR'RIAGE-DAY, } marry. The conju-
MAR'RIAGE-HOUR, gal union: marriage-
MAR'RIAGE-TIE, able is of age, or fit
MAR'RIED, adj. | to be married : Mil-
MARRy, v. n. & v. a. J ton beautifully uses
it for capable of union. See below. Married
is conjugal; connubial; belonging to the mar:
riage state: to marry, to enter into the conjugal
state. The numerous compounds of this word
are obvious in their meaning.
Let them marry to whom they think best.
Numbers xxxvi. 6.
As a mother shall she meet him, and receive him
as a wife, married to a virgin. Ecclus. xv. 2.
Thou shalt come into the marriage chamber.
Tob. vi. 16.
Have you ever seen pure rose-water kept in a crys-
stal glass 3 How fine it looks, how sweet it smells,
while the beautiful urn imprisons it! Break the
glass and let the water take its own course; doth it
not embrace the dust, and lose all its former sweet-
ness and fairness 2 Truly so are we, if we have not
the stay, rather than the restraint of marriage.
Sir P. Sidney.
Neither her worthiness, which in truth was great,
nor his own suffering for her, which is wont to en-
dear affection, could fetter his fickleness; but, before
the marriage-day appointed, he had taken to wife
Baccha, of whom she complained. Sidney.
You'd think it strange if I should marry her. ,
Shakspeare.
The marriage with his brother's wife
Has crept too near his conscience.
I by the honour of my marriage-bed,
After young Arthur claim this land for mine. Id.
When Augustus consulted with Mecanas about
the marriage of his daughter Julia, Mecanas took the
liberty to tell him, that he must either marry his
daughter to Agrippa, or take away his life; there
was no third way, he had made him so great. Bacon.
The French king would have the disposing of the
marriage of Bretagne, with an exception that he
should not marry her himself. Id.
To these whom death again did wed,
This grave's the second marriage-bed,
For though the hand of fate could force
'Twixt soul and body a divorce,
It could not sever man and wife,
Because they both lived but one life. Crashaw.
Some married persons, even in their marriage, do
better please God than some virgins in their state of
virginity: they, by giving great example of conjugal
affection, by preserving their faith unbroken, and by
educating children in the fear of God, please God in
a higher degree than those virgins whose piety is not
answerable to their opportunities. Taylor.
There on his arms and once-loved portrait lay,
Thither our fatal marriage-bed convey. Denham.
- They led the vine
To wed her elm : she spoused, about him twines
Her marriageable arms, and with her brings
Her dower, the adopted clusters, to adorn
His barren leaves. Milton.
Every wedding, one with another, produces four
children, and that is the proportion of children,
Id.
which any marriageable man or woman may be pre-
sumed shall have. aunt.
Virgil concludes with the death of Turnus; for,
after that difficulty was removed, Æneas might
marry, and establish the Trojans.
Dryden's Dufresnoy.
I propose that Palamon shall be .
In marriage joined with beauteous Emily.
Dryden.
Give me, to live and die, -
A spotless maid, without the marriage-tie. Id.
Thus have you shunned the married state. Id.
I am the father of a young heiress, whom I begin
to look upon as marriageable. Spectator.
In a late draught of marriage-articles, a lady sti-
pulated with her husband, that she shall be at li-
berty to patch on which side she pleases. Id.
What! shall the curate controul me? Tell him,
that he shall marry the couple himself.
Gay's What d'ye call it.
Virgin, awake! the marriage-hour is nigh. Pope.
When the girls are twelve years old, which is the
marriageable age, their parents take them long if
wi t.
Were a man not to marry a second time, it might
be concluded that his first wife had given him a dis-
gust, to marriage; but, by taking a second wife, he
pays the highest compliment to the first, by showing
that she made him so happy as a married man, that
he wishes to be so a . time. Johnson.
A thousand hearts beat happily; and when
Music arose with its voluptuous swell,
Soft eyes looked love to eyes which spake again,
And all went merry as a marriage-bell ;
But hush hark a deep sound strikes like a rising
knell! - - Byron.
MARRIAGE is a contract, both civil and religi-
ous, between a man and a woman, by which
they engage to live together in mutual love and
friendship for the ends of procreation, &c. See
MoRAL PHILosophy. It is part of the law of
nations, and is in use among all people. The
Romanists account it a sacrament. The first in-
habitants of Greece lived together without mar-
riage. Cecrops, king of Athens, is said to have
been the first author of this honorable institution
among that people. After the commonwealths
of Greece were settled marriage was very much
encouraged by their laws, and the abstaining
from it was discountenanced and in many places
punished. The Lacedemonians were remarkable
for their severity towards those who deferred
marriage beyond a limited time, as well as to
those who wholly abstained from it. The Athe-
nians had an express law, that all commanders,
orators, and persons intrusted with any public
affair, should be married men. Polygamy was
not generally tolerated in Greece. The time of
marriage varied in different places. The Spar-
tans were not permitted to marry till they arrived
at their full strength, that the children might be
strong and vigorous: and the Athenian laws are
said to have once ordered that men should not
marry till thirty-five years of age. The season
of the year was the winter, and particularly the
month of Gamelion, or January. The Greeks
thought it scandalous to contract marriage within
certain degrees of consanguinity; whilst most of
the barbarous nations allowed incestuous mix-
tures. Most of the Grecian states, especially
such as made any figure, required their citizens,
i M A R R I A G E.
575
should match with none but citizens, and the
children were not allowed to marry without the
consent of their parents. The usual ceremony
in promising fidelity was kissing each other, or
giving their right hand, which was a general form
of ratifying all agreements. Before the marriage
could be solemnized the gods were to be con-
sulted, and their assistance implored by prayers
and sacrifices, which were offered to some of the
deities that superintended these affairs, by the
parents or nearest relations of the persons to be
married. When the victim was opened the gall
was taken out and thrown behind the altar, as
being the seat of anger and malice, and therefore
the aversion of all the deities who had the care of
love, as well as those who became their votaries.
The Romans, as well as the Greeks, disallow-
ed polygamy : a Roman might not marry a wo-
man who was not a Roman. They esteemed the
kalends, nones, and ides of every month unlucky
for the celebration of marriage, as well as the
feast of the parentalia, and the whole month of
May. The most happy season in every respect
was that which followed the ides of June. The
Roman laws speak of second marriages in very hard
and odious terms: Matre jam secundis nuptiis fu-
nestata, L. iii. C. de sec. nuptiis. By these laws
it was enacted, that the effects of the husband or
wife deceased should pass over to the children,
if the survivor should marry a second time. By
the law Hac edictali (Cod. de see. nupt.), the
survivor, upon marrying a second time, could not
give the person he married a portion more than
equal to that of the children. In the primitive
church the affected respect to chastity was car-
ried so high, that a second marriage was account-
ed a kind of legal whoredom, or a species of
bigamy; and there are some ancient canons
which forbid the ecclesiastics from being present
at second marriages. Marriage, by the Mosaic
law, was subject to several restrictions; thus, by
Levit. xviii. 15, a man was forbidden to marry
his brother's widow unless he died without issue;
in which case it became enjoined as a duty. So
he was prohibited to marry his wife's sister,
while she was living, ver, 18; which was not
forbidden before the law, as appears from the
instance of Jacob. The ancient Roman law is
silent on this head; and Papinian is the first who
Inentions it, on occasion of the marriage of
Caracalla. The lawyers who came after him
stretched the bonds of affinity so far, that they
absurdly placed adoption on the same footing
with nature.
MARRIAGE-LAws.—In our general article LAw
the analysis of the voluminous system of English
jurisprudence was necessarily very concise. We
now propose to fill up an essential part of the
outline, and in the present, and the subsequent
articles of MASTER AND SERVANT, PARENT AND
CHILD, &c., to furnish our. readers with a com—
pendium of ‘the rights of persons in their pri-
vate relation,' or, in other words, the domestic
law. We collect a considerable part of our ma—
terials from Sir William Blackstone's Commen-
taries, which, however, we venture to dispose in
a different order, and to which we have added,
from the recent acts of parliament, and the nu-
merous reports of cases adjudged in the several
courts of law and equity, a considerable mass of
information, that, we trust, will be generally in-
teresting or useful.
SECT. I.-OF THE LEGAL REQUISITEs of
MARRIAGE.
The law of England considers marriage in no.
other light than as a civil contract. The holiness
of the matrimonial state is left entirely to the
ecclesiastical law. The temporal courts have no
jurisdiction to consider unlawful marriage as a
sin, but merely as a civil inconvenience. The
punishment, therefore, or annulling of inces-
tuous or other unscriptural marriages, is the pro-
vince of the spiritual courts. Taking it thus in
a civil point of view the law treats it as it does
all other contracts: allowing it to be good and
valid in all cases where the parties at the time
of making it were, in the first place, willing to
contract; secondly, able to contract; and lastly,
actually did contract, in the proper forms and
solemnities required by law.
First, They must be willing to contract. ‘Con-
Sensus, non concubitus, facit nuptias,” is the
maxim of the civil law in this case: and it is
adopted by the common lawyers, who indeed
have borrowed (especially in ancient times) al-
most all their notions of the legitimacy of mar-
riage from the canon and civil laws.
Secondly, They must be able to contract; that
is, they must labor under no disability or in-
capacity. -
Thirdly, The parties must not only be willing
and able to contract, but must actually contract
themselves in due form of law, to make it a good
civil marriage. Any contract made per verba
de praesenti, or in words of the present tense;
and, in case of cohabitation, per verba de futuro
also, between persons able to contract, was for-
merly deemed a valid marriage to many pur-
poses; and the parties might be compelled in
thespiritual courts to celebrate it in facie ecclesiae.
But these verbal contracts are now of no force,
to compel a future marriage. Neither is any
marriage at present valid, that is not celebrated
in some parish church, or public chapel, unless
by dispensation from the archbishop of Canter-
bury. It must also be preceded by publication
of banns, or by license from the spiritual judge.
Many other formalities are likewise prescribed by
the statutes, the neglect of which, though penal,
does not invalidate the marriage. It is held to be
also essential to a marriage, that it be performed
by a person in holy orders, though the interven-
tion of a priest to solemnize this contract is merely
juris positivi, and not juris naturalis aut divini.
But, as the law now stands, we may upon the
whole collect, that no marriage by the temporal
law is ipso facto void, that is celebrated by a
person in orders, in a parish church, or public
chapel (or elsewhere by special dispensation), in
pursuance of banns or license, between single
persons—consenting,-of sound mind,—and of
the age of twenty-one years;–or of the age of
fourteen in males and twelve in females, with,
consent of parents or guardians, or without it in
case of widowhood. And no marriage is void-
able by the ecclesiastical law after the death of
either of the parties; nor during their lives, un
*
576 M A R R I A G E.
ess for the canonical impediments of pre-con-
tract (if that indeed still exists), of consanguinity,
and of affinity; or corporal imbecility subsisting
previous to the marriage.
We deem it necessary to add, to this general
outline, some particulars collected from the se-
veral marriage acts which have been passed
during the present reign.
1. According to the late act, 4 Geo. IV. chap.
76, the banns must be published in an audible
manner in the parish church, or a public chapel
belonging to the parish where the parties re-
side, upon three Sundays preceding the mar-
riage, during the morning service, immediately
after the second lesson; or the evening service
if there be none in the morning. If the parties
reside in different parishes the banns are to be
published in both. The names, places, and time
of abode of the parties, must be given to the mi-
mister seven days prior to the publication.
2. By the 5 & 6 Geo. IV., marriages are de-
clared legal which are solemnized in any other
place than the parish church and chapel, to which
other place the bishop of the diocese may have
granted a license for the solemnization of mar-
riages. -
3. If the marriage be not solemnized within
three months after the first publication, it is ne-
cessary they should be republished. The same
period is prescribed in the case of an intended
marriage by license.
4. The license can only be granted for the
parish or chapelry in which one of the parties
has resided for fifteen days next before the grant-
ing of the license. One of the parties must per-
sonally swear before the surrogate that he or she
believes there is no impediment of kindred, or alli-
ance,or any other lawful cause,nor any suit pending
to hinder the marriage. It must also be sworn that
one of the parties has had his or her usual place
of abode for fifteen days immediately preceding
the license within the parish or chapelry, where
the marriage is to be solemnized. In case either
of the parties, not being a widow or widower, is
under twenty-one years, it must be sworn that
the consent of the person, whose consent is re-
quisite, has been obtained. And, if there be no
person having authority to consent, then upon
oath to that effect, by the party requiring the li-
cense, such license may be granted.
5. By special license, or dispensation, from
the archbishop of Canterbury, marriages may be
celebrated at a private house, out of canonical
hours in the evening, or in other parish churches
than where one of the parties resides.
6. The solemnization is prohibited during
Lent and on fasting days; but persons may
márry under license during Lent although the
banns cannot then be published.
7. When the solemnisation has taken place,
whether after publication of banns, or under li-
cense, it is not only unnecessary to give evidence
that the usual place of abode of one of the parties
for the time required by the act was in the
parish where the marriage took place, but no
evidence can be received to the côntrary in any
suit regarding the validity of such marriage. 4
Geo. IV. chap. 76, sec. 26.
8. Marriages must be solemnized before two
or more credible witnesses besides the minister
who celebrates the same. Ibid. sec. 28.
9. Immediately after the celebration of the
marriage an entry is to be made in the Register
book, in which must be expressed that the mar-
riage was by banns or license, and, if the parties
were under age, with consent of the parents, &c.;
such entry to be signed by the minister, and by
the parties married, and attested by the two wit-
messes. Ibid.
10. Gretna Green, and other places in Scotland.
—The marriages which take place there are
deemed valid, if the consent of the parties be
fairly, and not fraudulently obtained, and if the
ceremony be performed according to the mode
required by the law of Scotland.
SECT. II.-OF CANoNICAL IMPEDIMENTs.
In general all persons are able to contract
themselves in marriage, unless they labor under
some particular disabilities and incapacities,
canonical or civil. Such as are canonical are
deemed sufficient by the ecclesiastical laws to
avoid the marriage in the spiritual court; but
these in our law only make the marriage voidable,
and not ipso facto void, until sentence of nullity
be obtained. Of this nature are pre-contract,
consanguinity, or relation by blood; and affinity,
or relation by marriage; and some particular
corporal infirmities. And these canonical disa-
bilities are either grounded upon the express
words of the divine law, or are consequences
plainly deducible from them: it therefore being
sinful in the persons, who labor under them, to
attempt to contract matrimony together, they are
properly the object of the ecclesiastical magis-
trates' coercion; in order to separate the offen-
ders, and inflict penance for the offence, pro
salute animarum. But such marriages not being
void ab initio, but voidable only by the sentence
of separation, they are esteemed valid to all civil
purposes, unless such separation is actually made
during the life of the parties. For, after the death
of either of them, the courts of common law will
not suffer the spiritual court to declare such
marriages to have been void; because such decla-
ration cannot now tend to the reformation of the
parties. r
These canonical disabilities being entirely the
province of the ecclesiastical courts, our books
are perfectly silent concerning them. But there
are a few statutes, which serve as directories to
those courts, of which it will be proper to take
notice. By statute 32 Hen. VIII., c. 38, it is
declared, that all persons may lawfully marry,
but such as are prohibited by God's law; and
that all marriages contracted by lawful persons
in the face of the church, and consummated with
bodily knowledge, and fruit of children, shall be
indissoluble. And (because in the times of
popery a great variety of degrees of kindred were
made impediments to marriage, which impedi-
ments might however be bought off for money)
it is declared by the same statute, that nothing
(God's law excepted) shall impeach any marriage
but within the Levitical degrees; the farthest of
which is that between uncle and niece. By the
same statute all impediments, arising from pre-
contracts to other persons, were abolished and
M A R R I A G E. --
577
$
declared of none effect, unless they had been
consummated with bodily knowledge: in which
case the canon law holds such contract to be a
marriage de facto. But this branch of the statute
was repealed by statute 2 & 3 Edward VI.
c. 23. Q
It is to be observed, however, that 4 Geo. IV.
c. 76, sect. 27, enacts ‘that in no case whatsoever
shall any suit or proceedings be had in any ec-
clesiastical court, in order to compel a celebra-
tion of any marriage in facie ecclesiae, by reason
of any contract of matrimony whatsoever, whether
per verba de praesenti, or per verba de futuro.'
There was a similar provision in the previous
general marriage act of 26 Geo. II. c. 33, which
Blackstone observes might collaterally extend
to revive the clause of Henry VIII.'s statute,
and thus abolish the impediment of pre-contract.
Of the prohibited degrees.—Marriage is pro-
hibited under the fourth degree of consanguinity
according to the civil law, except in the ascend-
ing or descending line. It is scarcely possible,
however, that any one should marry his issue in
the fourth degree. Between collateral branches,
all who are in the fourth, or any higher degree,
are permitted to marry. Thus first cousins are
in the fourth degree; a nephew and great aunt
are in the fourth degree; and, though a man may
not marry his grandmother, he may marry her
sister.
These rules apply to the same degrees of af.
finity by marriage; but the affinity must be in a
direct line: thus the relations by consanguinity
of the husband are not related to those of the
wife, and consequently two brothers may marry
two sisters; or a father and son a mother and
daughter.
SECT. III.—OF CIVIL IMPEDIMENTs.
The other sort of disabilities are those which
are created, or at least enforced, by the municipal
laws. And, though some of them may begrounded
on natural law, yet they are regarded by the laws
of the land, not so much in the light of any
moral offence, as on account of the civil incon-
veniences they draw after them. These civil dis-
abilities make the contract void ab initio, and
not merely voidable; not that they dissolve a
contract already formed, but they render the
parties incapable of forming any contract at all:
they do not put asunder those who are joined
together, but they previously hinder the junction.
And, if any persons under these legal incapaci-
ties come together, it is a meretricious, and not a
matrimonial, union.
1. Prior marriage.—The first of these legal
disabilities is a prior marriage, or having another
husband or wife living; in which case, besides
the penalties consequent upon it as a felony, the
second marriage is to all intents and purposes
void.
2. Want of age.—This is sufficient to avoid
all other contracts, on account of imbecility of
judgment in the parties contracting; a fortiori,
therefore, it ought to avoid this, the most impor-
tant contract of any. Therefore if a boy under
fourteen, or a girl under twelve years of age, mar-
ries, this marriage is inchoate and imperfect;
and, when either of them comes to the age of
Vol. XIII.
consent aforesaid, they may disagree and declare
the marriage void, without any divorce or sen-
tence in the spiritual court. This is founded on
the civil law. But the canon law pays a greater
regard to the constitution than the age of the
parties; for, if they are habiles ad matrimonium,
it is a good marriage, whatever their age may be.
And in our law it is so far a marriage, that, if at
the age of consent they agree to continue toge-
ther, they need not be married again. If the
husband be of years of discretion, and the wife
under twelve years of age, when she comes to
years of discretion, he may disagree as well as
she may : for in contracts the obligation must
be mutual; both must be bound or neither: and
so it is vice versä, when the wife is of years of
discretion and the husband under.
3. Want of consent of parents or guardians.—
By the common law, if the parties themselves
were of the age of consent, there wanted no
other concurrence to make the marriage valid,
and this was agreeable to the canon law. But,
by several statutes, penalties of £100 are laid on
every clergyman who married a couple either
without publication of banns (which may give
notice to parents or guardians), or without a li-
cense, to obtain which the consent of parents or
guardians must be sworn to; and, by the 4 Geo.
VI. c. 76, persons solemnising marriage, under
the pretence of being in holy orders, shall be
transported for fourteen years. ,
By the stat. 4 & 5 P. & M. c. 8, whosoever
married any woman child under the age of six-
teen years, without consent of parents or guar-
dians, was subject to fine, or five years' imprison-
ment: and her estate, during the husband’s life,
went to the next heir. The civil law required
the consent of the parent or tutor at all ages;
unless the children were emancipated, or out of
the parents’ power; and, if such consent from the
father was wanting, the marriage was null, and
the children illegitimate; but the consent of the
mother or guardians, if unreasonably withheld,
might be redressed and supplied by the judge, or
the president of the province; and, if the father
was non compos, a similar remedy was given.
Under the act 4 Geo. IV. c. 76, sect. 22, mar-
riages are declared void, in case the persons
knowingly and wilfully marry in any other place
than a church or chapel where banns may be
lawfully published (unless by spiritual license),
or knowingly and wilfully, marry without due
publication of the banns or license from the pro-
per authority; or, knowingly and wilfully, con-
sent to the solemnisation by a person not in holy
orders. * -
In all other cases of fraud or false swearing,
or other irregularity, the marriage itself is valid,
though the parties are liable to punishment, and
forfeiture of property. Though fraud is some-
times a ground for annulling a marriage, as in
the instance of using a false name in the license
or publication of banns ; yet if the name was
not assumed to defraud the other party, or the
parents, the fictitious name will not invalidate
the marriage.
By the 23d section when a valid marriage is
solemnised between parties, under age, contrary
to the act, by false oath, or fraud, the º party
+ 2 Hº
578
M A R R I A G E.
forfeits, for the benefit of the innocent party, or
the issue of the marriage, in such manner as a
court of equity may direct, all property accruing
from the marriage.
4. Want of reason.—Without a competent
share of reason, as no other, so neither can the
matrimonial contract, be valid. It was formerly
adjudged that the issue of an idiot was legiti-
mate, and consequently that his marriage was
valid. But modern resolutions have adhered to
the reason of the civil law, by determining that
the marriage of a lunatic, not being in a lucid
interval, was absolutely void. But, as it might
be difficult to prove the exact state of the party's
mind at the actual celebration of the nuptials,
upon this account (concurring with some private
family reasons), the stat. 15 Geo. II. c. 30 has
provided, that themarriage of lunaticsand persons
under phrenzies (if found lunatics under a com-
mission, or committed to the care of trustees by
any act of parliament), before they are declared
of sound mind by the lord chancellor, or the
majority of such trustees, shall be totally void.
SECT. IV.-OF MARRIAGES CELEBRATED
ABROAD.
By the 4 Geo. IV. chap. 91, sect. 1, marriages
solemnised by a minister of the Church of Eng-
land in the chapel or house of any British
ambassador, or minister residing within the
country, to the court of which he is accredited,
or in the chapel of any British factory abroad,
or in the house of a British subject residing at
such factory, are declared valid. So also are
marriages solemnised within the British lines
by any chaplain or officer, or other person
officiating under the orders of the commanding
officer of a British army serving abroad.
But, in order to affect property in foreign
countries, the marriages of British subjects must
take place according to the laws of those
countries. Thus, in France and the Netherlands,
it is necessary that the consent of both the
parents, if alive, be given for each party,
and, if dead, the certificates of their burial must
be duly authenticated by the foreign consul
resident in England.
SECT. V.--OF THE DISSoLUTION of MAR-
RIAGES.
We are next to consider the manner in which
marriages may be dissolved; and this is either
by death or divorce. There are two kinds of
divorce, the one total, the other partial; the one
à vinculo matrimonii, the other merely a mensã
et thoro. 1. The total divorce, àºvinculo matri-
monii, must be for some of the canonical causes
of impediment before mentioned; and those ex-
isting before the marriage, as is always the case
in consanguinity; not supervenient, or arising
afterwards, as may be the case in affinity or cor-
poral imbecility. For, in cases of total divorce,
the marriage is declared null, as having been ab-
solutely unlawful ab initio; and the parties are
therefore separated pro salute animarum : for
which reason, as was before observed, no divorce
can be obtained, but during the life of the par-
ties. The issue of such marriage as is thus
entirely dissolved are bastards. Of late years
divorces à vinculo matrimonii, by reason of
adultery, have frequently been granted by act of
parliament.
2. Divorce à mensã et thoro is when the mar-
riage is just and lawful, and therefore the law is
tender of dissolving it; but, for some superve-
nient cause, it becomes improper or impossible
for the parties to live together: as in the case of
intolerable ill temper” or adultery, in either of
the parties. For the canon law, which the com-
mon law follows in this case, deems so highly
and with such mysterious reverence of the nup-
tial tie, that it will not allow it to be unloosed
for any cause whatsoever that arises after the
union is made. And this is said to be built on
the divine revealed law; though that expressly
assigns incontinence as a cause, and indeed the
only cause, why a man may put away his wife,
and marry another. The civil law, which is
partly of pagan original, allows many causes of
absolute divorce; and some of them pretty
severe ones (as if a wife goes to the theatre or
the public games, without the knowledge and
consent of the husband); but among them adul-
tery is the principal, and with reason named the
first. But with us in England adultery is only
a cause of separation from bed and board : for
which the best reason that can be given is, that,
if divorces were allowed to depend upon a mat- '
ter within the power of either of the parties, they
would probably be extremely frequent; as was
the case when divorces were allowed for canon-
ical disabilities, on the mere confession of the
parties, which is now prohibited by the canons.
3. In case of divorce, à mensã et thoro, the
law allows alimony to the wife, which is that
allowance which is made to a woman for her
support out of the husband's estate ; being
settled at the discretion of the ecclesiastical
judge, on consideration of all the circumstances
of the case. This is sometimes called her esto-
vers; for which, if he refuses payment, there is
(besides the ordinary process of excommunica-
tion) a writ at common law, de estoveriis haben-
dis, in order to recover it. It is generally pro-
portioned to the rank and quality of the parties.
But in case of elopement, and living with an
adulterer, the law allows her no alimony.
SECT. VI.-OF THE RIGHTS AND LIABILITIES
CONSEQUENT UPon MARRIAGE.
Having thus shown how marriages may be
made and dissolved, we come now to the legal
consequences of such making or dissolution.
By marriage the husband and wife are one per-
son in law: that is, the very being or legal exis-
tence of the woman is suspended during the
marriage, or at least is incorporated and con-
solidated into that of the husband : under whose
wing, protection, and cover, she performs every
thing; and is therefore called in our law-french
* It is doubtful whether ill temper alone is a suf-
ficient cause for a divorce. Marriage is considered
indissoluble, and the courts are not accustomed to
interfere, unless there exists something which ren-
ders co-habitation unsafe, or likely to be attended
with injury to the person, or to the health, of the
party applying.
M. A. R. R. I. A. G. E.
579
a feme covert, foºmina viro co-operta, is said to
be covert-baron, or under the protection and
influence of her husband, her baron, or lord;
and her condition during her marriage is called
her coverture. Upon this principle, of a union
of person in husband and wife, depend almost
all the legal rights, duties, and disabilities that
either of them acquire by the marriage.
As To THE HUSBAND. 1. Of his rights to pro-
perty.—The freehold or right of possession of
the wife's lands, vests in the husband immediate-
ly upon the marriage, but the right of property
is still preserved to her. 1 Just. 351.
If the husband survives his wife he may ad-
minister, and is entitled for his own benefit to
all her chattels real, things in action, trusts, and
every other species of personal property, whether
actually vested in her and reduced into possession,
or contingent, or recoverable only by action or suit.
He may dispose of chattels real during the
wife's life, and, if he survives her, they vest in
him absolutely; but if he makes no disposition,
and she survives, they belong to her.
Where a woman conveys her property before
marriage, without the privity of the intended
husband, it is fraudulent and may be set aside. .. 2
Ves. 194. And the husband is entitled to the
income of his wife's equitable interest, unless he
has received some fortune with her, or has mis-
behaved, as by running away with a ward of the
court. 4 Ves. 15. Where the wife permitted
the husband to receive her separate income from
time to time, the court will only order an account
for one year. 11 Wes. 225.
2. Of his power.—The husband (by the old
law) might give his wife moderate correction.
For, as he is to answer for her misbehaviour, the
law thought it reasonable to intrust him with this
power of restraining her, by domestic chastise-
ment, in the same moderation that a man is al-
lowed to correct his apprentices or children; for
whom the master or parent is also liable in some
cases to answer. But this power of correction
was confined within reasonable bounds, and the
husband was prohibited from using any violence
to his wife, aliter quam ad virum, ex causã regi-
minis et castigationis uxoris Suae, licitè et ratio-
nabiliter pertinet. The civil law gave the husband
the same, or a larger, authority over his wife;
allowing him for some misdemeanors, flagellis et
fustibus acriter verberare uxorem ; for others
only modicam castigationem adhibere. But
with us, in the politer reign of Charles II., this
power of correction began to be doubted : and
a wife may now have a security of the peace
against her husband; or in return a husband
against his wife. Yet the lower rank of people,
who were always fond of the old common law,
still claim and exert their ancient privilege, and
the courts of law will still permit a husband to
restrain a wife of her liberty, in case of any gross
misbehaviour. *
A man cannot grant any thing to his wife, or
enter into covenant with her, for the grant would
be to suppose her separate existence; and to
covenant with her, would be only to covenant
with himself: and therefore it is generally true
that all compacts made between husband and
wife, when single, are voided by intermarriage,
A woman, indeed, may be attorney for her hus-
band ; for that implies no separation from, but
is rather a representation of, her lord.
3. Of his liabilities.—The husband is bound
to provide his wife with necessaries by law, as
much as himself; and, if she contracts debts for
them, he is obliged to pay them; but, for any
thing besides necessaries, he is not chargeable.
The husband is also liable to pay the debts of
his wife before marriage; for he has adopted her
and her circumstances.
And where a husband goes abroad and leaves
his wife, who dies in his absence, a third person
who voluntarily pays the expenses of her funeral
(suitable to the rank and fortune of her husband),
though without the knowledge of the husband,
may recover from him the money so laid out,
especially if such third person be the father of
the wife. 1 H. Black. 90. But it is doubtful
whether such third person can recover from the
husband money which he has expended after the
death of the wife in discharging debts which she
had contracted in her husband's absence.
The husband must answer for the trespass of
his wife: if a feme covert slander any person the
husband and wife must be jointly sued and exe-
cution will be awarded against him. There are
instances of a husband being committed to prison
till his wife should perform a certain act; but,
where he made it appear that he could not pre-
vail on her, he was discharged. 5 Wes. 848.
4. Of the exceptions to the general liability of
a husband.—He is not liable in an action for
the use and occupation of a house by his wife
whilst unmarried. 1 Taunt. & B. 50. Nor is
he bound to maintain the wife's children by
a former husband, though they were main-
tained by the widow before her second marriage,
at which time the second husband acquired
her former means. 4 East's R. 76. A husband
is not bound to receive, nor is he liable to pay for
necessaries found to his wife after she has com-
mitted adultery, though he has before committed
adultery himself and turned her out of doors
without any imputation on her conduct. 6 Term.
R. 603. But where the wife having committed
adultery and the husband left her in his house
with two children bearing his name, but without
making any provision for her in consequence of
the separation, and she continued in a state of
adultery, the court of common pleas held that the
husband should be liable for necessaries furnish-
ed to her, unless it appear that the creditor know
or ought to have known the circumstances under
which she was living. 1 Bos. & Pul. 226.
It is a question of fact whether a tradesman,
who furnishes goods to a wife, gives credit to
her-or her husband. If the credit is given to her,
the husband is not liable, though the wife lives
with him, and he sees her in possession of some
of the goods. 5 Taunt. 356. No ill treatment
by the husband of the wife, short of personal
violence, or such as to induce a reasonable fear
of it, will enable a stranger to maintain an action
against the husband for necessaries supplied her
subsequently to leaving his house. 3 Taunt.
421. If a husband makes his wife an allowance
for clothes, &c., which is constantly paid her, it
is said he shall not be charged. 1 Sid.º And,
2 2
580
M A. R. R. I. A G E.
if he forbids particular persons to trust her, he
will not be chargeable; but a prohibition in ge–
neral not to trust her, by advertisement in the
newspapers, is no legal notice. 1 Vent. 42. If the
wife pawn her clothes, and afterwards borrow mo-
ney to redeem them, the husband is not chargeable,
unless he were consenting, or that the first sum
came to his use. 2 Show. 283. If she take up
goods, and pawn them before made into clothes,
the husband shall not pay for them, because they
never came to his use; but it is otherwise if
made up and worn. 1 Salk. 118:
As To THE WIFE. 1. Of her rights, privileges,
and disabilities.—In the civil law the husband
and the wife are considered as two distinct per-
sons; and may have separate estates, contracts,
debts, and injuries; and therefore, in the ec-
clesiastical courts, a woman may sue, and be
sued, without her husband.
2. A woman may, before marriage, with the
consent of her intended husband, convey all her
stock in trade and furniture to trustees, to enable
her to carry on her business separately ; and if
the husband do not intermeddle with them, and
there be no fraud, such effects (though fluctuat-
ing) are not liable to his debts. But whether
the trade be carried on solely by the wife, or
jointly with the husband, is a question of fact for
the jury; and, if they determine the latter, the
stock in trade is liable to the debts of the hus-
band. But, even in such a case, the furniture is
not liable, though removed to the husband's
house. And it is no objection to such a settle-
ment that there is no inventory of the goods
intended to be thus settled. The question in all
such cases is, whether the possession is consistent
with the deed. 3 Term Rep. 618, 20.
A bond, conditioned for the payment of
money, after the obliger's death, made to a wo.
man, in contemplation of the obliger's marrying
her, and intended for her benefit, if she should
survive, is not released by their marriage.
3. A wife may sue a supplicavit in Chancery
against her husband, and to find sureties not to
beat or evil intreat her. 13 East. 172, n. And,
where there are articles of separation between the
husband and wife, if the husband afterwards
confine her, she may have a habeas corpus, and
be set at liberty. 13 East. 173, n.
4. Though our law in general considers a man
and wife as one person, yet there are some
instances in which she is separately consider-
ed as inferior to him, and acting by his com-
pulsion. And therefore all deeds executed and
acts done by her, during her coverture, are
void, except it be a fine, or the like matter of
record, in which case she must be solely and
secretly examined to learn if her act be voluntary.
She cannot by will devise lands to her husband,
unless under special circumstances; for at the
time of making it she is supposed to be under
his coercion. And in some felonies, and other
inferior crimes, committed by her, through con-
straint of her husband, the law excuses her;
but this extends not to treason or murder.
5. If the wife beinjured, in her person or her pro-
perty, she can bring no action for redress without
her husband's concurrence, and in his name, as
well as her own; neither can she be sued, without
Ç
making the husband a defendant. There is indeed
one case where the wife shall sue, and be sued,
as a feme sole, viz. where the husband has abjured
the realm, or is banished; for then he is dead in
law; and the husband being thus disabled to
Sue for, or defend the wife, it would be most
unreasonable if she had no remedy, or could
make no defence at all. *
6. But in trials of any sort they are not
allowed to be evidence for, or against, each other;
partly, because it is impossible their testimony
should be indifferent; but principally because
of the union of person; and, therefore, if they
were admitted to be witnesses for each other,
they would contradict one maxim of law, ‘memo
in propria causa testis esse debet;" and, if
against each other, they would contradict another
maxim, ‘nemo tenetur Seipsum accusare.' But,
where the offence is directly against the person
of the wife, this rule has been usually dispensed
with ; and, therefore, by statute 3 Hen. VII. c.
2, in case a woman be forcibly taken away and
married, she may be a witness against such her
husband, in order to convict him of felony. For
in this case she can with no propriety be reckoned
his wife; because a mainingredient, her consent,
is wanting to the contract; and also there is
another maxim of law, that no man shall take
advantage of his own wrong; which the ravisher
here would do, if, by forcibly marrying a woman,
he could prevent her from being a witness, who
is perhaps the only witness, to that very fact.
Neither the husband nor wife can be called
in any case to give evidence even tending to
criminate each other. Thus in a case of settle-
ment, where a marriage in fact had been proved
between two paupers, the first wife of the hus-
band is not a competent witness to prove a tor-
mer marriage with him, because such evidence
shows him to have been guilty of bigamy. But
husband and wife may prove their own mar-
riage on a question of settlement. 2 Term. R.
263.
The point is at least doubtful whether a wo-
man living with a man as his wife, and having
children by him, be admissible evidence to prove
the fact of her never having been actually mar-
ried to him. 1 Price, 81.
7. A feme covert was discharged out of cus-
tody, because she was arrested without her hus-
band, though the writ was sued out against
both, on which the sheriff had returned, that the
husband was not to be found. 1 Term. R. 486.
And a married woman, arrested on common
process, is entitled to be discharged out of cus-
tody on filing common bail, although her hus-
band had absconded, and the debt had been
incurred by her while a feme sole. 1 Barn. &
A. 165. So if she be held to bail (for the pe-
nalties incurred by insuring in the lottery) she
may be discharged on an affidavit of her cover-
ture. 2 H. Black. 17. And the court will, dis-
charge a woman under arrest, if the plaintiff
knew her to be covert at the time of contracting
the debt. 6. Term. R. 451. Or if she mis-
takenly allege she believes her husband to be
dead. 1. East. 16. Or if the plaintiff knew
she had a husband living abroad, though under
terms of separation. 1 East. 17, note. And
M A R R I A G E.
58]
pass, or writ of ravishment. The offender,
the common pleas will now discharge a feme
covert, though she contracted the debt as a feme
sole, and was trusted by the plantiff as such,
unless she represent herself to be single. 1 New.
R. 54. &
8. A feme covert cannot be sued as a feme
sole, unless she be separated from her husband
and have a fixed certain allowance secured to
her as a maintenance. 5 Term R. 679. If a
woman married de facto to one whom she knows
to have another wife, executes a deed as his
wife, jointly with him, she is bound as a feme
sole. 3 Aust. 833. Where the husband (a
foreigner) resided abroad, and the wife traded
and obtained credit in this country as a feme
sole, the common pleas held that she was liable
for her own debts. 1 Bos. & P. 357. It has
been solemnly determined in the exchequer
chamber, that a feme covert sole trader, in the
city of London, is not liable to be sued as such
in the courts at Westminster; and, even in the
city courts, the husband must be joined for con-
formity. 2 Bos. & P. 93. Where a married
man was transported for felony, the king's bench
decided that the wife might be sued alone for a
debt contracted after the transportation, 1 Term
R. 9. +
9. The wife of an attorney is not entitled to
be discharged out of custody on mesne process,
if arrested with her husband. 1 Taunt. 254.
Nor will the court discharge a woman under
arrest, as being married, if she obtained credit
pretending that she was single. 5Term. R. 191.
And in the following case the court of common
pleas refused to discharge the woman, although
the plaintiff appeared to have been acquainted
with her coverture:—a French-woman and her
husband came over to England; the husband
gave her a power of attorney, and went to Ham-
burgh; she cohabited with another man, and
traded on her own account with the plaintiff, by
whom she was arrested. 1 Bos. & P. 8. Where
a married woman has been arrested as accep-
tor of a bill of exchange, at the suit of an in-
dorse, the common pleas will not order the bail
bond to be cancelled, on an affidavit that the
drawer, when he drew, the bill, knew the de-
fendant to be a married woman. 2 Marsh. 40.
And in another case, where a woman was ar-
rested as drawer of a bill of exchange at the
suit of an indorser, that court refused to discharge
her on the affidavit of a third person that she
was a married woman. 2 Marsh. 385.
Effect of marriage on previous wills.-Mar-
riage, and the birth of a posthumous child,
amount to an implied revocation of a will of
lands made before marriage. But the subse-
quent birth of a child is not of itself sufficient.
5 Term R. 49, 51. And where after marriage a
man made his will, and devised to his niece,
and afterwards died, leaving his wife ensient
with a daughter, which was unknown to him, it
was held that the birth of a daughter was not a
revocation of the will. 4 Maule & S. 10.
SECT. VII.-OF INJURIES To THE HUSBAND.
1. By abduction.—The abduction, or taking a
man's wife either by fraud and persuasion, or
open violence, is remediable by action of tres-
according to 3 Edw.I. c. 13, may be imprisoned
two years, and fined. Damages may also be
recovered in an action on the case at the suit of
the husband against those who persuade or entice
the wife to live separate from him without suffi-
cient cause. -
2. By criminal conversation.— For this in-
jury an action, can be maintained, and though,
according to the technical form of the proceed.
ings, the injury is described to consist in the loss
of the society and services of the wife, the jury,
sanctioned by the concurrence of the courts, are
accustomed to measure the damages by all the
circumstances which have accompanied the act
complained of; many of which relate to the
moral conduct of the husband and wife pre-
viously to the commission of the offence.
There are some instances in which the hus-
band is altogether deprived of his remedy for
the injury sustained.
Thus no action for crim, con. can be brought
for any act of adultery after a separation between
husband and wife. 5 Term R. 357. But ac-
cording to another case, where there was a settle-
ment providing previously to the marriage for
the maintenance of the wife in case of separa-
tion, it was held that the husband was not pre-
cluded from maintaining an action for adultery
committed while the wife was in fact living
apart from him. 6 East 244.
It is now determined that, if the husband
Consent to the adultery, it will bar the action.
And, if the woman is suffered by her husband to
live as a common prostitute, no action will lie
at the suit of the husband; but, if he does not
know this, it will go only in mitigation of da-
mages. 4 Term R. 657. -
SECT. VIII.-OF FORCIBLE AND CLANDESTINE
. MARRIAGES, BREACH of ContRACT To
MARRY, &c.
1. Of forcible marriages.—According to the
statute 3 Hen. VII. c. 2, if any person shall for
lucre take any woman, being maid, widow, or
wife, and having substance either in goods or
lands, or being heir apparent to her ancestors,
contrary to her will; and afterwards she be mar-
ried to such misdoer, or by his consent to ano-
ther, or defiled; such person, his procurors,
and abettors, and such as knowingly receive
such woman, shall be deemed principal felons.
By the 39 Eliz. c. 9, such felons were denied
the benefit of clergy. But this act is repealed
by 1 Geo. IV. c. 115, and persons convicted on
the statute of 3 Hen. VII. are to be transported
for life, or any term not less than seven years;
or imprisoned with or without hard labor for any
term not exceeding seven years.
The indictment for this offence must allege
that the taking was for lucre. In order to show
this, it must be proved that the woman has sub-
stance either real or personal, or is an heir ap-
parent. It must appear she was taken away
against her will. And lastly that she was after-
wards either married or defiled. Though the
marriage or defilement might be by her consent,
yet it is felony if the first taking were against
her will. And so if she originally consent, but
MAR
MAR
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afterwards refuse to continue, and be forced
, against her will, the construction of law is the
same as if she had never consented. '
2. Of clandestine marriages.—Persons who
knowingly solemnise matrimony in any other
place than where banns may be lawfully pub-
fished, or at any other time than between the
hours of eight and twelve in the forenoon, unless
by special license, or solemnise matrimony with-
out publication of banns, unless a license be
obtained, or persons falsely pretending to be in
holy orders and solemnising matrimony, aredeem-
ed guilty of felony, and liable to be transported
for fourteen years; and the parties are punisha-
ble at common law, independently of the statute.
Although where the parties are under age, and
have not been previously married, it is necessary
the parent or guardian should consent to the
marriage; yet if the banns have been regularly
published, though without the consent of parents
or guardians, and the minister has received no
notice of dissent, the minister who solemnises
the marriage is not punishable. The banns,
however, are void, if the dissent be publicly
declared.
3. Of breach of promise of marriage.—For the
breach of mutual promises to marry each other,
made between unmarried persons, an action will
lie. But a promise by one party to pay a sum
of money in case he or she shall marry another,
is held to be a restraint of marriage, and con-
sequently void : and a wager for fifty guineas
that the party would not marry within six years
was held to be void on the same principle. It is
observable, however, that upon mutual promises
between a minor and an adult, the former, though
not bound by the promise, may maintain an
action against the latter.
These contracts need not be in writing, un-
less they extend to an agreement to pay money,
or make a settlement in consideration of mar-
riage. *
4. Sale of wives.—The practice which is fre-
quently tolerated of a man selling his wife, with
a halter round her neck, is clearly a misde-
meanor, and all parties are liable to punishment
by fine and imprisonment. Lord Mansfield
directed a prosecution where a husband had
assigned his wife over to another man on the
ground that such a transaction was contrary to
decency and good manners.
MAR'ROW, n.s. Sax. mong, me-
MAR'Row Bon E, m. s. } nepe; Swed. marg;
MAR'Rowless, adj. Dan. marw; Welch,
mer; all, perhaps, of Heb. 9"p, to strengthen.
The oleaginous substance, or pith, of the bones.
Though buying and selling doth wonderful wel,
Yet chopping and changing I cannot commend
With theef or his marrow for fear of ill end. Tusser.
Would he were wasted, marrow, bones, and all,
That from his loins no hopeful branch may spring.
Shakspeare.
Avauntſ
Thy bones are marrowless, thy blood is cold;
Thou hast no speculation in those eyes
Which thou dost glare with. Id. Macbeth.
. The skull hath brains as a kind of marrow within
it : the back bone hath one kind of marrow,'
and other bones of the body have another: the jaw-
bones have no marrow severed, but a little pulp of
marrow diffused. Bacon.
Pampered, and edified their zeal
With marrow puddings many a meal. Hudibras.
Down on your.marrow-bones, upon your allegi-
ance; and make an acknowledgment of your offences;
for I will have ample satisfaction. -
Dryden’s Spanish Fryar.
Upon this he fell down upon his marrowbones, and
oegged of Jupiter to give him a pair of horns.
L’Estrange.
He bit the dart, and wrenched the wood away,
The point still buried in the marrow lay. Addison.
All the bones of the body which have any con-
siderable thickness have either a large cavity, or they
are spongious, and full of little cells; in both the one
and the other there is an oleaginous substance, called
marrow, contained in proper vescicles or membranes,
like the fat: in the larger bones this fine oil, by the
gentle heat of the body, is exhaled through the pores
of its small bladders, and enters some narrow pas-
sages, which lead to some fine canals excavated in
the substance of the bone, that the marrow may sup-
ply the fibres of the bones, and render them less apt
to break. Quincy.
MARRUBIUM, white horehound, a genus of
the gymnospermia order, and didynamia class
of plants; natural order forty-second, verticil-
latae: CAL. salver-shaped, rigid, and ten-striated:
coR. upper lip bifid, linear, and straight. There
are nine species, the most remarkable of which
is the -
M. vulgare, a native of Britain, growing natu-
rally in waste places, and by way sides near
towns and villages, but not common. It has a
strong and somewhat musky smell, and bitter
taste. It is reputed attenuant, and resolvent;
an infusion of the leaves in water, sweetened
with honey, is recommended in asthmatical and
phthisical complaints, and most other diseases of
the breast and lungs.
MARS, in astronomy, one of the six planets,
and of the four superior ones; its place being
between the earth and Jupiter. See ASTRONOMY.
MARs, in mythology, the god of war. He
was, according to some, the son of Jupiter and
Juno ; while others say that he was the son of
Juno alone, who, being displeased at Jupiter's
having produced Minerya from his brain, con-
ceived, without the assistance of the other sex,
by touching a flower shown to her by Flora in
the plains of Olenus, and became the mother of
this formidable deity. The amours of Mars and
Venus, and the manner in which Vulcan caught
and exposed them to the laughter of the other
gods, have been described by several of the
ancient poets. He is represented as having
several wives and mistresses, and a considerable
number of children. He was held in the highest
veneration by the Romans, both from his being
the reputed father of Romulus their founder, and
from their inclination to conquest; and magnifi-
cent temples were erected to him at Rome.
Mars is usually represented in a chariot, drawn
by furious horses. He is completely armed,
and extends his spear with the one hand, and
grasps a sword, imbrued in blood, with the
other. He has a fierce and savage aspect. Dis-
cord is represented preceding his car; and Cla-
mor, Fear, and Terror, appear in his train.
The victims sacrificed to him were the wolf,

MAR
MAR
583
the horse, the wood-pecker, the vulture, and the
cock.
MARs, among alchemists, denotes iron; that
metal being supposed to be under the influence
of the planet Mars. g
MARSAIS (Cesar Chesneau du), was born at
Marseilles in 1676. He became a member of
the congregation of the oratory, but soon left it
and went to Paris, where he married, and became
advocate, in which profession he met with great
success. Disappointed, however, in his expec-
tations of making a speedy fortune, he abandoned
the law also. He next became tutor in several
families; and after this he kept a boarding aca-
demy, but was at last reduced to extreme indi-
gence. In this situation he was found by the
editors of the Encyclopédie, and made a partner
in conducting that great work; for which he
wrote the article Grammaire, and several others.
The count of Lauraguais was so much affected
with the distresses, and so much convinced of the
merit of Du Marsais, that he procured him a
pension of 1000 livres. Du Marsais died in
Paris, June 11th, 1756, in his eightieth year,
after he had received the sacrament; though
during his life he had been a professed deist.
His principal works are, 1. Exposition de la
Doctrine de l'Eglise Gallicane par rapport aux
Pretensions de la Cour de Rome, 12mo. This
did not appear till after his death. 2. Exposi-
tion d'une Methode Raisonnée pour apprendre
la Langue Latine, 12mo. 1722, rare. 3. Traité
des Tropes, 1730, 8vo.; reprinted in 1771, 12mo.
4. Les Veritables Principes de la Grammaire
raisonnée pour Apprendre la Langue Latine,
1790, 4to. There was only the preface of this
work published, in which he introduced the
greatest part of his Methode IRaisonnée. 5.
Labiege de la Fable du Pere Jouvenci, arranged
after the manner of the original plan, 1731,
12mo. 6. Logique, ou Reflections sur les opera-
tions de l’Esprit. It was reprinted in Paris, in
two, parts, together with the articles which he
had written for the Encyclopédie, 1762. He
also wrote some tracts, of less merit, in favor of
scepticism.
MARSALA, a town of Sicily, in the Val di
Mazzara, at the western extremity of the island,
on the promontory of Lilybaeum. It is supposed
to occupy the site of the ancient town of this
name, and is tolerably well built, having a spa-
cious street, called the Cassaro. It is surrounded
with a wall and dry ditch, flanked by bastions,
There was formerly a good harbour here, de-
stroyed in 1562, to prevent its affording shelter
to the Turkish galleys. It exports wine, barilla,
oil, and wheat. Inhabitants iO,000. Forty-five
miles south-west of Palermo.
MARSEILLE, or MARSEILLES, formerly
Massilia, a very ancient, large, and beautiful
city, the chief place of the department of the
Mouths of the Rhone, in the south-east of
France. It has a lower court, and is the seat of
the royal court of Aix, besides a tribunal of
commerce and an exchange; is the chief place
of the eighth military division, and the residence
of different foreign consuls, has a royal marine
observatory, an academy of sciences, a school of
hydrography, and an institution for the deaf and
dumb, a royal college, a school of medicine,
another for drawing, and a third for music; as
well as a free course of lectures on chemistry.
It is the see of a bishop, and has also a reformed
consistorial court, and a synagogue. It is a
post town, containing 116,000 inhabitants. This
city is situated at the bottom of a gulf covered
and defended by several, islands, on the declivity
and at the foot of a hill between the sea and a
chain of mountains, forming a semicircle, and
enclosing a rich valley, with ‘more than 5000
houses. The elevated part of the town be-
tween the port and the race ground, is but indif-
ferently built; but the new town, which reaches
nearly to the sea, and forms about one-third of
the whole, is very beautiful; all the streets are
broad, straight, and bordered with foot pavements
and elegant houses. Märseilles is furnished
with many beautiful squares and fountains; the
town-hall near the port, the port itself, the mag-
nificent quays that run along it, the exchange,
the arsenal, the assembly room, and the rope-
yard, are especially worthy of attention. From
the top of the observatory, one of the finest
buildings in Marseilles, a most extensive view is
presented to the eye, taking in at once the city,
the surrounding country, and the sea. On the
coast, at a little distance, is the hospital, one of
the largest and best regulated buildings of the
kind; it is enclosed with a double wall, and
seems like a small town: on the return of the
expedition from Egypt it received within its en-
closure a whole army. The port is one of the
finest in the kingdom, and is capable of contain-
ing 1200 vessels; it forms an oval basin of nearly
600 fathoms in length, by about 160 in breadth,
and presents a haven for every kind of ship that
navigates the Mediterranean. Here the colors
of every nation may be seen flying, and the in-
habitants of various parts of the world in their
different costumes.
This city is said to have been founded by the
Phoceans, about 500 years before the Christian
era, and soon became one of the most commer-
cial cities in the west, renowned for its govern-
ment, and the wisdom of its laws. Cicero styled
it the Athens of Gaul, and Pliny the mistress of
the sciences. Julius Caesar took it after a long
and terrible siege. In the year 473 the Saracens
sacked it ; but it was re-united to the French
crown by Clotaire, and afterwards became a
separate sovereignty. It shook off the yoke and
became a republic in 1214, but it enjoyed its
liberty only till 1251, when the counts of Pro-
vence subjected it to their dominion. Louis XII.
united it to the crown again in 1482. Louis
XIV., taking a journey into Provence in 1660,
deprived it of some of the privilegés it had en-
joyed until his reign, and built a citadel. In
1720 a vessel from Seide introduced a horrible
plague, which carried off between 60,000 and
70,000 of its inhabitants.
The principal manufactures are those of stock-
ings and Tunis caps, soap, olive oil, brandy,
spirits, choice liqueurs, glue, white lead, chemi-
cals, perfumery, wax candles, and straw hats.
Cotton spinning, sugar refining, the preparation
of sulphur, starch making, tanning, and the
manufacture of tobacco, are also pursued to a
MAR
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584
considerable extent; and the inhabitants have
an import and export trade with Italy, Spain, the
coasts of Africa, the Levant, and the different
ports of the Black Sea and the Mediterranean;
as well as with America and the East Indies.
This city had the honor of giving birth to Petro-
nius, Honoré d'Urfe, author of the Astrea; to
Paget, a famous painter and sculptor : to Da-
marsais; to M. Pastoret, the president of the
legislative assembly; to general Gardane; and
to Lantier, a well-known literary character.
There are here a library of 60,000 volumes, a
picture gallery and museum of natural history, a
royal botanical garden, and many ancient monu-
ments. This city is situated in long. 3°2' E. from
Paris, and in lat. 43° 17' N.; being about 615
miles south-east of Paris, 162 south-west of Nice,
forty-five W. N.W. of Toulon, 126 E. S. E. of
Montpelier, eighty-seven south-east of Nismes,
and eighty-one south-east of Avignon.
MARSH, n. s. Sax. menrc. See MARISH.
MAR'SHY, adj. } A fen; bog; swamp; watery
ground.
In their courses make that round,
In meadows and in marshes found,
Of them so called the fayry ground,
Of which they have the keeping. Drayton.
We may see in more conterminous climates great
variety in the people thereof; the up-lands in Eng-
land yield strong, sinewy, hardy men; the marsh-
lands, men of large and high stature. Hale.
Worms for colour and shape, alter even as the
ground out of which they are got; as the marsh worm
and the stag worm. - Walton.
Though º the marshy grounds approach your
elds,
And there the soil a stony harvest yields. Dryden.
Feed
With delicates of leaves and marshy weed. Id.
Your low meadows and marsh lands you need not
lay up till April, except the spring be very wet, and
your marshes very poachy. Mortimer's Husbandry.
It is a distemper of such as inhabit marshy, fat,
low, moist soils, near stagnating water. Arbuthnot.
The fens and marshes are his cool retreat,
His noon-tide shelter from the burning heat.
º Young.
MARSH (Narcissus), a learned and accom-
plished prelate, born at Hannington in Wiltshire,
in 1638. He was made principal of St. Alban's
Hall, Oxford, in 1673; provost of Dublin College
in 1678; bishop of Leighlin and Ferns in 1682;
archbishop of Cashel in 1690; of Dublin in
1694, and of Armagh in 1703. He built a pub-
lic library in Dublin, filled it with choice works,
and settled a provision for two librarians. He
repaired, at his own expense, several decayed
churches, besides buying in many impropri-
ations, and presenting a great number of oriental
MSS. to the Bodleian library. He was well versed
in sacred and profane literature, in mathematics,
natural philosophy, languages (especially the
oriental), and music. He published, 1. Institu-
tiones Logicae. 2. Manuductio ad Logicam,
written by Philip de Trieu ; to which he added
the Geerk text of Aristotle, and some tables and
schemes. 3. An introductory essay on the doc-
trine of sounds, &c. He died in 1713.
MARSHAL, n.s. & v. a. Fr. mareschal ; low
Lat. mareschallus, according to Minsheu, from
old Fr. marescale (compounded of mare, a horse,
and scale, a sort of servant); one that has the
charge of horses. Dr. Johnson adopts this ety-
mology. A chief officer of arms; any one who
regulates feasts or combats: to marshal, to array.
in formal or military order; to lead.
Her face, when it was fairest, had been but as a
marshal to lodge the love of her in his mind, which
now was so well placed as it needed no help of out-
ward harbinger. Sidney.
Through the hall there walked to and fro
A jolly yeoman, marshal of the same,
Whose name was Appetite; he did bestow
Both guests and meats, whenever in they came,
And knew them how to order without blame.
Faerie Queene.
Thou marshal'est me the way that I was going.
Shakspeare.
The duke of Suffolk claims
To be high steward; next the duke of Norfolk
To be earl marshal. Id.
Multitude of jealousies, and lack of some predo-
minant desire, that should marshal and put in order
all the rest, maketh any man's heart hard to find or
sound. - Bacon.
Anchises looked not with so pleased a face,
In numbering o'er his future Roman race,
And marshalling the heroes of his name,
As in their order next to light they came. Dryden.
Dares their pride presume against my laws
As in a listed field to fight their cause ?
Unasked the royal grant; no marshal by,
As kingly rights require, nor judge to try. Id.
O William, may thy arms advance,
That he may lose Dinant next year,
And so be mareschal of France. Prior.
It is as unconceivable how it should be the direc-
trix of such intricate motions, as that a blind man
should marshal an army. Glanville's Scepsis.
Dryden was the great refiner of English poetry,
and the best marshaller of words. Trapp.
Behold
Destruction yawns; his spacious jaws unfold,
And, marshalled round the wide expanse, disclose
Teeth edged with death, and crowded rows on rows.
Young.
I cannot consider all these things without blessing
that wise and beneficent policy, which brought Eng-
land with timely speed to the aid of such a nation,
to call forth its energies—to marshal its resources—
to support and invigorate its unyielding constancy,
and, after its own deliverance was achieved, to lead
it forth in pursuit of its oppressor. Canning.
MARSHAL, or MARESCHAL (marescallus), pri-
marily denotes an officer who has the care or
the command of horses. Nicod derives, the
word from polemarchus, i.e. master of the camp;
Matthew Paris from Martis sensecallus. In the
old Gaulish language march signified horse;
whence marchal might signify him who com-
manded the cavalry. Other derivations have
been given by different authors; and the name
itself has been applied to officers of very different
employments. s
MARSHAL of ENGLAND, EARL, is the eighth
great officer of state. This office, until it was
made hereditary, always passed by grant from
the king, and never was held by tenure or ser-
jeantry (by any subject), as the offices of lord high
steward and lord high constable were sometimes
held. The title is personal, the office honorary
and officiary. They were formerly styled lord
marshal only, until king Richard II., June 20th
MAR
MAR
585
1397, granted letters patent to Thomas Mow-
bray, earl of Nottingham, and to the heirs male
of his body lawfully begotten, by the name and
style of earl-marshal; and further gave them
power to bear in their hand a gold truncheon,
enamelled with black at each end : having at
the upper end of it the king's arms engraven
thereon, and at the lower end his own arms. See
CHIvalry.
MARSHAL of Scotland, EARL. His office
was to command the cavalry, whereas the con-
stable commanded the whole army. They seem,
however, to have had a sort of joint command,
as of old all orders were addressed “ to our con-
stable and marischal.’ The office of earl maris–
chal has never been out of the noble family of
Keith. It verged in the crown, being forfeited
by the rebellion of George Keith, earl marischal,
in 1715.
| MARSHAL OF THE KING's BENCH, an officer
who has custody of the king's bench prison,
in Southwark. He gives attendance upon the
court, and takes into his custody all prisoners
committed by the court; he is finable for his ab-
sence, and non-attendance incurs a forfeiture of
his office. The power of appointing the marshal
of the king's bench is in the crown.
MARSHAL OF THE KING's House, or knight
marshal, an English officer, whose business, ac-
cording to Fleta, is to execute the commands
and decrees of the lord steward, and to have
the custody of prisoners committed by the court
of verge. Under him are six marshal's men, who
are properly the king's bailiffs, and arrest in the
verge of the court, when a warrant is backed by
the board of green-cloth. The court where
causes of this kind, between man and man, are
tried, is called the marshalsea, and is under the
knight marshal. See MARSHALSEA. This is
also the name of the prison in Southwark: the
reason of which may probably be, that the mar-
shal of the king's house was wont to sit there in
judgment, or keep his prison.
MARSHAL (Thomas), a learned English divine
In the seventeenth century, educated at Oxford.
This city being garrisoned, upon the breaking
out of the civil wars, he bore arms for the king.
He afterwards had several successive preferments
in the church; and died in Lincoln College, of
which he was rector. By his will he left all his
books and MSS. to the University of Oxford, and
money to Lincoln College for the maintenance of
three scholars. He was a noted critic, especially
in the Gothic and Anglo-Saxon tongues; and
eminent for his piety. He wrote, 1. Observa-
tiones in Evangeliorum Versiones per antiquos
duos, Goth. Scilicet et Anglo-Sax, &c. 2. Notes
on the Church Catechism, &c.
MARSHALL (Stephen) a presbyterian divine,
of some eminence in the middle of the seven-
teenth century. He was born at Godmanchester,
in Huntingdonshire, and was educated at Ema-
nuel College, Cambridge, where he took' the
degrees of B. A. and B. D. He became minister
of Finchfield in Essex; but, on the triumph of
the puritan party, settled in London. The
quaint Fuller says, “In the late long lasting
parliament, no man was more gracious with the
principal members thereof. In their sickness
writ of error before the king in his place.
he was their confessor, in their assembly their
councellour, in their treaties their chaplain, in
their disputations their champion.’ He died in
1655, and was buried in Westminster Abbey.
He was one of the authors of Smectymnuus, and
wrote a Treatise on Justification, which is still read.
MARSHALLING A CoAT, in heraldry, is the
disposal of several coats of arms belonging to
distinct families in one and the same escutcheon
or shield, together with their ornaments, parts,
and appurtenances. See HERALDRY.
MARSHALSEA, THE Court of, and the pa-
lage court at Westminster, though two distinct
courts, are frequently confounded together. The
former was originally holdenbefore the steward and
marshal of the king's house, and was instituted
to administer justice between the king's domes-
tic servants, that they might not be drawn into
other courts, and thereby the king lose their
service. It was formerly held in the aula regis;
and, when that was subdivided, remained a dis-
tinct jurisdiction, holding plea of all trespasses
committed within the verge of the court, where
only one of the parties is in the king's domestic
service (in which case the inquest shall be
taken by a jury of the country); and of all
debts, contracts, and covenants, where both of
the contracting parties belong to the royal house-
hold; and then the inquest shall be composed
of men of the household only. By act of 13
Rich. II. stat. 1, c. 3. (in affirmance of the com-
mon law), the verge of the court in this respect
extends for twelve miles round the king's place
of residence. And, as this tribunal was never
subject to the jurisdiction of the chief justiciary,
no writ of error lay from it (though a court of
record) to the king's bench, but only to parlia-
ment, till the statutes of 5 Edw. III., c. 2, and
10 Edw. III., stat. 2, c. 3. which allowed such
But
this court being ambulatory, and obliged to fol-
low the king in all his progresses, so that, by the
removal of the household, actions were fre-
quently discontinued, and doubts having arisen
as to the extent of its jurisdiction, king Charles
I., in the sixth year of his reign, by his letters
patent, erected a new court of record, called the
curia palatii, or palace-court, to be held before
the steward of the household and knight marshal,
and the steward of the court, or his deputy;
with jurisdiction to hold plea of all manner of
personal actions whatsoever, which shall arise
between any parties within twelve miles of his
majesty's palace at Whitehall. The court is now
held once a week, together with the ancient court
of marshalsea, in the borough of Southwark;
and a writ of error lies from thence to the court
of king's bench. But, if the cause is of any consi-
derable consequence, it is usually removed on
its first commencement, together with the cus-
tody of the defendant, either into the king's bench
or common pleas, by a writ of habeas corpus cum
causá; and the inferior business of the court
has of late years been much reduced by the new
courts of conscience erected in the environs of
London ; in consideration of which the four
counsel belonging to these courts had salaries
granted them for their lives, by stat. 23 Geo.
II. c. 27.
MAR
MAR
586
MARSHAM (Sir John), a learned English
writer in the seventeenth century. He studied
the law in the middle temple, and was sworn one
of the six clerks in the court of chancery in 1638.'
In the beginning of the civil wars he followed
the king to Oxford; for which he was deprived
of his place by the parliament at Westminster,
and plundered. After the death of the king he
returned to London; compounded, among other
royalists, for his real estate; and betook himself
wholly to his studies and a retired life, the fruits
of which were some excellent works. He wrote
Tiatriba Chronologica; Chronicus Canon, Ægyp-
ticus, Ebraicus, Graecus, &c. He died in 1685.
MARSH-MARIGOLD, n.s. Lat. populago.
A flower consisting of several leaves, placed cir-
cularly, and expanding in form of a rose, in the
middle of which rises the pointal, which becomes
a membraneous fruit. †
And set soft hyacinths with iron-blue,
To shade marsh-marigolds of shining hue. Dryden.
MARSH MARIGolD. See CALTHA.
MARSH. RocKET. See SISYMBRIUM.
MARSI, an ancient nation of Germany, who
afterwards settled in Italy, where they occupied
the territory in the environs of the Fucine Lake.
They at first proved inimical to the Romans, but
in process of time they became its firmest Sup-
porters. They were allowed by the Romans to
be the most intrepid soldiers of their legions
when in friendship, and the most formidable of
their enemies when at variance; and it was a
common saying, that Rome could neither triumph
over the Marsi nor without them. They are par-
ticularly celebrated for their courage and intre-
pidity during the civil war, which from them
was named the Marsian war. The contributions
made to support the interests of Rome, and the
number of men which they continually supplied
to the republic, rendered them bold and aspiring;
and they claimed, with the rest of the Italian
states, a share of the honors and privileges of
Roman citizens. This petition, though supported
by the interest, the eloquence, and the integrity
of the tribune Drusus, was received with con-
tempt by the Roman senate; upon which, in
A. U. C., 662, the Marsi put themselves at the
head of the social war, one of the most obstinate
and dangerous oppositions ever made to the pro-
gress of the Roman power. They obtained
several victories, but were at last defeated ;
though the war was not terminated but by a grant
of those privileges which the senate had refused.
MARSIGLI (Lewis Ferdinand, count), an
Italian, descended from an ancient and noble
family, was born at Bologna in 1658. He ac-
quired great knowledge in the art of war and
fortification; served under Leopold II. against
the Turks, by whom he was taken prisoner in
1683, but redeemed in 1684. In the Spanish
succession war, Marsigli, being in the fortress of
Brisac, surrendered it to the duke of Burgundy
in 1703, though it was thought able to hold out
much longer; he was therefore stripped of all
his commissions, and had his sword broken over
him; and the commander Arco was beheaded.
Marsigli now sought consolation in the sciences,
and founded the institute of Bologna. He had
formed a rich collection of instruments, astrono-
mical and chemical, plans of fortifications, mo-
'dels of machines, &c., all which he presented to
the senate of Bologna in 1712, forming at the
Same time out of them the institute of the arts
and sciences. His object was principally to pro-
mote the improvement of various branches of
science, viz. astronomy, chemistry, natural his-
tory, physics, and military architecture. He
spared no pains nor expense in obtaining instru-
ments adapted to the illustration and advance-
ment of science, and having obtained the pope's
consent to a new foundation, and having fixed
its laws and regulations, he solemnly confirmed
the gift in 1712. The senate of Bologna pur-
chased the principal palace in the city for its
accommodation, and an observatory was erected
in it, and professors were appointed. The gra-
titude of his fellow-citizens, for this and other
liberal acts performed for them, was expressed
in a decree for placing his statue in some conspi-
cuous situation, but he steadily refused the
honor. He also founded a printing-house, and
furnished it with the best types for Latin, Greek,
Hebrew, and Arabic, which he presented in 1728
to the Dominicans at Bologna, on condition of,
their printing all the writings of the institute at
prime cost; this was called the printing house
of St. Thomas Aquinas. After this he visited
Holland and England, and in the course of his
journey formed an acquaintance with Newton
and Halley, Boerhaave and Muschenbroeck; he
became a member of the Royal Society of Lon—
don, and returned laden with books and speci-
mens of natural history for the institute. At
Amsterdam, the booksellers agreed to print the
work which he had been preparing several years,
and which was published under the title of
Historie Physique de la Mer, in the year 1725. In
the following year he printed another great work,
which was regarded as the most valuable of all
his publications, entitled Danubius Pannonico-
Mysicus, in 6 vols. fol. This is a description of
the Danube in its Hungarian and Turkish course.
His other writings on philosophical subjects are
numerous and valuable, in Latin, Italian, and
French. He died in 1730.
MARSOLLIER (James), a French historian,
born in Paris, 1647. He wrote a Life of Cardi-
mal Ximenes, 2 vols. 2. History of Henry VII.
king of England, 2 vols. 3. History of the In-
quisition ; all in 12mo. 4. A Life of St. Francis.
He died archdeacon of Usez, 1724.
MARSYAS, in fabulous history, a celebrated
musician of Celaenae, in Phrygia, son of Olym-
pus, or of Hyagnis, or CEagrus. He was so
skilful in playing on the flute, that he is generally
deemed the inventor of it. According to some,
he found it when Minerva had thrown it aside,
on account of the distortion of her face when she
played upon it. Marsyas was enamoured of Cy-
bele, and travelled with her as far as Nysa,
where he challenged Apollo to a trial of his
skill as a musician. The god accepted the
challenge, and it was mutually agreed that he
who was defeated should be flead alive by the
conqueror. The Muses, or (according to Dio-
dorus), the inhabitants of Nysa, were appointed
umpires. Each exerted his utmost skill, and
the victory with much difficulty was adjudged
MAR.
MAR
587
to Apollo. The god upon this tied his antagonist
to a tree, and flead him alive. See APOLLO.
The death of Marsyas was universally lamented;
the Fauns, Satyrs, and Dryads, wept at his fate;
and from their abundant tears arose a river of
Phrygia, well known by the name of Marsyas.
Marsyas is often represented on monuments,
tied with his hands behind his back to a tree,
while Apollo stands before him with his lyre.
In independent cities, among the ancients, the
statue of Marsyas was generally erected in the
forum, to represent the intimacy which subsisted
between Bacchus and Marsyas as the emblems
of liberty. At Celaenae the skin of Marsyas was
shown to travellers.
MART, n.s. & v. a. Belg, and Teut. marckt,
or contracted from MARKET, which see. A place
or time of public sale and traffic: bargain; pur-
chase: to purchase or sell, -
Christ could not suffer that the temple should serve
for a place of mart, nor the apostle of Christ that the
church should be made an inn. Hooker.
If any born at Ephesus
Be seen at Syracusan marts and fairs,
He dies. Shakspeare.
I play a merchant's part,
And venture madly on a desperate mart.
Cassius, you yourself
Do sell and mart your offices for gold
To undeservers. Id. Julius Caesar.
Ezechiel, in the description of Tyre, and the ex-
ceeding trade that it had with all the East as the only
mart town, reciteth both the people with whom they
commerce, and also what commodities every country
Id.
yielded. Raleigh.
Many come to a great mart of the best horses.
Temple.
The French, since the accession of the Spanish
monarchy, supply with cloth the best mart we had in
Europe. Addison.
Shall pompous banquets swell with such a prize?
And the bowl journey round his ample size;
Or the debating merchants share the prey
And various limbs to various marts convey. Young.
A MART is a great fair held every year for
buying and selling goods. Public marts, with
the tolls thereunto belonging, can only be set up
by virtue of the king's grant, or by long and im-
memorial usage and prescription, which presup-
poses such a grant. - -
MART, LETTERs of, written for LETTERS OF
MARQUE, which see.
No man needs letters of mart against one that is
an open pirate of other men's credit. Marvell.
MARTEAU, the name given by French natu-
ralists to a peculiar species of oysters, called also
malleam by others. It is one of the most curious
shells in the world. Its figure is that of a ham-
mer, with a very long head, or rather of a pick-
ax. It has a body of moderate thickness, and
two long arms. It is of a brownish color, with
a beautiful tinge of aviolet-blue. Notwithstanding
the strange shape of these shells, they close very
exactly.
MARTHA, SANTA, a province of Colombia,
South America, bounded on the west by Cartha-
gena, from which it is separated by the great
river Magdalena; on the north by the Spanish
Main or Carribbean Sea; on the east by Mara-
caibo and the Rio de la Hacha; on the south
by Santa Fe. It is about 300 miles in length,
and 200 in breadth, and full of lofty' and im-
practicable mountains, which form part of the
ridge of the Caraccas. Many of these rise to the
enormous elevation of 16,000 feet above the
level of the sea. It is for the most part of a
moist and hot temperature, but the winds from
the cold and elevated regions serve, in some de-
gree, to moderate the heat of the plains. It pro-
duces tobacco, cotton, palm wine, cacao, Brasil
wood, sugar, vanilla, and maize, and a tree whose
leaves afford a substance used here as soap. The
mines here are of little importance. The pearl
fishery was formerly carried on at Carrizal, about
forty miles east of St. Martha, and was very pro-
ductive. It is still followed on different parts
of the coast. The valleys feed immense herds
of cattle, and some mules are reared. The pro-
vince is watered by the Magdalena, Santa Mar-
tha, and Pompatao. -
MARTHA, SANTA, the capital of the above
province, is situated near the Guaira, which
supplies it with excellent water. It has a large
and convenient harbour, protected by lofty
ridges, a fertile neighbourhood, and has in front
a round hill defending it on the side of the
mountains. This city, founded in 1554, was
made the magazine of Ximenes de Quesada, from
whence he explored and conquered Granada.
Sir Francis Drake reduced it to ashes in 1596.
The harbour has two forts; but the town has de-
clined of late years. It is 100 miles north-east
of Carthagena.
MARTHA's VINEYARD, an island of the United
States, near the coast of New England, belonging
to Duke's county, Massachusetts. It is nine-
teen miles long, and from two to ten broad. The
greatest part is low, level, and comparatively
barren ; but Indian corn is raised for exporta-
tion, and rye in sufficient quantities for the con-
sumption. The trees on the island are small;
the principal manufactures are those of wool and
salt. The island contains three towns, Edgar-
town, Fisbury, and Chilmark. Eight miles south
of Falmouth, and twelve W. S.W. of Nantucket.
MARTIAL, adj. : Fr. martial; Lat. mar-
MARTIALIST, n.s. Stialis. Warlike; given to
war; brave: a warrior or fighter.
Into my feeble breast
Come gently, but not with that mighty rage
..Wherewith the martial troopcs thou dost infest
And hearts of great heroes dost enrage.
Faerie Queene.
Let his neck answer for it, if there is any martial
law in the world. Shakspeare. Henry V.
They proceeded in a kind of martial justice with
enemies, offering them their law before they drew their
sword. Bacon.
The queen of martials,
And Mars himself conducted them.
s - Chapman.
Many brave adventurous spirits fell for love of her;
amongst others the high-hearted martialist, who first
lost his hands, then one of his chiefest limbs, and
lastly his life. Howel.
See
His thousands, in what martial'equipage
They issue forth Steel bows and shafts their arms
Of equal dread in flight or in pursuit. Milton
The matures of the fixed stars are astrologically
*- • MAR 588 MAR
differenced by the planets, and esteemed martial or
jovial according to the colours whereby they answer
these planets. Bacon.
His subjects called aloud for war;
But peaceful kings o'er martial people set,
Each other's poize and counterbalance are.
Dryden.
When our country's cause provokes to arms,
How martial musick every bosom warms. Pope.
The army of the sciences hath been of late, with
a word of martial discipline, drawn into its close
order, so that a view or a muster may be taken of
it with abundance of expedition. Swift.
There, where a sceptered Pictish shade
Stalked round his ashes lowly laid,
I marked a martial race, pourtrayed
In colours strong;
Bold, soldier-featured, undismayed
They strode along.
Byron.
MARTIAL, in the old chemichal nomenclature,
was often used to express preparations of iron.
See CHEMISTRY. -
MARTIAL LAw is the law of war that de-
pends upon the just but arbitrary will and plea-
sure of the king, or his lieutenant; for, though
the king doth not make any laws but by common
consent in parliament, yet, in time of war, by
reason of the necessity of it to guard against
dangers that often arise, he useth absolute power,
so that his word is a law. But the martial law
(according to chief justice Hale) is in reality not
a law, but something indulged rather than allowed
as a law; and it relates only to members of the
army, being never intended to be executed on
others, who ought to be ordered and governed
by the laws to which they are subject, though it
be a time of war. And the exercise of martial
law, whereby any person might lose his life, or
member, or liberty, may not be permitted in
time of peace, when the king's courts are open
for all persons to receive justice.
MARTIALIS (Marcus Valerius), a celebrated
Latin poet, born at Bilbilis, in Arragon, was
one of the equestrian order. He went to Rome
at the age of twenty-one, and staid there thirty-
five years, under Galba and the succeeding
emperors, till the reign of Trajan; and, having
acquired the esteem of Titus and Domitian, he
was created tribune. But, finding that he was
neglected by Trajan, he returned to Bilbilis,
where he married a wife, and lived with her
several years. He commends her, as being alone
sufficient to supply the want of every thing he
enjoyed at Rome. “Roman tu mihi sola facis,'
says he, Lib. xii. Epig. 21. She appears like-
wise to have been a ladv of a very large fortune;
for, in Lib. xii. Epig. 31, he extols the magnifi-
cence of the house and gardens he had received
from her. There are still extant fourteen books
of his epigrams, many of which are excellent;
many are of the middling kind; but, as he said
of his own works,
Sunt bona, sunt qua-dam mediocria, sunt mala plura.
There is also ascribed to him a work on the
spectacles of the amplitheatre; but the most
learned critics think it was not written by Mar-
tial. The best editions of Martial are those in
Usum Delphini, 4to., Paris, 1617, and cum Notis
Variorum, 1619.
Fr. martinet. A kind of
MARTINET, n.s.
swallow.
MARTIN, n.s. }
MART'LET.
This guest of Summer,
The temple-haunting martlet, does approve,
By his loved mahsionary, that heaven's breath
Smells wooingly here. No jutting frieze,
Buttrice, nor coigne of vantage, but this bird
Hath made his pendant bed, and procreant cradle.
Where they most breed and haunt, I have observed
The air is delicate. Shakspeare. Macbeth.
A churchwarden, to express St. Martin's in the
Fields, caused to be engraved on the communion cup
a martin, a bird like a swallow, sitting upon a mole-
hill between two trees. Peacham.
As in a drought the thirsty creatures cry,
And gape upon the gathered clouds for rain,
Then first the martlet meets it in the sky,
And with wet wings joys all the feathered train.
- Dryden.
MARTIN, in ornithology. See HIRUNDo.
MARTIN, in zoology. See MUSTELA.
MARTIN (Benjamin), one of the most emi-
nent artists and mathematicians of his age, was
born in 1704. After publishing a variety of in-
genious treatises, and particularly a periodical
work entitled Martin's General Magazine of Arts
and Sciences, and carrying on for many years a
very extensive trade as an optician and globe-
maker in Fleet Street, the infirmities of age com-
pelled him to withdraw from the active part of
business. Trusting to the integrity of others, he,
though previously possessed of a capital more
than sufficient to pay all his debts, became a
bankrupt. In a fit of despair he attempted to
destroy himself, and the wound, though not im-
mediately mortal, hastened his death, which hap-
pened February 19th, 1782, in his seventy-eighth
year. He had a valuable collection of fossils and
curiosities, which, after his death, were sold by
auction much below their value. His principal
publications are, The Philosophical Grammar,
1735, 8vo.; A new, complete, and universal
System of Decimal Arithmetic, 1735, 8vo.; The
Young Student's Memorial Book, or Patent Li-
brary, 1735, 8vo.; Description and Use of both
the Globes, the Armillary Sphere and Orrery,
Trigonometry, &c., 1735, 2 vols. 8vo.; Memoirs
of the Academy of Paris, 1740, 5 vols.; System
of the Newtonian Philosophy, 1759, 3 vols.;
New Elements of Optics, 1759; Mathematical
Institutions, viz. Arithmetic, Algebra, Geometry,
and Fluxions, 1759; Natural History of England,
with a map of each County, 1759, 2 vols.; Phi-
lology, and Philosophical Geography, 1759;
Mathematical Institutions, 1764, 2 vols.; Lives
of Philosophers, with their Inventions, &c., 1764;
Introduction to the Newtonian Philosophy, 1765;
Institutions of Astronomical Calculations, 2 parts,
1765; Description and Use of the Air-pump,
1766; Description of the Torricellian Barometer,
1766; Appendix to the Description and Use of
the Globe, 1766; Philosophia Britannica, 1778,
3 vols.; Gentleman and Lady's Philosophy, 3
vols.; Miscellaneous Correspondence, 4 vols.;
System of Philology; Philosophical Geography;
Magazine complete, 14 vols.; Principles of
Pump-work; Theory of the Hydrometer; Doc-
trime of Logarithms.
MAR
MAR
589
MARTIN (St.), was born at Sabaria in Pan-
nonia, in the beginning of the fourth century.
His father was a military tribune; and he him-
self was obliged to carry arms. Soon after, being
baptised, he renounced the military profession
for the monastic. After passing many years in
solitude, he returned to Pannonia, converted his
mother, and with great zeal opposed the Arians,
who governed the church in Illyria, for which he
was publicly whipt. He afterwards retired to
the neighbourhood of Poictiers, where he re-
mained, till he was elected bishop of Tours in
the year 374. He built the celebrated monastery
of Marmoutier, near Tours, between the Loire
and a steep rock. He afterwards became the
apostle of all Gaul; diffused the doctrines of
Christianity among the heathens, and destroyed
their temples. The emperor Valentinian, and
the tyrant Maximus, treated him with dis-
tinguished honor. He used his influence with
the latter to preserve the Priscillianists, who were
prosecuted by Ithace and Idace, bishops of
Spain. He died at Candes, Nov. 8th, 397; or,
as others say, on the 11th November, 400. He
is the first of the saints confessors, whom the
Latin church idolised by offering public prayers
to him. His life is written in elegant Latin by
Fortunatus, and Sulpitius Severus, one of his
disciples.
MARTIN (St.), an island of the West Indies,
in long. 63° 8' W. and lat. 18° 4' N., is five
leagues long, east and west, and three broad.
Though the soil is stony, light, and badly water-
ed it is tolerably fertile, producing the best
tobacco of the Caribbees: in its woods is the
candle tree, whose splinters lighted give a fra-
grant smell, with several trees affording gums.
The north side was occupied by the French, and
the south by the Dutch; the former, about forty
years since, were 400 white families and 10,000
slaves; the Dutch only sixty families and 200
slaves. The chief place of the latter is on the
north-west side, and is named the Harbour; it
is defended by a small fort. On the south-east
side are three salt ponds, affording a consider-
able quantity of this object for commerce. The
small islands attached to St. Martin are, Mid-
dleburg Key, close to the north point, and the
four Mangrove Keys on the east.
MARTINIQUE, or MARTINIco, one of the
largest of the Caribbee Islands, is thirty-six
miles long and seventeen broad. The south
coast presents high and steep mountains, without
wood. Irregular ramifications of these moun-
tains cross the general chain, and, projecting into
the sea, form bays, called by the French Culs de
Sac. It is about fifty miles from north-west to
south-east, about sixteen broad, and 140 in cir-
cumference. Three mountains rise above the
smaller eminences: the highest bearing inde-
lible marks of a volcano. The woods with which
it is covered continually attract the clouds, and
occasion noxious damps, which contribute to
make it inaccessible, while the two others are in
most parts cultivated. From these issue the many
springs that water the island, and which are
changed into torrents on the slightest storm.
The principal productions are sugar, coffee,
cassia, cotton, indigo, cocoa, ginger, &c. It is
well adapted to trade, from the number of its
bays and harbours, which possess the advantage
of affording a certain shelter from the hurricanes
of these latitudes. With all these advantages,
however, Martinico, though in greater forward-
ness than the other French colonies, had made
but little progress at the end of the seventeenth
century. In 1700 it contained only 6597 whites.
The savages, mulattoes, and free negroes, men,
women, and children, amounted to 507. The
number of slaves to 14,566. In 1732 the black
population amounted to 72,000, and the value
of the exports to £700,000 per annum. This
trade annually brought into the ports of the
island 200 ships from France, fourteen or fifteen
fitted out by the mother country for the coast of
Guinea, sixty from Canada, ten or twelve from
the islands of Margaritta and Trinidad; besides
the English and Dutch ships that came to carry
on a’smuggling trade. The navigation from the
island to the northern colonies, the Spanish con-
tinent, and to the Windward Islands, employed
130 vessels from twenty to seventy tons burden,
manned with 600 European sailors of all na-
tions, and 1500 slaves long inured to the sea
service. The war of 1744 terminated this pros-
perity; and Martinico fell into the hands of the
English: the island was soon after infested with
vast swarms of ants, which destroyed every
vegetable. It was restored in July 1763, six-
teen months after it had been conquered, but
deprived of all its means of prosperity. In
1769, 1788, and 1810, the exports and imports
were:— -
- Exports.
Imports.
1769, £588,412 f536,631
1788, 1,195,111 1,201,875
1810, 635,664 791,773
In 1794 Martinico was taken by the British
under Sir John Jervis and Sir Charles Grey,
and restored to the French at the treaty of
Amiens in 1802. It was again taken by the
British on the 24th of February 1809, and once
more reverted to its former masters at the general
peace in 1815. The population according to a
return made to the ‘house of commons in 1810,
when it was in possession of the British, was:—
Slaves º º 78,577
Free persons of color. 8,630
Number of white inhabitants 9,206
96,413
Fort Royal, the chief place, is on the middle
of the west side, on a narrow neck of land pro-
jecting out from the bottom of a deep bay.
This neck, which bends round, in the form of a
man's arm, together with another called Monk's
Island, forms a safe harbour, the entrance of
which is protected by forts on each point, whose
fires cross. The harbour is also commanded by
Fort Bourbon, on a hill, behind the town. The
situation is unhealthy, being surrounded by
marshes.
St. Pierre, seven leagues north-west of Port
Royal, is the second place of the island: its
road is open, and consequently unsafe in the
hurricane months; and besides ships are obliged
MAR
MAR
590
to anchor a considerable distance from the
town. The latter is built on a narrow strip of
low land, which forms the beach; the hills rising
so closely behind it, as nearly to overhang the
houses. It contains three streets parallel to the
beach, and some transverse ones; but these
latter are so steep as not to admit carriages.
The hills are furrowed by deep ravines, through
which descend little torrents, the waters of which
are conducted through the streets, and both keep
them clean and refresh the atmosphere, which
would otherwise be intensely hot, from the sea
breeze being interrupted by the hills. The
houses are plain, built of stone, and with one
or two stories. Trinity Bay, on the west side
of the island, has safe anchorage in the hurricane
months. It has a flourishing town.
Robert's Bay, on the east, is a good port,
formed by two islands. Off the north-west
point is a large rock, called the Pearl; anti off
the south-west three-quarters of a mile, another
called the Diamond (Devil Island, or Isle de
Barque of the French), which has the shape of
a sugar loaf, with the top broken off, and has
only a boat's passage between it and the main.
This rock is 600 feet high, and one mile in cir-
cumference. The south, south-west, and east
sides are inaccessible, rising perpendicularly
from the sea; and the west side, where is the
only landing, is lined by breakers. It was taken
possession of by the English in 1804, while
blockading Martinique; and, with immense
labor, three batteries mounting twenty-four
pounders were constructed on it, to command
the whole bay.
MA'RTINMAS, m. s. Martin and mass. The
feast of St. Martin; the eleventh of November;
often corrupted to martilmass or martlemas.
Martilmas beef doth bear good tacke,
When countrey folke do dainties lacke.
Tusser.
MARTLETs, in heraldry, little birds represented
without feet; and used as a difference or mark
of distinction for younger brothers, to put them
in mind, says Guillim, that, they are to trust to
the wings of virtue and merit, in order to raise
themselves, and not to their feet, they having
little land to set their foot on. See HERALDRY.
MARTYN (Henry), an able and interesting
missionary, born at Truro in Cornwall, in 1781,
was educated at the grammar-school of Truro,
and removed, in 1797, to St. John's College,
Cambridge. He was chosen fellow in 1802.
The following year he took orders; and in 1805
went, as a chaplain to the East India Company,
to India. Here he distinguished himself by his
rapid acquirement of the Sanscrit; translated the
Common Prayer into Hindostance; and per-
formed divine service publicly in that language.
From India he proceeded to Shiraz in Persia;
had conferences with the most learned Mahomme-
dan doctors; and translated the Psalms and New
Testament into the Persian tongue. His health
failing, he died of a decline, on his road to
England, October 16th, 1812.
MARTYNIA, in botany, a genus of the angios-
permia order, and didynamia class of plants;
natural order tenth, personatae: CAL. Quinquefid:
coR. ringent: CAPs. ligneous, covered with a
bark, with a hooked beak, trilocular, and bi-
valved. There are four species; both tender,
herbaceous, flowery plants of South America;
one an annual, the other a perennial, rising with
erect stalks, from a foot to two feet high, gar-
nished with oblong simple leaves, and terminated
by short spikes of large monopetalous, bell-
shaped flowers, of blue and purple colors. They
flower in July and August, and are very orna-
mental, but require always to be kept in the
hottest parts of the stove.
MARTYR, n.s. Fr. martyr; Gr, paprup,
MARTYRDOM, v.a. (a witness. One who by
MARTY Roſſogy, (his death bears witness to
MARTYROL’ogIST. D the truth, (see the ex-
tract from South :) hence a sufferer in any cause;
to put to death for virtue or religion: martyr-
dom, the act of dying as, or testimony of, a mar-
tyr: martyrology and martyrologist are, respec-
tively, a history or historian of martyrdoms.
If an infidel should pursue to death an heretick
professing Christianity only for Christian profession
sake, could we deny unto him the honour of martyr-
dom? Hooker.
You could not beg for grace.
Hark, wretches, how I mean to martyr you ;
This one hand yet is left to cut your throats.
Shakspeare.
Now that he hath left no higher degree of earthly
honour, he intends to crown their innocency with the
glory of martyrdom. Bacon.
If to every common funeral,
By your eyes martyred, such grace were allowed,
Your face would wear not patches, but a cloud.
Suckling.
Prayers and tears may serve a good man's turn; if
not to conquer as a soldier, yet to suffer as a martyr.
King Charles.
Herod, whose unblest
Hand, O ! what dares not jealous greatness? tore
A thousand sweet babes from their mother's breast,
The blooms of martyrdom. Crashaw,
Wars, hitherto the only argument
Heroick deemed, chief mastery to dissect,
With long and tedious havock, fabled knights
In battles feigned; the better fortitude
Of patience and heroick martyrdom
Unsung. Milton.
Thus could not the mouths of worthy martyrs be
silenced. Browne.
In the Roman martyrology we find at one time
many thousand martyrs destroyed by Dioclesian,
being met together in a church, rather than escape
by offering a little incense at their coming out.
Stillingfleet
Nearer heaven his virtues shone more bright,
Like rising flames expanding in their height,
Tke martyr's glory crowned the soldier's fight.
Dryden.
What mists of providence are these?
So saints, by supernatural power set free,
Are left at last in martyrdom to die. Id.
To be a martyr signifies only to witness the truth
of Christ: but the witnessing of the truth was then
so generally attended with persecution, that martyr-
dom now signifies not only to witness, but to witness
by death. South’s Sermons.
The first martyr for Christianity was encouraged,
in his last moments, by a vision of that 'divine per-
son for whom he suffered. Addison.
Martyred with the gout. Pope.
MAR
MAR
59 |
Socrates,
Truth's early champion, martyr for his God.
- Thompson.
MARTYR properly signifies a witness, and is
applied, by way of eminence, to those who suffer
in witness of the truth of the gospel. The Chris-
tian church has abounded in martyrs, and history
is filled with accounts of their singular constancy
and fortitude under the cruellest torments human
nature was capable of suffering. The primitive
Christians were accused by their enemies of pay-
ing a sort of divine worship to the martyrs.
Thus when the Jews, at the martyrdom of Póly-
carp, desired the heathen judge not to suffer the
Uhristians to carry off his body, lest they should
ſeave their crucified master and worship him in
his stead, the Christians of the Smyrna church
answered, ‘we can neither forsake Christ nor
worship any other; for we worship him as the
Son of God, but love the martyrs as the disciples
and followers of the Lord, for the great affection .
ithey have shown to their King and Master.” A
similar answer was given at the martyrdom of
Fructuosus, in Spain, by Eulogius his deacon.
Many of the Christians of this period believed
that the martyrs enjoyed very singular privileges;
that upon their death they were immediately ad-
mitted to a state of bliss, while other souls waited
for the completion of their happiness till the day
of judgment, &c. The churches built over the
graves of the martyrs, and called by their names,
to preserve the memory of their sufferings, were
distinguished by the title martyrum confessio,
or memoria. The festivals of the martyrs are of
very ancient date in the Christian church, and
took their rise about the time of Polycarp, who
suffered martyrdom about the year 168. On
these days the Christians met at the graves of the
martyrs, and offered thanksgivings to God for
the examples they had afforded them : they cele-
brated the eucharist, and gave alms to the poor;
which, together with a panegyrical oration or
sermon, and reading the acts of the martyrs,
were the spiritual exercises of these anniversaries.
Of the sayings, sufferings, and deaths of the mar-
tyrs we have but very little left, the greatest part
of them having been destroyed during the dread-
ful persecution carried on by Dioclesian for ten
years against the Christians; when diligent search
was made after their books and papers, and all
that were found were burnt. Eusebius, indeed,
composed a martyrology, but it has been lost;
and those since compiled are received with just
caution. From the eighth century, several Greek
and Latin writers endeavoured to make up the
loss by compiling, with vast labor, accounts of
the lives and actions of the ancient martyrs, but
which consist of little else than a series of fables.
MARTYR (Peter), a celebrated divine, born in
Florence in 1500. He studied philosophy and
the languages at Padua and Bononia, was a regu-
lar Augustine in the monastery of Fiscoli, and
was esteemed one of the best preachers in Italy.
The works of Zuinglius and Bucer gave him a
good opinion of the Protestants, and his conver-
sation with Valdez confirmed it. He for some
time preached that doctrine at Rome in private;
but, being impeached, fled to Naples, and thence
to Lucca, where he brought over to the protes-
, soned, in 1678, aged fifty-eight.
tant interest Emanuel Tremellius, Celsus, Marti-
nengas, Paul Lasicius, and Jeremiah Zanchy.
He was sent for to England by king Edward VI.,
and made professor of divinity at Oxford in
1549. In queen Mary's reign he returned to
Strasburgh, and was present at the conference of
Poissy. He differed from Calvin concerning
Christ's presence in the eucharist. He wrote a
great number of works, and died in 1562.
MARVEL, n.s. & v. n. O Fr. merveille, mer-
MAR’veLLOUs, adj. veiller; of Lat. mira–
MAR’v ELLOUSLY, adv. ( bilis, miro, to won-
MAR'veLLOUSNESS, n.s.) der. A wonder;
astonishing event: to wonder; be astonished:
marvellous is, strange; unusual; wonderful;
incredible; the adv. and n.s. corresponding.
This is the Lord's doing; it is marvellous in our
eyes. t Psalms.
The countries marvelled at thee for thy songs, pro-
verbs, and parables. Ecclus. xlvii. 17.
A marvel it were, if a man could espy, in the
whole scripture, nothing which might breed a proba-
ble opinion, that divine authority was the same way
Inclinable. Hooker.
I am scarce in breath, my lord.
—No marvel, you have so bestirred your valour, you
cowardly rascal Shakspeare. King Lear.
You make me marvel. Shakspeare.
The army marvelled at it. Id.
She has a marvellous white hand, I must confess.
Fd.
You look not well, seignior Antonio;
You have too much respect upon the world:
They lose it that do buy it with much care.
Believe me, you are marvellously changed. Id.
Mine eyes and ears can witness, with what ap-
proof and applause divers of the Catholics royal, as
they are termed, entertained the new translated litur-
gy of our church ; as marvelling to see such order and
regular devotion in them, whom they were taught to
condemn as heretical. - Bp. Hall.
The encouragement of his two late successes, with
which he was marvellously elated. Clarendon.
The marvellous fable includes whatever is superma-
tural, and especially the machines of the gods.
Pope’s Preface to the Iliad.
MARVELL (Andrew), an ingenious writer in
the seventeenth century, bred at Cambridge. He
travelled through most of Europe, and was secre-
tary to the embassy at Constantinople. His first ap-
pearance in public business at home was as assis-
tant to Milton when Latin secretary to the protec-
tor. A little before the Restoration he was chosen
by his native town, Kingston upon Hull, to sit in
that parliament, which began at Westminster
April 25th, 1660; and is recorded as the last
member who received the wages anciently paid
to representatives by their constituents. He sel-
dom spoke in parliament, but he had great in-
fluence without doors upon the members of both
houses; and made himself very obnoxious to
the government by his actions and writings: not-
withstanding which, king Charles II. took great
delight in his conversation, and tried all means
to win him over to his side, although Marveli was
far from being in affluent circumstances. He
died, not without strong suspicions of being poi-
In 1688 the
town of Kingston upon Hull contributed a sum
of money to erect a monument over him in
the church of St. Giles in the Fields, where
592 M. A
R Y.
he was interred, and an epitaph composed by
an able hand; but the ministry of that church
forbad both the inscription and monument to be
placed there. He wrote The Rehearsal Trans-
posed; A short Historical Essay concerning
General Councils, Creeds, and Impositions in
Matters of Religion, &c.; also Poems and Let-
ters.
MARVELLA, or MARBELLA, a sea-port town
of Spain, on the road from Gibraltar to Malaga.
Its harbour is fortified but small, and the town
is surrounded with walls, having a meat Square,
and a fountain in the centre. The town house
and church are good buildings. In the environs
sugar, wine, cotton, and coffee, are raised. Po-
pulation 8000. Eighty-four miles W. S. W. of
Granada, and thirty-four N. N. E. of Gibraltar.
MARULLUS (Michael), Tarchanistis, alearned
Greek who went to Italy, after the taking of Con-
stantinople. He wrote poems, in Greek and
Latin. He was a soldier as well as a poet, but
an atheist, and a great admirer of Lucretius. He
was drowned in the Caecina in Tuscany.
MARWAR, a large district of Hindostan, in
the province of Ajmeer, situated between 26°
and 28° of N. lat. It belongs to the rajepoot
rajah of Joudpore, whose family have pos-
sessed it from time immemorial. It is a
strong, but not a fertile province. See Joup-
PO R.E. .*
MARY I., queen of England, was eldest
daughter of Henry VIII. by his first wife Catha-
rine of Spain, and born at Greenwich, in Febru-
ary 1517. Her mother was very careful of her
education, and provided her with proper tutors.
Her first preceptor was the famous Linacre, who
drew up for her use the Rudiments of Grammar,
and afterwards Deemendatá structură Latini ser-
monis libri sex. On Linacre's death, in her sixth
year, Lewis Vives, a learned man of Valenza in
Spain, became her next tutor; and composed
for her De ratione studii puerilis. Under the
direction of these learned men she became mis-
tress of the Latin language; and Erasmus com-
mends her for her epistles in that language.
King Edward VI., her brother, dying on the 6th
of July 1553, she was proclaimed queen the same
month, and crowned in October. Upon her ac-
cession she declared, in her speech to the council,
that she would not persecute her Protestant sub-
jects; but in the following month she prohibited
preaching without a special license; and, before
the expiration of three months, the Protestant
bishops were excluded the house of lords, and
all the statutes of Edward VI., respecting the
Protestant religion, were repealed. In July
1554 she was married to prince Philip of Spain;
and began that persecution against the Protes-
tants for which her memory is so deservedly
infamous. See ENGLAND. Some have supposed,
that the queen was herself passionate and hu-
mane ; and that most of those barbarities were
committed by her bishops without her knowledge.
But among numberless instances that might be
adduced in proof of the contrary, we need only
mention her ungrateful treatment of archbishop.
Cranmer, who in reality saved her life. Burnet
says, “that her firm adherence to her mother's
cause and interest, and her backwardness in sub
mitting to the king her father, were thought crimes
of such a nature by his majesty, that he came to
a resolution to put her openly to death; and that
when all others were unwilling to run any risk in
saving her, Cranmer alone ventured upon it,' and
urged such arguments as prevailed on the old tyrant
to preserve her. In return for this favor the un-
grateful bigot condemned and burned the worthy
prelate for heresy. In 1556 the persecution
became general; and Protestants of all ranks
and ages, and of both sexes, fell victims to
papal fury. See ENGLAND. She died November
7th, 1558, aged forty-three, of an epidemic fever,
having long previously been a prey, if not to re-
morse, at least to chagrin, arising from her having
no children, the absence and unkindness of her
husband, the loss of Calais, &c. Strype has
preserved three pieces of hers, viz. 1. A prayer
against the assaults of vice. 2. A meditation
touching adversity. 3. A prayer to be read at
the hour of death. In Fox's Acts and Monu-
ments are printed eight of her letters to king Ed-
ward and the lords of the council, on her non-
conformity, and on the imprisonment of her
chaplain Dr. Mallet. In the Sylloge epistolarum
are several more of her letters, extremely curious.
In Hayne's State Papers are two in Spanish, to
the emperor Charles V. There is also a French
letter, printed by Strype from the Cottonian
library, in answer to a haughty mandate from
Philip, when he intended to marry the lady Eliza-
beth to the duke of Savoy, against the inclination
both of the queen and princess; it is written in
a most abject manner, and a wretched style. She
likewise translated a considerable part of Eras-
mus's paraphrase on St. John's gospel, which
was completed by Dr. Mallet, and is preserved
in the first volume of Erasmus's paraphrase on
the New Testament: printed at London, 1548,
in folio.
MARY I. queen of Scotland, daughter of king
James V., was born in the royal palace of Lin-
lithgow, December 8th, 1542. Her mother was
Mary, the eldest daughter of Claude duke of
Guise, and widow of Lewis duke of Longueville.
Her father dying, a few days after her birth, she
scarcely existed before she was hailed queen,
and a regency was appointed, though not in the
most able hands. At six years of age Mary was
conveyed to France, where she received her edu-
cation in the court of Henry II.; and became
one of the most beautiful and accomplished
ladies of her age. She not only spoke the
French, Italian, and Spanish tongues, with ease
and propriety, but made herself mistress of the
dead languages, and devoted much of her time
to the study of history. Whilst she resided in
the court of Henry II. her personal charms made
a deep impression on the Dauphin. The con-
stable Montmorency in vain opposed their mar-
riage. The importance of her kingdom to
France, and the power of her uncles the princes
of Lorrain, counteracted his intrigues; and the
Dauphin obtained the most beautiful princess in
Christendom. His father, Henry II., dying
soon after, they mounted the throne of France.
In that elevated station the queen did not fail
to distinguish herself, and there she learned the
first lessons of royalty. But this scene of gran-
M A
R Y. 593
deur and felicity was of short duration. Her
husband, Francis II., died unexpectedly, after a
reign of only sixteen months. The disgrace of
her uncles, the princes of Lorrain, which fol-
lowed, and the coldness of the queen mother,
induced her to accept the invitation of her Scot-
tish subjects, to take possession of the crown to
which she had been born. In Scotland she at
first gave satisfaction to almost every class of
people. She tolerated Protestantism, requiring
only a like indulgence for her own faith, and
took the politic measure of ingratiating herself
with her natural brother, the prior of St. An-
drew's, who had placed himself at the head of
the reformers. By his aid she crushed an early
and formidable rebellion; and in reward for his
services conferred upon him a large estate, and
created him earl of Murray. For a few years
her reign was prosperous, and her administra-
tion applauded by all her subjects; but a queen,
young, beautiful, and accomplished, an ancient
hereditary kingdom, and the expectation of a
greater inheritance, were objects to excite the
love and ambition of the most illustrious per-
sonages. Mary, however, constantly rejected
every offer of a foreign alliance; and, swayed at
first by prudential motives, and afterwards by
love, she, on the 29th of July, 1565, gave her hand
to Henry Stuart, lord Darnly, the son of the earl
of Lennox. This nobleman, whose elegance of
person and manners were only equalled by the
depravity of his mind, owed his good fortune not
solely to the affection of the queen. Mary was
indeed extravagantly attached to him; but one
motive that considerably swayed her to accept
him as a husband was, that after herself he was
the nearest heir to the crown of England, as well
as the next in succession to that of Scotland,
after the earl of Arran. She conferred on him
the title of king, shared her dignities with him,
and paid him all the attention that could have
been shown by the fondest wife. Yet he had
not been married seven months, when he entered
into a conspiracy to deprive her of the govern-
ment, and even to endanger her life. With this
view he headed a band of factious nobles, who
entered her chamber at night; and, though she
was then far advanced in pregnancy, murdered
her secretary, Rizzio, in her presence, whilst one
of the ruffians held a pistol to her breast. Such
an outrage, together with his frequent amours,
could not fail to alienate the queen's affections,
and to open her eyes to the glaring defects of
his character. Yet she still treated him with
respect, and labored to fashion him to the
humor of her people. This was labour in vain.
His preposterous vanity and aspiring pride
roused the resentment and the scorn of the
nobles; while his folly and want of dignity
made him despised by the people. He de-
serted the conspirators with whom he had been
leagued in the assassination of the secretary;
and had the extreme imprudence to threaten
publicly the earl of Murray, who, from his
talents and popularity, possessed the greatest
power of any man in the kingdom. The conse-
quence was, that a combination was formed for
the king's destruction; and, on the 10th Fe-
bruary 1567, the house in which he then resided
Vol. XIII.
was early in the morning blown up with gun-
powder, and his naked body, without any marks
of violence, found in an adjoining field. Such a
daring murder filled every mind with horror and
astonishment. The queen, who had been in
some measure reconciled to her husband, was
overwhelmed with grief, and took every method
in her power to discover the regicides; but for
Some days nothing appeared which could lead to
the discovery. Papers, indeed, were posted on
the most conspicuous places in Edinburgh, ac-
cusing the earl of Bothwell of the crime; and
rumors were industriously circulated that his
horrid enterprise was encouraged by the queen.
Conscious, it is presumed, of her own innocence,
Mary was the less disposed to believe the guilt
of Bothwell, who was accused as having only
acted as her instrument ; but, when he was
charged with the murder by the earl of Lennox,
she instantly ordered him on his trial. Through
the management of the earl of Morton, and other
of his friends, Bothwell was acquitted of all share
and knowledge of the king's murder; and, what is
still more astonishing, procured, by the same in-
fluence, a paper signed by the majority of the
nobles recommending him as a fit husband for the
queen! Armed with this, which he weakly thought
sufficient to defend him from danger, Bothwell
soon afterwards seized the person of his sovereign,
and carried her a prisoner to his castle at Dun-
bar. It has indeed been alleged by the queen's
enemies, that no force was employed on the oc-
casion; that she was seized with her own con-
sent; and that she was even privy to the sub-
scribing of the bond by the nobles. But it
has been well observed by Mr. Tytler, that “her
previous knowledge of the bond, and her ac-
quiescence in the seizure of her person, are two
facts in apparent opposition to each other. Had
the queen acted in concert with Bothwell, in ob-
taining the bond from the nobles, nothing re-
mained but, under the sanction of their unanimous
address, to have proceeded directly to the mar-
riage. Instead of which, can we suppose her so
weak as to reject that address, and rather choose
that Bothwell should attempt to seize and carry
her off by violence 2—an attempt which many
accidents might frustrate, and which at all events
could not fail to render him or both of them
odious to the whole nation. Common sense
then, as well as candor, must induce us to be-
lieve, that the scheme of seizing the queen was
solely the contrivance of Bothwell and his asso-
ciates, and that it was really by force that she
was carried to Dunbar.” Being there kept a
close prisoner for twelve days, having, as there
is reason to believe actually suffered the indig-
nity of a rape, perceiving no appearance of a
rescue, and being shown the infamous bond
of the nobles, Mary promised to receive her
jailor for a husband, as, in her opinion, the only
refuge for her injured honor. Every man who
feels for the sufferings, and respects the memory
of Mary, must regret that she had not fortitude
to resist every attempt to force upon her as a
husband the profligate and audacious villain,
who had offered her such an insult. This, how-
ever, is only to regret that she was not more
than human; that she, who possessed§ many
2
594 M A
R Y.
perfections, should have had them blended with
one defect. The marriage, thus inauspiciously.
contracted, was solemnised on the 15th of May,
1567; and it was the signal for revolt to Morton,
Lethington, and many of the other nobles, by
whose wicked policy it had been chiefly brought
about, and who had bound themselves to em-
ploy their swords against all persons who should
presume to disturb so desirable an event. As
Bothwell was justly and universally detested,
and as the rebels pretended that it was only
against him and not against the queen that they
had taken up arms, troops flocked to them from
every quarter. The progress and issue of this
rebellion will be seen in our history of Scot-
LAND: suffice it to say here, that upon the faith
of promises the most solemn, not only of per-
sonal safety, but of receiving as much honor,
service, and obedience, as ever was paid by the
nobility to the princes, her predecessors, the
queen delivered herself into the hands of the
rebels, and persuaded her husband to fly from
the danger which threatened his life. These
promises were instantly viclated. The faithless
nobles, after insulting their sovereign, hurried
her as a prisoner to Loch-leven castle, where she
was committed to the care of the mother of her
bastard brother; who, with the insolence of a
prostitute, says Mr. Whitaker, asserted the legi-
timacy of her own child, and the illegitimacy of
Mary; and who stript her of her royal orna-
ments, and dressed her in a coarse brown cassoc.
In this distress the queen's presence of mind did
not forsake her. She made her escape, and soon
found herself at the head of 6000 men. This
army, however, was defeated; and, in opposi-
tion to the advice and intreaties of all her friends,
she formed the imprudent resolution of taking
refuge in England. The archbishop of St. An-
drew's accompanied her to the border; and,
when she was about to quit her own kingdom,
he laid hold of her horse's bridle, and on his
knees conjured her to return: but Mary pro-
ceeded, fully relying on Elizabeth's friendship,
which had been offered her while a prisoner, and
of the sincerity of which she harbored no doubt.
That princess, however, who had never forgiven
her assumption of the title and arms of the queen
of England, while she was wife to the dauphin of
France, now dreaded her talents, and envied her
, charms. She, therefore, under various pretences,
and in direct violation of public faith and hospi-
tality, kept her a close prisoner for nineteen
years; encouraged her Scottish subjects to ac-
cuse her publicly of the murder of her husband,
aliowed her no opportunity of vindicating her
honor, and even employed venal scribblers to
blast her fame. Under this unparalleled load of
complicated distress, Mary preserved the mag-
nanimity of a queen, and practised with sincerity
the duties of a Christian. Her sufferings, her
dignified affability, and her gentleness of dispo-
sition, gained her great popularity in England,
especially among the Roman Catholics; and as
she made many attempts to procure her liberty,
and carried on a constant correspondence with
foreign powers, Elizabeth became at last so much
afraid of her intrigues, that she determined to
cut her off. With this view she prevailed upon
her servile parliament to pass an act which might
make Mary answerable for the crimes of all who
should call themselves her partizans; and, upon
that flagitious statute, she was tried as a traitor
concerned in the conspiracy of Babington. See
Scotland. . Though the trial was conducted in
a manner which would have been illegal, even
if she had been a subject of England, and though
no certain proof appeared of her connexion with
the conspirators, she was, to the amazement of
Europe, condemned to suffer death. The fair
heroine received her sentence with great compo-
sure; saying to those by whom it was announced,
“The news you bring cannot but be most wel-
come, since they announce the termination of
my miseries. Nor do I account that soul to be
deserving of the felicities of immortality, which
can shrink under the sufferings of the body, or
scruple the stroke that sets it free.' . On the
evening before her execution, for which, on the
succeeding morn, she prepared herself with re-
ligious solemnity and perfect resignation, she
ordered all her servants to appear before her, and
drank to them. She even condescended to beg
their pardon for her omissions or neglects; and
recommended it to them to love charity; to
avoid the unhappy passions of hatred and ma-
lice, and to preserve themselves stedfast in the
faith of Christ. She then distributed among
them her money, her jewels, and her clothes, ac-
cording to their rank and merits. She wrote her
will with her own hand, constituting the duke of
Guise her principal executor; and to the king
and queen of France she recommended her son.
In the castle of Fotheringay she was beheaded
on the 8th of February, 1587, in the forty-fifth
year of her age; and her body, after being em-
balmed and laid in a leaden coffin, was buried
with royal pomp in the cathedral of Peterbo-
rough. Twenty years afterwards her bones were,
by order of her son king James I., removed to
Westminster, and deposited in their proper place
among the kings of England. The character of
Mary has furnished matter of controversy for
200 years. She is universally allowed to have
had considerable talents, and a mind highly cul-
tivated. By one party she is painted with more
virtues, and with fewer defects, than almost any
other woman of the age in which she lived. By
another she is represented as guilty of the grossest
crimes which a woman can commit—adultery,
and the murder of her husband. By all it is
confessed, that, previous to her connexion with
the earl of Bothwell, her life as a Christian was
exemplary, and her administration as a queen
equitable and mild; and it has never been de-
nied, that she bore her tedious sufferings with
such resignation and fortitude as are seldom
found united with conscious guilt. These are
strong presumptions of her innocence. The
moral characters of mankind change by degrees;
and it seems hardly consistent with the known
principles of human nature, that any person
should at once plunge suddenly from the sum-
mit of virtue into the depths of vice; or, when
sunk so low, should by one effort recover his
original state of elevation. But in this contro-
versy presumptions must go for nothing. The
positive evidences brought against the queen of
M. A
R Y. 595
Scots are so conclusive, that, if they be genuine,
she must have been guilty; and, if they be spu-
rious, there can be no doubt of her innocence.
They consisted of a box with letters, contracts,
and sonnets, said to be written by herself and
sent to the earl of Bothwell. In addition to
these, the supposed confessions of the criminals
who had suffered for the king's murder were
originally urged as proofs of her guilt; but these
confessions are now admitted by all parties to
be either wholly forged, or so grossly interpolated
that no stress whatever can be laid upon them;
and during Mary's life it was affirmed by her
friends, and not sufficiently contradicted by her
enemies, that the persons who had accused Both-
well, and were doubtless his accomplices, instead
of criminating the queen, had openly protested
her innocence in their dying moments. The
letters made their first appearance in a secret
council assembled by the earl of Murray on the
4th of December, 1567; and the reason there
assigned by the confederates for their unwilling-
ness to produce them was, ‘That luif they beare
unto hir person, and the reverrance of his ma-
jestie, whais moder she is.’ And they proceed
to say, that they would not have produced them
at all, “gif otherwise the sinceritie of their inten-
tions and proceedings from the beginninge myght
be known to forrein nacions, and the inhabitants
of this ile satisfiet and resolvit of the richtesness
of their quarrel, and the securitie of them and
theire posteritie be ony other meane might be
providit and established.” In this act of council
the rebels discover the greatest anxiety for their
pardon and security, as appears from their de-
claration:—“The lords of secrete council, &c.,
desire it to be found and declarit be the estates
and haill body of the parliament, that the cause
and occasion of the tacking of the queen's per-
son, upon the 15th daie of Junii last by past,
and holding and detaininge of the same within
the hous and place of Lochlevin continewallie
sensyne, presentlie, and in all tymes comyng;
and generally all other things inventit, spokin,
writtin, or donne be them, or onny of them, sen
the tent daie of February last by past unto the
daie and date heirof, towiching the saied queen
hir person : that caus, and all things depending
theiron, or that onie wise mai apperteine theire-
to, &c., was in the saied queen's awin default, in
as far as be divers hir privie letters written and
subscrivit with hirawin hand, and sent by her
to James Eril Bothwell, &c.—and be her un-
godlie and dishonorable proceedings in a pri-
wait marriage, soddanlie and unprovisitly, it is
most certain, that she was previe, art and part,
and of the actual devise and deid of the for-
mencionit murther of the kinge, her lawchfull
husband, our sovereine lorde's father, committit
be the said James Eril. Bothwell, &c.’ Had the
letters been really genuine, into the absurdity of
this declaration no man of common sense could
possibly have fallen. Truth is always con-
sistent: but in a series of forgeries contradic-
tions are scarcely avoidable. The confederates
rose in rebellion against the queen on the 10th
of June; they faced her in rebellion at Carberrie
hill on the 15th; they sent her away to prison
on the 16th; yet they afterwards justified all
that they had done since the 10th of February
by letters, which, they said, they had not till the
20th of June 1 ‘This,’ says Mr. Whitaker, “if
we consider it as folly, is one of the most strik-
ing and eminent acts of folly that the world has
ever beheld. But it ought to be considered in
a light much more dishonorable to the rebels;
and, as a piece of knavery, it is one of the rankest
that has ever been attempted to be imposed upon
the sons of men.” On the 4th of December
they had not fixed any day for the discovery of
the letters. The story of the seizure of Dal-
gliesh with the casket was not thought of till
nearly a year afterwards; and when it was in-
vented, they had certainly forgotten the date of
their act of council. In that act, therefore, they
were free to rove at large ; but they roved very
incautiously. By grounding upon the letters,
proceedings prior to the 10th of June, they
plainly declare the discovery of these fatal papers
to have been antecedent to the 20th. By ground-
ing upon them their secret messages for sedition,
their private conventions for rebellion, and
“every thing inventit, spokin, written, or done
be them, or onny of them, respecting the queen,
Bothwell, or Darnley, sen the tent dale of Fe-
bruary last by past,’ they even intimate the dis-
covery to have been previous to the murder of
the king; and yet by their own accounts some of
the letters were then actually unwritten. This is
astonishing, and shows the extreme difficulty of
carrying to any length a consistent series of false-
hoods. Even Murray, Morton, and Lethington,
could not do it. This act of council had been
formed and managed with a view to the ap-
proaching convention of the estates. It was a
preparation for the parliament in which the con-
spirators had secured the fullest sway, and where
they proposed to effectuate their pardon, and se-
curity, and to establish the letters as decisive
vouchers against the queen. Accordingly, upon
the 15th of December, 1567, the three estates
were assembled. The conspirators invited no
candid or regular investigation. The friends of
the nation and of the queen were overawed.
Every thing proceeded in conformity to the act
of council. The conspirators, by a parliamentary
decree, received a full approbation of all the
severities which they had exercised against the
queen. Under one form, therefore, the letters
were certainly exhibited before the council, and
under another form they were produced in par-
liament; but, had they been genuine, they would
have appeared uniformly with the same face.
The clerk of the council was Alexander Hay, a
notary public accustomed to draw up writings
and to attest them; and, what puts his accuracy
with respect to the letters beyond all possibility
of doubt, his description of them is authenticated
in the fullest manner by the signatures of Mur-
ray, Morton, and others, who formed the secret
council. The letters, therefore, were actually
presented to the secret council with the custo-
mary appendage of subscription to them. But,
when these artificers of fraud came to reflect
more closely on the approach of parliament, and
to prepare their letters for the inspection of the
friends of Mary, they began to shrink at the
thoughts of what they had done. To *
Q Q 2
596 M A
R Y.
the charge by letters under her own hand, they
had naturally annexed her own subscription, a
letter unsubscribed being a solecism in evidence.
But, most unfortunately for the cause of complete
forgery, Mary was still in possession of her own
seal; and he who fabricated the letters was not
an engraver. For this reason, “the allegit writ-
ings in form of missive letters or epistles,’ says
the bishop of Ross, in an address to Elizabeth,
‘ are not sellit nor signetit.’ They were neither
attested by her subscription at the bottom, nor
Secured by her seal on the outside. In the secret
Council, where all were equally embarked in re-
bellion, these omissions were of no importance.
But that letters, containing intimations of adul-
tery and of murder, should be sent by the queen
to the earl of Bothwell, with her subscription to
them, and yet without any guard of a seal upon
them, so far exceeds all the bounds of credibility,
that they could not expect it to gain the belief of
parliament. They were struck with the absurdity
of their plan, and dreaded a detection. They
were under the necessity of altering it; but they
could not supply the defect of the seal. They,
therefore, wrote over the letters anew, and with-
held the subscription. These letters were now
as complete as the conspirators wished them;
yet in this state, while they were unsubscribed
and unsealed, they wanted other formalities
which are usual in despatches. They were with-
out directions, and they had no dates. They
must, therefore, have been sent by the queen to
Bothwell as open and loose papers; yet they
contained evidence against herself, and against
him, of the most horrid wickedness; and Nicholas
Hubert, the person who is said to have carried
most of them, was of the lowest condition, and,
as Dr. Robertson characterises him, “a foolish
talkative fellow.’ He would, therefore, surely
read those papers, which are polluted from end
to end with open and uncovered adultery, and
as surely report their contents to others. These
are most incredible circumstances, on the sup-
position that the letters are authentic, unless the
queen was, what none of her enemies ever repre-
sented her, an absolute idiot. The letters, in their
composition, bear no resemblance to the other
writings of the queen. They have a vulgarity,
an indelicacy, and a coarseness of expression
and manner, that by no means apply to her.
They breathe nothing of the passion of love be-
sides the impulses of the sensual appetite; and
represent a queen highly accomplished acting
with all the sneaking humility of a cottager to a
peer. “Such,' says Mr. Whittaker, after quoting
several expressions, with which we will not pol-
lute our work, “was the coarse kirtle, and the
homely neckatie, in which these wretched repre-
senters of Mary dressed themselves up, for the
exhibition of a queen dignified, refined, and ele-
gant;—a queen whom, according to their own
account, “God had indowit with mony gude and
excellent gifts and virtues!' The letters have
come down to us in the French, the Scottish,
and the Latin languages. Dr. Robertson, the
ablest and most persevering of all Mary's ene-
mies, supposes that the French originals are lost,
but that two or three sentences of each of these
originals were retained, and prefixed to the Scot-
tish translation; and that the French editor, ob-
serving this, foolishly concluded that the letters
had been written partly in French and partly
in Scottish. The Dr's. observations have
been examined by Mr. Whitaker; who makes
it clear, we, think, that, the learned historian
has occasionally mistaken the sense of the
Latin, the French, and even the Scotch; and that
he has forgotten to point out either the elegance
or the spirit of any particular clauses in his pre-
tended originals. The same masterly vindicator
of Mary turns his antagonist's artillery against
himself; and demonstrates, that such variations
as he has thought sufficient to prove the existence
of a former French copy, are diffused over all
the letters. -
But in Murray's receipt, in September 1568,
there is mention of other vouchers beside the
letters. He acknowledges that he also received
from Morton contracts and sonnets or love-verses.
These remarkable papers, though said to have
been found upon the 20th of June 1567, appeared
not till September 1568. The general arguments
which affect the authenticity of the letters apply
to them in full force; for, as the original letters
were undoubtedly in Scotch, the original sonnets
were as certainly written in French. This has
been completely proved by Dr. Robertson, and
is fully admitted by Mr. Whitaker. The sonnets
have every external and internal evidence of for-
gery in common with the letters, and they have
some marks peculiar to themselves. In parti-
cular they make the love of Mary still more gro-
velling than the letters made it; and, with a
degree of meanness, the author of the sonnets
has made the queen consider it as “na lytill
honor to be maistres of her subjects's gudis'
The sonnets, though undoubtedly spurious, prove
the full conviction in the minds of the rebels, of
what in an unguarded moment they actually con-
fessed to Throgmorton, and was manifest to all
the world: viz. that “the queen their sovereign
was led captive, and by fear, force, and other
extraordinary and more unlawful means, com-
pelled to become bed-fellow to another wife's
husband.’ ‘The makers of these papers,’ says
Mr. Whitaker, ‘have broken through all the bar-
riers of their own history. They have started
aside from the orbit of their own chronology.
They have taken a flight beyond the bounds of
their own creation.’ This mass of forgery was
clandestinely shown to Elizabeth's commissioners
during the conferences at York. See Scotland.
It was shown again to the same commissioners
and others during the conferences at Westmin-
ster. But neither Mary nor her commissioners
could ever procure a sight of a single letter or a
single sonnet. By the bishop of Ross and lord
Herries she repeatedly, demanded to see the
papers said to be written by her; but that re-
quest, in itself so reasonable, Elizabeth, with an
audacity of injustice, of which the history of
mankind can hardly furnish a parallel, refused.
Mary then instructed her commissioners to de-
mand copies of the letters and sonnets; and
offered, even from these, to demonstrate, in the
presence of the English queen and parliament,
and the ambassadors of foreign princes, that the
pretended originals were palpable forgeries.
Even this demand was denied her; and there is
undoubted evidence still existing, that neither
M A R' Y
L A N D. 597
*
she nor her commissioners had so much as a
copy of these criminal papers, till after those.
important conferences had for some time been
at an end. When Tytler's Enquiry into the
Evidence, produced by the Earls of Murray and
Morton against Mary Queen of Scots, was first
published, it was reviewed in the Gentleman's
Magazine by the late Dr. Johnson. The review,
after giving a brief analysis of the work, with
reflections on the force of the evidence, concludes
thus:—“That the letters were forged is now
made so probable, that perhaps they will never
more be cited as testimonies.’ The character of
Mary may therefore be left to the reflection of the
reader. To such as wish for farther satisfaction
we would recommend the study of the writings
of Buchanan, bishop Leslie, Goodal, Robertson,
Hume, Tytler, Sir David Dalrymple, Stuart, and
Whitaker. Mr. Laing has at a more recent
period revived this controversy; but we cannot
feel that he has added much to the previous evi-
dence. His work, however, should also be con-
sulted. Queen Mary wrote, 1. Poems on vari-
ous occasións, in the Latin, French, and Scots
languages. One of her poems is printed among
those of A. Blackwood; another in Brantome's
Dames Illustres, written on the death of her first
husband Francis. 2. Consolation of her long
Imprisonment, and Royal Advice to her Son.
3. A copy of verses, in French, sent with a dia-
mond ring to queen Elizabeth. There is a trans-
lation of these verses among the Latin poems of
Sir Thomas Chaloner. 4. Genuine Letters of
Mary queen of Scots, to James earl of Bothwell;
translated from the French, by E. Simmonds,
1726. There are, besides, many other of her
epistles to queen Elizabeth, secretary Cecil,
Mildmaye, &c., which are preserved in the Cot-
tonian, Ashmolean, and other libraries.
MARY II. queen of Great Britain, eldest
daughter of James II., by his first wife, was born
at St. James's in 1662. She was educated a
protestant, and married to William III. of Nas-
sau, then prince of Orange, in the sixteenth year
of her age. She staid in Holland with her hus-
band till February 12th, 1689, when she came
over, and was proclaimed queen of England, &c.
She was an equal sharer with her husband in all
the rights belonging to the crown ; but the ad-
ministration was lodged solely in the king. She
studied much, and devoted much of her leisure
to architecture and gardening. She was zealous
for a reformation of manners, and charitable in
the highest degree, without ostentation. This
excellent queen died on the 28th of December,
1695, at Kensington, of the smallpox, aged thir-
ty-three. In her the arts lost a protectress, the
unfortunate a mother, and the world a pattern
of virtue. She was tall, of a majestic graceful
mien, her countenance serene, her complexion
ruddy, and her features beautiful.
MARY DE MEDICrs, wife of Henry IV., king
of France, was declared sole regent of the king-
dom in 1610, during the consternation which
the assassination of that king had occasioned.
See FRANCE. By her ambitious intrigues, the
nation lost all its influence abroad, and was torn
to pieces at home by contending factions. After
several vicissitudes of fortune, she was abandon-
ed by her son Louis XIII., whose reign had
been constantly disturbed by the civil commo-
tions she had occasioned ; and died in indigence
at Brussels, in 1642, aged sixty-eight. She built
the superb palace of Luxembourg at Paris, and
embellished that city with aqueducts and other
OrnamentS. • -
MARY'S (St.), a county of Maryland, United
States, bounded north-east by Calvert county,
east by Chesapeake Bay, South-west by the Poto-
mac, and west by Charles county. Chief town
Leonard's Town.
MARY's (St), a river of the United States,
which divides Georgia from East Florida, and
runs into the sea. "Long. 81° 40'W., lat. 30°
43' N. A town of the same name stands at its
mouth, the frontier town of Georgia, and a place
of considerable trade during the late wars. It
is 130 miles S. S. W. of Savannah. Long. 81°
43' W., lat. 30° 43' N. *
MARY's River (St.), or ST. MARY's STRAITs, a
river or strait of North America, connecting
lakes Huron and Superior. It is seventy miles
in length, and divided into several channels.
There are two forts on it.
MARY's FALLs (St.), a cataract in St. Mary's
river, between lake Superior and lake Huron.
These falls do not descend perpendicularly, as
those of Niagara, but consist of a rapid, which
continues nearly three quarters of a mile, over
which canoes, well piloted, may pass. At the
bottom nature has formed a most commodious
station for catching the fish, which are taken here
in immense shoals.
MARYLAND, one of the United States of
North America, bounded north by Pennsylvania
and Delaware, east by Delaware and the At-
lantic, south-west and west by Virginia. It is
196 miles long, and 120 broad; containing
13,950 square miles. Population, in 1790,
319,721 ; in 1800 349,692; and in 1810
380,546; of whom 111,502 were slaves, and
33,927 free blacks. The number of the militia,
in 1811, amounted to 32,189.
The counties, population, and chief towns are
exhibited in the following table:—

Counties. Pop. Chief Towns.
Alleghany 6,909 | Cumberland.
Ann Arundel 26,668 Annapolis.
Baltimore 75,810 | Baltimore.
Cecil . 13,066 Elkton.
Calvert 8,005 || St. Leonard's.
Caroline 9,454 Denton.
Charles 20,245 | Port Tobacco
Dorchester 18,103 || Cambridge.
Frederick 34,437 | Fredericktown.
Harford 21,258 || Harford.
Kent . . . 11,450 | Chester.
Montgomery 17,980 Unity.
Prince George 20,589 || Marlborough.
Queen Ann's 16,648 Centreville.
St. Mary's 12,794 | Leonardtown.
Somerset . 17,195 | Princess Anne.
Talbot $14,230 | Easton.
Washington . 18,730 | Hagarstown.
Worcester 16,971 Snowhill.
380,546
598
M A R Y L. A N D.
Annapolis is the seat of government. Balti-
more is much the largest town. The other most
considerable towns are Fredericktown, Hagars-
town, Easton, Cumberland, Snowhill, Chester-
town, and Williamsport. There are twenty-four
banks and branches of banks in Maryland;
ten of which are at Baltimore.
Here are also a number of respectable literary
institutions. Colleges have been established at
Annapolis, Abingdon, and Chestertown, but they
are not at present in operation. Academies
have been established at Easton, Fredericktown,
Charlotte Hall, Cambridge, Elkton, and some
other places.
Maryland was originally settled by Roman
Catholics, who are the most numerous denomi-
nation of Christians in the state. The other
denominations are Presbyterians, Methodists,
Episcopalians, who have thirty-seven ministers,
Baptists, who have thirty-three congregations,
Friends, who have twenty-eight meetings, Lu-
therans, Dutch Reformed, Mennonists, &c. The
legislature is composed of a senate, and con-
sists of fifteen members, chosen for five years,
by electors, and a house of delegates consisting
of four members from each of the counties, and
two from each of the two cities, Baltimore and
Annapolis, chosen annually, on the first Monday
in October. The governor and an executive
council of five persons are chosen annually, by
a joint ballot of both houses, on the second
Monday in November. The assembly meets
annually on the first Monday in November.
This state sends nine representatives to Con-
gress.
Maryland is intersected from north to south
by Chesapeake Bay. On the eastern shore of the
Chesapeake there are eight counties, Cecil, Kent,
Queen Ann, Talbot, Caroline, Dorchester, So-
merset, and Worcester. The rest are on the
western shore. The principal rivers are the
Potomac, which divides this state from Virginia,
Susquehanna, Patapsco, Patuxent, Elk, Sassa-
fras, Chester, Choptank, Nanticoke, and Poco-
moke. The country on the eastern side of the
Chesapeake, with the exception of a small part
of the northern extremity, is an extensive plain,
low and sandy, and much intersected by rivers
and creeks, having but few springs, and abound-
ing in many places with stagnant water. In this
part the air in summer is moist, sultry, and dis-
agreeable, and the inhabitants are subject to
agues and intermittent fevers, and many of them
have a sickly appearance. The Maryland part
of the peninsula, included between the Delaware
and Chesapeake Bay, is much lower and more
uniformly level than the Delaware part. It is
also more intersected by rivers and creeks,
and the land is of better quality. The soil is
well adapted to raising tobacco, wheat, Indian
corn, and sweet potatoes. The genuine white
wheat, which is said to be peculiar to this state,
is raised in some of the counties on the eastern
shore. º
The country on the western shore of the
Chesapeake, below the falls of the rivers, is simi-
lar to that on the eastern shore. Above these
falls the country becomes gradually uneven and
hilly and in the western part of the state it is
mountainous. The western part is crossed by
ranges of , mountains, which pass through
Pennsylvania and Virginia, under various names,
as South Mountain, North Mountain, Sideling.
Hill, Warrior's Evit's, Wills, and Alleghany
mountains. The hilly and mountainous parts
abound in springs of excellent water, and the
climate is highly salubrious and agreeable. The
Soil is generally a red clay or loam, and much
of it is excellent, producing good crops of
wheat, Indian corn, hemp, and flax. Here are
also fine orchards; and apples, pears, peaches,
plums, and cherries are abundant. Of peaches,
the inhabitants make large quantities of peach
brandy, and of apples, apple brandy and cider.
The forests abound in nut-bearing trees, which
feed great numbers of swine. These swine run
wild, and, when fattened, are killed, barelled, and
exported in great quantities. Beef and mutton are
also plentiful. Some cotton for domestic use is
raised in this state, but it is of inferior quality.
The most considerable export from this state
is that of flour; and, next to this, that of tobacco.
The other exports are iron, lumber, Indian corn,
pork, flax-seed, beans, &c. The total amount of ex-
ports, in 1816, was 7,338,767 dollars. The trade of
the state is principally carried on from Baltimore
with the other states, with the West Indies, and
various parts of Europe.
This state abounds with mines of excellent
iron ore, and has also some coal. Furnaces have
been erected in various parts for the manufacture
of pig and bar iron, hollow ware, cannon, stoves,
&c. There are a number of glass works, paper
mills, &c. Vast quantities of rye are distilled
into whiskey, but the most considerable produc-
tion is flour.
MASAFUERO, an island of the South Paci-
fic Ocean, situated to the west of Juan Fernan-
dez about ninety-three miles, both being nearly
in the same latitude. It is high and mountain-
ous, of a triangular form, and about twelve miles
in circumference. The south part is much the
highest. The author of the account of Anson's
voyage mentions only one part of this island as
affording anchorage, which is on the north side
and in deep water; but Carteret says he saw no
part where there was not anchorage. There is
plenty of wood, water, and fish all round; but
the approach to the shore is bad, from the quan-
tity of stones at the bottom. 4.
MASBOTHAEI, MASBUTHEI, or MESBoth Ær,
the name of a sect, or rather of two sects; for
Eusebius, or rather Hegesippus, whom he cites,
mentions two different sects of Masbothaeans.
The first was one of the seven Jewish sects
before the birth of Christ: the other was one of
the seven sects that arose out of Judaism, and
proved very troublesome to the church. The
name is derived from the Hebrew nºw schabat,
to rest or repose, and signifies idle, easy, indolent
people. Eusebius supposes they had been so
called from one Masbotheus their chief; but it
is more probable that their name is Hebrew, or
Chaldaic, signifying a sabbatarian, or one who
professes to keep the sabbath strictly. Walesius
makes them two distinct sects; the former a
sect of Jews before, or at least contemporary
with Christ; and the latter a sect of heretics
MAS
MAS
599
descended from them. Rufinus distinguishes
them in their names: the Jewish sect he calls
Masbuthaei; and the heretics Masbuthaeani.
They were a branch of the Simonians.
MASCAT, a considerable sea-port of Arabia,
the best of all those on its eastern coast: all the
others, indeed, from Rosalgate to the entrance of
the gulf, are tributary to it. Originally tributary
to Ormus, it was taken in 1507 by Albuquerqué,
after an obstinate defence, and continued for
nearly 150 years in the possession of the Portu-
guese. About 1648, however, they were obliged
to yield it back to the natives. At the close of the
seventeenth century, the Arabs of Mascat became
such formidable pirates, as to give alarm to the
English, who formed plans for possessing them-
'selves of the place. Since that time they have
become more commercial. The trade is now
extensive with the British settlements in India, the
Malay peninsula, the Red Sea, and the east coast
of Africa, and the government of the Imaum is
the most civilised of any in this neighbourhood:
a stranger it is said may walk the streets without
molestation even during the night; and goods
lie exposed and untouched night and day. The
town is strongly fortified, and none but Arabs
and Banians are allowed to reside here; strangers
must occupy mat houses without the gates.
Vessels are not allowed to depart or enter after
dark. The harbour, formed by high land on one
side and Mascat Island on the other, is entered
from the north and defended by three forts. A
large fleet may lie here in safety. Long. 59° 15'
E., lat. 23° 38' N.
MASCLEFF (Francis), was at first a curate
in the diocese of Amiens, the place of his birth,
and afterwards theologian to the virtuous bishop
De Brou. He was appointed to the charge of a
seminary of learning under that prelate, which
he merited both from his piety and learning.
The oriental languages were as familiar to him
as his native tongue. He was made canon of
Amiens in 1706. But his opinions on the
Jansenist controversy were so offensive to Sab-
batier, that he was removed from the seminary
and from almost every other public office which
he held. He then devoted himself to study
with so much ardor, that he contracted a disease
of which he died November 14th, 1728, aged
sixty-six. His principal works are, 1. A Hebrew
grammar in Latin; Paris, 1716, 12mo. 2. Les
Conferences Ecclesiastiques du diocese d’Amiens,
in 12mo. 3. Le Catechisme d’Amiens, in 4to. 4.
Une Philosophie etune Theologie, in MS.
MASCULINE, adj. Fr. masculin ; Lat.
MAS'culin ELY, adv. }: Male;
MAS'culin ENESS, n. s. ) virile; pertaining to,
or resembling the male sex; bold; vigorous:
masculinely, like a man: masculineness, manli-
IlêSS. -
Pray God, she prove not masculine ere long !
Shakspeare.
Aurelia tells me, you have done most masculinely,
And play the orator. Ben Jonson's Catiline.
His long beard noteth the air and fire, the two
masculine elements, exercising their operations upon
nature, being the feminine. Peacham on Drawing.
O! why did God,
Creator wise, that peopled highest heaven
With spirits masculine, create at last
tained the two chancellor's medals.
This novelty on earth, this fair defect
Of nature ?' Milton's Paradise Lost.
You find something bold and masculine in the air
and posture of the first figure, which is that of Vir-
tue. +. Addison.
MASCULINE. See MALE. -
MASCULINE, in grammar. See GRAMMAR.
In Latin, Greek, French, &c., most nouns are
ranged under the masculine or feminine genders.
This, in many cases, is merely arbitrary, and
varies according to the languages, and even
according to the words introduced from one
language into another. Thus the names of trees
are generally feminine in Latin, and masculine
in the French. The genders of the same word
are also sometimes varied in the same language.
Thus alvus, according to Priscian, was anciently
masculine, but is now feminine ; and navire, a
ship, in French, was anciently feminine, but is
now masculine. See GRAMMAR.
MASCULINE SIGNs. Astrologers divide the
planets and signs into masculine and feminine
by reason of their qualities, which are either
active, and hot or cold, accounted masculine;
or passive, dry, and moist, which are feminine.
On this principle, they call the sun, Jupiter,
Saturn, and Mars, masculine; and the moon and
Venus feminine. Mercury, they suppose, par-
takes of the two. Among the signs, Aries,
Libra, Gemini, Leo, Sagittarius, Aquarius, are
masculine; Cancer, Capricornus, Taurus, Virgo,
Scorpio, and Pisces, are feminine.
MASERES (Francis), cursitor baron of the
Exchequer, and an accomplished scholar, was
born in the year 1731. He received the earlier
part of his education under Dr. Wooddeson, of
Kingston-upon-Thames, whence he removed to
Clare Hall, Cambridge, of which society he
afterwards became a fellow. In 1752 he and
Dr. Porteus, afterwards bishop of London, ob-
Afterwards
entering at the Temple, and being called to the
bar, he obtained the appointment of attorney-
general of Quebec, from which situation he was,
some years after, on his return to England,
raised to the dignity of cursitor baron of the
exchequer. He was a distinguished mathema-
tician, and published in 1759 a treatise on the
Negative Sign. He also printed a collection of
Scriptores Logarithmici, a work in 6 vols. 4to, :
A Treatise on Life Annuities, with several his-
torical tracts; and by his liberality induced
the Rev. Mr. Hellins to undertake his edition of
Colson's translation of Agnesi's Instituzioni
Analytiche. This valuable work appeared in
1804. Baron Maseres, who was distinguished
for his fine and strong sense and liberality, died
at Reigate, in May 1824, aged ninety-three.
MASH, n.s. & v.a. Saxon mircung; Teut.
misching; Fr. mascher ; Dan mask. A mixture
of grains for medicine, or in brewing: to beat
into, or make such mixture.
The pressure would be intolerable, and they would
even mash themselves and all things else apieces.
More.
When mares foal, they feed them with mashes, and
other moist food. Mortimer's Husbandry.
What was put in the first mashing-tub draw off, as
also that liquor in the second mashing tub. Id.
MAS
MAS
600
Put half a peck of ground malt into a pail, then
put to it as much scalding water as will wet it well;
stir it about for half an hour till the water is very
sweet, and give it the horse lukewarm : this mash is
to be given to a horse after he has taken a purge, to
make it work the better; or in the time of great
sickness, or after hard labour. Farrier's Dictionary.
To break the claw of a lobster, clap it between the
sides of the dining-room door : thus you can do it
without mashing the meat. Swift.
MASH, or Saxon max; Belgic masche :
MESH, m. s. STeut. mascher, from Goth. meisa,
to divide. The space between the threads of a
net.
To defend against the stings of bees, have a net
knit with so small mashes, that a bee cannot get
through. - Mortimer.
MASHAM (Abigail), a favorite of queen
Anne, and noted in history for her court intrigues,
was the daughter of Mr. Hill, a rich merchant
of London, who married the sister of Mr. Jen-
nings, the father of the duchess of Marlborough.
Her father becoming a bankrupt, she was obliged
to become the attendant of a baronet's lady,
whence she removed into the service of her
relative, lady Churchill, who procured her the
place of waiting-maid to the princess Anne.
After her mistress ascended the throne, she re-
tained her situation, and possessed great influ-
ence with her. Her marriage with Mr. Masham,
in 1707, occasioned an open quarrel with lady
Marlborough, who was in consequence of it
deprived of her majesty's confidence. Harley,
afterwards earl of Oxford, now connected him-
self with the new favorite; a change of ministry
took place, and in 1711 Mr. Masham was raised
to the peerage. He and his wife appear to have
been actively engaged in the intrigues in favor
of the house of Stuart. Lady Masham outlived
the queen many years, and died at an advanced
age.
MASINISSA, a king of Numidia, who at
first assisted the Carthaginians in their wars
against Rome; but afterwards joined the Ro-
mans, and became the firmest ally they ever had.
See CARTHAGE and NUMIDIA. He died in his
ninety-seventh year, and ninetieth of his reign,
A. A. C. 149.
MASK, n.s., v. a. & v. n. 2 French masque ;
MASK'ER, n.s. {biº mascherić;
Span. mascara, mascarada ; of Arab. maskh. A
disguise, particularly of the face; a visor; hence
an entertaintment at which the guests appear in
visors, and a particular dramatic performance;
any shuffle, subterfuge, or pretence : to mask is,
to disguise with a visor; cover; hide : as a
neuter verb, to revel; play in mask: a masker is
one who thus revels or performs.
Now Love pulled off his mask, and shewed his
face unto her, and told her plainly that she was his
prisoner. " * Sidney.
, What will grow of such errors as go masked under
the cloke of divine authority, impossible it is that the
wit of man should imagine, till time have brought
forth the fruits of them. Hooker.
Since she did neglect her looking-glass,
And throw her sun-expelling mask away;
The air hath starved the roses in her cheeks,
And pitched the lily tincture of her face.
- Shakspeare.
Will you prepare for this masque to-night? :
'Tis not my blood
Wherein thou see'st me masked.
Id. Coriolanus.
I to your assistance do make love,
Masking the business from the common eye,
"For sundry weighty reasons. Id. Macbeth.
Tell false Edward,
That Lewis of France is sending over maskers,
To revel it with him and his new bride.
Shakspeare.
Let the scenes abound with light, and let the
maskers that are to come down from the scene have
some motions upon the scene before their coming
down. Bacon.
The maskers come late, and I think will stay,
Like fairies, till the cock crow them away. Donne.
Thus I have broken the ice to invention, for the
Id.
lively representation of floods and rivers necessary
for our painters and poets in their pictures, poems,
comedies, and masks. Peacham.
As when a piece of wanton lawn,
A thin aerial veil is drawn
O'er beauty's face, seeming to hide,
More sweetly shows the blushing bride :
A soul whose intellectual beams
No mists do mask, no lazy steams. Crashaw.
There is no villainy so great, but it will mask
itself under a show of piety. Bp. Hall.
They in the end agreed,
That at a masque and common revelling,
Which was ordained, they should perform the deed.
Daniel.
This thought might lead me through this world's
vain mask,
Content, though blind, had I no other guide.
Milton.
Could we suppose that a mask represented never so
naturally the general humour of a character, it can
never suit with the variety of passions that are inci
dent to every single person in the whole course of a
ay. Addison on Italy.
Too plain thy nakedness of soul espyed,
Why dost thou strive the conscious shame to hide,
By masks of eloquence, and veils of pride 3 Prior.
Masking habits, and a borrowed name,
Contrive to hide my plenitude of shame. Id.
MASKELYNE (Nevil), D.D., was born in
London in 1732, and educated at Westminster
school, whence he removed to Catherine Hall,
and next to Trinity College, Cambridge, where
he obtained a fellowship. He took his degree
of M. A. in 1757; and that of D.D. in 1777.
In 1761 he was appointed by the Royal Society
to proceed to St. Helena to observe the transit of
Venus; in which voyage he determined the
method of finding, by lunar observations, the
longitude at sea. In 1763 he undertook another
voyage to Barbadoes, to ascertain the longitude
of that island, and to prove the accuracy of
Harrison's time-keeper. On his return home,
he succeeded Mr. Bliss as royal astronomer ;
and in 1767 first published the Nautical, Al-
manac, and a volume of Explanatory Tables.
In 1774 Dr. Maskelyne was employed in
making observations on the eclipses of Jupiter's
satellites at Greenwich; and went the same
year to Scotland, to ascertain the gravitative
attraction of the mountain Schehallien, in Perth-
shire. His death took place February 9th, 1811.
He was the author of the British Mariner's
Guide; containing complete and easy instruc-
M A S O N R. Y.
601
tions for the discovery of the longitude at sea
and land, 1763, 4to.; and Astronomical Ob-
servations made at the Royal Observatory at
Greenwich, 1784–88, 3 vols. folio; besides
numerous papers in the Philosophical Transac-
TIOI)S.
MASKINONGE River, a large river of Low-
er Canada, issues from a lake of the same name,
in that ridge of mountains which runs west from
Quebec. It is navigable for boats some miles,
and falls into the St. Lawrence, near lake St.
Peter.
MASON, n.s. Fr. macon: Lat. machinor;
MA’son RY. $ Greek panxavoc. A builder,
particularly with stone: masonry is the art or act
of building in this way or generally.
Many find a reason very wittily before the thing be
true; that the materials being left rough, are more
manageable in the mason's hand than if they had
been smooth. Wotton.
A mason that makes a wall, meets with a stone
that wants no cutting, and places it in his work.
More.
There is a sort of masonry in poetry, wherein the
pause represents the joints of building, which ought
in every line and course to have their disposition wa-
ried. Shenstone.
A MASON is a person employed, under the
direction of an architect, in raising a stone build-
ing. His chief business is to make the mortar;
raise the walls from the foundation to the top,
with the necessary retreats and perpendiculars;
to form the vaults, and employ the stones as
delivered to him. When the stones are large,
the business of hewing or cutting them belongs
to the stone-cutters, though these are frequently
confounded with masons: the ornaments of
sculpture are performed by stone-carvers or
sculptors. The tools or implements principally
used by them are the square, level, plumb-line,
bevel, compass, hammer, chisel, mallet, saw,
trowel, &c. See SQUARE, &c. Besides the
common instruments used in the hand, they have
likewise machines for raising great burdens and
conducting large stones; the principal of which
are the lever, pulley, wheel, crane, &c.
MASON (William), an elegant English poet,
the son of a clergyman in Yorkshire, educated
at St. John's College, Cambridge, and elected a
fellow of Pembroke Hall, in 1749. In 1748 he
published a poem entitled Isis, which, being an
attack on the university of Oxford, produced a
poetical answer from Mr. Warton, entitled the
Triumphs of Isis. In 1754 he took orders, and
was appointed chaplain to the king; and after-
wards obtained the living of Aston, and the pre-
centorship of York; which led him to compose
a work on Church Music. He was the intimate
friend of Gray the poet, who appointed him one
of his executors, and whose life and elegy he
wrote. He also wrote Elfrida and Caractacus,
and the English Garden, both much esteemed ;
and he translated into English verse Du Fres-
noy's Art of Painting, to which Sir Joshua Rey-
nolds added valuable notes. He was a zealous
whig, and an admirer of the French revolu-
tion, till the horrors that accompanied it abated
the warmth of his attachment to democracy.
He died April 5th, 1797, in consequence of a fall
from his carriage.
MASON (John), a dissenting minister of the
last century, was educated at an academy at
Kibworth in Leicestershire. After being private
tutor in the family of governor Feaks, he became
pastor of a congregation at Dorking in 1730;
and in 1746, removed to Cheshunt. Here he
died in February 1763. He was the author of a
treatise on Self Knowledge, and four volumes of
sermons, published under the title of Lord's
Day-Evening Entertainment, both which became
very popular. He also published some tracts on
Elocution. .
MAsoNRy, in practical architecture, includes
the hewing of stones into the various shapes re-
quired in the multiplied purposes of building, the
uniting them together by joints, level, perpendi-
cular or otherwise, by the aid of cement, iron,
lead, &c., which requires much practical dexte-
rity, with some skill in geometry and mechanics.
In our article ARCHITECTURE we have noticed
the rise and progress of this artin Egypt, Greece,
and Italy. Modern masonry is confined more
to the working in freestone than in marble, in
the former of which these islands abound, which
offer many facilities arising from the nature of its
quality in reducing it to all the required shapes
in modern construction. At Bath, and in all the
western counties, they saw it by a toothed saw
into smaller scantling, which is again cut by the
mason with a hand-saw, and afterwards hewn by
an axe; then dragged and smoothed in the same
way, according to the required situation or the
quality of the proposed work for which the stone
is intended. The workman's tools consist of a
hand-saw similar to what is made use of by car-
penters; a drag, which is commonly nothing
more than a piece of an old saw. He has also
his chisels and gouges, and gauges and moulds
for his sunk and moulded work, which are all
afterwards cleaned up by the drag. In Glouces-
tershire the masons often use planes for their
mouldings, the stones there being more crisp and
not intersected by shells, &c., which prevent
their general adoption with regard to many other
freestones.
Portland freestone is the common stone made
use of by the masons in London, which is
brought from the island of that name, in blocks
of almost all dimensions, roughly hewn. Its
hardness gives it many requisites to produce ex-
quisite masonry. It is sawn into scantling by
the friction of sharp siliceous earth and water,
and by means of a framed plate saw of iron. . It
is afterwards worked by the mallet and chisel to
the required form, and then rubbed to a smooth
face by hand with sand or grits. Most of our
public buildings are composed of this stone;
and it has been the practice to make use of it
in private cnes for the kerbs, strings, fascias,
columns, cornices, and balustrades, when all the
other parts were of other materials. Internally
for the floors of halls, vestibules, staircases, &c.
Portland stone is decidedly the handsomest free-
stone known, and capable of bearing as fine an
arras in moulding as marble, which is the pro-
bable reason of its preference, although many
other freestones might be obtained at half the
original cost and without its great additional
expense of freight and duty. The latter, how-
*
602
M A S O N R Y.
ever, has risen so high of late that the Glouces-
tershire stone is now at the wharfs as its compe-
titor, and is daily coming more into use: it
having been already employed in several works
of consequence.
The granites of Cornwall, and that called
Dundee stone from North Britain are now em-
ployed for all works in which great solidity and
wear are required. It has been sought for and
used at the several docks, also at the new bridges.
Its excessive hardness is as much the terror of
the London masons as the Gloucestershire stone
is for its softness; on account of which has arisen
the necessity of bringing to London the workmen
as well as the stone, there not having been found
persons in London who would undertake to work
it. The bringing of these granites to London,
and other places, arose in the first instance from
the necessity of finding something more solid
ând durable for the locks and basins of canals;
and hence it is that now all these different qua-
lities of stone are regularly to be found in the
market. Modern masons, therefore, will have
the credit of effecting more lasting works than
those from freestone, by a judicious blending
and arrangement of all the several qualities of
stones to the various purposes of strength and
ornament. A substantial foundation is of the
first importance in masonry, without which no
work can be considered as durable. However,
in modern construction, this vital part of a build-
ing is too often intrusted to the carpenter and
bricklayer; the former for the purpose of piling
such ground as is found inferior, soft, and marshy,
and the latter to raise the needful walls in the
substructure in which little or no masonry is em-
ployed.
The walls of modern buildings are sometimes
built for ornament, but more often both it and
solidity are required. In London they are re-
gulated by a specific act of parliament; but, the
act having been framed more as a protection from
fire than as a security against dilapidation, a
prudent builder finds it eligible to trust to the
law to avoid inconvenience, but to strengthen
his walls beyond the law to prevent their ruin.
It is too much to ask for specifics in regard to
the thickness of walls; they must be regulated,
first, in reference to the nature of the materials
to be employed; and, secondly, to the magni-
tude of the fabric to be erected. Walls of stone
may safely be made one-fifth thinner than those
of bricks; and brick walls, in the basement and
ground stories of buildings of the first rate, should
be reticulated with stone to prevent their split-
ting, a circumstance too much disregarded by
our present builders.
A plinth, in masonry, is the first stone inserted
above the ground; it is in one or more pieces,
according to its situation, projecting beyond the
wall above it about an inch ; its projecting edge
sloped downwards, or moulded, to carry off the
water that may fall on it. -
Ashlering is a term used by masons to desig-
nate the plain stone-work of the front of a building,
in which all that is regarded is getting the stone
(which is commonly no more than a casing to
the wall) to a smooth face, called its plain-work.
The courses should not be too high, and the
joints should be crossed regularly, which will
improve its appearance, and add to its solidity.
The fascia is a plain course of stone, gene-
rally about one foot in height, projecting before
the face of the ashlering about an inch, or in a
line with the plinth of the building ; it is fluted
on its under edge (called by the workmen throat-
ing), as a check to prevent the water from run-
ning over the ashlering; its upper edge is sloped
downwards for the same purpose. It is com-
monly inserted above the windows of the ground
stories, viz. between them and those of the prin-
cipal story.
Cills.-These belong to the apertures of the
doors and windows, at the bottom of which they
are fixed ; their thickness is various, most com-
monly about four inches and a half; they are also
fluted on their under edges, and sunk on their
upper sides, projecting somewhat beyond the
ashlering, commonly about two inches.
Imposts.-These are insertions of stone with
their front-facings commonly moulded, and some-
times left plaim, and when so left they are pre-
pared in a similar way to the fascias above
described. They form the springing stones to
the arches in the apertures of a building, and are
of the greatest utility.
Cornice.—This forms the crown to the ashle-
ring at the summit of a building; it is frequently
the part which is marked particularly by the
architect to designate the particular order of his
work, and, when so, it is moulded to that charac-
ter; hence there are cornices wrought after the
three known orders in architecture, viz. the
Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian, when perhaps no
column of either is employed in the work, the
cornice alone designating the particular style of
the edifice. In working the cornice the mason
should prepare the top or upper side, by splay-
ing it away towards its front edge, that it may
more readily convey off the water which may
fall on it. At the joints of each of the stones of
the cornice, throughout the whole length of the
building, that part of each stone which comes
nearest at the joints should be left projecting up-
wards a small way, called, by workmen, saddling
the joints; the intention of which is to keep the
rain water from entering them, and washing out
the cement; such joints, however, should be
chased or indented, and such chases should be
run full of lead. When dowels of iron are
employed they should be fixed by melted lead
also.
Blocking course.—This is a course of stone
traversing the top of the cornice, to which it is
fixed : it is commonly in its height equal to the
projection of the cornice. It is of great utility
in giving support to the latter by its weight, and
to which it adds grace. It at the same time ad-
mits of gutters being formed behind it to convey
away the superfluous water from the covering of
the building. The joints in it should always
cross those of the cornice, and should be plugged
with lead, or cramped on their upper edges with
iron. The Romans sometimes dove-tailed the
joints of such courses of stone. º -
Parapets.—These are of great ornament to the
upper part of an edifice. They were used by
the Greeks, and afterwards by the Romans, and
M A S O N R Y.
603
are composed of three parts, viz. the plinth,
which is the blocking course to the cornice; also
Athe shaft, or die, which is the part immediately
above the plinth. It has a cornice, which is on
its top, and projects in its mouldings sufficiently
to carry off the rain-water from the shaft and
plinth. In buildings of the Corinthian style the
shaft of the parapet is perforated in the parts
immediately over the apertures in the elevation,
and balustrade enclosures are inserted in the
perforations. The architects have devised the
parapets with reference to the roof of the build-
ing which it is intended to obscure.
Pilasters.—In modern design these are fre-
quently very capriciously applied. They are
vertical shafts of square-edged stone, having but
a small projection, with capitals and bases like
columns: they are placed by us often on the face
of the wall, and with a cornice over them. In
Greek architecture they are to be met with com-
monly on the ends of the walls behind the co-
lumns, in which application their face was made
double the width of their sides, their capitals
differed materially from those of the columns
which they accompanied, they were somewhat
larger at bottom than at top, but without any
entasis or swell. The best examples are to be
found in Steuart's Ruins of Athens, viz. to the
Propylea, temple of Minerva Polias, &c. &c.
Architraves adorn the apertures of a building,
projecting somewhat from the face of the ashler-
ing; they have their facing sunk with mouldings,
and also their outside edges. When they traverse
the curve of an arch they are called archivolts.
They give beauty to the exterior of a building,
and the best examples of them are to be found
in the ancient Greek buildings, and in many also
in Italy.
Rusticating, in architecture and masonry, con-
sists in forming horizonatal sinkings or grooves
in the stone ashlering of an elevation, intersected
by vertical or cross ones, perhaps invented to
break the plainness of the wall, and to denote
more obviously the crossing or bond of the
stones. It is often formed by splaying away the
edges of the stone only; in this style the groove
forms the elbow of a geometrical square. Many
architects omit the vertical grooves in rustics, so
that their walls present an uniform series of
horizontal sinkings, . The French architects have
been very fond of this method, as may be seen
in the buildings at Paris; and the bank of
England is an instance of it in this country.
There are abundance of ancient examples in each
of the three manners.
Columns.—These comprise, generally, a conoi-
dal shaft, with a small diminution upwards to
their upper diameter, amounting generally to
about one-sixth less than the lower diameter.
They have sometimes a swell or entasis in their
whole height (see article ARCHITECTURE), but
this practice is by no means general. The
Greek ruins do not seem to countenance such a
departure from nature, nevertheless it is found to
have been commonly practised among the Roman
buildings. The proportions of columns from the
Egyptians to the Greeks have varied but little :
the columns of the former, in their large temples,
as at Thebes amount to about four and a half
diameters only in their height. The columns of
the 'Parthenon, at Athens, are 'little more than
five. In the best Roman examples they were
increased to upwards of seven diameters. The
columns of the Grecian remains are fluted, and
the fluting differs in each example. The Doric
shafts have their flutes in very flat segments
finished to an arris. To the other columns to
the temples of Erectheus, Minerva Polias, &c.
(both of the Ionic style), flutings of the semi-
ellipsis shape with fillets were adapted. But,
for detailed particulars of the proportions and
construction of columns, see our article ARCHI-
TECTURE, part II.
The mode of erecting columns into screens or
porticoes remains to be treated on. The Doric co-
lumn was effected in Greece without a base, it hav-
ing a large diameter which compounded for this
deficiency. This column was approached by three
steps, the third or last forming the floor on which
it was built. The lower shafts, as well as the
intended intercolumniation, were accurately
marked out on the floor, and on the parts to
which the columns were designed to be placed.
A circle was drawn about two-sixteenths of the
diameter of that of the column, which was sunk
down. The lower shaft was accurately shaped at
its lowest extremity to the proposed diameter,
leaving it so much longer as to fit into the sinking
in the upper step, which formed for it a kind of
rebate; by thus fixing all the shafts in the floor
their intercolumniations were exactly preserved.
The column is composed of blocks of at least a
diameter in height, exactly jointed, and, by the
Greeks, without the least cement between them.
In the centre of each joint were made square
sinkings for the purpose of putting in a joggle;
this joggle enters both the upper and lower
shafts, and serves to prevent the moving or frac-
ture of the column by any lateral thrust it might
receive. The joggles in the columns of the
Parthenon were of olivewood; they are com-
monly with us of iron painted over, or of lead;
and, in columns of marble, they are copper,
the latter metal being preferred by reason of its
not being so liable to oxydate as the former, and
consequently not so liable to stain the stone,
which is too often the case by iron joggling.
The joining of columns in free-stone has been
found more difficult than in marble, and the
French masons have a practice to avoid the
failure of the two arrisses of the joint, which
might be borrowed with success for the construct-
ing of columns of some of our softer free-stones.
It consists in sinking away the edge of the joints,
by which means a groove is formed at every one,
throughout the whole height of the column.
Travellers, who have seen their porticos, have
compared them to theeses piled one on the other,
the courses appearing, by this practice, to be so
regularly marked. This method is not had re-
course to but for plain shafts; it is not altogether
of modern invention, as there are some ancient
remains in which it appears, but in them it may
be conjectured to have been for a very different
purpose. It served to admit the shafts, being
adorned by flowers and other insignia on the
occasion of their shows and games. In the
French capital they even now, on their public
604
M A S O N R. Y.
illuminations, affix rows of lamps on their co-
lumns, making use of these grooves to adjust
them regularly, which produces a very good
effect.
The shafts of columns, in large works intended
to be adorned by flutes, are erected plain, and
the fluting chiselled out afterwards. The ancients
commonly formed the two extreme ends of the
fluting previously, as may be seen in the remain-
ing columns of the temple of Apollo, in the
island of Delos, a practice admitting of great
accuracy and neatness. The finishing the detail
of both sculpture and masonry on the building
itself was a universal practice among the ancients:
they raised their columns first in rough blocks,
on them the architraves and friezes, and sur-
mounted the whole by the cornice, finishing such
parts only down as were not conveniently to be
got at in the building; hence, perhaps, in some
measure, arose that striking, proportion of parts,
together with the beautiful curvature and finish
given to all the profiles in Grecian buildings.
Pavements have occupied considerable atten-
tion in architecture, and consequently in masonry.
The Greek temples were paved with white mar-
ble, the same as that of which the temple itself
was constructed ; and consisted of large squares
joined with great precision, and of such thickness
as secured their stability. There does not, how-
ever, appear in Greece such marks of luxury and
extravagance in the decorative parts of their
buildings as the opulent Romans displayed,
who, not content with inserting in their floors
pieces of marble of the most beautiful kind,
had them painted and varied with different co-
lors. This custom commenced under Claudius.
Under Nero they began to cover the marble with
gold, thus the marble of Numidia was gilded,
and that of Phrygia was stained with purple.
Arching is that in which the modern mason
has certainly excelled the ancient. The masonry
of an arch, herein to be treated of, is so intimately
connected with the theory, that it appears almost
impossible to explain the one without giving
some information respecting the other; in theory,
an arch may be explained as follows, viz. to consist
of series of stones, called voissoirs, in the shape
of truncated wedges, which resist each other,
through their inclined sides, by means of that
weight whereby they would otherwise fall, and
are suspended in the air without any support
from below, where a concavity is formed. The
voissoirs are subject to forces which arise from
their own weight, from external pressure, from
friction, and the cohesion of matter: all these
forces compose a system which ought to be in
equilibration; and, moreover, that state ought
to have a consistence firm and durable. It was
not till near the end of the seventeenth century,
when the Newtonian mathematics opened the
road to true mechanical science, that the mathe-
maticians directed any part of their attention to
the theory of arches. Tr. Hook gave the first hint
of a principle, when he affirmed, that the figure
into which a chain or rope, perfectly flexible,
will arrange itself when suspended from two
hooks, becomes, when inverted, the proper form
for an arch constituted of stones of uniform
weight and size. The reason on which he
grounded his assertion, is, simply, that the forces
with which the parts of a standing arch press
mutually on each other, in the latter case, are
precisely equal and opposite to those with which
they pull each other in the case of suspension.
This principle, true as far as it goes, gave rise to
most of the specious theories of the mathemati-
cians; for they did not consider that, though an
arch of equal voissoirs might be thus balanced, it
would require much other matter to be placed over
it, to fill up the space between the extrados and a
road-way, if used for the purpose of a bridge,
and that this superincumbent mass must neces-
sarily destroy the equilibrium previously existing
in the unloaded arch. There is a certain thickness
in the crown which will put the catenaria in
equilibrio, even with a horizontal road-way ; but
this thickness is so great that the pressure at the
vertex is equal to the horizontal thrust; the only
situation, therefore, in which the catenarian
would be proper, is in an arcade, carrying a
height of dead wall above it. During these
discussions, on the celebrated catenaria, a new
system of arching developed itself. It was
deduced from the consideration of the arch-
stones being frustrums, or parts of wedges;
hence the mathematical properties of the wedge
were introduced into the science, and employed.
to establish the theory of what were called ba-
lanced arches; this practice was taught in France
by La Hire, Parent, Varignon, Belidor, Riou,
&c., and some bridges were formed on its prin-
ciples, viz. Pont La Concorde at Paris, and also
one arch at Nieully. It required that the arch-
stones should be as long as economy would
admit, and, if possible, to fill up all the space
between the intrados and extrados of the bridge;
and further, they are all to be locked together by
bars and wedges of iron, which will prevent the
possibility of their sliding, or the arch quitting
the centering ; a circumstance not before accom-
plished in arching. The theorist, not yet having
brought the practical architect to adopt his
visions, raised another system, which is said to
secure a perfectly equilibrated structure, by
making an equality at every point of the curve
The deduction from this theory consists in mak-
ing the height of the wall incumbent on any
point of the intrados, directly as the cube of the
secant of the curve's inclination to the horizon
at that point, or inversely as the radius of curva-
ture there. It must be added, that this theory
expects the joints of the voissoirs to be perfectly
smooth, and not be connected by any cement, and
therefore to sustain each other merely by the equi-
librium of their vertical pressure; and the theorist
says, “an arch, which thus sustains itself must be
stronger than another which does not; because,
when in imagination we suppose both to acquire
connexion by cement, the first preserves the in-
fluence of this connexion unimpaired; whereas,
in the other, part of the cohesion is wasted in
counteracting the tendency of some parts to
break off from the rest by want of equilibrium.’
From these systems have been made tables for
forming arches to equilibrate, by which the na-
ture of each voissoir may be found to any degree
of curvation, and Dr. Hutton has simplified it
for practical men.
M A S O N R Y.
605
The practical mason, however neat in the
execution of his work, finds it extremely difficult
to get the joints of the arch-stones so smooth as
is required by these systems; and, even if he
succeeds in doing so, circumstances may take
place in the construction of the work to render
it useless; for instance, the abutments may sink
a little, and one may retire more than another,
hence will arise an alteration in the arch, and,
consequently, in the shape of the joints; but,
there are other circumstances to be anticipated,
known to the practical architect (if even a sink-
ing of the abutments should not take place),
which is an alteration in the centre on which the
masonry is raised. It is ascertained that, how-
ever firmly it may be constructed and supported,
its curvature will vary as it receives the weight
of the stone arch. The impossibility that the
centre could be loaded all at once, produces this
variation; but, even if the centre should be so
constructed as to remain firm and unalterable,
a sinking will ensue on its removal; this, as the
practice is, is done gradually, and all the arch-
stones in some measure follow it; the middle
ones Squeezing the lateral ones aside, which
compresses all between them; hence the latter
arch stones alter their shape, a sinking of the
crown ensues, consequently a general change of
form of not only the joints, but of the arch also.
Some architects, to secure as little friction in
the joints as possible, have covered their surfaces
with sheet-lead, and this practice was followed
in the bridge of Blackfriars, at Norwich, by Mr.
Soane. It cannot be too strongly recommended,
to the mason concerned in arching, to make all
the joints meet as correctly as possible, using the
least possible quantity of cement between them :
the practice of wedging in the voissoirs at the
crown of the arch, commonly practised, should
be done with caution; for, instead of preventing
a sinking, it may endanger the whole arch. Pe-
ronet, who was architect to so many bridges in
France, and whose experience and sagacity in
this branch of practice had developed more than
a whole college of theorists could do, rejected it.
His rejection of it did not apply however to the
principle, but to the uncertainty in the persons
employed to perform it; he conceived that the
stones might be so fractured in forcing them in,
that no two flat surfaces would present them-
selves in that part of the arch. Nieully, one of
the finest bridges he built, and which the writer
of this article has repeatedly examined, is of a
very superior construction; the road occasions
very little elevation, no more than sufficient to
keep it dry. The arches and piers are quite
unique in their shape, of considerable span, and
so apparently flat and thin in the crown, as at
first sight to create a doubt if they be of stone.
It is a principle in the French bridges that the
passengers may see their roadway from one end
to the other. It would not be endured by them
to be ascending mountains over the inland
WaterS.
The figures of arches are as various in their
shape as the most fastidious ideas of convenience
can require; they were, in the bridges of the
Romans, semi-circles; by the moderns, of every
form and curvature fancy can suggest, or geometry
delineate; but the practical mason should en-
deavour, in effecting arches, if he expects the
praise of intelligent men, to protect them by
some reference to known principles. Every
arch of curvature (and it cannot be an arch
without it, although it may be a lintel), should
be described by its praxis in known geometry,
and if it require one, two, or more centres to de-
velope its form, the workman should not forget
that these points once ascertained are his guides
to find the shape of the voissoirs or arch-stones.
The joints of an arch are all traced from the
centres of their curvature, so that as a general
axiom it may be assumed, for instance, speaking
of a semi-circle, that its centre supplies the prin-
ciple of giving form to the voissoirs; if a seg-
ment, the centre of the circle of which it is the
segment, be its versed sine what it may. If an
ellipsis, which is neither more nor less than three
Segments, the arch-joint must be drawn from the
centres of each correspondent circle; and so on
to the parabola, hyperbola, &c.; if these princi-
ples were attended to by the practical mason,
the failure of so many arches in the smaller
works would be prevented, and the arch itself
appear more meat; inasmuch as principle would
be opposed to that which is most commonly
done by chance, as may be seen by an attentive
observer, on looking at the arches in some of our
buildings.
. Of domes.—A dome is said to be less difficult
of construction than an arch, because the ten-
dency of each part to fall is counteracted not
only by the pressure of the parts above and be-
low, but also by the resistance of those which
are situated on each side. A dome may there-
fore be erected without any temporary support,
like the centre which is required for the con-
struction of an arch, and it may at last be left
open at the summit, without standing in need of
a key-stone. - .
The Greeks seem no more to have employed
domes than they did arches, one (the monument
of Lysicrates at Athens) only having been pre-
served, and in that there is nothing to require
any of the principles of the tambour-wall, as it
is composed of a single piece. The Romans
certainly affected domes, in which they developed
great enterprise, genius, and taste. Vitruvius
says nothing about them, though he gives pro-
portions for his monoptereal buildings, as, pro-
bably, they were but little employed in his time;
but we have still existing the pantheon of Agrip-
pa, over which there is a beautiful hemispherical
roof, and it is probable that all their round tem-
ples were so roofed; indeed, in the remains of
the Sybil's temple at Tivoli, there are evident
marks of such a covering.
The masonry of domes must be conducted on
similar principles to those recommended for
arching, excepting only that the figure of each
voissoir or wedge will be so shaped as to fit the
void in a sphere instead of its sections. The
weight of masonry in a dome, however, will
require all the force of mind in the architect
and mason to prevent, its forcing out its lower
parts; for instance if it rises in a direction too
nearly vertical, with its form spherical, and its
thickness equable, it will require to be confined
&
606
M A so NR Y.
by a chain or hoop, as soon as the rise reaches
to about eleven-fourteenths of the whole diame-
ter; but, if the precaution be taken of diminish-
ing the thickness of the masonry as it rises, it
will not require to be so bound. -
At Constantinople the church of St. Sophia
was covered by a dome, and its history will
furnish a useful lesson to the unscientific and
careless mason. Anthemius and Isidorus, whom
the emperor Justinian had selected as architects
the most proper for conducting the works of this
celebrated edifice, seem to have known but little
of the matter. Anthemius had boasted to Justi-
nian that he would outdo the magnificence of
the Roman pantheon, for he would hang a greater
dome than it aloft in the air; accordingly he at-
tempted to raise it on the heads of four piers,
distant from each other about 115 feet, and about
the same height. He had probably seen the mag-
nificent vaultings of the temple of Mars, the
Avenger, and also of the temple of Peace, at
Rome, the thrusts of the vaultings of which were
withstood by two masses of solid wall, which
joined the side walls of the temple at right an-
gies, and extended sideways to a great distance.
It was evident that the walls of this temple could
not yield to the pressure of the vaulting, without
pushing these immense buttresses along their
foundations; he therefore in imitation placed
four buttresses to aid his piers. They are almost
solid masses of stone, extending at least ninety
feet from the piers to the north and to the south,
forming, as it were, the side walls of the cross,
and effectually secured them from the thrusts of
the two great arches of the nave which supported
the dome: but there was no such provision
against the thrust of the great north and south
arches. Anthemius trusted for this to the half
dome which covered the semi-circular east end
of the church, and which occupied the whole
eastern arch of the great dome: but, when the
dome was finished, and had stood a few months,
it pushed the two eastern piers, with their but-
tresses, from the perpendicular, making them
lean to the eastward, and the dome and half
dome fell in. Isidorus afterwards erected some
clumsy buttresses on the east wall of the square
which surrounded whole Greek-cross, and these
were roofed in with it, forming a sort of cloister,
leaning against the piers of the dome; and thus
opposed the thrusts of the great north and south
arches. The dome was now turned for the third
time, and many contrivances were adopted for
making it extremely light. It was offensively
flat, and, except the ribs, roofed with pumice-
stone; but, notwithstanding these precautions,
the arches settled so as to alarm the architects,
and they made all sure by filling up the whole
from top to bottom with arcades in three stories.
The lowest arcade was very lofty, supported by
four noble marble columns, and thus preserved,
in some measure, the church in the form of a
Greek-cross. The story above formed a gal-
lery for the women, and had six columns in
front, so that they did not bear fairly on those
below. The third story was a dead wall, filling
up the arch, and pierced with three rows of small
ill-shaped windows: in this unworkman-like shape
it has remained, and is the oldest church in the
world; but it is an ugly misshapen mass of de-
formity and ignorance, resembling any thing
rather than what it was intended for, viz. a beau-
tiful piece of architecture.
But there have been domes constructed since
in every part of Europe, combining and display-
ing, in this species of building, every requisite
of beauty and strength. St. Peter's, at Rome, is
a superb undertaking; and the set-off to it in
this country, of St. Paul's, is another, in which
equal talent is developed; but this latter, dome
is more remarkable for its carpentry than its ma-
sonry.
A dome has also been erected to the rotunda
of the Bank of England, in which the principles
of the ancient one of the pantheon, at Rome, have
been followed. It takes its spring from a wall
of great thickness, on which it is bedded, fur-
nished by many projections externally graduated
like steps, which answer the purpose of but-
tresses. It is open at its summit, like that from
which it is copied, and from which the interior
of the building receives its light. It composes,
on the whole, a structure unique, and very ho-
norable to the talents of the architect, Mr.
Soane.
Masons employ certain technical phrases, by
which they designate every part of their work
employed in building, some of which have been
previously noticed: the value of each descrip-
tion of work is ascertained by a datum to be
now explained. It does not appear to have
been a very early practice among the surveyors
and masons to separate the distinct portions of
labor which are employed about their hewn
stone into the several different species, calculat-
ing the difficulty in each, and apportioning a
value commensurate, which is now the universal
practice. This manner of assessing the value of
the labor, and also of the materials, arose in its
beginning from necessity, there having been
found no other means of putting down the ava-
rice and injustice of the master artificers. On its
first introduction it met with very general oppo-
sition from all mechanics; but its rationality,
together with its truth and accuracy, soon gave
it that ascendancy which it deserved. Hence,
at this time, masonry, as well as other artificers'
works, is divided and subdivided into several
distinct parts, a value being assigned to each,
which is found adequately to remunerate all
concerned for their toil, as well as the incidental
expenses attending on the execution and erection
of their several works. tº
In the admeasurement of mason's work the
measurer is provided with two rods, commonly
of five feet in length each, divided into five equal
parts or feet, and each foot again subdivided into
halves and quarter feet: sometimes the feet are
also drawn in inches, but this latter method is
by no means universal. When the stone to be
measured approximates to fractions, the common
rule is applied to ascertain them. All the stone
is first measured, beginning at that which is fixed
nearest to the top of the building, and then calculat-
ing the labor: every piece of stone which exceeds
two inches in thickness is valued by the cubic
foot, and all other stones under that thickness
are deemed to be slabs, and are valued at per
M A S O N R. Y.
607
foot superficial; these latter generally embrace
the paving-stones of all descriptious, as well as
chimney-pieces, copings, &c. There are also
some portions of the labor as well as the stone
which are valued by the foot measure running;
of this class are the groovings in rusticated work,
flutings in the shafts of columns and pilasters,
joints in gallery floors (called joggled joints),
rebates in stairs, with the throatings to cills and
copings, &c. &c. In the latter description may
beincluded the various sorts of copings employed
on the tops of walls and parapets, narrow slips
to chimney-pieces, &c. &c. The dimensions are
all accurately put down in a book, which for
convenience is ruled into three divisions on its
left-hand side, the middle being about one-third
of the width of those on its sides; this middle
column is that in which the inches and parts are
expressed, and in the left-hand column the feet,
together with the number of times the dimension
is to be repeated or added, and the last for placing
the quantities when cubed and squared: for in
taking the dimensions it often happens that there
may be several pieces of stone of the same size,
and this the measurer marks in his book, as well
as at the same time writing down the nature of
the stone, and also the species of labor about it.
His dimension book stands thus:
3f6 : 0) . .. - -
3. : §: : 43. Portland landing.
: 9
3/7 : 6 84: 4 plain work ditto.
3 : 9
317 : 6 22: 6 groove ditto.
By thus arranging the dimension book, every
particle of stone and labor on it is ascertained
with the greatest accuracy and despatch; they
are all afterwards to be abstracted, which consists
in ruling out a loose sheet of paper into as many
columns or divisions as are required for all the
several species of work which have been measured,
and writing over the head of each of the columns
the particular kind to be inserted in it; for in-
stance, beginning with cube of Portland, all of it
which has been measured is brought into the co-
lumn under that head, plain-work under its head,
also sunk-work, moulded work, and the several
running measures, all stand respectively; and,
when so separated, they are to be cast up at the bot-
tom of each several column, where is to be seen
the whole of the several quantities, after which they
are made out into bills, beginning with the cubes
first, then the superficies, and lastly the running
measures. The works which are valued singly,
or by their number, are similarly classed and
placed last of all at the bottom of the account
For thus measuring, cubing, and squaring the
quantities, and valuing and finishing the account,
surveyors charge two and a half per cent. on
the gross amount. -
The plain-work on stone consists merely in
the cleaning up of its surface, and the rule for
finding how much of it is to be measured is, by
observing that the mason is entitled to all that is
not covered, that is, to every part of it which
may be seen. Sunk-work embraces that kind of
the reason of such an association.
labor to stone which requires the surface or any
other portion of it to be sunk down by chiseling
it away. The tops of all window-cills, for in-
stance are sunk for the purpose of more readily
conveying away the water which falls on them.
Moulded work consists in forming on the edges
of the stone certain forms, known in architec-
ture as mouldings, that is, to make it more ob-
vious. Cornices, architraves, and such parts of
an edifice in which stone is employed, are
fashioned into a variety of curved or other forms.
The dimensions of moulded work are ascertained
by girting it with a string or piece of tape over
to every one and into all its several parts, and
then measuring the length of the string or tape
so girted, which will be the width of the moulded-
work; and the length of the cornice, &c. &c.,
will be its length, which when squared together
will give the superficial quantity of moulded-
work. Masons have also their circular-work;
this kind of labor is measured in the same way
as has been described for the moulded-work, viz.
by girting it all round. There are distinct va-
luations for every one of these different species
of labor. Nevertheless, it is not deemed here
essential to recite them, as they vary as the price.
of the workmen's wages does, except in London
where they are uniform, but, in the country they
are somewhat lower, the value of workmanship
being less by reason of the men having much
less wages. -
MAson RY, FREE, the system of mysteries and
secrets.peculiar to the society of Free and Ac-
cepted Masons. The origin of this society is
ancient; but we have no authentic account of
the time when it was first instituted, or even of
In a Treatise
on Masonry, published in 1792, by William
Preston, master of the Lodge of Antiquity, it is
traced from the creation. “Ever since symme-
try began, and harmony displayed her charms,
says he, “our order has had a being !' By other
accounts the history of masonry is only carried
up to the building of Solomon's temple. In Dr.
Henry's History of Great Britain we find the
origin of this society attributed to the difficulty
found in former times of procuring workmen to
build the vast number of churches, monasteries
and other religious edifices, which the super-
stition of darker ages prompted the people to
raise. Hence the masons were greatly favored
by the popes, and many indulgences were grant-
ed, to augment their numbers. An ancient
author, who was well acquainted with their his-
tory and constitution, says, “The Italians, with
some Greek refugees, and with them French,
Germans, and Flemings, joined into a fraternity
of architects, procuring papal bulls for their en-
couragement; they styled themselves freemasons,
and ranged from one nation to another, as they
found churches to be built : their government
was regular, and, where they fixed near the
building in hand, they made a camp of huts. A
surveyor governed in chief; every tenth man
was called a warden, and superintended the
other nine.’ -
The introduction of masonry to this country
has been fixed at the year 674, when glass-
making was first introduced ; from this time
608 M A S O N R Y.
many buildings in the Gothic style were erected
by masons in companies, who called themselves
free, because they were at liberty to work in any
part of the kingdom. Others derive the institu-
tion from a combination among the people of
that profession not to work without an advance
of wages, when they were summoned from seve-
ral counties, by writs of Edward III., directed
to the sheriffs, to assist in rebuilding and en-
larging the castle, together with the church and
chapel of St. George, at Windsor. At this time,
it is said, the masons agreed on certain tokens,
by which they might know and assist each other
against being pressed into the service of the
king. Preston supposes the introduction of
masonry into England to have been prior to the
Roman invasion; and says, there are remains yet
existing of some stupendous works executed by
the Britons much earlier than the time of the
Romans; so that he has no doubt of the exist-
ence of masonry in Britain even during those
early periods. The Druids are likewise said to
have had among them many customs similar to
those of the masons, and to have derived their
government from Pythagoras; but the resem-
blance cannot now be traced even by the masons
themselves. Masonry is said to have been en-
couraged by Caesar, and many of the Roman
generals who were appointed governors of Bri-
tain. Carausius, in particular, patronised learn-
ing, and collected the best artificers from many
different countries, particularly masons, whom
he held in great veneration, and appointed
Albanus, his steward, the superintendant of
their assemblies. Lodges or conventions of the
fraternity began now, it is said, to be introduced,
and the business of masonry to be regularly car-
ried on. The masons, through the influence of
Albanus, obtained a charter to hold a general
council, at which Albanus himself sat as presi-
dent, and assisted at the reception of many
new members. This Albanus was no less than
the celebrated St. Alban, the first who suffered
martyrdom in Britain for the Christian faith !
Mr. Preston quotes an old M.S., which mentions
that St. Alban was a great friend to masons, and
‘gave them 2s. per week, besides 3d. for their
cheer,' while, before that time, they had only 1d.
per day aſid their meat. The progress of masonry
was greatly obstructed by the departure of the
Romans from Britain; still more by the furious
irruptions of the Scots and Picts, and afterwards
by the ignorance of the Saxons, whom the
Britons called in as allies, but who soon became.
their masters. After the introduction of Chris-
tianity, however, the barbarity of these conquer-
ors began to wear off, the arts were encouraged,
and masonry began to flourish. Lodges were
now formed; but, being under the direction of
foreigners, were seldom convened, and never
attained to any degree of importance. In this
situation it continued till 557, when St. Austin,
with forty monks, among whom the sciences had
been preserved, came into England, and placed
himself, according to the masonic writers, at the
head of the fraternity in founding the old cathe-
dral of Canterbury in 600; that of Rochester in
602; St. Paul's in London in 604; St. Peter's
in Westminster in 605, and many others. In
640 a few expert brethren arrived from France,
and formed themselves into a lodge under the
direction of Bennett, abbot of Wirral, whom
Kenred, king of Mercia, soon after appointed
inspector of the lodges, and general superinten-
dant of masons. During the whole time of
the heptarchy, however, masonry was in a low
state; but it revived in 856, under the patronage
of St. Swithin, whom Ethelwolf employed to
repair some religious houses; and from that time
gradually improved till 872, when it found
a zealous protector in Alfred the Great. He ap-
propriated a seventh part of his revenue for
maintaining a number of masons, whom he em-
ployed in rebuilding the cities, castles, &c.,
ruined by the Danes. Under his successor, Ed-
ward, the masons continued to hold their lodges,
patronised by Ethred, husband to the king's sis-
ter, and Ethelwald his brother, to whom the care
of the fraternity was entrusted. The latter was a
great architect, and founded the university of
Cambridge. The complete re-establishment of
masonry in England, however, is dated from the
reign of king Athelstane: and the grand lodge
of masons at York trace their existence from
this period.
This lodge, the most ancient in England,
dates its foundation in 926, under the patronage
of Edwin, the king's brother, who obtained a
charter from Athelstane, and became grand mas-
ter. By virtue of this charter all the masons in
the kingdom were convened at a general assem-
bly in that city, where they established their
government; and until within the last century
mo general meetings have been held any where
else. Hence the appellation of ancient York
masons is well known both in Ireland and Scot-
land. While prince Edwin lived the masons
were employed in building churches, monas-
teries, &c., and repairing those which had suf-
fered by the ravages of the Danes; after his
death the order was patronised by king Athel-
stame; but on his decase the masons were dis-
persed, and remained in an unsettled state till
the reign of Edgar in 960. They were now col-
lected by St. Dunstan, who employed them in
works of the same kind; but, as no permanent
encouragement was given them, their lodges
soon declined, and masonry remained in a low
state for upwards of fifty years. It revived,
however, in 1041, under Edward the Confessor,
who superintended the execution of several great
works. By the assistance of Leofrick, earl of
Coventry, he rebuilt Westminster Abbey, the earl
being appointed superintendant of the masons;
and by this architect many other magnificent
structures were erected. After the conquest, in
1066, Gundulph bishop of Rochester, and Roger
de Montgomery earl of Shrewsbury, both excel-
lent architects, became joint patrons of the
masons; and under their auspices the tower
of London was begun, though finished only
in the reign of William II., who likewise rebuilt
London Bridge, and first constructed the palace
and hall of Westminster. The masons now
continued to be patronised by the sovereigns of
England in succession. The lodges assembled
during the reign of Henry I. and Stephen;
when the society were employed in building
M A S () N R. Y.
609
a chapel at Westminster, now the house of com-
mons, and several other works; the president of
the lodges being Gilbert de Clare, marquis of
Pembroke. During the reign of Henry II., the
lodges were superintended by the grand master
of the Knights Templars, who employed them in
building their temple in Fleet Street in 1155.
Masonry continued under the patronage of this
order till 1199, when king John succeeded
Richard I., and Peter de Colechurch was ap-
pointed grand master. He began to rebuild
London Bridge with stone, which was afterwards
finished by William Alcmain in 1209. Peter
de Rupibus succeeded as grand master, and
Geoffrey Fitz-Peter, chief surveyor of the king's
works, acted as deputy under him.
On the accession of Edward I., in 1272; the
superintendance of the masons was entrusted to
Walter Giffard archbishop of York, Gilbert de
Clare earl of Gloucester, and Ralph lord of
Mount Hermer, the ancestor of the Montagues.
By these architects the abbey of Westminster
was finished. During the reign of Edward III.
the brethren were employed in building Exeter
and Oriel Colleges in Oxford, Clare Hall in
Cambridge, &c., under Walter Stapleton, bishop
of Exeter, who had been elected grand master in
1307. Edward III, not only patronised the
masons, but studied the constitutions of the
order, revised the ancient charges, and added
several regulations to the original code. He ap-
pointed five deputies to inspect their proceedings
in the lodges, which at this period (as appears
from the records), were numerous. William a
Wykeham was elected grand master, and con-
tinued so on the accession of Richard II. He
founded both the New College in Oxford, and
Winchester College, at his own expense. Under
Henry IV. Thomas Fitz-Allan, earl of Surrey,
was grand master, who, after the engagement at
Shrewsbury, founded Battle Abbey and Fother-
ingay. On the accession of Henry V. the fra-
ternity were governed by Henry Chichely,
archbishop of Canterbury. In 1425, however,
during the minority of Henry VI., an act was
made against the meetings of masons, because
by such meetings it was alleged, “the good
course and effect of the statutes of laborers
were openly violated and broken, in subversion
of the law, and to the great damage of all
the commons.' But this act was not enforced,
and the fraternity continued to meet as usual
under archbishop Chichely. Humphrey, duke
of Gloucester, brother to the regent, and guardian
of the kingdom in his absence, took the masons
under his protection, and they continued not
only to meet in safety, but were joined by
the king himself; who, in 1442, was initiated
into masonry, and from that time spared no pains
to become master of the art. He perused the
ancient charges, revised the constitutions, and
honored them with his sanction. The royal ex-
ample was followed by many of the nobility,
who assiduously studied the art. The king
presided over the lodges in person, and nomi-
nated William Wanefleet, bishop of Winches-
ter, grand master; who at his own expense
built Magdalene College, Oxford, and several
religious houses. Eton College, near Windsor,
Vol. XIII.
and King's College at Cambridge, were also
founded during this reign. Henry, himself
founded Christ's College, as his queen Mar-
garet of Anjou did Queen's College in Cam-
bridge. About this time also the masons were
protected and encouraged by James I., of Scot-
land, who, after his return from captivity, became
a zealous patron of learning and the arts. He
honored the lodges with his presence, and
settled an annual revenue of four pounds Scots
(an English noble) to be paid by every master
mason in Scotland, to a grand master,chosen by
the grand lodge, and approved by the crown.
His office entitled him to regulate every thing in
the fraternity which could not come under the
jurisdiction of law-courts; and, to prevent law-
suits, both mason and lord, or builder and
founder, appealed to him. In his absence they
appealed to his deputy or grand warden, who
resided next the premises. This flourishing
state of masonry was interrupted by the civil
wars between the houses of York and Lancaster,
which brought it almost totally into neglect.
About 1471, however, it revived under Robert
Beauchamp, bishop of Sarum, who had been
appointed grand-master by Edward IV. as well
as chancellor of the garter, for repairing the
castle and chapel of Windsor. It again declined
under Edward V. and Richard III. ; but came
once more into repute on the accession of Henry
VII. in 1485. It was now patronised by the
master and knights of the order of St. John at
Rhodes (see MALTA), who assembled their
grand lodge in 1500, and chose Henry for their
protector. On the 24th of June, 1502, a lodge
of masters was formed in the palace, at which
the king presided as grand master; and having
appointed John Islip abbot of Westminster, and
Sir Reginald Bray knight of the garter, his
wardens for the occasion, proceeded in great
state to the east end of Westminster Abbey,
where he laid the first stone of that excellent
piece of Gothic architecture, called Henry the
Seventh's Chapel. The completion of this
building was celebrated in 1507. The palace
of Richmond, as well as many other noble
structures, was raised under the direction of
Sir Reginald Bray; and the colleges of Brazen-
Nose in Oxford, and Jesus and St. John's in
Cambridge, were all finished in this reign.
On the accession of Henry VIII. cardinal
Wolsey was appointed grand-master; who built
Hampton Court, Whitehall, Christ Church Col-
lege, Oxford, with several other noble edifices.
Wolsey was succeeded as grand-master in 1534
by Thomas Cromwell, earl of Essex; who em-
ployed the fraternity in building St. James's pa-
iacé, Christ's Hospital, and Greenwich Castle.
Cromwell being beheaded in 1540, John Touchet,
lord Audley, succeeded to the office, and built
Magdalen College in Cambridge, and many
other structures. In 1547 the duke of Somerset,
guardian to the king, and regent of the kingdom,
hecame superintendant of the masons, and built
Somerset House in the Strand; which, on his
being beheaded, was forfeited to the crown in
1552. After the duke's death, John Poynet,
bishop of Winchester, presided over the lodges
till the death of king Edward VI. in º
2
610
M A S O N R Y.
From this time they continued without any
patron till the reign of Elizabeth, when Sir
Thomas Sackville accepted the office of grand
master. Lodges, however, had been held during
this period in different parts of England; but
the grand lodge assembled in York, where the
fraternity were numerous and respectable. The
queen hearing that the masons were in posses-
sion of secrets which they refused to disclose,
and being naturally jealous of secret assemblies,
sent an armed force to York to break up the
lodge, This, however, was prevented by Sir
Thomas Sackville, who initiated some of the
chief officers sent on this duty in the secrets of
masonry. These joined with their brethren, and
made so favorable a report to the queen, that she
countermanded her orders, and never afterwards
attempted to disturb the meetings. In 1567
Sir Thomas Sackville resigned the grand master-
ship in favor of Francis Russel, earl of Bedford,
and the celebrated Sir Thomas Gresham; com-
mitted to the former the care of the north part
of the kingdom; and the south to the latter.
The general assembly, however, continued to
meet at York, where all records were kept, and
to decide upon appeals, &c. Sir Thomas Gres-
ham, during his grand mastership, built the
Royal Exchange and Gresham College. From
this time masonry made considerable progress;
lodges were held in different parts of the king-
dom, particularly in London, and its neighbour-
hood, where the number of the brethren increased
considerably. Several other great works were
carried on there under the auspices of Sir Tho-
mas Gresham, from whom the fraternity re-
ceived every encouragement. He was succeeded
by Charles Howard, earl of Effingham, who
continued to preside over the lodges in the south
till 1588, when George Hastings, earl of Hunt-
ingdon was chosen grand-master, and continued
in office till the queen's death. On the accession
of James I. masonry flourished, and lodges
were held in both kingdoms. A number of
gentlemen returned from their travels, with cu-
rious drawings of the Greek and Roman archi-
tecture, as well as strong inclination to revive a
knowledge of it. Among these was the cele-
brated Inigo Jones, who was appointed general
surveyor to the king.
This distinguished architect being appointed
grand master of England, and deputed by the
king to preside over the lodges, several learned
men were now initiated into the mysteries of
masonry; ingenious artists resorted to England
..in great numbers; lodges were constituted as
Seminaries of instruction in the sciences and
polite arts, after the model of the Italian schools;
and the annual festivals regularly observed.
The many magnificent structures raised under
this master we need not particularise; among
the rest he was employed, by the command of
the king, to plan a new palace at Whitehall;
but, for want of a parliamentary fund, no more
of it was ever finished than the banqueting-
house. Inigo Jones continued grand master till
1618, when he was succeeded by the earl of
Pembroke; under whose auspices many eminent
men were initiated, and the mysteries of the
order held in high estimation. The earl con-
tinued in office till 1630, when he resigned in
favor of Danvers, earl of Danby; who was
succeeded.in 1633 by Thomas Howard, earl of
Arundel, ancestor of the . Norfolk family. In
1635 Francis Russel, earl of Bedford, accepted .
the government of the society: but Inigo Jones
having continued to patronise the lodges during
his lordship's administration, he was re-elected
in 1636, and continued in office till his death.
The progress of masonry was now obstructed
by the civil wars; but it began to revive under
Charles II. who had been admitted into the order
during his exile. Some lodges during this reign
were constituted by “leave of the several noble
grand masters,’ and many gentlemen and fa-
mous scholars requested to be admitted into the
fraternity. On the 27th of December, 1663, a
general assembly was held, where Henry Jennyn,
earl of St. Alban's, was elected grand master;
who appointed Sir John Denham his deputy,
and Mr. Christopher Wren, afterwards the cele-
brated Sir Christopher, and John Webb, his
wardens. At this assembly several useful regu-
lations were made, for the better government of
the lodges; and the greatest harmony prevailed
among the whole fraternity. The earl of St.
Alban's was succeeded by earl Rivers in 1666,
when Sir Christopher Wren was appointed de-
puty, and distinguished himself beyond any of
his predecessors, in promoting the prosperity of
the lodges which remained at that time, particu-
larly that of St. Paul's, now the lodge of Anti-
quity, which he patronised upwards of eighteen
years. At this time he attended the meetings
regularly; and during his presidency made a
present to the lodge of three mahogany candle-
sticks, which at that time were very valuable.
They are still preserved, and highly valued. The
fire, which in 1666 destroyed a great part of
London (See LoNDoN), afforded ample opportu-
nity for the masons to exert their abilities. Sir
Christopher Wren was appointed surveyor-
general and principal architect for rebuilding the
city, the cathedral of St. Paul, and all the paro-
chial churches erected by parliament. This
gentleman, however, conceiving the charge to
be too important for a single person, selected
for his assistant Mr. Robert Hook, professor of
geometry in Gresham College. In 1673 the
foundation stone of the cathedral of St. Pauls'
was laid with great solemnity by the king in
person, and the mallet which he used on this
occasion is still preserved in the lodge of anti-
quity. During the short reign of James II, the
masons were much neglected, and, at the Revo-
lution, the society was in such a low state that
only seven regular lodges were held in London
and its suburbs; of these only two, viz. that of
St. Paul's and one at St. Thomas's Hospital,
Southwark, were of any consequence. But in
1695 king William, having been initiated into
the mysteries, honored the lodges with his pre-
sence; particularly one at Hampton Court, at
which he is said to have frequently presided,
during the time that the new part of his palace
was building. Many of the nobility also were
present at a general assembly held in 1697, par-
ticularly Charles, duke of Richmond and Lenox,
who was elected grand master for that year;
º
M A S O N R. Y.
611
but in 1698 resigned his office to Sir Christo-
pher Wren, who continued at the head of the
fraternity till king William's death in 1702.
During the reign of queen Anne masonry made
no considerable progress; although several
lodges met in 1705, in the north of England,
under the direction of Sir John Tempest, bart.
grand master. It was therefore determined that
the privileges of masonry should not be confined
to operative masons, but that people of all pro-
fessions should be admitted to participate in
them, provided they were regularly approved
and initiated. Thus the society once more rose
into esteem; and on the accession of George I.
the masons, now deprived of Sir Christopher
Wren, resolved to unite again under a grand
master, and revive the annual festivals. With
this view, the members of the four lodges then
existing in London met at the Appletree tavern
in Charles Street, Covent Garden; and, having
voted the oldest master-mason then present into
the chair, constituted themselves a grand lodge
pro tempore. It was resolved to renew the
quarterly communications among the brethren;
and at an annual meeting, held on the 24th of
June the same year, Mr. Anthony Sayer was elected
grand master, invested by the oldest master-
mason there present, installed by the master of
the oldest lodge, and had due homage paid him
by the fraternity. Before this time a sufficient
number of masons met together, within a certain
district, had ample power to make masons with-
out a warrant of constitution; but it was now
determined, that the privilege of assembling
as masons should be vested in certain lodges
or assemblies of masons convened in certain
places, and that every lodge to be afterwards
convened, excepting the four old lodges then
existing, should be authorised to act by a
warrant from the grand master for the time,
granted by petition from certain individuals,
with the consent and approbation of the grand
lodge in communication; and that without such
warrant no lodge should hereafter be deemed
regular or constitutional. The former privileges,
however, were still allowed to remain to the four
old lodges then existing. In consequence of
this, the old masons in the metropolis vested
all their inherent privileges as individuals in the
four old lodges, in trust that they never would
suffer the ancient charges and land-marks to be
infringed. The four old lodges, on their part,
agreed to extend their patronage to every new
lodge which should hereafter be constituted ac-
cording to the new regulations of the society;
and, while they acted in conformity to the ancient
constitutions of the order, to admit their masters
and wardens to share with them all the privileges
of the grand lodge, that of precedence only ex-
cepted.
The brethren of the four old lodges now
considered their attendanee on the future com-
munications of the society as unnecessary; and
therefore trusted implicitly to their masters and
wardens, satisfied that no measure of importance
would be adopted without their approbation. It
was, however, soon discovered that the new
lodges, being equally represented with the old
ones at the communications, would at length so
far outnumber them, that, by a majority, they
might subvert the privileges of the original ma-
sons of England, which had been centered in the
four old lodges; on which account a code of laws
was, with the consent of the brethren at large,
drawn up for the future government of the so-
ciety. To this the following was annexed, bind-
ing the grand master for the time being, his
successor, and the master of every lodge to be
hereafter constituted, to preserve it inviolably:—
“Every annual grand lodge has an inherent
power and authority to make new regulations,
or to alter these for the real benefit of this ancient
fraternity, provided always that the old land-
marks be carefully preserved: and that such al-
terations and new regulations be proposed and
agreed to at the third quarterly communication
preceding the annual grand feast; and that they
be offered also to the perusal of all the brethren
before dinner, in writing, even of the youngest
apprentice; the approbation and consent of the
majority of all the brethren present being abso-
lutely necessary to make the same binding and
obligatory.’ To commemorate this circumstance,
it has been customary, ever since that time, for
the master of the oldest lodge to attend every
grand installation; and, taking precedence of all
present, the grand master only excepted, to de-
liver the book of the original constitutions to the
new installed grand master, on his promising
obedience to the ancient charges and general
regulations. By this precaution the original con-
stitutions were established as the basis of all
succeeding masonic jurisdiction in the south of
England; and the ancient land-marks, as they
are called, or the boundaries set up as checks
against innovation, were carefully secured from
the attacks of any future invaders. In 1718 Mr.
Sayer was succeeded by Mr. George Payne, who
collected many valuable MSS. on the subject of
masonry. Another assembly and feast were held
on the 24th of June, 1719, when Dr. Desaguliers
was unanimously elected grand master. At this
feast the old, regular, and peculiar toasts were
introduced; and from this time we may date the
rise of free-masonry, on its present plan, in the
south of England. Many new lodges were
established, the old ones visited by many masons
who had long neglected the craft, and several
noblemen initiated into the mysteries. In 1720,
however, the fraternity are said to have sustained
an irreparable loss by the burning of several
valuable MSS. concerning the lodges, regula-
tions, charges, secrets, &c. This was done by
some scrupulous brethren, who were alarmed at
the publication of the masonic constitutions. At
a quarterly communication it was this year agreed,
that, for the future, the new grand master shall be
named and proposed to the grand lodge some
time before the feast; and, if approved and
present, he shall be saluted as grand master
elect; and that every grand master, when he is
installed, shall have the sole power of appointing
his deputy and wardens according to ancient
custom. In the mean time masonry continued
to spread in the north as well as the south of
England. The general assembly, or grand lodge
at York, continued to meet as usual; and many
persons of worth and character were initiated into
4&A=&al_º. . .
2 R. 2
612
M A S O N R Y.
the mysteries of the fraternity. The greatest har-
mony subsisted between the two grand lodges,
and private lodges were formed in both parts of
the kingdom under their separate jurisdiction.
The only distinction which the grand lodge in
the north appears to have retained is in the title
of the grand lodge of all England; while the
other was only called the grand lodge of
England. The latter, however, being encouraged
by some of the principal nobility, soon acquired
consequence and reputation, while the other
seemed gradually to decline; but, till this period,
the authority of the grand lodge at York was
never challenged; on the other hand, every
mason in the kingdom held that assembly in the
highest veneration, and considered himself bound
by the charges which originated from that as-
sembly. But now this social intercourse was
abolished, and the lodges in the north and
south became estranged from each other. This
is said to have been owing to the introduction of
some innovations among the lodges in the south;
but for the coolness which arose between the two
grand lodges another reason is assigned. A few
brethren at York having, on some trivial occasion,
seceded from their ancient lodge, they applied to
London for a warrant of constitution. Their ap-
plication was honored without any enquiry into
the merits of the case; and thus, instead of being
recommended to the mother-lodge to be restored
to favor, these brethren were encouraged to re-
volt, and permitted, under the sanction of the
grand lodge in London, to open a new lodge in
the city of York itself. This illegal extension of
power offended the grand lodge at York, and oc-
casioned a breach which has never been fully
made up. We now turn to a more pleasing fea-
ture of the modern history of masonry.
The duke of Buccleugh, who in 1723 succeeded
the duke of Wharton as grand master, first pro-
posed the scheme of raising a general fund for
distressed masons. This motion was supported
by lord Paisley, colonel Houghton, and a few
other brethren ; and the grand lodge appointed a
committee to consider of the most effectual means
of carrying the scheme into execution. The dis-
posal of the charity was first vested in seven
brethren; but, this number being found too small,
nine more were added. It was afterwards re-
solved that twelve masters of contributing lodges,
in rotation with the grand officers, should form
the committee; and, by another regulation since
made, it has been determined that all past and
present grand officers, with the masters of all
regular lodges, which shall have contributed
within twelve months to the charity, shall be
members of the committee. This committee
meets four times in the year by virtue of a sum-
mons from the grand master or his deputy. The
petitions of the distressed brethren are considered
at these meetings; and, if the petitioner be con-
sidered as a deserving object, he is immediately
relieved with £5. If the circumstances of the
case are of a peculiar nature, his petition is re-
ferred to the next communication, where he is
relieved with any sum the committee may have
specified, not exceeding twenty guineas at one
time. Thus the distressed have always found
ready relief from this general charity, which is
<--tº-s-s-s
supported by the voluntary contributions of dif-
ferent lodges out of their private funds, without
being burdensome to any member in the society;
and so liberal have the contributions been, that
though the sums annually expended, for the re-
lief of the distressed brethren, have for a long
time past amounted to many thousand pounds,
there still remains a considerable sum. One of
the most remarkable events, in the affairs of
modern masonry, is the initiation of Omitul
Omrah Bahauder, eldest son of the nabob of the
Carnatic, who was received by the lodge of
Trinchinopoly in the year 1779. The news being
officially transmitted to England, the grand lodge
determined to send a congratulatory letter to his
highness on the occasion, accompanied with an
apron elegantly decorated, and a copy of the
book of Constitutions superbly bound. The
execution of this commission was entrusted to
Sir John Duy, advocate-general of Bengal; and
in the beginning of 1780 an answer was received
from his highness, acknowledging the receipt of
the present, and expressing the warmest attach-
ment and benevolence to his brethren in England.
The letter was written in the Persian language,
and enclosed in an elegant cover of cloth of gold,
addressed to the grand master and grand lodge
of England. A proper reply was made; and
a translation of his highness's letter was ordered
to be copied on vellum; and, with the ori-
ginal, elegantly framed and glazed, and hung
up in the hall at every public meeting of the
society. #
After such a copious history of the rise, pro-
gress, and present state of masonry, it may seem
natural to enquire into the uses of the institution,
and for what purpose it has been patronised by
so many great and illustrious personages. The
profound secrecy, however, in which every thing
relating to masonry is endeavoured to be kept,
will prevent us from being very particular on
this head. Masons themselves say that it pro-
motes philanthropy, friendship, , and morality;
that in proportion as masonry has been culti-
wated the countries have been civilised, &c.
How far this can be depended upon, the frater-
nity best know. Another advantage, arising from
its peculiarities, seems less equivocal, viz. that
its signs serve as a kind of universal language,
so that by means of them the most distant na-
tions may become acquainted, and enter into
friendship with each other. The late Dr. John
Brown rendered the social institution of masonry
subservient to the purposes of literature, by insti-
tuting a Latin lodge at Edinburgh, in 1784, en-
titled The Roman Eagle; which was carried on
with great eclat for some time.
But the abbé Barruel has attempted in his
Memoirs of the History of Jacobinism, trans-
lated into English by the Hon. Robert Clifford,
F. R. S. and A. S., to cast all the honor of the
institution into shade; and ventures to ascribe
the French revolution, and the subsequent con-
vulsions of Europe, to the principles and plans
of this fraternity. He exempts indeed the Eng-
lish masons from his most important charges,
and considers them as distinguished from those
of the continent of Europe, by their charity and
brotherly affection. Those of Germany, how-
M A S O N R. Y.
613
ever, he says, some of ‘the most detestable of
the Jacobin crew,’ affect a contempt for the
English lodges. Yet this writer allows that for a
considerable time the generality of lodges, both
in France and Germany, might also have been
excepted from the charge which he adduces
against them. The grand objects of masonry,
which he criminates, are, as he says, equality and
liberty. He seems , to have been enrolled a
member of this society against his own inclina-
tion ; and describes the manner in which he was
admitted “apprentice,’ ‘fellowcraft,’ and “mas-
ter,’ in one evening. The grand object which
he proposed to himself of course was to learn
the secrets of masonry: and these he does not
scruple thus to reveal. ‘The moment having
arrived that was destined for this purpose, he
was ordered to approach nearer to the “Vene-
rable:’ then the brethren, who had been armed
with swords for the occasion, drew up in two
iines, holding their swords elevated; and lean-
ing the points toward each other formed what is
called the arch of steel. The candidate passed
under this arch to a sort of altar elevated on two
steps, at the farthest end of the lodge. The
master seated in an arm chair, or a sort of
throne, behind this altar, now pronounced a long
discourse on the inviolability of the secret which
was to be imparted, and on the danger of break-
ing the oath which the candidate was about to
take. He pointed to the naked swords, always
ready he said to pierce the breast of the traitor,
and declared to him that it was impossible to
escape their vengeance. The candidate then
swore that, rather than betray the secret, he con-
sented to have his head cut off, his heart and
entrails torn out, and his ashes cast before the
winds. Having taken the oath, the master said
the following words, which the reader he says
may easily conceive have not escaped my me-
mory, as I had expected them with so much
impatience, ‘My dear brother, the secret of
masonry consists in these words, equality and
liberty; all men are equal and free; all men are
brethren.’ The master did not utter another
syllable; and every body embraced the new
brother equal and free. The lodge broke up,
and we gaily adjourned to a masonic repast.
Our author under the name of occult lodges,
or the higher degrees of masonry, comprehends
all free masons, who, after having passed the
first three degrees of apprentice, fellowcraft,
and master, are sufficiently zealous to be admit-
ted into the higher degrees, where, as he says,
the veil is rent asunder, where emblematical and
allegorical figures are thrown aside, and where
the twofold principle of equality and liberty is
unequivocally explained “by war against Christ
and his altars, war against kings and their
thrones: an assertion which we confess we can
believe on no such authority. He undertakes.
however to demonstrate, that such is the result
of the mysteries of the craft.
Masonic writers in general, he says, divide
free masonry into three classes, the Hermetic,
the Cabalistic (comprehending the Martinists),
and the Eclectic masonry; all of which agree
in one point, viz. their hatred to Christianity and
revelation.
The Eclectic masons are represented as the
most numerous. These, after having passed
through the different degrees of masonry, attach
themselves to no particular system, either poli-
tical or religious, but adopt from them whatever
may best suit their political or religious views.
They are what they please, Deists, Atheists,
Sceptics, an aggregate of all the errors of the
philosophism of the day; with respect to reli-
gion, they admit that equality and liberty which
deny every authority but their own reason, and
reject all revealed religion; and, as to govern-
ments, they admit of no kings, unless subservient
to the will of the people in right of its sove-
reignty. Those who belongéd to a sort of
Eclectic masonry, established about the period
of his writing in Germany, asserted that all are
independent, and have a right of making their
own laws. For this reason, they abolished the
names of Grand Lodge and Scotch Lodge, so
that they may be said to have improved upon
masonic equality and liberty. Such Eclectic
masons could not have been very numerous in
France, as the major part of them was under
the inspection of the Grand Parisian Lodge,
called the ‘Grand Orient.' All classes, and
every code of masonry, Hermetic, Cabalistic,
or Martinists, and Eclectic, concurred in for-
warding the revolution, he adds, and it little
imported to the sect which struck the blow, pro-
vided that ruin ensued.
M. Barruel attributes the origin of free ma-
sonry to the Knights Templars, who were either
the authors of it, or borrowed it by tradition
from the ancient mysteries of Paganism. Ac-
cording to his wonder-teeming statement, depo-
sitions of the Knights Templars declare, that on
their reception into the order they denied Christ,
trampled on the cross, and spit upon it; that
Good Friday was a day particularly consecrated
to such outrages; that they promised to pros-
titute themselves to each other for the most un-
natural crimes; that every child begotten by a
Templar was cast into the fire; that they bound
themselves by oath to obey, without exception,
every order from the grandmaster; to spare
neither sacred nor profane things; to look upon
every thing as lawful when the good of the order
was in question; and, above all, never to violate
the horrible secrets of their nocturnal mysteries,
under pain of the most terrible chastisements.
Somewhat inconsistently with this statement he
now traces them farther back, i. e. to Manes
and the Manichees, reflecting on the Albigenses,
Waldenses, &c., of the south of France as con-
nected with them.
He closes his account of the free masons by
directing the attention of his reader to a body
of men, or conspirators as he calls them, who
had coalesced, under the name of “Illuminées,’
with the Encyclopédists and masons. They
silently prepared, he contends, the explosions of
the revolutionary volcano, not merely swearing
hatred to the altar of Christ and the throne of
kings, but swearing at once hatred to every god,
every law, and every government; and even to
all society and social compact! They even pro-
scribed the terms mine and thine, acknowledging
neither equality nor liberty, but in the ‘entire,
MAS
MAS
614
absolute, and universal overthrow of all pro-
perty.’
MASORA, a term in the Jewish theology, sig-
nifying a work on the Bible, performed by se-
veral learned rabbies, to secure it from any
alterations which might otherwise happen. Their
work regards merely the letter of the Hebrew
text, in which they have fixed the reading by
vowels and accents. Secondly, they have num-
bered not only the chapters and sections, but
the verses, words, and letters of the text: and
they find in the Pentateuch 5245 verses, and in
the whole Bible 23,206. The masora is called
by the Jews the hedge or fence of the law,
because this enumeration of the verses, &c., is a
means of preserving it from being corrupted and
altered. Thirdly, they have marked whatever
irregularities occur in any of the letters of the
Hebrew text; such as the different size of the
letters, their various positions and inversions,
&c., and they have been fruitful in finding out
reasons for these irregularities and mysteries in
them. Fourthly, they are supposed tâ be the
authors of the Keri and Chetiph, or the marginal
corrections of the text in the Hebrew Bibles.
The text of the sacred books, it is to be observed,
was originally written without any breaks or
divisions into chapters or verses, or even into
words; so that a whole book, in the ancient
manner, was but one continued word: of this
kind we have still several ancient MS. books,
both Greek and Latin. As, thereforé, the sacred
writings had undergone an infinite number of
alterations, whence various readings had arisen,
and the original was become much mangled and
disguised, the Jews had recourse to a canon,
which they judged infallible, to fix the reading
of the Hebrew text; and this rule they call ma-
sora, tradition, from ºntºn, tradidit. For, the He-
brew consonants being generally written without
the vowels, the words would often bear a dif-
ferent signification, according to the vowels sup-
plied; for instance, the three letters na", d b r,
have at least five different significations, viz, he
spake, speaking, a word, a pestilence, and a fold
for sheep or cattle. Whilst the Hebrew was a
living language, there is no doubt that the word
composed of these three letters was understood
in its different significations by the different
vowels that were used in it when they uttered it.
Such vowel points the Masorites have now affixed
to it, by which we may know when and where
these three letters signify one thing and when
and where another. When it signifies “he spake,’
they affix the points which denote a short and
e long, and say +31, daber; when it is a par-
ticiple, and signifies ‘speaking,' they read by
their points ins", dober; when it is a noun, and
signifies a ‘word, they put under it two a's
short, and read º, dabar, when it signifies a
pestilence they put two e's under, and read
"37, deber; when it signifies a fold they put
the points which denote a and e, and read it
"31; and so they have done with other words.
What has been done, in this case, by the Maso-
rites, would certainly be of great use for under-
standing the Hebrew text, if they had lived
while the Hebrew was a living language, and
these points had been then used, and we could
have been assured of their knowledge of the true
pronunciation of all words, according to their
different significations; but, as the Hebrew was a
dead language many hundred years before this
time, the true ancient pronunciation was as much
unknown then as now. We have ‘St. Jerome's
testimony, that different vowels were used in the
pronunciation of the same word in different
countries; and this was at least 100 years before
the Masorites began the invention of their points,
either for vowel, pause, or accent; and they
were improving for some centuries. It is also
manifest, from the LXX., that the ancient Jews
read with different vowels from those which the
Masorites have affixed. Accordingly they say
that, when God gave the law to Moses at Mount
Sinai, he taught him, first, the true reading of
it; and, secondly, its true interpretation; and
that both these were handed down by oral tra-
dition, from generation to generation, till at
length they were committed to writing. The for-
mer of these, viz. the true reading, is the subject
of the masora; the latter, or true interpretation,
that of the mishna and gemara. The Masorites
have, however, occasionally altered the text to
be in accordance with their ideas of the inter-
pretation, or at least so fixed the points as to
favor their reading. In Dan. ix. 25, they put
their athnach or semicolon after the seven weeks,
and thus, cutting off the seven weeks from the
three score and two weeks, make the prophecy
wholly unserviceable to Christians; but if they
had placed a comma after seven weeks, and their
athnach or semicolon after three score and two
weeks, the number of years, viz. 483 (sixty-nine
weeks) would exactly point out the time when
the Christian Messiah came. There is a masora
printed at Venice and at Basil, with the Hebrew
text in a different character. Buxtorf has writ-
ten a masoretic commentary, which he calls
Tiberias. r
MASORITES, the compilers of the Masora.
Elias Levita says, they were the Jews of a fa-
mous school at Tiberias, who, about A. D. 500,
composed, or at least began, the masora; whence
they are Called Masorites, and masoretic doctors.
Aben Ezra makes them the authors of the points
and accents in the Hebrew text, as we now, find
it; and which serve for vowels. The age of the
Masorites has been much'disputed. Archbishop
Usher places them before Jerome; Capel at the
end of the fifth century; Father Morin in the
tenth century. Basnage, says, that they were not
a society, but a succession of men; and that the
masora is the work of many grammarians, who,
without associating and communicating their no-
tions, composed this collection of criticisms on
the Hebrew text. It is urged that there were
Masorites from the time of Ezra and the men of
the great synagogue, to about A. D. 1030 ; and
that Ben Asher and Ben Napthali, who, accord-
ing to Basnage, were the inventors of the masora,
flourished at this time. Each of these published
a copy of the whole Hebrew text, as correct, says
Dr. Prideaux, as they could make it. The
eastern Jews followed that of Ben Naphthali, and
M A S Q U i.
i} E F E R. 615
the western that of Ben Asher; and all that has
been done since is to copy after them, without
making any more corrections or masoretical cri-
ticisms. The Arabs have done the same by their
Koran that the masorites have done by the Bible;
nor do the Jews deny their having borrowed this
expedient from the Arabs, who first put it in
practice in the seventh century.
MASQUE, or MAsk, a cover for the face, con-
trived with apertures for the eyes and mouth;
originally worn chiefly by women of condition,
either to preserve their complexion from the
weather, or to prevent their being known. Pop-
paea, wife of Nero, is said to have invented the
masque; to guard her complexion from the sun,
being uncommonly delicate with regard to her
person. Theatrical masques, however, were in
use both among the Greeks and Romans: Sui-
das and Athenaeus ascribe the invention of them
to the poet Choerilus, a contemporary of Thes-
pis; Horace attributes them to Æschylus; but
the real inventor, according to Aristotle, as well
as the time of their first introduction and use,
was unknown. Brantome observes that the use
of masques was not introduced till towards the
. end of the sixteenth century. -
MASQUE, in architecture, is applied to certain
pieces of sculpture, representing some hideous
forms, grotesque, or satyrs’ faces, &c., used to fill
up and adorn vacant places, as in friezes, the pan-
nels of doors, keys of arches, &c., but particularly
in grottoes.
MASquE DE FER, or Man with the Iron Mask,
in modern French history, were a celebrated state
prisoner in the reign of Louis XIV., so called on
account of his wearing a black mask over his
face when he appeared before strangers. He is
the Junius of this period of the French history.
The public attention was first attracted to the re-
markable circumstances connected with his con-
finement by the celebrated Voltaire, nearly fifty
years after the death of the prisoner. The fol-
lowing are the principal facts related by that
writer, who, receiving the history certainly in a
very imperfect state, added, it would seem, some
few embellishments calculated to favor his own
surmises. According to his account, a few months
after the death of cardinal Mazarine, there ar-
rived at the isle of Sainte Marguerite a young
prisoner whose appearance was peculiarly at-
tractive: his person was above the middle size,
and elegantly formed; his mien and deportment
were noble, and his manners graceful. On the
road he constantly wore a mask made with iron
springs, to enable him to eat without taking it
off. It was at first believed that this masque was
made entirely of iron; whence he acquired the
title of the Man with the Iron Mask. His at-
tendants had received orders to despatch him, if
he attempted to take off his masque or discover
himself. He had been first confined at Pignerol
under the care of the governor M. de St. Mars;
and, upon being sent thence to St. Marguerite, he
was accompanied by the same person. He was
always treated with the utmost respect: he was
served constantly in plate; and the governor
himself placed his dishes on the table, retiring
immediately after and locking the door behind
him. He never wore his hat before him, nor ever
sat down in his presence without being desired.
The marquis Louvois, who went to see him at St.
Marguerite, spoke to him standing, and with that
kind of attention which denotes high respect.
During his residence here, he attempted twice,
in an indirect manner, to make himself known.
One day he wrote something with his knife on a
silver plate, and threw it out of his window tow-
ards a boat that was drawn on shore near the
foot of the tower. A fisherman picked it up and
carried it to the governor. M. de St. Mars
asked the man, with great anxiety, whether he
could read, and whether any one else had seen
the plate? the man answered, that he could not
read, that he had but just found the plate, and
that no one else had seen it. He was, however,
confined till the governor was well assured of
the truth of his assertions. Another attempt to
discover himself proved equally unsuccessful.
A young man who lived in the isle one day
perceived something floating under the pri-
soner's window; and, on picking it up, he dis-
covered it to be a very fine shirt written all
over. He carried it immediately to the gover-
nor; who, having looked at some parts of the
writing, asked the lad, with some appearance of
anxiety, if he had not had the curiosity to read it !
He protested repeatedly that he had not; but
two days afterwards he was found dead in his
bed. -
The Masque de Fer remained in this isle till
1698, when M. St. Mars, being promoted to the
government of the Bastile, conducted his pri-
soner to that fortress. In his way thither he
stopt with him at his estate near Palteau. . The
masque arrived there in a litter, surrounded by a
numerous guard on horseback. M. de St. Mars
eat at the same table with him all the time they
resided at Palteau; but the latter was always
placed with his back towards the windows; and
the peasants, who came to pay their compliments
to their master, and whom curiosity kept con-
stantly on the watch, observed that M. de St.
Mars always sat opposite to him with two pistols
by the side of his plate. They were waited on
by one servant only, who brought in and carried
out the dishes, always carefully shutting the docr
both in going out and returning. The prisoner
was always masked, even when he passed through
the court; but the people saw his teeth and lips,
and observed that his hair was gray. The gover-
nor slept in the same room with him, in a second
bed that was placed in it on that occasion. In
the course of their journey, the masque, con-
tinues this author, was one day heard to ask his
keeper, whether the king had any design on his
life: ‘No, prince, he replied, ‘provided that
you quietly allow yourself to be conducted, your
life is perfectly secure.” The stranger was ac-
commodated as well as it was possible to be in
the Bastile. An apartment had been prepared for
him by order of the governor before his arrival,
fitted up in the most convenient style; and every
thing he expressed a desire for was instantly pro-
cured him. His table was the best that could
be provided; and he was supplied with as rich
clothes as he desired; but his chief taste in this last
particular was for lace, and for linen remarkably
fine. He was allowed the use of such books as
f;16 M A S Q U E
D E F F. R.
he desired, and he spent much of his time in
reading. He also amused himself with playing
upon the guitar. He had the liberty of going to
mass ; but was then strictly forbidden to speak or
uncover his face: orders were even given to the
soldiers to fire upon him, if he attempted either;
and their pieces were always pointed towards
him as he passed through the court. When he
had occasion to see a surgeon, or a physician, he
was obliged, under pain of death, constantly to
wear his mask. An old physician of the Bastile,
who had often attended him when he was indis-
posed, said, that he never saw his face, though he
had frequently examined his tongue, and different
parts of his body; and that he never complained
of his confinement, nor let fall any hint by
which it might be guessed who he was. He
often passed the night in walking up and down
his room. This unfortunate person died on the
19th of November, 1703, after a short , illness;
and was interred next day in the burying-place
of the parish of St. Paul. The expense of his
funeral amounted only to forty livres. The name
given him was Marchiali; and even his age, as
well as his real name, it seemed of importance
to conceal; for, in the register made of his fune-
ral, it was mentioned that he was about forty years
old, though he had told his apothecary, some time
before his death, that he thought he must be
sixty. Immediately after his death, his apparel,
linen, clothes, mattrasses, and in short every
thing that had been used by him, were burnt;
the walls of his room were scraped, the floor
taken up, evidently from the apprehension that
he might have found means of writing any thing
that would have discovered who he was. Nay,
such was the fear of his having left a letter, or
any mark which might lead to a discovery, that
his plate was melted down; the glass was taken
out of the window of his room and pounded to
dust; the window frame and doors burnt; and the
ceiling of the room, and the plaster of the inside
of the chimney, taken down. Several persons
have affirmed, that the body was buried without
a head; and M. de St. Foix informs us, in his
Essais Historiques, that “a gentleman having
bribed the sexton had the body taken up in the
night, and found a stone instead of the head.’ See
BASTILE.
Among the numerous conjectures concerning
the real name and condition of this remarkable
personage, the masked prisoner was from time to
time asserted to have been an Armenian patri-
arch, forcibly carried from Constantinople by the
contrivance of the Jesuits; Louis count de Ver-
mandois, natural son to Louis XIV. ; the cele-
brated duke of Beaufort; and even James duke
of Monmouth: although the Armenian patriarch
was enrolled in the records of the Bastile by the
name of Avedik, his face was unknown, and
therefore required no concealment; and although
he had died ten years before the mask,-although
de Vermandois was believed by his father and
the whole army to have perished in the camp
before Dixmude, and was accordingly buried
near Arras in 1693,-although, according to the
belief of the Turks, Beaufort was killed, and his
head taken off before Candia; and although
James of Monmouth, in the imagination of the
Londoners at least, was executed on Tower Hill.
Yet as no living princes were at that time mis-
sing, the silence of the grave must be disturbed,
and the evidence of men's senses attacked as in-
sufficient, in order to raise a personage of suffi-
cient importance. Some, however, conceiving
that to create a new prince was at least as
easy as to raise a dead one, asserted that he was
a son of Anne of Austria, queen to Louis XIII.,
and consequently that he was a brother of Louis
XIV. The queen, it was stated, proved with
child at a time when it was evident it could not
have been by her husband, who, for some months
before, had never been with her in private. The
supposed father of this child is said to have been
the duke of Buckingham, who came to France in
May, 1625, to conduct the princess Henrietta,
wife of Charles I., to England. Another opinion
is, that he was the twin-brother of Louis XIV.,
born some hours after him. This first appeared
in a short anonymous work published without
date, or name of place or printer. It is therein
said, ‘Louis XIV. was born at St. Germains en
Laye on the 5th of September, 1638, about noon;
and the illustrious prisoner, known by the appel-
lation of the iron masque, was born the same .
day, while Louis XIII. was at supper. The
king and the cardinal, fearing that the pretensions
of a twin-brother might one day be employed to
renew those civil wars with which France had
been so often afflicted, cautiously concealed his
birth, and sent him away to be brought up pri-
vately.’ This opinion was confirmed in a work
called Memoires de Marechal Duc de Richelieu,
written by the abbé Soulavie; in which it is
distinctly asserted that, “the birth of the prisoner
happened in the evening of the 5th of Septem-
ber, 1638, in presence of the chancellor, the
bishop of Meaux, the author of the MS., a mid-
wife named Peronéte, and a sieur Honorat.
This circumstance greatly disturbed the king's
mind; he observed that the Salique law had
made no provision for such a case. By the ad-
vice of cardinal Richelieu it was therefore resolved
to conceal his birth, but to preserve his life, in
case, by the death of his brother, it should be
necessary to avow him. A declaration was
drawn up, and signed and sworn to by all pre-
sent, in which every circumstance was mentioned,
and several marks on his body described. This
document, being sealed by the chancellor with
the royal seal, was delivered to the king; and
all took an oath never to speak on the subject,
not even in private and among themselves. The
child was delivered to the care of madame Peron-
éte, to be under the direction of cardinal Riche-
lieu, at whose death the charge devolved to
cardinal Mazarin. Mazarin appointed the author
of the MS. his governor, and entrusted to him
the care of his education. But as the prisoner
was extremely attached to madame Peronéte, and
she equally so to him, she remained with him
till her death. His governor carried him to his
house in Burgundy, where he paid the greatest
attention to his education. As the prisoner grew
up he became impatient to discover his birth,
and often importuned his governor on that sub-
ject. His curiosity had been roused, by obsery-
ing that messengers from the court frequently
MAS
MAS
617
arrived at the house; and a box, containing let-
ters from the queen and the cardinal, having
one day been inadvertently left out, he opened
it, and saw enough to guess at the secret. From
that time he became thoughtful and melancholy,
‘which,’ says the author, “I could not then
account for. He shortly after asked me to get
him a portrait of the late and present king; but
I put him off, by saying that I could not procure
any that were good. He then desired me to let
him go to Dijon; which I have known since was
with an intention of seeing a portrait of the king
there, and of going secretly to St. John de Lus,
where the court then was, on occasion of the
marriage with the infanta. He was beautiful;
and love helped him to accomplish his wishes.
He had captivated the affections of a young
housekeeper, who procured him a portrait of the
king. It might have served for either of the
brothers; and the discovery put him into so
violent a passion, that he immediately came to
me, with the portrait in his hand, saying, Voila
mon frere, et voila qui je suis, showing me at
the same time a letter of the cardinal de Mazarin
that he had taken out of the box.’ Upon this dis-
covery his governor immediately sent an express
to court, to communicate what had happened,
and to desire new instructions. On this, both
the prince and governor were arrested, he informs
us, and continues the rest of his narrative in a
manner similar to that of Voltaire.
The whole of this wonderful tale is now ex-
ploded, and the masked prince, the brother of a
king, is converted into an Italian politician, a
crafty agent of the duke of Mantua, who, having
out-manoeuvred Louis, the revengeful monarch
thus imprisoned him for life.
The abbé D'Estrades, French ambassador to
the states of Venice, had formed the hope of
acquiring for his master the town and fortress of
Casal in the territories of the duke of Mantua,
and selected as his agent with Ferdinand, Ercolo
Antonio Matthioli, bachelor of laws, at Bologna,
and a senator of Mantua. He had been secre-
tary of state to the former duke, and retained the
confidence of the present, who sent him, after
various negociations, to Paris, in order to con-
clude the treaty for the delivery of the fortress.
...All was arranged; French forces were prepared
on the frontier, under the command of M. Cati-
nat, to take possession of the place, and D'Asfeld
repaired to Venice to see Ferdinand, D'Asfeld
was arrested; Matthioli wrote to Pinchesne, the
deputy of D'Estrades, informing him that the
duke had entered into a treaty with Spain and
Austria; and a communication from the duchess-
dowager of Savoy at length brought the morti-
fying certainty that the Grand Monarque had
been completely duped by the obscure agent of
a petty Italian prince.
This so mortified the pride of Louis that
he resolved to ruin Matthioli, and accordingly
entrapped and committed him to custody. St.
Mars was his keeper, and the precautions taken
to prevent its being known that the humbled
pride of Louis could take such revenge, though
probably much exaggerated, were doubtless
severe and remarkable. He travelled in a canvas
chair so that not even his guards could see his
face, and St. Mars amused the inquisitive with
“des contes jaunes, to throw them, as a hunts-
man would say, from the right scent. In these
we doubtless may discover the origin of many of
the miraculous incidents related by Voltaire.
The true origin, for instance, of the narrative
of the silver plate, said to be thrown' from his
window by Marchiali (the name given in the
Bastile to the masque), may be discovered in the
following incident which occurred at St. Mar-
guerite while he was there. “A Protestant
minister, confined here at the same time, amused
himself, says St. Mars, “with scribbling sorry
stuff (‘des pauvretés') on his linen and pewter,
which, being transformed into silver by the gos-
sips, added considerably to the marvel of the
tale.’
Those who wish to consult the evidence on
which this account of the masque, rests, and
which consists of state papers, letters from
St. Mars and Louvois, the war minister, which,
though quite conclusive, are much too long for
our insertion, may refer to the Histoire de
l'Homme au Masque de Fer, by M. Delors,
Paris, 1825; or, still better, to the History of
the Iron Mask, by the Honorable George Agar
Ellis, London, 1826.
MAS QUERADE, n.s. & v. a. See MASK.
MASQUERA DER, n.s. $ An entertain-
ment at which the company are masked : to go
in masks or disguise: a masquerader is a person
thus disguised.
I was upon the frolick this evening, and came to
visit thee in a masquerade. Dryden's Spanish Friar.
A freak took an ass in the head, and he goes into
the woods, masquerading up and down in a lion's
skin. s L’Estrange.
The most dangerous sort of cheats are but mas-
queraders under the vizor of friends. Id.
It is a kind of acting to go in masquerade, and a
man should be able to say or do things proper for the
dress in which he appears. The misfortune of the
thing is, that people dress themselves in what they
have a mind to be, and not what they are fit for.
Steele.
Truth, of all things the plainest and sincerest, is
forced to gain admittance in disguise, and court us in
masquerade. Felton.
I find that our art hath not gained much by the
happy revival of masquerading among us. Swift.
What guards the purity of melting maids,
In courtly balls and midnight masquerades,
Safe from the treacherous friend, and daring spark,
The glance by day, the whisper in the dark? Pope.
At operas an' plays parading,
Mortgaging, gambling, masquerading.
Burns.
MASRAKITHA, an instrument of music
among the ancient Hebrews, composed of pipes
of various sizes, fitted into a kind of wooden
chest, open at the top, and stopped at the bottom
with wood covered with a skin. Wind was con-
veyed to it from the lips, by means of a pipe
fixed to the chest: the pipes were of lengths
musically proportioned to each other, and the
melody was varied at pleasure, by stopping and
unstopping with the fingers the apertures at the
upper extremity.
MASS, n.s. & v. a. Lat. missa, a mitto. A
service of the Romish church. See below : to
perform mass.
MAS
MAS
GIS
Their massing furniture they took from the law, lest,
having an altar and a priest, they should want vest-
InefitS. Hooker.
Burnished gold is that manner of gilding which
we see in old parchment and mass books, done by
monks and priests; who were very expert therein.
Peacham on Drawing.
Malicious mass-priest, cast back those emissitious
eyes, to your own infamous chair of Rome; and, if
even in that thou canst discern no spectacles of
abominable uncleanness, spend thy spiteful censures
upon ours. Bp. Hall.
Cardinal Albernolius, by his last will, took order
for fifty thousand masses to be said for his soul.
Jer. Taylor.
He infers, that then Luther must have been unpar-
donably wicked in using masses for fifteen years.
Atterbury.
Fr. masse, massif; Lat.
MASS, n.s. & v. a.
massa. A body; lump;
MAS's Ive, adj.
MAS's Y, bulk; quantity; conside-
MAS's INESS, n. s. rable quantity; congeries;
MAS's Iven ESS. gross body: to accumu-
late in masses; strengthen or thicken (obsolete):
massive and massy mean bulky; heavy; pon-
derous; solid: massiness and massiveness cor-
respond. e
Thy sumptuous buildings, and thy wife's attire,
Have cost a mass of publick treasury. Shakspeare.
This army of such mass and charge,
Led by a delicate and tender prince. -
Id. Hamlet.
If you would hurt,
Your swords are now too massy for your strength,
And will not be uplifted. Tempest.
He discovered to me the richest mines which the
Spaniards have, and from whence all the mass of gold
that comes into Spain is drawn. Raleigh.
Comets have power over the gross and mass of
things; but they are rather gazed upon than wisely
observed in their effects. Bacon.
He had spent a huge mass of treasure in transport-
ing his army. Davies on Ireland.
They feared the French might, with filling or mas-
sing the house, or else by fortifying, make such a
piece as might annoy the haven. Hayward.
Let ignorance with envy chat,
In spite of both, thou fame shalt win;
Whose mass of learning seems like that
Which Joseph gave to Benjamin.
Herrick to Ben Jonson.
The Creator of the world would not have framed
so huge a mass of earth but for some reasonable crea-
tures to have their habitation. Abbot.
It was more notorious for the daintiness of the pro-
vision served in it, than for the massiness of the dish.
Hakewill.
No sideboards then with gilded plate were
pressed,
No sweating slaves with massive dishes dressed.
ar Dryden.
The whole knowledge of groupes, of the lights
and shadows, and of those masses which Titian calls
a bunch of grapes, is, in the prints of Rubens, ex-
posed clearly to the sight. Id.
Where'er thou art, he is ; the eternal mind
Acts through all places; is to none confined:
Fills ocean, earth, and air, and all above,
And through the universal mass does move... Id.
Where flowers grow, the ground at a distance
seems covered with them, and we must -walk into
it before we can distinguish the several weeds that
spring up in such a beautiful mass of colours.
Addison.
Perhaps these few stones and slings, used with in-
vocation of the Lord of Hosts, may countervail the
massive armour of the uncircumcised Philistine.
Government of the Tongue.
At distance, through an artful glass,
To the mind's eye things well appear;
They lose their forms and make a mass
. Confused and black, if brought too near.
- Prior.
The intrepid Theban hears the bursting sky,
Sees yawning rocks in massy fragments fly,
And views astonished, from the hills afar,
The floods descending, and the watery war. Pope.
If these liquors or glasses were so thick and massy
that no light could get through them, I question not.
but that they would, like all other opaque bodies, ap-
pear of one and the same colour in all positions of
the eye. Newton's Opticks.
The more gross and massive parts of the terrestrial
globe, the strata of stone, owe their order to the de-
luge. Woodward.
Some passing into their pores, others adhering in
lumps or masses to their outsides, so as wholly to
cover and involve it in the mass they together consti-
tuted. Id.
If there is not sufficient quantity of blood, an
strength of circulation, it may infect the whole mass
of the fluids. Arbuthnot.
The mass of the people have opened their eyes,
and will not be governed by Clodius and Curio.
Swift.
MAss, in mechanics, is the matter of anybody
cohering with it, i.e. moving and gravitating
along with it; in which sense mass is distin-
guished from bulk or volume, which is the ex-
pansion of a body in length, breadth, and thick-
ness. The mass of any body is rightly estimated
by its weight; and the masses of two bodies of
the same weight are in a reciprocal ratio of their
bulks. -
MAss, in the Roman Catholic church, the
prayers used at the celebration of the eucharist,
in consecrating the bread and wine into the body
and blood of Christ, and offering them, so tran-
substantiated, as an expiatory sacrifice for the
quick and the dead. By the Roman Catholics
it is in general believed to be a representation
of the passion of our blessed Saviour; so every
action of the priest, and every particulur part of
the service, is supposed to allude to the particu-
lar circumstances of his passion and death.
Nicod, after Baronius, observes that the word
missa comes from the Hebrew missach, obla-
tum; or from the Latin missa, missorum; be-
cause formerly the catechumens and excommu-
nicated were sent out of the church, when the
deacons said, Ite, missa est, after sermon and
reading of the epistle and gospel; they not being
allowed to assist at the consecration. Menage
derives the word from missio, dismissing: others
from missa, sent; because, in the mass, the
prayers of men on earth are sent up to heaven.
The general division of masses consists in high
and low. The former are sung by the choristers,
and celebrated with the assistance of a deacon
and sub-deacon; the latter are those in which
the prayers are barely rehearsed without singing.
There is a great number of different occasional
masses in the Romish church, many of which
have nothing peculiar but the name ; such are
the masses of the saints; that of St. Mary of the
&
M A S S A C H U S E T T. S.
619
snow, celebrated August 5th ; that of St. Mar-
garet, patroness of lying-in women; that of the
feast of St. John the Baptist, at which are said
three masses; that of the Innocents, at which
the Gloria in excelsis and the Hallelujah are omit-
ted, and, it being a day of mourning, the altar is
of a velvet color. As to ordinary masses, some
are said for the dead, and are supposed to con-
tribute to fetch the soul out of purgatory: at
these masses the altar is put in mourning, and
the only decorations are a cross in the middle of
six yellow wax lights; the dress of the celebrant,
and the very mass book, are black; many parts
of the office are omitted, and the people are dis-
missed without the benediction. If the mass be
said for a person distinguished by his rank or
virtues, it is followed with a funeral oration;
they erect a chapelle ardente, that is, a represen-
tation of the deceased, with branches and tapers
of yellow wax, either in the middle of the church
or near the deceased's tomb, where the priest
pronounces a solemn absolution of the deceased. '
There are likewise private masses said for stolen
or strayed goods or cattle, for health, for travel-
lers, &c., which go under the name of votive
masses. There is still a further distinction of
masses denominated from the countries in which
they were used; thus the Gothic Mass, or missa
Mosarabum, uséd among the Goths when they
were masters of Spain, which is still kept up at
Toledo and Salamanca; the Ambrosian mass,
composed by St. Ambrose, and used only at
Milan, of which city he was bishop; the Gallic
mass, used by the ancient Gauls; and the Roman
mass, used by almost all the churches in the Ro-
mish communion. -
MASS OF THE PRESANCTIFIED (missa prae-
sanctificătorum), is a mass peculiar to the Greek
church, in which there is no consecration of the
elements; but, after singing some hymns, they
receive the bread and wine which was before
consecrated. This mass is performed all Lent, ex-
cepton Saturdays, Sundays, and the annunciation.
The priest counts upon his fingers the days of the
ensuing week on which it is to be celebrated,
and cuts off as many pieces of bread at the altar
as he is to say masses; and, after having conse-
crated them, steeps them in wine, and then puts
them in a box; out of which, upon every occa-
sion, he takes some of it with a spoon, and put-
ting it on a dish sets it upon the altar.
MASSA, a town and duchy of Italy, situated
on the Frigido, about two miles from the Medi-
terranean. The town stands on the great coast
road leading through Tuscany from north to
south, and is well built, many of the public
edifices and even private houses being con-
structed of Carrara marble. The cathedral
contains some fine pictures; and the palace, with
its gardens, is worth the traveller's notice. The
chief public institution is an academy of sculp-
ture and architecture. Olives flourish in the
environs. Population 10,000: thirty miles
north by west of Leghorn, and fifty south by
west of Modena.
MASSACHUSETTS, forming, with the dis-
trict of Maine, one of the United States of North
America, is bounded north by Vermont and New
Hampshire, east by the Atlantic, south by the
Atlantic, Rhode Island, and Connecticut, and
west by New York. It is 190 miles long, and
ninety broad, containing 7500 square miles. Po-
pulation, in 1790, 388,727; in 1800, 422,845;
and in 1810, 472,040: of whom 6737 were blacks.
There are, to its great credit, no slaves in this
state. The number of militia (including Maine),
in 1817, amounted to 70,836. -
The counties, number of towns, population in
1810, and chief towns, are exhibited in the fol-
lowing table:—
ſ
Counties. Tws. Pop. Chief Towns.
Barnstable 14 22,211 Barnstable
Berkshire 32 || 35,907 Lenox
Bristol 16 || 37,168 Taunton
Duke's 3 3,290 Edgartown
Salem
Essex 23 71,888 §ewburyport
- Ipswich
Franklin 24 27,301 Greenfield
Hampden 18 24,421 Springfield
Hampshire 22 || 24,553 Northampton
Middlesex 44 || 52,789 } gº
Nantucket 1 6,807 | Nantucket
Norfolk 22 || 31,245 Dedham
Plymouth 18 || 35,169 Plymouth
Suffolk 2 || 34,381 Boston
Worcester 51 64,910 || Worcester
290 |472,040
Boston is the chief town. The other most
considerable maritime towns are Salem, New-
buryport, Marblehead, Beverly, Gloucester,
Charlestown, Plymouth, and New Bedford.
Worcester, Northampton, Springfield, Greenfield,
Pittsfield, Haverhill, Dedham, Taunton, Con-
cord, and many others, are pleasant and flou-
rishing inland towns. -
There are twenty-eight banks in Massachusetts
Proper: seven at Boston, three at Salem, two at
Newburyport, two at Nantucket, &c. -
There is a university at Cambridge, a college
at Williamstown, a theological seminary at An-
dover, and academies are established at Ames-
bury, Amherst, Andover, Bradford, Bridgewater,
Byfield, Deerfield, Framingham, Groton, Hadley,
Hingham, Leicester, Lenox, Marblehead, Milton,
Munsen, Newburyport, Pittsfield, New Salem,
Sandwich, Taunton, Westfield, Westford, and
Wrentham. A number of these are well en-
dowed, and many of them are in a flourishing
state. Besides the academies, grammar Schools,
public and private, are constantly supported in
most of the principal towns, and good schools.
are common throughout the state. Literary in-
stitutions are liberally patronised, and in no part
of the world is information more generally dif-
fused. The number of congregations of the
several denominations of Christians in this state
is as follows: Congregationalists 365, Baptists
ninety-one, Friends thirty-two, Episcopalians
seventeen, Universalists nine, Presbyterians five.
There are also some Methodists, and a few Ro-
man Catholics, and Shakers.
620
M A S S A C H U S E T T. S.
The legislature is composed of a senate of
forty members, and a house of representatives.
The governor, lieutenant-governor, and senators,
are chosen annually on the 1st Monday in April
by the people. The representatives are chosen
annually in May. Each town having 150 rata-
ble polls sends one, and another for every ad-
ditional 225 polls. The legislature assemble on
the last Wednesday in May, annually, and meet
also in January.
The principal rivers are the Connecticut,
Merrimack, Concord, Nashua, Charles, Mystic,
Neponset, Taunton, Chickapee, Deerfield, West-
field, Miller's, and Housatonic. The principal
canal is Middlesex Canal, connecting Boston
harbour with the Merrimack, commencing in
the town of Chelmsford; twenty-eight miles in
length. It was completed in 1804, and was at
that time the greatest work of the kind in the
United States. There are canals in this state on
the Connecticut, at Montague, and at South Had-
ley, and on the Merrimack at Patucket Falls.
The principal islands are Nantucket and Mar-
tha's Vineyard. The most noted capes are Cape
Ann, Cape Cod, and Cape Malabar. The most
considerable bays are Massachusetts, Cape Cod,
Barnstable, Plymouth, and Buzzard's bays. There
are no large lakes, but there are numerous
ponds.
The range of the Green Mountains passes from
north to south, through the western part of this
state. The principal chain takes the name of
Hoosac Mountain. The highest summits are
Saddle and Takonnack mountains. The former
of these is the highest land in the state, and rises
to the height of 4000 feet above the level of the
sea. The other most noted mountains in the state
are, Wachuset, in Princeton; Mount. Tom and
Mount Holyoke, near Northampton; and Mount
Toby, in Sunderland. The general aspect of the
country is interesting, affording many highly
yaried and extensive prospects. There are not,
however, any natural objects of curiosity that
vie with those of some of the other states.
The face of the country is greatly diversified.
The south-eastern part is mostly level. There
-are also level districts of small extent in the vi-
cinity of the Merrimack in the north-east. Salt
marshes are numerous in the maritime parts,
though not very extensive. Most of that part
bordering on the sea-coast, and extending into
the interior as far as the county of Worcester,
may be regarded as the level division, exhibiting
no very considerable elevations. The five western
counties of Worcester, Hampshire, Franklin,
Hampden, and Berkshire, present the greatest
irregularity of surface, and constitute the high-
lands of the state. These counties, however,
abound in vast tracts of elevated lands, diversi-
fied with gentle swells, in large districts of pine
plains, in valleys of various extent, as well as in
wide intervals, particularly on Connecticut River.
The soil is exceedingly various, comprising every
description from the most fertile to the most un-
productive. In the south-eastern part it is mostly
light and sandy, interspersed, however, with nu-
merous fertile tracts. In the middle and north-
ern part, toward the sea coast, it is of a much
better quality, though not generally distinguished
3.
&
--
for its natural fertility; but, by excellent culti-
vation, a great portion of it is rendered highly
productive. The middle and western parts have
generally a strong rich soil, excellent for grazing,
and suited to most of the purposes of agriculture.
The state is almost universally well watered.
The streams of every description are remarkably
clear and beautiful. The farms generally consist
of from 100 to 300 acres, and are for the most
part well cultivated. In no part of the United
States have there been greater advances made in
agricultural improvements than in Massachusetts.
The country is intersected in every direction by
roads, which are kept in a good state of repair.
The principal productions are Indian corn,
rye, wheat, oats, barley, peas, beans, buck-
wheat, potatoes, hops, flax, and hemp. Beef,
pork, butter, and cheese, are abundant in most
parts of the state, and of excellent quality. The
county of Berkshire, in particular, is distin-
guished for its extensive dairies. The state
abounds with orchards, and great quantities of
cider are annually made, which is the common
beverage of the inhabitants. The principal cul-
tivated fruits are apples, peaches, pears, quinces,
plums, cherries, and currants. Gardening is an
object of attention throughout the state, and all
the hortulan vegetables suited to the climate, to-
gether with a variety of domestic fruits, are, in
this way, extensively cultivated.
Massachusetts is the most commercial state in
the union, and, including the district of Maine,
owns about one-third of the shipping that belongs
to the United States. The greatest part of the fish-
eries in the United States belongs to this state. The
principal articles of export are fish, beef, lumber,
pork, ardent spirits, flax seed, whale oil, sper-
maceti, and various manufactures. The total
amount, including those of Maine, in 1816, was
10,136,439 dollars. This state also holds a
high rank in point of manufactures. The most
considerable are those of cotton cloths, boots
and shoes, ardent spirits, leather, cordage,
wrought and cast iron, nails, woollens, ships,
straw bonnets, hats, cabinet work, paper, oil, and
muskets. There is an extensive national estab-
lishment for the manufacture of arms at Spring-
field. The total amount of the manufactures of
Massachusetts, in 1810, was 18,594,323 dollars;
and, including Maine, 20,730,104. * -
The principal mines are those of iron, which
are found in various parts, and there are nume-
rous establishments for manufacturing iron. The
counties of Plymouth and Bristol afford great
quantities of this mineral, and there are several
rich iron mines in the county of Berkshire. . A
lead mine is found at South Hadley, and at Some
other places. Ochres, and other fossil produc-
tions have been found in various places. Quar-
ries of good marble are found in Lanesborough,
Stockbridge, Pittsfield, Sheffield, and several
other places in Berkshire county. There are
quarries of slate at Lancaster, Harvard, and
Bernardston, and of soap-stone at Middlefield.
Lime-stone is found in great abundance in the
county of Berkshire, and freestone in all parts of
the state. Great quantities of beautiful stone
for building are obtained from Chelmsford and
Tyngsborough.
MAS
MAS
621
. The climate of Massachusetts is subject to
the extremes of heat and cold. The air, how-
ever, is generally dry, serene, and healthy. The
thermometer, in summer, is frequently observed
to exceed 77° for forty or fifty days together;
and sometimes rises to 100°. The weather in
winter is variable, sometimes very cold.
MASSACHUSETTS BAY is a large bay of North
America, between Cape Ann on the north, and
Cape Cod on the south. -
MAS'SACRE, n.s. & v.a. Fr. massacre ; of
Lat. mactus and sacrare ; Ital, mazzare. Slaugh-
ter; butchery: to butcher; slaughter indiscri-
minately.
The tyrannous and bloody act is done ;
The most arch deed of piteous massacre,
That ever yet this land was guilty of. Shakspeare. .
I’ll find a day to massacre them all,
And raze their faction and their family. Id.
Christian religion, now crumbled into fractions,
may, like dust, be irrecoverably dissipated, if God
do not countermine us, or we recover so much so-
briety as to forbear to massacre what we pretend to
love. Decay of Piety.
Of whom such massacre
Make they, but of their brethren, men of men 3
Milton.
Slaughter grows murder, when it goes too far,
And makes a massacre what was a war. Dryden.
After the miserable slaughter of the Jews, at the
destruction of Jerusalem, they were scattered into all
corners, oppressed and detested, and sometimes mas-
sacred and extirpated. Atterbury.
MASSANIELLO, or ANELLO (Thomas), a
fisherman of Naples, was born in 1623, when
that kingdom was subject to Austria, and
governed by a viceroy. In 1646 a new and op-
pressive tax being imposed upon all kinds of
fruit it occasioned general discontent; and Mas-
saniello, then in his twenty-fourth year, observ-
ing the murmurings that prevailed, began to en-
tertain the idea of redressing his country's griev-
ances. Having imparted his design to the
Banditto Perone, and his companions, they
laughed at him; but shortly after, the fish of
Massaniello being seized for the tax, he went
among the fruiterers, and advised them not to
make any more purchases of the country dealers
till the impost should be removed. He collected
in the mean time a number of boys, to each of
whom he gave a small cane, and taught them
certain cries. The shopkeepers, agreeably to his
instructions, refused to trade with the country
people, and, a riot ensuing, the regent sent an
officer named Anacleo to suppress it. The mul-
titude, however, drove him from the spot of their
meeting; and, being now gathered in great
numbers, Massaniello, by his harangues, induced
them to burn the toll-houses, and march to the
palace of the viceroy, which they entered and ri-
fled; the governor himself and the prince Bisig-
nano escaping with difficulty. Thus left to
themselves, the multitude chose Massaniello and
Perone for their leaders. A stage was erected in
the market-place, where the former sat to give
audience, and minister justice, which, it is said,
he did with equal gravity and impartiality.
150,000 men at this time obeyed his orders, and
an incredible number of armed women. The
viceroy now applied to the archbishop, whose
mild persuasions had nearly succeeeded in re-
storing order, when, an attempt being made to
assassinate Massaniello, the rage of the people
burst forth with redoubled fury. The archbishop,
however, had the address to prevail upon Mas-
saniello to renew the treaty, and to visit the
palace, which he did with great pomp on horse-
back, dressed in cloth of silver, a plume of fea-
thers in his hat, and a drawn sword in his hand,
attended by 50,000 armed followers. The terms
were ratified at the cathedral on the Sunday fol-
lowing, and every thing had an auspicious ap-
pearance; when unfortunately Massaniello wa-
vered : ambition induced him to violate his en-
gagement, and his conduct all at once became
capricious and tyrannical; so that four persons
undertook to despatch him. The last words which
he uttered were “Ungrateful traitors!' His body
was thrown into one ditch, and his head into
another.
MASSENA (Andrew), prince of Essling,
duke of Rivoli, and marshal of France, was born
at Nice in 1758. When young he made two
voyages with a relation, the captain of a merchant,
ship : but, preferring the army, enlisted as a
common soldier, in 1775, in the royal Italian
regiment. Having only attained to the rank of
adjutant, after fourteen years' service, he returned
to his own country and to a private life. But,
the revolution again exciting him to action, he
was nominated an adjutant-major, and in August
1792 made chief of a battalion. He now be-
came successively general of a brigade, and of a
division in the army of Italy, and contributed
much to the success of the campaigns of 1796
and 1797. His bold and determined courage
procured him the appellation of ‘the favorite
child of victory.” In 1799 he had the chief
command in Switzerland, where he completely
routed the Austro-Russian army under the arch-
duke Charles and general Korsakow. He was
less fortunate in Italy in 1800, when he was
beaten at Voltri by the Austrians, under Melas,
and afterwards besieged and obliged to capitu-
late in Genoa. In 1805 he again partly beat the
archduke Charles in Italy, on the 18th of Oc-
tober, near Verona. He then commanded the
army which took possession of Naples; and
once more distinguished himself in the campaign
in Poland in 1806. He was employed in Ger-
many in 1809; and on the 3rd of May defeated
the Austrians under the archduke John, at the
battle of Ebersberg; shortly after he signalised
himself in the engagements of Essling and Wag-
ram, in which his services were so conspicuous,
that he was decorated by Buonaparte with the
title of the prince of Essling. He was afterwards
opposed to lord Wellington, in the peninsula, in
1810 and 1811, when he maintained his former
reputation, but was prevented gaining any new
laurels. This campaign terminated his military
career; but he survived the restoration of the
Bourbons, dying at his seat at Ruel, near Paris,
April 4th, 1817. -
MASSIEU (William), a learned French writer,
member of the academy of belles lettres, and of
the French academy, was born at Caen in Nor-
mandy, in 1665, and completed his studies in
Paris, where he entered among the Jesuits; but
MAS
MAS
62.2
afterwards left them, that he might follow his
literary engagements with the greater freedom..
In 1710 he was made Greek professor in the
Royal College; and enjoyed that post till he died
in Paris in 1722. He wrote, 1. Several Curious
Dissertations in the Memoirs of the Academy
of Inscriptions. 2. A History of the French
Poetry, in 12mo, &c. -
MASSILIA, in ancient geography, a town of
Gallia Narbonensis, founded by a colony of
Phoceans, from Phocea, in Ionia, and in confe-
deracy with the Romans; celebrated not only
for its commerce and strength, but for its learn-
ing and civilisation; now Marseilles.
MASSILLON (John Baptist), the son of a
notary at Hieres in Provence, born in 1663, and
entered into the congregation of the oratory in
1681. His first attempts at public speaking
were made at Vienne, while he was professor of
theology. His funeral oration on Henry de
Villars, archbishop of that city, received univer-
sal approbation. This suceess induced F. de la
Tour, then general of the congregation, to call
him to Paris. Upon preaching his first advent
sermon at Versailles, he received this eulogium
from Louis XIV., “Father, when I hear others
preach, I am very well pleased with them; but,
whenever I hear you, I am dissatisfied with my-
self.” In 1717 the regent appointed him bishop
of Clermont. In 1718, being appointed to preach
before Louis XV., then only nine years of age,
he composed in six weeks the discourses well
known by the name of Petit Careme, which are
the chef d'oeuvre of this orator, and indeed of the
Oratorical art. He was admitted into the French
academy in 1719. The abbacy of Savigny be-
coming vacant, the cardinal du Bois procured it
for him. The funeral oration of the duchess of
Orleans, in 1723, was the last discourse he pro-
nounced in Paris. He never afterwards left his
diocese, where his gentleness, politeness, and
humanity, gained him the affection of all who
knew him. He reduced the exorbitant rights of
the episcopal roll. He died on the 28th of Sep-
tember, 1742, aged seventy-nine. No public
speaker ever knew better how to touch the pas-
sions. His eloquence was pathetic, and equally
suited to please the man of genius and the mul-
titude, the philosopher and the courtier. He
could at once think, describe, and feel. An ex-
cellent edition of Massillon's works were pub-
lished by his nephew in Paris in 1745 and 1746,
in 14 vols. large 12mo, and 12 vols. of a small
size. The abbé de la Porte collected, in 1 vol.
12mo., the most striking and sublime ideas in
Massillon's works. This collection appeared at
Paris in 1748, 12mo, entitled Pensées sur Dif-
ferens Sujets de Morale, de Piété, Tirées, &c.
A Selection and Translation of Massillon’s Ser-
mons, in 3 vols. 8vo., by Mr. William Dickson
Edinburgh, was published at Perth in 1798.
MASSINGER (Philip), an English dramatic
poet, born at Salisbury about 1581, and educated
at Oxford. He went to London, where he wrote
many tragedies and comedies, which were re-
ceived with great applause, and were greatly
admired for the purity of the style. He was a
man of abilities and of great modesty, which
rendered him greatly beloved by the poets of his
time, particularly by Fletcher, Middleton, Rowly,
Field, and Decker. He died suddenly at his
house on the Bank-side in Southwark, near the
play-house; and was interred in the same grave
with Fletcher. -
MASSON (Anthony), an eminent French en-
graver, who flourished about the end of the
seventeenth century, and resided chiefly at Paris.
He sometimes amused himself with painting
portraits from the life, which he also engraved.
He worked entirely with the graver, and handled
it with astonishing facility. He observed no
kind of rule with respect to the turning of the
strokes; but twisted them about, without regard
to the different forms he intended to express,
making them entirely subservient to his own ca-
price. Yet the effect he has produced in this
singular manner is not only far superior to what
could be expected, but is often very picturesque
and beautiful. He could not draw the naked
parts of the human figure very correctly; but
where the subject required the figures to be
clothed he succeeded wonderfully. Among his
most esteemed works are, The assumption of the
Virgin, a large upright plate from Rubens; A
holy family, a middling-sized plate, lengthwise,
from N. Mignard; Christ with the pilgrims at
Emmaus, a large plate, lengthwise, from Titian,
commonly called the table-cloth, from the table-
cloth being executed in a very singular style;
The portrait of count Harcourt, a large upright
plate, reckoned a masterpiece in this class of
subjects; and another of William de Briscasier,
secretary to the queen of France, a middling-
sized upright plate, usually called the gray-
headed man, the hair being very finely executed.
MAsson (Papirius), a French writer, the son
of a rich merchant, and born in Forez, in May
1544. After studying the belles lettres and phi-
losophy, he came to Paris, where he was made
librarian to the duke of Anjou's chancellor, in
which office he continued ten years. In 1576
he was made an advocate of parliament; yet
never pleaded but one cause. He was married,
but had no issue. He died January 9th, 1611.
He wrote four books of French annals in Latin,
printed at Paris in 1577, and 1598, 4to. He is
now chiefly known by his Elogia Virorum Claris-
simorum, though he published several other works.
MASSOOLAH BoAT, a boat used at Madras
for conveying strangers ashore from on board a
ship. It is of curious construction, and well cal-
culated to elude the violent shocks of the surf,
that breaks there with great violence. It is formed
without a keel, flat-bottomed, with the sides
raised high, sewed together with the fibres of the
cocoa-nut tree, and caulked with the same ma-
terial. These boats are remarkably light, and
are managed with great dexterity by the natives;
they are usually attended by two kattamarans or
rafts, paddled by one man each, that, should the,
boat be overset by the violence of the surf, the
persons in it may be preserved. The boat is
driven, as the sailors say, high and dry; the pas-
sengers are landed on a fine sandy beach, and
immediately enter the fort of Madras.
MAST, n. s. Saxon maerz ; Teut. and
MAST'FUL, º: mast, mesten, a. Greek
MAST'LESS. psarow, Saginare, Minsheu.
M. A
S T. 623
The fruit of certain glandiferous plants: mastful
is abundant in : mastless, wanting such fruit.
The oaks bear mast, the briars scarlet hips;
The bounteous housewife, nature, on each bush
Lays her full mess before you.
Shakspeare. Timon of Athens.
Trees that bear mast, and nuts, are more lasting
than those that bear fruits; as oaks and beeches last
..longer than apples and pears.
Bacon’s Natural History.
The breaking down an old frame of government,
and erecting a new, seems like the cutting down an
old oak and planting a young one: it is true, the
grandson may enjoy the shade and the mast, but the
planter, besides the pleasure of imagination, has no
other benefit. Temple's Miscellanies.
Wondering dolphins o'er the palace glide;
On leaves and must of mighty oaks they brouze,
And their broad fins entangle in the boughs.
—, Dryden.
, Some from seeds inclosed on earth arise,
For thus the mastful chesnut mates the skies. Id.
Her shining hair, uncombed, was loosely spread,
A crown of mastless oak adorned her head. ld.
When sheep fed like men upon acorns, a shepherd
drove his flock into a little oak wood, and up he
went to shake them down some mast.
L’Estrange's Fables.
MAST, n.s. Sax. maere; Fr. Teut. Belg.
MAST'ED, ºłº, and Swed. mast; Span.
MAST'LESS. mastil; of Goth. mast (tree);
the biggest or chief tree (Thomson). See MAST.
The upright beam or post of a vessel on which
the sails, &c., are fixed; masted is furnished with
a mast Or maStS.
Ten masts attached make not the altitude
That thou hast perpendicularly fallen.
- Shakspeare.
He drópped his anchors, and his oars he plyed;
Furled every sail, and, drawing down the mast,
His vessel moored. Dryden’s Virgil.
But now there came a flash of hope once more;
Day broke, and the wind lulled; the masts were
One, : -
The le: increased; shoals round her, but no shore,
The vessel swam, yet still she held her own.
Byron.
A MAST is a long round piece of timber, ele-
wated perpendicularly upon the keel of a ship,
to which are attached the yards, the sails, and
the rigging. A mast, with regard to its length, is
either formed of one single piece, which is called
a pole-mast, or composed of several pieces join-
ed together, each of which retains the name of
mast separately. The lowest of these is accord-
ingly named the lower-mast, the next in height
is the top-mast, which is erected at the head of
the former; and the highest is the top-gallant
mast, which is prolonged from the upper end of
the top-mast. Thus the two last are merely a
continuation of the first upwards. The lower
mast is fixed in the ship by the sheers: the foot,
or heel of it, rests in a block of timber called the
step, which is fixed upon the kelson: and the
top-mast is attached to the head of it by the cap
and the trestle-trees. The latter of these are two
strong bars of timber, supported by two promi-
nences, which are shoulders on the opposite
sides of the mast, a little under its upper end;
athwart these bars are fixed the cross trees, upon
which the frame of the top is supported. Be-
tween the lower mast-head and the foremast of
- above the water.
the cross-trees, a square space remains vacant,
the sides of which are bounded by the two tres-
tle-trees. Perpendicularly above this is the
foremost hole in the cap, in whose after-hole is
solidly fixed the head of the lower-mast. The
top-mast is erected by a tackle, whose effort is
communicated from the head of the lower-mast
to the foot of the top-mast; and the upper end of
the latter is accordingly guided into and convey-
ed up through the holes between the trestle-trees
and the cap, as above mentioned. Besides the
parts already mentioned in the construction of
masts, with respect to their length, the lower
masts of the largest ships are composed of several
pieces united into one body. As these are ge-
nerally the most substantial parts of various
trees, a mast, formed by this assemblage, is justly
esteemed much stronger than one consisting of
any single trunk, whose internal solidity may be
very uncertain. The whole is secured by several
strong hoops of iron, driven on the outside of the
mast, where they remain at proper distances.
The principal articles to be considered in equip-
ping a ship with masts are, 1. the number; 2.
their situation in the vessel; and 3. their height
The masts being used to ex-
tend the sails by means of their yards, it is evi-
dent that, if their number were multiplied
beyond what is necessary, the yards must be ex-
tremely short, that they may not entangle each
other in working the ship, and consequently
their sails will be very narrow, and receive a
small portion of wind. If, on the eontrary,
there is not a sufficient number of masts in the
vessel, the yards will be too large and heavy, so
as not to be managed without difficulty.
The most advantageous position of the masts
is undoubtedly that from which there results
an equilibrium between the resistance of the
water on the body of the ship on one part, and
of the direction of their effort on the other. By
every other position this equilibrium is destroy-
ed, and the greatest effort of the masts will
operate to turn the ship horizontally about its
direction; a circumstance which retards her ve-
locity. It is counterbalanced, indeed, by the
helm; but the same inconvenience still continues;
for the force of the wind, having the resistance of
the helm to overcome, is not entirely employed
to push the vessel forward. The axis of the re-
sistance of the water should then be previously
determined, to discover the place of the main-
mast, in order to suspend the efforts of the water
equally, and place the other masts so as that their
particular direction will coincide with that of the
main-mast. SeeSHIP-BUILDING.
The exact height of the masts, in proportion
to the form and size of the ship, remains yet a
problem to be determined. The more the masts
are elevated above the centre of gravity, the
greater will be the surface of sail which they are
enabled to present to the wind; so far an addi-
tional height seems to have been advantageous.
But this advantage is diminished by the circular
movement of the mast, which causes the vessel
to stoop to its effort; and this inclination is in-
creased in proportion to the additional height of
the mast, an inconvenience which it is necessary
to guard against. To reconcile these differences
624 M. A
S T.
it is certain that the height of the mast ought to
be determined by the inclination of the vessel,
and that the point of her greatest inclination
should be the term of this height above the cen-
tre of gravity.
PROPORTIONS For THE LENGTHS AND DIAME-
TERS of MASTS IN THE Roy AI, NAVY, FROM
FALconER. -
Lengths of masts.-The length of the lower-
deck and extreme breadth being added together,
the half is the length of the main-mast; thus the
length of the lower-deck of a seventy-four-gun
ship is 176 feet; breadth, extreme, forty-eight
feet eight inches; added together, they make
224 feet eight inches. The half, or 112 feet four
inches, is the length of the main-mast; which
being determined, the other masts bear the fol-
lowing proportion :-
Fore-mast, eight-ninths of the main-mast.
Mizen-mast, 100 guns, seven-eighths; ninety
guns to fifty, six-sevenths; forty-four guns to
twenty, five-sixths of the main-mast.
In sloops, the mizen-mast is three-fourths of
the main-mast.
When the mizen-maststeps on the lower-deck,
the depth of the hold is to be deducted from the
length here given. This method is now generally
practised in the royal navy.
Main-topmast, three-fifths of the main-mast.
Fore-topmast, eight-ninths of the main-top-
Inast. -
Mizen-topmast, three-fourths of the main-top-
maSt.
In sloops, the mizen-topmast is five-sevenths
of the main-topmast.
Topgallant-masts, one-half the length of the
topmast.
Bowsprits, of eighty-gun ships and upwards,
seven-elevenths of their main-masts.
of seventy-four gun ships, and under, three-fifths
of their main-masts.
Brig's main-masts. The depth in the hold is
added to the length and breadth, and one-half is
the length of the main-mast. ;
Cutter's main-masts. Add together the length
of the deck, the breadth extreme, and depth in
the hold ; and three-quarters of that sum is the
length of the main-mast.
The diameters of masts.-Main and fore-masts,
of ships of 100 to fifty guns inclusive, are one
inch in diameter at the partners to every yard in
length. Ships of forty-four to thirty-two guns,
inclusive, nine-tenths of an inch to every yard in
length. And ships of twenty-eight guns, and
under, seven-eighths of an inch to every yard in
the length.
Main-masts of brigs, one inch to every yard in
f
Bowsprits
length; and the fore-mast nine-tenths of the dia-
metel of the main-mast. *
Masts of cutters, three-fourths of an inch in
diameter to every yard in length. º
Mizen-masts of ships of 100 to sixty-four guns,
inclusive, three-fifths of the diameter of the main-
mast. Fifty-gun ships, and under, two-thirds of
the diameter of the main-mast. .
Main and fore-topmasts, one inch to every yard.
in the length of the fore-topmasts.
Mizen-topmasts, seven-tenths of the diameter
of the main-topmast.
Topgallant-masts, one-inch to every yard in
their lengths.
Royal-masts, two-thirds of the diameter of
their topgallant-masts.
Bowsprits of ships of 100 to sixty-four guns
inclusive, two inches less than the diameter of
the main-mast. In fifty gun ships, and under,
the same diameter as the main-mast.
PROPoETIons For THE LENGTHS AND DIAMETERS
of Booms.
Lengths of booms.—Lower-studding sail-booms,
five-ninths of the main-yard.
Top-studding sail-booms, one-half the length
of the yards they go on. - *
Flying jib-boom, five-sevenths of the bowsprit.
Driver-boom, the same length as the main-
topsail-yard. - -
Diameter of booms.—Studding sail-booms, one
inch to every five feet in the length. &
Flying jib-booms, seven-eighths of an inch to
every yard in the length.
Driver-boom, the same as the fore-topsail-
yard.
PROPORTIONS For THE LENGTHS AND DIAMETERS
of MASTs, &c., FoR SLoops, SMACKS, AND
Hoys.
Lengths of the masts, &c.—Mast and topmast
in one, thrice and three-fourths the whole length.
Mast to the rigging-stop or hounds, three-
fourths the whole length.
Mast and topmast to the stop of the topmast,
forty-one parts of the whole length. &
Topgallant-mast to the rigging stop, four-
sevenths of the length of the mast.
Boom, two-thirds of the mast.
Gaff, three-fifths of the boom. •
Diameter of the masts, &c.—Mast, one-fourth of
an inch to every foot in length.
Topgallant-mast, three-eighths of an inch to
every foot in length.
Boom, three-sixteenths of an inch to every foot
in length. - . g
Gaff, one-fourth of an inch to every foot in
length. - -
TABLE of the DIMENSIONs of MASTs now used in the Royal Navy.
110 GUNS. 90 GUNS. 80 GUNs. 74 GUNS. 64 GUNS. 50 GUNs. 44 GUNS. 38 GUNS.
§ NAMES OF THE MASTs. 2164. TONS. 1870 TONs. 1620 TONs. 1800 TONS. 1369 TONS. 1044 TONS. 879 Tons. 951 TONS.
: Length. |Diam. Length. Diam. Length. Diam. Length. Diam. Length. Diam. Length. Diam. | Length. Diam. Length. Diam.
*-1 -
- Ft. In. In. Ft. In. In. Ft. In. In. Ft. In. In. Ft. In. In. | Ft. In. In. Ft. In. In. Ft. In In.
| Main-mast 117 O 39 112 0 || 37+ 107 0 || 35; 111 0 || 37 |101 0 || 33} | 92 0 || 29 88 O 26% 90 0 || 27
Main-topmast 70 O 20# 66 0 | 193 || 64 0 | 19% | 66 0 | 19% 58 6 17# 53 0 | 16 || 53 0 || 153 || 54 0 | 16#
Main-topgallant-mast 35 0 | 11}| 33 0 || 11 || 32 0 || 104 || 33 0 || 11% 29 3 9; 26 6 8% 26 6 83 || 27 0 || 9
Fore-mast º 103 6 34}|100 0 || 333 95 9 || 31|| || 98 6 || 323 | 89 7 || 29# 81 6 26# 78 0 || 23# 80 0 || 23#
Fore-topmast 62 10 20: 59 O | 193 || 59 9 19+ 58 8 193 || 53 0 || 17; 48 0 | 16 47 0 || 153 || 48 0 | 16#
Fore-topgallant-mast 31 O 10#| 29 O 9; 28 6 9% 29 4 9; 26 6 8; 24 0 8 23 6 7# 24 O 8.
Mizen-mast 101 4 23 96 6 22} | 93 0 || 21; 95 0 || 223 86 0 | 193 || 78 9 || 194 || 74 6 174 75 7 | 184
Mizen-topmast . º 52 0 || 14 || 49 0 || 13% 46 0 | 1.3% 49 0 || 13% 43 6 || 12# 40 0 || 11} | 40 0 || 11 || 41 0 || 11+
Mizen-topgallant-mast $º 26 O 8#| 24 0 83 23 O 7# 24 6 8} | 21 9 7+ | 20 9 63 20 0 6; 20 6 6#
Bowsprit º º 74 O 37 || 71 0 || 35% | 68 0 || 34 67 6 35 60 4 || 313 56 0 || 29 |. 52 6 26+ - 55 0 || 27
t 36 GUNS. 32 GUNs. 28 GUNS. 24 GUNs. 20 GUNS. SLoops BRIGs CUTTERS |.
Names of the Masrs. 871 TONS. 677 Tons. 594 TONS. 513 TONS. 429 Tons. OF 300 Tons. OF 200 Tons. OF 200 Tons.
Length. Diam. Length. |Diam. Length. Diam. Length. Diam. Length. Diam. Length. |Diam. Length. Diam. Length. Diam.
- Ft. In. In. Ft. In. In. | Ft. In. In. Ft. Im. | In. | Ft. In. In. Ft. In. In. Ft. In. In. Ft. In. In.
Main-mast . . 89 0 || 26 || 85 0 || 24; 81 4 || 23; 75 0 || 22} | 72 0 || 21; 63 0 | 18; 56 O 19 88 O 22
Main-topmast º 53 4 || 153 || 51 0 | 153 || 48 9 || 14; 45 0 || 13% 43 2 | 12# 37 6 || 11+ 31 O | 10
Main-topgallant-mast 25 8 8; 25 6 # 24 4 8 22 6 73 21 7 7# 18 9. 6} || 23 6 6} || 44 0 9%
Fore-mast º 79 6 || 23# | 75 0 || 22 | 72 0 | 20g | 66 6 | 19% 64 0 | 19 56 0 | 16; 49 0 || 17
Fore-topmast g e 47 O 15% 45 0 15% 43 0 14; 40 0 13} 38 4 12# 33 4 14% 31 O | 10
Fore-topgallant-mast 22 5 7} | 22 6 # 21 6 7 20 O 6} | 19 2 6# 16 8 53 || 23 6 6%
| Mizen-mast e e 74 8 17# | 72 0 || 17 | 69 0 | 16; 64 0 || 15 61 0 || 14 || 48 0 | 12
% Mizen-topmast . \e s 40 0 | 11 § 38 0 || 103 || 36 7 || 10 || 33 9 9+ 32 5 || 9 || 26 9 || 7;
Mizen-topgallant-mast 20 0 || 63 19 0 || 63 | 18 3 6 | 16 10 5} | 16 0 || 5% 13 0 || 4}
Bowsprit tº 54 0 || 26 52 0 || 25 || 48 9 || 23# 45 0 || 223 43 6 213 || 37 6 18; 34 0 || 17 64 0 | 20
:
§








TABLE of the DIMENSIONS of MASTs now in the Merchant Service.
TS - -y
'NAMEs OF THE MASTS.
1000 Tons.
800 Tons.
700 Tons.
:
1300 TONs. 1200 Tons. 1100 TONS. 900 TONs. 600 Tons.
Length. |Diam. Length. |Diam. Length. |Diam. Length. |Diam. Length. |Diam. Length. Diam. Length. Diam. Length. Diam.
a- Ft. In. In. Ft. In. In. Ft. In. In. Ft. In. In. | Ft. In. In. Ft. In. In. Ft. In...] In. | Ft. In. In.
Main-mast tº º 96 0 || 31% 94 0 || 31 90 O || 30 87 O 29 || 86 O 28 84 O || 27 82 0 || 26 78 O 24
Main-topmast e º 56 0 || 173 56 0 || 17% 56 0 || 174 52 0 | 16} | 50 0 | 16 || 49 0 | 16 || 48 0 || 15, 48 0 | 15
Main-topgallant-mast e . 27 0 || 9 || 27 0 || 9 || 27 0 || 9 || 26 0 || 9 || 26 0 || 9 || 25 9 || 9 || 24 o | 8 || 23 o | 8
Fore-mast' s - º 90 O || 30 88 O 30 84 O 29% 81 0 || 29 79 0 || 28 77 O 27 75 0 || 26 73 0 || 233
Fore-topmast . * . 56 0 || 17; 54 0 || 173 52 0 || 17% 50 0 | 16} || 48 0 | 16 47 0 | 16 46 6 15% 46 0 || 15
Fore-topgallant-mast º . 26 0 || 9 || 26 0 || 9 || 26 0 || 9 || 24 0 || 9 || 23 0 || 9 || 22 0 || 8 || 22 o || 8 || 22 o || 8
Mizen-mast . . . . 78 0 || 21} | 78 0 || 21% 78 0 || 21 76 0 | 20 76 0 | 20 | 73 0 | 19 || 70 0 | 18 68 0 | 16
Mizen-topmast © e * 41 0 || 13 40 0 | 12} | 39 0 | 12 38 0 | 12 37 0 | 12 36 0 | 12 || 34 0 || 11 30 0 || 10}
Mizen-topgallant-mast to . 21 0 7 21 0 || 7 | 20 0 6} | 19 0 || 63 | 19 0 || 6 19 0 || 6 | 18 0 || 5 | 18 O 5;
Bowsprit • 60 0 || 31 || 59 0 || 30} | 58 0 || 30 54 0 || 29 54 0 || 28 53 0 || 27 | 50 0 || 25 50 0 || 4;
iſ A Mºst ºnly mºr: 360 to 350 330 to 300 280 to 250 BRIGs, KETCHEs.
NAMES OF THE MAST8. 500 TONs. 400 Tons. TONS. Tons. ToNS. 150 Tons. Tºo Tons. sº.
Length. Diam. Length. |Diam. Length. [Diam, Length. |Diam. Length. |Diam. Length. |Diam. Length. |Diam. Length. |Diam.
Ft. In. In. Ft. In. In. Ft. In. In Ft. In. In. Ft. In. In. Ft. In. In Ft. In. In. | Ft. In. In.
| Main-mast º º e . 72 0 22 || 70 0 || 21} | 68 0 || 20% | 66 0 | 19 61 0 | 18 60 0 | 16} | 72 0 || 19 75 0 | 15
Main-topmast º º ſº 43 0 || 14 41 0 || 13 39 0 | 12} | 38 0 | 12 36 O | 11 30 0 || 10 36 O 10}
Main-topgallant-mast e o 23 O 8 23 O 7% 20 0 7 19 O 64" | 18 0 || 6 16 6 5% 20 0 4} | 32 0 7%
Fore-mast º fº º tº 67 O 22 65 0 || 21 63 0 | 20% 61 0 || 19 58 0 | 18 54 0 | 16# | 66 0 | 15
| Fore-topmast de º . 41 0 || 14 | 40 0 || 13 || 38 0 || 12% 37 0 || 12 35 0 || 11 || 32 0 || 10 ... -
Fore-topgallant-mast º º 22 0 8 21 O 73 19 0 || 7 | 18 O 6} | 17 O 6 16 O 5% 26 0 6%
Mizen-mast . . . . 63 0 || 15 62 0 | 15 60 0 || 14 || 58 0 || 13 54 O' | 12 49 0 || 10 -- "
Mizen-topmast . . © . 30 0 || 10 || 30 0 94 || 30 0 || 9% 28 0 9 || 26 O 8 30 0 || 5%
Mizen-topgallant-mast . . 17 0 5} | 16 0 || 5 | 16 0 || 5 || 15 0 || 4 || 14 0 5 - - -
| Bowsprit . tº º o e 48 0 || 23 47 0 || 21 44 . 0 J 20% 42 0 | 19 38 O | 18 32 0 | 16 44 0 || 143 50 0 14%
§


MAS
MAS
627
MASTER, n.s. & v. a. Y Sax. maepe (chief);
MASTERDOM, n.s. Goth. mastur;
MASTERHAND, Teut. meisteu; Fr.
MASTERJEST, maistre ; Ital. mas-
MASTERKEY, | tre; Lat. magister.
MASTERSINEw, A chief; governor;
MASTERSTRING, director; owner;
MASTERST ROKE, > possessor; com-
mander of a vessel;
teacher : hence one
skilled in a science
MASTERLESS, adj.
MASTERLY, adj. & adv.
MASTERPIECE, n.s.
MASTERSHIP, or pursuit; a com-
MASTERTEETH, pellation of respect
MASTERworT, used to young gen-
MASTERY. J tiemen; a title of
academical dignity: to master is to rule; go-
vern; subdue; execute with skill: masterdom
is rule; dominion (obsolete): masterless, want-
ing a master or owner: masterly, with a master's
skill; skilful; artful: mastership and mastery,
dominion; rule; superiority; chief work; skill :
masterwort, a plant.
As a wise master-builder I have laid the founda-
tion, and another buildeth thereon. 1 Cor. iii. 10.
If a man strive for masteries, yet is he not crowned
except he strive lawfully. 2 Tim. ii. 5.
An unhappy master is he that is made cunning by
many shipwrecks; a miserable merchant; that is nei-
ther rich nor wise, but after some bankrouts.
- - - Ascham's Schoolmaster.
When all was past he took his forlorn weed,
His silver shield now idle masterless.
Faerie Queene.
But now I was the lord
Of this fair mansion, master of my servants,
Queen o'er myself; and even now, but now,
This house, these servants, and this same myself
Are yours, my lord. -
Shakspeare. Merchant of Venice,
Chief master-gunner am I of this town,
Something I must do to procure me grace.
Shakspeare.
A sailor's wife had chesnuts in her lap;
Her husband's to Aleppo gone, master o’ the Tyger.
Id.
Great, and increasing; but by sea
He is an absolute master.
Id. Antony and Cleopatra,
Master doctor, you have brought those drugs.
Shakspeare.
Stand by, my masters, bring him near the king;
- d.
- You shall put
This night's great business into my dispatch,
Which shall to all our nights and days to come
Give solely sovereign sway and masterdom. Id.
- The foul opinion - -
You had of her pure honour, gains, or loses,
Your sword or mine; or masterless leaves both
To who shall find them. Id. Cymbeline.
º Thou dost speak masterly,
Young though thou art.
You were used
To say extremity was the trier of spirits:
That when the sea was calm all boats alike
Shewed mastership in floating. Id. Coriolanus.
If divided by mountains, they will fight for the
mastery of the passages of the tops, and for the
towns that stand upon the roots. Raleigh's Essays.
I do not take myself to be so perfect in the trans-
actions and privileges of Bohemia, as to be fit to
handle that part: and I will not offer at that I can-
not master. Bacon.
Shakspeare.
Some living creatures have their master-teeth in-
dented one within another like saws; as lions, and
dogs. Id.
The great mocking master mocked not then,
When he said, Truth was buried here below.
Davies.
The princes of Germany did not think him sent
to command the empire, who was neither able to rule
his insolent subjects in England, nor master his re-
bellious people of Ireland. . Id.
This is the masterpiece, and most excellent part of
the work of reformation, and is worthy of his ma-
jesty. Id.
Very few men are wise by their own counsel, or
learned by their ºwn teaching; for he that was only
taught by Şimself had a fool to his master.
Ben Jonson's Discovery.
He is a happy man that hath got the mastery at
home ; so as he can cross his will without a mutiny,
and so please it that he makes it not a wanton.
- Bp. Hall.
Humility is a virtue all preach, none practise, and
yet every body is content to hear. The master thinks
it good doctrine for his servant, the laity for the
clergy, and the clergy for the laity. Selden.
'Tis done; and ’twas my masterpiece, to work
My safety 'twixt two dangerous extremes:
Scylla and Charybdis. Denham's Sophy,
Beating up of quarters was his masterpiece.
Clarendon,
Chief mastery to dissect,
With long and tedious havock, fabled knights,
In battles feigned. Milton's Paradise Lost,
Who shall break the master-jest,
And what, and how, upon the rest?
Hudibras.
He could attain to a mastery in all languages,
and found the depths of all arts and sciences.
Tillotson.
If gaming does an aged sire entice,
Then my young master swiftly learns the vice.
Dryden.
Spenser and Fairfax, great masters of our language,
saw much farther into the beauties of our numbers
than those who followed. Id.
Honour burns in me, not so fiercely bright,
But pale as fires when mastered by the light. Id.
This master-key
Frees every lock, and leads us to his person. Id.
As for the warmth of fancy, the masterly figures,
and the copiousness of imagination, he has exceeded
all others. - Id.
This wonderous masterpiece I fain would see;
This fatal Helen, who can wars inspire. Id.
Two youths of royal blood, renowned in fight,
The mastership of heaven in face and mind. Id.
To give sufficient sweetness, a mastery in the lan-
guage is required: the poet must have a magazine of
words, and have the art to manage his few vowels to
the best advantage. º Id.
Then comes some third party, that masters both
plaintiff and defendant, º carries away the booty.
L’Estrange.
This is the case of those that will try masteries
with their superiors, and bite that which is too *
+ d.
Masters and teachers should not raise difficulties to
their scholars; but smooth their way, and help them
forwards. Locke.
No care is taken to improve young men in their
own language, that they may thoroughly understand,
and be masters of it. Id.
Obstinacy and wilful neglects must be mastered,
even though it costs blows. Id. On *.
2 S 2
628
MASTER AND SERVANT.
The best sets are the heads got from the very tops
of the root; the next are the runners, which spread
from the master roots. Mortimer's Husbandry.
Masterwort is raised of seeds, or runners from the
rootS. *
Excuse
The pride of royal blood, that checks my soul:
You know, alas! I was not born to kneel;
To sue for pity, and to own a master. ..., Phillips.
Wisdom and virtue are the proper qualifications in
the master of a house. Guardian.
To the Jews join the Egyptians, the first masters
of learning. South.
Let those consider this who look upon it as a piece
of art, and the masterpiece of conversation, to de-
ceive, and make a prey of a credulous and well-mean-
ing honesty. Id.
He touched me
Even on the tenderest point, the master-string
That makes most harmony or discord to me.
I own the glorious subject fires my breast.
Rowe.
When I have thus made myself master of a hundred
thousand drachms, I shall naturally set myself on the
foot of a prince, and will demand the grand vizir's
daughter in marriage. Addison.
A man either discovers new beauties, or receives
stronger impressions from the masterly strokes of a
great author every time he peruses him. Id.
In the first ages, when the great souls, and master-
pieces of human nature, were produced, men shined
by a noble simplicity of behaviour. Id.
He that does not pretend to painting is not touched
at the commendation of a master in that profession.
r Collier.
Ye skilful masters of Machaon's race,
Who nature's mazy intricacies trace:
Tell how your search has here eluded been,
How oft amazed and ravished you have seen
The conduct, prudence, and stupendous art,
And master-strokes in each mechanic part.
Blackmore.
That clearer strokes of masterly design,
Of wise contrivance, and of judgment shine,
In all the parts of nature. Id.
Good men I suppose to live in a state of mortifica-
tion, under a perpetual conflict with their bodily ap-
petites, and struggling to get the mastery over them.
* Atterbury.
The reformation of an habitual sinner is a work of
time and patience; evil customs must be mastered and
subdued by degrees. Calamy’s Sermons.
Master lay with his bedchamber towards the south
sun ; miss lodged in a garret, exposed to the north
wind. - Arbuthnot.
The master-sinew is a large sinew that surrounds
the hough, and divides it from the bone by a hollow
place, where the wind-galls are usually seated, which
is the largest and most visible sinew in a horse's
body; this oftentimes is relaxed or restrained.
.# Farrier's Dictionary.
O thou, my friend, my genius, come along,
Thou master of the poet, and the song. Pope.
Musick resembles poetry; in each
Are nameless graces which no methods teach,
And which a master-hand alone can reach.
Id. '
Where there are little masters and misses in a house,
they are impediments to the diyersions of the ser-
vants; the remedy is to bribe them, that they may
mot tell tales. - Swift.
I read a book; I think it very masterly written:
An' when they meet wi' sair disasters,
Like loss o' health, or want o' masters,
Ye maist wad think, a wee touch langer,
An' they maun starve o' cauld an hunger.
Burns.
As christians, we are the servants of Christ; and
the various duties which servants owe to their masters
in any degree, those we owe to him in the highest
degree. Mason.
MASTER, magister, was a title frequent among
the Romans; they had their master of the
people, magister populi, who was the dictator.
Master of the Čavalry, magister equitum, who
held the second post in an army after the dicta-
tor. Under the late emperors there were also
masters of the infantry, magistri peditum. A
master of the census, magister census, who had
nothing of the charge of a censor, or subcensor,
as the name seems to intimate; but was the same
with the praepositus frumentariorum.
MASTER AT ARMs, an officer appointed to
teach the officers and crew of a ship of war the
exercise of small arms; to confine and plant
sentinels over the prisoners, and superintend
whatever relates to them during their confine-
ment. He is also to observe that the fire and
lights are extinguished as soon as the evening
gun is fired, except those which are permitted
by proper authority, or under the inspection of
sentinels. It is likewise his duty to attend the
gangway when any boats arrive aboard, and
search them carefully, together with their rowers,
that no spirituous liquors may be conveyed into
the ship, unless by permission of the command-
ing officer. In these several duties he is assisted
by proper attendants, called his corporals, who
also relieve the sentinels and one another at cer-
tain periods.
MASTER, GRAND, a title given to the chiefs of
the orders of knighthood, &c.; such as the grand
master of Malta, of St. Lazarus, of the golden
fleece, of the free-masons, &c. The late em-
peror Paul of Russia assumed the title of grand
master of Malta, upon the French taking posses-
sion of the island; but did not live to enforce
his claim to it.
MASTER AND SERVANT. The English law on
this subject may be thus considered.
SECT. I.-OF THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF SER-
WANTS,
1. The first sort of servants, acknowledged by
the laws of England, are menial servants; so
called from being intra moenia, or domestics.
All single men between twelve years old and
sixty, and married ones under thirty years of age,
and all single women between twelve and forty,
not having any visible livelihood, are compella-
blerby two justices to go out to service in hus-
bandry or certain specific trades, for the promo-
tion of honest industry: and no master can put
away his servant, or servant leave his master,
after being so retained, either before oratthe end of
his term, without a quarter's warning; unless
upon reasonable cause to be allowed by a justice
of the peace: but they may part by consent, or
make a special bargain.
The contract between servants and their mas-
ters arises upon the hiring, and Blackstone ob-
serves, that, if the hiring be general without any
particular time limited, the law construes it to be
M A S T E R A N D S E R W A N T.
629
a hiring for a year, upon a principle of natural
equity, that the servant shall serve and the master
maintain him throughout all the revolutions of
the respective seasons, as well when there is work
to be done as when there is not. But, according
to the general custom which has of late years
prevailed, it seems that, if no special contract be
made, a menial or domestic servant is entitled
only to a month's warning or a month's wages in
lieu of it. But a servant for moral turpitude, as
incontinence, &c., may be turned away without
notice. Where a servant is hired for a year and
during that time falls sick, or is disabled, in his
master's service, the servant cannot be turned
away nor any part of his wages deducted.
No stamp duty is requisite on a memorandum for
the agreement or hire of any laborer, artificer,
manufacturer, or menial servant. w
2. Another species of servants are called
apprentices (from apprendre, to learn), and are
usually bound for a term of years by deed indent-
ed or indentures, to serve their masters, and be
maintained and instructed by them. This is
usually done to persons of trade, in order to learn
their art and mystery; and sometimes very large
sums are given with them, as a premium for
such their instructions: but it may be done to
husbandmen, nay to gentlemen and to others. And
children of poor persons may be apprenticed out
by the overseers, with consent of two justices,
till twenty-one years of age, to such persons as
are thought fitting; who are also compellable to
take them; and it is held, that gentlemen of for-
tune, and clergymen, are equally liable with
others to such compulsion; for which purpose
our statutes have made the indentures obligatory,
even though such parish apprentice be a minor.
Apprentices to trades may be discharged on rea-
sonable cause, either at the request of themselves
and masters, or at the quarter sessions, or by one
justice, with appeal to the sessions; who may
by the equity of the statute, if they think it rea-
sonable, direct restitution of a rateable share of
the money given with the apprentice, and parish
apprentices may be discharged in the same man-
ner by two justices. But if an apprentice, with
whom less than £10 hath been given, runs away
from his master, he is compellable to serve out
his time of absence, or make satisfaction for the
same at any time within seven years after the
expiration of his original contract. Indentures
of apprenticeship must be stamped. In all
corporate towns they must also be enrolled, and
in London this is done in the chamberlain's of
fice.
3. A third species of servants are laborers who
are only hired by the day or the week, and do
not live intra moenia, as part of the family, con-
cerning whom the statutes before cited have
made many very good regulations; 1. Direct-
ing that all persons who have no visible ef-
fects may be compelled to work. 2. Defining
how long they must continue at work in summer
and winter. 3. Punishing such as leave or de-
sert their work. 4. Empowering the justices at
sessions, or the sheriff of the county, to settle dis-
putes.
4. There is yet a fourth species of servants if
they may be so called, being rather in a superior,
#
a ministerial, capacity; such as stewards, factors,
and bailiffs: whom, however, the law considers
as servants pro tempore, with regard to such of
their acts as affect their master's or employer's
property.
SECT. II.-OF THE RIGHTS AND Power of
THE MASTER.
1. A master may by law correct his appren-
tice for negligence or other misbehaviour, so it
be done with moderation; though, if the master
or master's wife beats any other servant of full
age, it is good cause of departure. But if any
servant, workman, or laborer, assaults his master
or dame, he shall suffer one year's imprisonment
and other open corporeal punishment not extend-
ing to life or limb.
According to the 4 Geo. IV. c. 34, if servants
in husbandry and certain artificers and laborers
contract to serve and refuse to perform such ser-
vice, or absent themselves before the contract
has expired, or be guilty of any misconduct,
they are liable to be committed to the house of
correction to hard labor for a period not exceed-
ing three months, or in lieu thereof the whole
or a proportional part of the wages may be
deducted. -
Apprentices misbehaving or absconding may
be punished, under the authority of 4 Geo. IV.
c. 34, sect. 3, by the abatement of the whole or
part of their wages, or be committed to the house
of correction for any time not "exceeding three
months.
2. The master may maintain, that is, abet and
assist his servant in any action at law against a
stranger, whereas, in general, it is an offence
against public justice to encourage surts and
animosities by helping to bear expense of them,
and is called in law ‘maintenance.’ A master
also may bring an action against any man for
beating or maiming his servant: but in such
case he must assign, as a special reason for so
doing, his own damage by the loss of his ser-
vice; and this loss must be proved upon the
trial. A servant likewise may justify an assault
in defence of his master: the master because he
has an interest in his servant, not to be deprived
of his service: the servant because it is part of
his duty for which he receives his wages to
stand by and defend his master. Also if any
person do hire or retain a servant, being in the
service of another, from which the servant de-
parteth and goeth to serve the other, the injured
party may have an action for damages against
both the new master and the servant or either of
them : but, if the new master did not know that
the servant was retained by another, no action
lies; unless he afterwards fefuse to restore him
upon information and demand. The reason and
foundation upon which all this doctrine is built,
seem to be the property that every man has in
the service of his domestics; acquired by the
contract of hiring, and purchased by giving them
wages. -
SECT III.-OF THE MASTER’s LIABILITY FOR
THE ACTS OF HIS SERVANT.
1. The acts which a servant may do on behalf
of his master seem all to proceed upon this prin-
630
MASTER AND SER v ANT.
ciple, that the master is answerable for them, if
done by his command either expressly given or
implied, nam qui facit per alium, facit per se.
Therefore if the servant commit a trespass, by the
command or encouragement of his master, the
master shall be guilty of it; though the servant
is not thereby excused, for he is only to obey
his master in matters that are honest and lawful.
If an innkeeper's servants rob his guests the
master is bound to restitution; for as there is a
confidence reposed in him, that he will take care
to provide honest servants, his negligence is a
kind of implied consent to the robbery, nam qui
non prohibet, cum prohibere possit, jubet. So
likewise if the drawer at a tavern sells a man
bad wine, whereby his health is injured, he may
bring an action against the master; for although
the master did not expressly order the servant
to sell it to that person in particular, yet his
permitting him to draw and sell it at all is im-
pliedly a general command.
2. In the same manner, whatever a servant is
permitted to do, in the usual course of his busi-
ness, is equivalent to a general command. If I
pay money to a banker's servant, the banker is
answerable for it. If I pay it to a clergyman's
or a physician's servant, whose business it is not
to receive money for his master, and he embez-
zles it, I must pay it over again. If a steward
lets a lease of a farm, without the owner's know-
ledge, the owner must stand to the bargain; for
this is the steward's business. A wife, a friend,
a relation that use to transact business for a man,
are quoad hoc his servants, and the principal
must answer for their conduct; for the law im-
plies that they act under a general command;
and without such a doctrine as this no mutual
intercourse between man and man could subsist
with any tolerable convenience. If I usually
deal with a tradesman by myself, or constantly
pay him ready money, I am not answerable for
what my servant takes up upon trust; for here
is no implied order to the tradesman to trust my
servant : but if I usually send him upon trust,
of sometimes on trust and sometimes with ready
money, I am answerable for all he takes up; for
the tradesman cannot possibly distinguish when
he comes by my order, and when upon his own
authority. -
3. If a servant by his negligence does any
damage to a stranger, the master shall answer
for his neglect. If a smith's servant lames a
horse, while he is shoeing him, an action lies
against the master, and not against the servant.
But in these cases the damage must be done
while he is actually employed in the master's
Service: otherwise the servant shall answer for
his own misbehaviour. Upon this principle by
the common law if a servant kept his master's
fire negligently, so that his neighbour's house
was burned down, thereby an action lay against
the master; because this negligence happened in
his service: otherwise, if the servant, going along
the street with a torch, by negligence sets fire to
a house; for there he is not in his master's im-
mediate service: and must himself answer the
damage personally. But now the common law
is, in the former case, altered by stat. 6 Ann.
c. 3, which ordains that no action shall be main-
tained against any in whose house or chamber
any fire shall accidentally begin; for their own
loss is sufficient punishment for their own or
their servants' carelessness. But if such fire
happèns through negligence of any servant
(whose loss is commonly very little) such servant
shall forfeit £100 to be distributed among the
sufferers; and in default of payment shall be
committed to some workhouse, and there kept to
hard labor for eighteen months. A master is
lastly chargeable if any of his family layeth or
casteth any thing out of his house into the street
or common highway, to the damage of any indi-
vidual, or the common nuisance of his majesty's
liege people: for the master hath the super-
intendance and charge of all his household.
In all the cases here put the master may be
frequently a loser by the trust reposed in his
servant, but never can be a gainer; he may fre-
quently be answerable for his servants’ misbe-
haviour, but never can shelter himself from
punishment by laying the blame on his agent.
The reason of this is still uniform and the same;
that the wrong done by the servant is looked
upon in law as the wrong of the master himself;
and it is a standing maxim, that no man shall
be allowed to make any advantage of his own
wrong.
4. It has been held that a master is not liable
on an implied assumpsit to pay for medical
attendance on a servant who has met with an
accident in his service: 3 Bos. and Pul. 247.
SECT. IV.-OF THE RIGHTS AND REMEDIES
of THE SERVANT.
1: By hiring and service for a year, or appren-
ticeship under indentures, a person gains a
settlement in that parish, wherein he last served
forty days.
2. Persons serving seven years, as apprentices
to any trade, have an exclusive right to exercise
that trade in any part of England. This law,
with regard to the exclusive part of it, has
by turns been looked upon as a hard law, or as
a beneficial one, according to the prevailing
humor of the times, which has occasioned
a great variety of resolutions in the courts of law
concerning it; and attempts have been frequently
made for its repeal, though hitherto without
success. At common law every man might use
what trade he pleased; but this statute restrains
that liberty to such as have served as appren-
tices, the adversaries to which provision say,
that all restrictions (which tend to introduce
monopolies), are pernicious to trade. The advo-
cates for it alledge, that unskilfulness in trades
is equally detrimental to the public, as mono-
polies. This reason indeed only extends to
such trades, in the exercise whereof skill is
required; but another of their arguments goes
much further, viz. that apprenticeships are
useful to the commonwealth, by employing of
youth, and teaching them to be early indus-
trious ; but that no one would be induced to
undergo a seven years' servitude, if others,
though equally skilful, were allowed the same
advantages, without having undergone the same
discipline; and in this there seems to be much
reason. However the resolutions of the courts
MAS
MAS
631
have in general rather confined than extended
the restriction. No trades are held to be within
the statutes, but such as were in being at the
making of it: for trading in a country village
apprentices are not requisite, and following the
trade seven years without any effectual prose-
cution (either as a master or a servant) is suffi-
cient, without an actual apprenticeship.
3. By service all servants and laborers, except
apprentices, become entitled to wages according
to their agreement, if menial servants; or, if
laborers or servants in husbandry, according to
the provisions in the statutes for regulation of
such servants. * -
By the 1 Geo. IV., cap. 93, the custom is pro-
hibited, which prevails in some places, of com-
pelling workmen to receive their wages in pro-
visions in lieu of money. And persons so
offending are subject to a penalty of £20, besides
other forfeitures by the previous law, and costs.
By the 5 Geo. IV., c. 96, there are several salu-
tary regulations for settling disputes, which arise
respecting wages, the hours of labor, the finish-
ing of work, the finding implements, and the
compensation to be given for any new or altered
manufacture. These disputes, if the parties
cannot agree to submit them to a magistrate, are
decided by arbitrators chosen according to the
provisions of the act, and who have power
to examine witnesses on oath, and magistrates
may compel the attendance of witnesses, and the
award may be enforced by distress and sale of
goods. - :-
4. In case of the master's bankruptcy, the
servant's wages, or those of a clerk, are usually
directed by the commissioners to be paid to the
extent (if due) of six months' wages. And"the
clerk or servant may prove for the residue, and
receive a dividend along with the other creditors.
A commission of bankruptcy issued against the
master discharges the apprentice, and a propor-
tion of the premium, under the provisions of the
6 Geo. IV. c. 16, must be repaid by the
assignees according to the term remaining un-
expired.
5. Apprentices are not liable to impressment
in the navy. And, if they enlist into the army,
they are liable to imprisonment for two years
and hard labor.
6. As to the character of a servant, it appears
that a master cannot be compelled to give a ser–
vant a character; but if he give one 1t must be
true.
No action can be maintained if the 'character
be given to the best of the master's knowledge,
and without malice.
Giving a false character of a servant, or a
false account of his service, renders the party
offending liable to a penalty of £20, and 10s.
costs. And a servant bringing a false character,
or altering a certificate of character, is subject to
the same forfeiture. - i
MASTER of ARTs, the first degree taken up
in foreign universities, as well as in those of
Scotland; but the second in those of Cambridge
and Oxford; candidates not being admitted to
it till they have studied in the university seven
years.
MASTER of A SHIP, an officer to whom is
committed the direction of a merchant vessel,
who commands it in chief, and is charged with
the merchandises aboard. In the Mediterranean
the master is frequently called patron, and, in
long voyages, captain. The proprietor of the
vessel appoints the master; and the master pro-
vides the equipage, hires the pilots, sailors, &c.
The master is obliged to keep a register of the
seamen and officers, the terms of their contract,
and the receipts and payments. . .
MASTER of A SHIP of WAR is an officer
appointed, by the commissioners of the navy, to
take charge of navigating a ship from port to
port under the direction of the captain. The
management and disposition of the sails, the
working of a ship into her station in the order of
battle, and the direction of her movements in
the time of action, and in other circumstances
of danger, are also more particularly under his
inspection. It is likewise his duty to examine
the provisions, and accordingly to admit none
into the ship but such as are sound, sweet, and
wholesome. He is moreover charged with the
stowage; and for the performance of these
services he is allowed several assistants, who are
properly termed mates and quarter-masters.
MASTER of THE CEREMONIES, an officer in-
stituted by king James I. for the more solemn
and honorable reception of ambassadors and
strangers of quality, whom he introduces into
the presence.
MASTER of THE HoRSE is reckoned the third
great officer of the court, and is an office of great
honor and antiquity, and always (when not put
in commission) filled by noblemen of the highest
rank and abilities. He has the management and
disposal of all the king's stables and bred horses.
He has authority over the equerries and pages,
coachmen, footmen, grooms, riders of the great
horse, farriers, and smiths. He appoints all the
other tradesmen who work for the king's stables;
and, by his warrant to the avenor, makes them
give an oath to be true and faithful. In short,
he is entrusted with all the lands and revenues
appropriated for the king's breed of horses, the
expenses of the stable, and of the coaches, lit-
ters, &c. He alone has the privilege of making
use of any of the king's horses, pages, footmen,
&c.; and at any solemn cavalcade he rides next
the king, and leads a horse of state. .
MASTER OF THE MILITIA, magister militiae,
was an officer in the lower empire, created, as it
is said, by Dioclesian, who had the inspection
and government of all the forces, with power to
punish, &c., somewhat like a constable of France.
At first there were two of these officers insti-
tuted, the one for the infantry, and the other for
the cavalry; but the two were united into one
under Constantine. Afterwards, as their power
was increased, so was their number also ; and
there was one appointed for the court, another
for Thrace, another for the East, and another for
Illyria. They were afterwards called comites,
counts, and clarissimi. Their power was only a
branch of that of the praefectus praetorii, who by
that means became a civil officer.
MASTER of THE MINT was anciently the title
of him who is now called Warden of the Mint;
whose office is to receive the silver and bullion
MAS
JMAS
632
which comes to the mint to be coined, and to
take care thereof.
MASTER of THE Rolls, a patent officer for
ife, who has the custody of the rolls and
patents which pass the great seal, and of the
records of the chancery. In the absence of the
lord chancellor, or keeper, he also sits as judge
in the court of chancery; and is by Sir Edward
Coke called his assistant. He hears causes in
the rolls chapel, and makes orders and decrees.
He is also the first of the masters of chancery,
and has their assistance at the rolls: but all
hearings before him are appealable to the lord
chancellor. He has also his writ of summons to
parliament, and sits next to the lord chief justice
of England on the second woolpack. He has the
keeping of the parliament rolls, and has the rolls-
$ouse for his habitation; as also the custody of
all charters, patents, commissions, deeds, and
recognisances, which being made of rolls of parch-
ment gave rise to the name. Anciently he was
called clerk of the rolls. Concerning the au-
thority of the master of the rolls to hear and
determine causes, and his general power in the
court of chancery, there were divers questions
and disputes very warmly agitated; to quiet
which it was declared, by stat. 3 Geo. II. c. 30,
that all orders and decrees by him made, except
such as by the course of the court were appropri-
ated to the great seal alone, should be deemed valid;
subject nevertheless to be discharged or altered
by the lord chancellor, and so as they shall not
be inrolled till the same are signed by his lord-
ship. In his gift are the six clerks in chancery,
the examiners, three clerks of the petty bag, and
the six clerks of the rolls-chapel where the rolls
are kept. The master of the rolls is always of
the privy council.
MASTER of THE TEMPLE. The founder of the
order of the templars, and all his successors,
were called magni templi magistri; and, ever
since the dissolution of the order, the clerical
guide and director of the house is called by that
name. There were also several other officers
under this denomination ; as, master of the
wardrobe, with a salary of £2000 a-year; mas-
ter of the harriers, with £2000 a-year; master
of the stag-hounds, with £800 a-year; master
of the jewel office, &c., all now abolished.
MASTEB's of CHANCERY are usually chosen
out of the barristers of the common law; and sit
in chancery, or at the rolls, as assistants to the
lord chancellor and the master of the rolls. All
these, so late as the reign of queen Elizabeth, were
commonly doctors of the civil law. To them are
also committed interlocutory reports, examination
of bills in chancery, stating of accounts, taxing
costs, &c., and sometimes, by way of reference,
they are empowered to make a final determina-
tion of causes. They have time out of mind had
the honor to sit in the house of lords, though
they have neither writs nor patent to empower
them; but they are received as assistants to the
lord chancellor and the master of the rolls. They
had anciently the care of inspecting all writs of
summons, which is now performed by the clerk
of the petty bag. When any message is sent
from the lords to the commons it is carried by
the masters of chancery. Before them also affi-
r - -
davits are made, and deeds and recognisances
acknowledged. Besides these, who may be
called masters of chancery ordinary, being twelve
in number, of whom the master of the rolls is
reputed the chief, there are also,
MASTERS OF CHANCERY EXTRAORDINARY,
appointed to act in the several counties of Eng-
land beyond ten miles distance from London, by
taking affidavits, recognisances, &c., for the ease
of the suitors of the court.
MASTER LOAD, in mining, a term used to ex-
press the larger vein of a metal in places where
there are several veins in the same hill. Thus
it often happens that there are seven, sometimes
five, but more usually three veins or loads, pa-
rallel to each other, in the same hill. Of these
the middle vein is always much the largest.
This is called the master load; and the others,
which lie three, two, or one, on each side of
* are called the concomitants of the master
load.
MASTICATION, n.s. Latin masticatio ;
MASTICATORY. } Gr. Hastyaw. Chew-
ing: a medicine to be chewed.
Remember masticatories for the mouth.
Bacon
In birds there is no mastication, or comminution of
the meat in the mouth ; but in such as are not carni-
vorous it is immediately swallowed into the crop or
craw, and thence transferred into the gizzard.
Ray on the Creation.
Mastication is a necessary preparation of solid ali-
ment, without which there can be no good digestion.
- Arbuthnot.
Salivation and masticatories evacuate considerably;
salivation many pints of phlegm in a day, and very
much by chewing tobacco. Floyer on Humors.
MASTICATroN is the act of agitating the solid
parts of our food between the teeth, by the mo-
tion of the jaws, the tongue, and the lips, where-
by it is broken into small pieces, impregnated
with saliva, and so fitted for deglutition and a
more easy digestion. See ANATOMY.
MASTICH, n.s. Fr. mastic; Ital. mastico;
Lat. mastiche. A kind of gum or cement. See
below.
As for the small particles of brick and stone, the
least moistness would join them together, and turn
them into a kind of mastich, which those insects could
not divide. . Addison.
We may apply intercipients upon the temples of
mastich ; frontals may also be applied. Wiseman.
MASTICH is a kind of resin exuding from the
lentiscus tree, and brought from Chio in small
yellowish transparent grains, of an agreeable
smell, especially when heated or set on fire. See
Prst ACHIA. This resin is recommended in
coughs, dysenteries, weakness of the stomach,
and in general in all debilities, and laxity of the
fibres. Geoffroy directs an aqueous decoction
of it to be used for these purposes: but water
extracts little or nothing from this resin. Rec-
tified spirit almost entirely dissolves it, and the
solution is very warm and pungent. Mastich is
to be chosen in drops, clear, well scented, and
brittle.
MASTrch is also a kind of cement, composed
of the above gum and several other ingredients,
formed into cakes, for the use of the lapidaries,
MAS
MAT
633
to fill up cracks in stones, &c., but on no ac-
count to be used for any medicinal purposes.
MASTICOT, n.s. Lat. marum. An oxyde
of lead. See MASSicot. .
Grind your masticot with saffron in gum water.
- - Peacham.
Masticot is very light because it is a very clear
yellow, and very near to white.
Dryden's Dufresnoy.
MASTICOT, or yellow lead, is the calx or ashes
of lead, gently calcined, by which it is changed
to a yellow or lighter or deeper tint, according
to the degree of calcination. Masticot is some-
times used by painters, and it serves medicinally
as a drier in the composition of ointments or
plasters. The masticot, which is used by the
Dutch as the ground of their glazing, is prepared
by calcining a mixture of 1 cwt. of clean sand,
44lbs. of soda, sold under the name of barilla,
and 30lbs. of pearl ashes.
MASTIFF, n.s. A Fr. mestif, originally of
MAS'TIves, plu., 5 Goth, mast, greatness; and
tºve, a dog. A large species of dog.
As savage bull, whom two fierce mastives bait,
When rancour doth with rage him once engore,
Forgets with wary ward them to await,
But with his dreadful horns them drives afore.
Spenser.
• When rank Thersites opes his mastiff jaws,
We shall hear musick, wit, and oracle.
Shakspeare.
Horror of sin, like a sleeping mastiff, lies at our
door; when it awakes it will fly on our throat.
Bp. Hall.
When we knock at a farmer's door, the first answer
shall be his vigilant mastiff.
More's Antidote against Atheism.
Soon as Ulysses near the enclosure drew,
With open mouths the furious mastives flew.
Pope.
Let the mastiffs amuse themselves about a sheep's
skin stuffed with hay, provided it will keep them from
worrying the flock. Swift.
MASTLIN, n. s. Fr. mester, to mingle; or
perhaps corrupted from miscellane. Mixed
corn; as wheat and rye.
The tother for one lofe hath twaine
Of mastlin, of rie and of wheat.
Tusser's Husbandry.
MASUAH, a principal sea-port of Abyssinia,
situated on an island, separated from the conti-
ment by a narrow channel. Masuah Bay has the
town of Arkekow (Adulis) on its southern shore,
before which is anchorage sheltered from all
winds except those between east and north.
The town of Masuah has some fortifications,
the houses are chiefly built of reeds lined with
mats. This is the principal trading place of
Abyssinia, and provisions are abundant but dear:
it has no water but what is preserved in cisterns
from the rains, and, this not being sufficient,
boats are constantly bringing this article from
Arkekow. * - *
The island itself is only about three-quarters
of a mile in length, and about half that breadth,
about one-third of which is occupied by houses.
There are however about twenty of 'stone taken
from the sea, and exhibiting the remains of shell-
fish imbedded in it. Masuah in early times
possessed a sharé of the trade of India; but, after
it fell into the hands of the Turks, this fell to de-
cay. Its situation, however, renders it the only
mart for the produce of Abyssinia. Its inter-
course is chiefly with Mocha and Jidda: the
imports consisting of cotton wool, spices, piece
goods, lead, iron, copper, tin, and European
manufactures, estimated at 400,000 dollars per
annum, exclusive of the cotton wool. The ex-
ports are rhinoceros' horns, gold, ivory, honey,
slaves, and wax. These articles are brought
from the interior by a caravan, which arrives in
February. The government demands ten per
cent., ad valorem, on all imports and exports.
MASULIPATAM, or MuchLIPATAM (Fish-
town), a considerable sea-port of Hindostan, in
the district of Condapilly, and the Northern Cir-
cars. It is situated in a fertile territory, and in-
habited by artisans, who have long caused it to
be celebrated for the fineness and brilliant color
of its cotton cloths, or chintzes. It carries on a
considerable traffic with China, Pegu, Bengal,
Persia, and Arabia. The harbour is capable of
admitting vessels of 300 tons, and is the best port
on the coast of Coromandel. An oblong fort
(800 yards long by 600 broad) is situated near
the sea and at the mouth of a river; the adjoin-
ing grounds may be inundated at pleasure, and
this in fact constitutes its chief defence. The
Black Town, a mile and a half to the north-
west of the forts, may also be inundated. Ma-
sulipatam was conquered successively by the
Mahometans and the nizam of the Deccan, who
made it over with the province to the French in
1751, when they much improved the town and
fortifications. It was, however, taken by the
British in April 1759, with whom it has remain-
ed. It is the residence of a judge, collector,
&c., of the district. Long. 81° 10' E., lat. 16°
10' N. ^.
MAT, n. s. & v. a. Saxon meatre ; Dan.
MAT'TING, n.s. 5 and Teut. matte; Wel.
matt; Ital. matta; Lat. matta. A texture of
sedge, flags, cord, or rushes: to cover with mats;
to weave like matting; involve: matting is syno-
nymous with mat, n. s. -
I on a fountain light,
Whose brim with pinks was platted;
The banks with daffadillies dight,
With grass like sleave was matted. Drayton.
The women and children in the west of Cornwall
make mats of a small and fine kind of bents there.
growing, which serve to cover floors and walls.
& Carew's Survey of Cornwall.
Sometimes beneath an ancient oak, *
Or on the matted grass he lies ;
No god of sleep he did invoke:
The stream that o'er the pebbles flies, -
With gentle slumber crowns his eyes. Dryden.
He looked a lion with a gloomy stare,
And o'er his eye-brows hung his matted hair. Id.
Keep the doors and windows of your conservatories.
well matted and guarded from the piercing air.
- - Evelyn’s Kalendar.
The spleen consisteth of muscular fibres, all matted,
as in the skin, but in more open work.
Grew's Cosmologia.
In the worst inn's worst room, with mat half
hung,
The floors of plaister, and the walls of dung.
+. e - . Pope.
MAT
MAT
634
Drawn from his refuge in some lonely elm,
That age or injury has hollowed deep,
Where, on his bed of wool and matted leaves,
He has outslept the winter, ventures forth
To frisk awhile, and bask in the warm sun,
The squirrel, flippant, pert, and full of play.
Cowper.
MATADORE, n.s. Span, matador, a mur-
derer. One of the three principal cards in om-
bre and quadrille, which are always the two
black aces, the deuce in spades and clubs, and
the seventh in hearts and clubs.
Now move to war her sable matadores,
In show like leaders of the swarthy Moors.
Pope.
MATACHIN', n. s. Fr. matachin. An old
dance. -
Who ever saw a matachin dance to imitate fight-
ing: this was a fight that did imitate the matachin;
for they being but three that fought, every one had
two adversaries striking him, who struck the third.
Sidney.
MATAMBA, a country in the interior of
South-western Africa, little known except by the
reports of Portuguese missionaries. It is repre-
sented as mountainous, and as giving rise to the
Barbela, or principal branch of the Zaire or
Congo; but this is not confirmed. It is said to
be about 150 miles square, partly occupied by
the Giagas, a people the terror of this part of
Africa. Umbe Upper and Lower, Ganghelli
Upper and Lower, and Bondo, are mentioned as
its provinces.
MATARO, a city of Spain, in Catalonia,
twenty miles E. N. E. of Barcelona, near the
sea. It is divided into the Old and New Town,
the former being of great antiquity and preserv-
ing the walls and gates of a remote age. It ap-
pears to have been a place of note under the
Romans, and is supposed to be the Illuro of
tolemy and Pomponius Mela. The New Town
lies between the Old Town and the sea, and has
its streets wide, straight, and regular. Many of
the houses are painted in fresco. Mataro is one
of the few towns in Spain that are on the in-
crease: its population, in 1770 only 10,000, now
amounts, it is said, to 25,000. The inhabitants
carry on manufactures of laces, calico, silk and
cotton stockings, silk stuffs and velvets, ribands
and silk twist, canvas and leather. Bay salt is
collected along the shore; and the neighbour-
hood affords both wine and brandy. A small
stream, called La Riera, runs through the Old
Town, and the supply of water is good. Ma-
taro contains an hospital, a parish church, and
five chapels belonging to monasteries and con-
vents. Long. 2°28' 24” E., lat, 41° 32' 26" N.
MATAVAI BAY, a bay on the north side of
the island of Otaheite, opening to the north-
west. The entrance is between a reef and sunken
rock; but ships when in are well sheltered
against all winds, except those from the west
and north-west. Long. 149° 36'W., lat. 17°29′S.
MATAvAI PoſNT, a cape on the island of Ota-
heite, in long. 210° 22' E., lat. 17°29′ S.
MATCH, n.s. & v. n.º) Saxon maca ; Goth.
MATCH'ABLE, adj. magisk, make : Danish
MATCH'LESS, mage (the Goth. mag is
MATCH'LESSLY, adv. V. a near relative). A
p pair; one thing or per-
MATCH' MAKER, n. s.
son that equals another; hence one to be mar-
ried, and a marriage: also a contest, or a person
considered as equal to another in conflict: te
match is to be equal to; show or oppose as an
equal; suit; proportion; marry or give in mar-
riage; be married; suit: matchable is suitable;
equal; corresponding: matchless, unequalled: a
matchmaker, one who contrives marriages; often
a person of equal respectability with the maker
of the following article.
A thing that may luckily fall out to him that hath
the blessing to match with some heroical-minded
lady. Sidney.
Ye, whose high worths surpassing paragon,
Could not on earth have found one fit for mate,
Ne but in heaven matchable to none, -
Why did you stoop unto so lowly state? Spenser.
Great king,
I would not from your love make such a stray,
To match ye where I hate.
Shakspeare. King Lear.
Shall we play the wantons with our foes,
And make some pretty match with shedding tears.
Shakspeare.
The match -
Were rich and honourable ; besides, the gentleman
Is full of virtue, bounty, worth, and qualities,
Beseeming such a wife as your fair daughter.
Shakspeare.
No settled senses of the world can match
The pleasure of that madness. Id.
O thou, good Kent, how shall I live and work
To match thy goodness? life will be too short,
And every measure fail me. Id. King Lear.
I hold it a sin to match in my kindred.
- Shakspeare.
She inherited a fair fortune of her own, and was
very rich in a personal estate, and was looked upon
as the richest match of the West. Clarendon.
Thou dost protest thy love, and wouldest it show
By matching her, as she would match her foe.
Donne.
Unequal matches are seldom prosperous.
Bp. Hall.
Them willingly they would have still retained,
And matched unto the prince. , Daniel's Civil War.
Eternal might
To match with their inventions they presumed
So easy, and of his thunder made a scorn.
- Milton.
You came to him to know
If you should carry me, or no;
And would have hired him and his imps,
To be your matchmakers and pimps. Hudibras.
Let poets match their subject to their strength,
And often try what weight they can º:
OSCO772712071.
This happy day two lights are seen,
A glorious saint, a matchless queen. Waller.
Love doth seldom suffer itself to be confined by
other matches than those of its own making. Boyle.
Let tygers match with hinds, and wolves with
sheep, - - -
And every creature couple with his foe. Dryden.
All creatures else are much unworthy thee,
They matched, and thou alone art left for me.
Much less, in arms, oppose thy matchless force,
When thy sharp spurs shall urge thy foaming hº
The goat was mine, by singing fairly won.
A solemn match was made; he lost the Priºr,
MAT
MAT
635
With him she strove to join Lavinia's hand,
But dire portents the purposed match withstand.
The shepherd's kalendar of Spenser is not to be #
matched in any modern language. Id.
The old man has met with his match.
Spectator.
A senator of Rome, while Rome survived,
Would not have matched his daughter with a king.
* Addison.
Government mitigates the inequality of power,
and makes an innocent man, though of the lowest
rank, a match for the mightiest of his fellow-subjects.
When a man thinks himself matched to one who
should be a comfort to him, instead thereof he finds
in his bosom a beast. South.
No history or antiquity can match his policies and
his conduct. Id.
Mine have been still
Matched with my birth; a younger brother's hopes.
Rowe.
Those at land that are not matchable with any upon
our shores, are of those very kinds which are found
no where but in the deepest parts of the sea.
Woodward’s Natural History.
The natural shame that attends vice, makes them
zealous to encourage themselves by numbers, and
form a party against religion : it is with pride they
survey their increasing strength, and begin to think
themselves a match for virtue. " Rogers.
Employ their wit and humour in chusing and
matching of patterns and colours. Swift.
MATCH, n.s. Fr. meche : Ital. micchia;
MATCH'MAKER. S. Gr. ºvknç. Dried fungus;
a splinter or cord used to set fire to a candle or
gun.
Try them in several bottle matches, and see which
of them last longest without stench. Bacon.
He made use of trees as matches to set Druina a
fire. Howel.
Being willing to try something that would not
cherish much firé at once, and would keep fire much
longer than a coal, we took a piece of match, such as
soldiers use. Boyle.
A MATCH is a kind of rope slightly twisted,
and prepared to retain fire for the uses of artil-
lery, mines, fire-works, &c. It is made of
hempen tow, spun on the wheel like cord, but
very, slack; and is composed of three twists,
which are afterwards again covered with tow, so
that the twists do not appear; lastly, it is boiled
in the lees of old wines, saltpetre, &c. This,
when once lighted at the end, burns on gradually
and regularly, without ever going out till the
whole be consumed: the hardest and driest match
is generally the best. *
MATCHING, in the wine trade, the art of
Fº vessels to preserve wines and other
iquors, without their growing sour or vapid.
The method is as follows:–Melt brimstone in
an iron ladle, and, when thoroughly melted, dip
into it slips of coarse linen cloth; take these out
and let them cool: this the wine-coopers call a
match. Take one of these matches, set one end
of it on fire, and put it into the bunghole of a
cask; stop it loosely, and thus suffer the match
to burn nearly out; then drive in the bung tight
and set the cask aside for an hour or two. At
the end of this time examine the cask, and you
will find that the sulphur has communicated a
violent, pungent, and suffocating scent to the
cask, with a considerable degree of acidity. The
cask may after this be filled with a small wine
which has scarcely done its fermentation; and,
bunging it down tight, it will keep good, and ,
will soon clarify: this is a common and very
useful method; for many poor wines could
scarcely be kept potable even a few months with.
out it.
MATE, v. d. Fr. mat, matter; Span. mate,
matar; Pers. mat (confounded). To confound,
astonish, subdue, crush: obsolete.
My sense she's mated, and amazed my sight.
Shakspearc.
That is good deceit
Which mates him first, that first intends deceit. Id.
Why this is strange ; go call the abbess hither;
I think you are all mated, or stark mad. Id.
The great effects that may come of industry and
perseverance who knoweth not ? For audacity doth
almost bind and mate the weaker sort of minds.
Bacon’s Natural History.
MATE, n.s. & v. a. Sax. maca ; Belg. maet;
Isl. maet. See MATCH. A companion, husband,
or wife: in naval affairs a second in subordi-
nation, as the master's, surgeon's mate, &c.: to
mate, is to match; marry; equal; and hence to
oppose.
I that am frail flesh and earthly wight,
Unworthy match for such immortal mate,
Myself well wote, and mine unequal fate.
Faerie Queene,
Ensample make of him your hapless joy,
And of myself now mated as you see,
Whose prouder vaunt, that proud avenging boy
Did soon pluck down, and * my liberty. Id.
Go, base intruder 1 over-weening slave!
Bestow thy fawning smiles on equal mates.
- Shakspeare.
I i' the way of loyalty and truth,
Dare mate a sounder man than. Surrey can be,
And all that love his follies. Id. Henry VIII.
The hind that would be mated by the lion,
Must die for love.
Id. All's Well that Ends Well.
You knew me once no mate
For you : there sitting where you durst not soar.
Milton.
Part single, or with mate,
Graze the sea-weed their pasture, and through groves
Of coral stray. - Id. Paradise Lost.
What vengeance on the passing fleet she poured,
The master frighted, and the mates devoured.
Roscommon.
Leave thy bride alone:
Go leave her with her maiden mates to play
At sports more harmless, till the break of day.
Dryden.
Some from seeds inclosed on earth arise,
For thus the mastful chesnut mates the skies. Id.
Pliny tells us, that elephants know no copulation
with any other than their own proper mate.
Ayliffe.
Her faithful mate will share her toil,
Burns.
Or wi' his song her cares beguile.
MATE of A MERCHANT SHIP, the officer who
commands in the absence of the master thereof,
and shares the duty with him at sea; being
charged with every thing that regards the inter-
nal management of the ship, the directing her
course, and the government of her crew. &
636 -
MI E D I C A.
M A T E R I A
MATE of A SHIP OF WAR, an officer under the
direction of the captain, by whose choice he is
generally appointed, to assist him in the several
branches of his duty. Accordingly he must be
particularly attentive to the navigation in his
watch, &c., to keep the log regularly, and exa-
mine the line and glasses by which the ship's
course is measured, and to adjust the sails to
the wind in the fore part of the ship. He must
pay a diligent attention to the cables, and see
that they are well coiled and kept clean when
laid in the tier, and sufficiently served when em-
ployed to ride the ship. He must also super-
M A T E R I A
MATERIA MEDICA is a combined term which
constitutes in a manner its own definition. No
one who hears it announced can for a moment
be at a loss in respect of its signification. In
regard, however, to what the term should pro-
perly comprehend, opinion varies, some confin-
ing the materia medica to the designation of
those substances which act therapeutically, or,
in other words, which remedy or cure disease;
while others extend it so as to embrace every
material which assists in the support of life or
the nourishment of man. Then again, the term
is made to apply to compounds by some, while
others restrict its signification to the mere articles
of medicine as presented by nature, or at least
as employed without being made to undergo
the changes operated upon them by chemical
process and combination.
In the present article we shall adopt the more
limited signification of materia medica, since we
have treated of the alimentaria (see ALIMENT) in
another part of the work—and because we think
that, when made the subjects of formative and
chemical and combined change, medicines ought
then to be considered under the word PHARMACY.
In this separation, indeed, we are guided by still
other motives; for we shall by adopting it prevent
an undue and disproportionate length in this ar-
ticle, devoted to the consideration of healing
powers, and, by deferring the account of phar-
macy till the last moment of alphabetical per-
mission, we shall be better enabled to carry up
its alterations and improvements (for it is at this
. undergoing them rapidly) to the latest
ate.
A history of materia medica would in some
sort be a history of medicine itself; for substances
employed in the cure of diseases have been in
a measure regulated by the varying opinions of
the times in respect to their mode of operating.
Thus although the materia medica of Hippocrates
was comparatively simple, and comprising but a
few articles, it was still more simplified by his
follower Erasistratus, and we have had an exam-
plein our own times of an attempt so to reduce and
simplify the agency of medicine, that the practi-
tioner of this school would lessen the list of ma-.
terials employed in medicine almost to nihility.
Our readers will understand that we allude to
intend and assist the stowage of the hold, taking
special care that all the ballast and provisions
are properly stowed therein. The number of
mates allowed to ships of war and merchantmen
is always in proportion to the size of the vessel.
Thus a first-rate man of war and an East India-
man have each six mates; a frigate of ten guns,
and a small merchant-ship, only one each; and
the intermediate ships have a greater or smaller
number, according to their sizes or to the sérvices
on which they are employed. -
MATER, DURA, MATER PIA ; two membranes
surrounding the brain. See ANATOMY, Index.
M E D I C A.
the system of Dr. John Brown, which, were it to
the letter correct, would do away altogether the
distinction of medicines as to their virtues and
influences, and make the materia medica a mere
compilation of natural history.
To the natural historian indeed, after all, we
have been more indebted for the progress of ma-
teria medica knowledge than to the medical
theorists, since the former from the commence-
ment of time has pursued the plan of observation
and research, and has been less trammelled in his
observations on properties by the reigning doc-
trines of the times. It must, however, be ad-
mitted that, when to the description of plants
the ancient naturalists added their medical vir-
tues, they often did so in the spirit of extrava-
gance and hypothesis, which very materially
lessened the value of their labors.
The materia medica has further been much
modified by place and circumstance, that is,
accordingly as the therapeia of medicine was
more cultivated in one than another part of the
world, so were more or less copious lists of
medicinal articles added to those already in use.
Thus, when the study of medicine was princi-
pally confined to Arabia, the attention of its pro-
fessors was greatly directed to additions of medi-
cines, which their climate and their connexion
with the nations still further east had introduced
to their notice. Indeed it was in this part of the
world that the first notion was given of that ex-
travagant proposition which assumed the possi-
bility of compounding medicinals. into such a
mixture as to constitute a universal medicine,
or elixir vitae. See ALCHEMY and CHEMISTRY.
As thus the progress of the science has been
influenced by the circumstances of time, place,
and opinion; so has the method in which the
naturals composing it should be arranged and
classified been the subject of controversy :
some maintaining the propriety of disposing
medicinal articles according to their essential
properties, others according to their therapeutic
virtues; others again have pursued the principle
of natural or botanical analogies, while an alpha-
betical arrangement has been adopted by others
under the conviction that all classification ex-
cept a literal one, causes not only uncertainty
but repetition. Suppose, for example, astrirgency
M A T E R I A M E D I C A.
637
to be taken as one of the heads, under which me-
dicinal substances should be arranged, the very
term itself involves an hypothesis, some contend-
ing that astringency is operated in one way, and
some in another—then the plant or substance, in
question, besides being possessed of an astrin-
gent property, may be endowed with other vir-
tues, as of a tonic (if the latter principle of
agency be admitted), and of course, under the
word Tonic, it ought to be inserted again; so
that, by the very attempt to simplify and con-
centrate, we should be led into complication, and
diffuseness, and repetition: and it must be ob-
served that in the present day, we are not so
ready to admit of virtues and of principles of
action, as was formerly the case; so that artifi-
cial arrangements now, to satisfy, must approach
to demonstrative evidence, as nearly as it is in
the nature of physical investigation so to do;
otherwise they will be rejected as the schemes
of fancy, rather than admitted as the oracles of
truth.
It was under these impressions that the mo-
dern compilers of dispensatories adopted the plan
of alphabetical arrangement, as being, if not so
scientific, certainly less liable to objections of
the nature above adduced than any other; and
the three writers to whose labors we shall be
most indebted in the compilation of the present
article, Thomson, Duncan, and Paris, have pur-
sued this method. As Encyclopedists, however,
we should not be doing justice to the subject
without presenting in outline, at least, the prin-
cipal schemes which have been proposed on
other principles; and we shall therefore in the
first place give our readers a general view of those
which have been the most entitled to considera-
tion; and at the end of the article we shall men-
tion those writers whom the curious may con-
sult as authorities on the science about which we
are now to treat.
We select the schemes of Cullen, Parr,
Darwin, and John Murray, for presentation in
outline.
The first of these authors, Dr. Cullen, divides
the materia medica primarily into nutrients, and
medicines. Then he assumes that medicinal
substances, properly so called, act either on the
solids or the fluids; and, with respect to those
whose agency is on the solids, he proposes a
subdivision into those which influence the solids
as dead matter, or the simple solid as it is called
in opposition to the vital. Medicines, the action
of which is on the simple solid, are astringents,
tonics, emollients, and corrosives; those which
act on the living solid are stumulants and se-
datives, including narcotics, refrigerants, and anti-
spasmodics. *
In the second general class of medicines, or
those which actupon the fluids, are included those
which either produce alteration or evacuation;
the medicines which produce change comprise
attenuants, inspissants (mechanical or mate-
rial change), and demulcents, antacids, ant-
alkalines, and antiseptics (the changes in these
last instances being rather chemical than merely
formative).
Then the medicines which produce evacua-
tion are, the errhines, sialagogues, expectorants,
emetics, cathartics, diuretics, diaphoretics, and
emmenagogues.
It has, however, been remarked, by a modern
writer, that Dr. Cullen's materia medica is in
some sort inconsistent with his theory of medi-
cine, since the fluids in that theory are supposed
always to be acted upon in subordination to the
solids, and not primarily. The reader, by turn-
ing to our article on MEDICINE, will see that this
indeed constitutes one of the main peculiarities
of Cullen's system, that it assumes the solid
fibre to be the regulator of all changes in the
body (see MEDICINE). Cullen's arrangement,
however, is by no means a bad one, and it has
been adopted by many writers on the subject of
medicinal influence.
Dr. Parr, in his Medical Dictionary, proposes
the following scheme of classification. He
makes four general divisions, viz. into those
which act 1st, upon the living solid; 2dly,
upon the fluids; 3dly, upon the simple solid;
and 4thly, upon extraneous bodies.
Of the first class, his divisions are into, 1st,
those which increase motion, including emetics
acting upon the stomach; cathartics upon the
intestines; diaphoretics upon the extreme vessels;
diuretics upon the kidneys; expectorants upon
the bronchiae; errhines upon the glands of the
nose; sialagogues upon the salivary glands; em-
menagogues upon the womb ; stimulants upon
the whole body, which last include, cordials
(cardiaca); analeptics, attractives (attrahentia),
and discutients. 2dly, Those which diminish
motion, in which are comprehended the refrige-
rants and antispasmodics. 3dly, Those which
lessen tone, or sedatives. 4thly, Those which
increase tone, or tonics.
The second class, or those medicines the
agency of which is upon the fluids, comprehends
1st, those which change the crasis of the fluids,
which are attenuants, inspissants, and alteratives;
and those, 2dly, which correctacrimony, includ-
ing demulcents, antacids, antalkalines, and an-
tiseptics. * * -
The third class, or those substances which
operate upon the simple or dead solid, compre-
hend emollients, corrosives (erodentia), and as-
tringents.
The fourth are the antipoisonous (alexiteria),
the lithontriptic (medicines for calculous con-
cretions), and the anthelmintics (worm medi-
cines). -
In defence of this arrangement, Dr. Parr in-
troduces into his Dictionary a few remarks which
we shall subjoin. •
“These classes of the materia medica are not
so numerous as to require what is usually styled a
methodus, and, if any thing were sacrificed to the
parade of systems by this means, it would be
improperly adopted. Whatever may be the
merits of the scheme, it has no disadvantages; for
the arrangement is exactly such as if the orders
were natural and independent; and the clavis
limits the intention of the group with peouliar
accuracy. The evacuants most nearly related
follow each other; and, as no evacuation can
take place without the excitement of the vessels
as muscular organs (query?), so in the following
class stimulantia, where the nervous system is
638
M A T E R I A M E D I C A.
more generally affected, a general action of the
vessels of the whole system usually accompanies
(here our author is faulty in his phraseology,
and we think his pathology rather questionable).
Of the synonymes of stimulants, the two first,
should such medicines exist, act more peculiarly
on the nervous system; the two last are topical
remedies. The distinction between general and
topical medicines usually admitted is at least
useless, if not injurious; for the most active in-
ternal medicines are often powerful topics.
“The next division is also connected with some
action of the sanguiferous system, which disap-
pears in the second class. Resolvents are truly
refrigerants, for discutients occur in a subse-
quent part. The medicines which increase tone
are included under tonica, and the astringents
are referred to those medicines which act on the
simple solid. Some certainly act on both, and
astringents sometimes appear to be tonics. The
medicines which diminish tone, diminish also
sensibility and excitability; and we have added
as synonymes anodyna and irritantia; those
which possess an opposite quality are associated
in idea with stimulants.
‘We have admitted, with hesitation and reluc-
tance any action of medicines on the fluids,
adopting the axiom of the nervous pathologists,
that the constitution forms its own fluids. Yet
some complaisance is due to many excellent
physicians of the Boerhaavian school, and it is
at least necessary to point out the medicines
which have been employed with these views.
The third of the classes of the first division, the
alterantia, is vague; yet the actions of medicines
in scurvy, in what are styled scorbutic eruptions,
in lepra, and in some other cases, must be col-
lected into one group, and it is not easy to find a
more proper place. In the second division we
clearly perceive the action of demulcents on the
throat, the stomach and alimentary canal, the
urinary organs, and perhaps the bronchial glands.
The antacids and antalkalines are at least useful
in the stomachs, and some medicines undoubt-
edly act chemically as antiseptics.
‘The medicines which act on the simple solids
afford few subjects of remark. If relaxants are
any thing more than ‘emollients, they bear the
same reference to the sedantia that the astringents
do to the tonics; at least they seem to act
through the medium of the simple solid. For
these, and the other reasons assigned, the astrin-
gents are referred to this place. The last general
division contains classes independent in their
operation on each other.3 Lithontriptics may be
only antacids, but they are said with confidence
to dissolve the calculus. Anthelmintics may be
only drastic purgatives, but some at least kill
WOrms.
‘It is a common objection,’ continues our au-
thor, “to any arrangement, that some medicines
possess very different powers, and that their
proper places are not easily ascertained. In-
stances of this kind occur in mercury and steel.
Repétition however is unavoidable, and those who
seek for the medicine appropriated to any dis-
ease, in such catalogues, must find them in each
list. The more general authors on the materia
medica will treat of them under that head where
their powers are most conspicuous, and the medi-
t
cine will again occur, where, from its preparation
GF exhibition, peculiar properties are discovered
in it. -
To these remarks, Dr. Parr adds some others
in explanation of the detail of substances which
he presents to his readers; but, as the addition of
this list would unnecessarily swell the bulk of
our pages, we shall omit both it and the re-
marks respecting it, and proceed to a sketch of
Dr. Darwin's arrangement.
This very ingenious but rather eccentric phi-
losopher proposes to include , in the materia
medica all those substances which may contribute
to the restoration of health. These, he says, may
be conveniently distributed under seven articles,
according to the diversity of their operations. .
1. Nutrientia, or those things which preserve
in their natural state the due exertions of all the
irritative motions.
2. Incitantia, or those things which increase the
exertions of all the irritative motions.
3. Secermentia, or those things which increase
the irritative motions which constitute secretion.
4. Sorbentia, or those things which increase the
irritative motions which constitute absorption.
5. Invertentia, or those things which invert
the natural order of the successive irritative
motions.
6. Revertentia, or those things which restore
the natural order of the inverted irritative mo-
tions. ! -
7. Torpentia, those things which diminish the
exertions of all the irritative motions.
In the first class, or nutrients, he presents the
following catalogue:— -
I. 1. Venison, beef, mutton, hare, goose, duck,
woodcock, snipe, moor-game.
2. Oysters, lobsters, crabs, shrimps, mush-
rooms, eel, tench, barbolt, smelt, turbot, sole,
turtle. -
3. Lamb, veal, sucking pigs.
4. Turkey, partridge, pheasant, fowl, eggs.
5. Pike, perch, gudgeon, trout, grayling.
II. Milk, cream, butter, butter-milk, whey,
cheese.
III. Wheat, barley, oats, peas, potatoes, tur-
nips, carrots, cabbage, asparagus, artichoke, spi-
nach, beet, apple, pear, plum, apricot, necta-
rine, peach, strawberry, grape, orange, melon,
cucumber, dried figs, raisins, sugar, honey,
with a great variety of other roots, seeds, leaves,
and fruits.
IV. Water, river water, spring water, calcare-
ous earth.
V. Air, oxygen, azote, carbonic acid gas.
VI. Nutritive baths and clysters, transfusion
of blood.
VII. Condiments. - r
In the above succession, Dr. Darwin means to
point out the progressive degree of nutrient
power possessed by different substances; he does
not, however, appear to be always correct in his
notions: indeed the nutritive quality of substances
can scarcely be judged of in the abstract, so
much depending upon the individual, and upon the
time, place, and circumstances under which food
is taken. Our readers will perhaps say that, in
thus including the nutrientia, we have wandered
from our intention of limiting the present article
to medicinal substances, but we could not have
M A T E R I, A M E D I C A.
639
presented an unbroken view of Darwin's classi-
fication without so doing.
The class of excitants (incitantia) contains
the following catalogue:
I. Papaver somniferum; poppy, opium.
Alcohol, wine, beer, cyder.
Prunus lauro-cerasus; laurel, distilled water
from the leaves.
Prunus cerasus; black cherry, distilled water
from the kernel.
Nicotiana tabacum; tobacco, the essential oil,
decoction of the leaf.
Atropa belladonna; deadly nightshade, the
berries.
Datura stramonium; thorn apple, the fruit
boiled in milk.
Hyoscyamus reticulatus; henbane, the seeds
and leaves.
Cynoglossum; heund's tongue.
Menispermum, cocculus; Indian berry.
Amygdalus amarus; bitter almond. ,
Cicuta; hemlock. Conium maculatum ?
Strychnos nux vomica? *
Delphinium stavisagria 7
II. Externally, heat; electricity.
III. Ether, essential oils.
IV. Oxygen gas.
V. Passions of love, joy, anger.
VI. Labor, play, agitation, friction:
The third class, secernents, comprise the fol-
lowing:
I. Diaphoretics.
1. Amomum zinziber, ginger. Caryophyllus
aromaticus, cloves. Piper indicum, pepper.
Capsicum. Cardamomum. Pimento, myrtus pi-
menta. Canella alba. Serpentária virginia,
aristolochia serpentaria; guaiacum. Sassafras
laurus; sassafras. Opium. Wine. *.
2. Essential oils of cinnamon, laurus cinna-
momum. Nutmeg, myristica moschata. Cloves,
caryophyllus aromaticus.
phor, laurus camphora. Ether.
3. Volatile salts, as of ammoniac and of
hartshorn. Sal cornu cervi.
4. Neutral salts, as those with vegetable acid;
or with marine acid, as common salt. Halex,
red-herring anchovy.
5. Preparations of antimony, as emetic tartar,
antimonium tartarizatum, wine of antimony.
James's powder.
6. External applications. Blisters, warm-
baths, warm air. Exercise. Friction.
7. Cold water with subsequent warmth.
II. Sialagogues. Preparations of mercury,
hydrargyrum. Pyrethrum, anthemis pyrethrum,
tobacco, cloves, pepper, cowhage, strizolobium
siliqua hirsuta. Mastich, pistachia lentiscus.
III. Expectorants.
1. Squill, scilla maritima, garlick, leek, onion,
allium, assafoetida, ferula assafoetida, gum ammo-
niac, benzoin, tar, pix liquida; balsam of Tolu.
2. Root of seneka, polygala seneka; of ele-
campane, inula helenium.
3. Marsh mallow, althaea; coltsfoot, tussilago
farfara; gum arabic, mimosa nilotica; gum traga-
canth, astralagus tragacantha. Decoction of
barley, hordeum distichon. Expressed oils.
Spermaceti, soap. Extract of liquorice, glycyr-
rhiza glabra. Sugar. Honey.
4. Externally blisters. Oil.
*
Warm bath.
Mint, mentha. Cam-,
IV. Mild diuretics.
1. Nitre, kali acetatum, other neutral salts.
2. Fixed alkali, soap, calcinéd egg shells.
3. Turpentine, balsam of Copaiva. Resin.
Olibanum. #
4. Asparagus, garlic, wild daucus. Parsley,
opium, Fennel, feniculum, pareria brava, cis-
sampelos? •
5. Externally cold air, cold water.
6. Alcohol. Tincture of Cantharides. Opium.
V. Mild cathartics.
1. Sweet subacid fruits.
mestica, Cassia 'fistula. Tamarinds, crystals of
tartar, unrefined sugar. Manna. Honey.
2. Whey of milk, bile of animals.
3. Neutral salts, as Glauber's salts, vitriolated
tartar, sea water, magnesia alba, soap,
4. Gum guaiacum, balsam of Peru. Oleum
ricini, castor oil, oil of almonds, oil of olives, sul-
phur. --
5. Senna, cassia Senna, jalap; aloe, rhubarb,
rheum palmatum.
6. Calomel.
tarizatum.
VI. Secretion of mucus of the bladder is
increased by cantharides, by spirit of turpentine?
Phosphorus?
VII. Secretion of mucus of the réctum is in-
creased by aloe internally, by various clysters
and suppositories externally.
VIII. Secretion of subcutaneous mucus is
increased by blisters of cantharides, by applica-
tion of a thin slice of the fresh root of white
briony, by sinapisms, by root of horse-radish,
cochlearia armoracia. Volatile alkali.
IX. Mild errhines. Marjoram.
Marum, tobacco.
X. Secretion of tears is increased by vapor of
sliced onion, of volatile alkali. By pity, or ideas
of hopeless distress.
XI. Secretion of sensorial power in the brain
is probably increased by opium, by wine, and
perhaps by oxygen gas added to the common air
of respiration.
The fourth class, or sorbentia (absorbents).
I. Sorbentia affecting the skin.
1. Acid of vitriol, of sea salt, lemons, sloes,
prunus spinosa, crabs, pyrus, quince, pyrus cy-
donia, opium.
2. Externally calx of zinc, of lead, or of mer-
cury.
II. Sorbentia affecting the mucous mem-
branes. *
1. Juice of sloes, crabs, Peruvian bark, cin-
chona, opium.
2. Externally blue vitriol.
III. Sorbentia affecting the cellular membrane.
1. Peruvian bark, wormwoods, artemisia ma—
ritima, artemisia absinthium; worm seed, arte-
misia Santonicum ; chamomile, anthemis nobilis;
tansey, tanacetum; buckbean, menyanthes trifo-
liata; centaury, gentiana centaureum; gentian,
gentiana lutea; artichoke leaves, cynara scolymus;
hop, humulus lupulus; salix caprea, geum urba-
num, datisca cannabina.
2. Orange peel, cinnamon, nutmeg, mace.
3. Vomits, squill, digitalis, tobacco
4. Bath of warm air, of steam.
IV. Sorbentia affecting the veins.
1. Water, cress, sisymbrium;
Prunes, prunus do-
Emetic tartar, antimonium tar-
Origanum.
masturtium
640
M A T E R I A M E D I C A.
aquaticum ; mustard, sinapis; scurvy grass, coch-
learia hortensis; horse-radish, cochlearia armo-
racia; cuckoo flower, cardamine; dogs' grass,
dandelion, leontodon, taraxacon; celery, apium;
cabbage, brassica. &
2. Chalybeates, bitters and opium, after suffi-
cient evacuation. º
3. Externally vinegar, friction, electricity.
V. Sörbentia affecting the intestines.
1. Rhubarb, rheum palmatum; oak galls,
gallae quercinae; tormentilla erecta, cinque foil,
potentilla, red roses, uva ursi, simarouba.
2. Logwood, haematoxylum campechianum,
succus acaciae; dragons' blood, terra japonica,
mimosa catechu.
3. Alum, earth of alum, armenian bole; chalk,
creta; crabs' claws, chelae cancrorum; white clay,
cimolia; calcined hartshorn, cornu cervi calcina-
tum, bone ashes.
VI. Sorbentia affecting the liver, stomach,
and other viscera. Rust of iron, filings of iron,
salt of steel, sal martis, blue vitriol, white vitriol,
calomel, emetic tartar, sugar of lead, white ar-
Sen IC. -
VII. Sorbentia affecting venereal ulcers. Mer-
cury dissolved or corroded by the following
acids:
1. Dissolved in vitriolic acid, called turpith
mineral, or hydrargyrus vitriolatus.
2. Dissolved in nitrous acid, called hydrargy-
rus nitratus ruber.
3. Dissolved in muriatic acid, mercurius
corrosivus sublimatus, or hydrargyrus muriatus.
4. Corroded by muriatic acid. Calomel.
5. Precipitated from muriatic acid, mercurius
precipitatus albus, calx hydrargyr alba.
6. Corroded by carbonic acid? The black
powder on crude mercury. *
7. Calcined or united with oxygen.
8. United with animal fat, mercurial oint-
Iment.
9. United with sulphur. Cinnabar.
10. Partly united with sulphur.
mineral. -
11. Divided by calcareous earth. Hydrargyrus
cum cretà.
12. Divided by vegetable mucilage, by sugar,
by balsams.’
VIII., Sorbentia affecting the whole system.
Evacuations by vengesection and "cathartics, and
then the exhibition of opium.
IX. Sorbentia externally applied.
1. Solutions of mercury, lead, zinc, copper,
iron, arsenic, or metallic calces applied in dry
powder, as cerussa, lapis calaminaris.
2. Bitter vegetables in decoctions and in dry
powders, applied externally as Peruvian bark,
oak bark, leaves of wormwood, of tansey, cha-
momile flowers or leaves.
3. Electric sparks, or shocks.
X., Bandage spread with emplastrum e minio,
or with carpenters' glue, mixed with one-twen-
tieth part of honey.
XI. Portland's powder, its continued use per-
nicious, and of hops in beer. ſº
Catalogue of the invertentia (things which in-
vert the natural order of the irritative motions.)
T. Emetics; ipecacuanha, emetic tartar, anti-
monium tartarizatum ; squill, scilla maritima;
carduus benedictus, enicus acarna, chamomile,
AEthiop's
anthemis nobilis; white vitriol, vitriolicum zinci;
foxglove, digitalis purpurea; clysters of tobacco-
II. Violent cathartics; emetic tartar, squill,
buckthorn, rhamnus catharticus, scammonium,
convolvulus scammonia; gamboge, elaterium; co-
locynth, cucumis colocynthis, veratrum. *
III. Violent errhines and sialagogues; turpith
mineral, hydrargyrus vitriolatus, asarum europae-
um, euphorbium, capsicum, veratrum, nauseous
Smells, nauseous ideas.
IV. Violent diuretics; nitre, squill, seneka,
cantharides, alcohol, foxglove, tobacco, anxiety.
V, Cold sudorifics; poisons, fear, approaching
death.
Catalogue of revertentia (those things which
restore inverted motions).
I. Inverted motions which attend the hysteric
disease are reclaimed 1. By musk, castor. 2. By
assafoetida galbanum, sagapenum, ammonia-
cum, valerian. 3. Essential oils of cinnamon,
nutmeg, cloves, infusion of pennyroyal, mentha,
pulegium, peppermint, mentha piperita, ether,
camphor. 4. Spirit of hartshorn, oleum animale,
sponge burnt to charcoal, black snuffs of candles,
which consist principally of animal charcoal,
wood, soot, oil of amber. 5. The incitantia, as
opium, alcohol, vinegar. 6. Externally the
smoke of burnt feathers, oil of amber, volatile
salt applied to the nostrils, blisters, sinapisms.
II. Inverted motions of the stomach are re-
claimed by opium, alcohol, blisters, crude mer-
cury, sinapisms, camphor, and opium externally,
clysters with assafoetida.
III. Inverted motions of the intestinal lym-
phatics are reclaimed by mucilaginous diluents,
and by intestinal sorbentia, as rhubarb, logwood,
calcined hartshorn, Armenian bole; and lastly by
incitantia, as opium.
IV. Inverted motions of the urinary lym-
phatics are reclaimed by cantharides, turpen-
tine, resin, the sorbentia, and opium with cal-
careous earth of alum, by oil externally, warm
bath.
V. Inverted motions of the intestinal canal are
reclaimed by calomel, aloe, crude mercury, blis-
ters, warm bath, clysters with assafoetida, clysters
of iced water 1 or of spring water further cooled
by salt dissolved in water contained in an exterior
vessel ? Where there exists an introsusception of
the bowels in children, could the patient be held
up for a time by the feet with his head down-
wards, or be laid with his body on an inclined
plane with his head downwards, and crude mer-
cury be injected as a clyster to the quantity of
two or three pounds? -
Catalogue of torpentia (those things which
diminish the exertion of the irritative motions).
1. Venaesection. Arteriotomy.
2. Cold water, cold air, respiration of air with
less oxygen.
3. Vegetable mucilages.
a. Seeds.-Barley, oats, rice, young peas, flax,
cucumber, melon, &c.
b. Gums.-Arabic, tragacanth, Senegal, of"
cherry trees. -
c. Roots.—Turnip, potatoe, althaea, orchis,
snow drop.
d. Herbs.-Spinach, brocoli, mercury.
4. Vegetable acids, lemon, orange, currants,
gooseberries, apple, grape, &c.
M A T E R I A M E D I C A.
641
5. Animal mucus, hartshorn jelly, veal broth,
chicken water, oil? fat? cream? -
6. Mineral acids of vitriol, nitre, sea-salt.
7. Silence, darkness. , +
8. Invertentia in small doses, nitre, emetic
tartar, ipecacuanha given so as to induce nausea.
9. Antacids.—Soap, tin, alcalies, earths.
10. Medicines preventive of fermentation,
acid of vitriol. - -
11. Anthelmintics.-Indian pink, tin, iron,
cowhage, amalgama, smoke of tobacco.
12. Lithontriptics, lixiv. Saponarium, aqua
calcis, fixable air. *
13. Externally, warm bath and poultices, oil,
fat, wax, plasters, oiled silk, carbonic acid gas on
cancers, and other ulcers. -
We have thus subjoined the articles from Dr.
Darwin, although we omitted them in the two
former instances; and we have done so, partly
because they in some measure illustrate the views
which Dr. Darwin took of medicinal action, to
which we shall shortly have to refer in a more
extensive enquiry into the respective medical
theories that have been propounded. (See ME-
DIGINE). It will be observed too, by those con-
versant with the names of drugs, that we have
copied our author literally without making the
changes according to reformed nomenclature, as
it has been thought better upon the whole to
give an entire unaltered transcript of the Dr.'s
rather extraordinary lists of simple and combined
substances and powers; the Linnaean names
it will be seen for the most part, but not in-
variably, succeed to the popular ones of the sim-
les.
p We shall now give Dr. J. Murray's classifica-
tion, the principles of which have something in
common with those of Dr. Darwin, inasmuch as
it assumes that medicines in general operate by
stimulating the living fibre, or exciting it to mo-
tion, not by altering directly the state of the
living power. *
In explaining the operations of medicine, says
Dr. Murray, and classing them according to
those operations, it is to be regarded as a first
principle that they act only on the living body.
The presence of life is accompanied with pecu-
liar properties, and with modes of action inex-
plicable on mere mechanical or chemical princi-
ples. Substances acting on the living system no
doubt produce effects referrible to these ; but
the changes they produce are always so far
modified as to be peculiar in themselves, and re-
gulated by laws exclusively belonging to orga-
nised matter. - r
The proposition that medicines operate by sti-
mulating the living fibre or exciting it to motion
has even been stated as universal, and was re-
ceived as an axiom in a sytem (Brown's system),
superior, perhaps, to any in conveying just and
precise ideas on the nature of life, and the affec-
tions to which it is subject. Medicines, in com-
mon with all external agents, are, according to
this system, incapable of directly altering the
state of the vital power; they can only excite the
parts possessed of that power to action, and,
however diversified their effects may appear to
be, such diversities are to be referred merely to
the different degrees of force in which they
VoI, XIII.
wº.
exert the general stimulant power they possess.
This proposition, however, cannot be received
in an unlimited sense. From the exhibition of
different medicines very different effects are pro-
duced, which cannot be satisfactorily explained
from the cause assigned—the difference in the
degree of stimulant operation. They differ in
kind so far, that, even in the greater number of
cases, one remedy cannot by any management of
dose or administration be made to produce the
effects which result from the action of another.
It is therefore necessary to admit some modifi-
cations of the general principles above stated
and the following are perhaps sufficient to afford
grounds for explaining the operation of remedies,
and for establishing a classification of them suffi-
ciently just and comprehensive.
1st. Stimulants are not to be regarded as dif-
fering merely in the degree of stimulant opera-
tion which they exert. An important distinction
exists between them, as they are more or less
diffusible and permanent in their action. A sti-
mulus is termed diffusible, which, whenever it is
applied, or at least in a very short time after,
extends its action over the whole system, and
quickly produces its full exciting effect. A
diffusible stimulus is generally also transient in
its action; in other words the effect, though soon
produced, quickly ceases. There are others, on
the contrary, which, though equally powerful
stimulants, are slow and permanent. These va-
rieties, which are sufficiently established, serve to
explain the differences in the powers of a num-
ber of the most important medicines; and they
lay the foundation for the distinction of two
great classes narcotics and tonics, with their
subordinate division of antispasmodics and
astringents, both consisting of powerful stimu-
lants; the one diffusible and transient, the other
slow and permanent in their operation.
2d. There is a difference between stimulants,
in their actions being directed to particular parts.
Some, when received into the stomach, quickly
act upon the general system; others have their
action confined to the stomach itself, or at least
any further stimulant effect they may occasion .
is slow and inconsiderable; while a third class
consists of those which operate on one part, often
without producing any sensible effect on the sto-
mach or general system. Some thus act on the
intestinal canal; others on the kidneys, bladder,
vessels of the skin, and other parts; the affection
they excite in these being the consequence, not
of any stimulant operation equally extended over
every part, but of one more particularly deter-
mined. This difference in the action of stimuli
is the principal foundation of the distinctions of
medicine into particular classes. Cathartics, for
instance, are those medicines, which as stimuli
act peculiarly on the intestinal canal; diuretics
those which act on the secreting vessels of the
kidneys; emmenagogues those which act on the
uterine system; diaphoretics those which exert
a stimulant action on the vessels of the skin.
With these operations, medicines, at the same time,
act more or less as general stimulants, by which
each individual belonging to any class is thus
rendered capable of producing peculiar effects;
and many of them by a peculiarity of constitu-
2 T
642
M A T E R I A M E D 1 c A.
tion in the patient, or from the mode in which
they are administered, frequently act on more
than, one part of the system, by which their effects
are still further diversified.
thus determined to particular parts, are some-
times conveyed to these parts in the course of
the circulation; more generally their action is ex-
tended from the stomach or part to which they
are applied by means of the nervous system.
3d Medicines, besides acting as stimuli,
semetimes occasion mechanical or chemical
changes in the state of the fluids or solids, by
which their action is more or less diversified.
These operations of medicines were formerly
supposed to be more extensive than they really
are; and many absurd explanations were de-
duced from the supposed changes which the
solids and fluids underwent in disease. Though
these motions are now exploded, it must still be
admitted that changes of this kind take place in
the living system. Chemical changes in parti-
cular, there is reason to believe, very frequently
modify the actions of remedies; and some very
obvious operations of this kind, as well as others
of a mechanical nature, serve as distinctions for
establishing particular classes.
These observations point out the principles on
which the arrangement of the articles of the ma-
teria medica, from their medicinal operations, may
be established. -
Those stimulants which exert a general action
on the system may first be considered; of these
there are two well marked subdivisions, the dif-
fusible and the permanent; the former corres-
ponding to the usual classes of narcotics and
antispasmodics, the laster including likewise
two classes, tonics and astringents. In these
there is a gradual transition passing into the one
from the other, from the most diffusible and least
durable stimulus to the one most slow and per-
manent in its action. -
The next general division is that comprising
local stimulants; such are the classes of emetics,
cathartics, emmenagogues, diuretics, diaphoretics,
expectorants, sialagogues, errhines, and epispas-
tics. These all occasion evacuation of one kind
or other, and their effects are in general to be as-
cribed, not to any operation exerted on the whole
"system, but to changes of action induced in par-
ticular parts.
After these, those few medicines may be con-
sidered whose action is merely mechanical or
chemical. To the former belong diluents, de-
mulcents, and emollients. Anthelmintics may
perhaps be referred with propriety to the same
division. To the latter, or those which act che-
mically, belong antacids, or absorbents, lithon-
triptics, escharotics, and perhaps refrigerants.
Under these classes (says Dr. Murray) may
be comprehended all those substances capable
of producing salutary changes in the human
system. Several classes are indeed excluded
which have sometimes been admitted; but these
have been rejected, either as not being sufficiently
precise or comprehensive, or as being established
only on erroneous theory. º,
The subdivisions of these classes may some-
times be established on the natural affinity ex-
isting among the substances arranged under
Medicines, when-
each; on their chemical composition; their re-
semblance in sensible qualities; or, lastly, on
distinctions in their medicinal virtues, more mi-
nute than those which form the characters of the
class. In different classes one of these methods
will frequently be found preferable to any of the
others. -
After these preliminary remarks, Dr. Murray
presents his readers with the following table of
classification :
A. GENERAL STIMULANTs.
• fºr , e Narcotics.
a. Diffusible {Aiºiodie
Tonics.
& Astringents.
B. Local STIMULANTS.
Emetics.
Cathartics.
Emmenagogues.
Diuretics.
Diaphoretics.
Expectorants.
Sialogogues.
Errhines.
Epispastics.
b. Permanent }
C. CHEMICAL REMEDIES.
Refrigerants.
Antacids.
Lithontriptics.
Escharotics.
D. MECHANICAI. REMEDIES.
Anthelmintics.
Demulcents.
Diluents.
Emollients.
As, in the alphabetical arrangement which we
propose to adopt, we shall have to state the me-
dicinal qualities of the medicines enumerated,
under the presumption of the reader's knowledge
of the signification of such virtue, it may be ne-
cessary to give a slight preliminary definition of
the terms made use of to designate these pro-
perties: and, in so doing, we may as well pursue
the order of Dr. Murray, presented in the above
tabular view.
Narcotics then, without going into any theory
in respect to their mode of operating, may be
defined those substances or powers which tend
to the production of sleep.
Antispasmodics check or subdue that irregular
action in the muscular fibre, which is termed
spasm, or the modification of it named convul-
S1OI).
Tonics are those substances which add to the
tone or strength of the body.
Astringents check discharges.
|Emetics excite vomiting.
Cathartics increase the evacuation from the
intestines.
Emmenagogues promote the menstrual dis-
charge. (Note. Some doubt whether any medi-
cines possess this property specifically or di-
rectly, that is, independently of their stimulating,
or tonic, or relaxing, or cathartic influence).
Diuretics are those medicines which promote
the urinary discharges.
M A T E R I A M E D I C A.
643
Tiaphoretics increase the exhalations from the
surface of the body.
Expectorants promote the discharge of mucus
or pus, or other substances, from the trachea and
lungs. (Note. Respecting these also, as pos-
sessing specific or direct powers, doubts have
been expressed.)
Sialogogues increase the quantity of the sali-
vary discharge.
Errhines occasion an increase of discharge from
the nostrils. *
Epispastics excite an inflammation on the
skin which is followed by a blister.
Refrigerants reduce the heat of the body.
Antacids obviate acidity in the first passages.
Lithontriptics break down calculous concre-
tions, or prevent their formation. -
Escharotics erode the skin.
Anthelmintics expel or destroy worms.
Demulcents sheath from acrimony.
Diluents increase the quantity of fluid in the
body.
Emollients soften and take off rigidity.
Such is the simplest and most concise definition
which we can give, of the terms used to indicate
medicinal effects—it will be seen that almost
every one of them involves some theory in regard
to its modus agendi. The extracts which we
have given from Parr, Darwin, and Murray, in
some measure apply to this subject, which will
be resumed and further discussed in the article
MEDICINE. - - -
We now proceed to present our readers with
an alphabetical materia medica, as adopted
by the latest writers on the subject in this
country, Duncan, Paris, and Thomson. It will
be observed, that our article is principally
abridged from the first and the last of these
writers. The botanical characters of the plants
we purposely omit, as they will be found else-
where, and we have wished to study brevity and
avoid repetition. - - -
ABIET is RESINA. For an account of the resin
from the different species of fir, see PINUs.
ABSINTHICM. See ARTEMISIA.
ACAcIA (vera). Gum arabic.
History. The tree which yields this gum is a
native of Africa. All the species, indeed, of the
mimosa yield it, as well as some other trees in
common with the mimosa nilotica. The gum
exudes from the bark of the trunk, and in about
a fortnight it thickens into oval n.asses about the
size of a pigeon's egg. It is imported from Bar-
bary and Morocco, in large casks. The Senegal
gum, which is not unfrequently mixed with, and
substituted for, the Barbary gum, is obtained
from various trees, but principally from the ve-
reck, which yields a white gum, and the other,
nebuel, which affords a red gum. The Arabic
gum is dry and brittle; the Senegal is more clam-
my and tenacious, more, indeed, like the gum
which exudes from our plum trees.
Qualities. It is dry, brittle, and nearly taste-
less. It is highly nutritious. We are told that
for a length of time together the Moors live al-
most exclusively upon it; and it is calculated
that six ounces of it will suffice for the support
of a man during twenty-four hours.
Medical properties. It is demulcent, and
therefore used to lubricate abraded surfaces, and
abate the irritation connected with inflamed
parts. Dose 9j to 3.j.
AcACIA (Catechu). Terra Japonica.
History. The tree producing the catechu ex-
tract is a native of Hindostan. The extract is
of two kinds; one imported from Bengal, the
other from Bombay. When first introduced
into Europe it was called Terra Japonica. It is
a decoction of the internal colored part of the
wood, evaporated and dried by exposure to the
SUlſ).
Qualities. It is of a chocolate color; that
from Bombay is of a reddish-brown. It is of an
astringent taste; the extract from Bengal being
more austere and bitter than the other.
Medical properties. Astringent. It is an ex-
cellent medicine in cases of discharges produced
by debility. Dr. Paris and Dr. Thomson re-
commend it as a dentrifice; the first proposes
its combination with an equal quantity of pow-
der of bark and a fourth of powder of myrrh.
I)r. Thomson orders its combination with three
parts of finely powdered charcoal, as a tooth
powder. Dose 10 grs to 3ſs.
ACEToSA and ACETOSELLA.
OxAf.Is.
ACETUM (vinegar).
History. , Vinegar is well known as the pro
duct of what is called the acetous fermentation.
Vinegar in France and Italy is principally pro-
duced from the lees of wine. With us malt is
the material commonly employed in its manu-
acture. -
Qualities. According to the material from
which it is formed it is of a paler or a deeper
color; that from malt being deeper than that
from the lees of wine. It has a penetrating odor
and acid taste. -
Medical properties. Refrigerant and mode-
rately astringent. It is powerfully anti-narcotic.
Diluted with water it forms an excellent drink
in fever, when the heat is high and the powers
of the system low. When given as an antidote
to opium, or other narcotics, the stomach should
be first emptied by an emetic. Dose 1 f.3j to 4.
For acetic acid, whether procured from vine-
gar or other sources, see PHARMACY and CHE-
MISTRY. For citric acid, also, see PHARMACY ;
and also consult PHARMACY and CHEMISTRY for
the mineral acids, acid sulphuricum, acid muri-
aticum, and acidum nitricum, with their dilu-
tions.
AccIPENSER (ruthenus). Small sturgeon
(huso). The beluga or great sturgeon, orisinglass
fish. See ICHTHYocoLLA.
AcONITUM (neomontanum). Aconite, monks-
hood, wolfsbane. -
History. This is a perennial plant, found na-
tive in the mountainous parts of Germany. It
is cultivated in our gardens. Its time of flower-
ing is July, at which time the leaves ought to be
gathered for medicinal purposes. -
Qualities. Aconite leaves have not much
smell, but when chewed occasion a painful acrid
sensation in the mouth. The whole plant is
poisonous. The leaves lose much of their acti.
monious quality by drying. ... .
Medical properties. Aconite is º dia-
2 T 2
See RUMEX and
t;44
M A T E R I A M E D I C A.
phoretic, and, for the most part, diuretic. It has
been employed in chronic rheumatism, syphilitic
affections, schirrus, &c. Stoerk, of Vienna, in-
troduced it into practice. Dose 1 gr. to 5.
Acorus (calamus). Sweet flag.
History. This is a perennial plant, growing
in marshy places and rivulets. It is plentiful
about Norwich, and in many of the marshy com-
mons near London. That used in medicine has
been mostly supplied from the Levant.
Qualities. The root, which is the part em-
ployed, has a warm bitterish taste, and an aro-
matic odor. Both its smell and taste are im-
proved by drying.
Medical properties. Aromatic and tonic. It
has been employed in intermittent fewers. Dr.
Thomson thinks that its powers are not sufficiently
appreciated as a stomachic in cases of dyspepsia.
Dose 9j to 3j.
ADEPs (Fat.). See CHEMISTRY and PHAR-
M A CY.
AERUGo. See CUPRUM.
Hºsculus (hippocastanum). Horse chestnut.
History. The horse chestnut tree is originally
from the north of Asia, but it has been intro-
duced into almost every part of Europe. It
flowers in May. -
Qualities. Its fruit is principally composed
of fecula, and is eaten by forest animals. In
times of scarcity it has been used as food by
man, but its acrimony should be destroyed by
fire when so employed. The bark of the tree is
astringent, and slightly aromatic to the taste.
Medical properties. Tonic. It has been em-
ployed (the bark of it) as a substitute for the
Peruvian bark. Dose Bj to 3.j.
AGRIMONIA (eupatoria). Agrimony.
History. An indigenous and perennial plant,
found about the borders of hedges and fields. It
flowers in June and July.
Qualities. An agreeable aromatic odor and
bitterish taste.
Medical properties. Tonic and deobstruent,
not much employed.
ALcohol (ardent spirit). See CHEMISTRY
and PHARMACY.
ALLIUM. (sativum) Garlic. (Porrum) Leek.
(Cepa) Onion.
History. Garlic is a perennial; it grows wild
in Sicily, and is cultivated in our gardens. It
flowers in July. The leek is a native of Swit-
zerland and flowers in June; it is a biennial.
The common onion also flowers in June; it is
perennial.
Qualities. The bulbs, especially of these
plants, possess an offensive odor, and an acri-
monious taste; these principles are the weakest
in the common onion. -
Medical properties. Garlic is diuretic and sti-
maulant, and expectorant, and anthelmintic; the
leek is principally employed as a diuretic, and
onion seems to have nearly the same properties
with the garlic, but in an inferior degree. Onions
are recommended by some in some kinds of gra-
velly affections, but it is questionable whether
they are otherwise useful than as a diuretic.
Dose, 3i to 3ij.
ALoe. (vulgaris) Common or Barbadoes
aloes. (Spicata, Socotorina) socotrine or
spiked, or Cape aloes.
aloes.
History. The plant producing the aloe is
perennial, and grows in different parts of the
south of Europe, Asia, Africa, and America,
but the spiked yields the best extract, and this'
is principally brought from the Cape of Good
Hope. The greater part, however, of what,
are now sold as socotrine aloes are brought, we
are told, from Bombay, and are the real hepatic
aloes. The leaves of the plant are cut off close
to the stem in the preparation of the extract;
the juice of them is pressed out, which is boiled,
skimmed, and exposed to the sun's heat, so as to
get dry. It is preserved in skins, and thus im-
ported. The fetid, or horse, or caballine aloes is
only used by farriers.
Qualities. The socotrine extract appears in
small pieces, with a glossy varnished surface,
and of a reddish-brown color. Its smell is said
to resemble myrrh, others compare it to the
odor of the russet apple decaying. The Bar-
badoes aloe is in larger pieces: its odor is much
stronger, and has rather a fatty animal charac-
ter. Its bitter taste, which is intense, is not ac-
companied with the aroma which characterises
the socotrine species.
Medical properties. Strongly cathartic; ex-
erting its action principally on the lower bowel.
It is a stimulant purgative, and therefore em-
ployed in sluggish habits; it is much used in
chlorosis. Aloe however is for the most part
employed in combination with other purgatives,
which act more mildly, and upon other parts of
the intestinal canal. Dose, grs. v. to xv.
ALTHAEA (officinalis). Marsh mallow.
History. Perennial and indigenous; found on
the banks of rivers and marshes, especially salt
marshes. It flowers in June and July.
Qualities. The root of marsh-mallow is
without much smell or color, it abounds with
mucilage.
Medical properties. Demulcent, employed for
the purpose of sheathing from irritation in
urinary and bowel, and sometimes in pulmo-
nary and cynanchial affections. Ad libitum.
ALUMEN. (Super sulphas aluminae et po-
tassae). . Alum.
History. “It is found native in some places
either effloresced on bituminous schistus, as at
Göttwig in Austria; or uniting with the soil in
volcanic regions, as at Solfatara near Naples,
where the only processes requisite for its extrac-
tion are lixiviation and evaporation.” But alum
(Caballina) fetid
is principally obtained from schistose clays, which
have iron in their composition. The largest
alum mine in this country is said to be at
Hurlett, near Paisley.
Qualities. Alum has a sweetish acidulous,
and rough or astringent taste. Its form is that
of a octohedral crystal, with sides of equila-
teral triangles. It is without odor.
Medical properties. Astringent, used both
externally and internally to check discharges
and restrain haemorrhage. Alum whey is much
employed by some in fluor albus. Dose grs. 5
to 9j.
AMMONIAE MURIAs. (Sal ammoniac).
History. Found native in the neighbourhood
M A T E R I A M E D I C A.
645
of volcanoes. It was originally manufactured in
Egypt by subliming the root of camel-dung;
but it is now principally prepared by mixing
muriate of soda with artificially formed sulphate
of ammonia and carbonate of lime. The greater
part of the Sal ammoniac used in London, we
are told, is now made in the north of England.
Qualities. Sal ammoniac possesses a bitterish
saline taste. Owing to a degree of moist duc-
tility it is not very easily powdered; it is usually
formed in cakes of about an inch in thickness,
and of an hemispherical form.
Medical properties. Sal ammoniac was for-
merly in considerable use as an internal remedy
against obstructions and viscidities, as they are
called by the humoral pathologists. Its present
employment is principally external, as a cooling,
discutient, and stimulant application. Dose
grs. x. to 3ſ;.
AMMONIACUM. See Heracleum.
AMYGDALUs (communis). Dulcis or sativa,
Sweet almond. Amara, bitter almond.
History. The almond tree originally came
from Barbary and Syria. It is cultivated now
in the southern parts of Europe, and even in
England; but the fruit does not well ripen here.
It nearly resembles the peach. There is no ap-
parent variety in the tree which produces the two
kinds of kernel.
Qualities. The sweet almond, when the ker-
nel is taken off, is inodorous, and has a bland
taste; the bitter almond, by trituration, gives
out the odor of the peach; it contains the hy-
drocyanic acid. -
Medical properties. The sweet kind are more
in employment as food than as medicine. They
are demulcent, and are used in the form of emul-
sion. Dr. Thomson tells us that, on the ground
of the bitter almonds containing the prussic acid,
he has been led to employ them both in affec-
tions of the lungs and the stomach, and has found
them very efficacious; he has also used the
emulsion from them in some cutaneous disorders
with advantage.
AMYLUM. See Triticum hybernum.
N. B. As starch is the fecula of wheat, so is
sago of the sagu tree, one of the various species
of palms (the pith). Tapioca of the Jatropha
manihot (the roots). Salep of the orchis mus-
cula (the bulbs). Arrow root of the maranta
arundinacea (the pith). This being the true
Indian arrow root; but the most part of what
is commonly sold in the shops as arrow root is
merely the fecula of potatoes.
AMYRIs (elemifera). Elemi (Gileadensis).
Balsam of Gilead.
History. The tree, from which the resin called
elemi is procured, grows in Carolina and the
Brasils; the resin is obtained by making inci-
sions into the bark; it dries in the sun as it
flows from these incisions. The Gilead balsam
is obtained from a tree which is a native of .
Abyssinia, but which is said to have been trans-
planted into Judea 1730 years before Christ.
Qualities. The elemi smells somewhat like
fennel seeds: it is of a pale or yellowish co-
lor, semi-transparent, and brittle externally, but
more soft and ductile within. Balsam of Gilead
has a strong pungent odor resembling turpentine.
It is of a yellowish color, but changes by keep-
ing; its interior is paler than its surface. -
Medical properties. Elemi is stimulant, but
very rarely used as an internal medicine. The
Gilead balsam is scarcely employed at all in
this country. In the east it is used as a cos-
metic. Dose 9j. ad 3.j. º
ANCHUSA (tinctoria). Alkanet.
History. The anchusa tinctoria is a native
of the south of Europe; it is sometimes culti-
vated in our gardens, but the alkanet of com-
merce principally comes from the neighbourhood
of Montpelier.
Qualities. Alkanet root has a bitterish astrin-
gent taste. To alcohol, ether, and oils, it im–
parts a fine red color; to water it yields only a
brown color. The coloring principle resides in
the bark.
Medical properties. Astringent, but scarcely
employed for any other purpose than to give
color.
ANETHUM (graveolens), common dill.
culum) sweet fennel.
History. The plant which produces the dill
seeds is cultivated in this country, but is a native
of Spain and Portugal; it is an annual. The
fennel is a biennial plant; both the root and the
seeds of this are employed.
Qualities. Dill seeds have an aromatic smell,
with rather a pungent aromatic flavor. The roots
of the fennel have not much odor, and they are
but slightly aromatic to the taste. Fennel seeds
are more fragrant, and have a warmer taste.
Medical properties. Dill seeds are carmina
tive; the water from them is exceedingly useful
as a vehicle for children's medicines, when an
aromatic carminative quality is required. Fennel
is very little used, being not at all superior to
caraway or anise seed. Dose grs. 10 to 9j.
ANGELICA (archangelica). Angelica.
History. This plant is umbelliferous and bi-
ennial; it is chiefly cultivated in the northern
parts of Europe, but has been found wild in
Britain. All the parts of the plant, including
the roots, are employed.
Qualities. Angelica has a fragrant aromatic
smell, which is most concentrated in the roots.
Fröm-the fresh roots a gum resin exudes when
the roots are wounded, which is very strong in
the virtues of the plant.
Medical properties. Tonic and aromatic, but
very little used. An agreeable sweet-meat is
made of the stalks. Dose, 3j. ad 3ij. .
ANGUSTURA. Angustura, or bonplandia, or
cusparia bark. f - c
History. The bonplandia trifoliata which af-
fords the angustura bark grows abundantly in
South America. It is an evergreen, and rises to
(Foeni-
the height of from sixteen to eighteen feet, with
leaves of two feet in length.
Qualities. Angustura or cuspariabark is very
bitter, pungent to the taste, and slightly aro-
matic : it breaks with a short and resinous frac-
ture. It has a peculiar odor; when powdered
it is yellow. &
Medical properties. , Stimulant and tonic: It
has been used as a substitute for cinchona bark,
especially in intermittents. Dose grs. 10 to 3i.
ANISUM. See Pimpinella anisum,
§46
M A T E R I A M E D I C A.
ANTHEMIS (nobilis). Chamomile (pyrethrum).
Pellitory. * .
History. The chamomile is indigenous and
perennial; it is principally cultivated in phy-
sical gardens for medicinal use. The pellitory
is a native of Barbary, of the Levant, and of the
south of Europe; but is occasionally cultivated
in England. It is the root of this plant which is
employed. The flowers of the pellitory resemble
in form those of the chamomile. -*
Qualities. The smell and flavor of the cha-
momile are well known. The taste of the pel-
litory root is at first scarcely sensible, but in a
very short time it occasions a burning sensation
in the mouth and fauces. *
Medical properties. Chamomile flowers are
emetic in a large quantity, but tonic and stoma-
chic in a smaller quantity. They are used ex-
ternally for fomentations, &c. The pellitory
root is chiefly employed as a sialogogue; in
tooth ache, &c. Dose 9j. to 3.j.
ANTIMONIUM. Stibium. Antimony. Sul-
phuret of antimony. -
History. Antimony has been met with in its
metallic state at Stahlberg in Sweden, and more
recently at Allemont in France; but it is most
commonly mineralised with sulphur, and in this
state of sulphuret it is not an uncommon pro-
duction of nature. The crude antimony of
commerce is the sulphuret separated from its
stony parts mechanically and by fusion.
Qualities. It is without any odor, and al-
most tasteless; its form is that of a large gray
mass, which, when broken into, appears striated
and metallic. It is insoluble both in water and
alcohol. -
Medical properties. Sulphuret of antimony
1s not active unless it meet with an acid solvent
in the stomach, when it becomes violent in its
operation, so that its effects are extremely un-
certain. Its use is now principally confined to
veterinary practice. *
In the article PHARMACY we shall have to
speak of various combinations and preparations
of this medicine.
ARBUTUs (uva ursi). Bearberry. .
History. This shrub grows wild in the heaths
of Scotland, and in the north of Europe; it is
an evergreen, with leaves something Hike the
myrtle. The plant must be procured in the
autumn.
Qualities. Astringent and bitter, giving its
qualities both to water and alcohol.
Medical properties. De Haen first used it in
affections of the kidneys and bladder; it is oc-
casionally employed, and perhaps deserves to be
more so, in affections of the mucous surfaces
which appear in the form of discharges, and in
diabetes. Dr. Bourne recommended it in the
hectic of phthisis. Dose, 9j. ad 35.
ARCTIUM (lappa). Common burdock.
History. An indigenous biennial plant, grow-
ing in waste places, and on the road-side; it
flowers in July and August. The root and the
seeds are the parts used. –
Qualities. Burdock root is sweetish, with a
Small degree of bitterness and astringency; it is
without any odor. The seeds of the plant are
slightly aromatic.
Medical properties. Diuretic and slightly dia-
phoretic. Very little used. Dose 3.j. to 3ij.
ARGENTUM. Silver.
History. Silver is found in its metallic state,
but seldom without an alloy of other metals;
its richest mines that are known are in Mexico
º Peru. Its ores are sulphurets, oxides, and
SaltS.
Qualities. When pure it is of a brilliant
white, tasteless, and without odor. Its lustre is
lost by long exposure to the air.
Medical properties. In its metallic state it
has no medicinal powers; combined with nitric
acid it is a medicine of much efficacy both in-
ternally administered and externally applied.
Dose, internally, of the nitrate of silver gr. 3 to ij.
ARISTOLOCHIA (serpentaria). Serpentaria, or
Snake root. -
History. The root of this plant, which is a
native of North America, is perennial. The
plant flowers in May, and its seeds ripen in
September. -
Qualities.
odor, and a warm pungent bitter taste.
extracts its qualities.
Medical properties. Stimulant, diaphoretic,
and slightly diuretic; occasionally used with
advantage in low fevers. Dose grs. 10 to 3ſ.
ARMORACIA. See Cochlearia.
ARNICA (montana). Leopard's bane.
History. A native of the northern parts of
Europe, and cultivated in our gardens. It flowers
in July; the flowers, root, and whole herb, ar
employed in medicine. -
Qualities. The flowers have a taste slightly
bitter and pungent, as have the leaves; the root
tastes more acrid. The resinous part of the
plant is soluble in alcohol and ether.
Medical properties. Stimulant and slightly
diaphoretic. Employed by some in paralysis
of long standing. The Germans recommended
the root as a substitute for the cinchona bark.
Dose grs. 5 to 10.
ARSENICUM. Arsenic.
History. This metal is found native in its
metallic state, in the state of sulphuret, oxidised,
and acidified. Its color is of a bluish-gray.
The white arsenic of commerce, which is an oxide,
or, as it has lately been termed, arsenious acid
is principally brought into this country from:
Germany. . -
Qualities. White oxide of arsenic, or common
arsenic, is without smell; it has a sweetish taste,
and after a little time time it is exceedingly cor-
rosive. It is partly soluble in water.
Medical properties. Tonic, and externally
employed as an escharotic. It has been given
with much success in intermittent fevers, and in
many other affections where debility is conspi-
cuous. Dose gr. to 9ſs.
ARTEMISIA (abrotanum), southernwood. (Ma-
ritima) sea wormwood. (Santonica) worm-seed.
The root dried has an aromatic
Water
(Absinthium) common wormwood.
History. The southernwood is a native of the
south of Europe, it is perennial, and commonly
cultivated in our gardens. The sea-wormwood
is also perennial, and grows wild in salt marshes;
it flowers in August. The wormseed plant is a
native of Persia and Tartary, but is cultivated
M A T E R I A M E D I C A.
647
in English gardens; it flowers in September.
The common wormwood is indigenous, and
flowers in August. The tops and seeds of the
plants are the parts principally in use.
Qualities. The odor of southernwood is of
well-known fragrancy; the plant has a nauseous
bitter taste. Water, and more especially alcohol,
extract its virtues. The sea wormwood is slightly
fragrant; it has a bitterish aromatic taste. The
wormseed plant differs but little from the com-
mon Southernwood ; the wormwood is of a
stronger odor, which is not so pleasant as the
southernwood. Its taste is exceedingly bitter
and very nauseous. -
Medical properties. Anthelmintic and deoh-
struent. None of the species are at present much
in use. The Santonica species, as its name im-
ports, has been principally employed as an an-
thelmintic. Dose, 3ſs to 3i. -
ARUM (maculatum). Arum, or wake-robin,
or cuckoo-pint.
History. A perennial and bulbous-rooted
plant, growing under hedges and on bank sides;
it flowers in May, and its berries ripen in August.
Qualities. Arum-root is white and without
much smell. It occasions, when chewed, a
burning heat in the mouth and fauces, and, when
the sliced root is applied to the skin, excoriation
and vesication are produced.
Medical properties. Stimulant and expectorant.
It has been employed in obstinate rheumatism
and in sympathetic head-aches. Dose grs, 5
to 9j.
ASARUM (Europaeum). Asarabacca.
History. This is a perennial plant, growing
in the northern counties of England; it loves
moist and shady situations. The leaves and root
are employed.
Qualities. The fresh leaves have not much
smell, but they have a nauseous, bitter, and
slightly aromatic flavor. They give out their
qualities to water. The recent root has an aroma
which is lost in drying.
Medical properties. The leaves are emetic,
cathartic, and diuretic; but they are only used as
a stimulatory or errhine in modern practice, and
for this purpose a little of the powder is to be
snuffed up the nostrils.
ASSAFAETIDA. See Ferula assafaetidu.
ASPIDIUM (filix mas). Male fern.
History. A common plant, growing in shady
places, and in woods; it is perennial, and flowers
in June and July. " -
Qualities. Fern root is sweet and mucilagi-
nous to the taste, accompanied by a slight bitter.
It is without any odor, at least its smell is very
weak. - -
Medical properties. Astringent; it has been
principally used in this country as an anthelmin-
tic. Madam Noufer's celebrated worm specific
was principally composed of it. Dose 3i to 3ij.
ASTRALAGUs (tragacantha). Tragacanth.
History. The shrub which produces the gum
tragacanth is a native of Persia; the gum exudes
through the heat of the summer, and is collected
by the natives for exportation.
Oualities. The best gum is inodorous, and of
a whitish color; it is imported in pieces of a
vermiform shape.
Medical properties. Demulgent; it is more
viscid than the acacia gum, and therefore better
adapted for allaying mucous membrane irrita-
tions. Dose 3i to 3ij.
ATROPA (belladonna). Deadly nightshade,
History. This is a perennial and indigenous
plant ; it is cultivated in gardens; it flowers in
June, and its berries ripen in September. The
plant is named from the beautiful appearance of
its berries.
Qualities. The leaves are the parts of the
plant that are employed ; they are without smell,
but have a slightly nauseous and acrid taste.
Every part of the plant is highly poisonous;
its qualities are given out to water.
Medical properties. Narcotic. It has been
used for dilating the pupil of the eye previous to
operation. Externally it has been employed for
foul ulcers and cancerous sores. Dose, grs. ſs
gradually to 10. -
AURANTIUM. Orange.
Aven A (sativa). Oats.
History. The oat is a well-known annual
plant, much cultivated in northern countries, in
some of which it constitutes a great part of the
Common sustenance even of man. The time
and mode of its first introduction into Europe
Seem uncertain.
Qualities. Oats are without much smell;
their taste is slightly bitter; they seem to be prin-
cipally composed of foecula. -
Medical properties. Demulcent. Grit or oat-
meal gruel is very useful in catarrhs. The oat in
this way is also much employed as an enema.
BARYTA. Barytes.
History. This earth is found in its native state
combined with carbonic and sulphuric acid. The
See Citrus.
carbonate of barytes is in the north of Britain,
and the sulphate or ponderous spar in Germany.
Qualities. The carbonate of barytes is without
smell or taste, but it is poisonous. It is of a dirty
white or gray color externally, and is nearly in-
soluble. The sulphate is also inodorous and
without taste, of a color sometimes approaching
to yellow or brown, with an intermixture of red
and blue. -
Medical properties. It is only the muriate of
barytes that is used medicinally, and this is but
seldom employed. A solution of it in the dose
of five or six minims has been administered in
scrofula, &c.
BELLALONNA. See Atropa.
BENzoinUM. See Styrar.
BISMUTHUM. Bismuth.
This metal is only used for the preparation of
submitrate of bismuth, for which see the article
PHARMACY. *
BIsroRTA. See Polygonum bistorta.
BITUMEN (petroleum). Barbadoes tar, rock
oil. * -
History. Petroleum is a bituminous oil which
is called naphtha when unconnected with other
ingredients; it flows from rocks of coal forma-
tion, and hence its name rock-oil. The term
bitumen is made to apply to several inflammable
bodies of various degrees of consistency.
Qualities. Naphtha, which by exposure to air
becomes petroleum, is of a pale color, inclining
to yellow; it is unctuous and very inflammable.
648
M A T E R I A M E D I C A
In its state of petroleum it becomes darker, with
a less pleasant odor. It is not soluble in water,
but soluble in alcohol, ether, and oil. *..
Medical properties. Stimulant and sudorific,
principally employed externally, but very little
in use. It has been given in Germany as a re-
medy for tape-worm.
BoIETUs (ignarius). Agaric. Touchwood.
History. A fungus, growing upon decayed
trunks of the oak and ash trees. It should be
gathered in August.
Qualities. Inodorous, with a slightly astrin-
gent taste. -
Medical properties. Styptic, but supposed by
some to be only so from its porous sponge-like
Structure.
BonPLANDIA. See Angustura and Cusparia.
Boswell IA. Olibanum.
History. Dr. Thomson considers with Mr.
Colebrooke that the olibanum brought from
India is the produce of the boswellia serrata, a
large tree growing on the Indian mountains. It
had been supposed to be the produce of the
Juniperus lycia. It is a gum resin: the frank.
incense of the ancients.
Qualities. Olibanum is in the form of trans-
parent little grains, with but little taste, but
having a fragrant odor, especially when burnt.
Alcohol and ether are its solvents.
Medical properties. Stimulant, diaphoretic,
and slightly expectorant. Principally now used
as a perfume. Dose, 9ſs to 3ſs.
BUBON (galbanum). A gum resin.
History. The plant which produces the
galbanum is a native of Africa; it is perennial.
The gum resin flows out of it after incisions
made into it. sº
Qualities. It has a strong odor, and an acrid
bitterish taste; it is diffusible, and nearly soluble
in water; different parts of it yielding with
more or less facility to different media. The
part which is insoluble in ether being soluble
in water. -
Medical properties. Expectorant, antispas-
modic, stimulant, and deobstruent. It is in
considerable use as an emmenagogue, mixed
with other ingredients. Dose 9ſs to 3ſs.
CAJEPUTUs. See Melaleuca.
CALAMUs. See Acorus.
CALAMINA. See 3incum.
CALUMBA. See Menispermum.
CALx. Lime.
History. Lime is scarcely found in nature
without some combination. In most of the
fossils in which it is met with it exists in the
state of carbonate. Chalk is a soft, limestone
a hard carbonate of lime.
Głualities. Chalk is well known to be white
or whitish, and without smell or taste. Lime-
stone is also inodorous and insipid, but colored
according to its varieties.
Medical properties. Antacid, and, applied
externally, cooling, and absorbent. Quicklime,
that is, lime in which the carbonic acid has been
driven off by heat, is escharotic. See PHARMACY.
CAMBOGIA. See Stalagmatis.
CAMPHoRA. See Dryobalans and Laurus.
CANCER. (Pagurus) Crabs claws. (Astacus)
crabstones, vulgarly crab's eyes.
History. The claws of the crab have a crus-
cohol.
taceous covering, which consists principally of
carbonate of lime; the concretions called crab-
stones or crab's eyes are chiefly made up also of
carbonate of lime, and are found in the stomach
of the craw-fish at the time when the external
covering is changed. *
Qualities. The crab-stones are hard and
stony, convex on one side and slightly concave
on the other; they are of a slightly reddish
color; they become soft and transparent when
treated with acids. -
Medical properties.
common chalk. -
CANELLA (alba). Canella. The bark.
History. A common tree of Jamaica, and
other of the West India Islands. The bark is
sometimes confounded with that from the wintera
aromatica. -
Qualities. The quilled canella is paler than
the flat kind; the latter is said to be the bark of
the older trees. Both manifest an aroma when
broken into ; this aroma is lost in the watery
infusion. -
Medical properties.
Merely antacid, like
Stimulant, and slightly
tonic. Some consider it antiscorbutic. Dose
9.j to 3ſs. tº
CANTHARIs. Spanish fly, or blistering fly.
History. This insect is found on several trees
of Europe, particularly in the southern parts,
namely, the ash, elder, and white poplar,. &c.
The largest are imported from Italy, but those
from Spain are preferred.
Qualities. The cantharides have an unpleasant
odor, and an acrid taste; their properties are
given out both to water and alcohol. . . .
Medical properties. Stimulant and diuretic.
The tincture of them has been much employed in
gleets, and other chronic discharges from mucous
surfaces. They are well known as vesicatory of
the skin. Camphor and mucilaginous drinks
given with them in some measure modify their
powerful action on the kidneys. Dose, gr. #
to gr. 1.
CAPSICUM (annuum).
History. The capsicum is an annual plant,
common to both the Indies, and cultivated in
our gardens for the beauty of its berries, which
are long pendulous pods. What is called Cay-
enne pepper is a mixture of the powder of the
pods of many species of the capsicum.
Qualities. The berry is aromatic in its odor,
and exceedingly pungent to the taste. Water,
alcohol, and ether, extract its virtues.
. Medical properties. Powerfully stimulant. It
has lately been much employed as a gargle in
malignant sore throats. Dose grs. v. to 9ſs.
CARBO LIGNI. Charcoal.
History. Charcoal is charred or burnt wood,
as ivory black is of bone and ivory shavings. For
medical use the charcoal is reduced to a fine
powder, and heated in a crucible.
Qualities. When charcoal is quite pure, it is
shining and brittle; it is insipid and without
odor. It is insoluble both in water and al-
Medical properties. Antiseptic. It is some-
times mixed with poultices in order to correct
the gangrenous disposition of old and foul ulcers.
It is also used either alone or in combination as
a tooth powder. Dose, 9ſs to 9j.
M A T E R I A M E D I C A.
649
CARDAMINE (pratensis). Cuckoo flower,
lady's smock.
History. A perennial herbaceous plant, grow-
ing in moist meadows and flowering in the
spring. - -
Qualities. The flowers and leaves (the parts
employed) are of a pungent, slightly bitter
taSte. -
Flowers diuretic, and
Medical properties.
Very little
stimulant. Leaves antiscorbutic.
used. Dose 9j to 3.j.
CARDAMoMUM. See Matonia.
CARUM (carvi). Carraway, the seeds.
History. The plant producing these seeds is
indigenous, biennial, and umbelliferous; it is cul-
tivated in our gardens; in May and June the
flowers expand, and the seed ripens in August.
Qualities. Carraway seeds have a warm pun-
gent flavor, and an aromatic smell. The whole
virtues of the plant arise in distillation with
Water.
Medical properties. Carminative and sto-
machic. They are generally employed to give
warmth to purgatives. Dose 9ſs to 3i.
CARYoPHYLLUS. See Eugenia.
CASCARILLA. See Croton.
CASSIA (fistula). Cassia. (Senna). Senna.
History. The Cassia fistula tree is indigenous
in Egypt, and of both the Indies. It rises to the
height of forty or fifty feet, and has a fruit of a
small cylindrical pod. It flowers in June. The
tree which produces the common senna of com-
merce is a native of Upper Egypt; it is an an-
nual plant, and flowers in August. It grows in
the form of a shrub.
Qualities. The part used of the cassia fistula
is the pulp of the pods, which has a slight odor,
and a sweetish taste. It dissolves both in water
and alcohol: the watery solution is indeed the
most complete. The leaves are the part em-
ployed of the senna tree, which have rather a
faint smell, with a bitterish, somewhat aromatic
taste; they give out their principal virtues to
water, when the temperature of the water is
raised to boiling.
Medical properties. The pulp of cassia is
aperient. It is not at presentin much use. Senna
leaves are very generally used in medicine, and
are actively and speedily cathartic. Dose 3ſs
to 3.j.
- &sion (fiber). The castor, beaver.
History. The beaver is an amphibious quad-
ruped, found in northern latitudes; the castor of
commerce, which is the produce of the animal,
is found in follicles by the side of its anus.
Qualities. Castor is of a strong odor, and
nauseous, bitterish taste. Alcohol and sulphuric
ether are its best solvents.
Medical properties. Antispasmodic, and em-
menagogue. Dose grs. v. Bj.
CENTAUREA (benedicta). Blessed thistle.
History. This plant is a native of the Gre-
cian Islands, and of Spain; it is cultivated in
our gardens. It is an annual, and flowers in
June and September, at which time the leaves
of the herb should be cut for use.
Qualities. Carduus benedictus has a faint
unpleasant odor, and an intensely bitter taste.
Its virtues are given both to water and alcohol.
Medical properties. Emetic in a strong decoc-
tion, and in smaller doses diaphoretic. It has
also been used as a stomachic in dyspepsia. But
it is now seldom employed. Dose xv. to 3i.
For the smaller centaury, see Chironia.
CEPHAELIS (ipecacuanha). Ipecacuan.
History. Perennial, a native of South Ame-
rica. It flowers from December to March, and
its berries ripen in May. The Indians knew
this plant to possess emetic properties long be-
fore their connexion with Europe. The name
ipecacuan in the language of South America
means vómiting root.
Qualities. Nearly inodorous in the root. Its
taste is extremely nauseous and bitter; it is also
subacid. It gives out its virtues in different de-
grees to water and alcohol. Emetime is a name
given by the French to an extract by evaporation
of the tincture; and on the quantity of this it
seems its medicinal virtues depend.
Medical properties.—Emetic in large doses: in
smaller ones diaphoretic, expectorant, and sto-
machic. It is much used as a sudorific in com-
bination with opium and neutral salts, as in the
form of Dover's powder, or the compound
powder of ipecacuan of the pharmacopoeas. Dose,
as an emetic, 9j to 3ſs; as an expectorant, &c.,
gr. 1. to 11].
CERA.
white wax.
History. The bee produces this useful sub-
stance, the elements of which it gathers from the
nectaries of plants; but some plants also secrete
it ready formed. Hence it is said that wax may
be considered both an animal and a vegetable
substance. The yellow wax of the shops is pre-
Wax. (Flava) yellow wax. (Alba)
pared immediately from the honey-comb; it is
converted into white wax by exposure to the air
and sun on an extended surface, and sprinkling
the substance with water.
Qualities. Yellow wax has somewhat of the
odor of honey; it is without much taste, and is of
a bright yellow color. The white wax is perfectly
tasteless and inodorous. It is more brittle than
the yellow. -
Medical properties. The yellow wax is prin-
cipally used for cerates and ointments. White
wax is employed as a demulcent, but its internal
administration is not common. Dose 9j to
3ii.
bravus (elaphus). The stag or hart. Horns.
History. The stag is a well known animal,
principally found in the northern nations. Its
horns fall off and are renewed every year. It is
in the early months of the year that the shedding
takes place. The horns are used medicinally on
account of their yielding a large portion of ge-
latine; otherwise they do not differ from common
bone.
Qualities. ... The shavings of hartshorn are
without smell or taste. Water is their best men-
Struum.
Medical properties. Demulcent. Used much
in the formation of jellies.
CERIv1s1A, FERMENTUM. Yeast.
History. The scum which collects on the sur-
face of beer during fermentation.
Qualities. A sour resinous smell, and a bitter
taste. Added to vegetable matter, containing
650
M A T E R I A M E D I C A.
sugar, it excites fermentation and evolves car-
bonic acid gas. -
Medical properties. Antiseptic. A few years
since it was much employed in low fevers. It
is now principally employed externally in the
form of poultice to foul ulcers. Dose áſs.
CETAGEUM. Spermaceti. See Physater.
CHIRONIA (centaureum). Smaller centaury.
Flowering tops.
History. indigenous and annual, flowering
between June and August.
Qualities. The leaves, stalk, and petals, are
very bitter : both water and alcohol extract its
Virtues.
Medical properties.
Dose 9j to 3j. *
CINCHONA (lancifolia) pale peruvian bark.
(Oblongifolia) red bark. (Cordifolia) yellow
bark.
Tonic and antiseptic.
History. The original cinchona of Peru is .
said to be from the lancifolia, a species of the
genus cinchona ; it is still preferred in South
America to all the other species. The red bark
comes from the Andes; and the yellow bark,
which is from the heart-leaved cinchona, is a
native of the mountains of Loxa and Santa Fé.
Qualities. The taste of the lancifolia bark is
bitter; its color is light; it has but little odor;
, when powdered the quilled form is lighter than
that from the flat kind. The red bark has more
smell than the pale; its taste, however, is not so
bitter, but sharper and more nauseous. The
yellow bark is like the pale, in having but little
odor; its taste is more bitter, but less sharp and
astringent. -
Medical properties. Tonic. When first intro-
duced into Europe, principally employed in the
cure of intermittent fever; but subsequently its
use has been extended to very many diseases,
which are marked by debility of fibre. Dose
9ſ; to 3ij.
CINNAMoMUM. See Laurus. -
CITRUS (medica). Lemon (aurantium). Se-
ville orange. te
History. The lemon-tree is cultivated in the
south of Europe, but it came originally from
Persia and Assyria. It is an evergreen, and is oc-
casionally cultivated in our gardens, but the fruit
does not come to perfection. The orange tree is
also a native of the east, but like the lemon, cul-
tivated in the southern parts of Europe. Both
the lemon and the orange fruit are imported
principally from Spain. The sweet orange which
usually goes under the name of the China is
a variety of the same species as the Seville
orange.
Quality. The juice of the lemon is gratefully
acid; it is mucilaginous, and soon spoils. The
rind is slightly aromatic and bitter; it gives out
its virtues to water and alcohol. The juice of
the Seville orange has rather an acid taste; its
rind is aromatic, sharp, and bitter. Water ex-
tracts its qualities, as does alcohol.
Medical properties. Lemon juice is refrigerant
and antiscorbutic. The rind is aromatic. Orange
juice is not so agreeable, nor so generally used,
as lemon; but the rind is more in use, as an
aromatic, in composition. Dose, 3.jad 3ſs.
Coccus (cacti). Cochineal.
History. Thisis an insectbrought from Mexico,
New Spain, and some of the West India islands;
it feeds on the common Indian fig, and other
species of the caetus; it has the appearance of a
small berry wrinkled.
Qualities. Cochineal has a mulberry color,
and a bitter, rather aerid, taste; it has a faint
smell. The coloring matter, which is peculiar
to it, is imparted to water and alcohol.
Medical properties. Anodyne? We thus
mark it because its virtues are generally doubted
by professional men, Dose grs. v. to 9j,
Coch LEARIA. Scurvy-grass. (Armoracia)
Horse-radish root.
History. Scurvy-grass is an annual plant,
growing on the sea-shore in several parts of the
north of Europe, and cultivatéd occasionally in
our gardens. The horse-radish is also cultivated
for use in gardens. -
Qualities. Fresh scurvy-grass has a saline
acrid taste, and peculiar smell; it imparts its
qualities to water and alcohol. Horse-radish
has a very pungent odor and taste. Both water
and alcohol extract also its qualities. -
Medical properties. The supposed virtue of
scurvy-grass may be inferred from its name.
The horse-radish is stimulant, and slightly
diuretic. It has been employed in chronic para-
lysis. Ad libitum.
Coccos (butyracea). Mackaw tree yielding
the palm oil.
History. The mackaw is a species of palm,
which is a native of South America. It is the
nut or kernel of its fruit which yields the palm
oil of commerce.
Qualities. Palm oil has an agreeable smell;
it is of the consistence of butter; and, when
fresh, has a fine yellow color.
Medical properties. Emollient; only used ex-
ternally, -
CoLCHICUM (autumnale). Meadow saffron.
History. Meadow saffron is an indigenous
plant, growing in moist meadows, and flowering
in the autumn; it is bulbous rooted; for medici-
nal use it is taken up from June to August.
Qualities. When the bulb is dug up at the
commencement of summer it is highly acrid;
but its qualities greatly depend not only upon
the season, but upon the place of its growth.
Medical properties. Diuretic, expectorant, pur-
gative, and narcotic, according to its dose, and
the disorder for which it is administered. It has
lately been much used for rheumatism and gout.
Dose gr. i to iv. -
CoLocyNTHIS. See Cucumis.
CoLoMBA. Calumbo. See Menispermum.
CoNIUM (maculatum). Hemlock.
History. Hemlock is an umbelliferous bien-
nial plant, growing under hedges, and in shady
moist places. It flowers in June and July. Its
large and spotted stem distinguishes it from other
umbelliferous plants, as well as the shining ap-
pearance of its lower leaves. .
Qualities. The fresh plant has a very peculiar
smell; it has been compared to the urine of a
cat ; this odor goes considerably off by drying;
the virtues of the plant are however retained if
the drying be properly effected; and they are
imparted to alcohol and ether. -
M A T E R I A M E D I C A.
651
Medical properties. Powerfully narcotic. It
has been much used to allay the irritation of
schirrous disorders, and to mitigate morbid sensi-
bility. It is often highly serviceable in the whoop-
cough, Dose grs. iſ to v.
CoNTRAYERVA. See Dorstenia.
CoNvoLvULUs (scammonia). Scammony. (Ja-
lapa) Jalap.
History. The scammony convolvulus is a na-
tive of Syria; the greater part of that which is
employed in commerce is from the mountains of
Aleppo and Latachia. The root is perennial,
and from this the scammony is obtained. The
jalapa convolvulus is from South America; it takes
its name from Xalappa, a city of Mexico. The
root is also perennial, and is the jalap of the
shops.
Qualities. Scammony is of a light, rather
shining, appearance, with a heavy disagreeable
smell, and friable texture. Its taste is rather
acrid. The jalap root has a nauseous smell, a
pungent taste, and a heavy kind of odor. When
powdered it is of a pale brown, while the powder
of scammony is of a grayish color.
Medical properties. Scammony is a drastic
purge, and jalap is a stimulant cathartic. Both
are apt to occasion a griping pain in their action
on the bowels, unless counteracted by admixture.
T}ose 9ſ to 3ſ.
CoPAIFERA (officinalis). Copaiba balsam.
History. The tree which produces this sub-
stance, which is improperly called a balsam, is a
native of South America, and of some of the
southern islands of the West Indies. The copaiba
is procured by incisions made into its trunk.
Qualities. Good copaiba is clear and trans-
parent; it becomes solid, and of a higher color,
by exposure to the air. It is insoluble in water,
but dissolves entirely in alcohol.
Medical properties. TXiuretic, stimulant, and
aperient. It is a highly useful medicine in some
chronic discharges, and but for its nauseous taste
might be used more abundantly. Dose 9j to 3i.
CoRIANDRUM (sativum). Coriander seed.
History. The plant yielding these seeds is a
native of Italy, but is found in some parts of this
country, particularly at Ipswich. It flowers in
June, and its seeds ripen in August.
Qualities. Coriander seeds, when fresh, smell
strong and disagreeable; but, by carefully drying,
they become more aromatic. Their active prin-
ciples are not entirely imparted to water, but
they are to alcohol.
Medical properties. Carminative and stomachic.
Dose, Bj to 3i. -
CoRNJA. See Cervus.
CRETA. See Calr.
CRocus (sativus). Saffron.
History. A perennial bulbous root, which
grows at present wild even in Britain, but it is
supposed to have come originally from the east.
It is cultivated in great abundance in Essex, and
in some parts of Cambridgeshire. It flowers in
September. The stigmata of the flowers pressed
together are the saffron of commerce.
Qualities. Saffron has a pungent, rather bitter,
taste, is of a rich yellow or orange-red color, and
a sort of narcotic odor. It yields its color and
active principles to water, as well as to alcohol.
Medical properties. Cordial and stimulant.
In modern practice it is not much thought of,
and scarcely used except in composition. Dose
95 to 3i. -
CRoton (eleutheria). Cascarilla, the bark
(tiglium). Croton oil.
History. The tree which affords the cascarilla
bark is a natiye of the Bahama Islands; it is
chiefly (the bark) imported from Eleutheria.
The plant yielding the croton oil seeds is from
the East Indies.
Qualities. It has a pleasant aromatic kind of
smell, and a warm bitterish taste. It very readily
burns; and yields, while burning, a grateful odor.
Its properties are partially yielded to water, and
totally to alcohol. The croton oil is of a pale red-
dish-brown color; its taste exceedingly acrid. It
is soluble in ether and oil of turpentine, only
partially in alcohol. -
Medical properties. Cascarilla bark is carmi-
native and tonic. It is also slightly expectorant,
and therefore useful in some affections of the
chest, in which the cinchona is objectionable.
Croton oil is an exceedingly active cathartic.
Dose mi to iij.
CUBEBA. See Piper.
CUcu MIs (colocynthis).
History. The plant is an annual of the gourd
kind; it is a native of Turkey and Nubia, flower-
ing from May till August. It is the medulla or
pulp of the fruit which is employed in medicine.
62valities. When dried it is without smell,
but has an extremely nauseous bitter taste. Its
virtues are imparted to water, alcohol and water.
Medical properties. Drastic purgative. Dose,
grs. ij to v. -
CUMINUM (cyminum). Cummin seeds.
History. An umbelliferous annual plant, a
native of Egypt, but cultivated in Malta and
Sicily. It flowers in June.
Qualities. The seeds have a pungent taste,
and rather a strong peculiar smell. Water ex-
tracts very little more than their odor; the whole
quality of the seed is given out to alcohol.
Medicalproperties. Carminative. Dose 9jto 3i.
£UPRUM. Copper.
History. Copper is found native in many
parts of the globe, both in its metallic state, and
combined with oxygen; the most common ore of
copper is the sulphuret: the subacetate, and the
sulphate, are the salts which are admitted into
the materia medica.
Qualities. Subacetate of copper (verdigris)
is without odor; it is at first nearly tasteless, but
it leaves a strong metallic flavor: it is of a beau-
tiful color, bluish-green. It is not fully soluble
in water. The sulphate of copper (blue vitriol)
is also without odor, and it has a very acrid
styptic taste; its color is blue; its crystals are
semi-transparent. It is more soluble in water
than in alcohol.
Medical properties. Verdigris is tonic and
emetic. It is principally used externally as an
escharotic. Blue vitriol is also emetic; and,
when given in small doses, tonic. It is likewise
employed as an escharotic. Dose grs. # to v.
As an emetic, grs. iv.
CURCUMA (zedoaria). Zedoary root -
History. The zedoary grows in Ceylon and
652
M A T E R I A M E D I C A.
Malabar. It is perennial. It flowers in April
and May. - -"
, Qualities. Zedoary root smells somewhat like
camphor; it has an acrimonious bitter taste. Its
active principles are given partly to water, but
more fully to alcohol.
Medical properties.
machic. Dose 9ſ to 3.j.
CUSPARIA. See Angustura.
CYDONIA. See Pyrus.
DAPHNE (mezereum). Mezereon.
History. This shrub grows wild in England,
and in the north of Europe. It is cultivated in
our gardens; and is remarkable from its flowers
expanding before the leaves, the former appear-
ing as early as March.
Qualities. The bark of the root and trunk,
when chewed, is exceedingly pungent and burn-
ing. It yields its virtues to water and vinegar;
alcohol is also a solvent of it.
Medical properties. Stimulant and diaphoretic.
It has been employed in cutaneous and sy-
philitic affections of long standing. Dose grs.
i. to x.
DATURA (stramonium). Thorn apple.
History. Thorn apple is a native of America;
it is an annual plant and now grows even wild
in this country. The whole plant excepting the
root is medicinally used.
Qualities. The whole plant has a fetid nar-
cotic odor, and a nauseous bitterish taste. Its
qualities are given out both to water and to
alcohol.
Medical properties. Strongly narcotic. It
has lately been much employed in spasmodic
asthma. Dose gr. ſs to i. or gradually more.
DAUcUs (carota). Carrot.
History. The carrotis a biennial plant, grow-
ing wild in Britain, and much cultivated in our
gardens. The wild plant flowers in June and
July. r -
Qualities. The seeds, especially of the wild
carrot, are pungent and warm to the taste, and
smell agreeably aromatic. Their essential oil,
on which the properties depend, may be sepa-
rated by distillation with water.
Medical properties. Diuretic and carmina-
tive. The root of the cultivated carrot is used
principally as a poultice to allay the pain of
phagedænic, and correct the fetor of foul ulcers.
Dose 9j to 3.j.
DELPHINUM (staphisagria.) Stavesacre.
History. It is a biennial plant, a native of
the south of Europe. It flowers in July and
August. The seeds, which are the parts em-
ployed, are commonly imported from Italy.
Qualities. Stavesacre seeds are of a blackish
color externally, and yellowish within; they have
an acrid taste, and a disagreeable smell.
Medical properties. Violently emetic and ca-
thartic, sialogogue, chiefly employed externally
as a poison to lice. Dose grs. iii. to x.
DIANTHUs (caryophyllus). Clove-pink.
History. A perennial plant and native of
Italy, growing wild in this country and the walls
of ruins. When cultivated in our gardens, its
Carminative and sto-
varieties are increased into the numerous famil -
of carnations. - -
Qualities. The odor of the dianthus is fra-
grant, the taste slightly bitter. Water and alcohol
extract its qualities. -
Medical properties. Supposed formerly to be
stimulant to the nervous system, but now only
employed to impart color. Dose 9ſ to 3ſs.
DIGITALIS (purpurea). Foxglove.
History. An indigenous biennial plant,
found on bank and road sides, especially where
the soil is sandy and dry. It flowers from
towards the end of June till the middle of Au-
gust. The leaves are the parts employed in
medicine. -
Qualities. Foxglove leaves have a bitter nau-
Seous taste, and, especially when dry, a narcotic
smell. Both water and alcohol extract their
qualities.
Medical properties. Sedative and diuretic.
It has been much used in dropsies, and seems
particularly to apply to hydrothorax. We are
told in a recently published work (Dr. Uwins
on Indigestion, &c.), that very small doses may
be given with the greatest advantage in children's
diseases marked by atrophy, &c. In some
maniacal cases it has been employed with much
benefit in large doses. Dose gr. i. to iij. or
II].OTe.
Dolichos (pruriens). Cowhage.
History. A climbing perennial plant, a
native both of the east and west. It is the hair
of the pod which is medicinally used ; the pods
which come into this country are principally
imported from the West Indies.
Qualities. The hairs of the pods fasten upon
the fingers when the pod is incautiously handled,
and occasion an exceedingly troublesome itching.
Medical properties. Anthelmintic, acting as
it appears mechanically. Mr. Chamberlain, we
believe, was the first to point out this property
of the cowhage. Dose grs. v. to x. -
DoRSTENIA (contrayerva). Contrayerva root.
History. A perennial and native of Peru, as
well as some of the Caribbee Islands.
Qualities. A peculiar kind of aromatic smell
proceeds from the root, which has also a warm and
rather bitter taste. Drying does not destroy its
qualities, which are imparted both to water and
to alcohol.
Medical properties. Sudorific and gently
stimulant. It is not at present much used ex-
cepting domestically. Dose 9ſs to 3ſs.
DRYobALANops (camphora). Camphor.
History. The camphor of commerce has
been thought the produce of the laurus cam-
phora, but more recent observation has deter-
mined it to be produced by the dryobalanops
camphora. Dr. Thomson, however, describes
the qualities and medical properties of the cam-
phor under the head of Laurus, to which we refer.
DULCAMARA. See Solanum.
ERYNGIUM (maritimum). Eryngo, sea-holly-
History. This plant is indigenous and per-
ennial; it grows plentifully on the sea-shore,
and flowers in July and August.
Qualities. Eryngo has a sweetish taste, it
has but little odor; its virtues are imparted to
Water: -
Medical properties. Diuretic; very little
used or thought of. Dose 3ij to 3iij.
Eugen IA (caryophyllata). Clove tree.
M A T E R I A M E D I C A.
653
History. The clove tree is a native of the
Molucca Islands. The parts employed are the
buds or unexpanded flowers, which are gathered
while they are green and dried in the sun.
Qualities. Cloves, when good, have a strong,
peculiar, and grateful smell, an acrid aromatic
taste, and a deep brown color. Their odor but
not their taste is given to water: alcohol extracts
both.
Medical properties. Stimulant and aromatic.
Principally employed in composition. Dose grs.
v. to 3ſs.
EUPHORBIA (Officinarum). Euphorbium.
History. The substance called euphorbium
is the concrete juice of a shrubby succulent
plant, which is a native of Barbary; the plant is
perennial. The euphorbia (antiquorum), and
canariensis, are said to furnish part of the eu-
phorbium which is brought into this country.
Qualities. Euphorbium is in the form of
irregular drops or tears, which are without smell,
but which give to the tongue a very acrid sensa-
tion. Neither water nor alcohol dissolves the
whole of their substance and properties. Ether
takes up, we are told, six parts in ten, forming
an opaline solution.
Medical properties. Powerfully emetic, ca-
thartic, and errhine. Not much used internally.
FARINA. See Amylum and Triticum.
FERRUM. Iron.
History. One of the most common metallic
productions of nature. It is found in its native
state combined with other metals and with sul-
phur, combined with oxygen to the extent of
oxidation, and acidified. Its presence is so
universally diffused, that it has been described as
even a constituent of organic being. Iron is
not like the other metals positively poisonous.
Metallic and oxidised iron are admitted into the
materia medica.
Qualities. The filings of iron are generally
as obtained from the workshops mixed with
copper filings, and other impurities; their ap-
pearance is dark and metallic, and their taste
astringent; the scales of oxidised iron which are
detached by the smith's iron from the surface of
the heated metal, are without much taste or
smell; when reduced to powder they assume a
grayish-black color.
Medical properties. Tonic and anthelmintie.
The mere filings have, however, no other than
perhaps a mechanical operation, unless operated
upon by the acid of the primae viae; the oxidised
scales possess, however, positive chalybeate vir-
tues. Dose grs. v. to 9j. r
FERULA (assafoetida). Assafoetida.
History. The plant which furnishes this sub-
stance is perennial, and a native of the south of
Persia; the gum resin is procured by cutting
transversely the top of the root after the stock
has been twisted off. It hardens in the sun.
Qualities. Assafoetida has a strong garlicky
smell, and an acrid bitter taste; these qualities
it loses much by exposure to air. It is miscible
but not properly soluble in water, but alcohol
and ether are solvents of it.
Medical properties. Stimulant, antispasmodic,
emmenagogue, anthelmintic, and perhaps lightly
expectorant. It is in considerable use both
abstractly and in composition. Dose grs. xv.
to 3ſs.
FICUs (carica). Fig.
History. The fig tree is thought to be origin-
ally from the East, but it now grows plentifully
in the south of Europe; the figs that are used
in this country are principally imported from
the Levant.
Qualities. The taste of dried figs is sweet,
their color brown. They vary both in taste,
and external appearance according to the parts
from which they are sent. .
Medical properties. Aperient and demul-
cent; their principal medicinal use is external
in the way of cataplasm, in which case they are
roasted or boiled.
FRAXINUs (ornus). Manna.
History. The ash which produces the manna
of commerce is a native of the south of Eu-
rope; other species besides the ornus produce
it, particularly the rotundifolia. Manna is
partly a matural exudation from the stem of the
tree : it concretes into small white tears, and is
scraped off for use; but the greatest quantity is
procured by incision. -
Qualities. Manna has a very sweet taste with
a slight mixture of bitterness; its smell is slight
but peculiar. It is entirely soluble both in water
and alcohol.
Medical properties. Laxative : used princi-
pally for children, and Čombined with other
purgatives. Dose 3ſs to 3ij.
Fucus (vesiculosus). Bladder wrack.
History. This is a common sea-weed, which
is much employed in manufacturing kelp. ->
Qualities. It has a taste like soda, and a
slight but peculiar smell. -
Medical properties. Deobstruent, employed
in glandular swellings. Dose Bj to 3.j.
GALBANUM. See Bubon.
GALLE. See Quercus.
GENTIANA (lutea). Gentian root.
History. A perennial plant, growing upon
the Alps and other mountainous parts. The
root is imported into this country principally
from Germany.
Qualities. Exceedingly bitter taste, no par-
ticular smell. Water, alcohol, and ether extract
the virtues of gentian.
Medical properties.
Dose 9ſ to 3.j.
GEOFFROYA (inermis). Cabbage-tree bark.
History. The tree producing this bark grows
in the low savannahs of Jamaica.
Qualities. The bark has a mucilaginous taste
and an unpleasant odor.
Medical properties. Anthelmintic, especially
used against the lumbrici. Dose 9j to 9ij.
GEUM (urbanum). Herb bennet, or avens.
History. This plant is indigenous and per-
ennial, it grows wild in shady places, and flowers
from May to August. -
Qualities. An odor somewhat like cloves, and
taste rather aromatic. On the outside the pieces
of the root are dark, but they break with a white
fracture. Its qualities are yielded to water and
alcohol.
Medical properties.
Tonic and stomachic.
Tonic and rather astrin-
gent. It has been proposed, by Buckhave, as a
substitute for intermittents. Dose'3j to 3ij
654
M A T E R I A M E D I C A.
GLYcy RRHIZA (glabra). Liquorice.
History. A perennial plant, a native of the
south of Europe, but extensively cultivated in
England. Liquorice root is dug up for use in
November, when the plant is three years old.
Qualities. It has a sweetish mucilaginous taste,
without any odor. Water is a more complete
solvent of it than alcohol.
Medical properties. A mild demulcent; its
extract is a well known remedy for common colds.
Dose 3ſ; to 3.j.
GRANATI CorTEx. See Punica.
GRATIola (officinalis). Hedge hyssop.
History. This plantis perennial, and a native
of the south of Europe. It is cultivated in
Britain, and gathered for use in July during its
flowering. -
Qualities. It has no smell, but its taste is
exceedingly nauseous and bitter. Water is a
better menstruum for it than alcohol. -
Medical properties. Drastic purgative, and
emetic. Hufeland in a work on scrofula, recom-
mends its use in glandular and visceral affec-
tions. Dose 9ſs to 9j.
GUAIACUM (officinale). Guaiac.
History. This tree is a native of some of the
West India Islands. The wood, and the resin
exuding from it, are the parts used.
Qualities. The taste of the wood is rather
bitter; it is without odor; it is of a brownish-
yellow color externally, but is internally rather
green. The resin, or what is commonly called
guaiac, has a greenish color exteriorly, and
breaks with a fracture of mixed colors, and vitre-
ous.: it has a fragrant smell without much taste.
Alcohol is its best solvent.
Medical properties. Stimulant, and diapho-
retic. It has been much used in rheumatic and
syphilitic affections. Dose 9ſs to 5ſs.
HAEMATOxylon (campechianum). Logwood.
History. A native of South America, now
very common in Jamaica: it flowers in March
and April.
Qualities. Without smell, but having a sweet-
ish, sub-astringent taste. It is possessed of a deep
red-color, which it yields both to water and to
alcohol.
Medical properties.
tonic. Dose 9j to 3.j.
HELLEBORUs (niger). Black hellebore, (feti-
dus) fetid hellebore.
History. The black hellebore was formerly
called melampodium. It is a native of Austria
and the Appennines, and has been cultivated in
our gardens under the name of the Christmas rose.
The fetid hellebore is an indigenous plant, com-
mon under hedges and in shady places.
Qualities. The fibres of black hellebore roots
are about the thickness of a straw, externally
black, and of a yellowish-white within. Their
smell is disagreeable and taste acrid. Their pro-
perties are given out both to water and alcohol.
The smell of the fetid hellebore, as its name in-
dicates, is disagreeable also, and taste exceed-
ingly acrid. It is the leaf of this plant that is
employed.
Medical properties. Black hellebore is a dras:
tic purgative; it has been used as an hydra-
gogue, and emmenagogue. Formerly it was
Slightly astringent and
much employed in maniacal and melancholic
affections. The fetid hellebore is principally
thought of as an anthelmintic. Dose Bſs to 3ſ.
HERACLEUM (gummiferum). Ammoniac.
History. The plant which yields the gum
ammoniac, is a native of the East Indies, and
Africa. There seems to be some uncertainty with
respect to its precise character. The juice
which exudes spontaneously, or is occasioned
to flow by incisions, hardens into a gum which is
aſſ, HIOIlla C. -. .
Qualities. The taste of ammoniac is a bitter-
sweet; its sinell is faint, but not unpleasant; it
is diffusible through water, which is its best
medium for administration. The small masses
of which it is composed are yellow exteriorly,
but whitish when broken into.
Medical properties. Expectorant, and deob-
struent. In large doses purgative and diuretic ;
as it is stimulating it ought, in general, to be
avoided in those affections of the chest, which
are ºma by active inflammation. Dose 9ſ;
to 3ſ;.
HIRUDo (medicinalis). Medicinal leech.
History. The species of leech used in medi
cine is brought principally to the London mar-
ket from Norfolk; several other counties also
supply the markets, and many are imported
from France and Portugal. They are collected
in Spring and autumn. . -
Qualities. ‘The body of the medicinal leech
is about three inches long, tapering towards the
head, composed of rings, and capable of being
very much lengthened and contracted. The color
of the back is dark olive.' Thebelly is pale olive;
those imported from the continent “differ from
English leeches in having the belly of one uni-
form color.’ The horse leech differs from the
medicinal, in being entirely brown, or only
marked with a marginal yellow line. The horse
leech is said to cause more pain and irritation
in drawing, and is therefore not in much use,
excepting during a scarcity of the other species.
Medical properties and uses of the leech are
well known. -
HoRDEUM (distichon). Barley. *
History. Barley has been said to be originally
a native of Tartary. It is an annual plant, and
extensively cultivated -
Qualities. When the husk of the barley is
ground off, the pearl barley, as it is called, ap-
pears in the form of small white grains, which
are without any odor, and of a slightly sweetish
taste. -
Medical properties. Demulcent and nutrient.
Ad. libitum. .
HUMULUs (lupulus). Hop.
History. Hop is a perennial climbing plant.
It is indigenous. The follicles of the plant are
gathered about the middle of September ; it is
these which are used. -
Qualities. Hops have a fragrant odor, rather
narcotie, their taste is bitter, aromatic, and as-
tringent. -
Medical properties. , Narcotic and anodyne.
A pillow of hops is often employed to ease the
pain of rheumatic and nervous head-ache. Dr.
Thomson, and others, are doubtful of its medi-
cinal virtues. 9ſ to 3ſs.
M A T E R I A M E D I C A.
655
HYDRARGY RUM. Mercury, quicksilver.
. History. Mercury is found in several parts
both of the north, and south of Europe, and on
the western continent. It is found in its me-
tallic state, combined with sulphur, and oxidised.
Qualities. Mercury when pure and uncom-
bined is without smell or taste; it is of a white
color, and always in a state of semifluidity (run-
ning) at the common temperature of the atmos-
phere. -
Medical properties. Mercury in its metallic
state possesses no medicinal action, excepting
that which may be connected with its mechanical
properties. We have seen it check stercoraceous
vomiting in a case of supposed intus-susception,
but its modus operandi is not very evident. In
pharmaceutical combination, it is most exten-
sively employed. Dose 3ij to 3iv.
Hyoscy AMUs (niger). Henbane.
History. An indigenous and annual plant,
which grows abundantly in Britain, by the road
side, and flowers in July.
Qualities. Its smell is strong and narcotic;
its taste somewhat mucilaginous with a slight
degree of acrimony, which qualities are lost con-
siderably by drying. The virtues of henbane
are partly extracted by water, but completely by
diluted alcohol. -
Medical properties. Narcotic. It is used in
place of opium, in cases when circumstances
forbid the use of the latter. Dose grs. v. to 9ſs.
Hyssopus (officinalis). Hyssop.
History. A perennial plant, growing wild
in some parts of Germany; cultivated in our
gardens, and flowering from June to September.
Qualities. Hyssop leaves have an aromatic
smell, and rather a pungent taste. The essential
oil on which their qualities depend, rises with
water and alcohol.
Medical properties. Stimulant, and tonic, and
expectorant; but not much thought of or employ-
ed. Dose Bj to 3.j.
INULA (helenium). Elecampane.
History. Indigenous and perennial, growing
in rich moist pastures, and flowering in July
and August. It is cultivated in our gardens.
The root is the part employed. -
Qualities. An aromatic smell slightly foetid,
with a glutinous, saponaceous, and alternately
aromatic bitter taste. Its virtues are extracted
by water, and more completely by alcohol.
Medical properties. Deobstruent and expec-
torant, by some considered tonic. Dose 3.j
to 3.j.
IRIS (florentina). Florentine iris.
History. Grows wild in some parts of the
south of Europe, but cultivated in our gardens
and flowers in May and June. The root is the
part employed, which is principally imported
from Leghorn.
Qualities. Taste acrid, and somewhat bitter:
when dried, it gives out an agreeable violet odor.
Medical properties. Iris root when fresh is
cathartic; the dry root is nearly inert. It is prin-
cipally employed as a perfume.
JUNIPERUS (sabina). Savine, the leaf: (com-
munis) common juniper, the berry.
History. Savine is an evergreen, from the
Levant, but cultivated in our gardens; it flowers
pally in October and November.
in May and June. Juniper is indigenous grow-
ing on heaths and flowering in May. -
Qualities. Savine leaf has a strong smell,
and a bitter hot taste; its qualities are given
both to water and alcohol, as is the juniper which
has a bitter taste. .
Medical properties. Savine is diaphoretic,
anthelmintic, and emmenagogue; perhaps pos-
sessing more directly the last mentioned influ-
ence than most other substances to which the
quality is ascribed. Externally it is applied to
warts, &c. The juniper berries are diuretic and
cordial: although the berry is principally em-
ployed, all parts of the plant possess diuretic
qualities. Dose 9ſs to 3ſs.
KINo. See Pterocarpus. -
KRAMERIA (triandria). Ratanhy root.
History. A native of Peru, flowering princi-
It is the root
and the bark of it that are employed.
Qualities. The taste is bitter and astringent,
particularly the bark and external parts: its pro-
perties are yielded to boiling water. Its color-
ing part is especially extracted by alcohol.
Medical properties. Powerfully astringent
and stomachic. Externally applied it is styptic.
Dose 9ſs to 9j.
LACTUCA (virosa). Strong-scented lettuce.
(Sativa) garden lettuce. *
History. The strong-scented lettuce, is an
indigenous and biennial plant, which grows on
banks and among rubbish, and flowers in July
and August. The common lettuce is cultivated
to a great extent in our gardens.
Qualities. The odor of the strong-scented
lettuce is narcotic, its taste bitter. The lactua-
rium which exudes from the garden lettuce when
it is cut has likewise a narcotic smell, somewhat
like opium. -
Medical properties. Lactuarium is narcotic,
as is also the expressed juice of the strong scent-
ed lettuce. Dose grs. v. -
LAURUS. (Cinnamomum) cinnamon tree.
(Cassia) cassia tree. (Camphora) camphor.
(Nobilis) laurel. (Sassafras) sassafras.
History. The cinnamon tree is a native of
Ceylon, but is at present propagated in other
parts of the East, and even of the West Indies.
The honey cinnamon, the snake cinnamon, the
camphor cinnamon, and the cahatte or the bit-

ter astringent cinnamon, are the only four spe-
cies, from a great many others, the bark of which
is officially procured. * -
The cassia tree is very similar to the cinnamon;
its bark is imported principally from China.
Both the buds and the bark of this tree are em-
ployed. . -
The species of laurel which yields camphor is
a native of Japan, and of North America, but the
greater part of the camphor of commerce, comes,
as we have already stated, from Dr. Thomson,
from the Dryobalanops (which see). When pro-
cured from the laurus camphora it is obtained
by distillation.
The bay tree is a native of the south of Europe,
but is cultivated with us. The leaves and the
berries are the parts used. - -
The sassafras comes originally from the
southern parts of North America; it is cultivat-
656
M A T E R I A M E D I C A
ed for use in Jamaica, and is reared even in our
gardens as an ornamental shrub. It flowers in
May and June. -
Qualities. Cinnamon has a very pleasant
smell, and a tasteslightly pungent; the last kind
is exceedingly thin, and of a light yellow color.
Cassia has a fainter odor than cinnamon, and a
more pungent taste; it is much thicker than cin-
namon, and breaks shorter. Cassia buds more
resemble the cinnamon in taste and smell.
Cassia and cinnamon yield an essential oil by
distillation. Camphor has a peculiar and very
penetrating smell, and an unctuous feel. Water
suspends, but does not dissolve it; but alcohol,
ether, and oils dissolve it. The bay leaves and
berries have an aromatic astringent taste. They
yield prussic acid by distillation. Sassafras wood,
and bark, and root, have, a sweetish, aromatic
taste, and a somewhat fragrant smell. Water
extracts the virtues of Sassafras partially, alcohol
completely.
Medical properties. Cinnamon is astringent
and cordial, and the cassia possesses the same
qualities. Camphor is sedative and narcotic;
in the first instance, and under some circum-
stances, slightly stimulant and cordial. The
leaves and berries of the bay are narcotic. Dr.
Thomson tells us that he has lately employed
an infusion of them in impetiginous affections of
the surface. Sassafras is stimulating, diaphoretic,
and diuretic. Its virtues are, however, some-
what uncertain. Dose of cinnamon grs. v. to
9j; of camphor grs. v. to 3ſ; ; of the bay gr.
i. to 3ſs; sassafras 9j to 3.j.
LAvANDULA (spica). Lavender.
History. Lavender is a native of the south
of Europe, but cultivated with us, and flowering
from Midsummer to Autumn. The flowers are
cut when they begin to blow. - -
Qualities. The odor of the lavender is agree-
able, and the taste pungent and bitterish. Al-
cohol extracts its virtues completely; the oil is
obtained by distillation with water.
Medical properties. Stimulant. The oil, how-
ever, of lavender is very little used, excepting in
composition. Dose 9j to 3i.
LEoNTODON (taraxacum). Dandelion.
History. A common perennial plant, flower-
ing from April to the latter end of August. The
whole of the plant is employed.
Qualities. Dandelion has a bitter taste; it is
without much smell. Its virtues are imparted
to water more freely than to alcohol.
Medical properties. Diuretic, deobstruent, and
slightly aperient. It is not perhaps, in this
country, appreciated equal to its merits. We
have found it exceedingly serviceable in indolent
affections of the liver. Dose 3ſs to 3.j.
LICHEN (islandicus). Lichen. Iceland moss.
History. This species of lichen is very com-
mon in Iceland and in the northern parts of
Germany; it grows upon heathy lands and upon
stones. .
Qualities. The taste of Iceland moss is muci-
laginous and bitter; its bitterness is yielded to
water; and, by boiling, its mucilaginous part is
extracted.
Medical properties. Demulcent and tonic. It
has been much employed in phthisical affections.
Dose 35 to 3ij.
has a slightly astringent taste.
The lichen orcella. Orchel, or litmus, or turn-
sole, which yields the argol of commerce,
scarcely deserves to be considered as an article
of the materia medica.
LINUM (usitatissimum)
(Catharticum) purging flax.
History. This plant is supposed to have ori-
ginally come from those parts of Egypt which
are inundated annually by the rising of the
Nile; it now grows wild in England, and is ex-
tensively cultivated. It flowers in July. Most
part of the linseed used in commerce comes from
the Baltic. The purging flax is an annual in-
digenous plant which grows in dry meadows,
and flowers from June to August.
Qualities. The seeds of the common flax (lin-
seed) are oily, and sweetish to the taste; they
are without smell, and of a brown shining color.
The purging flax possesses a bitter subacrid
taste, and is almost without any odor. Water
extracts its virtue.
Medical properties. Linseed is emollient and
demulcent. Externally, the powder of it is
used much in poultices. The purging flax is,
as its name implies, cathartic; but it is at pre-
sent very little appreciated or employed.
LYTHRUM (salicaria). Loosestrife.
History. An indigenous annual plant, grow-
ing principally in moist meadows; it flowers
from July till September.
Qualities. It is without odor when dried, and .
It yields its vir–
common flax.
tue to Water.
Medical properties. Astringent.
employed in this country. Dose 3.j. -
MAGNESIA. See PHARMACY, and CHE-
MISTRY. - r
MIALva (sylvestris). Common mallow.
History. A perennial plant, very common in
this country; it grows on waste grounds, by the
way side, and among rubbish. It flowers from
May to August. -
Qualities. Mucilaginous to the taste, and
without much smell. Its mucilaginous part,
which is its principal one, is given to water. .
Medical properties. Demulcent and emollient.
Used principally in enemata.
MANGANESIUM. Manganese. -
History. A grayish-white brilliant metal,
which is principally found native, in a state of
black oxide; this oxide is met with abundantly
in Devonshire and Cornwall, and at Howth in
Ireland. -
Qualities. The black oxide of manganese is
often crystallised, and then it has a shining ap-
pearance; when it is amorphous it is without
this appearance. Chlorine is evolved from it
by mixing it with muriatic acid. - -
Medical properties. Only used for evolving
oxygen, and diffusing chlorine in rooms, hospi-
tals, &c., in the way of fumigation.
MANNA. See Frawinus.
MARRUBIUM (vulgare). Horehound.
History. An indigenous perennial plant, grow-
ing wild on road sides and waste grounds, and
flowering in July. -
Qualities. Taste bitter; odor aromatic, which
odor is a good deal dissipated by drying. The
virtues of the plant are given both to water and
to alcohol.
Not much
#
M A T E R I A M E D I C A.
657
Medical properties. Laxative, deobstruent,
diuretic, and slightly tonic. It is used by some
practitioners in pulmonary affections, and much
employed in a candied state as a domestic
medicine. Dose 3.j.
MASTICHE. Mastich. See Pistacea.
MATONIA (cardamomum). Lesser cardamom.
History. The plant producing the lesser
cardamom seeds is a native of India. The seeds
are imported into this country from Bengal.
Qualities. The odor of the seeds is aromatic,
and their taste of a spicy pungency. Their
properties are given to water, but more com-
pletely to alcohol and ether.
Medical properties. Carminative and sto-
machic ; chiefly used in composition. Dose 9j.
MEL. Honey.
History. The nectaries of flowers afford honey,
but the bees which collect it seem to impart
something to it, although they do not change it
into an animal substance; the bee deposits the
honey as a secretion from its body in the cells of
its honeycomb.
Qualities. The color of honey should be pale;
that is the best which is obtained from young
bees and flows spontaneously from the comb.
It is called virgin honey. The taste of honey
is saccharine; it has not much odor.
Medical properties. Laxative, and externally
detergent. Dose 3.j to 3ſs.
MELALEUCA (cajuputi). Cajeput. The oil.
History. The melaleuca leucadendron was
generally supposed to furnish the cajeput oil;
but it is now considered the produce of a dif-
ferent species. The tree which yields it grows
in the Molucca Islands. The oil is obtained by
distillation. i
. Qualities. Cajeput oil is of a greenish color,
has a camphoric smell, and is pungent to the taste.
It is soluble in alcohol, as are all volatile oils.
Medical properties. Stimulant, antispasmodic,
and diaphoretic. It is often used externally to
ease the pain of a carious tooth.
MELISSA (officinalis). Balm.
History. Balm is a perennial plant which
grows wild on the Alps, and other mountainous
situations, and is cultivated in our gardens. It
flowers in the latter end of the summer.
Qualities. Balm, when fresh, has a pleasant
smell, and a slightly aromatic taste. When dis-
tilled with water an essential oil is yielded.
Medical properties. Slightly diuretic: princi-
pally now used as an agreeable drink in febrile
affections. Dose 3i: -
MENISPERMUM (palmatum). Calumba.
History. The menispermum palmatum of
Winslow is supposed to be the tree from which
the Calumbo root is procured. It is a native of
the south of Africa. The roots are dug up in
the month of March. They are imported in
transverse sections.
Qualities. Taste very bitter and somewhat
acrid. Odor aromatic. Water takes up its
qualities, as does alcohol, but proof spirit the
most completely. It yields a volatile oil by dis-
tillation. r
Medieal properties. Tonic and stomachic. It
is one of the most useful of all the bitters. Dose
3ſs to 3ſs.
VoI. XIII.
MENTHA (viridis) spearmint. (Piperita) pep-
permint. (Pulegium) pennyroyal. :
History. Spearmint is an indigenous and
perennial plant, growing in marshy places, and
flowers in August. Peppermint is also in-
digenous and perennial, and likewise flowers in
August; it grows in moist places. Penny-
royal grows in heathy lands, as well as in moist
meadows, and flowers in September.
Qualities. Spearmint has an aromatic odo1,
and a pungent taste. Both alcohol and water ex-
tract its virtues. Peppermint has a warmer and
more pungent taste than the spearmint, and has a
camphor impregnation. The pennyroyal is more
like the spearmint in odor; its taste is also aro-
matic and slightly camphoric. -
Medical properties. The mints are carminative
and stomachic. Pennyroyal has been supposed
to be emmenagogue. Dose 9j to 3.j.
MENYANTHEs (trifoliata). Buckbean,
marsh trefoil.
History. This is a common plant in marshy
situations; it is one of the most beautiful of our
indigenous flowers; the flowers appear in June
and July.
Qualities. Buckbean leaves have an unplea-
sant faint smell, and nauseous taste; their pro-
perties are yielded to water.
Medical properties. Purgative and diuretic.
It has been used in intermittent fever and in
rheumatic disorder. Dose 9j to 3i.
MEZEREoN. See Daphne.
MoMoRDICA (elaterium). Wild cucumber.
History. . A native of the south of Europe; it
is cultivated in this country, but does not bear
our severe winters. The fruit is gathered in
September just before it ripens.
Qualities. The juice, which is lodged in the
centre of the fruit, and in which it appears that
the virtues of the plant reside, is bitter to the
taste, but nearly inodorous.
Medical properties. Powerfully cathartic and
hydragogue. A most useful medicine in some
kinds of dropsies. Dose gr. ſs to grs. iv.
MoRUS (nigra). Mulberry.
History. The mulberry tree is a native of
Persia, but it bears the cold of our winters, and
its fruit ripens in September. .
Qualities. Mulberries are sweet and acidulous;
they are without odor, and are of a deep red
color.
Medical properties.
Ad libitum.
MoscHUs (moschiferus). Musk.
History. The animal from which the musk is
obtained is an inhabitant of the mountainous
parts of Asia. It is a timid solitary animal
living among the rocks, and difficult to be taken.
The musk-bag is between the navel and the pre-
puce; and, in the adult animal, about two
drachms of musk in a liquid state are found
in it. *
Qualities. The odor of musk is quite peculiar,
and is exceedingly durable; its taste is rather
bitter, and its color of a reddish brown; it is
partly soluble in hot water, more easily in alco-
hol, and still more completely in ether.
Medical properties. Antispasmodic. Dr.
Thomson thinks that its use in epilepsy is not
2 U
CI"
Laxative and refrigerant.
658
M A T E R I A M E D I C A,
sufficiently appreciated. It has been much em-
ployed in obstinate hiccup. Dose, grs. v. to 9j.
MYRISTICA (moschata). Nutmeg.
History. The substance called nutmeg is the
produce of a tree which grows in the Molucca
Islands. The spice called mace is the involu-
crum of the nut. - - , . - -
Qualities. The nut has a fragrant odor and
an aromatic taste. Its virtues are imparted to
alcohol and ether. Mace is more pungent and
bitter than the nutmeg itself. &
Medical properties. Carminative, and in large
doses marcotic. Dose grs. v. to 9j. . . . . .
MYRoxy LoN (peruiferum). Peruvian balsåm.
History. The tree which yields the Peruvian
balsam grows in the warmest, parts of South
America. It is called quinquin by the fiatives.
The balsam which exudes after incisions are
made in the wood is called white liquid bal-
sam; that which is principally employed in
commerce is procured by boiling the twigs of the
tree in water. -
Qualities. Balsam of Peru has a fragrant odor,
and a warm bitterish taste. Ether and alcohol
dissolve it, the latter less readily. -
Medical properties. Stimulant, tonic, and in
some degree expectorant. It is used, as are
some of the other balsams, in chronic discharges
from mucous membranes. Dose f. 3ſs to f. 3j.
MYRRHA. Myrrh. A gum resin.
History. It has not been hitherto ascertained
from what tree myrrh is obtained. We receive
it from the East Indies. It seems to be an exu-
dation from the plant which produces it. . .
Qualities. Myrrh is in the form of tears, of a
reddish yellow color. It has a fragrant peculiar
odor and a pungent bitterish taste. It is but
partially soluble in water, ether, and alcohol.
Medical properties. Stimulant and expectorant.
It has been supposed to be especially excitative
of the uterine system, and therefore administered
as an emmenagogue. It forms, likewise, an in-
gredient in the compound iron mixture of the
pharmacopoeia. Dose 9ſs to 3j.
MYRTUs (pimenta). - , , ,
, , History. The pimento-tree is a native of the
West Indies and South America. It is the fruit
of the tree which is medicinally used. ,
Qualities. Pimenta is aromatic to the taste
and bf"an agreeable smell. It has been called
all-spice, from its odor resembling the combina-
tion of cinnamon, cloves, and nutmeg.
Medical properties. An aromatic stimulant.
But principally employed in medicine as an ad-
junct in composition. Dose grs. v. to 9j.
Nicot1ANA (tabacum). Tobacco. . .
... History. This is an annual plant; a native of
America, but brought into Europe nearly 300
years ago. The leaves are the part of the plant
employed. r
Qualities. Taste fetid and bitter; the virtues
of the plant reside in an essential oil. These
virtues are imparted to water by infusion, and to
Méâical properties. , Narcotic and violently
putgātive, diuretic, and emetic. Its principal
use in, medicine is as an enema in cases of
bowel affection complicated with heria. Dose,
internally, gr. ſs to grs. v.
OLEA (Europaea). Olive oil.
fourteen years.
History. The tree producing this oil is a na-
tive of the south of Europe and north of Africa.
Its fruit is the olive, which is used at our tables
in an unripe state, steeped in salt. The olive
oil is procured by expression from the ripe fruit
Qualities. , Good olive oil is of a pale color;
it is the lightest of the fixed oils; it will not
combiné with water, and is but partially soluble
in alcohol. . ?
Medical properties. Aperient and demuleent,
and occasionally anthelmintic. Dose f. 3ſ to
f. 3.j.
ºne. (asellus). Millepedes, or slaters.
History. These insects are found on roofs of
houses, and under stones in cold moist places.
They are killed by the vapor of spirits, and are
prepared for use by enclosing them in a canvas
bag in the steam of heated alcohol.
Qualities. They have a fetid odor, and a
nauseous, but sweetish, taste.
Medical properties. Supposed to be expecto-
rant, and useful in pulmonary affections, but at
present very little esteemed. -
OPIUM. See Papaver.
OPopoNAx. See Pastinaca.
ORIGANUM (vulgare). Common marjoram.
(Marjorana). Sweet marjoram. -
History. The common marjoram is indigenous
and perennial. It grows on chalky soils, and
flowers from July to September. The sweet
marjoram is a native of Portugal, but is culti-
vated in our gardens. It also flowers from July
to September. - -
, Qualities. The common marjoram has a pun-
gent taste, considerably like thyme. The sweet
marjoram is bitterish and aromatic. The mar-
jorams are treated by distillation, in order to
procure their oil. *
Medical properties. Tonic and emmenagogue,
but not much employed. Dose grs. v. to 9j.
OSTREA (edulus). Oyster, shell.
History... The oyster is a well-known fish
which attaches itself generally to shelving rocks,
but is placed artificially in beds near the sea-
shore. The shells are the only parts used offi-
cinally. . . -
Qualities. They are composed (the shells), of
carbonate of lime and a membranous substance.
Medical properties. Antacid; but, as they do
not differ from other lime, their retention is un-
necessary. Dose 3i. r - -
Qy Is (aries). Sheep. (Fat of mutton).
History. The sheep is a very well-known
animal. It does not live at furthest beyond
• * It delights in dry and warm
pastures, and is subject to diseases when ex-
posed to damp.
Qualities. Mutton fat, or suet, is not very
dissimilar to other fat; it yields, however, oleic
and margaritic acid. .
Medical properties. Emollient. It is prin.
cipally employed to give consistency to oint
ments and plasters. -
, Ovum. See Phasianus.
OxALIS (acetosella). Wood'sorrel leaves.
History. This small perennial plant grow
wild in our woods and meadows; it flowers il
April and May. i - .
Qualities. Sorrel has a pleasant acidulou
taste, and is without odor. The crystals ob
M A T E R I A M E D I C A.
659
tained from its expressed juice are called €SSén-
tial salt of lemons.
Medical properties. Refrigerant and antiseptic.
Adlibitum.
PAPAver (somniferum). White poppy, which
yields opium. (Rhoeas). Red, or wild, poppy.
History. The white poppy is a native of the
warmer parts of Asia; from which it was
probably imported into Europe and England.
It is an annual plant, and flowers in July. The
opium of commerce is an exudation from the
capsules of the plant, produced by incisions.
All the parts of the plant contain this juice, but
it is much more abundant in the capsules. The
red, or wild poppy is indigenous, and grows
abundantly in corn fields and waste lands. It
flowers in June and July. The capsules even of
this species of poppy contain a small portion
of opium. y-
Qualities. The dried head of the white poppy
is without much either of smell or color. Boil-
ing water extracts its virtues, and the evaporated
extract has much of the opiate property; it is,
however, much milder. The Turkey opium has
a remarkably heavy narcotic odor, and a bitter
pungent taste. The East India opium is in
color much darker than the Turkey; it has an
empyreumatic smell, with a more nauseous, but
less bitter, taste than the Turkey. It is not
nearly so strong as the latter. The active con-
stituent of opium, together with the principles
of other medicinal substances, we shall have
to speak of under the head of PHARMACY. We
may here say, generally, that different parts of
the drug in question are acted on by alcohol,
ether, and water. . -
Medical properties. Opium is proverbially
narcotic. It is used in almost all affections that
are characterised by violent pain, but its employ-
ment often requires to be very careful and re-
strictive. The poppy is principally used in
syrup and extract. The red poppy is chiefly
employed as a coloring syrup, as the opiate vir-
tues of this root are very feeble. Dose of opium
gr. i. to grs. v.; of poppy extract grs. v.
PASTINACA (opoponax). , Opoponax.
History. The plant producing the gum resin
called opoponax is a species of parsnip, a native
of the south of Europe, and flowers in July.
The gum resin is obtained by exudation from in-
cisions; it is imported principally from the
Levant in tears or irregular lumps. -
Qualities. Opoponax has a strong disagreeable
odor and an acrid bitterish taste. It is not
wholly soluble in water. Alcohol is not its
proper menstruum. -
Medical properties. Antispasmodic and em-
menagogue. Not much employed. Dose 9ſs to
3fs.
PETROLEUM. See BITUMEN.
PHASIANUs (gallus). Dunghill fowl. The
egg.
History. It has not been correctly ascertained
from what country this bird originally came. It
has been said to have been brought from Persia
about 500 years before the Christian era. It is
only the egg that is officinal. -
Qualities. The contents of the egg consist of
the white, which is an insipid, glary, tenacious,
balsamea from which it exudes.
fluid; and the yolk, which has a bland oily taste.
The shell is made up of carbonate of lime, phos-
phate of lime, and animal mucus. .
Medical properties. The yolk is gently ape-
rient, and was, at one time, much used in jaun-
dice. The white is principally employed for
clarification; and the shells are antacid.
PHYSETER (macrocephalus). Spermaceti.
History. The species of whale from which
the spermaceti of commerce is obtained is cha-
racterised by a particularly large head. It is
principally found in the South, Seas. The ceta-
ceum, or as it is vulgarly named spermaceti,
is taken out from the cavity of the head, and
purified by a long process. s
Qualities. Spermaceti when purified is white,
insipid, and unctuous. It is only miscible with
water by the medium of mucilage or yolk of egg:
hot alcohol and ether dissolve it, but it sepa-
rates upon cooling.
Medical properties. Demulcent and emollient.
It is often administered as a vehicle of and ad-
junct to opium in mitigating the pains after child
birth. Dose 9j to 3ſs.
PIMPINELLA (anisum). Anise. The seeds.
History. A native of the east, but cultivated
in Europe, and even in this country for its seeds.
The plant flowers in July.
Qualities. Anise seed gives out an aromatic
odor, and it has a warm sweetish taste. Its
virtues are imparted both to water and to al-
cohol.
Medical properties. Carminative; principally
employed in composition and in the flatulencies of
children. Dose 9ſs to 9j. . . .
PrMENTo. See Myrtus. -
PINUs (sylvestris) common turpentine. (Larix
Venice turpentine. (Balsamea) balsam of Ca-
nada. (Abies) Burgundy pitch.
History. The pinus sylvestris or Scotch fir
is a common tree of the north. The larch tree,
from which the Venice turpentine is procured, is
a native of the south of Europe and Siberia.
One species comes from America. The bal-
samea which yields the Canada balsam is from
the most northern parts of America, while the
abies or spruce fir, which gives the Burgundy
pitch, comes from Europe, and the north of
Asia; what is called oil of turpentine is pro-
cured by distilling the resinous exudation from
the tree, the resin itself being known by the
name of turpentine. Common or yellow resin
is the residue of the distillation. Tar is formed
by slowly burning branches of the pine. Ve-
nice turpentine is procured from the larch tree
by boring a hole into the tree, and suffering
the turpentine to flow. Canada balsam is ob-
tained by incisions into the body of the pinus
- Burgundy
pitch is also obtained by incisions into the tree
which yields it, and the resin or Thus exudes
spontaneously from the same tree. -
Qualities. The above several species of tur-
pentine have all a great deal in common: they
are pungent to the taste, have a peculiar odor,
and are completely dissolved in alcohol and
ether, while their flavor only is imparted to
water. The common turpentine is bitter and
disagreeable to the taste, and of a strong odor;
* 2 U 2

660
M A T E R I A M E D I C A.
it is more opaque than the other turpentines.
Venice turpentine is of a less unpleasant taste
and smell, of a yellowish color, and more
fluid. The Canada balsam is whitish and more
transparent. For the Chian turpentine, see Pis-
taeia. The oil of turpentine is hot and pungent
to the taste. It is, when pure, without color; it
dissolves in sulphuric ether, but sparingly and
with difficulty in alcohol. Tar has a strong
odor, it is partly soluble in water, and is formed
into the substance called pitch by inspissation
from boiling. The resins are insoluble-in water,
but entirely soluble in ether and alcohol. Their
taste is acrid, and when they are heated they
emit a slight turpentine odor. Burgundy pitch
is unctuous to the feel, is of a reddish-brown
color, and of a turpentine odor.
Medical properties. Turpentine and its oils
are stimulating and powerfülly cathartic. They
have also a strong action upon the kidneys. Oil
of turpentine has lately been employed as an
anthelmintic especially against the tape worm.
Tar is used principally in chronic affections of
the skin, but is not at present in much estima-
tion. Burgundy pitch and the resins are prin-
cipally confined to external use, and enter into
the composition of ointments and plasters. Dose
of the oil of turpentine, as an anthelmintic, f. 3],
for other purposes f. 3ſ; to f. 3j.
PIPER. (Nigrum) Black pepper.
long pepper. (Cubeba) cubebs.
History. The black pepper plant is a native
of the East Indies. The pepper itself is the
berry of the plant, two crops of which are yield-
ed, one in December, and one in July. The
white pepper is the same berry gathered when
it is fully ripe and freed of its outer covering by
maceration. The long pepper plant is also a
native of the east. The fruit is gathered before
it is ripe, and dried by the heat of the sun. The
cubebs plant is a native likewise of the east.
Its fruit grows in clusters.
Qualities. Black pepper is pungent to the
taste, and has an aromatic smell. Its virtues
are partially given to water, and entirely to alco-
hol and ether. The long pepper has an exceed-
ingly hot flavor, with a weak aromatic smell.
The odor of cubebs is agreeable and rather
fragrant, but the taste is pungent and slightly
bitter. .
Medical properties. The peppers are gene-
rally carminative. Cubebs is diuretic, and it
has lately been administered in discharges from
the mucous membranes both of the urinary or-
gans, and the bowels. Dose of the pepper grs.
v. to 9j, of the cubebs Bj to 3j.
Pistacia. (Terebinthus) Chian turpentine.
(Lentiscus) mastiche. ... "
History. The chian turpentine tree is a na-
tive of Africa and the east. It is cultivated for
the turpentine in the islands of Chios and
Cyprus. The mastiche tree is also cultivated,
especially in the island of Chios. -
Qualities. Chian turpentine is of a very pale
yellow color: it does not materially differ from
the other turpentines. See PINUS. Mastic is
merely insipid; when heated it gives out a fra-
grant odor.
(Longum)
It is soluble in ether, but not en-
tirely in alcohol.
Medical properties. The principal use to
which mastic is put is that of dividing other
medicines so as to make them more active; its
combination with aloes is said to be particularly
useful in this respect. It is also employed to
fill up the 'hollow of carious teeth. Dose 9ſ;
to Bj.
PIx. See Pinus.
PLUMBUM. Lead.
History. Lead is a metal of a bluish-gray
color: it is found native both in a metallic state
and combined with oxygen in various propor-
tions. The ore from which metallic lead is prin-
cipally procured is Galena.
Qualities. Lead possesses considerable lustre,
which is soon lost when the metal is exposed to
the air. It is almost without taste, and has rather
an unpleasant odor, especially when rubbed. It
combines very readily with oxygen.
Medical properties. Lead in its metallic state
has no medicinal properties. The white lead is
prepared with vinegar, and has been described
as an acetate, but is generally now considered a
carbonate; it is astringent; it is called generally
ceruse, and is principally employed for inflamed
parts and old sores. Litharge is also used as
an external astringent; it is prepared by exposing
metallic lead, to heat and air so as to oxydise
the metal. Red lead or minium has been also
employed, but is now seldom used. In this
last preparation the lead is in the highest state
of oxidisement. See PHARMACY and CHE-
MISTRY.
PolyGALA (senega). Seneka root.
History. This plant grows wild in North
America, especially in Virginia; it is perennial.
The root is the part employed.
Qualities. It is the bark of the root which
contains the qualities of the drug ; which is
pungent to the taste, but without much smell.
Alcohol extracts the active matter of the root,
which is thrown down by the addition of water.
Medical properties. Stimulant and expecto-
rant. It is also diuretic and purgative. It has
been employed in low fever when the lungs
are affected, and in hydropic disorders. Dose
95 to 9ij.
Polygon UM (bistorta). Bistort wood, or
snakeweed.
History. This plant is indigenous, growing
principally in moist lands, and flowering in June.
Qualities. The taste of the root is rough and
austere ; it is inodorous. Water extracts its
virtues.
Medical properties. Powerfully astringent
and tonic. Not at present in much use. Dose
9ſs to 3i. -
PoRRUM. See Allium.
PotASSE NITRAs. Nitrate of potass, nitre.
History. This salt is found native on the
surface of soils in many countries; and it is
prepared artificially by an imitation of nature,
and exposing animal and vegetable substances
to putrefy in conjunction with calcareous earth;
nitric acid is one of the products which unites
with the potass, that is either generated or already
existent in the animal and vegetable matter em-
ployed. The sal prunelle of commerce is melted
nitre cast into moulds. - -
M A T E R I A M E D I C A.
661
Qualitica. Nitre has a salt bitterish taste: it
is inodorous. It is completely soluble in boiling
water, but insoluble in alcohol. When mixed
with inflammable substances it detonates with
heat. &
Mcdical properties. Refrigerant and diuretic.
An exceedingly good medicine in some forms of
fever and inflammations. Dose 9ſs to 9j.
PotASSE. Potash. Pearlash. -
History. This substance, which is an impure
subcarbonate of potass, principally comes from
the Baltic and from America; it is produced by
burning the dried stems and branches of plants,
and lixiviating the ashes or pouring water upon
them so as to dissolve and separate the alkaline
product. -
Qualities. Pearlash is of a spongy texture;
it is of a grayish or greenish color, and has a
Saline disagreeable taste.
Medical properties. Vegetable alkalies are
antacid, and diuretic, and lithontriptic, but the
pearlash of commerce is too impure to employ
for medicinal purposes.
PotASSE SULPHAs. Sulphate of potass. See
PHARMACY.
PRUNUs (domestica). Plum tree.
History. This tree is originally from Greece
and Asia; but it now grows wild in this country,
and flowers in the beginning of May. The
dried fruit is imported from the continent: the ,
French prunes are considered the best.
Qualities. The taste of prunes is subacid
and sweetish; they are without much odor. They
are principally composed of saccharine and
mucilaginous matter, and of malic acid.
Medical properties. Laxative. They are princi-
pally employed in the composition of decoctions
and electuaries.
PTERocARPUs (santalinus) red sanders wood.
(erinacea) kino.
History. The red sanders tree is a native
of India, and grows to a great size. Its wood
is brought to this country in large billets. The
tree which yields the kino is said to be of Afri-
can growth, and of the species of pterocarpus
which is called erinacea. The kino generally
met with in the shops is extracted from the
nauclea gambir ; but there seems to be consi–
derable doubt in reference to this product and
its source.
Qualities. The red sanders wood is nearly
insipid, but has an aromatic odor. It is of a
bright red color, which is yielded to alcohol
and ether, but not to water. Kino is without
odor, but is of a bitterish astringent taste, differ-
ing according to the part whence it comes. It
is partly soluble both in water and alcohol.
Medical properties. Red sanders wood is
only used as a coloring matter. Kino is a
powerful and useful astringent. Dose 9ſs to
3ſs. - -
PULEGIUM. See Mentha.
PUNICA (granatum). Pomegranate.
History. The pomegranate tree is a native of
the south of Europe and of Barbary. Its fruit
does not come to perfection when cultivated in
our gardens.
Qualities. The flowers which are named ba-
laustines are of an elegant red color; without
much smell, and of a bitterish astringent taste.
The bark possesses the same sensible qualities.
Water extracts them. -
Medical properties. Astringent, and, accord-
ing to some, anthelmintic. Dose, 3ſs to 3iſs.
PYRETHRUM. See Anthemis.
PYRUs (cydonia). Quince.
History. This tree is a native of Crete, but
is cultivated with us, and its fruit ripens in this
climate.
Qualities. Quinces have an austere acid
taste. Their seeds are without odor, and have
a slight bitterness.
Medical properties. Aperient and demulcent.
Ad lubitum.
QUASSIA (simarouba). Simaruba bark and
wood. (Excelsa), Quassia. *
History. The simaruba or mountain damson
is a native of South America. Quassia grows
in Jamaica. It is the bark of the former and
the wood of the latter which are in use. '
Qualities. Simaruba is bitter to the taste, and
without much odor. Its virtues are given to
water and alcohol. Quassia is exceedingly bit-
ter, and without odor. The bitterness of quassia
is imparted both to water and alcohol.
Medical properties. Simaruba is tonic and
astringent; it has been used in intermittent fevers
and dysentery. Quassia is employed principally
as a stomachic tonic. Dose of the simaruba
9] to 3.j; of the quassia 9ſs to 9j. &-
QUERCUs (infectoria) Gall. (Pedunculata)
Oak bark.
History. The galls of commerce are said to
be from the infectoria species of oak. The galls
are produced by the cynips quercus folii, a small
hymenopterous insect, puncturing the shoots of
the young boughs, and depositing its eggs; this
puncture and deposit occasion an irritation which
at length comes to form the excrescence called
the gall. The oak is indigenous, and a well
known tree.
Qualities. Galls have a bitter and astringent
taste. They are without smell; they are of a
blackish or olive color, and their size varies from
that of a pea to a hazel nut. They impart
their properties to a certain measure of water
and alcohol. The bark of the oak is inodorous,
and of an astringent taste; it yields its virtues
both to alcohol and water.
Medical properties. Galls are very powerfully
astringent; they are principally employed as
external remedies. Oak bark is astringent and
tonic. Some have employed it in intermittent
fevers, as a substitute for the cinchona bark.
Dose of galls grs. v. to 9ſs; of the oak bark
9ſs to 3ſs.
RHAMNUs (catharticus). Buckthorn.
History. An indigenous shrub, growing in
hedges, and flowering in May and June. It is
the berries which are used in medicine.
Qualities., Buckthorn berries have a disagree-
able,' rather faint smell, and a nauseous, acrid,
and bitter taste. Their juice is green, or of a
more purple dye if gathered late in the season.
Medical properties. Powerfully cathartic
Dose 35 to 3ij.
RHEUM (palmatum) palmated
(Undulatum) Waved-leaved rhubarb.
rhubarb.
662
M A T E R I A M E D I C A.
History. The rheum palmatum is a native of
China; in the shops three varieties of rhubarb
are found, the Russian, the Turkey, and the
East Indian; the first two are evidently the
root of the same species; the East Indian rhu-
barb has been thought a different species (the
rheum undulatum); but we are informed by Dr.
Rehman that the species is the same with the
others, but that there is less care in the prepara-
flon.
Qualities. Rhubarb has a peculiar odor, and
a nauseous slightly astringent taste. The East
India rhubarb is more nauseous than the Tur-
key, and has a stronger odor; its powder is of
a higher red. Turkey or Russian rhubarb is
said to contain ‘more tannin, oxalate of lime,
and resin; the Chinese more extractive and
gallic acid.” Water, alcohol, and ether, are par-
tial solvents.
Medical properties. Rhubarb is purgative,
stomachic, and astringent in different doses.
From the analysis we should expect that the
Chinese kind had more of the last quality.
Dose 9ſs to 3ſs; in smaller quantities as an as-
tringent and stomachic.
RHoDoDENDRON (chrysanthum).
flowered rhododendrum.
History. This shrub is a native of Siberia,
and flowers in June and July. The leaves are
the parts employed.
Qualities. Taste astringent, and rather bitter;
almost without smell. Water extracts its vir-
tueS.
Medical properties. Stimulant, narcotic, and
diaphoretic. It has been used in rheumatism
and gout Dose grs. v. to 9ſs.
RHUs (toxicodendron). Sumach, or poison
oak. -
History. A deciduous, shrub, a native of
North America. The leaves are the parts em-
ployed.
Qualities. Sumach leaves have a mawkish
taste; they are without much smell. Their
virtues are freely imparted both to water and
alcohol.
Medical properties. Dose gr. ſs
to grs. ij. - -
RICINUs (communis). Common ricinus, pro-
ducing the castor oil.
History. This plant grows in both the Indies,
in Greece, and in Africa; its capsules contain a
white oily kernel, from which the oil is extracted,
both by expression and by boiling. The seeds
are occasionally employed.
Qualities. The genuine oil is viscid, and of
a pale straw color; it is without much smell,
and occasions a slight sense of acrimony in the
throat when swallowed. It is soluble in alcohol
and ether. - -
Medical properties. Mildly purgative. Dose
f.3ſ to f.3]. n
Rosa (gallica) red rose. (Centifolia) da-
mask rose. (Canina) wild dog rose.
History. The red rose is a native of the south
of Europe, but cultivated in our gardens, and
flowering in June and Júly. The native place
of the damask rose is unknown, but it is much
cultivated ifi our gardens. The dog'roše grows
wild in hedges.
Yellow
Narcotic.
Qualities. The odor of the red rose is not
so fragrant as that of the damask species. The
taste of the petals is astringent and slightly but
pleasantly bitter. The odor of the damask rose
is' exceedingly pleasant, and its taste rather
acidulous. The dog rose is employed for the
pulp of its fruit, or hip, as it is commonly
called; the petals are fragrant, but without much
of the quality which renders the cultivated
species useful. -
Medical properties. The red rose is astrin-
gent, and the Damask rose slightly laxative.
The pulp of the wild rose fruit is refrigerant, and
perhaps slighly aperient. Dose Bj to 3i.
RosMARINUs (officinalis). Rosemary.
History. A native of the south of Europe,
but cultivated in our gardens; it is perennial.
The leaves and the tender tops are the strongest
parts of the plant.
Qualities. Odor grateful; taste pungent and
aromatic. Alcohol extracts its virtues, which
are only given out partially to water.
Medical properties. Stimulant, and emmena-
gogue. Dose 9ſ to 3ſs.
RUBIA (tinctorum). Madder.
History. Madder is a perennial plant, ori-
ginally from the Levant, but cultivated with us.
The root is the part used both in dyeing and in
medigine.
Qualities. The smell of madder is disagree-
able, but not very powerful; its taste is ra-
ther bitter. Water and alcohol imbibe. its
qualities. * ,
Medical properties. Emmenagogue. Dose
3ſ; to 3.j.
RUMEX (aquaticus) Water-dock. (acetosa)
Common sorrel. *
History. Water dock is indigenous and
perennial, growing by the sides of ditches and
rivers, and flowering in July and August. Com-
mon sorrel is also indigenous and perennial, and
flowers in June.
Qualities. The root of water dock is inodor-
ous, but the taste of it is highly austere. Its
qualities are imparted to water. Sorrel leaves
have very little smell, but an acidulous pleasant
flavor. Boiling water extracts their properties.
Medical properties. Water-dock is astringent.
It has been used in cutaneous affections with
alleged success. Sorrel leaves are diuretic and
refrigerant. Dose 9ij.
RUTA (graveolens). Common rue.
History. This is a native of the south of
Europe, but much cultivated in our gardens; it
flowers in June and September.
Qualities. The leaves of rue have a peculiar
odor and a bitterish penetrating taste. Their
volatile quality is yielded to distillation by water.
Medical properties. Stimulating, and supposed
to be emmenagogue. Dose 9ſs to Bij.
SABINA. See Juniperus.
SAccHARUM (officinarum). Sugar cane.
History. The sugar cane is a native of both
the Indies. In the West Indies it is cultivated
very extensively; from this plant sugar is ob-
tained, first by expressing, then boiling the juice.
Molasses is that part of the juice which does not
crystallise.
Qualities. Sugar has a well known sweetness;
&
M A T E R I A M E D I C A.
663
it is inodorous. Water and alcohol dissolve it
in different proportions. . The molasses or trea-
cle has a peculiar odor, and a sweet empyreu-
matic taste; it is viscid, and of a brown or black
color. It is more soluble in alcohol than sugar.
Medical properties. , Laxative, particularly the
raw sugar and the molasses. , a
SAGAPENUM. Sagapenum.
History. The plant which furnishes this con-
crete juice has not been ascertained; Wildenhow
supposes it to be the ferula persica. -
Qualities. Sagapenum comes to us in large
Inasses or in small tears; it is of a yellowish
color, has a garlicky smell, and a taste not unlike
assafoetida. Proof spirit is its best solvent.
Medical properties. Antispasmodic and em-
menagogue. Dose 9ſs to 3ſs. -
SALIX (fragilis) crack willow. (Alba) white
willow. (Caprea) common willow. "
History. The crack willow is indigenous,
growing upon river banks, and flowering in May.
The white willow grows principally in woods, as
does the species called caprea. It is the bark of
the tree which is employed. -
Qualities. Willow bark is bitter to the taste
and without odor. -
Medical properties. Tonic and astringent.
Some have employed it in pulmonary affections
of a phthisical nature. Dose 9ſ to 3ſs.
SALVIA (officinalis). Sage.
History. A perennial plant; a native of the
south of Europe, but cultivated in our gardens,
and flowering in June. - *
Qualities. Sage has a fragrant odor, and an
aromatic bitterish taste. The oil can be obtained
by distillation. - m . . -
Medical properties. Carminative and aro-
matic ; not so much in estimation as formerly.
Dose 9ſs to 9ij.
SAMBUCUS (migra). Common elder.
History. This is a common indigenous plant,
flowering in June, and ripening its berries in
September. -
Qualities. Elder flowers have a faint smell
and bitterish taste; their qualities are imparted
to water by infusion. The berries are almost
without smell, but have a sweetish taste. The
inner bark of the tree is inodorous also, and has
a sweetish taste, followed by a degree of bitter-
ness and acrimony. Water and alcohol extract
their virtues. Dose grs. v. to 9j.
SAPO. Soap. (Durus) hard soap. (Mollis)
soft soap. - -
History. Soap is of two kinds—hard, which
is made of oil and soda; soft, which is composed
of oil and potassa. - *- * -
Qualities. Hard soap has very little smell,
and a nauseous alkaline taste; it is white (unless
artificially colored) and of a firm consistence.
Water and alcohol are both partial solvents of it.
Soft soap principally differs from the hard kind -
in being of a less firm consistence.
Medical properties. Lithontriptic, diuretic,
and aperient. Soft soap is principally employed
in external uses. Dose 9ſ to 3ſs.
SARSAPARILLA. See Smilar.
SASSAFRAs. See Laurus.
ScAMMONIA. See Convolvulus.
ScILLA (maritima). Squill.
History. Squill is a perennial plant, bulbous
rooted, growing in the south of Europe and north
of Africa. It flowers in April and May.
Qualities. , Squill has not much odor; its taste
is bitter, acrid, and nauseous. * . "
Medical properties. Diuretic and expectorant.
*In large doses emetic. Dose as an expectorant
grs. v. to grs. iij; as an emetic 9ſs to grs. xv.
Scrophula RIA (nodosa). Figwort.
History. An indigenous plant, growing in
woods and under hedges, and flowering in July;
it is perennial. *
Qualities. The smell of the recent leaves is
fetid, and their taste disagreeable and bitterish.
Their virtues are yielded to water. --
Medical properties. Diuretic and sedative.
Very little used. -
SENEGA, See Polygala.
SENNA. See Cassia.
SERPENTARIA. See Aristolochia.
SEvum. See Ovis. - *
SIMAROUBA. See Quassia.
SINAPIs. (Alba) white mustard seed. (Ni-
gra) common mustard. -
History. The white mustard seed plant is in-
digenous, and grows in fields and by road sides;
it is annual, and flowers in June. The common
mustard is, also indigenous and annual, and
flowers likewise in June.
Qualities. Mustard seed when entire has very
little smell; when bruised its odor is pene-
trating, and taste pungent. The seeds of the
common mustard are rather more pungent than
the other.
Medical properties. Stimulant, diuretic, and,
when externally employed, rubefacient. The
whole seed of the white mustard has lately been
employed extensively as a domestic medicine in
cases of dyspepsia and torpid bowel. Dose
3ij to 3ſs. | " . " - - . - -
SIUM (nodiflorum). Water parsnip.
History. An indigenous and perennial plant,
growing wild in rivers and ditches, and flower-
ing in the beginning of August.
Qualities. Nearly inodorous, and having a
sweetish taste. -
Medical properties. Emmenagogue and diure-
retic. At present very little employed. Dose
of the expressed juice, f. 3ij. -
SMILAx (Sarsaparilla). Sarsaparilla.
History. A native of the Spanish West In-
dies, flowering in July and August. It is the
root which is employed medicinally; but it is
the bark of the root in which the efficacy resides.
Qualities. Taste mucilaginous, and slightly
bitter; scarcely any odor. Its qualities are
yielded in different proportions to water and
alcohol. • . . . . "
Medical properties. Demulcent and diuretic.
It has been much employed in syphilitic and cu-
taneous affections. Dose 9j to 3.j. . . . .
Soda (Impura). Carbonate of soda, barilla.
History. Soda is found native in the form of
a carbonate, in several parts on the surface of
the earth; but the greatést part of that employed
in commerce is extracted from the ashes of some
species of the algae. What is called kelp, is the
carbonate of soda obtained by burning the sea
wrack." ' 3.


664
M A T E R I A M E D I C A. *
Qualities. Barilla when good is of a grayish
color; it is without much odor, but has a sharp
alkalescent taste.
Medical properties. Antacid, diuretic, and
lithontriptic; but the barilla is only employed
as one of the substances to furnish the pure car-
bonate or subcarbonate of soda. See PHAR-
MACY.
SoDE MURIAs. Muriate of soda. Common
salt.
History. This salt is found abundantly in
nature, but it is generally mixed with earths and
other ingredients. The ocean owes its saline
taste to the presence of this salt.
Qualities. Pure salt is without odor, and its
Saline taste is without bitterness. It is soluble
freely in water.
Medical properties. Anthelmintic and stoma-
chic. It is supposed to assist digestion in a very
considerable degree. Dr. Paris, in his work on
diet, highly lauds it on this score. Dose 9j to
3j.
SoDE SUBBorAs. Subborate of soda. Borax.
History. Borax is found in an impure state
in Persia and Thibet; in this state it is called
tincal.
Qualities. Inodorous, with taste slightly sa-
line. When purified it is in large white masses.
Boiling water dissolves it more freely, and in
greater proportions than cold water.
Medical properties. Refrigerant and detergent.
It is only used as a local of external applica-
tion, and is much employed in the aphthae of
children.
* SULPHAs. Sulphate of soda. Glauber's
Salt.
History. This salt is found native in several
parts mixed with other matters; but the greatest
part that is used is manufactured.
Qualities. Taste saline and bitter, inodorous.
Soluble in water to a considerable extent.
Medical properties. Purgative; but not so
much used as formerly on account of its dis-
agreeable taste. See PHARMACY.
SoLANUM (dulcamara). Woody nightshade.
History. Indigenous, growing in hedges, and
flowering in July. The berries ripen in the be-
ginning of October.
Qualities. The taste of the twigs, which are
the parts employed, are both bitter and sweet;
hence its name, bitter-sweet. They impart their
virtues to boiling water.
Medical properties. Narcotic and diuretic. It
has been employed in several forms of cutaneous
disorder. Dose 9j to 3.jſs. .
SoLIDAGo (virga-aurea) golden rod.
History. An indigenous perennial plant,
growing in woods and upon heaths. It flowers
from July to September.
g Qualities. Odor aromatic; taste rather as-
tringent. The leaves impart their qualities to
boiling water. -
. Medical properties. Slightly astringent and
lithontriptic. Dose 9ſs to 3i.
SPARTIUM (scoparium) broom.
History. Indigenous, growing on dry lands,
and flowering in June. §
Qualities. The tops, which are the parts used,
have a disagreeable smell and bitter taste. Their
qualities are given both to water and alcohol.
Medical properties. Diuretic and cathartic.
Dose 9ſ to 3.j.
SPIGELIA (marilandica) Indian pink.
History. A perennial plant growing wild in
the lower parts of North America. It flowers in
July and August. *
Qualities. The root, which is the part em-
ployed, is bitter to the taste; its virtues are im-
parted to boiling water.
Medical properties. Anthelmintic; princi-
pally useful in expelling the round worms.
Dose 9ſs to 3.j.
SPIRITUs WIN.I. See CHEMISTRY and the ar-
ticle Alcohol, and PHARMACY.
SPONGIA (officinalis) sponge.
History. Sponge is principally found in the
Mediterranean and Red Seas. It is usually at-
tached to the bottom of rocks; it was formerly
supposed to be a vegetable production, but it is
now admitted to be an animal of the class zoo-
phytes.
Qualities. Color brown, texture light and
porous, absorbing fluid in which it is immersed.
Medical properties. Alterative when burnt,
and useful in some glandular tumors. Its virtues
are supposed to be referrible to the quantity of
iodine it contains. Dose 3ſs to 3ij.
STALAGMITIs (cambogioides). Gamboge.
History. The tree furnishing this gum resin
is a native of the kingdom of Siam and Ceylon;
in the former place the inhabitants obtain the
gamboge by breaking the leaves and young
shoots; but in Ceylon it is extracted from the
wood of the tree, by incisions, at the commence-
ment of flowering.
Qualities. Gamboge has no smell, and very
little taste; it is of a bright deep yellow color.
It is almost entirely soluble in water, if the water
be impregnated with an alkali. Alcohol and the
alkalies are also solvents of gamboge.
Medical properties. Powerfully cathartic and
hydragogue. Dose grs. iſ to 9ſs. &
STANNUM. Tin.
History. In some places, as in Cornwall,
this metal is found native in great abundance;
it occurs both in its metallic state and combined
with oxygen. }
Qualities. Rather disagreeable taste, and a
peculiar odor, especially when rubbed. It shows
considerable lustre when first exposed to the
air, which by this exposure is soon lost.
Medical properties. Anthelmintic.
to 3ij.
STAPHISAGRIA. See Delphinium.
STYRAx (officinale) storax balsam. (Benzoin)
benzoin.
History. The storax tree is a native of the Le-
want, and flowers in July. The balsam is pro-
cured by incisions made in the bark. The ben-
zoin, or benjamin tree, grows in Sumatra; the
balsam is also obtained from this tree by incisions.
Qualities. Storax has a fragrant smell and an
aromatic taste. Its color is reddish-brown.
Water dissolves it partly; alcohol and ether
Dose 3i
completely. Benzoin balsam has but little taste,
but emits a very pleasant smeli. Alcohol and
ether readily dissolve this balsam also. -
. Medical properties. Storax is slightly expec-
\
M A T E R I A M E D I C A.
665
torant. Benzoin perhaps more so. Dose 3ſs.
SUccINUM. Amber.
History. Amber is a vegetable substance dug
out of the earth, or found upon the sea shore
in Polish Prussia and Pomerania. The greater
part of what is imported into this country comes
from the Baltic.
Qualities. Amber is without much taste or
smell, unless rubbed or heated, when it emits
an agreeable odor. It is generally of a yellow
or brown color. It is insoluble in water, and
only partly soluble in alcohol.
Medical properties. Antispasmodic;
scarcely now employed. Dose 3ſs to 3j.
SULPHUR.
History. This substance is found native in the
neighbourhood of volcanoes; but the sulphur of
commerce is principally extracted from pyrites.
Qualities. Sulphur is of a bright yellow color,
has a peculiar odor, especially when heated, and
is without much taste. The roll sulphur is crys-
tallised. Sublimed sulphur is in the form of
powder. Sulphur is insoluble in water, but so-
luble in a small degree in alcohol and ether.
Medical properties. Laxative and diaphoretic.
Specific in scabies. It is, perhaps, more useful
as an alterative aperient than is generally sup-
posed in the regular practice of medicine. Dose
3ſs to 3ij. w
SUPERTARTRAs PotASSE (impurus) tartar.
(Purus) crystals of tartar. Cream of tartar.
History. Tartar is the saline extractive mat-
ter which is deposited from new wine on the
sides of the cask or bottle in which it is kept.
When purified (which is effected by boiling,
filtering, and crystallising) it is the cream of tartar
of commerce.
Qualities. Cream of tartar is a bitartrate of po-
tass. It has an acid roughish taste, and is so-
luble in thirty parts of its weight of boiling
Water.
Medical properties.
refrigerant. Much used in dropsy. Dose f 3j
but
to 3i.
§, (scrofa). Hog; the fat; hog's lard.
History. The hog is a well known animal, in-
habiting most parts of temperate regions. The
wild hog and that which is domesticated are va-
rieties of the same species. It is the fat which
is employed for medicinal purposes.
Qualities. Good lard is very white, without
much smell or taste; it is insoluble in water,
alcohol, or ether, but capable of combination
with the alkalies in the form of soap.
Medical properties. Emollient; but princi-
pally employed in the composition of ointments
and plasters.
SwieTENIA' (febrifuga).
History. A native of the East. It is the
bark of the tree which is employed in medicine.
The bark of the species of swietenia, called ma-
hogany, has likewise been employed medicinally.
This tree is from the West Indies.
Qualities. Febrifuge. Swietenia is pleasantly
bitter and astringent to the taste; it is of a grayish
color without, but breaks of a light red color.
The bark of the mahogany tree is very astringent
and bitter. Water, when boiling, extracts the
virtues of these barks.
Purgative, diuretic, and
Medical properties. Tonic and astringent.
Both these barks have been used as substitutes:
for the Peruvian bark; but they are not much.
employed in Britain or in Europe. Dose 9j
to 3i. e
iºnisov, (Indica). Tamarind.
History. The tamarind tree is a native of
both the Indies; it is also found in Egypt and
Arabia. The part employed is the fruit or pulp.
artificially prepared.
Qualities. Tamarinds have an agreeable acid.
taste. They contain citric, and malic, and tar-
taric acid, with supertartrate of potass.
Medical properties. Refrigerant and laxative.
Resinous purgatives are rendered milder by their
admixture with tamarinds.
TANACETUM (vulgare). Tansy.
History. Tansy is indigenous and perennial.
It grows wild by road sides and on the borders.
of meadows, and flowers at the end of June.
The leaves are the parts employed, sometimes.
the seeds. -
Qualities. Taste acrid, and rather bitter,
slightly resembling camphor. Smell, strong and
peculiar. Water and alcohol extract its virtues.
Medical properties, Tansy leaves and seeds.
are considered tonic and vermifuge. An infusion
of tansy has been recommended and employed
to prevent the recurrence of gout. Dose 3ſ; to 3i.
TEUCRIUM (marum) common marum.
(Chamaedrys) wall germander.
History. Marum, or Syrian mastich, is a na-
tive of Spain and Syria, and cultivated in our
gardens. The wall germander is indigenous,
and shoots out on old walls, flowering in June
and July.
Qualities. Marum is very pungent in its
smell, readily exciting sneezing when rubbed
between the fingers and held to the nostrils.
The taste is bitterish and aromatic. The recent
leaves of the wall germander are aromatic and
pleasantly bitter; they lose their smell by drying.
Medical properties. The marum is errhine.
The germander has been used as an emmenagogue,
and as a stomach tonic. Dose 9ſs to 3.j.
ToLUTANUM (balsamum). Tolu.
History. The tree which yields the balsam
of Tolu is a native of South America. It has
been ascertained to be the same from which the
Peruvian balsam is procured; the tolu balsam
being the white Peruvian balsam hardened by
exposure to the air. The tolu balsam flows from
incisions made in the bark during the hot season.
Qualities. This balsam has an exceedingly
agreeable Smell, and an aromatic sweetish taste.
It is of a yellowish-brown color, rather inclining
to red. It is soluble in alcohol, and yields a
small portion of volatile oil by distillation with
Water.
Medical properties. Stimulant and expecto-
rant. Rather less irritating than the other bal-
Sams. Dose 9ſ to 3ſs.
ToRMENTILLA (erecta). Tormentil.
History. This is a common plant in woods
and on heaths, and flowers in June and July.
It is the root that is employed. '
Qualities. An aromatic austere taste, and a
slightly aromatic odor. It is knotty, and exter
nally blackish, breaking reddish.
666
M A T E R I A M E D I C A.
Medical properties. Astringent. More de-
serving of credit than many other substances that
are used for the same purposes. Dose 3ſ; to 3.j.
TRITICUM (hybernum). Wheat. Starch.
History. Wheat was first cultivated in Sicily,
but whence it came into Europe does not seem
to have been ascertained. The spring wheat is a
variety. Starch is the fecula of wheat.
Qualities. Starch is without smell or much
taste. It is insoluble in cold water, alcohol, and
ether. Boiling water dissolves it.
Medical properties. Emollient; used princi-
pally in enemas.
TUssilago (farfara). Colts-foot.
History. This is an indigenous plant, growing
wild in moist situations, and flowering in March
and April; the leaves soon appear after the
flowers. These last are the parts principally
employed. *
Qualities. The taste of the colts-foot leaves is
mucilaginous and subacid. When dried they are
without smell.
Medical properties.
expectorant.
VALERIANA (officinalis). Valerian.
History. An indigenous perennial plant, and
flowering in June. One variety of valerian grows
in marshy and woody parts, another in high and
open ground.
Qualities. The root, which is the part em-
ployed, has a strong unpleasant smell, and a bit-
terish warm subacrid taste. It yields its virtues
to water when boiling, and to alcohol.
Medical properties. Antispasmodic and stimu-
lant. Some have employed it as an anthelmintic.
Dose, 3ſs to 3.j. .
VERATRUM (album). White hellebore.
History. This plant is a native of Italy,
Greece, and Germany; it is cultivated in our
gardens, and flowers in July.
Qualities. The root, when recent, has a strong
disagreeable smell, and a bitterish acrid taste.
The odor is dissipated by drying. The external
appearance of it is of a yellowish-gray.
Medical properties. Violently purgative. Not
at present in much use internally. It is em-
ployed externally as an errhine, and is powerful.
Dose, gr. i. to ij.
VERONICA (beccabunga). Brooklime.
Demulcent and mildly
History. This plant is perennial and indige-
nous, common in ditches and rivulets. It flowers
at the latter end of July. -
Qualities. The leaves of brooklime have a
bitterish taste, slightly astringent. They are
without odor.
Medical properties.
much repute.
Viola (odorata). Violet.
History. Perennial and indigenous, growing
in shady places, and flowering in April.
Qualities. Violet flowers have an agreeable
smell, and a slightly bitter taste. They yield
their properties to boiling water.
Medical properties. Laxative, and, according
to some, pectoral and anodyne. Dose 9ſs.
VITIs (vinifera). Common vine. Berries.
History. The vine grows in most temperate
regions. It is cultivated in several parts of Eu-
rope for the purpose of making wine with its
Antiscorbutic, but not in
berries; but in England the grapes or berries of
the vine are very little used but for eating. There
are several varieties of the vine.
Qualities. Grapes are sweet and subacid to
the taste. Raisins, which are dried grapes, are
generally sweeter than the first berry.
Medical properties. Grapes are aperient and
slightly diuretic. Raisins are more laxative than
the grape; they are principally employed in com-
position.
VINUM. Wine. See FERMENTATION, CHE-
MISTRY, and WINE. f
ULMUs (campestris). Elm, the bark.
History. The elm tree is indigenous. It
flowers in March and April, and the leaves sub-
sequently unfold themselves. -
Qualities. Elm bark has a slightly bitter mu-
cilaginous taste, and but very little odor. Its
qualities are given to boiling water.
Medical properties. Diuretic. Some have em-
ployed it in leprous affections. Dose Bj to Sj.
Uva URSI. See Arbutus.
WINTERIA (aromatica). Winter's bark.
History. The tree from which this bark is
procured was discovered by captain Winter in
the straits of Magellan. The bark was used by
him as a spice. *
Qualities. The odor of this bark is aromatic,
and its taste hot and spicy. It yields a volatile
oil in distillation with water.
Medical properties. Carminative and sto-
machic. Canella alba is frequently used for it.
Dose 9j to 3ſs.
ZINCUM. Zinc. Calamine. Tutty.
History. This metal is found in its metallic
state in the ore called blende, and under several
degrees of oxidation. The ore of zinc called
calamine is an article of the materia medica in
itself; it is found abundantly in several counties
of England
Qualities. Metallic zinc, when rubbed between
the fingers, gives out a very peculiar odor; its
color is white, with a slight shade of blue; it
breaks lamellated and shining. Calamine ap-
pears in the form of reddish-yellow lumps, and
is without metallic lustre. Tutty, which is an
impure oxide of zinc, is of a brownish color, and
breaks with a smooth fracture; it is inodorous,
and without much taste.
Medical properties. Calamine is used as an
absorbent earth. The oxides are employed as
tonics and antispasmodics, and externally as
astringents and stimulants. Dose of the oxide
of zinc grs. iij to 9ſs.
ZINZIBER (officinale). -
History. A perennial plant, a native of the
East Indies, but now cultivated in the West
India Islands, where it flowers in September.
The black ginger is the root scalded in water
before being dried in the sun. The white con-
sists of the best pieces scraped and washed with
care, without being subjected to boiling water.
Qualities. Ginger has rather a fragrant smell,
and a hot aromatic taste. Water, alcohol, and
ether, extract its virtues; and it yields a volatile
oil by distillation.
Medicinal properties. Carminative, stimulant,
and sialagogue. Principally employed in com-
position. Dose 9ſ to 9j.
MAT
MAT
667
The principal writers on the materia medica
are, of the most modern—Paris, Duncan, Thom-
son, Gray, and, John Murray. Preceding them,
Cullen and Lewis. Woodville's Medical Botany,
as far as it goes, may be considered a useful
MATERIAL, adj. & n.s.)
MATE'RIALIST, n.s.
MATERIAL’ITY,
MATE'RIALLY, adv.
MATE'RIALNESS, n. s.
MATE'RIATE, adj. matter; corpo-
MATERIA’TION, n.s. J real; weighty :
important; essential (taking to before the sub-
ject of relation); not formal : the substance or
basis of formation; constituent part; generally
used as a n.s. in the plural. A materialist is
he who argues for the existence of material
substances only: materiality, and materialness,
corporealness: materiate, composed of matter:
materiation, the act of forming it. Sea MAT-
TER, *
All this concerneth the customs of the Irish very
materially ; as well to reform those which are evil,
as to confirm and continue those which are good.
e Spenser on lzeland.
What part of the world soever we fall into, the
ordinary use of this very prayer hath, with equal
continuance, accompanied the same, as one of the
principal and most material duties of honour done to
Christ. Hooker.
The question is not, whether you allow or disallow
that book, neither is it material. Whitgift.
He would not stay at your petitions made ;
His business more material.
Shakspeare. Winter’s Tale.
That these trees of life and knowledge were mate-
rial trees, though figures of the law and the gospel,
it is not doubted by the most religious and learned
writers. Raleigh.
The West-Indians, and many nations of the
Africans, finding means and materials, have been
taught, by their own necessities, to pass rivers in a
boat of one tree. Id.
It is more difficult to make gold or other metals
less ponderous and less materiate, than to make silver
of lead or quicksilver, both which are more ponde-
rous than silver; so that they need rather a degree of
fixation than any condensation. Bacon.
Neither is this a question of words, but infinitely
imaterial in nature. Id. Natural History.
When we judge, our minds we mirrors make,
And as those glasses which material be,
Forms of material things do only take,
For thoughts or minds in them we cannot see.
- Davies.
Considering that corporeity could not agree with
this universal subsistent nature, abstracting from all
materiality in his ideas, and giving them an actual
subsistence in nature, he made them like angels,
whose essences were to be the essence, and to give
existence to corporeal individuals; and so each idea
was embodied in every individual of its species.
- Digby.
That lamp in one of the heathen temples the art
of man might make of some such material as the
stone asbestus, which being once enkindled will burn
without being consumed. Wilkins.
Intending an accurate enumeration of medical
materials, the omission hereof affords some proba-
bility it was not used by the ancients. Browne.
Fr. materiel;
Ital. materiale ;
Latin materialis.
Consisting of, or
pertaining to,
materia medica. Murray's Apparatus Medicami-
num is a voluminous and elaborate work.
Hermann's Cynosura has enjoyed reputation;
and Dr. Alston's, though not perhaps equally
satisfactory, is a learned work.
—i
Creation is the production of all things out of
nothing; a formation not only of matter but of form,
and a materiation even of matter itself. Id.
I do not mean, that any thing is separable from
a body by fire that was not materially pre-existent in
it. Boyle.
The materials of that building very fortunatel
ranged themselves into that delicate order, that it
must be a very great chance that parts them.
* Tillotson.
As for the more material faults of writing, though
I see many of them, I want leisure to amend them.
Dryden.
He was bent upon making Memmius a materialist.
Id.
I shall, in the account of simple ideas, set down
only such as are most material to our present pur-
pose. Locke.
Simple ideas, the materials of all our knowledge,
are suggested to the mind only by sensation and re-
flection. ld.
Male souls are diversified with so many characters,
that the world has not variety of materials sufficient
to furnish out their different inclinations. º
Addison's Spectator.
David, who made such rich provision of materials
for the building of the temple, because he had dipt
his hands in blood, was not permitted to lay a stone
in that sacred pile. South.
Though an ill intention is certainly sufficient to
spoil and corrupt an act in itself materially good,
yet no good intention whatsoever can rectify or
infuse a moral goodness into an act otherwise evil.
Id.
In this material point, the constitution of the
English government far exceeds all others. Swift.
Such a fool was never found, *
Who pulled a palace to the ground,
Only to have the ruins made •
Materials for an house decayed. Id.
In modest mediocrity, content
With base materials, sat on well-tanned hides,
Obdurate and unyielding, glassy smooth,
With here and there a tuft of crimson yarn,
Or scarlet crewel, in the cushion fixed,
If cushion might be called, what harder seemed
Than the firm oak, of which the frame was formed.
Cowper.
MATERIALISTs, a sect in the ancient church,
composed of persons, who being prepossessed with
that maxim in the ancient philosophy, Ex nihilo
nihil fit, “Out of nothing nothing can arise,’
had recourse to an internal matter, on which they
supposed God wrought in the creation, instead
of admitting God alone as the sole cause of the
existence of all things. Tertullian vigorously
opposes the doctrine of the materialists, in his
treatise against Hermogenes, who was one of
their number. - -
MATERIALISTs is also a name given to those
who maintain that the soul of man is material;
or that the principle of perception and thought is
not a substance distinct from the body, but the
result of corporeal organisation. See METAPHY-
Sics. There are others called by this name, who
668
M A T H E M A T I C S.
have maintained that there is nothing but matter
in the universe, and that the Deity himself is
material. See SPINozA.
MATERNAL, adj. ; Fr. maternel ; Latin
MATER'NITY, m. s. 5 maternalis, mater. Mo-
therly; befitting or pertaining to a mother; fond;
kind : maternity, the relation or charaćter of a
mother.
The babe had all that infant care beguiles,
And early knew his mother in her smiles:
At his first aptness the maternal love
Those rudiments of reason did improve. Dryden.
: In such a palace Aristaus found . .
Cyrene, when he bore the plaintive tale -
Of his lost bees to her maternal ear. Cowper.
Though with her head discrowned,
And pale, but lovely, with maternal grief
She clasps a babe, to whom her breast yields no re-
ief. Byron.
MATERNUS DE CILANo (George Christian),
a learned Hungarian, born at Presburg. He
wrote, 1. De Terrae Concussionibus. 2. De
Causis Lucis Borealis. 3. De Motu Humorum
progressivo Veteribus non ignoto. 4. De Sa-
turnalium Origine et celebrandi Ritu apud Ro-
manos. He died at Altena in 1773.
MATHAM (James), an engraver of consider-
able eminence, born at Haerlem in 1571. After
the death of his father, Henry Goltzius, a cele-
brated painter, and engraver, married his mother.
From his father-in-law he learned the art of
engraving. To complete his studies, he went to
Italy, where he engraved a considerable number
of plates. On his return, he worked under the
eye of Goltzius, and produced many very val-
uable prints, after his manner, in a clear, free
style, and which are greatly esteemed.
M. A. T H E M A T I C S.
MATHEMATICS, n. s. Lat. mathemati-
MATHEMAT’ICAL, adj. cus; Gr. Ha6mua-
MATHEMAT'IcALLY, adv. - ruch. The science
MATHEMATIC'IAN, n.s. W. quantity and
MATHE'SIs, n. s. number. See be-
low. Mathesis is the doctrine of the mathema-
tics; mathematician, he who studies or is a pro-
ficient in them.
If a man’s wits be wandering, let him study the
mathematics; for in demonstrations, if his wit be
called away never so little, he must begin again.
Bacon,
The mathematicks and the metaphysicks
Fall to them, as you find your stomach serves you.
Shakspeare.
Mathematics is a ballast for the soul, to fix it, not
to stall it : not to jostle out other arts. Fuller.
The East and West
Upon the globe, a mathematick point
Only divides : thus happiness and misery,
And all extremes, are still contiguous.
* Denham.
It is as impossible for an aggregate of finites to
comprehend or exhaust one infinite, as it is for the
greatest number of mathematick points to amount to,
or constitute a body. Boyle.
One of the most eminent mathematicians of the
age assured me, that the greatest pleasure he took in
reading Virgil was in examining Æneas's voyage by
the map. Addison’s Spectator.
I suppose all the particles of matter to be situated
in an exact and mathematical evenness. Bentley.
We may be mathematically certain, that the heat
of the sun is according to the density of the sun-
beams, and is reciprocally proportional to the square
of the distance from the body of the sun. Bentley.
See mystery to mathematicks fly. Pope.
Mad mathesis alone was unconfined. Id.
Beauty is not a quality of the circle. It lies not
in any part of the line, whose parts are all equally
distant from a common centre. It is only the effect
which that figure produces upon a mind, whose par-
ticular fabric or structure renders it susceptible of
such sentiments. In vain would you look for it in
the circle, or seek it, either by your senses or by ma-
thematical reasonings, in all the properties of that
figure. - Hume.
MATHEMATICS. This, like many other terms
connected with art and science, is of Grecian ori-
gin, and primarily means learning. It came
in course of time to be limited to one particular
description of learning, much in the same man-
ner and for a similar reason as the English term
learning has been appropriated to classical
knowledge, or the study and acquisition of the
dead languages. Mathematical learning in fact
held the same predominant station in the ancient
that classical learning has so long held in the
modern schools.
It is not possible that a single word should be
descriptive of any complex object presented to
the mind, whether that object exist in nature in-
dependently of the mind, or be merely one of
its own inventions. Hence the term mathema-
tics cannot be taken as a definition; nor can the
definitions which have been attempted for it be
regarded as any thing more than approximations
to accurate indications. If, for example, we say
* Mathematics is that science which contem-
plates whatever is capable of being numbered or
measured,' or that it is the science of quantity,+
or a science that considers magnitudes either
as computable or measurable, all these, and
similar attempts at definition, are essentially
faulty, because they are not sufficiently definite
and comprehensive. It would perhaps be a
nearer approach to accuracy of definition, or
rather indication, to say, mathematics is the art
of computation and measurement. But this
also is defective. The term art, however, is ra-
ther more appropriate than the term science;
though neither the one nor the other is sufficient
of itself for the purpose: for both art and sci-
ence are necessarily included. Mathematics is
neither an art nor a science, but the union of
both. We are accustomed to hear of mathe-
matical sciences, knowledge and learning; we
never hear, however, of mathematical art; and
the expression, no doubt, seems strange.—But
this very circumstance proves the importance of
our attempt to awaken attention to what may in
itself seem of no consequence. We are the un-
conscious slaves of habitor custom; and the estab-
lished usage of language is one of the last spe-
cies of bondage which even a philosophic
understanding completely shakes off
M A T H E
M A T I C S. 669
It must be remembered that mathematical sci-
ence, learning, art, or whatever we choose to call
it, is wholly of human creation or invention, as
much as a rule, compass, quadrant, or any phi-
losophical instrument, apparatus, or method
whatever. It has no prototype in nature: it is
merely a philosophical contrivance for the pur-
pose of better understanding and interpreting
nature, or of becoming more accurately and in-
timately acquainted with her. If, therefore, we
speak of the science of mathematics, it must be
in a different sense from the use of the word
when employed in direct reference to nature her-
self. We may speak of the properties of num-
bers, and magnitudes, and lines, and angles, just
as we may speak of the properties of the rule,
the square, the compass; but these properties
are attributes of our own creation, not of the
works of God. .
Mathematics are commonly distinguished into
pure and mixed. Pure mathematics, it is said,
consider quantity abstractedly; and mixed
mathematics treat of magnitudes as subsisting
in material bodies, and consequently are inter-
woven every where with physical considerations.
This is one of the objectionable distinctions,
positions, and definitions, too frequently to be
met with in connexion with a science which
boasts of accuracy and certainty. The notion
of quantity abstractedly, or separately from ma-
terial bodies and physical considerations, is
manifestly absurd ; for where or how can quan-
tity exist or be conceived of as existing but in
some material body? We might philosophise
about color, form, or shape, solidity, fluidity,
elasticity, gravity, &c. &c., abstractedly from
material bodies and physical considerations (as
was long indeed attempted), and call this pure
philosophy; but it would be a pure fiction of the
brain, -a mere absurdity. If pure mathematics
really consisted in such abstractions, they might
be defined the science of non-existents; but,
even in the most imaginary quantity of the most
absolute abstraction, the imagination (to say no-
thing of the understanding) of the purest, or
most speculative mathematician, must have
something of the nature of materia firma to rest
upon. -
There is, without doubt, a foundation in
sense and reason for the distinction intended by
pure and mixed (that is, between theoretic and
practical) mathematics; but it deserves consider-
ation how far the distinction, as commonly ex-
pressed, and other distinctions, definitions, and
positions which remain to be noticed, have minis-
tered to false philosophy; and in what respects
Mathematics have retarded, as well as acce-
lerated, the progress of knowledge. An impar-
tial estimate of the merits of mathematical
learning shall be attempted at the conclusion of
this article, after a rapid sketch has been given
of its history. The brief history intended may
be conveniently divided into ancient and mo-
dern.
THE MATHEMATICs of THE ANCIENTS.—In
contemplating the mathematics of the ancients,
our curiosity is naturally invited to their inven-
tion or origin; but origins are a vexatious race
of entities, especially if their nativity happened
in the older, or rather early time of the world.
We can ascertain, with a kind of infallible cer-
tainty, who obtained the last patent, or made
some recent and memorable improvement in any
art or science; but who will give us authentic
information as to the original invention or first
inventor? Even as to such recent discoveries or
inventions as the mariner's compass, gunpowder,
printing, the horologe, the telescope, &c. &c.,
how much uncertainty mocks our enquiries 1
ANCIENT ARITHMETſc.—If we begin with
arithmetic, which may be considered the lowest
but first branch of the mathematics, we have no
means of ascertaining where or how it was in-
vented or brought to the state in which it existed
among the ancient Greeks. It is hardly credible
that human beings should exist any where, or
in any state, intellectually considered, without
something deserving the name of arithmetic,
that is, an art or method of computation ; and
there is as much evidence as the nature of the
case requires that it had been carried to some
considerable extent at a very early period of hu-
man existence.
The Greeks appear to have been the first
European people among whom arithmetic existed
in any high degree of perfection; and the evi-
dence seems equally strong that they received it
from the Egyptians. Indeed the acknowledg-
ments of the Greeks to the Egyptians for intel-
lectual benefactions are singularly candid and
grateful, considering the national peculiarities of
the former people; and supply the most satis-
factory of all kinds of evidence on the subject,
that the philosophers of Greece were the disci-
ples of those of Egypt. Whether the arithmetic
of the Greeks was exactly the same as that of
the Egyptians, or in any respect either improved
or deteriorated, we have now no means of ascer-
taining. The probability seems to lie on the side
of deterioration rather than on that of improve-
ment; but if it had not been for the historical
justice of the Greeks towards their instructors,
and the monuments of their science which have
defied the power of time, almost the very lame
and memorial of the most wonderful nation per-
haps, intellectually considered, that ever existed,
would have perished from the earth.
We have mentioned the arithmetic of the
Greeks as possessing a high degree of perfection;
but this must be taken comparatively, and in
reference to a ruder and more defective state of
the art or method of computation; for, in com-
parison with the modern arithmetic, that of the
Greeks was very defective and unavailable. It
is very probable, as M. Goguet has remarked,
that they used, for some time at least, pebbles in
their calculations; for their verb signifying to
compute, or calculate, is formed upon a noun
signifying a little stone; just as our own word
calculate, borrowed from the Romans, is from
calculus, a little stone or pebble. The letters of
the alphabet were indeed used to denote number,
but in such a manner as to prove that arithmeti-
cal operations must have been exceedingly
difficult when carried to any extent, as is ablin-
dantly manifest from the treatise of Archimedes
concerning the dimensions of a circle. The
mechanical contrivance called abacus was emi-
670
M A T H E M A T I, C S.
ployed, and probably very few if any of the
greatest calculators of ancient Greece could
Compute to any extent without its assistance.
Though a very clumsy instrument or method of
computation, it was far more necessary and im-
portant to the ancient, than logarithmic tables
are to the modern mathematician. -
Such being the defective nature of the ancient
arithmetic, the wonder is not that the higher
branches of the mathematics were not carried
farther or rendered more available for useful
purposes, but that they reached such a degree
of perfection as they actually attained. The re-
marks of a contemporary are so much to our
purpose that we quote them without hesitation
as in perfect accordance with our own opinion.
“To render mathematical speculations of any
real use, the numerical solution of problems is
indispensable; and in this we have every reason
to conclude the ancients were much behind. The
want of a convenient arithmetic impeded them
greatly in actual calculation, and even obliged
them to have recourse to a certain mechanical
contrivance called the abacus, as we now see the
Chinese use their swan-pan, and the inhabitants
of Mexico their knotted strings. Indeed the
whole character of their geometry abundantly
shows that the rule and compass were actually
resorted to in practice; that they employed
their constructions not as modern geometers
have done, merely to explain the theory and de-
duce rules of computation, but to perform the
Computations themselves, and give, by measure-
ment, the length of lines and magnitude of
angles. This, though a most rude and trouble-
some method, might suffice to the more ordinary
practical cases; but, when the purposes of a
more exact astronomy demanded greater nicety,
they would find themselves much embarrassed.
The construction of solid figures is next to im-
possible; and we may reasonably surmise that
the first essays of Hipparchus towards a system
of trigonometry, consisted in the demonstration
of such properties of solid angles and their in-
cluding planes as would enable him to reduce
the usual astronomical computations to the con-
struction of plane triangles; and this again to
its most simple case, the right angled triangle,
and in point of ultimate difficulty, to the deter-
mining of an arc from its chord, and vice verså.
Here we think it exceedingly probable that gra-
phical estimations, founded on some mechanical
contrivance, might be resorted to. Archimedes
indeed, by his quadrature of the circle (the
first example of the approximate solution of a
difficult problem which deserves the name), had
afforded a basis on which a tolerably exact table
of chords might have been constructed, his in-
ferior limit differing from the truth only in the
fifth decimal, yet there is a difficulty how the
ancients could apply this to any useful purpose
without a farther insight into the artifices of
computation than we have any reason to suppose
they possessed. The employment of chords, as
being more directly and accurately measurable
than any other lines in a circle, seems to cor-
roborate this surmise of a mechanical estimation.
The remaining fragments of the two first books
of Pappus suffice at least to show how incon-
what to do.’
eeivably embarrassing their arithmetical compu-
tations must have been.’
ANCIENT GeoMETRY-The geometry of the
ancients is next to be directly considered, for
it has been already indirectly referred to in the
foregoing remarks. Here, for the sake of a con-
nected historical view, we may advert to what
has been suggested in another part of this work
when treating of GEOMETRY. The etymology
of the name is an indication of the original in-
tention and application, as well as of the inven-
tion of geometry: It strongly corroborates the
testimony of Herodotus, Diodorus, Strabo, and
Proclus, in ascribing the origin of geometry
to the Egyptians; and in affirming that the im-
mediate cause or occasion of its origin was the
annual inundations of the Nile. Few of the
old adages are more obviously just than that
necessity is the mother of invention. Indeed,
as some of the greatest inventions ultimately
have had the humblest and even most casual
beginnings, it is not wholly improbable that
geometry may owe its existence to some such
circumstance as a graphic or diagrammal repre-
sentation or map of the lands adjacent to the
Nile. But, whatever be in this, geometry would
soon be perceived to be available for other pur-
poses, or to admit of other applications, than
those contemplated in its original design; and
it would be cultivated as a mental exercise for
the sake of mere speculative pleasure by the con-
templative and studious who enjoyed leisure,
and who were apt to feel that greatest of all
miseries (and the most active minds will ever
feel it most keenly), ‘the misery of not knowing
If the pure mathematics possess
such beauties and charms as those ascribed to
them by Dr. Barrow, Dr. Minto, and others, we
may well suppose that pure geometry, even in
her rudest shape or plainest form, found mathe-
matical lovers in Egypt and Greece, who were
not only devoted admirers themselves, but who
spared no pains to render her the object of uni-
versal admiration. Indeed most of the Greek
geometers were a sort of Platonic lovers of the
abstract beauty of truth as existing in the pro-
perties of lines, angles, &c., apart from all utility.
That the Greeks received geometry from the
Egyptians there can be no reasonable doubt;
but, as already remarked concerning arithmetic,
how far it was actually improved in the hands of
the former we have now no means of ascertain-
ing.
e
The Greeks might improve what they had
borrowed imperfectly, and yet not carry geometry
to a higher degree of perfection than that in
which it had previously existed in Egypt. Thales
is said to have introduced it into Greece; where
it was cultivated by Pythagoras, Anaxagoras,
Plato, and others. About fifty years after Plato,
and 300 before the Christian era, Euclid of
Alexandria is generally believed to have collected
together all the theorems which had been in-
vented by his predecessors, and digested them
into fifteen books, entitled the Elements of Geo-
metry. Next to Euclid, or whoever was the
author of the Elements, stands Apollonius Per-
gaeus, who flourished in the reign of Ptolemy
Euergetes (who patronised him) 100 years after
Euclid, and 230 before Christ. Apollonius was
M A T H E M A T I C S.
671
one of the greatest geometers and astronomers
of antiquity; but of all his works only part of
his Conics remains; which was first published
by Commandinus at Bologne in 1566. About
the same time with Apollonius flourished the
famous Archimedes of Syracuse, who was use-
fully prosecuting the mixed, whilst many others
were dreaming over the pure mathematics. He
has always been regarded as the true founder of
the science of mechanics. In his treatise, en-
titled Isoporrica, he has given a complete
demonstration of the fundamental property of the
lever. The theory of the inclined plane, the
pulley, and the screw, which was first published
in the eighth book of Pappus's Mathematical
Collections, has likewise been ascribed to Archi-
medes; and the honor of forty mechanical in-
ventions has been conferred on him by the
ancients. The boastful speech about moving the
earth was probably an invention or exaggeration
of some of his blind admirers; for true science
and wisdom are modest. -
The next in the line of the great mathema-
ticians of antiquity, whose memorial remains, is
Hipparchus, born at Nice in Bithynia, and who
died about 100 years before the Christian era.
Hipparchus is one of the ancient inventors in
science most justly entitled to admiration. If
not the very first who reduced astronomy into a
regular science, he was the greatest of all the
ancient astronomers, whose record has descended
to our times. Iſis Catalogue of Stars is still
preserved in Ptolemy's Almagest. Pliny says
he foretold the course of the sun and moon for
600 years, calculated according to the different
manners of reckoning the months, days, and
hours in use among several nations, and for the
different situations of places. He also formed
the lunar period which bore his name. His Com-
mentary on Aratus's Phaenomena is extant, a
correct edition of which was published by Peta-
vius. Hipparchus may also be regarded as the
father of trigonometry, which afterwards became
a distinct branch of the mathematics in the hands
of the Arabs or Moors. . -
The next in succession after Hipparchus
known to us as a mathematician of eminence is
Ptolemy of Pelusium, who lived about the year
138. The Ptolemaic System of the world, which
placed the earth as the centre, derived its exist-
ence or at least its name from him; and his
Geography, and a Treatise on Astrology, are
eXtant.
After Ptolemy comes Pappus, of Alexandria,
and of the fourth century. The most consider-
able of his works are Mathematical Collections;
a Comment on the Almagest of Ptolemy; and
Commentaries on Aristarchus concerning the
Magnitudes and Distances of the Sun and
Moon.
Proclus, the author of A Commentary on
Euclid, may be considered the last of the ancient
or Greek mathematicians. But, before proceed-
ing with our historical view, it will be proper to
attempt an estimate of the merits of geometry
before it was connected with the modérn im-
provements.
That great stress was laid upon geometrical
learning by the aneient philosophers is abun-
W.
dantly evident, not only from history, but from
the single circumstance of Plato having inscribed
over the door of his academy, ‘Let no one igno-
rant of geometry enter here.' That geometry
had attained a degree of elegance (to use the
word so much in vogue with geometers as to
have become a kind of cant phrase), in their
hands, scarcely to be surpassed, is also abun-
dantly evident from the place which Euclid still
holds. Yet it is an established fact that, with
all their geometrical attainments and idolatry,
the ancient philosophers possessed little or no-
thing deserving the name of philosophy, but
abundance of dignified absurdity and species of
sophistry. We shall not stop at present to en-
quire how far their geometry was innocent or
guilty of this; but one thing seems evident, that
it was more for show or elegance than of any
real utility. It was surely possible for some one
ignorant of geometry to have entered the
academy of Plato with more real science, sound
reason, and true wisdom, than he and all his dis-
ciples put together possessed. His sublime
mind was no doubt often, at least in imagina-
tion, ‘abstracted and elevated from sensible
matter,’ to quote the words of Dr. Barrow,
‘ distinctly viewing pure forms, conceiving the
beauty of ideas, and investigating the harmony
of proportions; yet all this had no necessary
connexion with just notions or right reasoning
concerning the natures and relations of things
existing in the universe, independently of geo-
metry, and of all the properties of lines, angles,
squares, circles, and diagrams. Concerning the
merits of the ancient geometry, as to any useful
applications, we have the following judgment
from one whose mathematical authority will not
be disputed. “Among the anciënt philosophers
whose delight was in reasoning, and who troubled
themselves little with any thing else, geometry,
while it attained a degree of elegance scarcely
to be surpassed, had assumed a form singularly
unfavorable to useful applications, where results
are to be actually computed, and approxima-
tions made. For these purposes the most exqui-
site geometrical construction is often but the
mockery of a solution. But even its elegance
was speedily found to desert it when tried on the
more difficult enquiries of the modern philoso-
phy, while its application to such researches was
attended with a degree of intellectual exertion, a
contention of mind, sufficient to deter the boldest
reasoner from its use.’
MoDERN HISTORY of MATHEMATICS FROM
THE DECLINE of THE ROMAN EMPIRE, Down To
THE PRESENT TIME.-Mathematical learning
rather existed than flourished in the Roman em-
pire. It never appears to have been in much
estimation with those subduers and masters of
the world, the old Romans; for Tacitus informs
us that they gave the name of mathematicians
to all who were devoted to divination and astro-
logy. Passionately fond as they were of mastery
and dominion, they seem to have had no idea
that mathematical knowledge is power. And,
except in the person of Archimedes, there was
little evidence presented to their martial minds
to produce such a judgment. It is certainly a
remarkable fact, that the mightiest people po-
672
M A T H E M AT I C S.
litically considered, recorded in the history of
the world, did not produce a single mathéma-
tician. It is, perhaps, not less remarkable, that
the arts and sciences, when ready to perish in
Europe, should have found refuge among the
Arabian conquerors and the followers of Ma-
homet; whose Turkish disciples have proved
themselves such barbarous enemies of science
and civilisation. But, strange as it might at first
appear, the Arabs and Moors were not only the
means of preserving, but of improving the arts
and sciences in general, and mathematical learn-
ing in particular.
They had previously received much useful
knowledge from India, and they willingly availed
themselves of the literary treasures of Greece.
Many works of the Greek authors were trans-
lated into the Arabic by the most skilful inter-
preters; and the contents of some of the most
valuable, which would have otherwise perished,
were by this means preserved. The Arabs do
not appear to have any claims to our admiration
as inventors, but they have many claims to our gra-
titude as benefactors, in preserving and conveying
to us the intellectual treasures of Greece and India.
In this sudden and temporary elevation of
Arabs and Moors, above what may be termed
their natural level, much seems ascribable to a
few extraordinary persons, possessing at once
mental power and political authority; who seem
to have been raised up for the special purpose of
imparting to modern Europe all the benefits of
philosophy; for, almost as soon as they disap-
peared, their own people relapsed into greater
ignorance and barbarity than perhaps at any
former period of their history. . In the remark-
able historical phenomenon which we are now
contemplating, we find not only that princes
were philosophers, but that almost the only phi-
losophers of eminence were princes; and this sin-
gular instance in the history of nations, may,
perhaps, be regarded as a striking proof how in-
secure the dominion of philosophy is, when she
holds of the crown, and owes her authority and
existence to the palace and the throne. A
long line of Almamons or Alphonsos would be
as miraculous as the preservation of the Jews.
The first of these honored princes was the seventh
of the Abassides. He succeeded in 813 to the
Caliphate of Bagdad; where he founded a uni-
versity to which he invited able professors to
teach the languages and sciences. He calcu-
lated a set of astronomical tables, and caused the
works of the most celebrated Greek authors to be
translated into Arabic by the most competent in-
terpreters. Alphonso, the king of Castile, flou-
rished about the middle of the thirteenth cen—
tury; and, as justly observed by professor Play-
fair, “was remarkable for such freedom of
Jhought, and such boldness of language, as it
required his royal dignity to protect.’ He ap-
plied himself diligently to the study of astro-
nomy; he perceived the inaccuracy of Ptolemy's
tables, and endeavoured to correct their errors
by new tables of his own. His profane spirit,
or boast that he could have given the Author of
nature better counsel, may be regarded, perhaps,
as levelled at the Ptolemaic system, rather than
at the Creator.
than it usually receives,
We have mentioned Alphonso in connexion
with Almamon because the one is related to the
other as consequent and antecedent; for Al-
phonso's philosophic eminence is directly as-
cribable to the Moors; and because Almamon
and Alphonso, Bagdad and Castile, are to be re-
garded as two remarkable chronological and
geographical points in the modern history of the
mathematics; or rather in the space occupied by
the Arabs and Moors, as the preservers and im-
provers of mathematical learning. s
From the thirteenth to the middle of the six-
teenth century, or say, for the sake of memorable
association, from the time of Alphonso king of
Castile to the time of Cardan mathematical
professor of Milan, the learned were diligently
recovering the knowledge of geometry, and
placing themselves on a level with the state of
science which preceded them. The fall of Con-
stantinople, in 1453, contributed very materially
to the knowledge of the Greek language in the
western parts of Europe, and consequently to an
acquaintance with the ancient geometry. The
Greek refugees (who had fled from Turkish cru-
elty), as recently French, Italian, and Spanish
refugees in this country, afforded all the facilities
of vivà voce instruction to a speedy and accu-
rate acquaintance with their language. Many
ancient classics were searched out and brought
forth from the monasteries, in which they had
found sanctuary, during that dreary period of
ignorance and barbarity, commonly called the
dark ages; and, with the general revival of lite-
rature which now commenced, the Greek geome-
ters were once more, or rather for the first time
in many parts of the west of Europe, read,
translated, commented on, and admired.
Thus two distinct streams of knowledge were
flowing to us: the one along the southern
shores of the Mediterranean from Bagdad, the
other along the northern from Constantinople;
the one communication entered Europe by the
west, the other directly from the east. But the
former, though most circuitous in its course, was
not only first in the order of time, it was also of
most essential importance.
As early as 980 Gerbert, afterwards pope
Sylvester II., having learned of the Moors in
Spain their system of arithmetic, imparted it to
his countrymen the French ; and from them it
rapidly spread over Europe. This was such an
important acquisition as to merit more notice
Indeed, without this or
some equivalent method of computation, it is in-
conceivable that the mathematics could have
made much useful progress. And, if we advert
to the circumstance which took Gerbert into
Spain, we shall perceive what important conse-
quences result from antecedents which seen, of
themselves too trivial to be worthy of notice.
But a thousand monks might have gone into
Spain (which even then seems to have been their
common haunt and general home), and no such
advantage have been received as from one Ger-
bert. This Gerbert was born in Auvergne of an
obscure family, and bred up in a monastery; but,
his superior talents exciting the envy and hatred
of his companions, he withdrew from their so-
ciety and went to Spain. It was there, as already
M A T H E M A T I C S.
673
intimated, that he learned the arithmetic of the
Moors, which we now employ. The duke of
Barcelona took him after his return from Spain
to Italy, where he was noticed by the emperor
Otho, who gave him an abbey, which he subse-
quently quitted and went to Germany as precep-
tor to Otho III. He was afterwards tutor to the
son of Hugh Capet, by whom he was made arch-
bishop of Rheims. By the interest of Otho he
gained the papacy in 999, and died in 1003.
The admirable invention introduced by Ger-
bert, of the decimal arithmetic, consists as
every one knows, in the simple contrivance of
employing nine significant marks or characters,
and making the same mark or character change
its signification, according to a fixed rule, when
it changed its position, being increased ten-fold
for every place that it advanced towards the left.
We are so familiar with this simple but refined
artifice, as to think little of its wonderful merits
as an invention, or of its inexpressible utility in
computation. But we have only to compare it
with the abacus of the Greeks, the swan-pan of
‘the Chinese, or the knotted cords of the Mex-
. icans to become sensible of its importance.
o
The Arabs and Moors did not claim the in-
vention of the decimal arithmetic, but confessed
that they borrowed it from the Indians; who ap-
pear to have possessed it before the time of Py-
thagoras, who again seems to have learned it
when he visited the Brahmins; though he does
not appear to have acquired it so perfectly, or
to have taught it as fully and openly as Gerbert
did to his countrymen after his return home.
There has been not a little controversy as to the
actual claims of this admirable invention, some
contending for the Greeks, and others for the In-
dians; and perhaps after all neither the one nor
the other were actually the inventors. The fol-
lowing seems a candid statement of the question.
The Moors and Arabs, by their own unanimous
avowal, derived this admirable invention from the
Indians, who, there is good reason to believe,
were in possession of it from the time of Pytha-
goras. The story of this philosopher's visit to
the Brahmins is well known, and a suspicion may
be entertained that his time there was better em-
ployed than in picking up the ridiculous doc-
trine of the transmigration of souls. Boethius
relates the singular fact of a system of arithme-
tical characters and numeration employed among
the Pythagoreans, which he transcribes, and
which bears a striking resemblance, almost
amounting to identity, with those now in use, and
whose origin we know to be Indian. The dis-
covery (generally so considered) of the property
of the right angled triangle by the same philo-
sopher is a remarkable coincidence. This was
known ten centuries before to the Chinese, if we
credit the respectable testimony of Gaubil. It
was well known to the earliest Indian writers of
whom we have any knowledge, and whó appear
to have derived it from a source of much more
remote antiquity. It is scarcely conceivable that
a Greek invention, of such extreme convenience
as the decimal arithmetic, should have been
treated with such neglect, remaining confined to
the knowledge of a few speculative men, till,
from being communicated as a mystery, it was at
Vol. XIII.
last preserved but as a curiosity : but the averº
sion of that people to foreign habits will easily
account for this on the supposition of its Indian
origin. We are then strongly inclined to con-
clude that in the latter, as well as in the former
instance, Pythagoras may have acted only the
part of a faithful reporter of foreign knowledge,
though the reverse hypothesis, viz. that the first
impulse was given to Indian science at this
period by the Greek philosopher, might be
maintained. -
After the introduction of the decimal arith-
metic by Gerbert, towards the end of the tenth
century, the next important step in mathematical
history was the introduction of algebra by Ca-
millus Leonard of Pisa, some say early in the
fifteenth, others say early in the thirteenth cen-
tury. “As early,' says professor Playfair, “as
the beginning of the thirteenth century, Leonardo,
a merchant of Pisa, having made frequent visits
to the east, in the course of commercial adven-
ture, returned to Italy enriched by the traffic,
and instructed by the science of those countries.
He brought with him the knowledge of algebra;
and a late writer quotes a MS. of his bearing the
date of 1202, and another that of 1228. The
importation of algebra into Europe is thus car-
ried back nearly 200 years farther than has been
generally supposed; for Leonardo has been re-
presented as flourishing in the end of the four-
teenth century, instead of the very beginning of
the thirteenth. It appears by an extract from
his MS. published by the above author (M.
Cossali of Pisa), that his knowledge of algebra
extended as far as quadratic equations. The
language was very imperfect, corresponding to
the infancy of the science; the quantities and
the operations being expressed in words with
the help only of a few abbreviations. The rule
for resolving quadratics by completing the
Square is demonstrated geometrically. The
writings of Leonardo have remained in MS.,
and the first printed algebraic book is that of
Lucas de Burgo, a Franciscan, who, towards the
end of the fifteenth century, travelled like Leo-
nardo, into the east, and was there instructed in
the principles of algebra. The characters em-
ployed in his work, as in those of Leonardo, are
mere abbreviations of words. The letters p and
m denote plus and minus; and the rule is laid
down, that, in multiplication, plus into minus
gives minus, but minus into minus gives plus.
Thus the first appearance of algebra is merely
that of a system of short-hand writing, or an
abbreviation of common language, by employing
the initial letters of the words, applied to the
solution of arithmetical problems. It was a con-
trivatice merely to save trouble; and yet to this
contrivance we are indebted for the most philo-
sophical and refined art which men have yet
employed for the expression of their thoughts.
This scientific language, therefore, like those
languages in common use, has grown up slowly
from a very weak and imperfect state till it has
reached the condition in which it is now found.
Though in all this the moderns received none
of their information from the Greeks, yet a work
in the Greek language, treating of arithmetical
questions. in a manner that may be ºned
* 2 X
674 :
M A T H E M A T I C S.
algebraic, was discovered in the course of the
next century, and given to the world in a Latin
translation, by Xylander, in 1575. This is the
work of Diophantus of Alexandria, who had
composed thirteen books of arithmetical ques-
tions, and who is supposed to have flourished
about 150 years after the Christian era. The
questions he resolves are often of considerable
difficulty: and much address is displayed in
stating them, so as to bring out equations of
such a form as to involve only one power of the
unknown quantity. The expression is that of
common language abbreviated and assisted by a
few symbols. The investigations do not ex-
tend beyond quadratic equations; they are,
however, extremely ingenious, and prove the
author to have been a man of talent, though the
instrument he worked with was weak and im-
perfect.' --
There has been considerable controversy re-
specting the invention of algebra, and whether
that of Diophantus is to be regarded as wholly
independent of the Hindoo algebra, or related to
it as antecedent or consequent, progenitor or
offspring. The reader who feels any curiosity
on the subject may consult two able articles on
Hindoo algebra in the forty-second and fifty-
seventh numbers of the Edinburgh Review. The
opinion expressed in Brewster's Encyclopædia
is, that Diophantus has the merit of independent
invention; and that the Arabs (from whom Ca-
millus Leonard and Lucas Pacioli de Burgo
received it and brought it into Europe), bor-
rowed their algebra principally from the Greeks
assisted by occasional communications with
Hindostan. The opinion of the writer of this
article is, that what is ascribed to Diophantus
was, as well as the Pythagorean arithmetic, of
foreign extraction; and that the Arabs received
their algebra directly from the same quarter as
they obtained by their own confession the deci-
mal arithmetic. But the question is not worth
the arguments which might be expended upon
it; especially as they would amount after all
only to probability, which will be always appre-
ciated differently by different minds, and by
the same minds in different circumstances.
. It has been already intimated that algebra, as
imported into Italy in the thirteenth or fifteenth
century, was in a very rude and imperfect state,
being little more than the raw material, so to
speak, of what now bears the same name. It
has been justly remarked that our present alge-
praig notation (the same holds of all the algebraic
discoveries, inventions, methods, arts, or what-
ever we choose to call them) “has arisen by
almost insensible degrees, as convenience sug-
gested different marks of abbreviation to differ-
ent authors; and that perfect symbolic language
which addresses itself solely to the eye, and
enables us to take in at a glance the most com-
plicated relations of quantity, is the result of a
series of small improvements made from time to
time, some of which have even been forgotten
and re-invented; while in no case, till at least
within a very short time from the present period,
has any general and systematic view of the
nature of symbols directed the choice of new
9nes.
As Italy was the country which first received
algebra in Europe, so there its first and greatest
improvements were made. The resolution of
equations speedily reached a point at which it
still remains stationary. In 1505 Scipio Ferrea
discovered the solution of a cubic. . This soon
led to other important discoveries and improve-
IDentS. -
Algebra owes much to Cardan Tartalea and
Louis Ferrari, or rather to their bad passions;
for there is but too much evidence that, if they
had been better men, they would have been
worse mathematicians. We have, in their envi-
ous rivalry and malignant contention, a striking
instance of good being educed from evil, and
proof as convincing as any demonstration, not
only that there may be disputes among mathe-
maticians, but that there is no necessary con-
nexion between mathematical eminence and
imoral excellence. Cardan, the first named of
the aforesaid triumviri, stands foremost in the
fame which he coveted, or rather in the notoriety
which he merited. He was born at Milan or at
Pavia in 1501. He took his degree of M. D. at
Padua in 1525, and at the age of thirty-three
was appointed professor of mathematics at Mi-
lan, where he read lectures on medicine. In
1552 he went to Scotland, and cured the arch-
bishop of St. Andrew's of an asthma which had
baffled the skill of numerous physicians. He
was next at the court of Edward VI., and calcu-
lated the nativity of that prince; thence he
rambled through various countries, and at
Bologna was committed to prison. On recover-
ing his liberty he went to Rome, where, in 1576,
he starved himself to death to accomplish one
of his own astrological predictions. ‘He was
a man,’ remarks Mr. Playfair, “in whose charac-
ter good and ill, strength and weakness, were
mixed up in singular profusion. With great
talents and industry, he was capricious, insin-
cere, and vain-glorious to excess.
man of real science, he professed divination,
and was such a believer in the influence of the
stars, that he died to accomplish an astronomical
prediction. He remains, accordingly, a melan-
choly proof, that there is no folly or weakness
too great to be united with high intellectual
attainments.’ - -
Having by importunate solicitations, and
after binding himself by promises and oaths to
secrecy, obtained some algebraical discoveries
from Tartalea, Cardan soon published them as
his own. However perfidious this might be,
we cannot regret the mortification of Tartalea,
who wished to make a mystery of knowledge,
and to conceal his discoveries for purposes'
merely selfish. In consequence of the envious
rivalry and mutual challenges between these old
friends, now irreconcileable enemies, several im-
portant improvements were made in algebra.
Louis Ferrari, who had been a pupil of Cardan,
accomplished the general resolution of the
biquadratic equation by a very beautiful process.
The propertiés of surds too now became much
better understood. With Cardan originated the
idea of denoting general, or as commonly termed
indefinite quantities, by letters of the alphabet.
The same method was adopted nearly at the
Though a .
M A T H E M A T I C s.
675
same time by Stiefel, a German, and it was
extended and rendered an essential part of alge-
bra by Vieta in 1600. Stiefel introduced the
same characters for plus and minus which are
still employed. Soon after this Robert Recorde,
an English mathematician, published the first
English treatise on algebra, and introduced in it
the same sign of equality which is still in use.
Vieta may be regarded as the person with whom
the language of algebra acquired that perfection
which has since rendered it such a powerful in-
strument of investigation.
ginated improvements in trigonometry, and his
treatise on angular sections was an important
application of algebra to investigate the theorems
and resolve the problems of geometry. -
Algebra is allowed to have been indebted
about this period to Albert Girard, a Flemish
mathematician, whose principal work, Nouvelle
Invention en Algebre, was published in 1669.
* He appears to have been the first who under-
stood the use of negative roots in the solution of
geometrical problems; and he is the author of
the figurative expression which gives to negative
quantities the name of quantities less than
nothing; a phrase which has been severely cen-
sured,’ says professor Playfair, “by those who
forget that there are correct ideas which correct
language can hardly be made to express.’ We
will not stop at present to examine Girard's
figurative expression, or Mr. Playfair's defence
of it. - s - -
The person next in order, as an inventor or
improver in algebra, is Thomas Harriot, an
English mathematician, whose Artis Analyticae
Praxis was published after his death in 1631.
In this work the author brought the whole theory
of equations under one simple and comprehen-
sive view, by his discovery of the composition of
polynomials by the multiplication of simple
factors; and he introduced the smaller letters of
the alphabet instead of the capitals employed by
Vieta. This distinguished author was employed
in the second expedition sent out by Sir Walter
Raleigh to Virginia, and he published an account
of that country. He appears from his MSS.
to have observed the spots of the sun in Decem-
ber, 1610, only a month later than Galileo. He
also made observations on Jupiter's satellites,
and on the comets of 1607 and 1618. He was
born at Oxford in 1560. ” -
The algebraic analysis was now brought to
nearly its present state of perfection, and the
remark of professor Playfair in reviewing its
slow progress is so worthy of being noted and
remembered as to merit transcription. “I have
been the more careful to note very particularly
the degrees by which the properties of equations
were thus unfolded, because I think it forms an
instance hardly paralleled in science, where a
succession of able men, without going wrong,
advanced nevertheless so slowly in the discovery
of a truth, which, when known, does not seem
to be of a very hidden and abstruse nature.
Their slow progress arose from this, that they
worked with an instrument the use of which
they did not fully comprehend, and employed
language which expressed more than they were
prepared to understand;—a language, which,
With him too, ori-
under the notion first of negative and then of
imaginary quantities, seemed to involve such
mysteries, as the accuracy of măthematical
science must necessarily refuse to admit.” With
all our respect and deference we must be allowed
to doubt the soundness of the above paragraph
as to conception, or its accuracy as to expres-
sion. But it has been put down here as a memo-
randum for future remark. -
"We have now reached a memorable stage in
mathematical history; for we have come to the
time of Descartes, and the application, of algebra
to geometry; which maybe emphatically termed
a new era. There is some diversity of opinion
as to the person who should have the honor of
having first applied algebra to geometry. Some
would say Vieta, others our countryman Oughtred,
whose Clavis was specially honored by the great
Newton, and who, after having suffered much
for his loyalty, is reported to have died of joy
in 1660, on hearing that the king was about to
be restored; but the greatest number of compe-
tent judges would pronounce in favor of Des-
cartes. And when the most liberal allowance is
made to the claims of Oughtred and Vieta as to
absolute priority, there will be enough of dis-
tinction and pre-eminence left to the French
philosopher. We will give first the statement
of the case by professor Playfair, and then by
the able writer of the article mathematics in
Brewster's Encyclopædia, as we deem it of some
importance to fix attention on this memorable
epoch. “The algebraic analysis being brought
to nearly its present state of perfection, by the
succession of discoveries above related, was thus
prepared for the step which was about to be
taken by Descartes, and which forms one of the
most important epochs in the history of the
mathematical sciences. This was the application
of the algebraic analysis, to define the nature,
and investigate the properties of curve lines, and
consequently to represent the notion of variable
quantity. The invention just mentioned is the
undisputed property of Descartes,’ says, Mr.
Playfair, and opened up vast fields of dis-
covery for those who were to come after him.
It is often said that Descartes was the first who
applied algebra to geometry; but this is in-
accurate; for such applications had been made
before, particularly by Vieta in his treatise on
angular sections.’ “Our countryman Oughtred,’
says the writer in Brewster's Encyclopædia, ‘is
usually considered the first who applied algebra
to geometry so as to discover new properties.
Vieta had, however, before demonstrated by
algebraic processes a great number of properties
of the chords of multiple arcs, which form
to this day a very important part of the theory
of angular sections. The use of the negative
roots of equations in the solution of geometrical
problems was clearly pointed out by Girard,
though Montucla has (in express contradiction
to his own words when speaking of that geome-
ter) attributed it positively to Descartes. The
latter, however, has claim enough on the admi-
ration and gratitude of mathematicians, in his
method of representing the characterising pro-
perty of a curve by an equation between two
variable magnitudes. This sº which
* 2 X 2 -
676
M A T H E M A T I C S. *
brought at once the whole of geometry under
the dominion of symbolic analysis, was made in
his geometry, published in 1637. The revolu-
tion so produced, in the way of conceiving geo-
metrical questions, can be compared to nothing
but that which the invention of logic produced
in the ancient methods. The comprehensive
genius of Descartes immediately felt the whole
force of his discovery, and hastened to apply it
to problems then regarded of the greatest diffi-
culty and generality, among which were the
methods of drawing tangents to all sorts of
curves, and the general theory of maxima and
IIllſtlſ||13, ,
The period at which Descartes lived was pre-
eminently the age of distinguished philosophers.
Bacon died in 1626, eleven years before the
geometry of Descartes was given to the world;
Kepler in 1630; Galileo (whom Descartes
visited at Florence) in 1642; Gassendi in 1655,
just five years after Descartes; and the in-
tellectual Leviathan Hobbes, aged ninety-one,
in 1679.
Of the mathematical contemporaries of Des-
cartes who contributed their respective shares of
discovery, invention, or improvement, were Ca-
valeri, a disciple of Galileo and professor of
astronomy in Bologna, who published his
Method of Indivisibles in 1647; Pascal the
celebrated author of the Provincial Letters, pro-
nounced by Boileau and Voltaire the finest pro-
ductions in the French language; Roberval, and
above all the others just named Fermat, the rival
of Descartes. It could be wished that the
rivalry which existed between these two great
mathematicians had been less, but there was,
unhappily for the dignity of philosophy and
for the honor of the pure mathematics, too much
jealousy on the one side and too much envy on
the other. We would not liken Descartes and
Fermat to Cardan and Tartelia; but we regret
that they were in any measure actuated by the
same spirit.
Opinion is divided concerning the amount of
Fermat's claim to the admiration and gratitude
of mathematicians. According to La Grange
and La Place he is to be regarded as the inventor
of the differential calculus. The former says,
“On peut regarder Fermat comme le premier
inventeur des nouveaux calculs:’ the latter,
“Il paroit que Fermat, le veritable inventeur du
calcul differential, l'ait envisagé comme un cas
particulier de celui des differences.’ These are
high authorities, but we haughty islanders, so
proud of our Cambridge and boastful of our
Newton, are unwilling to bow to their decision,
and ascribe it to national partiality.
Before advancing to the next memorable stage
in the history of the mathematics, and to the
distinguished names of Newton and Leibnitz, it
will be proper to, notice an arithmetical inven-
tion, to which, however, we can afford less time
and space than its importance merits. The
reader must be aware that we allude to the in-
vention or (if it be thought the more appropri-
ate term) discovery of logarithms by Napier of
Merchiston early in the seventeenth century.
By this time calculations connected with astro-
nomy, &c., had become excessively burdensome,
and Napier applied his inventive mind to dis-
cover a remedy for the evil. In the course of
his attempts he perceived that, whenever the
numbers to be multiplied or divided were terms
of a geometrical progression, the product of the
quotient must also be a term of that progression,
and must occupy a place in it indicated by the
places of the given numbers, so that it might be
found from mere inspection, if the progression
were far enough continued. .The resource of
the geometrical progression was plainly sufficient
when the given numbers were terms of that pro-
gression; but, if they were not, no advantage
seemed derivable from it. Napier, however,
perceived, though it was by no means obvious,
that any numbers whatever might be inserted,
and have their places assigned in the progression.
The next difficulty was to discover the principle,
and execute the arithmetical process, by which,
the places were to be ascertained. It is in these
two points that the peculiar merit of the inven-
tion consists; and when all the circumstances
are considered it discovers such inventive power
as has been rarely surpassed. The able assist-
ance of Briggs, Gresham professor of mathe-
matics, was willingly given to Napier, and the
former has no small merit, and is entitled to
much praise in perfecting the invention of logar-
ithms. Subsequent improvements in science,
instead of offering any thing that could supersede
this invention, have only enlarged the sphere of its
utility. It was a most invaluable present to the
calculator, and logarithmic tables have been ap-
plied to numberless purposes not contemplated
when they were first constructed. To conclude
this notice of Napier in the elegant language of
his countryman Playfair, from whom indeed we
have adopted the above with some slight altera-
tion and abridgment; “Even the sagacity of
Napier did not see the immense fertility of the
principle he had discovered; he calculated his
tables merely to facilitate arithmetical, and chiefly
trigonometrical computation, and little imagined
that he was at the same time constructing a
scale whereon to measure the density of the
strata of the atmosphere, and the heights of moun-
tains; that he was actually computing the areas
and lengths of innumerable curves, and was pre-
paring for a calculus, which was yet to be discover-
ed, many of the most refined and most valuable of
its resources. Of Napier, therefore, if of any man,
it may safely be pronounced, that his name will
never be eclipsed by any one more conspicuous,
or his invention superseded by any thing more
valuable.’ - • e
As coming after Descartes and Fermat, and
immediately preceding Newton and Leibnitz,
some notice is due to the Dutch geometers
Hudde, Huygens, and Sluse, and to our own
countrymen Wallis and Barrow; though it does
not appear that any thing very marked, or much
of the nature of material improvement, is attribu-
table to them, except Wallis, Savilian professor
of geometry at Oxford, and who died in 1703.
He was a mathematician of the highest rank, and
of great originality. “In his Arithmetica Infini-
torum is discovered that firm reliancé on the law
of continuity in analytical expressions, which has
since conducted to so many brilliant general-
&
M A T H E M A-T I C S
077
isations.” The above was the work, next to the
elements, which was first put into the hands of
Newton; and from which he may be said to
have started at once in the career of discovery.
Barrow was an eminent mathematician; but he
is more distinguished in mathematical history by
having been the tutor of Newton and his prede-
cessor in the Lucasian professorship at Cam-
bridge, which he resigned to his illustrious pupil
In 1669.
We have spoken of Newton as starting at once
in the career of discovery; and the reports
which we have of his mathematical movements
are not only astonishing, but almost incredible
to common minds. He seems to have taken up
the Elements of Euclid, the Arithmetica Infini-
torum of Wallis, the Geometry of Descartes, the
Clavis of Oughtred, and all such books so repul-
sively unintelligible at first to other mortals, with
a sort of mathematical instinct, or intuitive
penetration and sagacity. What others have
slowly and laboriously to learn, he could read
off at first sight.
But notwithstanding his wonderful powers,
and ‘the mighty fabric of his mathematical dis-
coveries,’ in which is included his “binomial
theorem, which proved the key to the whole doc-
trine of series;' his fluxions, or the infinitesimal
analysis, and his being in possession “so early as
1669 of those general analytical methods which
wanted only refinement, and reduction to a regu-
lar system of calculation, to be the differential
calculus;' a mighty rival of our immortal New-
ton presently appeared in the person of Leibnitz.
And, unhappily for the honor of the pure mathe-
matics, this is a third instance in tracing their
history of unseemly rivalry and angry conten-
tion; for it would seem that if any extraordinary
discovery is to be brought forth in a science,
which above all others ought to be peaceful and
undisputatious, it must be attended with stormy
controversy. As we said in the case of Des-
cartes and Fermat, so here, we would not liken
Newton and Leibnitz to Cardan and Tartalea,
but we regret that there should have been any
thing connected with the latter bearing the
slightest resemblance to the temper and conduct
of the former. The respective adherents of New-
ton and Leibnitz were however seen ranged in
battle array, hurling mutual challenges and de-
fiances, criminations and recriminations. And
now at last, after much waste of mathematical
talent, and much loss of temper, they have come
to a drawn battle, and are willing to divide the
honor, and to consent to peace on the condition
that England and Germany shall remain in
statu quo, and that the distinct independence of
each shall be mutually acknowledged and re-
spected. . The differential calculus, which un-
mathematical persons might suppose to have
its name from the difference created by it, is now
generally allowed to have been the independent
invention both of Newton and of Leibnitz. It is
amusing to see not only England and Germany
contending for this honor, but France advancing
her somewhat late claim. According, however,
to La Grange and La Place, their countryman Fer-
mat was the inventor of the differential calculus.
If, as we said in the case of Descartes, and the
application of algebra to geometry, -if the abso-
lute invention of this new calculus were taken
from both Newton and Leibnitz, enough of pre-
eminence and enough of claim on the admiration
and, gratitude of mathematicians would be left to
each. Leibnitz has certainly this advantage
over our illustrious countryman, that there was
less appearance of reserve, mystery, or secrecy,
more of frankness and straight-forwardness about
him, for he was eager to impart, and lost no
time in imparting his invention and all its benefits
to the world. His public promulgation of the dif-
ferential calculus was made in the Leipsic acts
in 1624. These acts were now continually
teeming with valuable papers, improving the in-
tegral calculus also: and much do we owe to Leib-
nitz and the Bernoullis, his disciples and friends.
The merits of Newton are so generally known,
for they are ‘familiar in our mouths as house-
hold words,’ and so duly appreciated, that it
would be a kind of supererogation to dwell upon
them. Perhaps, indeed, there is something of
the nature of idolatry and superstition about our
admiration and praise of this great man. But
any endeavour to moderate this excess of esti-
Imation might seem envy of Newton's fame, or
the petty, peevish spirit of an artisan towards an
Aristides. His Principia, published in 1687, is,
we think, justly pronounced “an immortal work,'
which, if all his other claims to the title were
deficient, must for ever stamp him the profound-
est of geometers, as well as the first of natural
philosophers.’ It was particulārly from the
time of Newton that the real value of mathema-
tical investigation in natural philosophy ap-
peared. And from this memorable epoch the
mixed mathematics have received the attention
which their utility merits. Newton, therefore, is
justly placed by the side of Bacon among
philosophers. Their names are associated in
our habitual thoughts, and united in our distin-
guishing praise of the great men who have
honored England and benefited mankind.
The controversy respecting the claims of New-
ton and Leibnitz to the honor of inventing the
differential calculus, caused a disruption and
temporary estrangement between the English and
continental mathematicians. “They communi-
cated little with one another,’ remarks Mr. Play-
fair, “except in the way of defiance or reproach;
and, from the angry or polemical tone which
their speculations assumed, one could hardly
suppose, that they were pursuing science in one.
of its most abstract and pure forms.' The con-
sequences of this unfortunate difference about the
differential calculus is admitted to have been very
unfavorable for a time to mathematical progress
in this country, and the writer just quoted re-
marks, “the new analysis did not exist every
where in the same condition or under the same
form ; with the British and continental mathe-
maticians it was referred to different origins; it
was in different states of advancement; the no-
tation, and some of the fundamental ideas. were.
also different. Though the algorithm employed,
and the books consulted on the new analysis.
were different, the mathematicians of Britain
and of the continent had kept pace very neally.
with one another during the period now treated.
678
M A T H E M A T I C S.
of, except in one branch, the integration of dif-
..ferential or of fluxional equations. In this our
countrymen had fallen considerably behind; and
the distance between them and their brethren on
the continent continued to increase, just in pro-
portion to the number and importance of the
questions, physical and mathematical, which
were found to depend on these integrations. The
habit of studying only our own authors on these
subjects, produced at first by our admiration of
Newton, and our dislike to his rivals, and in-
creased by a circumstance very insignificant in
itself, the diversity of notation, prevented us
from partaking in the pursuits of our neighbours;
and cut us offin a greatmeasure from the vast field
in which the genius of France, of Germany and
Italy, was exercised with so much activity and
success. Other causes may have united in the
production of an effect, which the mathematicians
of this country have had much reason to regret;
but the evil had its origin in the spirit of jealousy
and opposition which arose from the controver-
sies that have just passed under our review. The
habits so produced continued long after the spirit
itself had subsided.’
Such were the results of the differential war,
and of our high admiration of Newton. The
whole continent was against us; and it appeared
in the end that the continent was more indepen-
dent of England than she of the continent; but
with Newton as her prime minister, or comman-
der-in-chief, she was prepared to contend against
the whole world.
It is probably owing to the gigantic dimen-
sions and overawing superiority of the intellect
of Sir Isaac Newton, that we have had no ma-
thematicians of remarkable stature after him. His
immediate successors were scarcely tall enough
to measure his height, or but just able, like good
William Whiston, to read lectures on the Prin-
cipia. . The truth is, we have much reason to
make frequent and emphatic mention of the im-
mortal Newton; nor is there anything to distract
and divide our attention, or to prevent us from
consecrating the whole force of our admiration
upon one object. Brook Taylor secretary to the
royal society, and Roger Cotes Plumian pro-
fessor of astronomy and experimental philoso-
phy at Cambridge, both contemporaries of New-
ton, are not to be passed by without some notice;
but they are unknown, to fame; and by the
admission of the few who have been at the
trouble to read them, or who are disposed to
praise them as profound, they are both acknow-
ledged to be obscure. The former published his
Method of Increments in 1715, and the Har-
monia Mensurarum of the latter appeared in
1722. Cotes died in 1716, Newton in 1726,
Taylor in 1731. A [blank] theorem has the name
of Taylor attached to it, and is deemed of some
importance in mathematical advancement.
The change which had by this time been made
in the mathematics amounted to a kind of revo-
lution, though it is not yet determined who had
the greatest hand in bringing it about. Much is
doubtless due to Newton, much to Leibnitz; but
more to time ‘the greatest of all innovators.”
If the mathematical world had not been already
almost, if not altogether, in possession of what
is now called the differential calculus; it is
hardly conceivable that there should have been
so much controversy about its origin or inven-
tion, that it should be claimed by England,
Germany, and France too, or that it could pos-
sibly be a moot point, whether Newton, Leibnitz,
or Fermat has the best claim in this chancery suit.
The differential calculus ought to be of much
importance, for we not only find an extraordinary
combustion of passion and commotion of con-
troversy respecting its actual origin, but much
opposition made to its very existence. The re-
marks of Mr. Playfair are so just and so appli-
cable, in reference to any revolution, reforma-
tion, or extraordinary improvement in mathe-
matical science, that we must again undertake to
transcribe them.
“It must not be supposed that so great a
revolution in science, as that which was made by
the introduction of the new analysis, could be
brought about entirely without opposition, as in
every society there are some who think themselves
interested to maintain things in the condition
wherein they have found them. The considera-
tions are, indeed, sufficiently obvious, which, in
the moral and political world tend to produce
this effect, and to give a stability to human
institutions, often so little proportionate to their
real value, or to their general utility. Even in
matters purely intellectual, and in which the
abstract truths of arithmetic and geometry seem
alone concerned, the prejudices, the selfishness,
or the vanity of those who pursue them, not un-
frequently combine to resist improvements, and
often engage no inconsiderable degree of talent
in drawing back instead of pushing forward the
machine of science. The introduction of me-
thods entirely new must often change the relative
place of the men engaged in scientific pursuits;
and must oblige many, after descending from the
stations they formerly occupied, to take a lower
position in the scale of intellectual advancement.
The enmity of such men, if they be not animated
by a spirit of real candor, and the love of truth,
is likely to be directed against methods by
which their vanity is mortified and their import-
ance lessened.'
The above quotation deserves to be inscribed
not only on the porch of every academy (where
Plato had his memento of the importance of
geometry); but on the gates of every college,
city, and town, on the entrance to every hall
of justice and every court of judicature. The
able and elegant writer adds: ‘though such
changes as this must have every where ac-
companied the ascendancy acquired by the
new calculus, for the credit of mathemati-
cians, it must be observed, that no one of any
considerable eminence has had the misfortune to
enrol his name among the adversaries of the new
science; and that Huygens, the most distin-
guished and most profound of the older mathe-
maticians then living, was one of the most for-
ward to acknowledge the excellence of that
science (method would surely be the more appro-
propriate word), and to make himself master of
its rules, and of their application.” This excel- .
lent Dutchman and eminent mathematician
visited England in 1661, and was chosen fellow:
M A T H E M A T I C S.
679
of the Royal Society. He died at his native place,
the Hague, in 1695, about a year before Newton
was made master of the mint, and resigned his
professorship to his disciple William Whiston.
The new analysis or differential calculus was,
however, stoutly opposed. Nieuwentyt, a Dutch
philosopher and mathematician of some emi-
mence, objected to the explanation of Leibnitz,
and to the notions of quantities infinitely small.
Leibnitz replied, but in a manner not quite satis-
factory, as admitted by Mr. Playfair. But Her-
mann and Bernouilli are considered as com-
pletely defeating the adversary of the differential
calculus. Rolle, a Frénch mathematician, was a
more powerful opponent; but he too was van-
quished by Varignon and Saurin. -
The new analysis or differential calculus was
next attacked by the distinguished Berkeley bishop
of Cloyne, in his publication entitled the
Analyst; in which he professes to prove that the
mathematicians admit mysteries, and even falsi-
ties in science, particularly in their doctrine of
fluxions, or, as now called, the new analysis, the
differential calculus, &c. &c. Berkeley maintains
that the said differential calculus, new analysis, or
doctrine of fluxions, is inaccurate in its princi-
ples; and that if it ever lead to true conclusions,
it is from an accidental compensation of errors
that cannot be supposed always to take place.
No one who knows Berkeley's ability requires to
be told that the Analyst is a masterly production;
nor can some of his arguments and charges be
fairly met ; for if the mathematicians do not re-
ceive mysteries and falsities too, or absurdities
in language at least—what are mysteries? or
what are absurdities The Analyst contains wit
as well as argument. Mr. Playfair is compelled
to do something like justice to its acute and
masterly author. “The argument is ingeniously
and plausibly conducted,’ he says, “and the au-
thor attempts ridicule with better success than
could be expected from the subject; thus, when
he calls ultimate ratios the ghosts of departed
quantities, it is not easy to conceive a witty saying
more happily fastened on a mere mathematical
abstraction.’ Mr. Playfair with all his differen-
tial jealousies and partialities, and persuasion
that there are correct ideas which correct lan-
guage can hardly be made to express, admits
that the defenders of the calculus did not always
argue the matter fairly, or exactly meet the rea-
soning of their adversary.
‘The true answer to Berkeley, he adds," was,
that what he conceived to be an accidental com—
pensation of errors was not at all accidental, but
that the two sets of quantities that seemed to him
neglected in the reasoning were in all cases ne-
cessarily equal, an exact balance for one another.
The Newtonian idea of a fluxion contained in it
this truth, and so it was argued by Jurin and
others, but not in a manner so logical and satis-
factory as might have been expected. Perhaps
it is not too much to assert, that this was not
completely done till La Grange's Theory of
Functions appeared. Thus, if the author of the
Analyst has had the misfortune to enrol his name
on the side of error, he has also had the credit of
..proposing difficulties of which the complete solu-
tion is only to be derived from the highest im-
provements of the calculus.’
with him, of ranking second to Euler.
After Newton and Leibnitz, the two mattit-
maticians of greatest name are Euler, and
D'Alembert. The former, the son of a Protestant
minister, was born at Basil in 1707, and receiv.
ed his education at the university of that city
with a view to the church; but he devoted him-
self to mathematical studies under the famous
John Bernouilli. In 1727 he followed his
friends Hermann and Daniel Bernouilli to Pe-
tersburgh, and was associated with them there in
the mathematical professorship. In 1741, at the
invitation of the king of Prussia, he went to
Berlin, where he remained twenty-five years, and
then returned to Petersburgh, at which place he
died in 1783, the same year in which D'Alem-
bert departed this life.
Some opinion may be formed of Euler's ma-
thematical distinction from the number of prizes
obtained by him from the French Academy of
Sciences: one for a Memoir on Fire; another
he divided with Maclaurin and Daniel Bernouilli
on the Flux and Reflux of the Sea; another for
three memoirs on the Inequalities of the Motions
of the Planets; and two others for solutions of
questions on the Theory of the Moon. Having
spoken of his contemporaries, Clairault and
D'Alembert, the able writer of the article mathe-
matics in Brewster's Encyclopædia, adds, “A hap-
py medium between the defects, we ought rather
to say a happy combination of these two very
opposite geniuses, and endowed with perfections
peculiar to himself, was Euler. Of his admira-
ble qualities as a man we have striking proofs;
as a mathematician, to all the perseverance of
the most determined calculator, he united a vast-
ness of conception which the wildest speculator
might envy, and a restless activity and variety
of inventive power of which human nature has
perhaps afforded no other instätice, and which
never left him at a loss for means to accomplis
his immediate object, though he occasionally
suffered himself to be hurried aside by it from
the steady pursuit of his more remote one. There
are few of the great ideas which have directed
succeeding analysts in these difficult researches,
which Euler did not first strike upon or divide
the merit of their invention.’
Euler's attention seemed directed at one
and the same instant to every part of mathematical
science, and as his mind was rapid and compre-
hensive so it was patient and indefatigable in its
application. In total blindness, and under pain,
he carried on his usual operations. There were
not a few great mathematicians of the same time,
as D'Alembert, Clairault, Maclaurin, Bernouilli,
and others; but the greatest of all by far was
Euler. Besides the memoirs already alluded to,
he wrote many others; Opuscula Analytica; In-
troduction to the Analysis of Infinitesimals, &c.
Few men have done so much for those who
were to come after as this extraordinary indivi-
dual . ‘. . . . . . . .
The next in rank of the mathematical contem-
poraries and compeers is without doubt D'Alem-
bert, though Clairault almost divides the honor
Clairault
was the more profound calculator, but D'Alem-
bert possessed more variety of excellence, he
was a man of extreme acuteness and subtlety of
680.
M A T H E M A T I C s
reasoning, and possessed a peculiar talent for com-
paring and estimating methods—a kind of in-
tuitive insight into the advantages and disadvan-
tages of the various lights in which a subject
might be considered, and a power of predicting,
as it were before hand, the effect of a long train
of analytical operations. A severe and unsparing.
critic of the methods of others, he was yet not
peculiarly happy in expressing his own; and in his
mathematical writings the classical elegance of
his language is often strongly contrasted with
the obscurity and want of symmetry of his ana-
lysis.' .
D'Alembert is a remarkable instance of the
union of mathematical and literary eminence;
or rather, perhaps we should say, of that versatility
of genius, and variety of attainment and excel-
lence, so much more characteristic of the Freneh
than of any other people, and still more of their
mathematicians than of those of any other nation.
The same person who is one while absorbed in
mathematical abstractions and philosophical rea-
sonings, is the next busied with Diderot in com-
piling the celebrated Encyclopedie, or in writing
history and biography. He could by turns write
treatises on Dynamics, and on the Theory of
Winds, solve the problem of the precession of the
equinoxes, write philological miscellanies, and
the Elements of Music. To us the varied attain-
ments and excellencies of a French mathemati-
cian seem almost incompatible with one another.
If he has not the magnitude or profundity and
altitude of a Newton, he has infinitely more of
multiformity. In this even a Leibnitz, with all
his versatility of genius and diversity of mental
character, must yield to a D'Alembert; nor is
this individual to be considered as an extraordi-
nary phenomenon; he is only a striking instance
and remarkable specimen of his countrymen.
Pascal, Maupertuis, Condorcet, and others are
better known as elegant literateurs, and eloquent
writers, thanaseminent mathematicians. D'Alem-
bert's good old nurse tartly told him on a parti-
cular occasion, ‘You will never be any thing but
a philosopher, who is one that is neglected whilst
living, and praised when dead.’ And she was
right in part, for D'Alembert was neglected so
long as he was merely a philosopher or mathe-
matician; but time proved that the shrewd old
Frenchwoman, with all her knowledge of the
world, was out in her a priori reasoning as to
D'Alembert; for it was demonstrated that he
could become almost every thing.
Clairault has been already mentioned in con-
nexion with D'Alembert; and they may be con-
sidered as rivals; at least D'Alembert was
evidently jealous of Clairault, and not without
reason, being actuated like most other common
mortals, and even uncommon mathematicians,
quite as much by selfish ambition as by the pure
love of truth. Clairault, however, though more
profound perhaps, was more Himited, less com-
prehensive, and more exclusively a mere mathe-
matician than D'Alembert. Consequently he is
hardly known out of the mathematical world.
He is an instance of extraordinary precocity
connected with progressive maturity; for his
early attainments were not, as in so many cases,
deceitful blossoms preceding permanent barren-
ness of intellect, or stationary mediocrity. He,
was born at Paris in 1713, six years later than
Euler, thirteen later than Daniel Bernouilli,
nineteen later than Maclaurin, and four earlier
than D'Alembert. At the age of four years he
could read and write; at nine he made some .
progress in algebra and geometry, and solved
several difficult problems. In his eleventh year
his Memoir, on Curves appeared in the Miscel-
lamea Berolinensia, with an honorable certificate
of the Academy of Sciences. That learned body
admitted him an associate at the age of eighteen,
and he was one of the academicians who went
to the North to measure a degree for ascertaining
the figure of the earth. He wrote Elements of
Geometry, and of Algebra; a Treatise on the
Figure of the Earth; Tables of the Moon, &c.,
and died in 1765 in the prime of life and vigor
of his faculties. .
The distinguished Maclaurin, whom we have
connected with Clairault as coming into the
world nineteen years earlier, and who is memo-
rably associated with Euler and Daniel Bernou-
illi by having divided with them the prize on the
Flux and Reflux of the Sea awarded by the
French Academy of Sciences, was born at Kil-
moddan in Scotland, in the year 1698, and edu-
cated at the University of Glasgow, where he
applied ardently to the study of the mathematics.
In 1717 (the year of D'Alembert's nativity), and
at nineteen years of age, he obtained the mathe-
matical professorship in the Marischal College of
Aberdeen; and two years afterwards was chosen
fellow of the Royal Society. In 1725 he suc-
ceeded Mr. James Gregory in the mathematical
professorship in the University of Edinburgh.
In 1742 he published his System of Fluxions, the
most considerable of his works. Three years
after having been active in fortifying Edinburgh
against the rebels, and thus becoming a marked
object of their resentment, he fled for safety into
England, and took refuge with archbishop Her-
ring at York. Whilst yet in the midst of life
and full vigor of all his extraordinary mathema-
tical powers he died of dropsy in the following
year 1746.
Maclaurin was not only a great mathematician,
but both morally and intellectually considered
a great man. His peculiar merit as a philoso-
pher was, that all his studies were directed to
general utility; and in many places of his works
are found applications of the most abstruse
theories' to practical purposes for the improve-
ment of useful arts and sciences. If England
glories in her Newton; Germany in her Leib-
nitz; France in her Descartes, Fermat, D'Alem-
bert, La Grange, and La Place; Switzerland in
her Euler and Bernouillis; Italy in her Galileo,
and Cavalieri; Holland in her Huygens; Scot-
land needs not be ashamed to glory in her Mac-
laurin.—And, instead of looking with jealousy or
scorn on the fame of this great and good mafi,
we glory in him too, as an honor to the age
in which he lived, and to our own distinguished
island; and as a lasting monument of satisfactory
proof that Newton, though the greatest, was not
the last of British mathematicians worthy of
ranking with the most honored names of the
most distinguished countries. Besides the work,
M A T H E M A T I C S.
681
already noticed, Maclaurin wrote several papers
in the Philosophical Transactions; Geometria
{}rganica; on the Percussion of Bodies; a Trea-
tise of Algebra; and an Account of Sir Isaac
Newton's Philosophical Discoveries.
Daniel Bernouilli merits honorable mention
in connexion with Euler, D'Alembert, Clairault,
and Maclaurin. He was son of John Bernouilli,
who was the brother and pupil of the distinguish-
ed James Bernouilli of Basil, and tutor of Euler,
and who formed an intimacy with Boyle and
other great men, when on a visit here in the
gourse of his travels. About 1684 Leibnitz pub-
lished in the Acta Eruditorum at Leipsic some
essays on his new calculus differentialis, but
without discovering the method. James Ber-
nouilli and his brother John found out the secret,
for which they received the thanks and friend-
ship of Leibnitz. In 1687 James Bernouilli was
appointed professor of mathematics in the Uni-
versity of Basil; in 1689 he was chosen member
of the Royal Academy at Paris; and he died in
1705, two years after the period of Newton's re-
signing his professorship at Cambridge to Whis-
ton, and eleven years prior to the death of Leib-
nitz. - -
Daniel Bernouilli, nephew of James, and son
of John, was born at Groningen (where his father
was some time mathematical professor) in 1700.
After travelling through several countries of
Europe he settled at Basil, where he became
successively professor of physic and of philoso-
phy. He gained and divided ten prizes from
the academy of sciences, which were contended
for by the greatest mathematicians in Europe.
He divided one we have seen with Euler and
Maclaurin; and in, 1734 he divided one with his
father, which we grieve to relate caused a breach
of natural affection. In 1748 he succeeded his
father in the academy of sciences; and in 1782
he followed him to the grave: a year later than
Euler and D'Alembert went also to the house
appointed for all living. Besides those above
noticed, there is Nicholas Bernouilli also of very
high eminence and who is justly allowed to have
contributed much to the recent mathematical im-
provements, particularly the discovery of the
equations of condition, which opened the way to
the partial differential calculus. It would be
impossible, however, within our limits, to point
out what Euler, D'Alembert, Clairault, Maclau-
rin, and the Bernouillis have actually done; or
to show how much they co-operated in carrying
forward the mathematical art or science beyond
the state in which they found it prepared for them
by their predecessors.
We proceed now to the last step of our pro-
gression, and to the distinguished names of La
Grange and La Place. These pre-eminent geo-
meters were beginning to appear before Euler,
D'Alembert, and the last of the Bernouillis had
quitted this mortal stage. When about to treat of
the new geometry, Mr. Playfair says, “Consider-
ing some sort of subdivision as necessary, and
observing in the interval which extends from
the first of Newton's discoveries to the year 1818,
three different conditions of the physico-mathe-
matical sciences, well marked and distinguished
by great improvements, I have divided the above
interval into three corresponding parts The
first of these reaching from the commencement
of Newton's discoveries in 1663 to a little be-
yond his death, or to 1730, may be denominated
from the men who impressed on it its peculiar
character, the period of Newton and Leibnitz.
The second, which for a similar reason I call
that of Euler and D'Alembert, may be regarded
as extending from 1730 to 1780; and the third,
that of La Grange and La Place, from 1780 to.
-1818.” -
The above is, perhaps, as near an approxima-..
tion as may be to accuracy of demarcation on
such a fluxionary subject; for it is impossible
to fix or find a point of absolute certainty, where.
a modifying process is constantly but gradually
and silently at work. As early, however, as
1767, La Grange read a memoir to the academy,
impugning the authority of Fontaine's fluxio-
differential calculus; and in his memoir, which
appeared in the Berlin Memoirs for 1770, he
annulled poor Fontaine's claim to the discovery
of the equation of condition into a negative
quantity, and assigned that claim perfect and en-
tire to Nicholas Bernouilli. Whether rivalry or
contempt of Fontaine sharpened the mathemati-
cal wits, and spirited the analytical exertions
of La Grange, it is not worth while to conjecture;
but it is evident that he was already a man of
weight and influence. Here we again avail our-
selves of the assistance of an able writer, not a few.
of whose remarks we have already adopted : ‘Ana-
lytical geometry, properly so called, which pro-
ceeds upon the sole consideration of the data of the
question put into symbolic language, making no
preparatory constructions, and either dispensing:
altogether with the use of diagrams or employing:
them merely to assist the imagination in its con-
ception of the data-geometry in this state, is due.
solely to La Grange. That great man, in his
memoir on pyramids (in the Berlin Memoir for
1773), first showed the practicability of treating
the most complicated questions of solid geometry
in this way; and, what is very remarkable, this
mode of proceeding, instead of inducing obscu-
rity, as might at first be expected, is remarkable
for the luminous and distinct conceptions it
gives of geometrical questions. The principal
reason of this is, the extraordinary symmetry
which symbolical expressions, properly con-
structed, assume in geometrical enquiries. This,
it is which renders them easy of management,
and at the same time facilitates their interpreta--
tion into geometrical language in a remarkable
degree, rendering it indeed so obvious, that it
may generally be carried on as a collateral pro-
cess with the algebraic reasoning. -
“There is no author whose writings furnish
more striking and beautiful examples of this.
symmetry in his formulae, which, speaks to the
eye, and enables us almost to predict the results,
without executing the operations required, than
La Grange. Those whose enquiries have been
confined within what we may now fairly call
the narrow circle of the ancient geometry, may
reject as artificial such means of discovery as de-
pend rather upon dexterity in the management
of symbols, than on that direct contention of
mind they have been accustºmed to consider as
f
682
M A T H E M A T I C S.
inseparable from the abstruser parts of it; but to
one familiar with the difficulties with which mo-
dern enquirers have to contend, and whose object
is only to multiply the number of known truths,
and to arrive at results by the shortest and least
troublesome path, it will be quite superfluous to
enter into any defence of the method which is
now universally adopted. If the general idea of
Descartes, which reduces the nature of every
curve to an algebraic equation, has been the
source of all the power which analysis possesses
in geometrical enquiries, that of determining the
position of every point in space by co-ordinates
at right angles to each other, which Maclaurin
first brought into general notice, by showing its
utility in physico-mathematical researches, has
proved the origin of all its refinement?
The claims of La Grange to modifying and
improving agency in the mathematical art and
science (we know not how to express our idea
better), as now existing, are, by the same writer
carried still farther back or higher up. ‘A more
consummate analyst than Clairault—a more
profound reasoner than D'Alembert—a more
comprehensive genius than Euler, and, though
less exuberantly inventive, more perfect and
effective in his inventions, had now commenced
his career. Already, in 1764 (in a Memoir on
the Libration of the Moon), La Grange had be-
gun to avail himself of that powerfu. principle
of virtual velocities. A fresh impulse seemed
now fo have been given to science, and from this
period scarcely a year passed unsignalised by
some new and important discovery in the system
of the world; and, by the emulous but united
labors of La Grange and La Place, the state of
mechanical science was by degrees brought to that
pitch of perfection as that the Mécanique Ana-
lytique of the former, and the Mécanique Celeste
of the latter, could exist and be appreciated. The
first of these immortal productions, which ap-
peared in 1788 (precisely a century after Newton
first rendered dynamics a science), is a compen-
dium of the general formulae and analytical arti-
fices necessary for the treatment of every problem
which can be proposed on the equilibrium or
motion of matter. The principle of virtual
velocities, translated into an equation by means
of the calculus of variations, and extended by the
help of D'Alembert's principle to cases of
motion as well as rest, is made to afford a simple
and expressive formula, embracing every effect
the agency of mechanical power, under whatever
variety of combinations, can produce. A uniform
train, of analytical processes is there exhibited,
adapted to the particular cases of the greatest
importance or most frequent occurrence, by which
the consequences of this fundamental equation
are developed in succession, and reduced, en
derniere analyse, to the equations of total or
partial differentials, on whose integration the
solution of the problem radically depends.’
Having made free use of this writer's remarks
as well as of Mr. Playfair's, and feeling great
obligation to both, a few words at parting may
he indulg d respecting their comparative merits,
and their claims to our gratitude. Mr. Playfair is
now beyond the reach of criticism, and alike
deaf to earthly praise and blame; but his me-
. and Leibnitz;
mory is embalmed in our esteem, and we should
reproach ourselves as guilty of something more
criminal than a wanton violation of the old rule
of speech concerning the dead, if we were to drop
a single word from our pen really intended or
calculated to lower him in general estimation.
As to our unknown, and, we trust, living bene-
factor, he is more capable of instructing us than
we are of presenting any important suggestion to
him; for we would be glad to possess a moiety
of his science, and the chief motive of this vale-
dictory notice is, that we may be exculpated
from all imputation of even seeming to clothe
ourselves with the honors of others, by borrowing
from them without due acknowledgment. -
Mr. Playfair's historical view of the mathema-
tics, and that given in Dr. Brewster's Encyclo-
paedia, are both highly excellent; but they possess
different kinds of excellence. The former is
better adapted to the general reader; the latter to
the laborious enquirer after minute and full infor-
mation; the former is more elégant and philoso-
phic; the latter is more able and scientific. We
could wish that the writer of the former had
aimed less at elegant writing, and that the writer of
the latter would attend more to composition.
He is not chargeable with verbiage or elegant
expletives; but there is occasionally some defi-
ciency of precision and perspicuity, of force and
simplicity. We submit, with much respectful
deference and grateful desire of rendering some
service to a benefactor, whether his own excellent
remarks respecting the importance of simplicity,
clearness, and symmetry in analysis may not
hold of synthesis also, or be transferred to com-
position. We quote his own words, when speak-
ing of the principle which would alone have
immortalised the name of D'Alembert, and which
put a final end to all difficulties in the science of
dynamics:—‘The principle, as it is now usually
stated, appears of such elementary simplicity,
that we wonder it should ever have proved of
such momentous importance; and it is only
when we know that men of the greatest genius
were embarrassed by difficulties of which, in
consequence of it, we now hear no more, that
we can be brought to estimate its value. It is, in
fact, a striking instance of the influence the man-
ner of wording an obvious truth may have on its
applications.”
A cursory retrospection, of what we may term
our mathematico-historical journey, suggests
some reflections. It has often been remarked
that great men 'exist about the same periods, or
appear successively in groups, with wide spaces
or long intervals between one group and another.
We may remark also that they not only come in
clusters, but that there are usually two of the
cluster greater than the rest. Imagination indeed
can do much in these matters; for we are na-
turally fond of the striking and the picturesque.
But the eminent mathematicians would seem
naturally presented to our view in pairs, or two
by two like so many enthymemes: as Cardan
and Tartalea ; Descartes and Fermat; Newton
Euler and D'Alembert; La
Grange and La Place. We are not sure that
there is much in this; nor how it ought to be
accounted for. Doubtless many specious theo-
M A T H E M A T L G S.
683
1xes might be started; and the most obvious,
we think, would resolve it into the principle of
rivalry, for we are all in some way or other, and
to a certain degree, ambitious; and, if the organ
of rivality or rivalship be not already in the
phrenological catalogue, it deserves insertion.
. But the apparent fact which we have pointed
out deserves to be noted as a kind of historical
phenomenon; and, if it serve no other purpose it
will assist the memory, and be some food for the
principle of suggestion or mental association at
any rate. If we do not convert or generalise it
into a law of continuity, as an a priori principle
of reasoning concerning the future, it can do no
harm. t -
It appears, also from the sketch above, at-
tempted that the countries of Europe most dis-
tinguished for mathematical pre-eminence are
Italy, France, Germany, England, Switzerland,
and Holland. Italy was first in the order of
time, and for a considerable period highest in
rank; but she appears to have been gradually
sinking from her high station, and receding from
our view. As to France, Germany, and Eng-
land, it is difficult perhaps to award absolutely,
or at least satisfactorily, the mathematical pre-
eminence. Perhaps they properly stand in the
order in which we have named them. Monk-
ridden Spain has had one Cervantes; but, with
all her advantages of monkish instruction, she
has not a single mathematician or philoso-
pher to produce since the times of king Al-
phonso. We may remark too that it is not
Catholic, but Protestant Germany which has the
honor of mathematical pre-eminence. It is not
in the south, but in the north of Germany, where
the Leibnitzes and the Mercators or Kauffmanns
are to be found. Though there be no royal way
to geometry, yet, if we may judge from its his-
tory, it is of a very royal nature; still we do
not discover any eminent geometers in the re-
gions of Austria, or about the imperial court of
Vienna. Of the Catholic countries, mathe-
matically distinguished, France and Italy; they
are those very countries in which Catholicism
(or, as we are used to call it, Popery) has least
dominion over the minds of the educated
classes.
We must, before concluding, fulfil our pro-
mise of attempting an estimate of the merits of
mathematical learning : but we approach it with
caution and reluctance, as we have some un-
fashionable and heretical notions on the subject.
We think that there is much unsound opinion,
and not a little blind idclatry, of the mathe-
matics which ought to be opposed, and if pos-
sible, removed. That the mathematics are of
very great importance to philosophy there is no
intention of denying: the question is, to what
extent are they important, and in what does
their importance consist? In as far as they are
necessary or subservient to the arts and sciences,
or to natural philosophy, their importance or
excellence, that is their utility, is freely and
fully admitted. That they tend also to improve
the mind in youth by exercising it, by forming
a habit of attention, and by strengthening the
memory, is likewise admitted. But all this is
nothing when compared with the imaginary
quantity of the ābstract excellence of the pure
mathematics. We here quote Dr. Barrow, the
mathematical tutor, and predecessor of the im-
mortal Newton. ‘The mathematics, efféctually
exercise,’ he says, “not vainly delude, nor vex-
atiously torment studious minds with obscure
subtilties; but plainly demonstrate every thing
within their reach, draw certain conclusions, in-
struct by profitable rules, and unfold pleasant
questions. These disciplines likewise inure
and corroborate the mind to a constânt dili-
gence in study; they wholly deliver us from a
credulous simplicity, most strongly fortify us
against the vanity of scepticism, effectually re-
strain us from a rash presumption, most easily
incline us to a due assent, and perfectly subject
us to the government of right reason. While
the mind is abstracted and elevated from sensi-
ble matter, distinctly views pure forms, conceives
the beauty of ideas, and investigatés the har-,
mony of proportions; the manners themselves
are sensibly corrected and improved, the affec-
tions composed and rectified, the fancy calmed
and settled, and the understanding raised and
excited to more divine contemplation.’ +
Such are the panegyrical strains of the great
Dr. Barrow on the amazing properties and won-
der-working powers of the pure mathematics;
yet the converse of almost every one of his mu-
merous positions or postulates would be perhaps
a nearer approximation to pure truth. We have
already adverted to the striking fact of the
ancient geometry existing in the highest estima-
tion in close connexion with glaring absurdity,
and a species of sophistry dignified with the im-
posing name of philosophy; but we are pre-
pared to go a step farther, and to show, if our
limits would permit, that the geometry was the
cause or occasion, if not wholly, at least in a
great measure, of the false philosophy of the
ancients. There was not only a natural àlliar:ce
between their geometry and their syllogistic
logic; but, if it had not been for the former, the
latter would have never existed. And much of
what is appended to the article Logic in this.
work, from Dr. Brown's Lectures, is applicable.
to geometry, and the use which has been made.
Óf it.
But for geometry, the a priori road to know-
ledge and course of reasoning, would, it is pro-
bable at least, never have been taken : and it is
observable how fondly mathematicians still cling
to that method of arriving at pure truth, or of
demonstrating its existence. Even Mr. Play-
fair, in his admirable analysis of the Novum
Organum of Bacon, almost sets up the a priori.
claims as worthy of the fullest confidence and
highest reverence. It was from geometry too.
that the inveterate habit was contracted of de-
monstrating, or pretending to demonstråte, every
thing ; even self-evident propositions. ... The
mischievous influence and consequences of this
evil habit of mind we cannot stop to póint out;
but they are very obvious, and we refer the rea-
der to the concluding part of the article LoGIC.
Another bad habit of the geometers is that of
employing absurd language; which, if not one
of the marks of absurd geometry, as Hobbes
would argue, must be of very pernicious ten-
684
M A T H E M A T H C S.
dency in reasoning, and upon the principle or
faculty of reason, or whatever it ought to be
called. We have noted professor Playfair's
memorable apology, or rather sarcastic and de-
fying defence of that which is now under ani-
madversion. In speaking of what he terms the
‘figurative expression, which gives to negative
quantities thename of quantities less than nothing;’
he adds, “a phrase that has been severely cen-
sured by those who forget that there are correct
ideas which correct language can hardly be made
to express.’ It is certainly a paradoxical postu-
latum that incorrect language is the most infalli-
lyle nuncio, the most faithful witness, the most
sure and certain exponent of correct ideas.
But granting all this, and every thing homoge-
meous to it, to be absolutely and infallibly true
in the mathematics (and there is much that is
very unaccountable and incomprehensible about
them), what is likely to be the result of such
a habit of thinking and arguing 2 That, unques-
tionably, which we find so often practically de-
monstrated; for, notwithstanding the eulogistic
appropriation of the expression, mathematical
reasoning, in cases where the attributive caba-
Histic would be just as appropriate, none are
more guilty of employing incorrect, indefinite,
unmeaning, and absurd language than mathema-
ticians. And we lay it down advisedly as a
position that the best geometers, all other things
being equal, are the worst metaphysicians; that
is they reason most inaccurately, most incon-
clusively, most falsely, on all subjects not purely
mathematical, and exclusively physical; and
even on physical subjects their reasoning is
often sadly awry. The data are so defective that
we will not pronounce upon the metaphysical
aptitudes and capabilities of Newton; but we
know what sort of metaphysicians and theolo-
gians are the Descartes (for Descartes may be
enrolled among metaphysicians), the Leibnitzes,
the Maupertuis, the Condorcets, the Prices, the
Clarkes, the Whistons, the Hutchinsons, and
the Swedenborgs. An uncommon number
of mathematicians have tried their minds at
metaphysics, ; or rather nearly all who long
passed for profound metaphysicians were also
profound mathematicians. The reason is obvi-
ous; for as we remarked concerning geometry
and the syllogistic logic, and we might have
added the Aristotelian philosophy (the good old .
metaphysics of the schools), there is not only a
natural alliance and homogeneous relation be-
tween the pure mathematics and the pure meta-
physics; but they are related as parent and child;
the one is the offspring or consequent of the
other, and would have never existed without its
antecedent geometry, at least with its essential
properties fully brought forth, or developed in
all their imaginary and negative quantities. It is
usual indeed to identify pure geometry with pure
intellect, or to represent geometry as having a cen-
tripetal relation to the understanding, and a centri-
fugal relation to the imagination, as if nothing but
mutual attraction existed between A and B, and
nothing but mutual repulsion between A and C;
or as if nothing but mutual affection dwelt be-
tween geometry and the understanding, and
mutual antipathy between geometry and the
imagination. But this is as far from the true
system as the theories of Tycho Brahe, Ptolemy,
and Descartes; for geometry is in reality the
most imaginative science or entity in the world;
only it is pure imaginativeness, ‘abstracted and
elevated from sensible matter,’ as D1 Barrow
justly remarks.
We have enumerated a considerable aumber
of great mathematicians now generally regarded
as indifferent metaphysicians; at least their
claims in the latter character, though for a time
and to a certain extent current coin, are now
almost as much depreciated as assignats. And
we have to oppose to them a few great philoso-
phers who were not eminent as geometers. Kep-
ler, for instance, is considered an indifferent
geometer, but he was as superior to most of his
contemporaries (all except Bacon and Galileo)
in philosophy, as he was inferior to many of
them in geometry. Hobbes, with all the odium
attached to his name (too much merited indeed)
is allowed by the most competent judges to .
have been one of the greatest metaphysicians
that any age or country ever produced. Indeed
he was about as superior to his disciple and
commentator, the far-famed Locke, as Sir Isaac
Newton was to William Whiston. Hobbes,
however, is considered no geometer; and though
he published Six Lessons to the Professors of
the Mathematics; Marks of absurd Geometry,
&c., he has had all the mathematicians against
him, and is not deemed worthy of being named
in their company. Hobbes began the mathe-
matics somewhat late in life. Had he been de-
voted to them in his youth, he would have pro-
bably excelled in them as much as Oughtred,
Wallis, or even Newton; but in that case it is
almost inconceivable that he should have been l
the author of the book on Human Nature, &c.
A more demonstrable instance in proof of our
opinion yet remains; Bacon, we were going to
Say the immortal, but that as a cognomen is ap-
propriated and somewhat hackneyed. Bacon was,
in the most absolute sense, no mathematician;
he was, however, not only the first of philosó-
phers, but the creator of philosophy itself, or
the originator at least of almost all that deserves
the name. Hume, indeed, in the exercise of his
historico-judicial function, passes sentence of de-
gradation upon Bacon, and he must rank, it
seems, below “Galileo, perhaps even Kepler,’
purely because he was ignorant of geometry.
This is singularly equitable and consistent on the
part of Mr. Hume; that very Mr. Hume who
imputes the false notions and absurd reasonings
of philosophers to their addictedness to the ma-
thematics; which, he says, accustomed them to
obscure modes of reasoning by unaccountable
and unintelligible processes, that nevertheless
bring them right at last, like a man groping
through a dark passage into the light of day.
Another bad habit of the geometers is a theo-
rising propensity; and even Newton, with all
his exemplary caution in forming opinions and
patience in ‘waiting for thought,’ was not wholly
proof against what may be termed the natural ten-
dency of geometry, and the easily besetting sin
of geometricians. Even the author of the Prin-
cipia was willing to assign a subtile ether as the
M A T H E M AT I C S.
685
cause of gravitation. It must not be forgotten,
indeed, that the Newtonian system of the uni-
verse is only the most probable and satisfactory
of all the theories yet propounded : and there
are men of very respectable intellect who are
incorrigible heretics as to the true system, and
who obstinately refuse to give their unfeigned
assent and consent to all its articles. We do not
impugn its orthodoxy; but, though our faith in
it be as sound and strong as can be reasonably
required, there is a possibility at least that it
may prove after all a Cartesian hypothesis to
Some other Newtonian system.
That the eminent mathematicians have, for the
most part, been men of much intellect, there
can be no doubt; but the question is, whether
their intellectual power was necessarily the con-
sequent of geometry, or casually connected with
it. That good mathematicians should be men of
strong minds is not wonderful; for none but
men of naturally strong minds are likely to take
to the mathematics in good earnest, or to make
any proficiency in them. There is no doubt
also, that the mental exertion or contention, as
some term it, which they require, must strengthen,
or, as expressed by Dr. Barrow, corroborate the
mind. The syllogistic logic, the Aristotelian
dialectics, are allowed to have wonderfully shar-
pened the intellects, and corroborated the minds
of the schoolmen, whilst at the same time they
perverted their reason, and almost deprived
them of their sober senses. Were any other
mental gymnastics substituted for the pure ma-
thematics, we firmly believe that the corroborated
result would come out with the same degree of
accuracy, and with the same amount of ima-
ginary quantity.
If any of our readers shall infer, from what
we have written, that we wish to explode or de-
preciate the mathematics, they will be guilty
either of a great error of judgment or a great
breach of candor: our sole aim and endeavour
have been to correct what we deem unsound
opinions, and to moderate and modify what we
deem a blind idolatry into a reasonable service
of the understanding and of the affections. Let
the mathematics be encouraged and patronised;
let them be cultivated to the fullest extent, even
with considerable waste of mental power and loss
of money, to discover a north-west passage in
the polar regions of fluxionary creation—to find
out Some new calculus, whether differential or
‘ integral. Were there no probable, or even pos-
sible, results, as to such a mixed, impure, vul-
gar, entity, as utility, in contending with practi-
cability, and penetrating to a high mathematical
latitude of discovery—were it merely for the sake
of ‘the contention of mind' (a yery harmless kind
of strife)—or to have it proved how far the alge-
braic analyst can go up out of our sight in some
new-invented infinitesimal balloon:—in short, if
the mathematical progression were 1000 miles
a-head of any practical purpose or advantage
whatever, we would not be for terminating its
career. We have spare hands enough and spare
heads too; and, as all cannot find useful employ-
ment, it is better, perhaps, that they should be out
of the way of idleness and mischief by digging
mathematical holes and filling them up again; or
in perpetual motion to discover new methods of
* contention of mind’—new calculuses, new ana-
lyses, new fluxions, new infinitesimals to rival
and supersede the old ones ad infinitum. Only
let us know, if possible, what the mathematics
are about, and wherein their infinite quantity of
excellence consists. Let us admire and praise
geometry, provided always that this pure divi-
nity of abstract excellence do not befool us as
she did Plato, Aristotle, and so many others in
much later times. -
As really an instrument of that ‘knowledge
which is power,’ geometry must ever have a high
and commanding station among civilised nations,
But as it may facilitate, so also may it be made
to impede, the progress, or to prevent the dif-
fusion of useful knowledge. It does so, as well
as in other ways, when idly intruded where it is
not necessary. And algebraic characters are
often to be met with in books professedly for
general information and instruction, where Ara-
bic, Hindoo, or Chinese characters might, for
any real necessity, or utility, be deemed as in-
dispensable. This is worse than pedantry;
though it be a natural result of mathematical
idolatry. Comparatively few have time, inclina-
tion, or ability, to be geometers. To render
useful knowledge general, therefore, it must be
taken as much as possible out of the hands of
geometry, and disengaged from such cabalistie
signs as algebraic characters must ever be to the
many—notwithstanding all the laudable exertions.
of Dr. Birkbeck, and the prodigious progress of
mechanics' institutions.
If geometry is to be regarded as any thing
more than a vision, or mere mythological ma-
chinery, of the brain, it is an instrument or appa-
ratus; but the apparatus may become so com-
plex, unwieldy, and unmanageable, as to nullify
all its excellencies into negative qualities.
Herschell's famous telescope was a wonderful
object; and we have yielded, as well as others,
to wonderment in beholding it: but we believe
its wonderful and amazing property defeated its
purpose. And, if its success had been as re-
markable as its magnitude, the beneficial result
to man's temporal or eternal well-being would
have been such a fractional minimum as it is
demonstrated Archimedes would have moved the
earth with in a million of years, if he had been
provided with the data necessary to the problem.
Aðc troń grâ kai rov kookov kungal.
MATHER (Dr. Cotton), F.R.S., an eminent
American divine, was born at Boston, New
England, in 1663. He was educated in Har-
vard College, and in 1684 became minister of
Boston. In 1710 the university of Glasgow
sent him "a diploma, enrolling him D. D., and
in 1714 the Royal Society of London chose him a
fellow. He died in 1728. He published Mag-
nalia Christi Americana, of an Ecclesiastical
History of New England, from its first planting
in 1620 to 1698, folio. But the most remarkable
of all his works was that in which he defended
MAT
MAT
686
the doctrine of witchcraft, entitled The Wonders
of the Invisible World; being an Account of the
Trials of Several Witches lately executed in New
England, and of Several Remarkable Curiosities
therein occuring; together with 1. Observations
on the Nature, the Number, and the Operations
of the Devils. 2. A Short Narrative of a late
Outrage committed by a Knot of Witches in
Swedeland; very much resembling and so far
explaining that under which New England has
Habored. 3. Some Counsels directing a due
Improvement of the Terrible Things lately done
by the unusual and amazing Range of Evil
Spirits in New England. 4. A Brief Discourse
upon the Temptations which are the more ordi-
nary Devices of Satan. This work was ‘pub-
lished by the special command of the governor
of the province of Massachusett's Bay in New
England.” Boston and London, 1736, 4to.
MATIN, adj. & n.s. Fr. matin; Lat. matu-
tinus, morning. Belonging to the morning : the
morning; or morning worship. t
The glow-worm shews the matin to be near,
And 'gins to pale his uneffectual fire. Shakspeare.
The winged choristers began
To chirp their matins. Cleaveland.
Up rose the victor angels, and to arms
The matin trumpet sung. Milton's Paradise Lost.
By the pontifical, no altar is consecrated without
reliques; the vigils are celebrated before them, and
the nocturn and matins, for the saints whose reliques
they are. *. Stillingfleet.
That he should raise his mitred crest on high,
And clap his wings, and call his family
To sacred rites; and vex the ethereal powers
With midnight matins, at uncivil hours. Dryden.
I waste the matin lamp in sighs for thee;
Thy image steals between my God and me. Pope.
MATLOCK, a town of Derbyshire, near
Wirksworth, on the edge of Derwent, noted for
its bath; and remarkable for the huge rocks in
its environs, particularly those called the Tor,
on the east side of the Derwent, which seem to .
be piled one upon another. It is an extensive
straggling village, built in'a very romantic style,
on the steep side of a mountain, rising irregu-
larly from the bottom to nearly the summit. The
warm springs were first discovered in 1698, and
were soon after enclosed, and had commodious
buildings erected. Two other springs have since
been discovered, about 400 yards from the old
ones, and they are now a place of considerable
resort during the season, which commences in
April and ends in October. The waters in qua-
lity much resemble those of Bristol, but are not
so warm, their heat being about 68°; they are
recommended in glandular affections, rheuma-
tism, and in the early stages of consumption.
There are excellent accommodations for the com-
pany who resort to the bath; and the poorer
inhabitants are supported by the sale of petri-
factions, crystals, &c.; and, notwithstanding the
rockiness of the soil, the cliffs produce an im-
mense number of trees, whose foliage adds
greatly to the beauty of the place. Near the
western bank of the Derwent is a petrifying
spring. The spars of Derbyshire here form a
considerable traffic; which being turned into
vases, and chimney ornaments, bear a variegated
polish equal to the finest porphyry. Opposite to
is &
the High Tor, but rising with a gentler ascent
though to a greater elevation, is Massón Hill,
which appears like a pile of immense craggs.
The summit of this mountain has been named
the Heights of Abraham, and overlooks the
country to a vast extent, besides commanding a
beautiful bird's-eye view of nearly the whole
dale. The height of this stupendous eminence
is about 250 yards; the path to its summit has
been carried in a winding or rather zigzag
direction, and in various places has been planted
with rows of firs, which, opening at convenient
distances, admit the eye to range over the
scenery beneath. Near the upper end of the
dale is a spacious building erected for the ma-
nufacture of cotton, by Sir Richard Arkwright,
whose elegant mansion, Willersley Castle, stands
on the south side of a commanding eminence,
which terminates the extensive range of rocks
that forms the eastern boundary of the Derwent,
in its course through Matlock dale. The castle
consists of a body, in the form of an oblong
square, having a circular tower rising from the
centre of the roof, and a semicircular tower pro-
jecting from thefront on each side of the entrance,
and two wings with a round tower at each angle;
the whole structure is embattled, and the walls
are of free-stone. *.
MATO GRosso, a province of Brasil, bounded
north by that of Para, south by St. Paul's, west
by the viceroyalty of La Plata, and east by
Goias, between 52° and 64° of W. long., and
between 10° and 23° of S. lat. This extensive
country is little known to Europeans; it is
intersected by the main ridge of the Andes,
which separates the rivers that run southward to
the Plata from those that run in an opposite di-
rection to the Amazons; and by these a commu-
nication is opened with the most distant parts of
Brasil. Among them the river Aragua, which
separates this province from Goias, is dis-
tinguished: it rises in lat. 19° S., and, flowing
into the Toccantins in lat. 6° S., their united
stream runs north for 370 leagues, and falls into
the southern estuary of the Amazons. The
Chingu is also a considerable river; which,
after a course of about 1000 miles, chiefly
through Mato Grosso, falls into the Amazons in
long. 53° W. and lat. 42° S. The great river
Paraguay, which, running south, enters the ocean
under the appellation of the Rio de la Plata, has
here also its rise. Most of these streams, while
they flow through the mountainous ground,
abound in gold; and it was in search of this
precious article that the province was first
visited, and that settlements were afterwards
established by the Portuguese. The chief of
these remaining are Cuiaba, Villa Maria, St.
Pedro el Rey, situated on the head streams of
the Plata, and Villa Bella, near the sources of
the Madera. The country is generally fertile, and
similar in its productions to other parts of Brasil.
MAT'RASS, n. s. Fr. matras; Lat. matara
(being shaped like a javelin). A chemical and
gardening glass.
Protect from violent storms, and the too parching
darts of the sun, your pennached tulips and ranun-
culus's, covering them with matrasses.
Evelyn's Kalendar.
MAT
MAT
687
Matrass is the name of a chemical glass vessel
made for digestion or distillation, being sometimes
bellied, and sometimes rising gradually tapered into
a conical figure. - Quincy.
MATRICARIA, feverfew, in botany; a
genus of the polygamia superflua order, synge-
nesia class of plants; natural order forty-ninth,
compositae. Receptacle naked; pappus none:
cAL. hemispherical and imbricated, with the
marginal leaflets solid, and something sharp.
There are several species, but the only remark-
able one is
M. parenthium, the common feverfew, with
very fibrous clustering roots, crowned with mu-
merous compound leaves'; upright stalks, branch-
ing on every side three or four feet high; gar-
nished with compound plain leaves of seven
oval follioles, cut into many parts; and all the
branches terminated by many compound radiated
white flowers having a yellow disc. There are
varieties with double flowers, with semi-double
flowers, with double fistular flowers, with a fis-
tular disc and plain radius, with short rayed
flowers, with rayless flowers, with rayless sul-
phur-colored heads, and with finely curled
leaves. All these varieties flower abundantly in
June, each flower being composed of numerous
hermaphrodite and female florets; the former
compose the disc, the latter the radius or bor-
der; and which, in the double and fistulous
kinds, are very ornamental in gardens, but of a
disagreeable odor; and are all succeeded by
plenty of seed in autumn, by which they are
easily propagated, as well as by parting the
roots and cuttings. *
MATRICE, n.s. All of Lat. ma-
MAT'RICIDE, tria. The womb;
MATRICULATE, v. a. & n s. ... hence a mould
MATRICULATION, n.s. y in which any
MATRIx. thing is formed:
matricide is the murder or murderer of a mother.
To matriculate, says Ainsworth, ‘à matrix, quod
eå velut matrice, contineantur militum nomina.”
To enter into an academical society by inserting
one's name. -
If the time required in vivification be of any length,
the spirit will exhale before the creature be mature,
except it be enclosed in a place where it may have
continuance of the heat, and closeness that may keep
it from exhaling; and such places are the wombs
and matrices of the females. Bacon.
Nature compensates the death of the father by the
matricide and murder of the mother. Browne.
If they be not lodged in a convenient matria, they
are not excited by the éficacy of the sun.
- - Id. Vulgar Errours.
He, after some trial of his manners and learning,
thought fit to enter himself of that college, and after
to matriculate him in the university. :
. . . Walton's Life of Saunderson.
A scholar absent from the university for five years,
is struck out of the matriculation book; and upon his
coming de novo to the university, ought to be again
matriculated. r Ayliffe.
Stones that carry a resemblance of cockles, were
formed in the cavities of shells; and these shells
have served as matrices or moulds to them.
- - Woodward.
Suffer me, in the name of the matriculates of that
famous university, to ask them some plain questions.
- Arbuthnot.
wherewith the species are to be stamped.
MATRICE, or matrix, in dyeing, is applied to
the five simple colors, whence all the rest are
derived or composed. These are the black,
white, blue, red, and yellow, or root color.
MATRICE, or MATRICEs, used by the letter-
founders, are little pieces of copper or brass, at
one end whereof are engraven, dentwise, or en
creux, the several characters used in printing.
Each character, virgula, and even each point in
a discourse, has its several matrix; and of con-
sequence its several puncheon to strike it. En-
gravers on metal cut or grave the matrices.
When types are to be cast, the matrice is fas-
tened to the end of a mould, so disposed as
that, when the metal is poured on it, it may fall
into the creux or cavity of the matrice, and take
the figure and impression thereof.
MATRICES, used in coining, are pieces of
steel in form of dyes, whereon are engraven the
Several figures, arms, characters, legends, &c.,
The
engraving is performed with several puncheons,
which, being formed in relievo, make an in-
dented impression, which the French call en
CI'êUIX. - -
MATRICULA, a register kept of the admis-
'sion of officers and persons entered into any
body or society whereof a list is made. Hence
those who are admitted into our universities are
said to be matriculated. Among ecclesiastical
authors mention is made of two kinds of matri-
culae; the one containing a list of the ecclesiás-
tics, called matricula clericorum; the other of
the poor subsisted at the expense of the church,
called matricula pauperum. t
MATRICULA was also applied to a kind of
alms-house, where the poor were provided for. It
had certain revenues appropriated to it, and was
usually built near the church; whence the name
was also frequently given to the church itself.
MAT'RIMONY, m. s. R Fr. matrimonial ;
MAT'RIMONIAL, adj. X. Ital, Span. & Port.
MATRIMO'NIALLY, adv. ) matrimonio ; Latin,
"matrimonium. Marriage; the state or contract
of marriage: matrimonial, of, pertaining, or suit-
able to, that state.
If any know cause why this couple should not be
joined in holy matrimony, they are to declare it. `
Common Prayer.
If he relied upon that title, he could be but a king
at curtesy, and have rather a matrimonial than a
regal power, the right remaining in his queen. .
Bacon's Henry VII.
So spake domestic Adam in his care,
And matrimonial love. Milton's Paradise Lost.
Since'I am turned the husband, you the wife;"
The matrimonial victory is mine, ... . . . -
Which, having fairly gained, I will resign.
- - - = . . , , Dryden.
He is so matrimonially wedded into his church,
that he cannot quit the same, even on the score of
going into a religious house. Ayliffe.
Courtship is matrimony's running footman, but
seldom stays to see the stocking thrown. Steevens.
MATRON, n.s. & adj. Fr. matrone; Lat.
MA’TRoNLY, adj. '$' matrona. A mother;
an elderly lady : both the adjectives mean
motherly or elderly. . . -- -
Your wives, your daughters,
Your matrons and your maids, could not fill up
The cistern of my lust. Shakspeare. Macbeth.
MAT
MAT
688
He had heard of the beauty and virtuous behaviour
of the queen of Naples, the widow of Ferdinando the
younger, being then of matronal years of seven and
twenty. Bacom.
The matronly wife plucked out all the brown hairs,
and the younger the white. L’Estrange.
She was in her early bloom, with a discretion very
‘little inferior to the most experienced matrons.
Tatler.
A matron sage
Supports with homely food his drooping age.
Pope.
In this mimic form cf a matron in years,
How 'plainly the pencil of Denner appears 1
The matron herself, in whose old age we see
Not astrace of decline, what a wonder is she
Cowper.
MATRoNS, JURY of. When a widow feigns
Herself with child, in order to exclude the next
heir, and a supposititious birth is suspected to
be intended, then, upon the writ de ventre in-
spiciendo, a jury of women is to be impannelled
to try the question, whether the woman is with
child or not. So, if a woman is convicted of a
capital offence, and, being condemned to suffer
death, pleads, in stay of execution, that she is
pregnant, a jury of matrons is impannelled to
enquire into the truth of the allegation; and, if
they find it true, the convict is respited till after
her delivery.
MATRONALIA, a Roman festival, instituted
by Romulus, and celebrated on the kalends of
March, in honor of Mars. It was kept by ma-
trons in particular, and bachelors were entirely
excluded from any share in the solemnity. The
men during this feast sent presents to the women,
for which a return was made by them at Satur-
malia; and they gave the same indulgence to
their servants now which the men gave to theirs
at the feast of Saturn, serving them at table, and
treating them as superiors.
MATROSS", n.s. Lat. matara, a javelin. A
kind of artillery soldier.
Matrosses, in the train of artillery, are a sort of
soldiers next in degree under the gunners, who assist
about the guns in traversing, spunging, firing, and
loading them: they carry firelocks, and march along
with the store-waggons as a guard, and as assistants,
in case a waggon should break. Bailey.
MATSYS (Quintin), painter of history and
portraits, was born at Antwerp in 1460, and
followed the trade of a blacksmith, till he was
in his twentieth year. His manner was singular,
not resembling that of any other master, and his
pictures were strongly colored and carefully
finished, but yet they are somewhat dry and
hard. If he had studied the antiques and the
great masters of the Roman school, he might
have proved one of the most eminent painters
of the Netherlands. But he only imitated ordi-
nary life; and seemed more inclined to copy the
defects than the beauties of nature. Some of
his historical compositions have great merit, par-
ticularly a descent from the cross, in the cathe-
dral at Antwerp; which is justly admired for the
spirit, skill, and delicacy of the whole. But the
most remarkable and best known of his pictures
is that of the two misers in the gallery at Windsor.
He died in 1529.
MATSYs (John), the son of Quintin, painted
in the same style and manner, but not with a re-
putation equal to his father; though many of his
pictures are sold to unskilful purchasers for the
paintings of Quintin. One of his most frequent
subjects was the representation of misers count-
ing their gold, or, the bankers examining and
weighing it. …
MATTER, n.s., v. n., & v. a. A Fr. matiere;
MAT'TERY. $ Goth. mattur
(strength or substance); Ital, and Lat. materia.
Body; substance; material; corrupt or putrid
fluids which arise in a wound or ulcer; the
whole of a thing; hence subject; thing treated
of; import; importance; also space or time
occupied. ‘Upon the matter,’ a low and obso-
lete phrase for “upon the whole,' or mainly : to
matter is to be of importance; to generate pus
or any corrupt fluid: and, as an active verb, to
regard; think material: mattery, purulent;
generating matter.
If the craftsmen have a matter against any man,
the law is open ; let them implead one another.
Acts xix. 38.
Alas! I wepyng am constrained to begin verse of
sorowfull matter, that whilom in florishyng studie
made delitable ditees. For lo! rendyng muses of
Poetes editem to me thinges to be writen, and drerie
teres. Chaucer.
The subject or matter of laws in general is thus
far forth constant, which matter is that for the order-
ing whereof laws were instituted. . Hooker.
Where art thou? What's the matter with thee.
Shakspeare.
I have words to speak in thy ear will make thee
dumb ; yet are they much too light for the matter.
Id. Hamlet.
If I had had time to have made new liveries I would
have bestowed the thousand I borrowed of you : but
it is no matter, this poor shew doth better.
. Id. Henry IV.
The upper regions of the air perceive the collection
of the matter of tempests before the air here below.
Bacon.
To help the matter, the alchemists call in many
vanities out of astrology. Id. Natural History.
Many times the things deduced to judgment may
be meum and tuum, when the reason and conse-
quence thereof may trench to point of estate. I call
ºnatter of estate not only the parts of sovereignty,
but whatsoever introduceth any great alteration, or
dangerous precedent. Id. Essays.
In their superiors it quencheth jealousy, and lay-
eth their competitors asleep; so that upon the matter,
in a great wit deformity is an advantage to fising.
If then the soul another soul do make,
Because her power is kept within a bound,
She must some former stuff or matter take,
But in the soul there is no matter found. Davies.
It matters not, so they deny it all;
And can but carry the lye constantly.
Ben Jonson.
It is matter of the greatest astonishment to observe
the common boldness of men. Decay of Piety.
The putrid vapours colliquate the phlegmatick
humours of the body, which, transcending to the
lungs, causes their mattery cough.
Harvey on Consumption.
The elder, having consumed his whole fortune,
when forced to leave his title to his younger brother,
left upon the matter nothing to support it.
P g PP Clarendon,
MAT
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gº
Upon the matter, in these prayers I do the same
thing I did before, save only that what before I
spake without book I now read. Bishop Saunderson.
Son of God, Saviour of Men | Thy name
Shall be the copious matter of my song. Milton.
The king of Armenia had in his company three of
the most famous men for matters of arms. Sidney.
Deadly wounds inward bleed, each slight sore
mattereth. Id.
He grants the deluge' to have come so very near
the matter, that but very few escaped. Tillotson.
If on one side there are fair proofs, and no pretence
of proof on the other, and that the difficulties are
most pressing on that side which is destitute of proof,
I desire to know, whether this be not upon the nat-
ter as satisfactory to a wise man as a demonstration.
I shall turn
Full fraught with joyful tiding of these works,
New matter of his praise, and of our songs.
- - Dryden.
A prophet some, and some a poet cry,
No matter which, so neither of them lye,
From steepy Othrys’ top to Pilus drove
His herd. Id.
Matters succeeded so well with him, that every
body was in admiration to see how mighty rich he
was grown. L’Estrange.
A fawn was reasoning the matter with a stag, why
he should run away from the dogs. Id.
Away he goes to the market-town, a matter of
seven miles off, to enquire if any had seen his ass.
Id.
It matters not how they were called, so we know
who they are. Locke.
Upon the whole matter, it is absurd to think that
conscience can be kept in order without frequent ex-
amination. South.
Some young female seems to have carried matters
so far, that she is ripe for asking advice. Spectator.
If chance herself should vary,
Observe how matters would miscarry. Prior.
If Petrarch's muse did Laura's wit rehearse;
And Cowley flattered dear Orinda's verse;
She hopes from you—Pox take her hopes and fears,
I plead her sex’s claim: what matters hers? Id.
It seems probable to me, that God in the begin-
ning formed matter in solid, massy, hard, impene-
trable moveable particles, of such sizes and figures,
and with such other properties, and in such propor-
tion to space as most conduced to the end for which
he formed them : and that those primitive particles
being solids, are incomparably harder than any porous
body compounded of them, even so very hard as
never to wear or break in pieces, no ordinary power
being able to divide what God himself made one in
the first creation. Newton.
I have thoughts to tarry a small matter in town, to
learn somewhat of your lingo, f Congreve.
In an inflamed tubercle in the great angle of the
left eye, the matter being suppurated, I opened it.
Wiseman’s Surgery.
The herpes peneath mattered, and were dried up
with common epuloticks. Id.
Pleased or displeased, no matter now ’tis past;
The first who dares be angry breathes his last.
Granville.
This is so certain in true philosophy, that it is
matter of astonishment to me how it came to be
doubted. * Cheyne.
Some have dimensions of length, breadth, and
depth, and have also a power of resistance, or ex-
clude every thing of the same kind from being in the
same place: this is the proper character of matter or
bod - Watts's Logick.
VoI. XIII
been one of the seventy disciples.
MATTHIEI (Christian Frederick), a learned
Greek scholar, born at Grost, in Thuringia, in
1744. . Having studied under Ernesti, he was
invited by the empress of Russia to become pro-
fessor of belles lettres in the university of Mos-
cow. In 1785 he returned to Germany to search
for ancient MSS.; and in 1789 accepted the
professorship of philosophy at Wittemberg; but
having completed his researches he returned to
Russia. . In 1805, he became aulic counsellor,
and professor of classical literature at Moscow,
where he died September 1811. He is distin-
guished by the discovery of Homer's Hymn to
Ceres; and part of the alleged Clytemnestra of
Sophocles. Matthaei published an edition of
the New Testament in Greek and Latin, 12 vols.
8vo. 1788, and a vast number of editions of an-
cient authors.
MATTHEW, or Levi, the apostle and evan-
gelist, the son of Alpheus, was of Jewish original,
and probably a Galilean. Before his call to the
apostleship he was a publican or tax gatherer to
the Romans. His office particularly consisted
in gathering the customs of all merchandise that
came by the sea of Galilee, and the tribute pay-
able by passengers who went by water. Here
he sat at the receipt of custom, when our Saviour
called him. It is probable that, living at Caper-
naum, the place of Christ's usual residence, he
might have some previous knowledge of him.
He continued with the rest of the apostles till
after our Lord's ascension. For the first eight
years afterwards he preached in Judea. Then
he went to propagate the gospel among the Gen-
tiles, and chose Ethiopia as the scene of his
apostolical ministry; where it is said he suffered
martyrdom, though others say he suffered in
Parthia or Persia. Baronius tells us, the body
of St. Matthew was transported from Ethiopia to
Bithynia, and thence to Salernum in Naples,
A. D. 954, where it was found in 1080, and
where duke Robert built a church bearing his
Ilame.
Matthew wrote his gospel in Judea, at the
request of those he had converted; and it is
thought he began it in the year 41, eight years
after Christ's resurrection.
MATTHEw of WESTMINSTER, a Benedictine
monk and accomplished scholar, who wrote a
history from the beginning of the world to the
end of the reign of Edward I., under the title
of Flores Historiarum, which was afterwards
continued by other hands. He died in 1380.
MATTHEw PARIS. See PARIs. -
MATTHIAS (St.), an apostle, chosen to fill
up the place of Judas. (See Acts i). He was
qualified for the apostleship, by having been
a constant attendant upon our Saviour all the
time of his ministry. He is supposed to have
After our
Lord's resurrection he preached the gospel first
in Judea, and afterwards in Ethiopia, where he
suffered martyrdom. They pretend to show the
relics of St. Matthias at Rome; and at the fa-
mous abbey of St. Matthias near Treves. A
gospel and some traditions were ascribed to St.
Matthias; but are universally rejected as spu-
T10llS.
MATTHIEU (Peter), a French historian,
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born in 1583. He attended Louis XIII. to the
siege of Montauban, where he fell sick, and died
at Thoulouse in 1621. He wrote, 1 A History of
memorable Events in the reign of Henry the
Great; 2. History of the death of Henry IV. ;
3. The History of St. Louis; and, 4. History of
France from Francis I. to Louis XIII., in 2 vols.
folio.
MATTOCK, n.s. Sax. maccuc; Wel. matog;
Mr. Thomson says of Goth. matt, strength, and
hoga, a hoe. A kind of hoe or pickax.
The Turks laboured with mattocks and pickaxes to
dig up the foundation of the wall. Knolles. .
Give me that mattock, and the wrenching iron.
Shakspeare.
You must dig with mattock and with spade,
And pierce the inmost centre of the earth. Id.
To destroy mountains was more to be expected
from earthquakes than corrosive waters, and con-
demneth the judgment of Xerxes, that wrought
through mount Athos with mattocks. Browne.
This might his weekly moil is at an end,
Collects his spades, his mattocks, and his hoes,
Hoping the morn in ease and rest to spend,
And weary, o'er the moor, his course does hameward
bend. Burns.
MATTRESS, n.s. French matelas; Belg.
and Wel. mattras ; Ital. matrizze : Lat. matta.
Heb. nton, lectus, a couch. A species of couch
or quilted bed.
Nor will the raging fever's fire abate,
With golden canopies and beds of state ;
But the poor patient will as soon be found
On the hard mattrass, or the mother ground.
- Dryden.
Their mattresses, were made of feathers and straw,
and sometimes of furs from Gaul. Arbuthnot.
MATURE v. a. & adv. S. Fr. maturité; Ital.
MATURA'TION, ' and Latin maturo ;
MAT’URATIVE, Span. and Port. ma-
MATURE'LY, adv. duro ; Heb. *tory,
MATU'RITY, m.s. rain.—Minsheu. To
ripen, or promote ripeness or perfection: as an
adjective, ripe; perfect; or advancing near to
perfection or ripeness: hence well-meditated or
concocted; well-disposed. Maturation is the state
or act of ripening; and, in surgery, the act or state
of approaching towards suppuration. Maturative,
conducing to a state of suppuration or ripeness.
Maturely is used by Bentley, after the Latin
manner, for early, soon. Maturity is ripeness;
fitness, completion.
When once he was mature for man :
In Britain where was he,
That could stand up his parallel,
Or rival object be? Shakspeare. Cymbeline.
This lies glowing, and is mature for the violent
breaking out. ld. Coriolanus.
There is the maturation of fruits, the maturation of
drinks, and the maturation of imposthumes, as also
other maturations of metals. Bacon’s Natural History.
Prick an apple with a pin full of holes, not deep,
and smear it. a little with sack, to see if the virtual
heat of the wine will not mature it. Id.
It may not be unfit to call some of young years to
train up for those weighty affairs, against the time
of greater maturity. Bacon.
Impatient nature had taught motion
To start from time, and chearfully to fly -
Before, and seize upon maturity. Crashaw.
Between the tropicks and the equator their second
summer is hotter, and more maturative of fruits than
the former. Browne.
Their prince is a man of learning and virtue, ma-
ture in years and experience, who has seldom vanity
to gratify. Addison.
Mature the virgin was of Egypt's race,
Grace shaped her limbs, and beauty decked her face.
te Prior.
Various mortifications must be undergone, many
difficulties, and obstructions conquered, before we
can arrive at a just maturity in religion. Rogers.
Butter is maturative, and is profitably mixed with
anodynes and suppuratives. Wiseman's Surgery.
We have no heat to spare in summer; it is very
well if it be sufficient for the maturation of fruits.
Bentley.
We are so far from repining at God, that he hath
not extended the period of our lives to the longevity
of the antediluvians; that we give him thanks for
contracting the days of our trial, and receiving us
more maturely into those everlasting habitations
above. - -
How shall I meet, or how accost the sage,
Unskilled in speech, nor yet mature of age 2
* : Pope.
Love indulged my labours past,
Matures my present, and shall bound my last.
A prince ought maturely to consider, when he en-
ters on a war, whether his coffers be full, and his
revenues clear of debt. Swift.
The fruits of age, less fair, are yet more sound
Than those a brighter season pours around;
And, like the stores autumnal suns mature,
Through wintry rigours unimpaired endure. Cowper.
MATURIN, (Charles), an ingenious clergy-
man, curate of St. Peter's Dublin, was the author
of several popular romances, &c., some of
which, as his Family of Montorio, exhibit con-
siderable powers of imagination, with a happy
command of language. His tragedy of Bertram,
performed at Drury Lane theatre, with Mr. Kean
as the principal character, first brought him into
notice, and is said to have produced him £1000.
In some subsequent dramatic attempts he not
only failed but involved himself in embarrass-
ments, from which he was only set free by his
death in October 1825. In 1821 he published
The Universe, a poem in blank verse, which
brought him more profit; and in 1824 appeared
six Controversial Sermons, preached at St. Pe-
ter's during Lent. These exhibit him as an able
scholar, and reasoner, and he is said to have been
remarkably felicitous in their delivery.
MATY (Matthew), M.D. and F. R. S., an
eminent physician, born in Holland in 1718.
He was the son of a clergyman, and originally
intended for the church; but in consequence of
some mortifications his father met with, on ac-
count of his particular sentiments about the Tri-
nity, turned his attention to physic. He took,
his degree at Leyden; and in 1740 settled in
England. In 1749 he began to publish in French
an account of the productions of the English
press, printed at the Hague under the name of
the Journal Britannique. This journal, which
is still esteemed one of the best that have ap-
peared since the time of Bayle, introduced him
to some of the most respectable literary charac-
ters of the country. To their active friendship
he owed the places he afterwards possessed. In
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691
1758 he was chosen F.R.S., and in 1765 on the
resignation of Dr. Birch, who died a few months
after, and made him his executor, secretary to
the Royal Society. He had been appointed one
of the under librarians of the British Museum
in 1753, and became principal librarian at the
death of Dr. Knight in 1772. In 1776 a lan-
guishing disorder put an end-to a life uniformly
devoted to science and humanity. He was an
early and active advocate for inoculation; and
tried it upon himself. He was a member of the
medical club, which met every fortnight in St.
Paul's church-yard. He had nearly finished the
Memoirs of the Earl of Chesterfield; which
were completed by his son-in-law Mr. Justa-
mond, and prefixed to that nobleman's Mis-
cellaneous works published in 1777, in 2 vols.
4to. t
MATY (Paul Henry), M.A. and F. R.S., son
of the Dr., was educated at Westminster and
Trinity College Cambridge, and had a travelling
fellowship for three years. He was afterwards
chaplain to lord Stormont at Paris, and soon
after vacated his fellowship by marrying a sister
of captain Clark, the coadjutor of captain Cook.
On his father's death, in 1776, he succeeded him
as secretary to the Royal Society, and as a libra-
rian of the British Museum; and was afterwards
promoted to the care of the antiquities, for
which he was eminently qualified. In the dis-
putes in the Royal Society in 1784, respecting
the reinstatement of Dr. Hutton in the depart-
ment of secretary for foreign correspondence,
Mr. Maty took a warm and distinguished part,
and resigned the office of secretary; after which
he became a tutor in the Greek, Latin, French,
and Italian classics.
doubts about the articles he had subscribed in
early life, he never placed himself in the way of
ecclesiastical preferment, though his connexions
were such as could have assisted him in this
manner; and soon after his father's death he
withdrew from the established church, and pub-
lished his reasons in the Gentleman's Magazine.
His whole life was thenceforwards taken up in
literary pursuits. He received £100 from the
duke of Marlborough, with a copy of the
Gemmae Marlburienses, of which only 100 copies
were printed for presents; and of which Mr.
Maty wrote the French account, as Mr. Bryant
did the Latin. In January 1782 he set on foot
a Review of publications, principally foreign,
which he carried on with great credit to himself,
and satisfaction to the public, for nearly five years;
when he was obliged to discontinue it from ill
health. He had long labored under an asth-
matic complaint, which at last put a period to
his life in January 1787, at the age of forty-two,
leaving one son.
MAUBEUGE, a town in the north-east of
France, department of the north, situated on the
Sambre. It is well built; and has a manufacture
of arms employing from 400 to 500 workmen.
Woollen stuffs likewise are made here, stone-
ware, and hard-ware.
who were, however, obliged to retreat suddenly
across the Sambre; and this was one of the strong
places occupied by the allied troops from 1815
Having conceived some
In October, 1793, this .
fortress sustained a blockäde from the allies,
to 1818. Population 4800. Thirteen miles south
of Mons.
MAUDT.IN, n.s. As Dr. Johnson suggests,
from Magdalen, because this creation of the
painter is drawn with swollen eyes and a disor-
dered look; according to Mr. Thomson, and more
probably, from muddle, to drink. Drunk, or
half-drunk.
She largely, what she wants in words, supplies
With maudlin eloquence of trickling eyes.
Roscommon.
And the kind maudling crowd melts in her praise.
Southerm.
I also like to dine on becaficas,
To see the sun set sure he’ll rise to-morrow,
Not through a misty morning twinkling weak as
A drunken man's dead eye in maudlin sorrow,
But with all heaven to himself. Byron.
MAUDLIN, n. s. Probably from mad, a worm.
A plant.
The flowers of the maudlin are digested into loose
umbels. Miller.
MAUDUIT (Israel), F.A.S., a celebrated Eng-
lish political writer, born in 1708, and educated at
Taunton, in the Academy of Dissenters, as a dis-
senting clergyman. He preached at the Hague,
and afterwards in England; but afterwards com-
menced merchant in company with his brother.
In 1760 he published Considerations on the pre-
sent German War, which had a great and rapid
Sale; and, in 1761, Occasional Thoughts on the
same subject. He was soon after appointed
agent for Massachusetts; and, in 1769, published
A Short History of the New England Colonies.
In 1774 he published The Case of the Dissenting
Ministers, addressed to the Lords Spiritual and
Temporal. He afterwards wrote several severe
pamphlets against the ministry during the Ameri-
can war. He died in 1787, unmarried, leaving
a fortune.
MAUDUIT (Michael), a learned French divine,
born at Vere, in Normandy. He published, 1.
A Treatise on Religion, against the Sceptics;
2. Excellent Analysis of most of the books of the
New Testament, 8 vols. 12mo. He died in 1709.
MAU'GRE, adj. Fr. malgré, of Latin mala
gratia. In spite of; notwithstanding. Ob-
solete.
Dome not to dy,
Ne deem thy force by fortune's doom unjust, tº
That hath, maugre her spite, thus low me laid in
dust. * Spenser.
Maugre thy strength, place, youth, and eminence;
Thy valour, and thy heart; thou art a traitor.
y Skakspeare.
I through the ample air, in triumph high,
Shall lead hell captive; maugre hell ! and show
The powers of darkness bound.
Milton’s Paradise Lost.
Maugre all which, 'twas to stand fast,
As long as monarchy should last. Hudibras.
He prophesied of the success of his gospel; which
after his death, immediately took root, and spread
itself every where, maugre all opposition or perse-
cution. Burnet.
MA(VIS, n. s. Fr. mauvis. A speckled bird;
a kind of thrush.
The world that cannot deem of worthy things,
When I do praise her, say I do but flatter;
*
*
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So doth the cuckow, when the mavis sings,
Begins his withess note apace to clear. Spenser.
In birds, kites have a resemblance with hawks,
and black-birds with thrushes and mavises.
Bacon's Natural History.
MAUL, v. a. & n.s. Lat. malleus. See MALL.
To bruise or beat with a heavy weapon, or in a
coarse manner; a heavy hammer.
A man that beareth false witness is a maul, a”
sword, and sharp arrow. Prov. xxv. 18.
Will he who saw the soldier's mutton fist,
And saw thee mauled, appear within the list,
To witness truth 3 Dryden's Juvenal.
Excess is not the only thing by which sin mauls
and breaks men in their health, and the comfortable
enjoyment of themselves thereby, but many are also
brought to a very ill and languishing habit of body,
by mere idleness; and idleness is itself both a great
sin, and the cause of many more. South.
But fate with butchers placed thy priestly stall,
Meek modern faith to murder, hack, and maul.
Pope.
I had some repute for prose;
And, till they drove me out of date,
Could maul a minister of state.
Swift's Miscellany.
MAULE, a province of Chili, bounded on the
north by Calchagua, on the east by the Andes,
on the south-east by Chilan, on the south-west
by Itata, and on the west by the sea. It is 138
miles from north to south, and ninety from east
to west; and is watered by numerous rivers.
On its east border is the volcano Peteroa. It
abounds in cattle and goats.
MAUND, n.s. Saxon maulo. A
MAUNDAY-THURSDAY. S. hand-basket. Maun-
day Thursday is so called, according to Spel-
man, because the king then gives alms (in a
basket) to the poor; according to others, from.
dies mandati, the day on which our Saviour gave
his mandate, That we should love one another.
The Thursday before Good-Friday.
MAUN'DER, n. s. Fr. maudire, of Goth.
MAUN'DERER. łaj Teut: mund, the
mouth. To grumble; a grumbler. -
He made me many visits, maundering as if I had
done him a discourtesy in leaving such an opening.
Wiseman's Surgery.
MAUPERTUIS (Peter Louis Moreau de), a
celebrated French academician, born at St. Malo
in 1698. He was privately educated at St. Malo
till he was in his sixteenth year, when he was
placed under the celebrated M. le Blond, in the
college of la Marche, at Paris.
covered a taste for mathematical studies, particu-
larly geometry; and at the age of twenty entered
into the army. He first served in the Grey mus-
queteers; but in 1720 his father purchased a
commission for him in the regiment of La Roche-
guyon. He remained only five years in the army,
during which time he pursued his mathematical
studies with great vigor. In 1723 he was re-
ceived into the Royal Academy of Sciences, and
read a memoir upon the construction and form of
musical instruments, November 15th, 1724.
He also discovered great knowledge and dex-
terity in observations and experiments upon
animals. He visited London, where he became
a zealous admirer and follower of Sir Isaac New-
ton. He next went to Basil in Switzerland,
He soon dis-
where he formed a friendship with the famous
John Bernouilli, which continued till his death.
On his return to Paris he applied himself to his
favorite studies with greater zeal than ever. By
the Memoirs of the Academy, from 1724 to 1736,
it appears that the most abstruse questions in
geometry, and the relative sciences, were treated.
by him with that elegance, clearness, and pre-
cision, so remarkable in all his writings. In
1736 he was sent by Louis XV. to the polar cir-
cle, to measure a degree, in order to ascertain the
figure of the earth, accompanied by Messrs.
Clairault, Camus, Le Monnier, abbé Outhier,
and professor Celsius at Upsal. This rendered
him so famous, that, after his return, he was ad-
mitted a member of almost every academy in
Europe. In 1740 he was invited by the king of
Prussia to Berlin. He accepted Frederick's
invitation the more readily, that his studies had
not wholly effaced his love for arms. He followed
the king into the field, and was a witness of the
dispositions and operations that preceded the
battle of Molwitz; but was deprived of the glory
of being present, when victory declared in favo,
of his royal patron, by his horse, during the action,
running away with him. He thus fell into the
hands of the enemy, and was but roughly treated
by the Austrian soldiers; but, being carried
prisoner to Vienna, he received the highest
honors from their imperial majesties. From
Vienna he returned to Berlin; but, as the reform
of the academy which the king of Prussia then
meditated was not yet mature, he went again to
Paris, and was chosen in 1742 director of the
Academy of Sciences. In 1743 he was received
into the French Academy; and was the first per-
son who was a member of both the academies at
the same time. M. de Maupertuis again as-
sumed the military character at the siege of Fri-
bourg, and was chosen by marshal Cogny and
count Argenson to carry the news to the French
king of the surrender of that citadel. He returned
to Berlin in 1744, when he married Madame de
Borck, a lady of great beauty and merit, nearly
related to de Borck, then minister of state. This
determined him to settle at Berlin, as he was ex-
tremely attached to his lady, and regarded this
alliance as the most fortunate circumstance of
his life. In 1746 he was declared by the king
president of the Royal Academy of Sciences at
Berlin, and soon after was honored with the
order of Merit. These accumulated honors only
increased his ardor for the sciences. Nor did he
confine himself to mathematical studies; meta-
physics, chemistry, botany, literature, all shared
his attention, and contributed to his fame. But
he had a dark atrabilious humor, which ren-
dered him miserable amidst all his honors and
pleasures. This temperament contributed to
engage him in several quarrels; particularly with
professor Koenig at Franeker, and with Voltaire.
Maupertuis had inserted in the Memoirs of the
Academy of Berlin, for 1746, a discourse upon
the laws of motion; which Koenig not only at-
tacked, but attributed to Leibnitz. . Maupertuis,
enraged at the imputation of plagiarism, engaged
the academy of Berlin to call upon him for his
proof; which Koenig failing to produce, he was
struck out of the academy, of which he was a
MAU
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693
member. Several pamphlets were the conse-,
quence of this; and Voltaire, to the surprise of
the public, engaged against Maupertuis. The
constitution of the latter had long been impaired
by the great fatigues in which his active mind
had involved him, as well as by the amazing .
hardships he had undergone in his northern ex-
pedition. These had brought on a spitting of
blood, which began at least twelve years before
he died. He took several journeys to St. Malo,
for the recovery of his health; and, though he al-
ways received benefit from his native air, yet,
upon his return to Berlin, his disorder returned.
His last journey to France was undertaken in
1757; when he was obliged, soon after his ar-
rival, to quit his favorite retreat at St. Malo, on
account of the danger and confusion which that
town was thrown into by the arrival of the Bri-
tish. He went thence to Bourdeaux, and then
to Toulouse, where he remained seven months.
He then went to Neufchatel, and at length ar-
rived at Basil, in 1758, where he was received by
his friend Bernouilli with the utmost affection.
But, as the winter approached, his disorder re-
turned; and, after languishing several months, he
died in 1759. He wrote in French, 1. The
Figure of the Earth determined; 2. The Measure
of a Degree of the Meridian; 3. A Discourse
on the Parallax of the Moon; 4. A Discourse
on the Figure of the Stars; 5. The Elements of
Geography; 6. Nautical Astronomy; 7. Elements
of Astronomy; 8. A Physical Dissertation on a
White Inhabitant of Africa; 9. An Essay on
Cosmography; 10. Reflections on the Origin of
Languages; 11. An Essay on Moral Philosophy;
12. A Letter on the Progress of the Sciences;
13. An Essay on the Formation of Bodies; 14.
A Eulogium on M. de Montesquieu ; 15. Let-
ters, and other works.
MAUR (St.), SocIETY of, a celebrated society
of Benedictines, instituted under the sanction of
Gregory XV. in 1621. -
MAURA, SANTA, anciently Leucadia and
Neritus, an island in the Ionian Sea, on the west
coast of Greece, nearly opposite the gulf of Arta,
and a few miles north of Cephalonia. It is sepa-
rated from the main land by a shallow strait,
in some places not more than eighty or 100
paces wide. It is about fifty miles in circum-
ference; and has a superficial extent of 120
square miles. Its surface is rugged, particularly
towards the centre; but the soil, though far from
fertile, is not so barren as that of the neighbour-
ing island, Ithaca. The climate is mild, in sum-
mer very hot, and earthquakes are very frequent.
The corn raised does not exceed half the con-
sumption; but olive-oil, wine, citrons, pomegra-
nates, and other fruits, are produced in abun-
dance; and the pastures feed large numbers of
sheep and goats. Game is plentiful, as well as
bees, honey, and wax. The most important pro-
duction of the island, however, is bay or sea-salt,
of which between 5000 and 6000 tons annually
are made. The inhabitants are of the Greek
church. A number of them cross to the neigh-
bouring continent, during a part of the year, in
quest of work. The capital of the same name is
fortified, and nearly surrounded by the sea, hav-
ing an aqueduct raised on arches; and the port
is pretty good. The population is about 6000.
In ancient times, Santa Måura was celebrated
for a temple of Apollo, situated in the south part
of the island. See LEUCADIA and Leuca TA.
It was conquered successively by the Turks and
the Venetians. In 1797 it was ceded, by the
treaty of Campo Formio, to France; but, in
1799, it was declared one of the Seven Islands
composing the Ionian republic, to the assembly
of which it sends four deputies. It has several
good ports; but no town of consequence except
the capital. Population of the island 20,000.
Long. 20° 39' E., lat. 39°4' N.
MAURICE, or MAURITIUs (Tiberius), a na-
tive of Arabissus in Cappadocia, born A.D. 539.
He was descended from an ancient and honorable
Roman family.—After he had filled several offices
in the court of Tiberius II. he obtained the com-
mand of his armies against the Persians. To re-
ward his bravery, the emperor gave him his
daughter Constantina in marriage, and invested
him with the purple, 13th August, 582. The
Persians still continued to make inroads on the
Roman territories, and Maurice sent Philippicus,
his brother-in-law, against them. This general
at first gained several splendid victories, but did
not continue to have a decided superiority.’
Maurice acquired much glory in restoring Chos-
roes II., king of Persia, to the throne, after he
had been deposed by his subjects. The empire
was in his reign harassed by the frequent inroads
of the Arabian tribes. He purchased peace
from them by a pension nearly equal to 100,000
crowns; but these barbarians took frequent op-
portunities to renew the war. In different en-
gagements the Romans destroyed 50,000, and
took 17,000 prisoners. These were restored, on
condition that the king of the Abari should return
all the Roman captives in his dominions. Re-
gardless of his promise, he demanded a ransom
of 10,000 crowns. Maurice, full of indignation,
refused the sum ; and the barbarian put the cap-
tives to the sword. While the emperor, to re-
venge this cruelty, was making preparations
against the Abari, Phocas, who from the rank of
a centurion had attained the highest military pre-
ferments, assumed the purple, and was declared
emperor. He pursued Maurice to Chalcedon,
took him prisoner, condemned him to die, and
massacred his five sons before his eyes. He was
beheaded on the 26th November, 602, in his
sixty-third year, and twentieth of his reign.
Maurice merited a better fate. He restored the
military discipline, humbled the pride of his
enemies, supported the Christian religion by his
laws, and piety by his example.
MAURICE, elector of Saxony, son of Henry the
Pious, was born A. D. 1521. He was early re-
markable for his courage, and during his whole
life was engaged in warlike pursuits. He served
under Charles V., in 1544, against France; and
in 1555 against the league of Smalkalde; with
which, although a protestant, he would have no
connexion. The emperor, as a reward for his
services, in 1547, made him elector of Saxony,
having deprived his cousin John Frederick of that
electorate. But in 1551 he entered into a league
with the elector of Brandenburgh, the count Pa-
latine, the duke of Wirtemburgh, and other
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princes, against the emperor. This league, en-
couraged by Henry II. of France, was more
dangerous than that of Smalkalde. The pretext
for the association was to deliver the Landgrave
of Hesse, whom the emperor kept prisoner.
Maurice and the confederates marched, in 1552,
to the defiles of the Tyrol, and put to flight the
Imperial troops. The emperor and his brother
Ferdinand narrowly escaped, and fled in great
disorder. Charles having retired into Passau,
where he had collected an army, brought the
princes of the league to terms of accommodation.
By the famous peace of Passau, in 1552, the em-
peror granted an amnesty to all who had borne
arms against him from 1546. The protestan.ts
not only obtained the free exercise of their re-
ligion, but were admitted into the imperial cham-
ber, from which they had been excluded since
the victory of Mulberg. Maurice soon after
joined the emperor against the Margrave of
Brandenburgh, who laid waste the German
provinces. He defeated him in 1553, at Silver-
shausen, but died of his wounds two days after.
He was one of the greatest protectors of the Lu-
therans in Germany; and, after he had profited
by the spoils of John Frederick, the chief of the
Protestants, he became himself the leader of the
party, and maintained the balance of power
against the emperor.
MAURIGE of NASSAU, prince of Orange, suc-
ceeded to the government of the Low Countries
after the death of his father William I., who was
killed in 1584 by the fanatic Gerard. The young
prince was then only eighteen; but he was ap-
pointed captain general of the United Provinces;
and, in 1590, Breda submitted to him, and Zut-
phen, Deventer, Hulst, and Nimeguen, in 1591.
He gained several important advantages in 1592,
and made himself master of Gertrudenburg in
1593. He returned to the Netherlands by the
way of Zealand. His fleet was attacked by a
dreadful tempest, in which he lost forty vessels,
and he himself narrowly escaped. Maurice, in-
creasing in reputation, defeated the troops of the
archduke Albert in 1597, and drove the Spaniards
entirely out of Holland. In 1600 he was obliged
to raise the siege of Dunkirk; but he took ample
vengeance on Albert, whom he again defeated in
a pitched battle near Newport. Before the ac-
tion, this great general sent back the ships which
had brought his troops into Flanders: “My
brethren,” said he to his army, “we must conquer
the enemy or drink up the waters of the sea.
Determine for yourselves; I have determined I
will either conquer by your bravery, or I will
never survive the disgrace of being conquered by
men in every respect our inferiors.’ This speech
elevated the spirits of the men, and the victory
was complete. In 1598 Rhinberg, Grave, and
Ecluse, cities in Flanders, submitted to him.
Maurice, however, now aimed at the sovereignty
of Holland, but was opposed in his design by
the patriot Barneveldt. The zeal and activity of
this wise republican cost him his life. He was
an Arminian. Maurice defended Gomar against
Arminius; and, taking advantage of the general
odium under which the latter lay, he had Barne-
veldt condemned in 1619. His death, wholly
owing to the ambition of Maurice, made a deep
impression on the Hollanders. The truce with
Spain being expired, Spinola laid siege to Breda
in 1624; and in six months, after greatslaughter
of his troops, he took the place. Maurice, un-
successful in every attempt to raise the siege,
died of vexation in 1625, with the reputation of
the greatest warrior of his time. “His life,’ says
abbé Raynal, “was almost an uninterrupted
Of
series of battles, sieges, and victories.
moderate abilities in every thing else, he shone
conspicuous in his military capacity.’ Telescopes
were first used by this prince for military purposes.
He was succeeded as stadtholder by Frederick
Henry his brother.
MAURICE (St.), commander of the Theban
legion of Christian martyrs. See THEBAN LEGION.
He was the patron of a celebrated order in the
king of Sardinia's dominions, created by Emanuel
Philibert, duke of Savoy, to reward military
merit, and approved by Gregory XIII. in 1572.
MAURICE (St.), or St. MoRTIZEN, a town of
Switzerland, in the Valais, nineteen miles west
of Sion, between two hills, on the Rhone ; over
which it has a stately stone bridge, from the one
hill to the other. This pass is supposed to be
the ancient Agaunum, where the Theban legion
suffered martyrdom. It is a great thoroughfare
for goods and travellers from Geneva, through
Valais, and over Mount St. Bernard.
MAURice (Rev. Thomas), was born in 1754,
at Hertford, where his father conducted the
school attached to Christ's Hospital. On his
death, in 1763, the widow took a second hus-
band, and the subject of this article was placed
in Christ's Hospital; but his health declining he
was removed to Ealing; and soon after taken
under the patronage of the late Dr. Parr, at
Stanmore. At the age of nineteen he went to
St. John's College, Oxford, and about a year
afterwards removed to UniversityCollege. Having
taken his bachelor's degree, he was ordained to
the curacy of Woodford, Essex, when he mar-
ried, and continued to reside here till 1785, when
he removed to Epping. About this time he de-
voted his attention to the history and antiquities
of India; and in 1790 published A Letter to the
Directors, containing Proposals for a History of
Hindostan. In the year following he printed
the first two volumes of his Indian Antiquities;
succeeded, at intervals, by five more. In 1795
appeared the first volume of the History of Hin-
dostan, which was completed in a third volume
in 1799. In 1802 he published the first volume
of the Modern History of Hindostan; and in
1804 the second. In this last year he was pre-
sented, by the chancellor, to the vicarage of
Cudham, in Kent. He also obtained the pension
that had been bestowed upon Cowper; and was
likewise appointed one of the librarians of the
British Museum. Besides the works already.
mentioned, Mr. Maurice was the author of vari-
ous Poems, Sermons, Tracts on various subjects,
and latterly of his own Memoirs, from which
this account is taken. He died March 30th,
1824, and was buried at Woodford.”
MAURICEAU (Francis), a French surgeon,
who applied with great success and reputation to
the theory and practice of his art for several
years in Paris. He afterwards confined himself
to the disorders of pregnant women, and was at
the head of all the operators in his way. His
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Observations sur la Grossesse et sur l'Accouche-
ment des Femmes, sur leurs Maladies, et celles
des Enfans Nouveaux, 1694, in 4to., is reckoned
an excellent work, and has been translated into
German, Flemish, Italian, and English, and by
the author himself into Latin. He published
some supplementary pieces on the same subject;
and died in Paris in 1709. -
MAURITANIA, an ancient kingdom of
Africa, bounded on the west by the Atlantic; on
the south by Getulia, or Libya Interior; and on
the north by the Mediterranean; and compre-
hending the greater part of the kingdoms of Fez
and Morocco. Its ancient limits are not exactly
mentioned by any historian. This country was
originally inhabited by a people called Mauri,
concerning the etymology of which name authors
are not agreed. From the Jerusalem Targum it
appears that part of the Mauri may be deemed
the offspring of Lud, the son of Misraim, as his
descendants, mentioned Gen. x., are there called
"Stºntº, Mauri, or Mauritani. It is certain
that this region, as well as the others east of it,
had many colonies planted in it by the Phoeni-
cians. Procopius tells us that, in his time, two
pillars of white stone were to be seen there, with
the following inscription, in the Phoenician lan-
guage and character, upon them : “We are the
Canaanites that fled from Joshua, the son of
Nun, that notorious robber.” Ibnu Rachic, or
Ibnu Raquig, an African writer cited by Leo,
together with Evagrius and Nicephorus Callistus,
assert the same thing. The earliest prince of Mau-
ritania, mentioned in history, is Neptune; and
next to him were Atlas and Antaeus, his two
sons, both famous in the Grecian fables on ac-
count of their wars with Hercules. See ANTEUs,
and ATLAS. Without adopting every particular
of Sir Isaac Newton's System, it appears plain
from scripture, that neither the western extremity
of Libya, nor even the other parts of that region,
could have been so well peopled before the time
of David or Solomon, as to have sent a numerous
army to invade Egypt. For Egypt and Phoe-
nicia, whence the greatest part of the ancestors
of the Libyans came, and which were much
nearer the place whence the first dispersion of
mankind was made, could not themselves have
been greatly overstocked with inhabitants any
considerable time before the reign of Saul. And
that such an invasion happened in the reign of
Neptune, or his son Antaeus, has been fully
evinced by this most excellent chronologer.
From the defeat of Antaeus nothing remarkable
occurs in the history of Mauritania till the times
of the Romans, who at last brought the whole
kingdom under their jurisdiction. See Rome.
MAURITANIANS, the natives of Mauritania.
According to Ptolemy, they were divided into
several cantons or tribes. The Metagonitoe were
seated near the straits of Hercules, now those of
Gibraltar. The Saccosii, or Cocosii, occupied
the coast of the Iberian Sea. Under these two
petty nations the Masices, Verues, and Verbicae
or Vervicae, were settled. The Salisae, or Salinsae,
were situated lower, towards the ocean; and still
more to the south the Volubiliani. The Mau-
rensii and Herpiditani possessed the east part of
this country, which was terminated by the
Mulucha. The Angaucani or Jangacaucani,
Nectiberes, Zagrensii; Baniubae, and Vacuntaº,
extended themselves from the south foot of
Ptolemy's Atlas Minor to his Atlas Major. Pliny
mentions the Baniurae, whom Harduin takes to
be Ptolemy's Baniubae; and Mela the Atlantes,
whom he represents as possessed of the western
parts of this district. With regard to the customs,
&c., of this people, Hyginus insinuates that they
fought only with clubs, till one Belus, the son
of Neptune, taught them the use of the sword.
Sir Isaac Newton makes this Belus the same
with Sesostris, king of Egypt, who overran a
great part of the then known world. All per-
sons of distinction in Mauritania. went richly
attired, wearing much gold and silver in their
clothes. They took great pains in cleansing their
teeth, and curled their hair in an elegant man-
ner. They combed their beards, which were
very long, and always had their nails pared
close. When they walked out in any numbers,
they never touched one another, for fear of discon-
certing their curls. The Mauritanian infantry,
in time of action, used shields made of elephants’
skins, and were clad in skins of lions, leopards,
and bears, which they kept on night and day.
The cavalry were armed with broad short lances,
and carried also shields of the same kind. They
used no saddles. Their horses were small and
Swift, had wooden collars about their necks, and
were so much under the command of their
riders that they would follow them like dogs.
The habit of the horsemen was much the same
with that of the foot. The Phutaei, of whom the
Mauritanians were a branch, were remarkable
for their shields, and the excellent use they made
of them, as we learn from Homer, Xenophon,
and Herodotus, who intimates that the shield and
helmet came from them to the Greeks. Notwith-
standing the fertility of their soil, the poorer
Mauritanians never manured their ground, being
strangers to husbandry; but roved about the
country, in a wild savage manner, like the
ancient Scythians and Arabs. They had mapa-
lia, or small tents; and their food was corn, herb-
age, &c., which they often ate green without any
preparation; being destitute of wine, oil, and all
the elegancies as well as many necessaries of
life. Their habit was the same in summer and
winter, consisting chiefly of an old, tattered,
thick garment, and over it a coarse rough tunic
According to Horace, the Mauritanians shot
poisoned arrows; and this is countenanced by
Herodian and IElian, who say they were in such
continual danger from wild beasts, that they
durst not stir out of their tents without their ar-
rows or darts. They sacrificed human victims
to their deities, as did the Phoenicians, Cartha-
ginians, &c. They were early addicted to magic,
sorcery, divination, &c. Cicero and Pliny say
that Atlas was the inventor of astrology, and the
doctrine of the sphere, i.e. he first introduced
them into Mauritania. This, according to Dio-
dorus Siculus, gave rise to the fable of Atlas's
bearing the heavens upon his shoulders. He
adds, that Atlas instructed Hercules in the doc-
trine of the sphere and astrology, or rather astro-
nomy; who afterwards brought these sciences
into Greece. +
696
M A U R H T I U. S
MAURITIA, the ginkgo, or maiden-hair tree,
a genus of the order of palmae : CAL. of the
male monophyllous: coR. monopetalous, with
six stamina. It is a native of Japan, where it is
named ginan and itsio. It rises with a long,
erect, thick, and branched stem, to the size of a
walnut tree. The bark is ash-colored, the wood
brittle and smooth, the pith soft and fungous.
The leaves are large, expanded from a narrow
bottom into the figure of a maiden-hair leaf, un-
equally parted, streaked, without fibres; both
surfaces having the same appearance, and sup-
ported upon foot-stalks, which are compressed
upon the upper surface, and extended into the
leaf. From the uppermost shoots hang the
flowers in long catkins filled with the fertilising
powder; to which succeeds the fruit, adhering
to a long fleshy pedicle, which proceeds
from the bosom of the leaves. This fruit is
round, of the appearance and size of a damask
plum. The substance surrounding it is fleshy,
juicy, white, very harsh, and adheres so firmly
to the enclosed nut as not to be separated from
it, except by putrefaction. The nut, termed
gineau, resembles the pistachia nut, especially a
Persian species named bergjes pistai; but is al-
most double in size, and of the figure of an
apricot stone. The shell is somewhat white,
woody, and brittle; and encloses a white loose
kernel, having the sweetness cf an almond along
with a degree of harshness. These kernels are
said to promote digestion, and to give relief in
surfeits; whence they make part of the dessert
in great feasts. They seem to be very hardy, and
thrive in this country in the open air.
MAURITIUS, or the Isle of France, an
island of the Indian Ocean, 600 miles east of
Madagascar, was discovered by the Portuguese in
1500, and named Acerno, or the Isle of Swans;
but, being neglected by them, the Dutch took
possession of it in 1598, and named it Mauritius,
after their stadtholder, prince Maurice. It was
not, however, till 1640 that they formed an
establishment on it at Grosport, but in 1712
they again abandoned it; and, three years after,
the French East India Company formed an
establishment at Port Louis, and gave the island
its present name. In 1764 the company ceded it,
together with the Isle of Bourbon, to the crown.
Its greatest benefactor was the French gover-
nor de la Bourdonnais, who fortified it in such
a manner as to be considered at the time almost
impregnable, and rendered it the chief naval
station of the French in the Indian seas. He also
encouraged cultivation, and introduced coffee,
sugar, cloves, nutmegs, and cinnamon. It pre-
served its importance after we had annihilated
the French power on the continent of India, and
became then a grand privateering station against
the British shipping. It was calculated that, in
ten years, prizes to the value of £2,500,000 had
been taken and carried into Mauritius. The ves-
sels, after being emptied of their goods, were
commonly sold to the Arabs. At length, in 1810,
an expedition was despatched against it, when
it was found incapable of making that defence
which had been anticipated. After a short resist-
ance the governor offered terms of capitulation,
and the place was surrendered, with six frigates,
three East Indiamen, and twenty-four large mer-
chant vessels. This settlement was retained at
the peace, and may now be considered as a set-
tled British colony. -
This island is fourteen leagues long, and eight
broad, being of an irregular oval figure, contain-
ing 340,000 square acres, and is surrounded by
coral reefs and islets. The island gradually rises
from the shore towards the centre of the island,
where is a woody plain, elevated 1500 feet above
the level of the sea. In the midst of this plain
is a sharp conical mountain, called Le Piton de
Milieu de l'Isle. There are several other distinct
mountains, the principal of which is named Piter
Boot, surmounted by an enormous and inac-
cessible rock, the elevation being 3000 feet:
its base is surrounded by marshes, whence the
principal rivers of the island issue. These rivers
have, however, sensibly diminished by the indis-
criminate destruction of the forests that clothed
the sides of the hills, so that the island, which
was formerly profusely watered, is now, particu-
larly on the north, where the rivulets are all
dried up, almost in want of it. There are some
lakes among the mountains. -
The vegetable productions of the island are
extremely numerous, and afford a vast harvest
to a botanist: it is said, however, that one-half
the flora of the island is composed of ferns and
cryptogams. Though, in general, the soil is less
fertile than that of Bourbon, and is every where
covered with rocks that preclude the use of the
plough, yet a considerable quantity of land is in
cultivation, producing coffee, cotton, indigo,
sugar, and some rice in the swampy spots.
The wild animals of the islands are, deer,
hedge-hogs, monkeys, and rats of various kinds.
The horned cattle are of the small Madagascar
breed, with humps; and the horses, of Arabian
extraction, much degenerated.
Birds are not numerous, and are chiefly of the
smaller species. Some of them are foreigners,
particularly the calfat, which is said to be pro-
pagated from some individual escaped from cap-
tivity, and the martin, purposely introduced
from the Philippines to destroy the insects which
devoured the vegetables. It has completely
succeeded in extirpating caterpillars, grass-
hoppers, &c., but these birds have also multi-
plied so prodigiously as to be almost as destruc-
tive as the insects to the crops; hence every
proprietor is obliged to present a certain number
of their heads, as well as those of sparrows, to
the magistrates annually.
The population of the island in
Whites. People of color. Slaves.
1763 was 3000 500 . 15,000
1776 . 3431 . 1190 .. 25,154
1806 - 7000 . 7000 . 70,000
Many of the slaves have escaped to the moun-
tains of the interior, where they live wild.
The produce of the island is estimated as fol-
lows:–
Coffee . 600,000 lbs.
Cotton .. 500,000
Indigo 300,000
Sugar 5,000,000
Cloves . 20,000
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The island' is divided into twelve quarters,
viz. Port Louis, Poudre d'Or, Pamplemousses
(celebrated by the pen of St. Pierre), Flac, La
Riviere des Ramparts, Trois Islets, Gros Port,
Savannah, the military quarter (in the centre of
the island and almost uninhabited and unculti-
vated), Moka, the Plains of Willems, and the
Plains of St. Pierre. g
: Port Louis, in the revolution called Port Li-
berty, Port North-west, and Port Napoleon, is
the only town in the island: it contains about
5000 whites, and double that number of people
of color. The houses are chiefly of wood, and
few of them have more than the ground floor, in
consequence of the heavy storms the island is
subject to. The entrance of the port is between
two reefs, running out from each point, and is
so narrow that but one vessel can be warped or
towed in at a time; for the south-east wind,
blowing almost constantly, prevents their sailing
in, except occasionally when the south-west wind
serves for an hour or two ; and a light air from
the north-west also sometimes prevails, but this
is very precarious. The port is capable of hold-
ing about fifty ships. Cooper's Island off the
North Point of the entrance of the port, to
which it is joined by an artificial causeway 800
feet long, is nearly level with the water, and is
strongly fortified, but commanded by batteries
on the main.
Port Bourbon, the ancient Gros Port, at the
revolution named Port South-east, and since
Port Imperial, is defended by Isle Passe, a coral
rock, one league off shore, on which is a circular
battery and barracks. This island has no fresh
Water. ***
Port de la Savannah, or Souillac, on the south
is a tolerable road defended by a battery. Great
Black River, on the south-west, has a good road
before it, within coral reefs. It is defended by
some batteries, but has not water for large ships
within gun-shot of them. Small craft only can
enter the river.
Off the north end of the Isle of France are
several small volcanic isles, viz. Coin de Mire,
three miles and a half north of Cape Malheureux
(the north point of the island), with a safe chan-
nel between : this island is entirely composed of
beds of lava. Flat Island, north of Coin du
Mire, is less elevated than the others; the
shore is a white calcareous stone, and the
other parts of a reddish color: on it is the ap-
pearance of a volcanic crater. Pigeon-House
Island, a little west of Flat Island, is an enor-
mous lump of basaltic lava, of a reddish-brown
color. »
Round Island rises in the form of a cone,
about 200 feet high; its shores are rugged, pre-
cipitous, and inaccessible. Serpent's Island, the
northernmost, is five leagues distant from the
main. It has its name from small serpents being
, said to be found on it, although this reptile is
unknown in the Isle of France, or any of the
surrounding islets. -
The administration of the isles of France and
Bourbon was confided to a governor-general re-
siding at the former island. Roderigue, or Diego
Rays, is a dependency of the Isle of France,
from which it is distant 100 leagues eastward.
The south-west point of Mauritius is in long.
57° 16' E, lat. 20° 27' S. The north-east point
is in long. 57° 35' E., lat. 19° 53° S.
MAURUS (Terentianus), a Latin poet and
grammarian, who flourished underTrajan, Adrian,
and the Antonines. He was governor of Syene
in Upper Egypt about A. D. 140. He wrote an
elegant poem, De Literis, Syllabis, Pedibus, et
Metris Horatii; published by Mycillus at Franc-
fort, in 1584, 8vo.; and by Mattaire in his Cor-
pus Poetarum.
MAURY (Jean Siffrein), a modern French
cardinal, was born in 1746 at Vabees, in the an-
cient comté of Venaisson. He studied at Lyons,
and, on entering into orders, became a celebrated
preacher at Paris, and obtained a place in the
academy, and the government of an abbey. When
the revolution broke out, he was one of the re-
presentatives of the clergy in the states-general,
where he distinguished himself by his eloquence
in behalf of his order, and of royalty. On the
dissolution of the constituent assembly, he went
to Italy, where he became bishop of Nicaea, and in
1799 was made a cardinal. In 1807 he tendered
his submission to Buonaparte, who in 1810 ap-
pointed him archbishop of Paris. The cardinal
was obliged to leave France, it is said, on the fall
of the emperor, and died at Rome in 1817. He
published several works, the best of which is
An Essay on Eloquence.
MAUSOLE'UM, n. s. Fr. mausolée ; Latin
mausoleum. A name first given to a stately monu-
ment erected by his queen Artimesia to her hus-
band Mausolus, king of Caria; a pompous
funeral monument.
Mausolus, the name of a king of Caria, to whom
Artemisia, his widow, erected a most stately monu-
ment, that has since been reckoned among the seven
wonders of the world; calling it from his name mau-
soleum. It was sixty-three feet long, almost 41 |
feet in compass, and about thirty-five feet high, sur-
rounded with thirty-six columns, that were beautified
in a wonderful manner. Pliny has described it, lib.
xxxvi. Dr. A. Rees.
MAW, n.s. Y Sax. maga; Gothic
MAw'KISH, adj. | maga; Swedish mage;
MAw'KISHNEss, n.s. UTeut. magen. The sto-
MAw'MET, mach of animals and
MAw'MISH, adj. |. of birds; used
MAw'worM, n.s. J contemptuously of the
human stomach. Mawkish and mawmish, apt
to excite satiety or loathing; nauseous. Mawmet
(see MAMMET), a puppet, or idol. Maw-worm,
a worm often found in the stomach.
So oft in feasts with costly changes clad,
To crammed maws a sprat new stomach brings.
Sidney.
We have heats of dungs, and of bellies and maws
of living creatures, and of their bloods. Bacon.
This hard meat is for stronger maws. Bp. Hall.
Ordinary gut-worms loosen, and slide off from the
intern tunick of the guts, and frequently creep into
the stomach for nutriment, being attracted thither by
the sweet chyle; whence they are called stomach or
7720,1)-100T/77S. Harvey on Consumptions.
Though plenteous, all too little seems, -
To stuff this maw, this vast unhidebound corpse.
& Milton.
The serpent, who his maw obscene had filled,
The branches in his curled embraces held. Dryden.
It is one of the most nauseous, mawmish mortifica-
tions, for a man to have to do with a punctual, finical
fop. r 4 r"
MAX
MAY
698
Granivorous birds have the mechanism of a mill ;
their maw is the hopper which holds and softens the
grain, letting it down by degrees into the stomach,
where it is ground by two strong muscles; in which
action they are assisted by small stones, which they
swallow for the purpose. * Arbuthnot.
Flow, Welsted! flow, like thine inspirer beer,
So sweetly mawkish, and so smoothly dull. Pope.
MAWES (St.), a borough and market-town of
Cornwall, on the east side of Falmouth Haven.
Though but a hamlet of the parish of St. Just,
two miles off, it has sent members to parliament
ever since 1562, who are returned by its mayor
or portreve. It consists of one street, under a
hill, fronting the sea, and its inhabitants subsist
by fishing. King Henry VIII. built a castle
here, over against Pendennis, for the security of
Falmouth Haven. A new chapel has been erect-
ed here, at the expense of the marquis of Buck-
ingham. It has a governor, a deputy, and two
gunners, with a platform of guns; and a market
on Friday. • *
MAXENTIUS (Marcus Aurelius Valerius),
son of the emperor Maximianus Herculeus, was,
by the voluntary abdication of Dioclesian, and
of his father, raised to the purple, A. D. 306.
He afterwards incited his father to re-assume his
imperial authority: and perfidiously destroyed
Severus. His successes were impeded by Gale-
rius Maximianus, who opposed him with a pow-
erful force; but the defeat of Galerius restored
peace to Italy: and Maxentius went into Africa,
where he rendered himself odious by his cruelty
and oppression. He soon after returned to
Rome, but, being defeated by Constantine ſled
back to the city; but, the bridge over the Tiber
giving way, he fell into the river, and was drown-
ed, A. D. 312. His cowardice and luxuries were
as conspicuous as his cruelties. e
MAXILLAR, adj. Lat. marillaris. Be-
MAx'ILLARY. łoº to the jaw-bone.
. The greatest quantity of hard substance continued
is toward the head; there is the skull, the teeth, and
the marillary bones. Bacon.
MAXIM, n. s. Fr. marime; Lat. maximum.
An axiom ; a great or general principle a lead-
ing truth. -
This mazim out of love I teach. Shakspeare.
It is a maxim in state, that all countries of new
acquest, till settled, are rather matters of burden
than strength. Bacon.
Yet, as in duty bound, they serve him on;
Nor ease, nor wealth, nor life itself regard,
For ’tis their maxim, love is love's reward.
Dryden.
That the temper, the sentiments, the morality of
men, is influenced by the example and disposition of
those they converse with, is a reflexion which has
long since passed into proverbs, and been ranked
among the standing maxims of human wisdom.
Bogers.
It is hard to form a maxim against which an ex-
ception is not ready to start up; so, when the minis-
ter grows rich, the public is proportionably poor, as
in a private family, the steward always thrives the
8stest when the lord is running out. Swift.
It may be prudent for a writer, who apprehends
that he shall not enforce his own murim s by his do-
mestic character, to conceal his name, that he may
not injure them. * Johnson.
MAXIMIANUS (Galerius Valerius), a shep-
herd of Dacia, and afterwards a soldier, who was
raised by Dioclesian, who gave him his daughter
in marriage, to the imperial dignity. He con-
quered the Goths, Dalmatians, and Persians.
He proved a cruel tyrant; persecuted the Chris-
tians; and died miserably A.D. 311. See RomE.
MAXIMILIAN I., emperor of Germany,
signalised himself against the French, while he
was king of the Romans, and after he was
emperor entered into the army of Henry VIII. of
England as a volunteer against that nation. He
was a protector of learned men, änd abolished an
iniquitous tribunal styled Judicium occultum
Westphalia. He composed some poems, and
Memoirs of his own life. He died in 1519, aged
sixty. See GERMANY. -
MAXIMINUS (Caius Julius Verus), the son
of a Thracian peasant, who, having displayed great
bravery as a soldier, rose to the highest offices,
after which he promoted a sedition among the
soldiers against the emperor Alexander Severus,
and upon his murder was elected in his place,
A.D. 325. But, proving a cruel tyrant, he was
assassinated by his soldiers near Aquileia, A. D.
236. See Rom E. He is said to have been eight
feet high; and his limbs, strength, and voracious
appetite, in proportion.
MAXIMUS, a celebrated Cynic philosopher
and magician of Ephesus. He instructed the
emperor Julian in magic ; and, according to some
historians, from his conversation and company
the apostasy of Julian originated; as he not only
visited him, but even submitted his writings to
his critical inspection. Maximus, however, re-
fused to live in the court of Julian, who, far from
being displeased, appointed him high pontiff in
Lydia, an office which he discharged with great
moderation and justice. When Julian went into
the east, the magician promised him success, and
that his conquests would be more numerous and
extensive than those of Alexander. He per-
suaded his imperial pupil, that, according to the
doctrine of metempsychosis, his body was ani-
mated by the soul of Alexander. After the death
of Julian, Maximus was almost sacrificed to the
fury of the soldiers; but was saved by his friends,
and he retired to Constantinople. He was ac-
cused of magical practices, before the emperor
Valens, and beheaded at Ephesus, A. D. 366.
He wrote some philosophical and rhetorical
treatises, some of which were dedicated to Julian.
They are all now lost. -
MAY, aur. v. Q Preterite might. Sax. mage,
MAY-BE. ; magan; Teut. moge ; Goth.
ma, meiga, to have power. To be permitted ; be
at liberty; be possible; be by chance; expres-
sing desire: may-be signifies perhaps; “it may
be that;' perchance.
Sin that I may not seen your Emelie,
I n'am but ded; ther n’ is no remedie.
Chaucer. Cant. Tales.
May-be that better reason will assuage $
The rash revenger's heart, words well disposed
Have secret power tº appease inflamed rage.
Faerie Queene.
May-be the amorous count solicits her
In the unlawful purpose. Shakspeare.
Be the workmen what they may be, let us speak of
the work. Bacon’s Essays.
|MAY
MAY
699
This also tendeth to no more but what the king
may do : for what he inay do is of two kinds; what
he may do as just, and what he may do as possible.
Bacon.
What they offer is bare may-be and shift, and
scarce ever amounts to a tolerable reason. Creech.
Its words are not like the words of a wise man,
who is wary and careful that he slip not into mis-
take, interposing therefore his may-be's and per-
chances. Barrow.
May you live happily, and long, for the service of
your country. Dryden's Dedication to the Æneid.
'Tis nothing yet, yet all thou hast to give;
Then add those may-be years thou hast to live.
Dryden.
He that is sent out to travel, with the thoughts of
a man designing to improve himself, may get into
the conversation of persons of distinction. •
Locke on Education.
How old may Phillis be, you ask,
Whose beauty thus all hearts engages
To answer is no easy task,
For she has really got two ages. Prior.
Make the most of life you may. Bourne.
MAY, m. s. & v. n.) Lat. Maius. The fifth
MAY-BUG, n. s. month of the year; hence
MAY-DAY, the early or spring time
MAY-FLoweR, of life: to may is to sport,
MAY-FLY, >as in May-time: May-bug,
MAY-GAME, a chaffer: May-day, the
MAY-LILY, first of May: May-flower,
MAY-Pole, a plant: May-fly, an in-
MAY-weFD. J sect: May-lily, the lily of
the valley: May-weed, a species of camomile :
May-game and May-pole, a sport of the month
of May; a pole often danced round on the first
of that month. º
The Maie-weed doth burne, and the thistle doth
freat,
The fitches pull downward both rie and the wheat.
Tusser.
When merry May first early calls the morn,
With merry maids a maying they do go, Sidney.
In the month of May the citizens of London (of
all estates) lightly in every parish, or sometimes two
or three parishes joining together, had their several
mayings, and did fetch in May-poles.
Stowe's London.
Maids are May when they are maids,
But the sky changes when they are wives.
Shakspeare.
My liege
Is in the very May-morn of his youth,
Ripe for exploits. Id. Henry V.
'Tis as much impossible,
Unless we swept them from the door with cannons,
To scatter 'em, as 'tis to make 'em sleep
On May-day morning. Shakspeare.
The plague, they report, hath a scent of the May-
flower. Bacon's Natural History.’
The king this while, though he seemed to account
of the designs of Perkins but as a May-game, yet had
given order for the watching of beacons upon the
Coasts. Bacon.
May must be drawn with a sweet and amiable
countenance, clad in a robe of white and green, em-
broidered with daffodils, hawthorns, and blue-bottles.
Peacham.
Hail! bounteous May, that dost inspire
Mirth and youth, and warm desire;
Woods and groves are of thy dressing,
Hill and dale doth boast thy blessing. Milton.
Cupid with Aurora playing,
As he met her once a maying. Id.
He loves the May-fly, which is bred of the cod-
worm or caddis. Walton's Angler.
Like early lovers, whose unpractised hearts
Were long the May-game of malicious arts,
When once they find their jealousies were vain,
With double heat renew their fires again.
3. Dryden.
Amid the area wide she took her stand;
Where the tall May-pole once o'er-looked the strand.
- Pope.
The sweeping blast, the sky o'ercast,
The joyless winter-day,
Let others fear, to me more dear -
Than all the pride of May. Burns.
MAY is the fifth month in the year, reckoning
from January : and the third, counting the year
to begin with March, as the Romans anciently
did. It was called Maius by Romulus, in re-
spect to the senators and nobles of his city, who
were named majores; as the following month
was called Junius, in honor of the young men of
Rome, in honorem juniorum, who served him in
the war. Some think, however, that it was thus
called from Maia, the mother of Mercury, to
whom they offered sacrifice on the first day of it.
In this month the sun enters Gemini, and the
plants of the earth in general begin to flower.—
This month was esteemed favorable to love; and
yet the ancients look on it as an unhappy month
for marriage. The original reason may perhaps
be referred to the feast of the Lemures, which
was held in it. Ovid alludes to it in the fifth
book of his Fasti. - . . .
MAY, or MAIUs (John Henry), a Lutheran
divine, born at Pfortzheim, in 1653. He was
professor of Hebrew and oriental languages, and
minister at Giessan, where he died in 1719. He
published, 1. Historia Animalium Scripturae
Sacrae: 2. Vita Joannis Reuchlini: 3. Synopsis
Theologiae Symbolicae: 4. Historia Reformati-
onis Lutheri: and other works. . . .
MAY (Thomas), an English poet and historian
of the seventeenth century, born of an ancient
but decayed family in Sussex. He was educated
at Cambridge, and afterwards removed to Lon-
don, where he contracted a friendship with Se-
veral eminent persons. While he resided at
court, he wrote five plays, which are extant. In
1622 he published a translation of Virgil's Geor-
gics, with annotations; in 1625 a poem on Ed-
ward III., and a translation of Lucan's Pharsalia,
which poem he continued down to the death of
Julius Caesar, both in Latin and English verse.
Upon the breaking out of the civil wars, he ad-
hered to the parliament; and in 1647 he pub-
lished The History of the Parliament of England,
which began November 3d, MDCXL., with a
short and necessary view of some precedent
years. In 1649 he published. Historiae Parlia-
menti Angliae Breviarium, in three parts, which
he afterwards translated into English. He wrote
the History of Henry II. in English verse. He
died in 1650, and his death was imputed to his
having tied his night cap too close, and thus oc-
casioned his suffocation; but the facetious
Andrew Marvel, in a poem of 100 lines, makes
him a martyr of Bacchus. Soon after the resto-
ration, his body, with those of several others, was
dug up, and buried in a pit in St. Margaret's
church-yard; and his monument, which was
700
M A Y E N N E.
erected by the appointment of parliament, was
taken down and thrown aside.
MAY, a small island of Scotland, in the frith
of Forth, six miles south from the nearest part
of the coast is about one mile long, and three-
quarters of a mile broad. It has a well of fine
water, a small lake, and excellent pasturage for
sheep. Here are the ruins of a priory, which
formerly belonged to the abbey of Pittenweem;
and a chapel dedicated to St. Adrian, who was
killed by the Danes in 870, and buried in this
place. An excellent light-house has lately been
erected upon it, by the commissioners of northern
lights, who in 1816 rebuilt the tower and fitted
it up with reflectors. It abounds with sea-fowl,
and rabbits.
MAYENNE, DEPARTMENT of THE, France, is
formed out of the former province of Bas Maine,
and takes its name from the river, which waters
it from north to south. The principal place of
this prefecture is Laval; it is divided into three
arrondissements; Laval, containing 111,228 in-
habitants; Chateau-Gontier, 72,138; and May-
enne 160,526, being a total population of
343,892 souls, on an area of 2349 square miles.
It is subdivided into twenty-seven cantons, and
288 communes, yielding a territorial revenue of
13,093,000 francs, and forms a part of the fourth
military division, is in the diocese of Mans, and
belongs to the royal court of Angers. It further
comprises three electoral arrondissements, which
send five members to the chamber of deputies.
This department is bounded by those of the
Manche, and the Orne, on the north ; by that of
the Sarthe on the east; by the Maine-et-Loire
on the south; and on the west by the Ille-et-Vi-
laine.
The face of the country is diversified with
cultivated plains, woody mountains, extensive
forests, and uncultivated and sandy heaths.
There are few natural meadows, yet by the means
of the fallows the inhabitants rear a great num-
ber of cattle, which constitute their chief riches.
The valleys, crossed by the Sarthe and the May-
enne, produce a considerable quantity of March
wheat, though the coldness of the soil does not
permit the growth of winter wheat. Flax and
hemp, and abundance of fruit trees, particularly
apples, are cultivated here, and not less than
600,000 hectolites of cider are made annually.
There are also some vineyards producing tolera-
bly good wines. The soil, mostly sandy, is cul-
tivated with horses, and generally yields suffi-
cient for the inhabitants. It comprises 25,781
hectars of forests chiefly oak, beech, and chestnut,
and 600 hectars of vineyards, at an average
produce of twenty-four francs seventy-eight cen-
times per hectar of cultivated land.
Besides the productions already mentioned
this district yields very fine rye, barley, oats,
buckwheat, &c.; horses of a small size, good
milch cows, numerous flocks of sheep, whose
wool is highly esteemed, and a great quantity of
bees. There are also iron mines, and quarries
of marble, freestone, and slate. The inhabitants
carry on manufactures of linen, calicoes, handker-
chiefs, table-cloths, serges, thread, and cotton
yarn; they have also bleaching grounds, blast
furnaces, wire forges, and paper-mills. The
trade consists chiefly in the productions already
referred to, as well as honey, wax, poultry and
wool. -
This department is watered by the Mayenne,
which is navigable, the Ernée, the Jouane, the
Colmont, the Vicoin, the Vaise, the Oudon, and
the Erve. . The great roads of Rennes, Alençon,
Mans, and Tours, traverse it in different direc-
tions.
MAYENNE, an ancient and fine town of the
department of this name, in France, the chief
place of a subprefecture, having a lower court of
judicature, a tribunal of commerce, and a board
of manufactures. It is a post town, containing
about 9556 inhabitants. Situated on the decli-
vities of two hills, which rise from the banks of
the Mayenne : it is irregularly built, its streets
being steep and close; but the general appear-
ance of it is pleasing. There are two public
squares, one of which is adorned with a hand-
some fountain. In ancient times it was a ver
strong town, defended by considerable fortifica-
tions, and a castle which was considered im-
pregnable. It was taken by the English in 1425
after a siege of three months. *
The inhabitants manufacture linen, hempen
and cotton cloths, handkerchiefs, and calicoes;
and have cotton spinning factories, bleaching
grounds, dye-houses, and many forges in the
neighbourhood. They also carry on a consider-
able trade in these articles, and in wine, brandy,
and iron, near the town. In a very picturesque
situation on the right bank of the river, stands
the ancient seat of the duke of Mayenne. This
place is about 126 miles west of Paris, twenty-
four N. N. E. of Laval, and forty-three W. S. W.
of Alençon.
MAYENNE, a river of France, which rises at
the village of Maine, near Lignieres-la-Doucelle,
in the arrondissement of Alençon, department of
the Orne, France. It then passes on to Coup-
train, Ambrieres, Mayenne, Laval, Chateau-
Gontier, and Angers, and falls into the Loire at
Bouche Maine, a little below Pont-de-Cé. It
is navigable as far as St. Jean for rafts; and for
boats as far as Laval. This river serves for the
conveyance of corn, wine, salt, hemp, flax, tim-
ber, coal, earthenware, resin, caulking stuff,
pitch, building materials, &c. On its junction
with the Sarthe it takes the name of the Maine,
and its whole course is about 125 miles, receiv-
ing on its way the Ernée, the Oudon, the Sarthe,
and several other rivers. -
MAYER (John Frederick), a Lutheran divine,
born at Leipsic, in 1650. He was superintendant
of the churches in Pomerania, and professor at
Stettin. He wrote several tracts against Popery;
but his principal work is his Bibliotheca Biblica;
Rostock, 1713. He died in 1712.
MAYERNE (Louis de), a celebrated French
writer of the sixteenth century. He wrote, 1. The
General History of Spain: 2. Monarchie Aristo-
Democratique, dedicated to the states general.
He was a zealous protestant, and suffered much
on account of his religion. He therefore retired
to Geneva in 1572. He married Louisa Masson,
daughter of Anthony Le Masson, treasurer of the
army in Piedmont, to Francis I, and Henry II.
His son Sir Theodore de MAYERNE, M. D.
*
MAY
MAY
701
and baron of Aulbone, was born in 1573. He
studied physic at Montpelier, where he took his
degrees; and was made physician in ordinary to
Henry IV., who promised to promote him, pro-
vided he would change his religion. But he
chose rather to accept of an invitation from king
James I., of Britain, who made him first physi-
cian to himself and his queen, in which office he
served the royal family till he died at Chelsea,
in 1655. His works were printed at London, in
folio, 1700; and contain, 1. Consilia, Epistolæ,
et. Observationes; 2. Pharmacopoeia, variaeque
Medicamentorum formulae. He wrote also a
Dispensatory, and an Apology for his practice,
against the faculty at Paris.
MAYNE (Jasper), D.D., an eminent Eng-
lish poet and divine in the seventeenth century,
who was educated at Oxford. While king
Charles I. resided at Oxford, he was one of the
divines appointed to preach before him. He
published in 1647 a piece entitled Ox\opaxia,
or, The people's war examined according to the
principles of reason and scripture. In 1648 he
was deprived of his studentship at Christ
Church, and two livings; but was restored with
king Charles II., who made him his chaplain,
and archdeacon of Chichester; which posts he
held till he died. Dr. Mayne was held in high
esteem, both as a preacher and a man of strict
virtue and exemplary behaviour. In his younger
years he wrote two plays, viz. 1. Amorous War,
a tragi-comedy; 2. The City Match, a comedy;
printed in Dodsley's collection, vol. 10. He also
published a poem upon the naval victory by the
duke of York over the Dutch, printed in 1665,
and translated from the Greek part of Lucian's
Dialogues. ;
MAYNWARING (Arthur), an eminent poli-
tical writer of the eighteenth century. He stu-
died several years at Oxford, and then went to
Cheshire, where he lived some time with his
uncle Mr. Francis Cholmondely, a gentleman
attached to the house of Stuart. Here he pro-
secuted his studies with great vigor; and coming
up to London applied to the study of the law.
He had been hitherto very zealous in anti-revo-
lutional principles, and wrote several pieces in
favor of king James II. : but, after being intro-
duced to the duke of Somerset and the earls of
Dorset and Burlington, began to entertain very
different notions in politics. His father left him
an estate of nearly £800 a year, but so incumber-
ed with mortgages that the interest amounted to
almost as much as the revenue. After the peace
he went to Paris, where he became acquainted
with M. Boileau. On his return he was made
a commissioner of the customs, in which post
he distinguished himself by his skill and indus-
try. He was a member of the Kit-kat Club,
and was considered as one of its chief supports
by his pleasantry and wit. In the beginning of
queen Anne's reign the lord treasurer Godol-
phin made him a present of a patent for the office
of auditor of the imposts, worth about £2000 a
year. He had a considerable share in the Med-
ley, and was author of several other pieces. Sir
Richard Steele dedicated the first volume of the
Tatler to him.
MAYO, a county in the province of Con-
nzught and kingdom of Ireland, bounded on
the north and west by the Atlantic Ocean; on
the south by Galway county, from which it is
separated by the noble estuary of the “Killeries,”
and by the great lakes of Corrih and Mask; on
the east by the counties of Roscommon and
Sligo, from the latter of which it is divided by
the Moy River and Killala Bay. A careful and
exact map of this county and laid down on trigo-
nometrical principles, was finished in 1816 by
Mr. William Bald: it was protracted on a scale
of three inches to an English mile, for the
county, and of four inches to the mile for the
barony maps. The superficial contents amount
to 836,450 acres, which are divided into nine
baronies, viz. Burrishoole, Carra, Clanmorris,
Costello, Erris half barony, Gallen, Kilmaine,
Murrisk, Tyrawley. The number of parishes
is seventy-six, and of townlands 13,260. About
10,000 children receive the benefit of education
at the public and private schools. The surface
of this large shire is undulating, mountainous,
adorned with many beautiful lakes and rivers
some of the latter being subterranean, and is
remarkably picturesque. The highest of the
Mayo Hills, called Knock-na-Mulrea, attains, an
elevation of 2724 feet above sea level; Nephin
is but fifty-four feet lower; and the beautiful
hill of Croash Patrick, so famed in story, raises
his bold cliffs from the swelling waves of the
Atlantic to a height of 2528 feet. The Bar-
nagee Hills derive peculiar beauty from the
irregularity of their outline, and the acqui-
sition of cultivation carried almost to their sum-
InlfS.
Much of this great county is at present unpro-
fitable; the inland lakes occupy a surface of
35,768 acres, and the bogs cover an area of
262,420. The peasantry here are chiefly en-
gaged in husbandry, fishing, and the manufacture
of linen cloth. The northern and western baro-
nies are in a wild and unprofitable condition:
here tillage makes but slow progress, nor were
its shores, or harbours, or maritime population
almost accessible by land, until the formation
of the new road through Erris by Mr. Nimno;
but in the southern baronies tillage now begins
to supersede pasturage. The coast of Mayo,
singularly adorned with islands, whose inha-
bitants from their natural position appear pecu-
liarly calculated for a seafaring life, is found to
be adjacent to valuable fishing banks. Here
cod, hake, ling, herrings, and the sun fish o,
basking shark, are taken in large quantities
The last of these once presented a prospect of
occupation and of wealth to the islanders on
this bold coast, but poverty forbad the happy
consequences; for the banks which these fish
visit could not be approached by such miserable
craft as the fishermen were able to procure; be-
sides, the distance from land, and the want of
an asylum harbour to escape to, on the approach
of storm, rendered the undertaking in the high-
est degree perilous. The bounty of parliament,
and the wisdom and judgment of the fishery
board acting under its appointment, have now
removed the danger of the undertaking, by the
erection of break-waters, quays, piers, &c., in
the deep bays and creeks along the coast: viz.
MAY
MAY
702
in the Killeries, Clew Bay, Black-sod Bay, Kil-
lalla, &c. The beneficial consequences of this
measure of the legislature will be most fully de-
monstrated by a statement of the number of
boats, and of hands employed in Westport
alone in 1827, viz. of the former 1180, of the
latter 5169. -
The coarse linen manufacture of Mayo has
improved for some years back at a regular and a
rapid pace. This, probably, is attributable to
the capitalists in the north of Ireland directing
their attention latterly to the cotton trade, caus-
ing thereby a tendency in the linen manufacture
towards the western counties in search of cheaper
labor. This opens a field also for the introduc-
tion and growth of flax, no soil being better
adapted for that purpose than the peat of this
coast, when manured by the calcareous sea sand
which is found here in great abundance. The
resources then of this county are considerable:
the fisheries which, if still protected by the va-
luable board which may be said to have created
them, will nowhere in Ireland be more produc-
tive; the linen manufacture, even now highly
profitable, would be established here by the cul-
tivation of flax. Agriculture might still be made
to contribute largely to the support and employ-
ment of the people, having ample facilities of
export for all produce of that description, at the
noble harbours on the coast of this county. The
chief towns of Mayo are Castlebar, Ballinrobe,
Newport, Clare, Foxford, Swineford, Westport,
Ballina, and Mayo. Newport possesses an ex-
cellent harbour; near Westport is the beautiful
demesne of the marquis of Sligo. Ballina en-
joys the most extensive and profitable salmon
fishery in Ireland: and to Mayo there is attach-
ed much historic interest: here was a famous
cathedral and university, at the latter of which
those Saxon youths of rank who were converted
to Christianity received their education, amongst
whom are numbered Oswald, and Alfred the
Great, of England. This decayed town is some-
times called “Mayo of the Saxons;’ and the
ruins of the university, the cathedral and the
ancient town, may still be traced. Mayo gives
the title of earls to the family of ‘Bourke.’
MAYo, one of the Cape de Verde Islands, off
the western coast of Africa, about twenty-one
miles in circumference, with a rocky coast,
which, on the north and north-east side, is also
full of shoals. On the other sides, Dampier
says, the only danger is from the rocky promon-
tories, which are easily avoided. There are two
hills of some magnitude, the rest of Jhe island
being flat and barren, and laboring under an ex-
treme want of water. The only valuable com-
modity which it produces is salt, evaporated in a
large bay two miles in length, and half a mile
in breadth, communicating with the sea by a
narrow channel, through which the water enters
only at high tides. The natives are negroes
subject to Portugal, and they have adopted the
Portuguese language and manners. They are
extremely poor. At one time we exported salt
so largely from this place as to detain a ship of
war here to protect the trade, thirty miles
south of Bonavista. Long. 23° 8' W., lat. 15°
10' N. * - - -
MAYOR, n. ** Fr. maire; Ital, maior;
MAY'oRALTY, X. Lat. major. The chief ma-
, MAY'oRESs. gistrate of a corporation:
office of a mayor: lady of a mayor.
When the king once heard it; out of anger,'
He sent command to the lord mayor strait
Te stop the rumour. Shakspeare. Henry VIII. .
There was a sharp prosecution against Sir William
Capel, for misgovernment in his mayoralty.
Bacon's Henry VII.
It is incorporated with the mayoralty, and nameth
burgesses to the parliament. Carew.
The mayor locked up the gates of the city.
Knolles.
Wou’dst thou not rather chuse a small renown,
To be the mayor of some poor paltry town 3
Dryden.
MAYor, anciently meyer, is derived from the
British miret, i. e. to keep, or from the old Eng-
lish maier, power, from the Latin major. King
Richard I. in 1189 changed the bailiff of Lon-
don into a mayor, and king John made the bailiff
of king's Lynn a mayor in 1204. Norfolk did
not obtain this title for its chief magistrate till
1419, the seventh year of king Henry V., since
which there are few towns of note but have had
a mayor appointed. Mayors of corporations
are justices of peace pro tempore, and they are
mentioned in several statutes; but no person
shall bear any office of magistracy concerning
the government of any town, , corporation, &c.,
who has not received the sacrament according
to the church of England within one year before
his election, and who shall not take the oaths of .
supremacy, &c. If any person intrudes into the
office of mayor, a quo warranto lies against him,
upon which he shall not only be ousted, but
fined. Where the mayor of a corporation is not
chosen on the day appointed by charter the next
officer in place shall, the day after, hold a court
and elect one; and, if there be a default or omis-
sion that way, the electors may be compelled to
choose a mayor, by a writ of mandamus, from
the king's bench. Mayors, or other magistrates
of a corporation, who shall voluntarily absent
themselves on the day of election, are liable to
be imprisoned, and disqualified from holding
any office in the corporation. The office of
mayor in England is nearly synonymous with
that of provost in Scotland. - -
MAYor's Courts. To the lord mayor and
city of London belong several courts of judica-
ture. . The highest and most ancient is that of
the hustings, destined to secure the laws, rights,
franchises, and customs of the city. The second
is a court of request, or of conscience. The
third is the court of the lord mayor and alder-
men, where also the sheriffs sit: to which may
be added two courts of sheriffs and the court of
the city orphans, whereof the lord mayor and
aldermen have the custody. Also the court of

common council, which is a court or assembly
wherein are made all by-laws which bind the
citizens of London. It consists, like the parlia:
ment, of two houses: an upper, consisting of
the lord mayor and alderman; and a lower, of
a number of common council-men, chosen by the
several wards, as representatives of the body of
the citizens. In the court of common council
MAZ
MAZ
703
are made laws for the advancement of trade, and
committees. yearly appointed, &c. But acts
made by them are to have the assent of the lord
mayor and aldermen by stat. 11 Geo. I. Also
the chamberlain's court, where every thing re-
lating to the rents and revenues of the city, as
also the affairs of servants, apprentices, &c., are
transacted. , Lastly, to the lord mayor belong
the court for the conservation of the river
Thames; another of gaol delivery, held usually
eight times a year, at the Old Bailey, for the
trial of criminals. There are other courts, called
wardmotes or meetings of the wards; and courts
of halymote, or assemblies of the several guilds
and fraternities.
MAYORGA, a cluster of three or four islands
in the South Pacific Ocean, the largest being
about sixty miles in circuit. They were disco-
vered by Don Francisco Antonio Maurella in
1780, and are the same islands which were vi-
sited by Edmunds in 1791, and to which, in-
cluding several others, he gave the name of
Howe's Islands. They are fertile and well cul-
tivated, producing the various fruits and roots of
the climate: they also abound in the cloth
plant. The natives are tall and robust, subject
to Otaheite, which sends a governor here.
MAYOW (John), LL.D., a learned physi-
cian, born at Cornwall in 1645. He was fellow .
of All Souls College, Oxford; and, though he
took his degrees in law, practised physic. He
was a celebrated chemist, and his works were
published at Oxford in 8vo. 1674. He died at
London in 1679. -
MAY-weep. See ANTHEMIs. -
MAZA, among the Athenians, was a sort of
cake made of flour boiled with water and oil, and
set, as the common fare, before such as were en-
tertained at the public expense in the prytaneum
or common hall. -
MAZAGAN, or Castillo Real, a sea-port
of Morocco, built in 1500 by the Portuguese,
who retained it till 1762. A small dock has been
formed, but large vessels must anchor nearly six
miles out at sea to keep clear of Cape Azamore.
This place once carried on a considerable trade
in corn, but has of late sunk into insignificance.
The Moors have in some instances taken away
the timber of the houses, and left the walls. The
air and water are said to be excellent. Long.
8° 46' W., lat. 32° 54 N. .
MAZAGONG, a town of Hindostan, on the
island of Bombay, inhabited by descendants of
the Portuguese. It has two Catholic churches,
and a dock for small vessels. The mangoes which
grow here are said to be the best in the world,
especially those of one large tree, which has a
guard placed over it during the fruit season.
This was frequently the rendezvous of the Mogul
fleet, in the seventeenth century.
MAZANDERAN, a mountainous province of
Persia, on the shores of the Caspian. It abounds
in swamps and forests of oak : the valleys are
also fertile in the finest rear. Sugar and silk are
also produced to a considerable extent. Winter
and spring are healthy; but the summer and
autumnal heats cause such exhalations from the
fens and marshes, as to render the air very insa-
lubrious, when agues and dropsies prevail : the
natives, in genera-, have a sallow and bloated
appearance. Snow falls, but never lies long;
and the rivers generally overflow in summer.
The natives have been reckoned the most warlike
in Persia. A considerable number of rivers rise
here and fall into the Caspian, but none have a
long course. The commerce is considerable, and
the villages neatly built. Some of the roads are
bad; but there is a causeway, extending about
300 miles from Kisliar to Astrabad. The capital
is Sari; but Balfrush is the larger town. Fera-
bad and Amul are also chief towns.
MAZARD, n.s. Fr. machoire ; of Lat. may-
illa. The jaw. - -
Now my lady Worm's chapless, and knockt about
the mazard with a sexton's spade. Shakspeare.
Where thou might'st stickle without hazard
Of outrage to thy hide and mazard. Hudibras.
MAZARINE (Julius), a celebrated cardinal
and prime minister of France, born at Piscina
in Abruzzo, in 1602. After finishing his studies,
in Italy and Spain he entered into the service of
cardinal Sachetts, and became well skilled in
political economy, and in the interests of the
princes at war in Italy. Cardinal Richelieu
highly esteemed him ; as did also cardinal An-
tonio, and Louis XIII. who procured him a
cardinal's hat in 1641. Richelieu made him
one of the executors of his will; and during the
minority of Louis XIV. he had the charge of
affairs. At last he became an object of envy to
the nobility, which occasioned a civil war;
whereupon Mazarine was forced to retire, a price
was set on his head, and his library sold. Not-
withstanding this, he afterwards returned to the
court with more glory than ever; concluded a
peace with Spain, and a marriage treaty between
the king and the infanta. This treaty is reckoned
his master-piece in politics, and procured him
Louis's entire confidence: but at last his con-
tinual application to business threw him into a
disease, of which he died at Vincennes, in 1661.
He was of a mild and affable temper. He
possessed at one time the bishopric of Metz, and
the abbeys of St. Arnauld, St. Clement, and St.
Vincent; that of St. Dennis, Clugny, and Vic-
tor of Marseilles; and of St. Michael at Sois-
sons. He founded Mazarine College, or the
college of the four nations, at Paris. A collec-
tion of his letters was published; the best
edition is that of 1745, in 2 vols. 12mo.
'MAZE, n. S. & v. a. Sax. mare, a whirl-
MA’zy, adj. ; pool; Belg. meisen is
perplexity, confusion, mistake. A labyrinth ;
perplexing state or contrivance; uncertainty or
perplexity of mind: to maze is, to bewilder;
confuse: mazy, confused; perplexed.
He left in himself nothing but a maze of longing,
and a dungeon of sorrow. Sidney.
Much was I mazed to see this monster kind,
In hundred forms to change his fearful hue.
- Spenser,
While they study how to bring to pass that reli-
gion may seem but a matter made, they lose them-
selves in the very maze of their own discourses, as if
reason did even purposely forsake them, who of pur-
pose forsake God, the author thereof. Hooker
I have thrust myself into this maze,
Haply to wive and thrive as best I may,
- Shakspeare.
MAZ
MEA
704
Others apart sat on a hill retired,
In thoughts more elevate, and reasoned high
Of providence, foreknowledge, will and fate.
Fixed fate, free-will, foreknowledge absolute,
And found no end, in wandering mazes lost.
• Milton.
How from that sapphire fount the crisped brooks,
Rolling on orient pearl and sands of gold,
With mazy error, under pendant shades,
Ran nectar. - Id.
For want of this all human wisdom, was so blind
and lame—nothing but confusion and dissatisfaction
arising from mere ratiocination, which, being desti-
tute of light and aid from heaven, doth ever grope
in the dark, is bewildered in mazes of intricacy,
wherein things lie involved. Barrow.
The Lapithae to chariots add the state
Of bits and bridles, taught the steed to bound,
To run the ring and trace the mazy round. Dryden.
The ways of heaven are dark and intricate,
Puzzled with mazes and perplexed with error,
Our understanding searches them in vain.
Addison.
He, like a copious river, poured his song
O'er all the mazes of enchanted ground. Thomson,
As some must trifle away age, because they trifled
away youth, others must labour on in a maze of
error, because they have wandered there too long to
find their way out. Bolingbroke.
While the still busy world is treading o'er
The paths they trod five thousand years before,
Thoughtless as those who now life's mazes run,
Of earth dissolved, or an extinguished sun.
- Young.
MIAZEIRA, an island on the eastern coast of
Arabia, about sixty miles long and eight broad.
There is a passage between it and the Main, and
it has a village on the eastern shore, but is seldom
visited by Europeans. The north point is in
long. 59° 40' E., and lat. 200 35' N.
MAZEPPA (John), a hetman of the Cossacs,
was born in Podolia, of a noble, but poor Polish
family, and became page to the king John Casi-
mir. An intrigue of his with a married lady
having been discovered byher husband, Mazeppa
was fastened to the back of a wild horse, and
left to his fate: lord Byron formed his poem
of this name on this fact. The animal having
been bred in the Ukraine deserts directed his
course thither, and expiring at length with fa-
tigue dropped beneath his miserable rider, who
was found by the peasants of the country half
dead. Their care, however, recovered him, and
he took up his residence here. His talents soon
raised him to eminence, and, the hetman of the
Cossacs having in 1687 been deposed, Mazeppa
was elected his successor. In this situation he
acquired the confidence of Peter the Great, who
bestowed on him the title of privy counsellor, and
the cordon of St. Andrew. Created also prince
of the Ukraine, he entered into a secret league
with Charles XII.; but this alliance being disco-
vered, and his capital, Batourin, having been
taken, he was obliged to join the Swedish king
who was advancing towards the Ukraine. The
battle of Pultowa was the result of his counsels;
after which he took refuge at Bender, where he
died in 1709.
MAZ'ER, n. s. Scot. and Teut. masin; Goth.
mansur; Belg. maeser; Wel. masarn. A drink-
ing cup, often made of the knotty part of the
maple. tº
Then, lo! Perigot, the pledge which I plight,
A mazer y wrought of the maple ware,
Wherein is enchased many a fair fight
Of bears and tigers that make fierce war.
Virgil observes, like Theocritus, a just decorum,
both of the subject and persons, as in the third pas-
toral, where one of his shepherds describes a bowl,
or mazer, curiously carved. Drydan.
MAZZARA, a town of Sicily, in the Val di
Mazzara, remarkable for the number of its
churches and convents. It has also an hospital,
a great public school, and a Monte di Pieta, or
public pawn shop. It exports brandy, wine,
oil, and soda. The harbour is large, but exposed.
Forty-five miles south-west of Palermo. Long.
12° 28′E., lat. 37° 46' N.
MAZZARA, VAL DI, one of the three provinces
of Sicily, comprises the western and most nar-
row part of the island, and is surrounded on the
north, south, and west, by the Mediterranean.
On the east it is bounded by the Val di Noto,
and the Val de Demona. Its territorial extent is
computed at three-eighths of the island, or about
4700 square miles. Intersected by several chains
of mountains, it is still on the whole the most
fertile part of Sicily; and produces corn, flax,
hemp, and fruits. Its fisheries, particularly of
tunnies and sardels, are extensive. The winds
from the sea greatly counteract the excessive heats
of summer. The capital of this province, and of
the whole island, is Palermo. Inhabitants about
640,000.
ME, pron. Sax. me, micr; Goth. meig, me;
Dan. mij; Span., Port., and Latin, me ; Gr.
ps. The objective case of I; sometimes quaintly
used for I and as an expletive, as in ‘me thinks;’
* I followed me close.’
He presently, as greatness knows itself,
Steps me a little higher than his vow
Made to my father, while his blood was poor.
Shakspeare,
Spenser.
He thrust me himself into the company of three or
four gentlemanlike dogs, under the duke's table. Id.
I followed me close, came in foot and hand, and,
with a thought, seven of the eleven I paid. ld.
Me rather had, my heart might feel your love,
Than my unpleased eye sees your courtesy. Id.
Me, only me, the hand of fortune bore,
Unblessed to tread an interdicted shore. Pope.
I would not have a slave to till my ground ;
To carry me, to fan me while I sleep,
And tremble when I wake, for all the gold
That sinews bought and sold have ever earned.
- - Cowper.
MEACO, a city of Niphon, in Japan, for-
merly the metropolis of that empire; and said to
have been at that time twenty miles long and
nine broad. It is still the ecclesiastical capital
of Japan. The temples are magnificent, and
the imperial palace a species of town. Including
those attached to the court, and the monks and
nuns (wh9 amount to 52,000), the whole number
of inhabitants is 529,000. Meaco is the centre
of all the literature and science of the empire,
the imperial almanack being printed here, as
well as most of the books of the empire. A
number of the finer manufacures, particularly
japan-work, painting, carving, &c., are also car-
ried on. Long. 153° 30' E., lat. 35°24' N.
MEA
MEA
705
MEA’COCK, n. S. & adj. Fr. mes coq.—Skin-
ner. An uxorious or effeminate man; tame;
cowardly.
‘’Tis a world to see,
How tame, when men and women are alone,
A meacock wretch can make the curstest shrew.
Shakspeare.
MEAD, n.s. Sax. maed, Inae'ode, maeºs,
MEAD'ow, } mowed; Teut. mad. From
MEADow-SAFFRON.) Mow, which see. That
which is mowed; a grass-field kept for mowing;
any grassy or watery ground. Meadow-saffrom
is-defined below.
Where all things in common do rest,
Corne feeld with the pasture and mead,
Yet what doth it stand you instead? -
i Tusser's Husbandry.
Paints her, 'tis true, with the same hand which
spreads, -
Like glorious colours, through the flow'ry meads,
When lavish Nature with her best attire
Clothes the gay spring, the season of desire.
Waller.
A band select from forage drives I
A herd of beeves, fair oxen, and fair kine,
From a fat meadow ground.
Milton’s Paradise Lost.
Yet ere to-morrow's sun shall shew his head,
The dewy paths of meadows we will tread,
For crowns and chaplets to adorn thy bed.
Dryden.
His art survived the waters; and ere long,
When man was multiplied and spread abroad
In tribes and clans, and had begun to call
These meadows and that range of hills his own,
The tasted sweets of property begat
Desire of more. Cowper.
The meadow-saffron hath a flower, consisting of
one leaf, shaped like a lily, rising in form of a small
tube, and is gradually widened into six segments;
it has likewise a solid bulbous root, covered with a
membranous skin. Miller.
MEAD, n.s. Sax. maebo; Goth. maid; Swed.
mioed ; Belg. and Pol. miod, meede; Rus, miodh ;
all perhaps of Gr. pisów, wine. A fermented
drink made of lºoney and water. See below.
Though not so solutive a drink as mead, yet it will
be more grateful to the stomach. Bacon.
. He sheers his over-burdened sheep;
Or mead for cooling drink prepares,
Of virgin honey in the jars.
MEAD is a wholesome agreeable liquor, and
was anciently much used in Britain. One of
the best methods of preparing mead is as follows:
into twelve gallons of water slip the whites of
six eggs; mixing these well together, and to the
mixture adding twenty pounds of honey. Let
Dryden.
the liquor boil an hour, and when boiled add
cinnamon, ginger, cloves, mace, and rosemary.
As soon as it is cold put a spoonful of yeast to it,
and tun it up, keeping the vessel filled as it
works: when it has done working stop it up
close, and bottle it off. Then deposit it in a
cellar of cool temperature for six or eight months.
Some prefer it without the aromatic spices.
Thorley advises to put three pounds of the finest
honey to one gallon of water, and two lemon
peels to each gallon; boil it half an hour, scum
it well; then put in, while boiling, lemon peel;
work it with yeast. Let it stand five or six months,
and bottle it off for use. If it is to be kept for
Vol. XIII.
between £5000 and £6000.
Europe.
years, put four pounds to a gallon of water.
This, he adds, will equal the best foreign wine.
It is still used at festivals in the western parts of
the island. It is esteemed more wholesome than
any of the spirits now in common use; and,
when properly kept, equals Tokay in strength
and flavor.
MEAD (Richard), M.D. and F. R. S., a cele-
brated English physician, antiquarian, and natu-
ralist, born at Stepney, where his father had been
minister. At sixteen years of age Richard was
sent to Utrecht, where he studied three years
under Graevius; and then choosing the profession
of physic, he went to Leyden, where he at-
tended the lectures of the famous Pitcairn on
medicine, and of Herman on botany. Having
also spent three years in these studies, he went
with his brother and two other gentlemen to
Italy, and at Padua took his degree of M. D.
and Phil. D. in 1695. Afterwards he spent
some time at Naples and Rome; and returning
home in 1696 settled at Stepney, where he
married, and practised physic with great suc-
cess. In 1703, Dr. Mead having communicated
to the Royal Society an analysis of Dr. Bonomo's
discoveries relating to the cutaneous worms that
generate the itch (inserted in the Philosophical
Transactions), he was chosen F. R. S. He was
soon after elected physician of St. Thomas's
Hospital, and employed by the surgeons to read
anatomical lectures in their hall, which obliged
him to remove into the city. In 1707 he received
a diploma of M.D. from the university of Ox-
ford; and being patronised by Dr. Radcliffe, he
succeeded him on his death, at his house in
Bloomsbury Square, and in the greatest part of
his business. In 1727 he was made physician
to king George II, whom he had served in that
capacity while prince of Wales; and afterwards
his two sons-in-law, Dr. Nichols and Dr. Wilmot
were appointed his coadjutors. He was intimate
with Garth, Arbuthnot, and Freind; and kept
up a constant correspondence with the great
Boerhaave, who had been his fellow-student at
Leyden. He caused the beautiful and splendid
edition of Thuanus's history to be published in
1713, in 7 vols. folio; and by his assiduity Mr.
Sutton's invention of drawing foul air from
ships, &c., was carried into execution, and the
ships in his majesty's navy provided with this
useful machine. During nearly fifty years he
was at the head of his profession, which brought
him one year above £7000, and for several years
His library con-
sisted of 10,000 volumes, of which his Latin,
Greek, and oriental MSS., formed an important
part. He had a gallery for his pictures and
antiquities, which cost him great sums. His
reputation was so universally established, that he
corresponded with all the principal literati in
Even the king of Naples sent for a
complete collection of his works; and in return
made him a present of the first two volumes of
Signior Bajardi, which may be considered as the
first specimen of the antiquities of Herculaneum.
That prince also invited him to his palace, to
show him those valuable monuments of antiquity;
and nothing but his great age prevented his
accepting of an invitation so suited to y taSte.
2
MEA
MEA
706
IHe wrote, besides the above works, 1. A Treatise
on the Scurvy. 2. De Variolis et Morbillis Dis-
sertatio. 3, Medica Sacra : sive de Morbis
Insignioribus, qui in Bibliis Memorantur, Com-
mentarius. 4. Monita et Præcepta Medica.
5. A Discourse concerning Pestilential Contagion,
and the Methods to be used to prevent it. . His
Latin works were translated into English by
Dr. Thomas Stack. He died February 16th,
1754.
MEADow is pasture or grass land, annually
mown for hay, but more particularly applied to
low lands too moist for cattle grazing on in
winter, without spoiling the sward. The best
lands for meadow are those of a rich soil, situ-
ated on a gentle declivity, in the vicinity of
running water.
kinds of grass and two of clover should be
sown. The seeds should be mixed together in
the following proportions, viz. of meadow fescue
grass (festuca pratensis) four parts: of meadow
fox-tail grass (alopecurus pratensis) four: smooth
stalked meadow grass (poa pratensis) two :
roughish meadow grass (poa trivialis) two :
crested dog's-tail grass (cynosurus cristatus) one:
sweet scented spring grass (anthoxanthum odo-
ratum) one: white or Dutch clover (trifolium
repens) two: common or red clover (trifolium
pratense) two. Of these seeds sow three bushels
on an acre in rows for the convenience of hoeing.
Towards the end of August, or early in Septem-
ber, it will be necessary to weed and thin the
grasses occasionally, and also to roll them in the
spring. If the soil be previously cleared from
all noxious weeds and plants, these grasses will
in two years form an excellent meadow. But, in
case it be required to seed a piece of land imme-
diately, and the valuable grasses cannot be pro-
cured, the following seeds are recommended :
broad clover, or cow grass; white clover, trefoil,
rye-grass, and, if the soil be sufficiently dry,
burnet. On clean tilth, they will, in a few years,
present a good meadow; as the clover and rye-
grass, in the first or second year, produce ample
swathe for mowing: next they will be succeeded
by a luxuriant crop of the white clover and tre-
foil, united with the natural grasses of the soil.
Grass seeds ought to be sown during moist wea-
ther, either in the summer or in autumn, after
turnips, or any other hoeing crop; for it is ab-
Solutely necessary to prepare for them a fine
clean tilth. On the approach of winter the
young crop should be slightly covered with long
stable dung, old thatch, or even sand, earth, or
any other manure. The land ought, likewise, to
be occasionally cleared of the weeds, together
with their roots, and the vacant spot fresh seeded.
In laying lands down for meadows, old turf must
be uniformly broken up, by paring and burning,
when it is to be sown with new grasses; but such
soils as have been completely exhausted by suc-
cessive crops of corn should first be laid dry, and
diligently cleaned; then sown with proper her-
bage, top-dressed, and manured for the space of
two or three years; in consequence of which
they will recover their former fertility. Lastly,
the operation of rolling meadows in the spring,
especially such as have been watered, ought
never to be omitted. The most proper time for
To form the best meadow, six
this purpose is the beginning of n.ddle of Fe-
bruary, after the land has been laid dry for a
week. Rolling prepares the grass for being cut
close to the surface when mown; which is a cir-
cumstance of considerable importance; because
the ant-hills, and other little elevations, are thus
pressed close to the ground, and many incon-
veniences will be thereby effectually removed.
An improvement in agriculture, by watering of
meadows, has of late come much into use. See
RURAL EconoMx. -
MEAGER, adj. & v. n. Q Sax. maeger; Belg.
MEA'GERNESS, n.s. $ai Teut. mager;
Goth. megur; Fr. maigre ; Ital. and Span. magro.
Lean; withered; wanting flesh: to make lean.
Thou art so lean and meagre waxen late,
That scarce thy legs uphold thy feeble gate.
Hubberd.
It cannot be, that I should be so shamefully be-
trayed, and as a man meagered with long watching
and painful labour, laid himself down to sleep.
Knolles's History of the Turks.
Meagre were his looks,
Sharp misery had worn him to the bones.
Shakspeare.
Poynings, the better to make compensation of the
neagerness of his service in the wars by acts of peace,
called a parliament. acom.
Fierce famine with her meagre face,
And fevers of the fiery race,
In swarms the offending wretch surround,
All brooding on the blasted ground:
And limping death, lashed on by fate,
Comes up to shorten half our date. Dryden.
Whatsoever their neighbour gets, they lose, and
the very bread that one eats, makes tºother meagre.
L’Estrange.
Heaven stands absolved by vengeance on their
pen, -
And marks the murderers of fame from men:
Through meagre jaws they draw their venal breath,
As ghastly as their brothers in Macbeth. Young.
MEAK, n. s. Ital. hoºk. A hook for cutting
peas.
A meake fºr the pease, and to swing up the brake.
Tusser.
MEAL, n. s. Sax. male ; Gothic, Swed. and
Teut. mal; Belg. maal. A regular repast; the
food eaten; a part or fragment (maal is alsº a
devourer).
Boaz said unto her, at meal-time, Come, eat, and
dip thy morsel. Ruth ii. 14.
. Give them great meals of beef, and iron and steel ;
they will eat like wolves, and fight like devils,
t , Shakspeare. Henry V.
Let both worlds, disjoint, and all things suffer,
Ere we will eat our meal in fear. Id. Macbeth,
That yearly rent is still paid into the hanaper,
even as the former casualty itself was wont to be, in
parcel meal, brought in and answered there. Bacon. --
A man that comes hungry to his meal feeds hear-
tily on the meat set before him, not regarding the
metal, or form of the platter, wherein it is served,
Bp. Hall.
They made m'a miser's feast of happiness,
And could not furnish out another meal. -
g Dryden.
The quantity of aliment necessary to keep the ani-
mal in a due state of vigour, ought to be divided into
meals at proper intervals. Arbuthnot on Aliments.
Then grudge not her temperate meals,
Nor a benefit blame as a theft;
MEA
MEA
707
Since, stole she not all that she steals,
Neither honey nor wax would be left. Cowper.
MEAL, n. S. & v.a. Sax. mela, melape;
MEAL'MAN, n.s. Teut. mehl; Dan & Belg.
MEALY, adj. meel; Arm. and Goth.
MEALY-MoUTHED. ) mal, from Goth. mala,
to grind into small pieces. The flour of corn
as first ground; Fr. meler, to mingle. Mealman
is a dealer in meal. Mealy, having the taste,
qualities, or sprinkled appearance of meal.
Mealy-mouthed is tender mouthed, as horses
when they are fed with bruised corn or meal.
Were he mealed w
With that which he corrects, then were he tyrannous.
Shakspeare.
In the bolting and shifting of near fourteen years
of such power and favour, all that came out could
not be expected to be pure and fine meal, but must
have a mixture of padar and bran in this lower age
of human fragility. Wotton.
With four wings, as all farinaceous and mealy-
winged animals, as butterflies and moths. Browne.
An old weasel conveys himself into a meal tub for
the mice to come to her, since she could not go to
them. * L’Estrange.
She was a fool to be mealy-mouthed where nature
speaks so plain. Id.
The mealy parts of plants dissolved in water make
too viscid an aliment. Arbuthnot on Aliments.
Like a gay insect in his summer shine,
The fop light fluttering spreads his mealy wings.
- - Thomson.
MEAL is the flour of grain. The meal or
flour of Britain is the finest and whitest in the
world. The French is usually browner, and the
German browner than that. Our flour keeps
well with us, but in carrying abroad it often con-
tracts dampness, and becomes bad. All flour is
subject to breed worms; these are white in the
white flour, and brown in the brown: they are
therefore not always distinguishable by the eye;
but when the flour feels damp, and smells rank
and musty, it may be conjectured that they
abound in it. The color and the weight are the
two things which denote the value of meal or
flour; the whiter and the heavier it is, caeteris
paribus, the better it always is. Pliny mentions
these two characters as the marks of good flour;
and tells us that Italy, in his time, produced the
finest in the world. It was, indeed, famous be .
fore his time for this produce; and the Greeks
celebrated it. Sophocles, in particular, says that
no flour is so white and so good as that of Italy.
The corn of Italy, however, has lost much of its
reputation since that time. The reason seems to
be, that the whole country being full of sulphur,
alum, vitriol, and bitumens, the air may have in
time affected them so far as to make them diffuse
themselves through the earth, and render it less
fit for vegetation; and the taking fire of some of
these inflammable minerals, as has sometimes
nappened, is alone sufficient to alter the nature
of all the land about the places where they are.
The flour of Britain, though it pleases by its
whiteness, yet wants some of the other qualities
valuable in flour; the bread that is made of it is
brittle, and does not hold together, but after
keeping a few days becomes hard and dry as if
made of chalk, and is full of cracks in all parts;
which is a great disadvantage when it is intended
for the service of an army, where there is no
baking every day, but the bread of one baking
must necessarily be kept a long time. The
flour of the late province of Picardy is very
like that of Britain; and, after it has been
kept some time, is found improper for making
into paste or dough. The French must either
use it immediately on the grinding, or mix it
with an equal quantity of the flour of Brit-
tany, which is coarser, but more unctuous and
fatty; but neither of these, kinds keeps well.
The flour of almost any country will do for home
consumption, as it may be always fresh ground;
but great care must be used in selecting it to send
it abroad, or furnish ships with it. The saline
humidity of the sea-air rusts metals, and fouls.
every thing on board, if great care be not taken
in preserving them. This also makes the flour
damp and mouldy, and is often the occasion of
its breeding insects, and being wholly spoiled.
The flour of some places is found to keep better
at sea than that of others; and the whole caution
needs only be to carry the flour of those places.
Thus the French find that the flour of the ci-de-
vant provinces of Poitou, Normandy, and Gui-
enne, all bear the sea-carriage extremely well;
and they make a considerable advantage by
carrying them to America. The next care is to
preserve it in the ships; the keeping it dry is
the grand consideration in regard to this; the
barrels in which it is put up ought to be
made of dry and well-seasoned oak, and not to
be larger than to hold 2 cwt. at the most. If
the wood of the barrels have any sap remaining
in it, it will moisten and spoil the flour; and no
wood is so proper as oak for making the bins
and other vessels for keeping flour, since, when
once well dried and seasoned, it will not contract
humidity afterwards. The beech wood, of which
some make their bins for flour, is never tho-
roughly dry, but always retains some sap. The
fir gives the flour a taste of turpentine; and
the ash is always subject to be eaten by worms.
The oak is preferable, being free from all these
faults. . e
MEAN, adj. Sax. maene; Teut. mein;
MEAN'LY, adv. {º mang, many (i. e. the
MEAN'NESS, n.s. 5 many or crowd). Low in
rank or birth; vulgar; base; spiritless; low in
any good quality; contemptible. Meanly is,
without dignity or excellence; poorly. Meanness,
lowness; sordidness; want of excellence or
dignity. -
She was stricken with most obstinate love to a
young man but of mean parentage, in her father's
court, named Antiphilus; so mean, as that he was
but the son of her nurse, and by that means, without
other desert, became known of her. Sidney,
Some things are good, yet in so mean a degree of
goodness, that many are only not disapproved nor
disallowed of God for them. Hooker.
The minister's greatness or meanness of knowledge
to do'other things, standeth in this place as a stran-
ger, with whom our form of Common Prayer hath
nothing to do. Id.
Let pale-faced fear keep with the mean-born man,
And find no harbour in a royal heart. Shakspeare.
True hope is swift, and flies with swallow-wings:
Kings it makes gods, and meaner creatures kings.
2 Z 2
MEA
MEA
708
The lands be not holden of her majesty, but by a
mean tenure in soccage, or by knight's service at the
most. e Bacon.
By this extortion, he suddenly grew from a mean
to a mighty estate, insomuch that his ancient inheri-
tance being not one thousand marks yearly, he be-
came able to dispend ten thousand pounds.
Davies on Ireland.
French wheat is bearded, and requireth the best
soil, recompensing the same with a profitable plenty;
and not-wheat, so termed because it is unbearded, is
contented with a meaner earth, and contenting with a
suitable gain. Carew.
. The Persian state will not endure a king
So meanly born. Denham's Sophy.
It was the winter wild,
While the heaven-born child,
All meanly wrapt in the rudemanger lies.
* Milton.
No other nymphs have title to men's hearts,
But as their meanness larger hopes imparts. Waller.
Can you imagine I so mean could prove,
To save my life by changing of my love?
Dryden.
The Roman legions and great Caesar found
Our fathers no mean foes. Philips.
The name of servants has been reckoned to imply
a certain meanness of mind, as well as lowness of
condition. South.
This figure is of a later date by the meanness of the
workmanship. Addison on Italy.
Would you meanly thus rely
On power, you know, I must obey Prior.
We fast, not to please men, nor to promote any
mean, worldly interest. Smalridge's Sermons.
I have sacrificed much of my own self-lové, in
preventing not only many mean things from seeing
the light, but many which I thought tolerable. ,
Pope.
Our kindred, and our very names, seem to have
something desirable in them: we cannot bear to have
others think meanly of them. Watts's Logick.
MEAN, n.s. & adj.) Fr. moyen, mesne; Gr.
|MEAN'LY, adv. pisooc; Lat. medium. A
MEAN'TIME, adv. measure or instrument
MEAN’whiLE. used to produce an end;
method; interval; revenue: as an adjective,
middle; moderate; intervening in space or time.
The substantive, as Dr. Johnson says, is often
used in the plural, ‘and by some, not very gram-
matically, with an adjective singular:’ meanly,
in this sense, is moderately; in a middling man-
ner. ‘By all means' is a phrase signifying,
without doubt or hesitation; “by no means' is
its direct opposite: meantime and meanwhile,
both mean in the intervening time.
And thei wenten out of the cytee and camen to
him, in the mene while hise disciplis preieden him,
end Seiden, Mastir, ete. Wiclif. Jon. iv.
In the mean while the heaven was black with
clouds and wind, and there was a great rain.
1 Kings xviii. 45.
Dr. Metcalfe, master of St. John’s College, a man
meanly learned himself, but not meanly affectioned to
set forward learning in others. Ascham.
He saw this gentlêman, one of the properest and
best-graced men that ever Isaw, being of middle age
and a mean stature. Sidney.
Pamela's noble heart would needs gratefully make
known the valiant'mean of her safety. Id.
º He tempering goodly well
Their contrary dislikes with loved means,
Did place them all in order, and compell
To keep themselves within their sundry reigns,
Together linked with adamantine chains.
- Spenser
But sith this wretched woman overcome,
Of anguish rather than of crime hath been,
Reserve her cause to the eternal doom,
And in the mean vouchsafe her honourable tomb.
As long as that which Christians did was good,
and no way subject to just reproof, their virtuous
conversation was a mean to work the heathens’ con-
version unto Christ. Hooker.
Oft 'tis seen -
Our mean securities, and our mere defects,
Prove our commodities. º
- - Shakspeare. King Lear.
Temperance with golden square,
Betwixt them both can measure out a mean.
t Shakspeare.
I’ll devise a mean to draw the Moor * ,
Out of the way, that your converse and business
Maybe more free. - ld. Othello.
The more base art thou,
To make such means for her as thou hast done,
And leave her on such slight conditions.
* Shakspeare
Your means are slender, your waste is great.
I
By this means he had them the more at vantage,
being tired and harassed with a long march.
Bacon's Henry III.
Because he wanted means to perform any great
action, he made means to return the sooner.
Davies on Ireland.
It is our shame and sin, if in these means of en-
tireness we be no better acquainted with God, than
they which in their greatest familiarity were com-
manded aloof. Bp. Hall's Contemplations.
Strong was their plot, {
Their parties great, means good, the season fit,
Their practice close, their faith suspected not.
Daniel.
Against her then her forces prudence joins,
And to the golden mean herself confines.
Denham.
Now read with them "those organick arts which
enable men to discourse and write, and according to
the fittest style of lofty, mean, or lowly.
Milton on Education
Mean-while
The world shall burn, and from her ashes spring
New heaven and earth. Id. Paradise Lost.
But no authority of gods or men
Allow of any mean in poesie. Roscommon.
There is a mean in all things, and a certain mea-
sure wherein the good and the beautiful consist, and
out of which they never can depart. Dryden.
Mean-time the rapid heavens rolled down the
light,
And on š. shaded ocean rushed the night. Id.
In the reign of Domitian, poetry was but meanly
cultivated, but painting eminently flourished.
Id. Dufresnoy.
Who is there that hath the leisure and means to.
collect all the proofs concerning most of the opinions
he has, so as safely to conclude that he hath a clear
and full view 7 Loche.
By this means not only many helpless persons will
be provided for, but a generation will be bred up
not perverted by any other hopes. Sprat's Sermons.
The wine on this side of the lake is by no means
so good as that on the other. Addison on Italy.
Mean-while I’ll draw up my Numidian troops,
And, as I see occasion, favour thee. Id. Cato.
M E A R N S.
709
Essex did not build or adorn any house; the queen
perchance spending his time, and himself his means.
Wottom.
A good character, when established, should not
be rested in as an end, but only employed as a means
of doing still farther good. Atterbury.
the continuance of his goodness.
left to shift for themselves, and harassed by inroads
MEAN, v.a. & v. n. Sax. maenan; Belg.
pose; intend; design; have in mind; think:
is the perf. and past. part. of the verb.
Genesis 1. 20.
acodus xii. 26.
It renders us careless of approving ourselves to
God by religious duties, and by that means securing
The Roman legions were all recalled to help their
country against the Goths; mean-time the Britons,
from the Picts, were forced to call in the Saxons for
their defence. Swift.
MEAN'ING, n.s. }; Teut. meinin;
MEANT, part. Dan. meene. To pur-
meaning is, intention; purpose; sense; the thing
to be understood; the power of thinking: meant
Ye thought evil against me; but God meant it
unto good, to save much people alive.
When your children shall say, What mean you by
this service 3 ye shall say, It is the passover.
I am no honest man, if there be any good mean-
tng towards you. Shakspeare. King Lear.
The Scripture may have more senses besides the
literal ; because God understands all things at once;
but a man’s writing has but one true sense, which is
that which the author meant when he wrote it.
Selden.
o These delights if thou canst give,
Mirth, with thee I mean to live. Milton.
And life more perfect have attained than fate
Meant me, by venturing higher than my lot. Id.
The meaning, not the name, I call ; for thou,
Not of the Muses nine. Id. Paradise Lost.
If we do presume to offer this service, we should
do it in the manner appointed by himself—taking
heed that our meaning be conformable to the sense of
our words, and our words to the verity of things.
q - Barrow.
Some whose meaning hath at first been fair,
Grow knaves by use, and rebels by despair.
Roscommon.
I practised it to make you taste your cheer
With double pleasure, first prepared by fear:
So loyal subjects often seize their prince,
Yet mean his sacred person not the least offence.
Dryden.
He was not spiteful though he wrote a satyr,
For still there goes some meaning to ill *;
d.
Whatever was meant by them, it could not be that
Cain, as elder, had a natural dominion over Abel.
Locke.
And he who now to sense, now nonsense leaning,
Means not, but blunders round about a meaning.
Pope.
No word more frequently in the mouths of men
than conscience; and the meaning of it is, in some
measure, understood: however, it is a word ex-
tremely abused by many, who apply other mean-
ings to it which God Almighty never intended,
Swift.
MEAN'DER, n.s. & v. n. From the river
MEAN’DROUs. $ Meander, in Phry-
gia, which had a very winding course. Maze; la-
byrinth; circuitous course: to wind circuitously:
meandrous, winding; flexuous.
Physicians, by the help of anatomical dissections,
have searched into those various meanders of the
veins, arteries, and integrals of the body. Hale.
'Tis well, that while mankind
Through fate's perverse meander errs,
He can imagined pleasures find,
To combat against real cafes.
While lingering rivers in meanders glide
They scatter verdant life on either side;
The valleys smile, and with their flowery face,
And wealthy births, confess the floods embrace.
Blackmore.
Law is a bottomless pit: John Bull was flattered
by the lawyers, that his suit would not last above a
year; yet ten long years did Hocus steer his cause
through all the meanders of the law, and all the courts.
Arbuthnot.
Prior.
While praising, and raising
His thoughts to heaven on high,
As wandering, meandering, -
He views the solemn sky.
WEARNS, or KINCARDINESHIRE, a county of
Scotland, is bounded on the east by the German
or British Ocean for about thirty-five miles, in-
cluding the various indentations of a high and
precipitous rocky shore; on the north by the river
Dee and part of Aberdeenshire; and on the west
and south by the county of Angus, from which
it is separated, in almost the whole line, by the
river North Esk. It is of a triangular form, and
extends thirty-two miles in length from south-
west to north-east, and twenty-four miles where
broadest from south to north, comprehending an
area of 380 square miles, or 243,444 acres.
Dividing the whole into 100 parts, there are
about thirty in full cultivation, twelve partially
cultivated, eight in plantations, and one-half of
such high hills or barren heaths as altogether to
preclude cultivation, and even unproductive in
pasture. The general aspect of this county is
diversified; but it has been divided into the five
following districts, i.e. 1. The Dee-side district,
on the north side of the Grampians, through
which flows the river of that name. 2. The dis-
trict on the coast, north of the water of Cowie,
which flows into the German Ocean near Stone-
haven. 3. The coast district south of this water.
4. The valley or How of the Mearns, to the
south of the Grampians; and 5. That part of
the county which is occupied by the Grampians.
1. That part of the Dee district which lies
north of the river Dee is between thirteen and
twenty-two miles west from Aberdeen, and con-
sists altogether of about twenty-six square miles,
or 16,640 acres. It has been greatly improved
by the exertions of the proprietors and tenants,
though there is still not more than one-eighth
part of it in cultivation. There is more land in
this quarter planted with wood, in proportion to
its extent, than in any other district of the
county. The southern portion is partly in a
state of complete cultivation, and partly in a
progress towards it. It extends east and west
eighteen miles, and comprehends about fifty-four
square miles, or 34,560 acres, of which not more
than one-fifth is in actual cultivation. .
2. The coast-district north of Stonehaven ex-
tends about fourteen miles along the coast,
between that place and the Dee, and is about
three miles and a quarter at an average breadth,
Burns.
•, ºr *
*** -
*... .
710
M E A R. N. S.
between the sea and the Grampians, where culti-
vation has not reached, and thus will compre-
hend forty-five square miles, or 28,800 acres.
Near the town of Stonehaven part of the lands
is in a high state of cultivation. There are
also small strips bf fertile ground by the sea in
the vicinity of Aberdeen ; but the great propor-
tion of this tract is the most wretched country
that can be conceived. *
3. The district south from Stonehaven extends
about eighteen or twenty miles along the shore
of the ocean. A bold rocky shore, from 100 to
300 feet in height, expands in general into plain
fields, many of which are in high cultivation.
Some of the hills (and generally the most bar-
ren) approach close to the sea; but the greater
part are in the back ground. The soil in the
lower parts is of every description, from the
most worthless to the most valuable, oddly inter-
mixed, the greater proportion being as product-
ive perhaps as any in Britain, and bearing
luxuriant crops of beans, wheat, clover, &c.
This tract, stretching inland from four to five
miles, may comprehend about eighty-five square
miles, or 54,400 acres, of which one half is in
cultivation.
4. The How of the Mearns lies to the west of
the district last described, and immediately south
from the Grampians. It is a low well-cultivated
country, abounding in seats, villages, and plan-
tations. It is about sixteen miles long from
east to west, and five miles broad at the west
end, but grows narrower towards the east, until
at its termination at the Water-shed, about four
miles west from Stonehaven, it is little more than
half a mile across. It comprehends altogether
about fifty square miles, or 32,000 acres, of
which five parts in six are in cultivation, and
it is sheltered from the cold northern.blasts, by
the Grampians, which here present a front of
from 500 to 2500 feet in height. The soil in
this district, throughout the greater part, is pretty
uniform. On the northern side, fronting the
south, it may be defined as a gravelly loam, and
on the opposite side, fronting the north, a loam
derived from clay. Throughout the whole it is
commonly productive. -
5. The Grampian district stretches through the
whole breadth of the county from east to west.
Commencing where cultivation ceases, this bleak
and hilly country, at about three miles from the
coast, increases rapidly in altitude, but on a
pretty regular scale of gradation, until, at the
western extremity, about twenty miles from the
sea, Mount Battock, nearly 3500 feet high; rises
above them all. The tract thus occupied is, at
an average, from sixteen to eighteen miles in length
from east to west, and about from six to eight
miles across from south to north, comprehending
altogether an area of upwards of 120 square
miles, or nearly 80,000 acres.
The climate in winter and spring is here ex-
cessively severe, and the country, except in a very
few places, is devoid of human habitation. In
summer the glens or valleys are, however, uncom-
monly warm, and are somewhat enlivened by
the fringe of pasture on the sides of the different
brooks. But these valleys form but a small pro-
portion of this district.
Over the whole district granite is the most
prevalent stone; and southward along the coast,
sandstone, puddingstone, limestone, and rotten
rock. Limestone is found in several parts of
the county, but not in great quantities. Plum-
puddingstone composes a principal portion of
the rocks. In some places; consisting of a small
gravel, it is manufactured into millstones. The
noted rocks of Fowls'-heugh, about thrée miles
south from Stonehaven, form a raige along the
coast, about a mile in length, and 200 feet in
height. Jasper, porphyry, and specimens of
asbestos, are also observed here. Pebbles are
procured in every brook; and the Scots topaz,
or cairngorum, is found among the Grampians ot
Kincardine. The animals are the roe-deer, fox,
hare, badger, otter, wild-cat, weasel, pole-cat,
and hedgehog. Of the birds, grouse are plenti-
ful, and partridges and sea-fowl in the low
country. -
The principal rivers are the Dee, which has a
course of seventy-five miles, eight of which are
within Kincardineshire; the North Esk, the
boundary between the counties of Kincardine
and Forfar; Bervie water, which falls into the
German Ocean near the town of Bervie; and
the Cowie, which falls into the sea at Stonehaven.
There are also the Carron, Feuch, Avon, and
Dye, besides other inferior streams. There are
also two lakes, which are about three miles in
circumference. The chief antiquities are Fi-
nella's Castle, remarkable for its vitrified walls,
about a mile and a half from Fettercairn ; Queen's
Castle, about a mile eastward from that town;
the Kame of Mathers, about six miles from
Montrose; Whistlebury Castle, about two miles
from Bervie; and Dunnotar Castle, about a mile
south from Stonehaven; all placed on the sum-
mits of lofty insulated rocks on the shore. The
valued rent of the county is £74,921. Kincar-
dineshire contains one royal burgh, namely,
Inverbervie, or more commonly Bervie. But
there are the towns and villages of Stonehaven,
Johnshaven, and Laurencekirk. The county is"
divided into nineteen parochial districts.
MEASLES, n. s.) Belg. mazelen, measelen;
MEA's LED, adj. }; 7maseleh, mase, or
MEA's LY, adj. masche; of Lat. maculae,
spots. An eruptive disease of man and some of
the lower animals: Mortimer also finds it in
trees: measled and measly are, infected, or
scabbed, with measles.
My lungs
Coin words till their decay, against those measles,
Which we disdain should tetter us, yet seek
The very way to catch them.
Shakspeare. Coriolanus.
One, when he had an unlucky old grange, would
needs sell it, and proclaimed the virtues of it; no-
thing ever thrived on it, no owner of it ever died in
his bed; the swine died of the measles, and the sheep
of the rot. Ben Jonson's Discovery
Thou vermin wretched,
As e'er in measled pork was hatched;
Thou tail of worship, that dost grow
On rump of justice as of cow. Hudibras.
Fruit-bearers are often infected with the measles,
by being scorched with the sun.
Mortimer’s Husbandry,
MEA
MEA
7 11
Before the phague of London, inflammations of the
ungs were rife and mortal, as likewise the measles.
- Arbuthnot.
I,ast trotted forth the gentle swine,
To ease her, against the stump,
And dismally was heard to whine,
All as she scrubbed her measly rump.
MEASURE, n.s. & v. a.
MEASURELEss, adj.
MEAS’UREMENT, n.s.
MEAS'URER, n"Tºyo. Rule of
MEASURING, adj. dimension, pro-
portion, or quantity; hence sufficient quantity;
due degree or proportion ; limit; boundary;
allotment; musical time; metre; tune; a stately
dance; mean of action, referring, as Johnson
observes, to the necessity of measuring the
ground upon which any structure is to be raised,
or any distant effect to be produced, as in shoot-
ing at a mark. Hence, he that proportioned his
means to his end was said to take right measures:
to measure is to compute by rule, or by passing
over : hence to adjust ; judge; mark out; allot:
measuring, as an adjective, is applied by Waller
to a cast not to be distinguished in its length
from another but by measuring.
For not to mesure, God gyuith the spirit.
Wiclif. Jam. iii.
Lord, make me to know mine end, and the mea-
sure of my days what it is, that I may know how
frail I am. Psalms.
With what measure you mete, it shall be measured
to you again. Matth. vii. 2.
Wine measurably drunk, and in season, bringeth
gladness of the heart. Ecclus. xxxi. 28.
The joyous nymphs and light-foot fairies,
Which thither came to hear their musick sweet,
And to the measures of their melodies .
Did learn to move their nimble-shifting feet.
Spenser.
Measure is that which perfecteth all things, be-
cause every thing is for some end ; neither can that
thing be available, to any end, which is not propor-
tionable thereunto; and to proportion as well ex-
cesses as defects are opposite. Hooker.
Now are our brows bound with victorious wreaths,
Our stern alarms changed to merry meetings,
Our dreadful marches to delightful measures.
- * Shakspeare.
He shut up in measureless content. Id.
Wooing, wedding, and repenting, is as a Scotch
jig, a measure, and a cinque pace; the first suit is
hot and hasty, like a Scotch jig, and full as fantas-
tical; the wedding mannerly, modest as a measure,
full of state and anchentry. Id.
My legs can keep no measure in delight,
When my poor heart no measure keeps in grief;
Therefore no dancing, girl, some other sport. Id.
A true devoted pilgrim is not weary
To measure kingdoms with his feeble steps. Id.
... A taylor's news, e
Who stood with shears and measure in his hand,
Standing on slippers, which his nimble haste
Had falsely thrust upon contrary feet,
Told of many a thousand. . . Id. King John.
Be large in mirth, anon we’ll drink a measure
The table round. Id. Macbeth.
* Good Kent, how shall I live and work
To match thy goodness 2 life will be too short,
And every measure fail me. Id. King Lear.
Archidamus having received from Philip, after the
'victory of Cheronea, proud letters, writ back, that if
Swift.
Fren. mesure ;
Ital, misura ; Lat.
mensura ; Hebrew
he measured his own shadow he would find it no
longer than it was before his victory. Bacon.
I have laid down, in some measure, the description
of the old world. Abbot’s Description of the World.
Had not this messenger measured David's foot by
his own last, he had forborne this piece of news;
and not hoped to advantage himself by this false-
hood. Bp. Hall.
Words must be fitted to a man's mouth : ’twas
well said of the fellow that was to make a speech for
my lord mayor, when he desired to take measure of
his lordship's mouth. Selden.
To secure a contented spirit, measure your desires
by your fortunes, not your fortunes by your desires.
Taylor. .
He lived according to nature, the other by ill cus-
toms, and measures taken by other men's eyes and
tongues. Id.
His majesty found what wrong measures he had
taken in the conferring that trust, and lamented his
€TTOr. Clarendom.
Great are thy works, Jehovah' infinite
Thy power What thought can measure thee, or
tongue
Relate thee ? Milton's Paradise Lost.
When lusty shepherds throw
The bar by turns, and none the rest out-go
So far, but that the best are measuring casts,
Their emulation and their pastime lasts.
Waller.
God’s goodness is the measure of his pº
- 07°0.
Our religion sets before us not the example of a
stupid stoick, who had, by obstinate principles,
hardened himself against all pain beyond the com-
mon measures of humanity, but an example of a man
like ourselves. Tillotson.
A concave measure, of known and denominated
capacity, serves to measure the capaciousness of any
other vessel. Holder.
All magnitudes are capable of being measured ;
but it is the application of one to another which
makes actual measure. Id.
I addressed them to a lady, and affected the soft-
ness of expression, and the smoothness of measure,
rather than the height of thought. Dryden.
The vessel ploughs the sea,
And measures back with speed her former way.
As when the stars, in their athereal race,
At length have rolled around the liquid space,
From the same point of heaven their course advance,
And move in measures of their former dance. Id.
Silver is the instrument as well as measure of com-
merce; and ’tis by the quantity of silver he gets for
any commodity in exchange, that he measures the
value of the commodity he sells. ... Locke.
What thou seest is that portion of eternity which
is called time, measured out by the sun, and reaching
from the beginning of the world to its consummation.
Addison’s Spectator.
Christ reveals to us the measures according to which
God will proceed in dispensing his rewards.
Smalridge's Sermons.
Amaryllis breathes thy secret pains,
And thy fond heart beats measure to thy strains.
- - Prior.
When Moses speaks of measures, for example, of
an ephah, he presumes they knew what measure he
meant : that he himself was skilled in weights and
measures, arithmetick and geometry, there is no rea-
son to doubt. Arbuthnot on Coins.
I expect, from those that judge by first sight and
'rash measures, to be thought fond of insolent.
Granville's Scepsis.
712
M E A S U R. E.
God’s eternal duration is permanent and invisible,
not measurable by time and motion, nor to be com-
puted by number of successive moments.
Bentley’s Sermons.
The numbers themselves, though of the heroick
measure, should be the smoothest imaginable.
Pope.
Can that arm measure, with an arm divine !
And canst thou thunder with a voice like mine !
Young.
A series of inconsistent measures has alienated the
colonies from their duty as subjects, and from their
natural affections to their common country.
Junius.
In some measure I succeeded; I had pride before,
but he taught it to flow in proper channels. Burns.
They think there is nothing worth pursuit, but that
which they can handle ; which they can measure
with a two-foot rule, which they can tell upon ten
fingers. Sheridan.
MEASURE, among botanists. In , describing
the parts of plants, Tournefort introduced a geo-
metrical scale, which many of his followers have
retained. . They measured every part of the
plant; and the essence of the description con-
sisted in an accurate mensuration of the whole.
As the parts of plants, however, are liable to
variation in no circumstance so much as that of
dimension, Linnaeus very rarely admits any other
mensuration than that arising from the respec-
tive length and breadth of the parts compared
together. In cases that require actual mensura-
tion, the same author recommends, in lieu of
Tournefort's artificial scale, the following natural
cale of the human body, which he thinks is
much more convenient, and equally accurate.
This scale consists of eleven degrees, which are
as follows:–1. A hair's-breadth, or the diame-
ter of a hair (capillus). 2. A line (linea), the
breadth of the crescent or white appearance at
the root of the finger (not thumb), measured
from the skin towards the body of the nail; a
line is equal to twelve hair-breadths, and is the
twelfth part of a Parisian inch. 3. A nail
(unguis), the length of a finger nail; equal to
six lines, or half a Parisian inch. 4. A thumb
(pollex), the length of the first or uttermost joint
of the thumb; equal to a Parisian inch. 5. A
palm (palmus), the breadth of the palm exclu-
sive of the thumb; equal to three Parisian
inches. 6. A span (spithama), the distance be-
tween the extremity of the thumb and that of the
first finger when extended; equal to seven Pari-
sian inches. 7. A great span (dodrans), the dis-
tance between the extremity of the thumb and
that of the little finger when extended; equal to
nine inches. A foot (pes), measuring from the
elbow to the basis of the thumb; equal to
twelve Parisian inches. 9. A cubit (cubitus),
from the elbow to the extremity of the middle
finger; equal to seventeen inches. 10. An arm-
length (brachium), from the arm-pit to the ex-
tremity of the middle finger; equal to twenty-
four Parisian inches, or two feet. 11. A fathom
(orgya), the measure of the human stature; the
distance between the extremities of the two
middle fingers, when the arms are extended;
equal, where greatest, to six feet. º
MEASURE, in geometry, denotes any quantity
assumed, as one, or unity, to which the ratio of
the other homogeneous or similar quantities is
expressed. .. -
MEASURE, in music, the interval or space of
time which the person who beats time takes be-
tween the rising and falling of his hand or foot,
in order to conduct the movement, sometimes
quicker and sometimes slower, according to the
kind of music, or the subject that is sung or
played. The measure is that which regulates
the time we are to dwell on each note. See
TIME. The ordinary or common measure is one
second, or sixtieth part of a minute, which is
nearly the space between the beats of the pulse
or heart; the systole, or construction of the
heart, answering to the elevation of the hand;
and its diastole, or dilatation, to the letting it
fall. The measure usually takes up the space
that a pendulum of two feet and a half long em-
ploys in making a swing or vibration. The
measure is regulated according to the different
quantity or value of the notes in the piece; by
which the time that each note is to take up is
expressed. The semibreve, for instance, holds
one rise, and one fall; and this is called the
measure, or whole measure; sometimes the mea-
sure note, or time note; the minim, one rise,
or one fall ; and the crotchet, half a rise or half
a fall, there being four crotchets in a full mea-
SUII'ê.
MEASURE BINARY, or Double, is that wherein
the rise and fall of the hand are equal.
MEASURE TERNARY, or TRIPLE, is that
wherein the fall is double to the rise; or where
two minims are played during a fall, and but
one in the rise. To this purpose, the number
three is placed at the beginning of the lines,
when the measure is intended to be triple; and
a C, when the measure is to be common or
double. This rising and falling of the hands
was called by the Greeks apatc. and Ssatc. St.
Augustine calls it, plausus, and the Spaniards
compas. See ARSIS and THESIS.
MEASURE is also used to signify the cadence
and time observed in poetry, dancing, and music,
to render them regular and agreeable. The dif-
ferent measures or metres in poetry are the dif-
ferent manners of ordering and combining the
quantities, or the long and short syllables. Thus
hexameter, pentameter, iambic, Sapphic verses,
&c., consist of different measures. In English
verses the measures are extremely various and
arbitrary, every poet being at liberty to introduce
any new form that he pleases. The most usual
are the heroic, generally consisting of five long
and five short syllables; and verses of four
feet; and of three feet and a caesura, or single
syllable. The ancients, by variously combining
and transposing their quantities, made a vast
variety of different measures. Of words, or ra-
ther feet of two syllables, they formed a spondee,
consisting of two long syllables; a pyrrhic, of
two short syllables; a trochee, of a long and a
short syllable; and an iambic, of a short and a
long syllable. Of their feet of three syllables
they formed a molossus, consisting of three long
syllables; a tribrachys, of three short syllables;
a dactyl, of one long and two short syllables;
and an anapaest, of two short and one long syl-
lable. The Greek poets contrived 120 different
- MEA
MEA tº
713
combinations or measures, under as many dif-
ferent names, from feet of two syllables to those
of six. -
MEASURE, in a legal and commercial sense,
denotes a certain quantity or proportion of any
thing bought, sold, valued, or the like. It is
necessary, for the convenience of commerce,
that a uniformity should be observed in weights
and measures, and regulated by proper standards.
A foot-rule may be used as a standard for mea-
sures of length, a bushel for measures of capa-
city, and a pound for weights. There are
several standards of this kind in England and
Scotland. See WEIGHTS and MEASURES, where
the history of the late important alterations in
the British standards will be found; and an
ample table of ancient and modern weights and
IſleaSUlreS. -
MEASURING, in general, makes the practical
part of geometry. From the various subjects
whereon it is employed, it acquires various
names, and constitutes various arts. See GEO-
METRY, and TRIGoNoMETRY. -
MEAT, n.s. Sax. mece; Goth. and Swed.
MEAT’ED. łº, mat; Dan. mad; Welsh,
anaeth. Food; animal food in particular: meated
is, fed ; foddered.
But he seide to hem, I have mete to ete that ye
knowen not. Wiclif. Jon. iv.
To his father he sent ten she asses laden with corn
and bread, and meat for his father by the way.
Gen. xlv. 23.
Meats for the belly, and the belly for meats; but
God shall destroy both. I Cor. vi. 13.
Strong oxen and horses, wel shod and wel clad,
Wel meated and used. Tusser's Husbandry.
Never words were musick to thine ear,
And never meat sweet-savoured in thy taste,
Unless I spake or carved.
Shakspeare. Comedy of Errors.
Carnivorae, and birds of prey, are no good meat;
but the reason is, rather the cholerick nature of those
birds than their feeding upon flesh; for pewets and
ducks feed upon flesh, and yet are good meat.
Bacon’s Natural History.
He gives the reason of the distaste of satiety, and
of the pleasure in novelty in meats and drinks. Id.
There was a multitude of excises; as, the vectigal
macelli, a ta upon meat. Arbuthnot.
MEAT. See ALIMENT, DIET, DRINK, and Food.
Among the Jews several kinds of animals were
forbidden to be used as food. The flesh with
the blood, and the blood without the flesh, were
prohibited ; as well as the fat of sacrificed ani-
mals. Roast meat, boiled meat, and ragouts,
were used among the Hebrews, but they had no
seasoning, except salt, bitter herbs, and honey.—
They never mingled milk in any ragout or hash,
and never eat at the same meal both meat and
milk, butter, or cheese. The daily provision for
Solomon's table was thirty measures of fine
wheat flour, sixty of common flour, ten stalled
oxen, twenty pasture oxen, 100 sheep, besides
venison and wild-fowl. The principal and most
necessary food among the ancient Greeks was
bread, which they called aproc, and produced
in a wicker basket colled kavsov. Their loaves
were sometimes baked under the ashes, and
sometimes in an oven. They also used a sort of
bread called maza. Barley meal was used
among the Greeks, which they called Taxparov.
.They had a frequent dish called 6ptov, which was .
a composition of rice, cheese, eggs, and honey,
wrapped in fig-leaves. The Murrurov was
made of cheese, garlic, and eggs, beaten and
mixed together. Their bread, and substitutes
for it, were baked in the form of hollow plates,
into which they poured a sauce. Garlic, onions,
and figs, seem to have been a very common food
amongst the poorer Athenians. The Greeks,
especially in the heroical times, ate flesh roasted;
boiled meat was seldom used. Besides beef,
mutton, venison, &c., it appears from Hippo-
crates that they ate the flesh of horses, asses,
dogs, and foxes. Fish seem not to have been used
for food in the early ages of Greece. The young
people only, among the Lacedemonians, ate ani-
mal food; the men and the old men were sup-
ported by a black soup called us\a Šupoc, which
to people of other nations was always disagree-
able. Grasshoppers, and the extremities of
tender shoots of trees, were frequently eaten by
the poor among the Greeks. Eels dressed with
beet root were esteemed a delicate dish, and
they were fond of the jowl and belly of salt
fish. The dessert consisted frequently of fruits,
almonds, nuts, figs, peaches, &c. In every kind
of food salt was used. The diet of the earliest
Romans consisted of milk, herbs, and roots,
which they dressed with their own hands; they
also had a kind of gruel, or coarse gross pap,
composed of meal and boiling water; this
served for bread: and, when they began to use
bread, they had none for a long time, but of un-
mixed rye. Barley-meal was next eaten by
them, which they called polenta. When they
began to eat animal food it was esteemed a
piece of luxury, and an indulgence not to be
justified but by some particular occasion. After
animal food had grown into common use, the
meat most frequent upon their tables was pork.
MEATH, a county of the province of Lein-
ster, in the kingdom of Ireland. It is bounded
on the north by the counties of Cavan and
Louth, on the east by the Irish Channel, on the
south by Kildare and Dublin, and on the west
by Westmeath county. There are eighteen baro-,
nies, and 147 parishes in this shire, the area of
which measures 327,900 acres.
The surface of Meath, as the name imports,
(Maith signifying a level country.) is almost a
continued plane; the soil is a deep loam, remark-
ably fruitful in the production of corn, and also
yielding the richest pasturage for the fattening of
heavy stock. Meath was anciently a favored
province; the great hall of Tarah, where the
Irish kings of old assembled, where laws were
digested, and whence they were published, and
with the extinction of whose honors the ma-
jesty of the Irish throne may be said to have
expired, occupied a central and commanding
position here. Few counties possess greater
agricultural capabilities, and none in Ireland
has turned those natural advantages to a better
account. The staple of the county is corn,
which is exported from the port of Drogheda.
There are many splendid residences of nobility
within the boundaries of East Meath, amongst
which should be mentioned Slave Castle (honored
©
er
MEA
MEC
714

by the visitof his gracious majesty, king George
IV. in 1821), the magnificent seat of the mar-
quis of Conyngham : Headfort, the seat of
marquis Headfort; Douth, the residence of the
late lord Netterville; Tarah, the hall of lord
Tarah; Gormanston Castle, belonging to the
viscount Gormanston, a constant resident;
Dangan, the estate and birth-place of the illus-
trious duke of Wellington; Mornington, for-
merly the property of the noble family of Wel-
lesley, who hetice derived the title of earls;
Summerhill, the costly mansion of lord Langford;
Dunsany Castle, the ancient possession of the
Plunkets, viscount Dunsany; and Stackallen,
the picturesque seat of the lord Boyne.
The chief towns of Meath are Trim, the
assizes town, Navan, Kells, Athboy, Duleck,
Oldcastle, Dunboyne, Laracor (of which parish
dean Swift was onee the incumbent), Duns-
haughlin, Ratoath, and Slane. The linen manu-
facture was formerly pursued here with much
success, but husbändry appears to have expelled
it to a certain extent; and the dowlass, for which
this country was once famous, is now made by
the great capitalists in the north of England.
The rivers of Meath are the Nanny-Water and the
Boyne, the latter of which flows through a rich
and picturesque vein of country; perhaps the
most pleasing landscape on the banks of this
noble river is at Aldbridge, the scene of that
battle between kings James and William, which
decided the fate of the British crown. A beau-
tiful obelisk erected on the spot, with an appro-
priate inscription, commemorates the great event.
Meath has been, for many years, an industrious
and tranquil county, not over populous, and
comparatively wealthy. Education has not
made any very extensive progress here, not more
than 7000 pupils being in attendance at the
public schools. t -
MEATHE, m. s. Teut. mieth; Wel. medd.
Mead; any similar drink.
•ºr For drink the grape
She crushes, inoffensive must, and meathes
From many a berry. Milton's Paradise Lost.
MEAUX, anciently Latinum, a fine city of the
department of the Seine-et-Marne, and the prin-
cipal place of a subprefecture. It is the seat of
a bishop, has a lower court of judicature, a tri-
bunal of commerce, an agricultural society, a
society of arts and sciences, and an ecclesiastical
school. It is a post town, containing 7400 inha-
bitants. This city stands on the Marne, near the
Ourcq Canal, in a very fertile country, The
river, which divides it into two unequal parts,
serves to work a number of mills, which grind
corn chiefly for the supply of Paris. It is a well
built town; the market place is large, but of an
irregular form, and it has some very agreeable
walks. Here is a public library containing 10,000
volumes. In the cathedral, which is regarded as
a masterpiece of architecture, the celebrated
Bossuet lies interred. At a little distance from
the city is the rock of Crécy, remarkable for its
grottoes and petrifactions, which seems to have
been formed by the continual dropping of a
spring, that possesses very remarkable qualites.
There are here manufactories of calicoes,
printed cºttons, glue, saltpetre, and vinegar, tan-
yards, leather dressing shops, &c., and a consider
able tradeis carried on in corn, flour, mustard,wool,
cattle, poultry, wood, coals, and cheese. The
markets of Meaux are frequented by a great
number of rich farmers. This city is thirty-three
miles E. N. E. of Paris, thirty-nine north of
Milan, and thirty-six W. S.W. of Chateau
Thierry.
MEAZLING, part. Teut. mazelin, is spotted.
See MEASLEs. Applied to rain descending in
small drops.
The air feels more moist when the water is in
small than in great drops; in meazling and soaking
rain, than in great showers. Arbuthnot on Air.
MECCA, a noted city of Arabia, the capital
of the province of Hedsjas, and of Mahometan-
ism, is situated in a rocky, barren country,
about a day's journey from the Red Sea. . Its
immediate site is a narrow valley, enclosed be-
tween mountains; the houses following its
windings, and being built partly on the acclivi-
ties on each side. The streets are sanded, level,
and regular; and the houses of extremely neat
appearance, and even handsome. They are or
stone, and seldom less than three stories high. In
the interior the rooms are large and commodious,
though the stairs are generally narrow and dark.
The livelihood of the inhabitants depends much
on the letting of apartments. The markets are
held in the streets. The prosperity derived from
the pilgrimages here was at one time so great,
that Mecca could boast a population of 100,000
inhabitants. This has been greatly diminished
of late, we understand, partly from Mecca being
exposed to the incursions of the Wahabees. It
is not now supposed to contain more than 16,000
or 18,000 people; and many quarters are aban-
doned and in ruins. The servants of the temple
are described by Ali Bey as the most meagre and
miserable people he ever saw. They are also
dull and melancholy, nor did he, during his stay,
hear a musical instrument or a song, unless in
two or three instances from females. From every
pilgrim at all opulent, however, they contrive to
extract from £70 to £90 for alms and contribu-
tions; and even from those who beg their way fees
are expected. The women here are not so rigidly
confined as in other Mahometan towns, and
are said to be sufficiently accessible to their de-
votees. Mecca has also little modern reputation
for learning. No regular schools are kept, except
for the common branches; but occasionally a
few doctors seat themselves in the porticoes of the
temple, and expound the Koran. tº
The great ornament of this city is its famous
temple, containing the Kaaba, or house of the
prophet. Strangers descend by a number of
steps into a great hall, through which they are
ushered into an inner square, and discover a
plain square building, covered with black cloth,
through which are seen patches of the dark stone
of which the Kaaba is built. The most sacred
relic here is the stone said to be brought by the
angel Gabriel to form the foundation of the
building. The grand ceremony of the pilgrims
is that of going seven times round the Kaaba,
reciting appointed verses and psalms, in honor
of God and the prophet, and kissing the sacred
stone each time. They are then conducted to the
M E C H A N i C s.
715
well Zemzém, in another part of the same square,
of which they take large draughts, and undergo
a thorough ablution in its waters. A final cere-
mony is the pilgrimage to Mount Arafat, about
thirty miles to the south of the city. The climate
here is very sultry, and there are even instances
recorded of persons being suffocated in the
streets. The balm of Mecca is only to be found
in small quantities, but is not manufactured here.
Long. 40° 15' E., lat. 21° 18' 9" N.
M E C H A N 1 c s.
MECHANIC, ****) Fr. mechanique;
MECHAN'Ics, n. s. Lat. mechanicus ;
MECHAN'ICAL, adj. Gr. ºnxavn. Re-
MECHAN'ICALLY, adv. lating to machi-
MECHAN'ICALNESS; n. s. nery: a construg-
tor of machines:
MECHANIc'IAN,
MECHANISM. mechanics is the
science or doctrine of their construction. See
below. Mechanician, an adept in, or student of,
mechanics or mechanical constructions: mechan-
ism, action, or construction, according to the
laws of mechanics.
Know you not, being mechanical, you ought not to
walk upon a labouring day, without the sign of your
profession ? - Shakspeare.
Hang him, mechanical salt-butter rogue ! I will
stare him out of his wits; I will hew him with my
cudgel. Id.
t . Mechanick slaves,
With greasy aprons, rules, and hammers, shall
Uplift us to the view. Id. Antony and Cleopatra.
Do not bid me
Dismiss my soldiers, or capitulate
Again with Rome's mechanicks.
Id. Coriolanus.
In the youth of a state, arms do flourish ; in the
middle age of a state, learning; and then both of
them together for a time; in the declining age of a
state; mechanical arts and merchandise. Bacon.
To make a god, a hero, or a king,
Descend to a mechanick dialect. Roscommon.
Some were figured like male, others like female
screws, as mechanicians speak. - Böyle.
Many a fair precept in poetry is like a seeming
demonstration in mathematicks, very speciotis in the
diagram, but failing in the mechanick operation.
Dryden.
They suppose even the common animals that are
in being; to have been formed mechanically among
the rest. t Ray.
A third proves a very heavy philosopher, who pos-
sibly would have made a good mechanick, and have
done well enough at the useful philosophy of the
spade or the anvil. . . . South.
Dr. Wallis defines mechanicks to be the geometry
of motion, a mathematical science, which shews the
effects of powers, or moving forces, so far as they
are nºf to engines, and demonstratēs the lăws of
motion. - Härris.
The main business of natural philosophy is to
argue from phenomena without feigning hypotheses,
and to deduce causes from effects till we come to the
very first cause, which certainly is not mechanical;
and not only to unfold the mechanism of the world,
but chiefly to resolve these, and such like questions.
Néwton.
Later philosophers feign hypotheses for explaining
all things mechanically, and refer other causes to
metaphysickš. Id.
After the chyle has passed through the lungs,
nature continues her usual mechaniim, to convert it
Into animal substances. Arbuthnot on Aliments.
He acknowledged nothing besides matter and
motion; so that all must be performed either by
nechanism or accident, either of which is wholly un-
accountable. - Bentley.
As the general quality of meat-roasting, with its
several modifications, as to beef, mutton, pullets, &c.,
does not inhere in any one part of the jack; so nei-
ther does consciousness, with its several modes of
sensation, intellection, volition, &c., inhere in any
one, but is the result from the mechanical compo-
sition of the whole animal. • Pope.
The rudiments of geography, with something of
mechanicks, māy be easily conveyed into the minds
of acute young persons. .."
Watts's Improvement of the Mind.
MECHANics. In furnishing our readers with
a condensed treatise on this important branch of
physics, it may be advisable, in the first instance,
to examine the simple mechanical powers; by
means of which we are enabled to adapt animal
labor to the useful arts of life: their combination
in the construction of machines will then be
better understood. -
The tyro is frequently disposed to imagine
that, by means of the méchanical powers, a real
increase of power is obtained; this, however, is
riot the fact. For instance, if a man be just able
to convey 1 cwt. from the bottom to the top of his
house in one minute's time, no mechanical en-
gine would enable him to convey 3 cwt. to the
same height in the same time; but the engine
will enable him to convey 3 cwt. in three mi-
ntites; which amounts to the same thing as to
say that the man could, without the engine,
carry the 3 cwt. by going three times to the top
of the house, and carrying 1 cwt. at a time, prā-
vided the load admitted of its being so divided.
Therefore the engine increases the effect 6f a
given force by lengthening the time of the opera-
tion; or (since uniform velocity is proportional
to the time), by increasing the velocity of that
force of power. º r
The power, or acting force, is so far from
being ificreased by any machine, that a certaili
part of it is always lost in overcoming the ré-
sistance of rhediums, the friction, bf other un-
avoidable imperfections of machines; and this
loss in some compound engines is very gréat.
Every machine, however complex it may be,
must consist of some combihātion of the follow-
ing simple ſhachines, which are comfüonly called
the mechanical powers.
1. The lever.
The wheel and axle,
The pulley.
The inclined plane
The wedge.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6. The screw.
716
M E C H A N I C S.
This classification of the elements of machinery,
although very simple when considered with
respect to the extent and power of the results
which spring from it, may be still farther simpli-
fied; not because any of the six machines, which
we have just enumerated, admits of being re-
solved into more simple parts, but because some
of them are identical in principle, and different
only in appearance. We shall show, hereafter,
that the wheel and axle is, in fact, a lever, and
that the wedge and screw are only modifications
of the inclined plane; so that it follows, that all
the varieties of simple machines may be reduced
to three :—
1. The lever.
2. The pulley.
3. The inclined plane.
The lever is the simplest of all machines, and
is only a straight bar of iron, wood, or other
material, supported on, and moveable round, a
prop, called the fulcrum.
In the lever there are three circumstances to
be principally attended to: 1. The fulcrum, or
prop, by which it is supported, or on which it
turns as an axis, or centre of motion. 2. The
power to raise and support the weight. 3. The
resistance, or weight to be raised or sustained.
The points of suspension are those points
where the weights really are, or from which they
hang freely.
The power and the weights are always sup-
posed to act at right angles to the lever, except
It be otherwise expressed. -
The lever is distinguished into three sorts,
according to the different situations of the ful-
crum, or prop, and the power, with respect to
each other. -
In the lever of the first kind the fulcrum is
placed between the power and the resistance; in
the second kind the resistance is between the
fulcrum and the power; and in the third kind
the power is applied between the fulcrum and
the resistance; and the power gained will in all
cases be in proportion to the relative lengths of
the two arms in the same lever. Plate I. ME-
CHANICs, fig. 1, represents a lever of the first
kind in one of its most common applications; viz.
raising a large stone or weight d, and when used
in this way it is, in practice, most commonly
called a crow-bar, or hand-spike. The entire
bar ef is, however, a lever, and the stone, or
block g, is the fulcrum upon which it turns;
consequently, from g to f(where the power is to
be applied) will be the acting part of this lever, .
and from g to e its resisting part. The power
gained by this form of the lever is as the resist-
ing is contained in the acting part, or as fg is to
ge; so that if the lengths fg and ge be taken,
and fg be divided by ge, the quotient will be the
power gained. In the plate e g is contained
twice in gf, or will gain a power of two, so that,
whatever the weight of d may be, it will only
appear to weigh half as much at f; and, if the
fulcrum g were removed so much nearer to e
that the new distance between e and g should be
contained twenty times in the distance gºf, then
a power of twenty would be gained, or d would
be lifted at f with a power equal to one-twentieth
of its real weight. In this case, however, f would
have to descend twenty times as far as e would.
rise, and therefore a very small motion would be
communicated to d. . - -
By the same rule, if moving the fulcrum g
towards the resistance d increases the power of
the lever at f, so will removing it in a contrary
direction, or towards.f, decrease it. Thus if g is
supposed to be placed exactly half way between
e and f, so as to make the acting and resisting
arms equal, then no power at all will be gained
at f: because, whatever may be the weight
placed on e, an equal power will be necessary to
move it at f; and as both e and f will in mov-
ing perform equal arcs of circles, or move through
equal distances in equal times, so no power can
be gained, this being in direct opposition to the
laws of motion. Again, if the fulcrum g be sup-
posed to be placed nearer to f than it is to g, thene
when moved will pass through alarger space than
f, therefore e will generate more momentum than .
can be generated at f; and consequently the
apparent weight of d, as felt at f, will be in-
creased, or a greater power must be exerted at f
than is equivalent to the weight of d. Under
such an arrangement it will be evident that,
although the whole is a lever, it cannot be a me-
chanic power, unless it is admitted that from f to
g is the resisting end, and from g to e the acting
one; in this case, the power must be applied at
e instead off, and now it will be seen that it is the
same lever as in the first case, but with its ends
reversed. •
In speaking of the power of levers, under all
their several modifications, it must be observed
that they must be considered as without weight;
and, in making accurate experiments upon them,
the weights of their several parts must be nicely
balanced, otherwise the result will be affected.
Thus, in the preceding figure, if the bar ef were
of equal size throughout, it is evident there
would be twice as much matter in the arm g f as
in the shorter one eg, and this additional quan-
tity of matter would preponderate and bear
down the end f; thus appearing to increase and
assist the power. This difficulty will be met in
theory by considering the whole bar ef as with-
out weight, and in practice or experiment it must
be obviated by hanging on a weight, or making
the shorter arm eg so much thicker, as to cause
it to be an exact balance for the longer arm gif
when the lever is mot in action.
A sufficient illustration of the first form of the
lever may be found by reference to an ordinary
poker. This, when employed to stir the fire,
will have for its axis the bar upon which it rests;
the coals’are the weight to be overcome, whilst
the hand may be considered as the power em-
ployed; and it is also with reference to this me-
chanical power that we construct the steel-yard.
BA, fig. 2, is a lever of the first kind, sup-
ported by an inflexible point O; and, as the dis-
tance from O to B is twice as great as it is from
O to A, the hand C, by exerting a force of one
pound, may be placed in equilibrio with a weight
of two pounds, or twice the amount. . From
this it will be seen that the length of the arm
OB, multiplied into the power C, equals QA
multiplied into the weight D, and as such that
the power and the weight must be to each other
*
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M E C H A N I C S.
717
inversely as their distances from the fulcrum.
To further illustrate the matter let us suppose
OB, the distance of the power from the prop, to
be twenty inches, and OA, the distance of the
weight from the prop, to be eight inches, it will
then be found that a weight of five pounds may
be supported by a power of only two pounds,
because the distance of the weight from the
fº.crum, eight, multiplied into the weight five,
makes forty, and as such the longer arm will
bnly require a power of two, which, multiplied
by twenty, will produce the same amount.
Let AG, fig. 3, represent an horizonial lever
at rest. At the point B, equi-distant from A and
G, is placed the fulcrum D, and at the extremi-
ties A and G are hung the equal weights E and
F. Then the lever will continue at rest, the
weights E and F being in equilibrio. For it is
evident that, if the line AG be moved on the
fulcrum B, its extremities A and G will each be
carried with equal velocities in the periphery of
the same circle. And, because AG is horizontal,
the actions of the weights EF will be in direc-
tion at right angles to its length; that is to say,
they will act in the direction of tangents to the
said circle at the points A and G.; or they will
act in the direction of those particles of the peri-
phery which may be imagined to coincide with the
tangents. Each pressure, therefore, tends to
move the correspondent extremity of the line AG
in that very line of direction in which only it.
can move. Suppose the pressure at G to be re-
moved, and the whole pressure at A will be em-
ployed in depressing the point A, or, which is
necessarily in this case the same, in raising the
point G: on account therefore of the equal velo-
cities of the points A and G, the action of E at
the point A will be the same as if it were exerted
at G in the direction of the tangent CG. But
again, suppose the equal weight F to be restored,
and the point G will then be acted on by two
equal and opposite forces, which, destroying
each other's effect, will not produce motion, con-
sequently the lever will continue at rest.
* It is likewise evident that, if the radii A. Band
B G be not in a right line, the equal forces will
nevertheless be in equilibrio, if they be applied
in the directions of the tangents: thus, if B G be
bent to the position BK, and the force F be
there applied in the direction KH, the equili-
brium will remain as before.
What is called the hammer lever differs in
nothing but its form from a lever of the first
kind. Its name is derived from its use, that of
drawing a nail out of wood by a hammer.
Suppose the shaft of a hammer to be five
times as long as the iron part which draws the
nail, the lower part resting on the board, as a
fulcrum; then, by pulling backwards the end of
the shaft, a man will draw a nail with one-fifth
part of the power that he must use to pull it out
with a pair of pincers; in which case the nail
would move as fast as his hand; but with the
hammer the hand moves five times as much as
the nail, by the time that the nail is drawn out.
Let A CB, fig. 4, represent a lever of this sort,
• bended at C, which is its prop or centre of mo-
the pulley D; and W is a weight or resistance
acting upon the end B of the shorter arm C B.
If the power be to the weight, as CB is to CA,
they are in equilibrio: thus, suppose W to be five
pounds, acting at the distance of one foot from
the centre of motion C, and P to be one pound,
acting at A, five feet from the centre C, the
power and weight will just balance each other.
Of levers of the first kind there are numerous
instances. Scissars, pincers, snuffers, and all
similar instruments, consist of two levers, of
which the rivet by which they are united is the
contrac: fillerum
The balance, an instrument of very extensive
use in comparing the weight of bodies, is a lever
of the first kind, whose arms are of equal length.
The points from which the weights are suspended,
being equally distant from the centre of motion,
will move with equal velocity; consequently, if
equal weights be applied, their momenta will be
equal, and the balance will remain in equilibrio.
In order to have a balance as perfect as pos-
sible, it is necessary to attend to the following
circumstances. -
1. The arms of the beam ought to be exactly
equal, both as to weight and length.
2. The points from which the scales are sus-
pended should be in a right line, passing through
the centre of gravity of the beam ; for by this
the weights will act directly against each other,
and no part of either will be lost, on account of
an oblique direction. *
3. If the fulcrum, or point upon which the
beam turns, be placed in the centre of gravity of
the beams, and if the fulcrum and the points of
suspension be in the same right line, the balance
will have no tendency to one position more than
another, but will rest in any position it may be
placed in, whether the scales be on or off, empty
or loaded.
If the centre of gravity pf the beam, when
level, be immediately above the fulcrum, it will
overset by the smallest action; that is, the end
which is lowest will descend; and it will do this
with more swiftness, the higher the centre of gra-
vity be, and the less the points of suspension be
loaded.
But, if the centre of gravity of the beam be
immediately below the fulcrum, the beam will
not rest in any position but when level; and if
disturbed from that position, and then left at li-
berty, it will vibrate, and at last come to rest on
the level. In a balance, therefore, the fulcrum
ought always to be placed a little above the cen-
tre of gravity. Its vibrations will be quicker,
and its horizontal tendency stronger, the lower
the centre of gravity, and the less the weight
upon the points of suspension. &
4. The friction of the beam upon the axis
ought to be as little as possible; because, should
the friction be great, it would-require a consider-
able force to overcome it; upon which account,
though one weight should a little exceed the
other, it will not preponderate, the excess not
being sufficient to overcome the friction, and
bear down the beam. The axis of motion should
be formed with an edge like a knife, and made
very hard: these edges are at first made sharp,
tion. P is a power acting on the longer arm
A C, at A by means of the cord DA going over and then rounded with a fine hone, or piece of
718
M E C H A N I C S.
buff leather, which causes a sufficient bluntness,
or rolling edge. On the regular form and ex-
cellence of this axis depends chiefly the perfec-
tion of this instrument."
5. The pivots, which form the axis or fulcrum,
should be in a straight line, and at right angles
to the beam.
6. The arms should be as long as possible re-
latively to their thickness, and the purposes for
which they are intended, as the longer they are
the more sensible is the balance.
They should also be made as stiff and inflexi-
ble as possible; for, if the beam be too weak, it
will bend, and become untrue. º
7. The rings, or the piece on which the axis
bears, should be hard and well polished, parallel
to each other, and of an oval form, that the axis
may always keep its proper bearing, or remain
always at the lowest point.
8. If the arms of a balance be unequal, the
weights in equipoise will be unequal in the
same proportion. The equality of the arms is
of use, in scientific pursuits, chiefly in the mak-
ing of weights by bisection. A balance with un-
equal arms will weigh as accurately as another
of the same workmanship with equal arms, pro-
vided the standard weight itself be first counter-
poised, then taken out of the scale, and the thing
to be weighed be put into the scale, and ad-
justed against the counterpoise. Or, when pro-
portional quantities only are considered, the
bodies under examination may be weighed
against the weights, taking care always to put
the weights in the same scale, for then, though
the bodies may not be really equal to the
weights, yet their proportions amongst each
other will be the same as if they had been accu-
rately so.
9. Very delicate balances are not only useful
in rice experiments, but are likewise much more
expeditious than others in common weighing.
If a pair of scales, with a certain load, be barely
sensible to one-tenth of a grain, it will require a
considerable time to ascertain the weight to that
degree of accuracy, because the turn must be
observed several times over, and is very small.
But if no greater accuracy were required, and
scales were used which would turn with 100th
of a grain, a tenth of a grain, more or less, would
make so great a difference in the turn that it
would be seen immediately.
10. If a balance be found to turn with a cer-
tain addition, and is not moved by any smaller
weight, a greater sensibility may be given to the
balance, by producing a tremulous motion in
its parts. Thus, if the edge of a blunt saw, a
file, or other similar instrument, be drawn along
any part of the case or support of the balance,
it will produce a jarring, which will diminish the
friction in the moving parts so much, that the
turn will be evident with one-third, or one-fourth
of the addition that would else have been re-
quired. In this way, a beam which would
barely turn by the addition of the tenth of a
grain, will turn with the thirtieth or fortieth of a
grain. -
The usefulness of having good balances for
the weighing of substances, is not limited to the
due performance of nice experiments, but they
also save much time in weighing when a less de-
gree of accuracy is required. If a pair of scales,
loaded with a certain weight, be barely sensible
to one-tenth of a grain, it will require a consider-
able time to ascertain the weight to that degree
of accuracy, because the turn must be observed
several times over, and is very small; but if
scales were used which would turn with the ºth
part of a grain or less, supposing that the weight
was not required to any greater accuracy than
the tenths of grains, a single tenth of a grain,
more or less, would make so great a difference in
the turn of the Scale that it would be seen imme-
diately. w
For the determination of the specific gravity
of various substances, Muschenbroek says, he
used a balance which turned within a fortieth of
a grain when loaded with 200 or 300 grains;
hence his balance determined the weight to the
12,000th of the weight.
Mr. Bolton's larger balance (mentioned in the
Philosophical Transactions, vol. 66) loaded with
a pound, probably of the common avoirdupois,
would turn with one-tenth of a grain; so that
the weight is determined to the 70,000th part of
the weight.
Mr. Bolton's small balance, capable of weigh-
ing half an ounce, turned with the 100th part
of a grain, which is the 24,000th part of the
weight.
Mr. Reid's balancé, mentioned in the same
volume, when loaded with 55 lbs. avoirdupois,
turned readily with less than a pennyweight, and
very distinctly with four grains; so that it de-
termined the weight to the 96,000th part of the
weight in the scale; and, although so strong, was
decidedly the best common balance whose per-
formance has been recorded.
Mr. Whitehurst's balance, mentioned in the
same volume, which weighed one penny-weight;
was sensibly affected with the 2000th part of a
grain, or the 48,000th part of the weight.
Mr. Nicholson's balance, noticed by him in his
Dictionary of Chemistry, when loaded with
12,000 grains in each scale, turned with the #th
part of a grain, or the 84,000th part of the
weight; so that this was a very good balance.
Mr. Alchome's balance (mentioned in the
Philosophical Transactions vol. 77), with 15 lbs.
at each end, turned with two grains; these were
probably troy pounds, and so the accuracy of this
balance went only to the 43,200th of the weight.
Dr. G. Fordyce (in the Philosophical Trans-
actions, vol. 75) mentions a balance, made by
Ramsden, turning on points instead of edges,
which, when loaded with four or five ounces.
Troy, could ascertain the weight to the 160th
part of a grain; that is to say, the 30,400th part
of the weight in the scale.
Mr. Magellan's balance, mentioned by Nichol-
son in his Dictionary of Chemistry, with a pound
in each scale, showed distinctly ºth of a grain, or
the 70,000th part of the weight.
The Royal Society's balance, made by Rams-
den, and turning on steel edges upon planes of
polished crystal, is said to be sensible to the
7,000,000th part of the weight.
The comparison of the weights of different
countries, as made by Mr. Tillet, with the
º
M E C H A N I C S.
719
standard mark in the mint at Paris. was made
with a balance which weighed a mark, or 4608
grains, and turned with a quarter of a grain, or
the 18,432d part of the weight in the scale: so
that, although this balance might be reckoned a
good one, it was in fact inferior in accuracy to any
of the above mentioned, except Muschenbroek's.
Professor Theigel, in his Observations, says
he used a balance, of which, when loaded with two
marks, Cologne weight, at each end, the cock
turned #th of an inch with a richt pfenningtheil,
which, according to the German weights, given
in Mr. Gray's Elements of Pharmacy, is the
131,072d part of the weight in each scale; so
that this balance was a very good instrument.
The balance used by Mr. Cooper (Transactions
Society of Arts, vol. 41) and made by Mr. Ro-
binson, was sensibly affected by ºth of a grain,
when the scales were loaded with 1000 grains at
each end; so that this balance may be esteemed
of very great accuracy, and very fit for the pur-
poses to which it was applied; namely, the ana-
lysis of organic substances by fire.
In all researches which depend upon the ac-
curate weighing of the articles employed, and of
the products obtained, the accuracy of the ba-
lance employed ought to be stated, in order
that it may be determined what confidence
ought to be placed in the results obtained.
The mechanic will from this account of balances
be able to form a proper estimate of the value to
be attached to tables of specific gravity, or to
chemical analysis, which depend on a supposed
accuracy in weighing which is not attainable in
practice. When, indeed, tables of specific gra-
vity are given to five places of figures, the last
figure is merely a guess figure; and, if they
have more than five figures, the author, as
Nicholson justly observes, either deceives inten-
tionally, or through ignorance of decimals.
The statera, or steel-yard, fig. 5, is a lever of
the first kind, whose fulcrum, or centre of motion,
is at A; the weight B is suspended always at
the same distance CA from the centre of motion;
but the power, or counterpoise E, may be shifted
from one point to another all along the arm
AD; by which means a great variety of weights
may be balanced by the same counterpoise E,
whose momentum increases in the proportion of
its distance from A. The whole length of the
arm A D is marked with numbered divisions,
each of which indicates the weight of B, which
is balanced by the counterpoise E, when E is
placed at that particular division. Those divi-
sions are ascentained by trial; for the two arms
of the steel-yard being unequal in weight, their
momentums, when loaded with the weights B and
E, cannot be estimated merely by the products of
those weights multiplied each by its distance
from A. " -
The bent-lever balance is represented in plate,
MECHANIcs, fig. 6. The substance to be weighed
is placed in a dish F, suspended from the arm
of a bent lever at L. The other arm CD is
terminated in a heavy knob, which plays upon a
graduated arch G.H. As the weight depresses
the arm CA, it is so constructed that the lever-
age of H is constantly diminished; and, since
D is removed up the arch, its leverage is con-
stantly increased. When D aqquires such a
position that it counterpoises the weight, the
division to which the index points on the gra-
duated arch expresses the amount of the weight.
To graduate this instrument, let the first divi-
sion be placed at the position which the index
assumes when the dish F is unloaded, Then let
the dish be successively loaded with one, two,
three, &c., pounds, or ounces, or whatever deno-
mination of weight it is designed that the divi-
sions should indicate; and the successive posi-
tions of the index will determine the divisions.
Commercial balances are frequently miscon-
structed for fraudulent purposes, by iuakiing the
arm, from which the substance to be weighed
is suspended, longer than that from which
the counterpoise is hung, thereby giving the
counterpoise a greater leverage, and enabling it
to support a weight proportionably greater than
itself. The end to be attained by the use of
such a balance may be defeated in several ways.
If the object be merely to detect the fraud, it
will be sufficient, after equilibrium has been
established between the substance to be weighed
and the weights, to transpose them, and put the
substance to be weighed in the dish in which the
weights were, and vice versä. . If the balance be
honestly constructed the equilibrium will be
undisturbed ; but if it be fraudulent the sub-
stance to be weighed will preponderate; since,
after the transposition, it will have the greater
leverage. But, if the object be not alone to de-
tect the fraud, but to ascertain the true weight of
the substance, let the counterpoise, which will
produce equilibrium after transposition, befound;
and let this and the former counterpoise bé re-
duced to the same denomination of weight, and
let the two counterpoises thus expressed be
multiplied together, and the square root of the
product extracted; that square root will be the
true weight. Thus, for example, if one counter-
poise be seven pounds, and the other nine pounds
and one-seventh, the product 7 x 9}lbs., is sixty-
four, the square root of which is eight. Hence
eight pounds is the true weight.
To illustrate the second form of the lever, we
have only to place the point of support at one
extremity, employ the power at the other, and
attach the weight at an intermediate point. In
this case the hand C, fig. 7, is placed at a point
equal to three times the distance from the fulcrum
O than the weight D; so that one pound will
exactly balance three pounds. A reference to
this form of the lever will serve to show why two
men, carrying a weight between them, share the
burthen to be supported in proportion to the
distances at which they are placed; thus, if one
man be at O, and the other at B, with an inflexi-
ble pole resting upon their shoulders, the latter
person will have a mechanical advantage over
the former. This is an expedient occasionally
resorted to in the yoking of cattle, so that, if two
horses of unequal strength are intended to pull
the same vehicle, their forces may, be equalised,
by such a division of the bar to which they are
attached, that the point of traction may be as
much nearer to the stronger horse than to the
weaker, as the strength of the former exceeds
that of the latter.
720 M E C H
A N. I C S.
The oars and rudders of vessels are levers of
the second kind: the vessel is the weight or
resistance, the water is the fulcrum, and the man
who governs their motions is the power. A door
is a lever of the second kind: the hinges are the
centre of motion, the body of the door is the
weight, and the hand by which it is moved is
the power. A pair of bellows, nut-crackers, &c.,
are composed of two levers of the second kind. A
chopping-knife is also an example. This instru-
ment is fixed at one end, the fulcrum; the sub-
stance to be cut is placed under it, and the power
is applied at the other extremity.
The third kind of lever, or that in which the
power is applied between the fulcrum and the
resistance, cannot be called a mechanical power,
although it must be mentioned as a modification
of the lever; for since its resisting arm is in all
cases, except one, longer than the acting arm,
and in that one case is equal to it, so it can never
gain power, but in most of its arrangements must
lose it. If the power and resistance represented
in fig. 8 be conceived to change places with
each other, then that figure will represent a lever
of the third kind; for now b will be the power
which is placed between the fulcrum a and the
resistance at c, for the purpose of overcoming it;
and since, if both the power and resistance were
acting at c, they must be equal to each other,
while the power must be increased in proportion
to its proximity at a, so it follows that this lever
must lose power whenever it is applied at any
other situation than c, and that even there it can
gain none.
The third kind of lever is used as little as
possible, on account of the disadvantage to the
moving power; but it cannot always be avoided;
an example of it is seen in rearing a tall ladder
against a wall, where the power or strength of a
main is exerted at a short distance from one end,
and the task cannot be performed without more
º than would be necessary to bear the lad-
€r.
The bones of a man's arm, and the limbs of
animals generally, are levers of the third order;
for, when we lift a weight by the hand, the muscle
that exerts its force to raise that weight is fixed
to the bone about one-tenth part as far below the
elbow as the hand is, and, the elbow being the
centre round which the lower part of the arm
turns, the muscle must therefore exert a force ten
times as great as would be required simply for
the suspension of the weight that is raised. The
principle of vitality has an influence upon the
strength of the muscles, for which we are wholly
unable to account, and a weight, which would
instantly break a muscle the moment it was dead,
can be raised by that muscle while alive without
the smallest pain or difficulty. Vitality, there-
fore, being ordained to communicate so much
energy to such flexible materials as flesh and
blood, a lever of the third sort became most ad-
mirably adapted to the animal frame, because, if
the power be sufficient, its operations are quick,
and it is exerted or resides in a small compass.
If the weight to be raised be of considerable
bulk, and if it be fixed either above or below the
end of the lever, it will vary in its intensity, ac-
cording to the position of the lever. Let AB,
fig. 9, represent a lever having a weight fixed
above it, as A, of which the centre of gravity is a,
and the line of direction a b : then is b the point
in the lever on which the weight acts: but, if the
lever is moved into the position CD, the line of
direction of the weight will fall nearer to the
fulcrum of the lever, and consequently act with
less force upon it; but, if it is placed in the po-
sition E F, the line of direction will fall further
from the fulcrum, and therefore act more on the
lever. On the contrary, the opposite effects take
place when the weight is below the lever.
If several levers be combined together in such
a manner as that a weight, being appended by
the first lever, may be supported by a power ap-
plied to the last, as in fig. 10, which consists of
three levers of the first kind; and is so contrived
that a power, applied at the point L of the lever
C, may sustain a weight at the point S of the
lever A, the power must here be to the weight,
in a ratio, or proportion, compounded of the
several ratios which those powers that can sus-
tain the weight by the help of each lever, when
used singly and apart from the rest, have to the
weight. For instance, if the power which can
sustain the weight P, by the help of the lever A,
be to the weight as 1 to 5; and if the power
which could sustain the same weight by the lever
B alone be to the weight as 1 to 4; and if the
power which could sustain the same weight by
the lever C be to the weight as 1 to 5; then the -
power which will sustain the weight by help of
the three levers joined together will be to the
weight in a proportion consisting of the several
proportions multiplied together, of 1 to 5, 1 to 4,
and 1 to 5; that is, of 1 to 100.
For since in the lever A a power equal to one-
fifth of the weight P, pressing down the lever at
L, is sufficient to balance the weight; and since
it is the same thing whether that power be ap-
plied to the lever A at L or the lever B at S, the
point S bearing on the point L, a power equal to
one-fifth of the weight P, being applied to the
point S of the lever B, will support the weight;
but one-fourth of the same power being applied
to the point L of the lever B, and pushing the
same upward, will as effectually depress the
point S of the same lever, as if the whole power
were applied at S; consequently a power equal
to one-fourth of one-fifth, that is, one-twentieth
of the weight P, being applied to the point L of
the lever B, and pushing up the same, will sup-
port the weight: in like manner, it matters not
whether that force be applied to the point L of
the lever B, or to the point S of the lever C.; since,
if S be raised, L, which rests on it, must be
raised also ; but one-fifth of the power applied
at the point L of the lever C, and pressing it
downwards, will as effectually raise the point S
of the same lever, as if the whole power were
applied at S, and pushed up the same; conse-
quently a power equal to one-fifth of one-
twentieth, that is, 100th part of the weight P,
being applied to the point, L of the lever
C, will balance the weight at the point S of the
lever A.
We have now to describe a combination of the
lever with the axis in peritrochio, by means of
which the reciprocating motion of the lever is
M E C H A N I C S.
72I
made useful in giving a continued rectilinear
motion to a heavy body, without changing the
situation of the fulcrum of the lever. This con-
trivance is described by Belidor under the name
of le levier de la Garousse, and is generally
called in England the universal lever. FG H,
fig. 11, is a straight lever, whose centre of mo-
tion is G : on its extremity F. hang two bars
FD, FE, the former of which has a hook to
catch into the teeth of the wheel A CD, and the
latter has its end slightly bent, so as to slide
over the outer parts of those teeth. The axle
A has a cord wound about it, to the lower end
of which is attached the weight W. Now sup-
pose the end H of the lever raised from H by I,
while the other end descends from F to B;
the bar FE will then push the point E of the
wheel from E to C, while the hook D slides
over an equal space on the other side of the
wheel. After this, on the end H of the lever
being brought.down again by I to H, the end F
ascends through B F, and the hook D raises up
the left hand side of the wheel through a space
equal to EC. Thus the reciprocating motion of
the lever is made to communicate a continued
rotatory motion to the wheel, and consequently
to raise the weight W suspended from its axle by
the cord. Here the advantage gained, neglect-
ing friction and the stiffness of the cord, will
be in the ratio compounded of the ratio of H G
to G F, and the ratio of the radius of the wheel
to that of the axle. Thus if H G were ten times
GF, and the radius of the wheel ten times that of
the axle, the power would then be to the weight
raised nearly as 1 to 100.
This machine has been advantageously applied
in drawing heavy loads along a plane nearly ho-
rizontal: in that case, the cord has been carried
from A in nearly an horizontal direction, passed
round a pulley p, attached to the load w or its
carriage, and its end fixed to a post as at a, or
perhaps to the frame of the wheel and axle. The
pulley, it is obvious, almost doubles the advan-
tage of the power; and since the force to be
overcome when the system is once put in motion
is not equivalent to the load w, but merely to
the friction, and the rigidity of the rope, a very
great weight may be moved in this manner by a
comparatively small power. If the lever have
another arm to the left of G (as it appears in the
figure) equal to G H, a man may then work at .
each end, either by pressing upon it or by pulling
downwards with a cord; and thus the laborers
will alternately relieve each other. Sometimes
a heart-wheel has been combined with this uni-
versal lever: but it is not, we think, a combina-
tion to be recommended in practice.
If the centre of motion G were vertically
above the centre of the wheel, and if another
bar and hook similar and equal in length to F D
hung from the pointf f G being equal to GF;
these two hooks would then catch alternately into
the teeth on the rising side of the wheel, and thus
produce the continual rotatory motion: but this
construction has a practical disadvantage; for,
when both bars work on the same side of the
wheel, they will be in great danger of catching
together and impeding each other's motions.
The wheel and awle is sometimes, without any
Vol. XIII
impropriety, named the perpetual lever; it being,
in reality, a lever on whose arms the power and
weight may always act perpendicularly, although
the lever turns round its fulcrum. It is often
constructed of the form represented in fig. 12,
where CD is the cylinder, at the ends of which
are the pivots FE, turning in the solid pieces of
timber HF, AF; the weight W is raised by
means of a rope, coiled about the cylinder; the
power being applied to the wheel SS B, either
by the cord II, or by the handles S, S, S.
Sometimes, instead of the wheel, we find this
machine made up of levers, fixed into the cylin-
der, as spokes iuiv the nave of a wheel; at
others, a simple handle serves for the applica-
tion of the power, as in fig. 13, but the effect is
still the same, except that the rotation is less
uniform. In some cases the cylinder is hori-
Zontal, as in the figures, and in some kinds of
cranes; in others it is vertical, as in the capstan,
&c. But whether the cylinder be horizontal or
vertical, this machine has a manifest advantage
over the simple lever in point of convenience:
for, by the continual rotation of the wheel, the
weight may be raised to any height, or from any
depth; while it could be elevated only a little
way by any lever.
Fig. 14, represents a very powerful engine,
nearly of this sort. Ab KI, and CID H, are
two cylinders of unequal diameters (but the
difference of these diameters must not be very
great), firmly connected together, and moveable
by means of the handle F, round the common
axis EG, whose extremities rest upon two sup-
ports. The same rope is fastened with one end
at D, and is wound round the small cylinder
CD; then it descends and passes round the
pulley Z, to the frame of which the weight W is
suspended; and lastly, the other end of the rope
is fastened at A to the large cylinder. Now, by
moving the cylinders round, the rope will un-
wind itself from the small cylinder, and will coil
itself round the larger cylinder, as will be ap-
parent by a reference to the figure. If the cy-
linders were of equal diameters, the lower part
Z of the rope, or the weight W which is sus-
pended to it, would not be moved; for in that
case as much of the rope as is disengaged from
one cylinder at each revolution, would be coiled
round the other cylinder; but, the cylinders
being of unequal diameters, it is evident that at
each revolution of the handle F more of the
rope will be coiled round the cylinder A BIK
than will be disengaged from the cylinder CD
IH; and of course the weight W will be raised.
In the simple wheel and axle, whatever be its
form or peculiarity, its mechanical efficacy de-
pends on the ratio of the radius of the wheel to
the radius of the axle; or, to speak more gene-
rally, the length of the lever by which the power
acts, to the radius of the cylinder on which the
rope which raises the weight is coiled. There
are then two, and only two, ways in which this
efficacy may be increased; viz. by increasing
the leverage of the power, or by diminishing the
radius of the cylinder which supports the weight.
Now although, in a theoretical view, there is no
limit to our power of increasing this efficacy,
since we can conceive the leverage of º power
3
722
M E C H A N I C S.
increased without limit, or the thickness of the
cylinder diminished without limit, yet there is a
practical limit to the increase of the mechanical
efficacy of this engine.
If we attempt to increase this efficacy, by giving
to the power a considerable leverage, the machine
will become unwieldy; the power will work
through a most inconveniently great space, and
the practical disadvantages which will arise will
, more than counterbalance any thing which can
be gained by the increased power.
If, on the other hand, we attempt to increase
the efficacy by diminishing the thickness of the
axle, we diminish the strength of that part of the
machine which must support the weight; and
the cases in which this great efficacy is required
are precisely those cases in which the greatest
weights are to be raised, or resistances to be
overcome; and therefore where the greatest
strength in those parts of the machine on which
the weight or resistance acts are indispensably
necessary.
In cases, therefore, where great resistances are
to be overcome, it is a problem of considerable
importance to assign a méthod by which, with-
out rendering the machine more complex, suffi-
cient strength may be preserved by preserving
the thickness of the axle, the machine may not
be rendered unwieldly by increasing very much
the leverage of the power, and a high degree of
power may be gained. -
- When heavyweights are to be raised, by means
of the wheel and axis, a ratchet wheel and click
or pall is employed to prevent the rope un-
winding when the power is withdrawn. It
will be seen, by reference to fig. 15, that the
teeth are only inclined towards the side upon
which the click rests, so that the opposite face of
the tooth is nearly perpendicular to the rim of
the wheel, and as such it is allowed by raising
the click to turn in one direction, but its return
is prevented by the end of the tooth against
which it stops. -
The capstan crane, and a variety of other
simple mechanical arrangements, also derive
their power from the wheel and axis. In fig.
16 is represented a very simple capstan. Here,
if the upper barrel A were seventeen inches dia-
meter, and the lower B sixteen inches, the
pulley C being also sixteen inches-diameter; it
will be obvious that this simple capstan will be
equivalent to an ordinary capstan of the same
length of bar EF, and diameter of barrel B,
combined with a sixteen-fold tackle of pulleys;
and at the same time free from the great loss by
friction and bending of ropes, which would
absorb at least a third of the power of a sixteen-
fold tackle. - *
One peculiar advantage of this engine is, that
the half difference of the radii of A and B may
be diminished ad libitum, without weakening
the cylinder, increasing the friction, or requiring
any rapid curvature of the rope. This windlass
has likewise the peculiar property of holding
the weight at any part of its rise or fall, without
needing a ratchet wheel and catch. Its only
practical disadvantage is, that a great quantity of
rope must be used to prodtice amoderate change
in the position of the weight; but the quantity
of rope will be much less than what is requisite
for an equivalent tackle of pulleys. This inge-
nious contrivance is generally ascribed to the
celebrated George Eckhardt; and he probably
invented it, without knowing that it had been
used elsewhere; but Dr. Gregory states that he
has seen a figure (from which our present figure
is merely a copy), in some Chinese drawings of
about a century old.
One of the most common practical applica-
tions of the wheel and axle is the crane used on
wharfs and in warehouses, for raising and lowering
heavy parcels, &c.; formerly it was a very com-
mon practice to work such cranes by a man
walking in the inside of the large wheel, which
was thus put into motion in the same way that
circular cages are moved by an enclosed squirrel,
or that the turnspit dog was formerly used for
roasting meat; this was, however, not only a
dangerous, but a very disadvantageous mode of
employing strength, and is now almost entirely
abandoned. The best and most efficacious
method of employing human power, to a vertical
wheel and axle, is to cover the exterior circum-
ference of the large wheel with float or project-
ing boards, like a common water-wheel, and to
permit a man or men to tread upon the boards
as in walking, at the height of a line which forms
the horizontal diameter of the wheel, for then the
man's whole weight and power will be thrown
into action at the point where it will have the
greatest effect. This application of power was
invented and first used by Mr. Hardie. t
A very important application of the wheel
and axle will be found in the construction of
the tread wheel, which consists of a wheel and
axis, furnished with walking boards similar to
those which are attached to the periphery of
a water wheel. Fig. 17 illustrates a double ap-
paratus of this description, as the wheels e e are
furnished with teeth which work into each other,
and in a similar way communicate motion to
the small wheel f. The use of the tread-wheel
may be traced to a very early period. Vitruvius
furnishes several instances of its use, and the
Chinese have employed machines of this descrip-
tion from the earliest period. It may, however,
be proper to state, that its most useful applica-
tion has been as an instrument of prison disci-
pline, for which purpose, under proper modifi-
cations, it appears admirably adapted. -
The wheel and axle is sometimes used to mul-
tiply motion, instead of to gain power as in the
multiplying wheel of the common roasting jack,
to which it is applied when the weight cannot
conveniently have a long line of descent; a
heavy weight is in this case made to act upon
the axle, while the wheel, by its greatest circum-
ference, winds up a much larger quantity of line
than the simple descent of the weight could re-
quire, and thus the machine is made to go much
longer without winding than it otherwise would
do
It is also useful for regulating unequal powers,
as common watches or spring clocks, the nature
of which will be found examined in their re-
spective articles.
The pulley is a small wheel moveable upon its
axis, with the circumference hollowed to receive
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M E C H A N I C S.
723
the cord, whicn is attached on the one hand to
the moving power and on the other to the
resisting force. The wheel or pulley is com-
monly fixed on a block or case, which admits the
rope or cord to pass freely over the circumfer-
ence of the wheel and the gorge of the pulley;
that is the hollow part of the circumference,
which receives the cord, is generally hollowed
out angularly and not round; so that the cord,
being in some measure pinched or compressed
in this angle, will not be liable to glide or slip
in its motion. -
Pulleys are commonly made of wood or metal,
and always turn upon an axis. When they are
made of wood, it is better to fix the axis to the,
pulley, and to let all turn together in the place
which sustains the pulley. The movement then
being performed upon a less surface, will be less
impeded by friction, and if the space which
contains the pulley becomes larger, as it is only
the lower part which can be effected, the aper-
ture will be lengthened, the pulley will descend
a little, but its circular motion will not be dimi-
nished; it is not so when the pulley turns upon
its centre, for then, if the aperture which receives
the axis enlarges, the enlargement is frequently
not equal in all its parts. *
By means of pulleys, burdens are elevated
with greater ease, and in a more commodious
manner, than they otherwise could be; more
commodious because the motion is continued,
and its direction may be changed so as to bring
the whole force which is applied to it into im-
mediate action; for by this means a horse, which
can only exert his force in a horizontal direction,
is able to overcome a vertical resistance. Bur-
dens are moved with more ease by pulleys, be-
cause a great weight may be elevated by a small
force properly applied. The power applied to
a pulley draws in all directions without impedi-
ment, because the cord by which it acts is always
a tangent to the circumference of the pulley,
and consequently always perpendicular to the
radius. The powers applied to pulleys act more
forcibly in proportion as their distance from the
axis is greater, whether the cords run in several
groves, or several pulleys of different diameters
turn upon the same axis; those powers there-
fore which act at the greatest distance from the
axis will have the advantage over the other.
Pulleys are fired and moveable. A fixed pulley
has no mechanical advantage, since the power
and weight are equal. This apparatus is repre-
sented in plate II. fig. 1. It is, however, very
convenient in accomodating the direction of the
power to that of the resistance.
pulling downwards, we are able to draw a weight
upwards. It has been already observed that, by
means of this simple machine, a power in any
direction whatever:may be opposed to a resist-
ance in any other direction. -
The single moveable pulley, sometimes called
a runner, is represented in fig. 2. In this
machine the same rope extends from the power
P to the fixed point'E, and has the same tension
throughout its whole length. -
It is evident that this tension is equal to the
power; for in that part PB of the rope, between
the power and the fixed pulley, the power is
Thus, by
supported by this tension. The weight W is
supported by the parts CA and DE of the
string, and must be equal to the sum of the ten-
sions, that is to twice the tension of the rope,
or to twice the power. In this machine, there-
fore, a power is capable of opposing a resistance
of twice its own amount.
In treating of the lever, it might have been
observed, that the prop may be regarded as a
third power, which keeps in equilibrium the
motive force, and the resistance, or which con-
curs with the one, to enable it to sustain the
effort of the other. If the lever of the second
order, A B, fig. 3, have its fulcrum at B, the
weight in the middle at C, and the power at A,
half the weight being supported by the fulcrum,
a power equal to the other half will keep it in
equilibrium. This will apply to the illustration
of the action of pulleys, which, when the weight
is appended to the circumference, they may be
considered as levers of the first kind, and when
the weight is appended to the centre they may
be considered as levers of the second kind: hence
the ropes of the fixed pulley, hanging at equal
distances from the centre (which must be re-
garded as the fulcrum), equal weights must be
in equilibrium, exactly as they would be if placed
in the scales of a common balance. But, if one
weight be further from the centre or fulcrum than
the other, they will balance each other only as
they would in a steel-yard; and therefore, though
still a lever of the first kind, a less weight will
suspend a greater. Thus if the pulley, as in fig.
4, have different gorges, and the weight R of six
ounces be hung at the distance of one inch from
the fulcrum. c, and the weight S of three ounces
be hung at the distance of two inches from the
same centre, the two weights R and S, though
in the proportion of two to one, will balance
each other. If the weight S were only two ounces
it would produce the same effect upon R, pro-
vided its distance from the fulcrum were propor-
tioned to the diminution of its weight, that is, if
it were three times as far from the centre c as R.
We have now to show that the moveable pul-
ley acts like a lever of the second order. Let
the moveable pulley A, fig. 2, be fixed to the
weight, with which it rises and falls. In com-
paring it with the lever alluded to, the fulcrum
must be considered as at D : the weight acts
upon the centre c, by means of the neck c h;
the power is applied at A.; and the line A D will
represent the lever. The power, therefore, is
twice as far from the fulcrum as the weight, and
the effect in both cases is alike, viz, the propor-
tion between the power and the weight, in order
to balance each other, must be as one to two. It
is evident, therefore, that the use of this pulley
doubles the power, and that a man may raise
twice as much by it as by his strength alone.
Or, as variety in illustration will sometimes catch
the attention, and familiarise a subject to some
whose ideas of it would not otherwise be distinct,
the action of this pulley may be viewed in a light
somewhat different from the above. Every
moveable pulley may be considered as hanging
by two ropes equally stretched, and which mast
consequently bear equal parts of the weight; the
rope D E being made fast at E, half the weight
s 3 A 2
724
M E C H A N I C S.
is sustained by it, and the other part of the rope,
to which the power is applied, has only the other
half of the weight to support; consequently the
advantage gained is as two to one.
When, as in fig. 5, the upper and fixed block
or pulley-frame, contains two pulleys, which only
turn upon their axes, and the lower moveable
plock contains also two, which not only turn on
their axes but rise with the weight W, the advan-
tage gained is as four to one; for each lower
pulley will be acted upon by an equal part of
the weight; and, because each pulley that moves
with the weight diminishes one-half the power
necessary to keep the weight in equilibrium, the
power by which W may be sustained will be equal
to half the weight divided by the number of lower
pulleys; that is, as twice the number of the lower
or moveable pulleys is to one, so is the weight
suspended to the power
But if the extremity A, fig. 6, be fixed to the
lower block, it will sustain half as much as a pul-
ley; consequently here the rule will be, As twice
the number of moveable pulleys, adding unity,
is to one, so is the weight to the power. To
prevent the ropes a and b from rubbing against
each other, the upper fixed pulley may have a
double gorge. The pulley d does not belong to
the system of pulleys, it is merely used in the
plate, to separate from the ropes, and show more
distinctly the power P.
If, instead of one rope going round all the
moveable pulleys, the rope belonging to each of
them be made fast at the top, as in fig. 7, a dif-
ferent proportion between the power and the
weight will take place. Here it is evident that
each pulley doubles the power: thus, if there are
two pulleys, the power will sustain four times its
own force or weight; if three pulleys, eight times
its own weight; if four pulleys, sixteen times its
own weight, as in the figure where the weight
W, of sixteen ounces, is supported by the power
P, of only one ounce. This arrangement of
pulleys takes up much room, raises the weight
very slowly, and is not convenient to fit up. It
is therefore seldom used, notwithstanding the
great power gained.
The large space occupied by pulleys, when
arranged under each other, is an inconvenience
that would often render them useless, and such
an arrangement would increase the liability to
entanglement, particularly on shipboard; it is
therefore common to place all the pulleys in
each block on the same pin by the side of
each other. The advantage and the rule for the
power are the same here as in fig. 5. In this
kind of tackle the ropes are not exactly parallel,
a direction which should be preserved as much as
possible; but the defect is not very considerable.
The reason of the parallel direction of the ropes
being better than an oblique one is, that less
power is required to sustain the same weight;
and in proportion to the obliquity of the ropes
must be the increase of the power. When there
are many pulleys in the same block, and the end
of the rope to which the power is applied termi-
nates over one of the outside pulleys, that pulley
always endeavours to get into a line with the
Centre of suspension or middle of the moveable
pulleys, from which the weight hangs. In con-
sequence of this, the friction of the pulleys
against the sides of the block is so great as
sometimes to equal the power. Hence the mul-
tiplication of pulleys thus used soon ceases to
be advantageous; they are seldom effective if
their number exceeds three or four.
Mr. Smeaton, for this reason, invented a sys-
tem of pulleys arranged in two rows in each
block, one larger and the other smaller; the foree
being applied in the middle, the rope passes on
the larger pulleys till it arrives at the last, then
returns through the whole of the smaller series,
to the opposite side, and comes back again on the
larger, to be finally attached in the middle. ,
By a reference to fig. 8 it will be seen that
Mr. Smeaton's blocks give a force of twenty to
one, the rope being applied in the middle of the
outer series, and following the order of the figures
from one to twenty-one.
Mr. James White, with a view to remove the
imperfections in the pulley, and to avoid lateral
friction, obtained a patent for a system of pulleys
formed as in fig. 9. Each block, instead of con-
taining separate shieves, consists of a series of
shieves turned out of one solid piece, but varying
in size in arithmetical proportion; so that each
series, when viewed in profile, or section, ap-
pears like so many grooves cut on the surface of
a very obtuse cone. Supposing that each cone
contains six grooves, this will admit of twelve
suspending lines as in the figure, and, admitting
each of these grooves to be separate shieves of
equal diameter, as in common blocks, then, since
there are twelve lines, in order to bring the two
blocks together, as much line must pass over the
uppermost pulley as is equal to twelve times
their distance asunder; but, from inspection of
the figure, it is evident that the second pulley
cannot receive the full quantity of line by as much
as is equal to the distance betwixt it and the first.
In like manner the third pulley receives less than
the first, by as much as is the distance between
the first and third, and so on to the last, which
receives only one-twelfth of the whole; for this
receives its share of line, n, from a fixed point in
the upper frame, which gives it nothing, while
all the others receive the line, partly by turning
to meet it, and partly by the line coming to meet
them. The outermost pulley would therefore
make twelve revolutions, while that which re-
ceived the line, n, would make but one; and the
intermediate lines and velocities would be a
series of arithmetical proportionals, of which, if
the first number were one, the last would always
be equal to the whole number of terms; it follows,
therefore, that if the diameters of certain grooves
in the same substance be exactly adapted to the
above series (the line itself being supposed in-
capable of stretching, and of no magnitude), the
necessity of using several detached shieves in
each frame or block will be obviated, and, with
that, most of the inconveniences to which the
pulley, as commonly constructed, is liable. In
practice the grooves cannot, however, be in true
arithmetical proportion; for the diameter of the
rope employed must be deducted from each term,
without which the smaller grooves, to which such
diameter may bear a large proportion, would be
too large, and would introduce worse defects
M E C H A N I C S.
725
than this improved construction tends to obviate.
Mr. Garnett proposed removing the friction
attendant upon pulleys, by placing a number of
small friction wheels, or rollers, round the hole
in each shieve, so that the central pin, instead of
passing through a mere hole in the shieve, would
pass between these rollers. This was, however,
not only found very expensive, but was liable to
get out of order when great weights were raised,
and consequently it has never been much used.
A very considerable improvement was made in
the pulley by Lieut. Shuldham, who adopts the
conical form of Mr. White, but uses a double
cone placed base to base, but in one piece; and
by thus using but one compound shieve, with an
axis fixed to itself, two large friction-wheels can
be admitº' and are sufficient for each block.
The rope is so reeved or passed through these
blocks as to end in the centre; consequently the
friction is not only greatly diminished, but like-
wise all tendency to run to one side; but as a
double series of ropes must be used, proceeding
from the outsides towards the centre of the
blocks, and the pull is made by two ropes in-
stead of one (of course of smaller dimensions
than those generally used), there may perhaps be
more danger of entanglement than with common
blocks.
A plane superficies inclined to the horizon is
another mechanical power; its use being to raise
weights from one level to another, by the appli-
cation of much less force than would be neces-
sary to raise them perpendicularly. Thus, in
fig, 10, A B represents a plane inclined to the
horizontal plane AC; where, if the weight D be
rolled upwards from A to B, the force necessary
for the purpose will be found to be much less
than that which would be required to raise it di-
rectly and perpendicularly from C to B.
In this case the effect which is produced con-
sists in the raising of the weight from the level of
A C to the level of A B; but, to effect this, the
power must have moved from A to B; for the
power acts in that direction, whilst the weight or
gravity of the body acts in the direction of the
perpendicular C B; therefore, the velocity of the
weight in this engine being to the velocity of the
power as the perpendicular height BC of the
plane is to its length AB, the equilibrium takes
place when the weight is to the power as the
length of the plane is to its perpendicular height.
This property may be clearly shown by the
following experiments:—Let AB, fig. 11, be a
plane moveable upon the horizontal plane AC;
viz. So as to admit of its being placed at any re-
quired angle of inclination, which is easily ac-
complished by means of a hinge at A, and a prop
between the two planes. The upper part of the
plane must be furnished with a pulley B, over
which a string may easily run. Let the cylindri-
cal weight, D, be made to turn upon slender pins
in the frame F, in which the hook e is fastened
with a string eBH, which, passing over the pul-
ley D, holds the weight E suspended at its other
extremity. The pulley should be so situated that
the rope e B may be parallel to the plane.
This plane may be fixed at any angle of incli-
nation, and it will always be found, that if the
weight of the body Ebe to the weight of the body
D, together with that of its frame F, as the per-
pendicular height CB of the plane is to its length
A B, the power E will just support the cylinder
D, with its frame F upon the plane, and the least
touch of a finger will cause the cylinder D to as-
cend or descend; the counterpoise or power E
moving at the same time the contrary way.
It is evident that the smaller the angle of in-
clination is, the less force is required to draw up
the weight D.; and of course, when the angle of
inclination vanishes or becomes nothing, the
least force will be sufficient to move the body;
that is, when the plane A B becomes parallel to
the horizon, or upon a horizontal plane, the
heaviest body might be moved with the least
power, were it not for the friction, which is oc-
casioned by the irregularity of the contiguous
surfaces, &c.
If three inclined planes be formed at different
angles to the plane of the horizon, and as many
carriages connected by threads, with weights
passing over a similar number of pulleys at top,
it will be found that the carriage supported by
the central plane will arrive first at top; though,
to produce this effect, the middle plane must
(as is represented in fig. 12) be twice as long as
it is high.
A reference to this circumstance will serve to
explain upon what principle the late Mr. Rennie
was enabled to construct an edifice, which, like
the lighthouse of Smeaton, appears formed to
resist every attack of the warring elements.
This great national work consists of a mass of
sunkenstones thrown promiscuously into the water,
leaving them to find their own base, which must
of course be considerably extended, in most
cases gradually narrowing from about 200 feet
to an apex of thirty feet.
A fixed inclined plane is often of use in assist-
ing the elevation of great weights, by means of
other machinery. It is supposed that in all the
edifices of remote antiquity, where great masses
of stone were employed, as in the pyramids of
Egpyt, and the Druidical temples of this country, -
sistance also of levers and rollers.
these vast blocks were elevated on inclined
planes of earth, or of scaffolding, with the as-
Inclined
planes are frequently used for drawing boats out
of one canal into another; and sometimes the
local circumstances are such that this may be
done with great convenience, merely by allowing
a boat to descend, and turn the axis which raises
an empty one. An example of this may be seen,
on a large scale, in the duke of Bridgewater's
canal. This canal is extended, above ground,
for forty miles on one level; an underground
navigation, twelve miles long, joins it at Worsley,
leading to the coal mines under Walkden Moor.
At a height of thirty-five yards and a half above
this is another subterraneous portion, nearly six
miles in length. The connexion between these
levels is formed by an inclined plane; the boats
are let down loaded, and proceed three miles
along the tunnel into the open canal. The in-
clined plane is fixed in a stratum of stone,
which fortunately has the most eligible inclination
of onein four, and isthirty-three yards in thickness,
affording the most advantageous means of fixing
every part of the machinery with perfect Security.
736 M E C H A N I C S.
The whole length of the plane is 151 yards, be-
sides a lock of eighteen yards at the upper end.
Inclined planes are also universally employed
for facilitating the ascent of heights, by men or
by animals; they may either be uniform, as roads,
or the general inclination of the surface may be
superseded by the formation of separate steps or
stairs. The inclination of the surface may be
governed by the proportion of the strength of the
animal to its weight, the force required to sup-
port any weight on a plane being to the whole
weight as the height of the plane to its length;
and, if the plane be a little less inclined than the
exact equilibrium would require, the animal will
be able to acquire a sufficient velocity at first to
carry it easily up the ascent with a motion nearly
equable. The strength of a laborer may be ad-
vantageously employed in ascending a given
height by a flight of steps, and placing himself on
a stage which may raise a weight by its descent;
but it appears that the force of other animals is
less calculated for exertions of this kind.
A wedge is a solid figure, which is called in
geometry a triangular prism. Its two ends are
equal. and similar triangles, and its three sides
are rectangular parallelograms. This figure is
represented in figs. 13 and 14.
The wedge is very generally used in cleaving
timber, in which case its edge is introduced into
a cleft already made to receive it, and it is urged
at the back by percussion. The friction of the
faces of the wedge with the timber ought to be
sufficient to prevent its recoil.
The wedge may be considered as formed by two
inclined planes, placed base to base, their altitudes
forming the back of the wedge. The power, being
generally applied perpendicularly to the back,
will be parrallel to the common base. But it is
a more difficult matter to say in what direction
the resistance is to be considered as acting against
the face of the wedge.
In the theory of the wedge there are intro-
duced so many conditions, which are perfectly
inapplieable in practice, so many gratuitous as-
sumptions and suppositions so inconsistent with
practical truth, that the whole doctrine has little
or no value.
One of the circumstances which creates the
greatest difficulty, in the theory of the wedge,
is the very heterogeneous nature of the resistance,
and the force or power by which it is overcome.
The resistance is generally that modification
of force called pressure. The power, which is
opposed to this resistance, is commonly that
species of action called percussion. These are
modifications of force so totally different as not
even to admit of comparison. It has been
generally thought that there is no blow or im-
pact, however slight, which will not overcome a
pressure, or resistance however great. From
which it would seem to follow, that an infinitely
small impact is equivalent to an infinitely great
pressure. Be this as it may, however, the great
difference between these modifications of force
is sufficiently evident to demonstrate the total
impossibility of establishing the condition of
equilibrium of a machine in which the weight
or resistance is a force of the one, and the power
is a force of the other species. •
Nothing, therefore, can more plainly demon- .
strate the inutility of the theory of the wedge
than that, in this theory, the power is supposed
to be a pressure exerted on the back of the
wedge, which is supposed to be capable of
balancing the effect of the resistance in produc-
ing the recoil of the wedge. In all cases, where
the wedge is practically used, the friction of its
faces with the resisting substance is sufficient to
prevent the recoil; so that, strictly speaking, no
force whatever is necessary to sustain the machine
in equilibrium, and to move it pressure is never
resorted to, inasmuch as the slightest percussion
is far more effective.
The only general theoretical principle respect-
ing the wedge which obtains always in practice
is, that its power is increased by diminishing
the angle. &
All cutting instruments, as knives, swords,
hatchets, chisels, planes, &c., are wedges. In
these cases the harder, in general, the substance
to be divided is, the greater will be the angle
of the wedge. Thus, chisels for cutting soft
woods are sharper than those used for the harder
species, and these, again, are sharper than chisels
used for cutting metals.
The screw is the last mechanical power to be
noticed; it is composed of two parts, one of
which is called the screw, and consists of a
spiral protuberance, called the thread, which is
wound or wrapt round a cylinder; and the other,
called the nut, is perforated to the dimensions of
the cylinder, and in the internal cavity is cut a
spiral groove, adapted to receive the thread.
Let A D G E, plate III., fig. 1, represent a
cylinder, and ABC any flexible substance of a
thickness altogether inconsiderable or evanescent.
Suppose ABC to be a triangle, having a right
angle at A, and one of the legs A B, containing
the right angle, to be applied to the cylinder in
a line parallel to its axis. Imagine, now, the
cylinder to turn on its axis so that the triangle
ABC may be rolled or wrapped close on its
surface. The lines BC, and all others, as IK,
LR, parallel to it, will then be contiguous to, or
coincident with, the peripheries of circles whose
planes are all at right angles to the axis, and
consequently parallel to each other. But the
line AC will become a curve AQLM a
NOP, &c., which is called a helix. This curve
will always, or in every part, proceed-from one
towards the other end of the cylinder it enwraps,
and will make equal angles with the generating
circle of the cylinder. For any one of these
angles, a ki, will be produced by the application
of another angle AKI, always equal to the
angle ACB.
Suppose the cylinder A D G E to be perpen-
dicular to the horizon, the lines BC and its
parallels, together with all their correspondent
circles on the cylinder, will then become hori-
zontal. Let the line AC now represent an in-
clined plane, whose height is AB, and the helix
being of the same length and height, and equally
inclined to the horizon throughout, will not dif-
fer in mechanical effect from the inclined plane.
That is to say, the tendency of a weight to descend
on the inclined plane will be exactly the same
as on the helix. -
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M E C H A N I C S.
727
Let AL be the perpendicular distance between
two adjacent threads. Draw the horizontal line
L.R. intersecting AC in R. Then LR will be
equal to the circumference of the cylinder, and
AR will be equal to one revolution of the belix.
But A R represents an inclined plane, equivalent
in power to the helix. Every helix, therefore, is
equivalent in power to an inclined plane whose
length is equal to one revolution of the helix,
and height equal to the distance between two
adjacent threads measured by a line parallel to,
i axis of the cylinder contained within the
€l IX, -
If the horizontal thickness of the nut be dis-
regarded, it will not differ from a weight to be
sustained on the helical plane. Consequently it
will be kept in equilibrio by a horizontal force,
which is to that of the weight as the perpendicu-
lar distance between two adjacent threads is to
the circumference of the cylinder. Or, if the
power be applied in the direction of the threads
of the screw, the equilibrium will be had when the
power is to the weight as the perpendicular dis-
tance between the two adjacent threads is to the
length of one thread of the screw.
But there are few, if any, instances where the
screw is used without the lever. If an arm EF,
fig. 2, be applied to move the nut, the weight
and the power may be considered as acting
upon a lever, whose fulcrum is at the axis of the
cylinder. And, therefore, the proportions last
found must be compounded with the ratio of the
semi-diameter of the cylinder to the distance of
E from the axis of motion.
It frequently happens that the lever, by which
the power acts, is attached to the nut, and the
screw is capable only of a longitudinal motion.
Thus, in the press represented in fig. 3, the
board C, moveable between the sides of the
frame, is urged by the screw CB, capable of
moving directly upwards or downwards, but not
of revolving. The nut F is worked by the lever
D.E. Every complete revolution of the nut
urges the screw upwards through a space equal
to the distance between two contiguous threads.
The proportion of the weight to the power, or
the mechanical efficacy of the screw, depends on
the proportion of the circumference described by
the power, to the distance between two contigu-
ous threads. Hence it is evident that the effi-
cacy of the screws may be increased, either by
increasing the length of the lever by which the
power acts, or by diminishing the distance be-
tween the threads. To both of these, there are,
however, practical limits. *
If the leverage of the power be very much
increased, the power will work through an in-
conveniently great space, and the machine will
become unwieldy. If, on the other hand, the
thread of the screw be made very small and fine,
it will be torn off by a great resistance in passing
through the nut. - -
These inconveniences have been obviated by a
contrivance of Mr. Hunter, the surgeon, which,
while it preserves all the requisite strength and
compactness in the machine, gives it an almost
unlimited degree of mechanical efficacy.
A perspective drawing of this contrivance is
given in fig. 4. E E is a strong frame in which
a board D moves, so that when it is forced .
towards the bottom, it will exert a pressure on
any substance placed between it and the bottom.
To this moveable board D is attached a cylinder
B, on which the thread of a screw is raised. C
is a fixed nut through which a screw A plays.
The screw A is a hollow cylinder, the interior of
which is a nut adapted to receive the screw B.
When the screw A is turned once round it ad-
vances through the nut C, through a space equal
to the distance between two contiguous threads;
so that, if the screw B were not supposed to
act, the board D would advance towards the
bottom, through a distance equal to the distance
between the threads of the screw A. But, while
the screw A advances through the nut C by its
revolution, the very same cause makes the screw
B move towards C through a space equal to the
distance between two contiguous threads of B;
or, by turning A, the nut contained in the inner
concave surface of A is turned upon the screw
B. Now, if the threads of the two screws A and
B were perfectly equal, the effect of these two
motions would be, that the board D would re-
tain its position, inasmuch as the effect of one
screw, in moving it downwards, would be exactly
equal to the effect of the other screw in moving
it upwards. r
But, if we suppose the interval between the
threads of the screw B to be somewhat less than
the interval between the threads of the screw A,
the effect will be different. In this case, one re-
volution will move the screw A downwards,
through a space equal to the interval between its
threads, while the screw B, will be moved within
the screw A and upwards through a space equal
to the interval between its threads. The com-
bined effect will be, that the screw B, and the
board C to which it is attached, will be moved
downwards through a space equal to the dif-
ference of the distances between the threads of
the two screws. -
Thus, if the screw A have twenty threads in an
inch, and the screw B have twenty-one; in one
revolution, A is moved downwards through
the twentieth of an inch. Suppose that the nut
A did not, in this motion, turn on B, it is plain,
then, that B and the board C would be moved
down through the one-twentieth of an inch.
Suppose, then, that the screw B was turned
round once within the nut A, the screw B and
the board C would be raised through the #st of
an inch. Its position would then be below its
original position by the excess of # of an inch
above #st of an inch; that is, by #6th of an inch.
To render the explanation clearer, we have
here supposed things to happen in succession,
which really happen together. The same mo-
tion which advances the screw A downwards
draws the screw B upwards; but the final ef-
fect is the same as if these two motions took
place in succession.
It is plain, therefore, that the effect of this
machine is the same as that of a simple screw
in which the distance between the threads is
equal to the difference of the distances between
the threads of the two screws A and B; and,
therefore, that the ratio of the power to the
weight is the difference between the distances of
728
M E C H A N I C S.
the threads of the two screws to the circumfer-
ence described by the power.
The mechanical efficacy is, therefore, increased
by diminishing the difference of the distance
between the threads of the screws. If the cir-
cumference described by the power be twenty
inches, and one screw have twenty threads to an
inch, and the other twenty-one, the power will
be to the weight as the difference between 35 and
#, or ºn to twenty, or as 1 to 8400. . If, how-
ever, one screw have thirty threads, and the other
thirty-one to an inch, then the power is to the
weight as the difference between 3, and ºr, or gº
to twenty, or as 1 to 18,600.
The threads of each screw may be constructed
of any size and strength which may be required,
and yet so very nearly equal that any degree of
power may be imparted to the machine. Thus,
by the preceding investigation, it appears that
two screws, constructed with thirty and thirty-
one threads in a foot, are equivalent to a single
screw with 930 threads in a foot.
A machine for showing the force or power of
the screw may be contrived in the following
manner. Let the wheel C, fig. 5, have a screw
on its axis, working in the teeth of the wheel D,
which suppose to be forty-eight in number. It
is plain that for every time the wheel C and
screw are turned round by the winch A, the
wheel D will be moved one tooth by the screw;
and, therefore, in forty-eight revolutions of the
winch, the wheel D will be turned once round.
Then, if the circumference of a circle, described
by the handle pf the winch A, be equal to the
circumference of a groove round the wheel D,
the velocity of the handle will be forty-eight
times as great as the velocity of any given point
in the groove. Consequently, if a line G goes
round the groove, and has a weight of forty-
eight pounds hung to it, a power equal to one
pound at the handle will balance and support
the weight. To prove this by experiment, let
the circumference of the grooves of the wheels
C and D be equal to one another; and then if
a weight H, of one pound, be suspended by a
line going round the groove of the wheel C, it
will balance a weight of forty-eight pounds hang-
ing by the line G.; and a small addition to the
weight H will cause it to descend, and so raise
up the other weight. - -
If a line G, instead of going round the groove
of the wheel D, goes round its axle I, the power
of the machine will be as much increased as
the circumference of the groove exceeds the
circumference of the axle : which, supposing it
to-be six times, then one pound at H will ba-
lance six times forty-eight, or 288 pounds, hung
to the line on the axle: and hence the power or
advantage of this machine will be as 288 to 1.
That is to say, a man, who by his natural strength
could lift one cwt., will be able to raise 288
cwts. by this engine. If a system of pulleys
were applied to the cord H, the power would be
increased to an amazing degree. When a screw
acts in a wheel in this manner, it is called an
endless screw.
When it is not employed in turning a wheel,
it consists of two parts; the first is called the
male, or outside screw, being cut in such a man-
ner, as to have a prominent part going round
the cylinder in a spiral manner; which pro-
minent part is called the thread of the screw;
the other part, which is called the female, or in-
side screw, is a solid body, containing a hollow
cylinder, whose concave surface is cut in the
same manner as the convex surface of the male
screw, so that the prominent parts of the one
may fit the concave parts of the other.
The very slow motion which may be imparted
to a screw, by a very considerable motion in the
power, renders it an instrument peculiarly well
adapted to the measurement of very minute
spaces. The manner of applying it to this pur-
pose is easily explained. Suppose that a screw
is cut so as to have fifty threads in an inch, and
that round its head is placed a graduated circle,
on which an index attached to the screw plays.
In one revolution of the screw its points, or any
thing moved by its point, is moved through a
space equal to the fiftieth part of an inch. The
circle on which the index plays may be easily
divided into 100 equal parts, and it follows that
the motion of the index through one of these
parts corresponds to in part of a complete revo-
lution : since, in a complete revolution, the screw
moves through the fiftieth part of an inch, it fol-
lows that, when the ‘index moves over one divi-
sion of the circle, the screw moves through the
5000th part of an inch.
A screw constructed for this purpose is called
a micrometer screw: it is used with great effect
in astronomical instruments, where very minute
portions of degrees or divisions on graduated
instruments are to be ascertained. The limit of
accuracy of any divided instrument adapted for
measuring spaces or distances is primarily the
magnitude of the smallest division on it. If it
be required to determine the distance from any
given division to a point which is placed some-
where between two divisions, it is easy to con-
clude that the distance sought is greater than a
certain number of divisions, and less than a
number greater than that by one. But how
much greater than the one or less than the other
the mere graduation of the instrument does not
indicate. Now, suppose that a micrometer
screw is placed on the instrument, its length
being parallel to the graduated face, and that the
point of the screw, or rather a wire which is
moved by the point of the screw, is brought
exactly opposite to one of those divisions between
which the point, whose exact position is to be
determined, lies. If the screw be turned until
the wire is moved by its point from coincidence
with the adjacent division till it coincides with
the point, the number of turns of the screw, and
parts of a turn, will indicate exactly the dis-
tance of the point from the adjacent division.
Mr. Watt's screw-wrench is a kind of lever-
vice, and is a convenient tool for securing and
loosening square-headed screws, and for other
similar purposes. The moveable cap of the in-
strument is secured at any required distance
from the fixed one, sometimes by means of a
screw, and sometimes by means of a short
wedge driven in at the base of the sliding bar.
To both these methods, however, as usually ap-
plied, there are objections arising from the lia-
*
M E C H A N I C s.
729
bility of the former to be injured, and of the
latter to give way under the great strain which
is sometimes put upon the instrument.
Mr. Watt's wrench is represented in fig. 6;
ii is the fixed bar terminated by the fixed chap h,
jjj is an iron case enclosing and fixed firmly on
the bar i i to pass through, and secured to the
sliding bar ll. It will be observed that the
lower end of this bar is cut off very obliquely,
so as to form a long low wedge; m n is a low
wedge, still longer than that just described.
In order to make use of the instrument, the
wedge m n is to be withdrawn, the chap k is to be
moved on the bar i i, till the screw head, or other
object to be acted on, is closely embraced be-
tween the two chaps; the moveable wedge is
then to be inserted point foremost, and is to be
driven home by a light blow or two of a ham-
mer, or may be forced in sufficiently even by
hand.
The long line of bearing that the two wedges
have on each other renders it impossible that
they should give way, while, at the same time, a
very moderate blow on the point of the move-
able wedge will be sufficient to disengage it.
It is by no means absolutely necessary to
take out the moveable wedge previous to ad-
justing the instrument; all that is required
being that the sliding bar l l should move
easily. ge
It will therefore be found convenient to drill
a hole though the point of the wedge at m, and
insert a small pin in order to prevent the wedge
from slipping out of the case jj, and being lost.
We cannot better illustrate the practical effects
produced by the mechanical powers than by re-
ference to the Panorganon contrived by the late
Richard Lovell Edgeworth, esq., and which was
published in the Scientific Gazette, edited by
Mr. Partington. It is thus described by its in:
genious inventor :— - .
We do not mean to undervalue either the
application of strict demonstration to problems
in mechanics, or the exhibition of the most ac-
curate machinery in philosophical lectures; but
we wish to point out a method of giving a
general notion of the mechanical powers to our
readers, which shall be immediately obvious to
their comprehension, and which may serve as a
sure foundation for future improvement. When
a person perceives the effect of his own bodily
exertions with different engines, and when he
can compare, in a rough manner, their relative
advantages, he is not disposed to reject their as-
sistance, or to expect more than is reasonable
from their application. The young theorist in
mechanics thinks he can produce a perpetual
motion, but if he has been accustomed to refer
to the plain dictates of common sense and expe-
rience, on this, as well as on every other subject,
he will not easily be led astray by such visionary
theories.
To bring the sense of feeling to our assistance
in teaching the uses of the mechanic powers, the
following apparatus was constructed, to which
we have given the name of panorganon.
It is composed of two principal parts; a
frame to contain the moving machinery, and a
capstan, or windlass, which is erected on a sill
or plank that is sunk a few inches in the ground;
the frame is by this means, and by six braces or
props, rendered steady. The cross rail, or tran-
som, is strengthened by braces and a king-post to
make it lighter and cheaper. The capstan con-
sists of an upright shaft, upon which are fixed
two drums, about which a rope may be wound
up, and two levels or arms by which it may be
turned round. There is also a screw of iron
coiled round the lower part of the shaft, to show
the properties of the screw as a mechanical power.
The rope which goes round the drum passes
over one of the pulleys near the top of the frame,
and under another pulley near the bottom of the
frame. As two drums of differentsizes are employ-
edit is necessary to have an upright roller to con-
duct the rope in a proper direction to the pulleys
when either of the drums is used. Near the
frame, and in the direction in which the rope
runs, is laid a platform or road of deal boards,
one board in breadth, and twenty or thirty feet
long, upon which a small sledge, loaded with
different weights, may be drawn.
FF, fig. 7, the frame; b, b,<braces to keep
the frame steady; a, a,—angular braces to
strengthen the transom, and also a king-post.
S—a round taper shaft, strengthened above and
below the mortices with iron hoops; L, L-two
arms or levers, by which the shaft, &c., are to be
moved round ; D D—the drum, which has two
rims of different circumferences; R—the roller
to conduct the rope; P – the pulley round
which the rope passes to the larger drum, ano-
ther pulley being placed to answer to the smaller
drum; p 3—a pulley through which the rope
passes when the sledge is used on the road of
deal boards; S-the sledge, with pieces of hard
wood attached to it to guide it on the road.
Uses of the panorganon.—As this machine is to
be moved by the force of men or children, and
as their force varies not only with the strength
and weight of each individual, but also according
to the different manner in which that strength
or weight is applied, it is, in the first place, re-
quisite to establish one determinate mode of ap-
plying human force to the machine ; and also a
method of determining the relative force of each
individual whose strength is applied to it.
To estimate the force with which a person can
draw horizontally by a rope over his shoulder.
Experiment 1.—Hang a common long scale
beam, fig. 8. (without scales or chains), from the
top post of the machine. Tie a rope to the hook
of the scale-beam, where the chains of the scale
are usually hung, and pass it through the pulley
p 3, which is about four feet from the ground;
let the person pull this rope from 1, towards 2,
as is shown in the first figure, turning his back
to the machine, and pulling the rope over his
shoulder. As the pulley may be either too high
or too low to permit the rope to be horizontal, the
person who pulls it should be placed ten or fifteen
feet from the machine, which will lessen the an–
gular direction of the cord, and the inaccuracy of
the experiment. Hang weights to the other end
of the scale-beam, till the person that pulls can
but just walk forward, pulling fairly without prop-
ping his feet against any thing. This weight
will estimate the force with which he can draw
730
M E. C. H. A. N. I. C. S.
horizontally by a rope over his shoulder. Let a
child who tries this walk on the board with dry
shoes; let him afterwards chalk his shoes, and
afterwards try it with his shoes soaped: he will
find that he can pull with different degrees of
force in these different circumstances; but when
he tries the following, let his shoes be always
dry, that his force may be always the same.
To show the power of the three different sorts of
levers.-Experiment 2. Instead of pulling the
cord that comes from the scale-beam, as in the
last experiment, over the shoulder of the boy,
hook it to the extreme end of the lever L, fig. 9.
This lever is passed through a socket, in which
it can be shifted from one of its ends towards the
other; and can be fastened at any place by the
screw of the socket. This socket has two gud-
geons, upon which it, and the lever which it
contains, can turn. This socket, and its gud-
geons can be lifted out of the holes in which
it plays, between the rail R. R., and may be
put into the other hole at RR, fig. 10. Loop
another rope to the other end of this lever, and
let the boy pull as before. Perhaps it should be
pointed out, that the boy must walk in a direc-
tion contrary to that in which he walked before,
viz. from 1 towards 3, in fig. 7. The height in
which the weight ascends, and the distance to
which the boy advances, should be carefully
marked and measured; and it will be found that
he can raise the weight to the same height, ad-
vancing through the same space as in the former
experiment. In this case, as both ends of the
lever moved through equal spaces, the lever only
changed the direction of the motion, and added no
mechanical power to the direct strength of the boy.
Experiment 3.-Shift the lever to its extremity
in the socket; the middle of the lever will now
be opposite to the pulley, fig. 11; hook it to the
rope that goes through the pulley P3, and fasten
to the other end of the lever the rope by which the
boy is to pull. This will be a lever of the second
kind, as it is called in books of mechanics, in
using which the resistance is placed between the
centre of the motion or fulcrum and the moving
power. He will now raise double the weight
that he did in experiment 2, and he will advance
through double the space. -
Experiment 4.—Shift the lever and the socket
which form the axis (without shifting the lever
from the place in which it was in the socket in
the last experiment), to the holes that are pre-
pared for it at R. R., fig. 10. The free end of the
lever E will now be opposite to the rope, and to
the pulley (over which the rope comes from the
scale-beam); hook this rope to it, and hook the
rope by which the boy pulls to the middle of the
lever. The effect will now be different to what
it was in the two last experiments; the boy will
advance only half as far, and will raise only half
as much weight as before. This is called a lever
of the third sort. The first and second kinds of
levers are used in quarrying; and the operations
of many tools may be referred to them. The
third kind of lever is employed but seldom, but
its properties may be observed with advantage,
whilst a long ladder is raised, as the man who
raises it is obliged to exert an increasing force
till the ladder is nearly perpendicular. When
this lever is used, it is obvious from what has
been said, that, as the power must always pass .
through less space than the thing which is to be
moved, it can never be of service in gaining
power. But the object of some machines is to
increase velocity instead of obtaining power, as
in a sledge-hammer moved by mill-work.
The experiments on levers may be varied at
pleasure, increasing or diminishing the mechani-
cal advantages so as to balance the power and
resistance, to accustom the learners to calculate
the relation between the power and the effect in
different circumstances, always pointing out,
that whatever excess there is in the due power,
or in the resistance, is always compensated by
the difference of space through which the inferior
passes. .
The experiments which we have mentioned
are sufficiently satisfactory to a pupil, as to the
immediate relation between the power and the
resistance; but the different spaces, through
which the power and the resistance move when
one exceeds the other, cannot be obvious unless
they pass through much larger spaces than levers
will permit. . - :
Experiment 5–Place the sledge on the far-
thest end of the wooden road in fig. 7 ; fasten
a rope to the sledge, and conduct it through the
lowest pulley and through the pulley P3, so as
that the boy may be enabled to draw it by the
rope passed over his shoulder. The sledge must
now be loaded, till the boy can but just advance
with short steps steadily upon the wooden road;
this must be done with care, as there will be but
just room for him beside the rope. He will meet
the sledge exactly in the middle of the road, from
which he will step aside to pass the sledge. Let
the time of this experiment be noted. It is ob
vious that the boy and the sledge move with
equal velocity, therefore there is no mechanical
advantage obtained by the pulleys. The weight
that he can draw will be almost half a hundred,
if he weigh about nine stone; but the exact force
with which the boy draws is to be known by ex-
periment 1.
The wheel and awle.—This simple apparatus is
usually called, in mechanics, the axis in peritro-
chio. A hard name which might be spared, as
the word windlass or capstan would convey a
more distinct idea. -- .*
Experiment 6.--To the largest drum in fig. 7
fasten a cord, and pass it through the pulley P
downwards, and then through the pulley to the
sledge placed at the end of the wooden road,
which is farthest from the machine. Let the boy,
by a rope fastened to the extremity of one of the
arms of the capstan, and passed over his shoul-
der, draw the capstan round; he will wind the
rope round the drum, and draw the sledge upon
its road. To make the sledge advance twenty-
four feet upon its road, the boy must have walked
circularly 144 feet, which is six times as far, and
he will be able to draw about 3 cwt. which is six
times as much as in the last experiment.
It may now be pointed out, that the difference
of space passed through by the power in this
experiment is exactly equal to the difference
of weight which the boy could draw without the
capstan. +.
M E C H A N I C S.
73}
Experiment 7–Let the rope be now attached
to the smaller drum; the boy will draw nearly
twice as much weight upon the sledge as before,
and will go through double the space.
Experiment 8.--Where there are a number of
persons, let five or six of them, whose power of
drawing (estimated as in experiment 1) amounts
to six times as much as the force of the boy at
the capstan, pull at the end of the rope which
was fastened to the sledge, they will balance the
force of the boy at the capstan; either they or
he, by a sudden pull, may advance, but if they
pull fairly there will be no advantage on either
part. In this experiment the rope should pass
through the pulley P 3, and should be coiled
round the larger drum. And it must also be ob-
served, that, in all experiments upon the motion
of bodies in which there is much friction, as
where a sledge is employed, the results are never
so uniform as in other circumstances.
The pulley.—Upon the pulley we shall say
little, as it is in every body's hands, and experi-
ments may be tried upon it without any particu-
lar apparatus. It should, however, be distinctly
inculcated that the power is not increased by a
fixed pulley. For this purpose a wheel without
a rim, or, to speak with more propriety, a num-
ber of spokes, fixed in a nave, should be em-
ployed, as in fig. 12. Pieces like the heads of
crutches should be fixed at the ends of these
spokes, to receive a piece of girth-web which is
used instead of a cord, because a cord would be
unsteady; and a strap of iron with a hook to
it should play upon the centre, by which it may
at times be suspended, and from which at other
times a weight may be hung.
Experiment 9.—Let this skeleton of a pulley
be hung by the iron strap from the transom of
the frame; fasten a piece of web to one of the
radii, and another to the end of the opposite
radius. If two boys of equal weight pull these
pieces of girth-web they will balance each other;
or two equal weights hung to these webs will be
in equilibrio. If a piece of girth-web be put
round the uppermost radius, two equal weights
hung at the ends of it will remain immoveable;
but if either of them be pulled, or if a small ad-
ditional weight be added to either of them, it will
descend, and the web will apply itself succes-
sively to the ascending radii, and will detach
itself from those that are descending. If this
movement be carefully considered, it will be
perceived that the web, in unfolding itself, acts
in the same manner upon the radii as two ropes
would if they hung to the extremities of the op-
posite radii in succession. The two radii which
are opposite may be considered as a lever of the
first sort, where the centre is in the middle of
the lever; as each end moves through an equal
space there is no mechanical advantage; but, if
this skeleton pulley be employed as a common
block or tackle, its motions and properties will be
entirely different.
Experiment 10.—Nail a piece of girth-web to
a post, at a distance of three or four feet from
the ground; fasten the other end of it to one of
the radii, shown in fig. 12. Fasten another
piece of web to the opposite radius, and let a
boy hold the skeleton pulley suspended by the
web; hook weights to the strap that hangs from
the centre. The end of the radius, to which the
fixed girth-web is fastened, will remain immove—
able; but, if the boy pulls the web which he holds
in his hand upwards, he will be able to lift nearly
double the weight which he can raise from the
ground by a simple rope without the machine, and
he will perceive that his hand moves through twice
as great a space as the weight ascends; he has,
therefore, the mechanical advantage which he
would have by a lever of the second sort, as in
experiment 3. Let a piece of web be put round
the under radii; let one end of it be nailed to
the post, and the other to be held by the boy,
and it will represent the application of a rope
to a moveable pulley; if its motion be carefully
considered, it will appear that the radii, as they
successively apply themselves to the web, repre-
sent a series of levers of the second kind. A
pulley is nothing more than an infinite number
of such levers; the cord at one end of the dia-
meter serving as a fulcrum for the wheel during
its progress. If this skeleton pulley be used hori-
zontally, instead of perpendicularly, the circum-
stances which have been mentioned will appear
more obvious. -
Upon the wooden road lay down a piece of
girth-web : nail one end of it to the road; place
the pulley upon the web at the other end of the
board, and, bringing the web over the radii, let
the boy take hold of it, draw the loaded sledge
fastened to the hook at the centre of the pulley:
he will draw nearly twice as much in this man-
mer as he could without the pulley.
Here the web lying on the road shows more
distinctly that it is quiescent where the lowest
radius touches it; and if the radii, as they tread
upon it, are observed, their points will appear at
rest, whilst the centre of the pulley will go as
fast as the sledge, and the top of each radius
successively (and the boy's hand which unfolds
the web), will move twice as fast as the centre
of the pulley and the sledge.
If a person, holding a stick in his hand, ob-
serves the relative motion of the top, and the
middle, and the bottom of the stick, whilst he
inclines it, he will see that the bottom of the
stick has no motion on the ground, and that the
middle has only half the motion of the top. The
property of the pulley has been dwelt upon, be-
cause it elucidates the motion of a wheel rolling
upon the ground; and it explains a common
paradox, which appears at first inexplicable:--
“The bottom of a rolling wheel never moves
upon the road.’ This is asserted only of a wheel
moving over hard ground, which, in fact, may
be considered rather as laying down its cir-
cumference upon the road, than as moving
upon it.
The inclined plane and the wedge.—Theinclined
plane is next to be considered. When a heavy
body is to be raised, it is often convenient to lay
a sloping artificial road of planks, up which it
may be pushed or drawn. This mechanical
power, however, is but of little service without
the assistance of wheels or rollers : we shall
therefore speak of it as it is applied in another
manner, under the name of the wedge, which is
in fact a moving inclined plane,
f
732 *
M E C H A N I C S.
- - --------, *-----------~ *
Let one end of the lever, fig. 13, with a wheel
at one end of it, be hinged to the post of the
frame, by means of a gudgeon driven or screwed
into the post. To prevent this lever from devi-
ating sideways, let a slip of wood be connected
with it by a nail, which shall be fast in the lever,
by which it moves freely in a hole in the rail.
The other end of this slip must be fastened to a
stake driven into the ground at three or four feet
from the lever, at one side of it, and towards the
end in which the wheel is fixed.
Experiment 11.—Under the wheel of this lever
place an inclined plane or half wedge on the wood-
en road, with rollers under it, to prevent friction;
fasten a rope to the foremost end of the wedge, and
pass it through pulleys, as before shown in the
fifth experiment. Let a boy draw the sledge by
this rope over his shoulder, and he will find that,
as he advances, it will raise the weight upwards:
the wedge is five feet long, and elevated one foot.
Now, if the perpendicular ascent of the weight,
and the space through which he advances be
compared, he will find that the space through
which he has passed will be fiye times as great
as that through which the weight has ascended;
and that this wedge has enabled him to raise
five times as much as he could raise without it,
if his strength were applied, as in experiment 1,
without any mechanical advantage. By making
this wedge in two parts hinged together, with a
graduated piece to keep them asunder, the
wedge may be adjusted to any given obliquity;
and it will always be found that the mechanical
advantage of the wedge may be ascertained by
comparing its perpendicular elevation with its
base. If the base of the wedge is two, three,
four, five, or any other number of times greater
than its height, it will enable the boy to raise re-
spectively two, three, four, or five times more
weight than he could do in experiment 1, by
which his power is estimated.
The screw.—The screw, as is shown in fig.
14, is an inclined plane wound round a cylinder;
the height of all its revolutions round the cylin-
der taken together, compared with the space
through which the power that turns it passes, is
the measure of its mechanical advantage. Let
the lever, used in the last experiment, be turned
in such a manner as to reach from its gudgeon
to the shaft of the panorganon, guided by an at-
tendant lever, as before. Let the wheel rest upon
the lowest helix or thread of the screw; as the
arms of the shaft are turned round, the wheel
will ascend, and carry up the weight which is
fastened to the lever. As the situation of the
screw prevents the weight from being exactly
suspended from the centre of the screw, proper
allowance must be made for this in estimating
the force of the screw, or determining the me-
chanical advantage gained by the lever: this can
be done by measuring the perpendicular ascent
of the weight, which in all cases is better, and
more expeditious, than measuring the parts of the
machine, and estimating its force by calculation;
because the different diameters of ropes, and
other small circumstances, are frequently mis-
taken in estimates.
The space passed through in the moving
power, and by that which it moves, are infallible
data for estimating the powers of engines. Two
material subjects of experiments yet remain for
the panorganon; friction and wheels of carriages.
We repeat that, in this article, it is not intended
as a part of our design to write a treatise upon
science; but merely to point out methods of
initiating persons generally in the rudiments of
knowledge, and of giving them a clear and dis-
tinct view of those principles upon which they
are founded. No preceptor, who has had expe-
rience, will cavil at the superficial knowledge of
an uninformed person upon these subjects; he
will perceive that the general view, which we
wish to give our pupils of the useful arts and
sciences, must certainly tend to form a taste for
literature and investigation. The sciolist has
learned only to talk—we wish to teach our pupils
to think—upon the various objects of human
speculation.
The panorganon may be employed in trying
the resistance of air and water; the force of dif-
ferent muscles; and in a great variety of amus-
ing and useful experiments. In academies, and
private families, it may be erected in the place
alloted for amusement, where it will furnish
entertainment for many a vacant hour.
A compound engine either consists of one
simple mechanical power repeated two or more
times; or it consists of several simple mechani-
cal powers variously combined and connected
with each other. In any case the power and the
effect must be estimated from the result of the
effects of all the component simple mechanisms
separately considered, which is done in the fol-
lowing manner:—
Find what proportion the power bears to the
effect in each simple mechanism ; put all those
ratios one under the other, and find their sum,
which sum will express the proportion between
the power and the effect of the whole compound
engine. Thus suppose that a machine is com-
pounded of three simple mechanical powers,
viz. a lever, an inclined plane, and a moveable
pulley; and suppose that a power applied to
one end of the lever will produce a double
effect at the other end; for instance, one pound
will balance two pounds; then the proportion of
the power to the effect is as one to two. Sup-
pose also, that, in the inclined plane, the power
is to the effect as three to seven; and lastly, that,
in the pulley, the power is to the effect as one to
two. Now those three ratios being written one
under the other thus,
1 : 2
3 : 7
1 : 2 *
3 : 28
and multiplied, viz. all the antecedents together,
and all the consequents together, the two pro-
ducts thence arising will exhibit the proportion
which the power bears to the effect in the whole
compound engine; viz. that a power of three
pounds will balance a weight of twenty-eight
pounds.
Otherwise the effect of a compound engine
may be computed by considering the velocities
of the power and of the effect; for they are to
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M E C H A N I C S.
733
each other inversely as their velocities, viz. the
power is to the effect as the velocity of the lat-
ter is to that of the former. Thus in a certain
compound engine we find that the power must
move through 500 feet, whilst the weight moves
through three feet; we therefore conclude that a
power of three pounds will balance a weight of
500 pounds in that machine, and of course a
little more than three pounds will raise the 500
pounds weight.
Machines are interposed chiefly for three
reasons: 1. To accommodate the direction of
the moving force to that of the resistance which
is to be overcome. 2. To render a power which
has a fixed and certain velocity efficacious in
performing work with a different velocity. 3. To
enable a natural power, having a certain deter-
Iminate intensity, to balance or to overcome
another power or obstacle, whose intensity or
resistance is greater. Each of these purposes
may be accomplished in different ways, viz:
either by machines which have a motion round
some fixed and supported point, as the lever, the
pulley, and the wheel and axle; or by those
which, instead of being supported by a fixed
point, about which they move, furnish to the
resistance or body to be moved a solid path,
along which it is impelled, as the inclined plane,
the wedge, and the screw. Compound machines
are peculiar combinations of the six. -
Simplicity in the construction of machines
cannot be too warmly recommended to the
young engineer; for multiplicity of parts and of
motions increases the expense of erection, aug-
ments the friction, and multiplies the danger of
failure by the bending or by the inaccurate ad-
justment of the parts. In consequence of the
effects of friction, it is well known to all en-
gaged in the practice of mechanics, that by no
combination of wheels or levers, or other powers,
can one weight be made to move another with a
greater or even an equal momentum; and by
the multiplication of wheels, levers, &c., the
effect of the machine, instead of being increased,
is diminished in proportion to the augmented
friction of the moving parts. Hence it follows
that, in practice, effect is lost by mechanical
combination, but gained by simplification; and
that the most perfect machine is that which oper-
ates by the fewest moving parts. In order to
contrive a simpler machine, to be theoretically
equivalent in power to a complex one, the
following rule may be observed: construct the
various parts of the simple machine so that the
velocity of the impelled point shall be to that of
the working point in the same ratio as they are
in the compound machine; then will the effects
of these two machines be the same, so far as
depends upon pure theory; but in practice the
simpler will be the more efficacious, in conse-
quence of the diminution of friction. -
For an example, suppose the compound
machine, plate IV. fig. 1, were to be proposed,
in order that a more simple one might be con-
structed to perform the same work; let CA, the
lever to which the power is applied, be ten feet,
DE five feet in diameter, EF = 2 feet, HI = 3
feet, G H = 5 feet, and KL = 1 foot, the lat-
ter being the cylinder on which the rope raising
keep.
"descends unloaded, the action of the prime
the weight W folds. Now the diameter of the
circle described by the power at A is twenty
feet: and to find the diameter of the circle
whose circumference is equal to the space passed
over by W in one revolution of the lever CA,
reduce the following fraction: viz.
P* x 9.4 x * =+ x : x <=-3
2TAG ( EF HT - 20 * > * ~3 - 24
of 2 AC ; consequently the velocity of the
weight is i. of that of the power. And hence, if
upon the vertical axis, CM fig.2, a wheel be fixed,
the diameter k l of which is equal to 4 feet (that
is à of 2 AC), the weight W will be raised the
same height by the simple as by the compound
machine, at every revolution of the power A.
So that the simple machine, ACM k l, will be at
last equal in effect to the compound one AC
MD EFG HIKL, and the wheels DE, EF,
GH, HI, and KL, are extraneous, and probably
prejudicial, - -
One of the most simple and effectual methods
of equalising the irregularities, in large machines,
is by the use of a fly-wheel. A fly-wheel is a
heavy disc or hoop, balanced on its axis, and so
connected with the machinery as to turn rapid-
Iy round with it, and as to receive its motion
from the impelling power. Let us suppose a
case in which the impelling power is perfectly
uniform, but the resistance or load is irregular
and intermitting. Thus, suppose an overshot
water-wheel urged by a regular and uniform fall
of water, applied to work a common suction
pump. Here the impelling power is constant
and uniform, but the resistance only acts during
the ascent of the piston, and the machine is un-
loaded during its descent. As the impelling
power, during the descent of the piston, has
nothing to overcome except the inertia of the
machine, and the friction of the parts, it will
urge the piston down with a rapidly accelerated
force, so that at the end of the stroke the piston
will have acquired a considerable velocity. But,
in the ascent of the piston, the impelling power
is opposed by the columns of water which the
piston has to raise. This continually retards
the wheel, and when the piston has reached the
summit of the stroke all its former acceleration
is destroyed, and the same hobbling irregular
motion is continued. If a fly-wheel be attached
to such a machine, almost all this irregularity
will be removed. When the heavy mass of the
fly-wheel has been put in rapid motion, by the
impelling power, it will produce two very ob-
vious effects; by virtue of its inertia, it will
oppose a considerable resistance to any sudden
acceleration, and also to any sudden retardation
of its motion; that is, it has a disposition to con-
tinue the motion which has been imparted to it,
and to resist the reception of more. By this,
on the ascent of the piston, the weight of the
column of water is dragged up, not alone by the
energy of the prime mover as before, but by
the moving force which has been imparted to the
fly-wheel, and which that wheel endeavours to
On the other hand, when the piston
734
M E C H A N I C S.
mover upon it, which before caused its sudden
and rapid acceleration, is now intercepted by the
fly-wheel, which, by its great inertia, refuses to
receive that rapid degree of acceleration which
had been before produced. The power of a fly-
wheel to resist acceleration is proportional to
the square of its diameter, and, therefore, by
sufficiently increasing its size and weight, we
may be enabled to equalise the most desultory
and irregular motions in the machinery.
In the example which we have just given
there was a variable resistance opposed by a
uniform power. The reverse of this often hap-
pens, and a variable power is opposed to a con-
stant resistance. Thus in the single-acting steam
engine, when the piston has been forced down
by the pressure of steam; it is usually drawn up
again by a weight suspended from the opposite
end of the beam. In this case the mover is very
unequal and desultory, and would never serve
any purpose in which uniformity of action is
necessary. But if a fly-wheel be attached to the
machine, the momentum which it acquires
during the descent of the piston, it will retain by
virtue of its inertia during the suspension of
the power in the ascent; and this force will
drive the machinery or act against the resistance,
whatever it be, in the intervals of the intermis-
sion of the power.
A very remarkable instance of the use of a fly
occurs in the engine constructed by Mr. Vauloue,
for driving the piles of Westminster Bridge. In
this machine a heavy mass is elevated by horse-
power acting upon it through the intervention of
a rope and wheel-work, and when it has reached
a considerable height it is disengaged, and per-
mitted to fall upon the pile which is to be driven.
Now the moment this mass is disengaged the
machine, having no resistance, and the horses
being relieved from the weight they before en-
countered, would immediately fall forward.
This is prevented by connecting the wheel-work
with a heavy fly, the inertia of which opposes the
strength of the animals when they are suddenly
relieved from the weight of the elevated mass.
Wheels, like pulleys, may be considered as an
assemblage of levers. Of wheels there are two
kinds: the first always turn in the same space
upon an axis fixed to the centre of the wheel,
the pivots of which turn in holes or cavities
which serve as a prop: such are the wheels of
clocks, of mills, &c. Wheels of this kind re-
ceive or transmit the movement by teeth, or cogs
placed round the circumference. -
Wheels of the other kind, that is, which turn
upon their circumference, have their centre or
axletree in a direction parallel to the plane on
which they move; such are the wheels of wag-
gons, coaches, &c. They have, therefore, two
movements; the one of their centre which ad-
vances in a right line, and the other of all their
parts which perform a circular motion round the
Centre. -
When, wheels of the first kind are put in
action, it is common to place upon the same axle
a great wheel and a small one, called a pinion,
and sometimes a nut, the teeth of which coincide
with the teeth of another large wheel. In large
machines, trundles are often substituted for pi-
nions or nuts, and perform their office; these
are cylinders or spindles parallel to each other,
and placed circularly in two plain pieces of
wood at the top and bottom. The teeth of the
wheel then catch the spindles of the trundle as
they do the cogs of the nut or pinion. The me-
chanism is the same in both cases: so that it
suffices to examine the manner of hooking or
catching of wheels and pinions.
Wheels of the first kind, those whose motion
is confined to the same place, may be considered
as levers of the first order; the arms of which
are the radii of the wheels and nuts, and which
have their prop at the axle. Let A B C, fig. 3,
be three wheels, and a b c their corresponding
pinions or nuts. The nut, or, what is the same
thing, the cylinder a, sustains the weight P; the
wheel A, which has the same axle as the cylinder
a, catches the nut b ; the wheel B, which has
the same axle as the nut b, catches the nut c,
the wheel C, which has the same axle as the nut
c, is drawn at its circumference by the power
Q: and the whole system is in equilibrium.
Here the weight P acts by the radii of the nuts;
but the power Q acts by the radii of the wheels.
Suppose the radii of the wheels to be four times
those of the nuts; and that the first are eight
inches, and the other two inches. To preserve
an equilibrium, it is necessary that the power
should be to the resistance as the product of the
arms of the lever of resistance is to the product
of the arms of the lever of power, that is, in an
inverse ratio of the length of the arms of the
lever; these products are found by multiplying
the one by the other, that is, the radii of the
wheels and the radii of the nuts. The first pro-
duct will be 512; and the second eight, in which
case the power Q ought to be to the weight P
as eight is to 512, or as one is to sixty-four.
Hence it follows that, to preserve an equili-
brium, whatever is the diameter of the wheels
and of the nuts, the power is to the resistance
as the product of the radii of the nuts is to the
product of the radii of the wheels.
It appears then that this form of machines is
capable of giving a great advantage to the force
or power over the resistance; but this advantage
is necessarily acquired at the expense of time or
velocity, when the machine passes from a state
of rest to that of motion. For there is always
as much lost in time as there is gained in force,
and so reciprocally. . -
There is often occasion, especially in clock
work, that the number of the revolutions of the
wheels and that of the nuts should bear a certain
proportion. This is performed by giving a con-
venient number of teeth or cogs to the wheels
and nuts: as for example, if it was required that
a wheel should make only one revolution while
a nut should make four; there must be four
times as many teeth in the wheel as there are
cogs in the nut. Suppose A B C D, fig. 4, to
be four wheels, the first of which A, catches the
nut b fixed to the second B; this catches the
nut c fixed to the third wheel C; this third
catches the nutd fixed to the fourth D; lastly, this
fourth wheel catches the last nute ; now to ob-
tain the proportion between the number of revo.
lutions of the first wheel A, and the number of
M E C H A N I C S.
735
revolutions of the last nute, multiply the num-
ber of teeth of the wheel A by the number of
teeth of the wheel B; this first product by the
number of teeth in the wheel C, and the second
product by the number of teeth in the wheel D ;
then multiply the number of cogs of the nut b
by the number of cogs in the nut c ; this first
product by the number of cogs in the nut d,
and the second product by the number of cogs
of the last nute; the last products of the teeth
of the wheels and the cogs of the nuts will give
the proportion required. . . .
It may then be established, as a general rule,
that the number of the revolutions of the first
wheel, A, is to the number of the revolutions of
the last nut as the product of the cogs of the
nuts is to the product of the teeth of the wheels.
Hence it follows, that it is not necessary to de-
termine the number of cogs and teeth which each
nut and wheel should have in particular; it suf-
fices that the proportion of the products of all
the cogs to the product of all the teeth shall be
such as is required. .
In forming the teeth of wheels it is of consi-
derable importance to determine their proper
curvature, so that the motion may be commu-
nicated equally, and with as little friction as pos-
sible. Two methods of accomplishing this end
have been recommended: of these the first was
originally proposed by M. De La Hire, who
affirmed that the pressure would be uniform if
the teeth were formed into epicycloids; and M.
Camus, in his Cours de Mathematiques, has pur-
sued M. De La Hire's principle, and applied it
to the various cases which are likely to arise in
practice. The construction, however, is subject
to a limitation; on which account a second
method has been proposed, which secures the
perfect uniformity of action without any such
limitation. This method consists in making both
teeth portions of involutes of circles. Thus, let
I H F, K E B, fig. 5, be the wheels to which
the teeth are to be accommodated: the acting
face G C H of the tooth a must have the form
of the curve traced by the extremity H of the
flexible line F a H, as it is unwrapped from the
circumference; and, in like manner, the acting
face of the tooth b must be formed by the un-
wrapping of a thread from the circumference of
the circle, K Erb. The line F C E drawn to
touch both circles, will cut the surfaces of the two
teeth in C, the point where they touch each
other: the faces of both teeth will always touch
each other at a point in the common tangent to
both circles, and the force arising from their
mutual pressure will always act in the direction
of the circumferences of the wheels at E and F.
This form, by allowing the teeth to act on each
other through the whole extent of the line FC
E, will admit of several teeth to be acting at the
same time; and thus, by dividing the pressure
among several teeth, will diminish its quantity
upon any one of them, and therefore diminish
the cause of the indentations they unavoidably
make upon each other. Consequently, a consi-
derable number of teeth thus formed acting at
once cause the communication of motion to be
extremely smooth and regular. *
In regulating the number of teeth in the wheel,
and the pinion which works it, it should be so
contrived that the same teeth should be engaged
as seldom as possible, in order to avoid inequa-
lity of wear. For example, letus suppose that
the number of teeth in a wheel were exactly ten
times the number of leaves in the pinion; each
leaf in the pinion would engage every tenth tooth
of the wheel, and would work inevitably on the
same ten teeth every revolution of the wheel.
If it were possible that all the teeth and leaves
could be constructed with mathematical preci-
sion, and perfect and absolute similitude, and
that no accidental difference, owing to any want
of uniformity in the material of which they are
formed, could exist, this would be a matter of
no consequence, and the wear would still be
even and equable. But, as these perfections
never can exist, the inevitable inequalities inci-
dent, as well to the nature of the material of
which wheels are constructed as to the forms
they derive even from the most perfect mecha-
nical construction, must be compensated by
making the teeth and leaves work, so that each
leaf shall successively engage with all the other
teeth of the wheel before it engages a second time
with any one of them. ...
This is accomplished by making the number
of teeth and the number of leaves prime to each
other, that is, such that no integer divides both
exactly. The manner in which this is commonly
done is by making the number of teeth such,
that it is just one more than a number which is
exactly divisible by the number of leaves. This
is what millwrights call making a hunting cog.
Thus, suppose that there are ten leaves, and that
the diameter of the wheel is about six times that
of the pinion. If this were the exact ratio, there
would be just sixty feet, and after each revo-
lution of the wheel the same teeth and leaves
would be continually engaged, each leaf taking
every sixth tooth. But if the diameter of the
wheel be made somewhat greater than six times
that of the pinion, so as to admit sixty-one teeth;
then, after six revolutions of the pinion, the first
leaf will be engaged with the tooth immediately
before that in which it had worked at the com—
mencement, and after six more revolutions it
will be engaged with the tooth before that, or
the second tooth from that at which the motion
commenced. Thus, it is evident, that the wheel
must revolve sixty-one times, and the pinion
6 x 61, or 366 times before the same teeth will
be again engaged. By these means the inequa-
lities of wear, arising from inequalities of form
and material, will compensate each other.
To determine the dimensions of two conical
wheels, to communicate motion in any oblique
angle, the following graphic method may be
used. Suppose a b, fig. 6, to represent the shaft
or axle of one wheel, and de the axle of another
wheel, the angle a in which they intersect each
other being equal to the angle in which the mo-
tion is proposed to be communicated: let it be
required for the shaft de to revolve m times while
the shaft a b revolves n times; and let the line
i i be drawn parallel to de, at a distance equal to
the radius of the base of the wheel, whose axle
is de. Then draw a line k k parallel to a b, and
at a distance yg from it, which shall be to the
736
M E C H A N I C S.
distance y has m to n: through a the point of
intersection of the lines first proposed, and y the
intersection of the two lines ii, kk, respectively
parallel to the two former, draw the line a y w,
which will be the pitch line of the two conical
wheels, or the line in which the teeth of those
wheels act upon one another; and gy, hy, will
represent the exterior radii of the wheels, which
will work one against the other after the manner
shown in fig. 7, where the corresponding parts
are marked by the same letters. A third shaft
and wheel may easily be applied to communicate
motion in a different direction from either of the
former : as the shaft and wheel r s t w in fig. 7.
It is manifest, from what is done above, that
this is nothing more than to divide an angle bath
into two parts whose sines shall have a given
ratio of m to n; a well known problem, which
solved algebraically gives the theorem, 2 sin.
772 So that all
77.
which is required here may be easily calculated
by the common rules of plane trigonometry;
and thus the accuracy of the construction may
be established.
It will be easy to show that complex wheel-
work obeys the law of virtual velocities; for,
since the teeth are equal, the circumference of
each wheel moves with the same velocity as that
of the circumference of the pinion by which it is
driven, which is equally evident if they be con-
nected by straps or work by friction. Now,
since each wheel revolves in the same time with
its axle, the velocities of their circumferences
are as their circumferences, or, what is the same,
as their radii or number of teeth. Hence, the
velocity of the power, or the velocity of the cir-
cumference of the first wheel, is to that of the
first axle as their radii. But the velocity of the
circumference of the first axle is equal to the
velocity of the circumference of the second
wheel, which is to that of the second axle as
# g a y = 2 sin. # g a h
their radii; and, by continuing this reasoning, we
shall find that the velocity of the power is to that
of the weight as the product of the radii of the
wheels to the product of the radii of all the
axles; and, therefore, that the power multiplied
by the velocity of the power is equal to the
weight multiplied by the velocity of the weight.
This will be better understood by an example.
Let the number of teeth in the first wheel be
100, and the leaves in the first pinion nine; and
let the teeth in the second and third wheels be
120 and 130, and the leaves in the respective
pinions be seven and eleven. The velocity of
the circumference of the first wheel being ex-
pressed by tº that of the circumference of the
second wheel will be ºn. This velocity is to that
of the circumference of the second pinion, or
third wheel, as 120 is to 7; and therefore the
velocity of the circumference of the third wheel is
9 × 7
100 × 120° Again, this velocity is to that of
the circumference of the last axle as 130 to 11.
9 × 7 × 11
º 100 × 120 x 13”
which verifies what we have just advanced.
Wheels are usually made of wood, of iron,
This velocity is therefore
either cast or wrought, of steel, or of brass. The
teeth of wheels of metal are generally cut by
means of a machine; the wheel is fixed on an
axis, which also carries a plate furnished with a
variety of circles, divided into different numbers
of equal parts, marked by small excavations;
these are brought in succession under the point of
a spring, which holds the axis firm, while the in-
tervals between the teeth are expeditiously cut
out by a revolving saw of steel. The teeth are
afterwards finished by a file; and a machine has
also been invented for holding and working the file.
We may readily produce a rotatory motion by
means of a reciprocating one. Suppose, if it is
required to give to the wheel SVT O, fig. 8,
a rotatory motion about the centre C. In the
plane of the wheel attach to a fixed point F as
a centre of motion a lever FQ, which may move
freely up and down: let a pin be fixed in the
wheel as at R.; and let an inflexible bar Q R.
hang upon the pin at R at one end, while the
other end is attached to the lever FQ by a stir-
rup; the motion being quite easy at both ends.
Then, while the point Q is raised upwards, the
bar pulls upwards the pin R, and so continues
to do until the points Q, R, and C, fall in a right
line; at that time the effort of the bar to turn the
wheel; but the wheel by its anterior rotation has
acquired a quantity of motion which will carry
it on in the same direction, till, by the downward
motion of the extremity Q of the lever, the bar
begins to push forward the pin to which it is at-
tached: thus the motion is continued till the
points Q, C, and R, are again in a right line, R.
being now the farthest from Q: in this position
the bar has no tendency to move the wheel along;
but here the effort of momentum continues the
motion as before, till the bar begins to draw the
point R. upwards. And thus a reciprocating
motion of the lever FR gives a complete rota-
tion to the wheel; and the velocity of the cir-
cumference of the wheel may be made as rapid
as we please, by making the distance C R so
much the smaller in comparison of C.V. . If the
lever FQ be below the wheel, the general effect
will be the same, but the particular circumstances
of the motion will succeed each other in a con-
trary order. In practice it is common to substi-
tute for the pin at R the handle of a bent winch,
as represented by the dotted lines in the figure.
It is not absolutely necessary that the lever and
wheel should be in the same plane; but devia-
tions from it are not often to be recommended,
except in small machinery, such as common
spinning wheels worked by the feet, &c. When
it is not required to have a complete rotation of
the wheel, for every ascent and descent of the
lever FG, we may change the relation of the
two motions in any proportion, by the interven-
tion of tooth and pinion work.
Universal joints (invented by Dr. Hooke) are
sometimes used to communicate motion ob-
liquely, instead of conical wheels. Fig. 9, rep-
resents a single universal joint, which may be
employed where the angle does not exceed 40°,
. and when the shafts are to move with equal ve-
locity. The shafts A and B being both connected
with a cross, will move on the rounds at the
points C E and D F, and thus, if the shaft A is
M E C H A N I Cs.
737
turned round, the shaft B will likewise turn
with a similar motion in its respective position.
The double universal joint, fig. 10, conveys
motion in different directions when the angle is
between 50° and 90°. It is at liberty to move
on the rounds at the points G, H, I, K, connected
with the shaft B; also on the points L, M, N, T,
connected with the shaft A; thus the two shafts
are so connected that one cannot turn without
causing the other to turn likewise. These joints
may be constructed by a cross of iron, or with
four pins fastened at right angles upon the cir-
cumference of a hoop or of a solid ball: they
are of great use in cotton mills, where the tum-
bling shafts are continued to a great distance
from the moving power: for, by applying a uni-
versal joint, the shafts may be cut into conve-
nient lengths, and so be enabled to overcome a
greater resistance. -
The nature of friction, as it results from the
motion of machinery, must now be noticed.
If a horizontal plane were perfectly smooth, a
body would be free to move upon it in any di-
rection, by the least force applied to it. But,
‘however smooth bodies may appear to the eye,
yet if you examine their surfaces with a micros-
cope you will discover numberless inequalities;
in consequence of which the prominent parts of
one body falls into the hollows of another, so as
to be locked together; and therefore, in moving
them over each other, one of the bodies must be
raised up, or its prominencies broken off: this
is what is called friction.
Friction is greater in bodies in proportion to
their weight or pressure against each other. It
does not increase much in proportion to the sur-
face, although it does in some degree. It also
increases in proportion to the velocity of the
moving bodies.
Wood slides more easily upon the ground, or
earth, in wet weather than in dry, and more
easily than iron in dry weather, but iron more
easily than wood in wet weather. A cubic piece
of smooth soft wood, eight pounds in weight,
moving upon a smooth plane of soft wood, at
the rate of three feet every second, has a friction
equal to above two-thirds of its weight. Soft
wood upon hard wood has a friction equal to
one-sixth part of its weight; and hard wood
upon hard wood has a friction equal to about
one-eigth part of its weight.
In wood rubbing upon wood, oil, grease, or
black-lead, properly applied, makes the friction
two-thirds less. Wheel-naves, when greased,
have only one-fourth of the friction they would
have if wet. •
When polished steel moves on steel, or pew-
ter, properly oiled, the friction is about one-fourth
of the weight; on copper or lead one-fifth of
the weight; on brass one-sixth; and metals have
more friction when they move on metals of the
same kind, than when they move on different
metals. -
The friction of a single lever is very little. The
friction of the wheel and axle is in proportion to
the weight, velocity, and the diameter of the
axle; the smaller the diameter of the axle the
less will be the friction.
The friction of pulleys is very
Vol. XIII.
great, on ao-
count of the smallness, of their diameters, in
proportion to that of their axes, because they
very often bear against the blocks, and from the
wearing of their holes and axles.
In the wedge and screw there is a great deal
of friction. Screws with sharp threads have
more friction than those with square threads, and
endless screws have more than either.
M. Coulomb has an extensive paper on the
subject of friction, in vol. 10 Des Memoires des
Savans étrangers; where he describes his expe-
riments at considerable length, and deduces
from them an elaborate theory. We cannot
here enter into the detail of all these experi-
ments, but shall merely state the principal of nis
results. -* - -
M. Coulomb's conclusions are widely different
from Mr. Vince's in one important particular;
for he asserts that the friction is proportional to
the pressure. The mean ratios of friction to
pressure, given by Coulomb's experiments for
different kinds of wood, are as follows, the pres-
sure being denoted by unity.
Oak against oak 0°43
Oak against fir O'65
Fir against fir O-56
Elm against elm O°47'
The friction being made in the direction of the
threads or fibres of the wood. But when the
friction is made across the grain of the wood, or
so that the direction of the fibres forms a right
angle with that of the motion, the friction is less
than in the former case, but still in a constant
ratio to the pressure ; the results being then as
below.
Oak against fir º O' 158
Fir against fir '. O- 167
Elm against elm . O° 100
These ratios are constant quantities, not depend-
ing upon the velocities, except in the case of elm
when the pressures are very small, for then the
friction increases sensibly with the velocity.
M. Coulomb gives the following general sum-
mary. -
1. ‘The friction of wood sliding over wood
(both being dry) opposes, after a sufficient time
of quiescence, a resistance proportional to the
pressure; that resistance sensibly increasing in
the first instant of repose; but after some
minutes it usually arrives at its maximum or its
limit. -
2. “When wood glides dry over wood, with
any velocity whatever, the friction is still pro-
portional to the pressure; but its intensity is
much less than that which is experienced in de-
taching the surfaces after some minutes of rest;
it has been found, for example, that the force ne-
cessary to detach and produce a sliding motion.
in two surfaces of oak after some minutes of
quiescence, is to that necessary to overcome the
friction, when the surfaces have obtained any
degree of velocity whatever, nearly as nine to two.
3. * The friction of metals sliding over metals,
without oiling, is also proportional to the pres-
'sures; but its intensity is the same, whether the
surfaces are detached after having been any time
in repose, or whether they preserve any uniform
velocity whatever. -
$ B
738
M. E. C. H. A N I C S.
4. “Heterogeneous surfaces, such as woods
and metals sliding the one over the other, without
oiled surfaces, give for their friction results very
different from the preceding ones; for the in-
tensity of their friction relatively to the time of
repose increases slowly, and does not attain its
limit till after four or five days, and sometimes
more; instead of which, in metals, the limit is
attained in an instant, and in wood in a few
minutes: this augmentation is even so slow, that
the resistance due to the friction in insensible
velocities is aimost the same as that which we
must surmount in moving or detaching the sur-
faces after three or four seconds of rest. And
this is not all: in wood gliding unoiled over
wood, and in metals sliding over metals, the ve-
locity has very little influence upon the friction;
but here the friction increases very sensibly in
proportion as the velocities are augmented; in
such manner that the friction increases nearly
according to an arithmetical progression.”
The ratio of the friction to the pressure (1)
when oak was made to slide over iron, was
found, from forty experiments, to be as here
stated, when the velocity was almost insensible,
'0894, '0773, -0785, and '0786: when the velo-
city was about a foot per second, 1698, 1722,
‘1817, and 1573.
“When metals slide upon wood, done over with
grease, the friction, says M. Coulomb, appears
much softened, and we may produce insensible
velocities with degrees of traction less consider-
able than in all the other species of friction; but,
when the velocities have been a little augmented,
we have found that the friction increases greatly
with respect to the velocity, as was the case when
we made unoiled metals slide upon wood; and
we have, for the relation of the augmentation of
Velocities and the degree of traction which pro-
duced that augmentation, nearly the same law
with that we sought to determine in the friction
of metals sliding dry upon wood; but, if the
greasing be not renewed at each experiment, it
coagulates, changes its nature, and the friction .
successively augments.
“When the surfaces are done over with tallow,
the ratio of the friction to the pressure is greater
under pressures of about fifty pounds, than under
greater pressures.
“With coatings (enduits, plasters) of cart-
grease, the friction is never less than one-ninth
of the pressure. Its resistance depends upon
the consistence of the coating, and the friction
augments sensibly as this coating is softer When
the surfaces are done over with tallow, and are
of great extent, the friction corrupts or changes
the nature of the tallow, and augments sensibly
as we continue the motion without renewing the
coating: yet it is always found less than one-
eighth of the pressure. But, when the tallow is
dissolved to an oil, this effect is less sensible.”
When one body rolls upon another, it is very
obvious that friction produces much less resis-
tance to the motion than when it slides. In this
case the parts of the one surface are, in some
degree, successively lifted from off the other, and
the asperities act in a manner totally different
from the case of a sliding motion. One, at least,
of the bodies must, in this case, be bounded by
a curved surface, and therefore the surface or
contact must necessarily be very small, which is
another cause of the diminution of the friction.
If the rolling body be cylindrical, the points of
contact of the surfaces will form a straight line
upon the surface of the cylinder, the surface on
which the cylinder rolls being either that of ano-
ther cylinder having its axis parallel to that of
the former, or a plane. But if the rolling body
be a sphere, a spheroid, or any similar shape,
the surface of contact will be reduced to a single
point.
To explain the manner of investigating experi-
mentally the properties of this species of friction,
let us suppose two perfectly plane tables, A B,
CD, fig.11, placed exactly in the same horizon-
tal plane. On these let a cylinder, E.F, be placed
with its axis at right angles to their length. At
the middle of the interval between the tables, let a
flexible string be passed across the cylinder,
having dishes of exactly equal weight suspended
at its extremities. By placing equal weights in
these dishes, any required pressure may be pro-
duced upon the table. If, then, fine sand be
poured into either scale until its preponderance
just gives motion to the cylinder, this additional
weight will be equal to the friction.
In this way the diameter and material of the
cylinder, as well as the pressure it exerts against
the plane, may be varied at pleasure. In making
experiments it would be useful, in each trial, to
pour the sand successively in each scale, so as
just to make the cylinder move in each direction.
If the weights which produce the motion differ
by a small quantity, a mean between may be
taken to represent the friction.
The results of numerous experiments insti-
tuted in this way by Coulomb were as follow :-
1. With the same cylinder the friction is pro-
portional to the pressure.
2. With cylinders of the same substance, having
different diameters, but equal pressures, the fric-
tion is inversely as the diameters.
3. With cylinders of the same substance, dif-
fering both in diameter and pressure, the friction
is directly as the pressures, and inversely as the
diameters; or in a ratio compounded of the di-
rect ratio of the pressures and the inverse ratio
of the diameters.
To explain the last two results to those who
are not conversant with mathematical phrase-
ology:—Suppose that two cylinders, one of two
and the other of five inches diameter, exerted
equal pressures on the tables, it would be found
that the friction of the two-inch cylinder would
be greater than that of the five-inch cylinder, in
the proportion of five to two -
Again, suppose that the two-inch cylinder,
exerts a pressure of three pounds, and the five
inch cylinder a pressure of seven pounds, it will
be found that the friction of the two-inch cylinder
will be to that of the five-inch cylinder in the
proportion of the produce of five and three to
the product of two and seven, or as fifteen to
fourteen. -
It was found that greasing the surfaces does not
at all diminish this species of frietion.
When a cylinder of mahogany, whose dia-
meter was about three inches, was rolled npon a
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Mi E C H A N I C S.
Yilane of oak, the friction was about one-sixteenth
of the pressure; and, when it rolled upon a
plane of elm, the friction was only mºth of the
pressure. * --
It is evident, therefore, that between the same
substances this species of friction is much less
than that of sliding. -
The string used in these experiments should
be so flexible, that its rigidity or stiffness shall
produce no sensible effect upon the results.
If a body, having any round figure, be made
to revolve while it is pressed with any force
against any surface, and at the same time is pre-
vented from rolling along that surface, a species
of friction will be produced different from any
which we have yet considered.
To explain this friction, and the experiments
by which its properties may be determined, let
us suppose a solid cylindrical axis, A B (Plate V.
fig. 1), inserted in an hollow cylinder, of a dia-
meter, CB, somewhat greater than AB, so as to
permit the hollow cylinder BC to turn round it,
AB. Let the cylinders be placed with their
axes horizontal, and let the hollow cylinder be the
centre or box of a wheel D F. Let an extremely
flexible string be passed over the edge of this
wheel, in a grove formed to receive it, and let
Scales G, H, be appended to its extremities. In
consequence of the form of the axle and hollow
cylinder, and the manner in which the weight
of the wheel acts, the points of contact of the
axle and the cylinder will be in a straight line,
formed by the intersection of a vertical plane
passing through the axis of the cylinder, with
the surface of the cylinder. In fact, if from the
point of contact, B, a line be conceived to be
drawn perpendicular to the plane of the paper,
along the inner surface of the cylinder, the axle
and the cylinder will touch in that line, and in
no other points. It appears, therefore, that if
the hollow cylinder be supposed to revolve round
the axle, as happens in a carriage wheel, every
part of the surface of the hollow cylinder is suc-
cessively exposed to the effect of friction; while
no part of the axle suffers this effect, except the
side which passes through the point, B, of its
section. If, on the contrary, as sometimes hap-
pens, the axle revolve within the cylinder, the
opposite effects are produced. The entire sur-
face of the axle is successively exposed to the
effects of friction, while these effects are confined
to one line upon the surface of the hollow cy-
linder.
By loading the dishes GH with any equal
weights, the axle may be submitted to any pro-
posed pressure. If, when they are equally
loaded, some fine sand be poured into one of the
dishes until its weight just gives motion to the
wheel, the weight of the sand will be sufficient
to determine the quantity of friction.
The preponderating weight is not, however, in
this case, the immediate measure of the friction.
It is to be considered that the wheel is turned
A
round its centre, I; that the friction which re-.
sists,this motion acts at B, and therefore with the
leverage BI; while the preponderating weight
which overcomes the friction acts with the lever-
age E.I. Let the friction be F, and the prepon-
derating weight be W.; then by the established
properties of the lever we have
F : W - : E I : B |
E I
... F = W T; 1
that is, the friction is equal to the additional
weight which produces the motion, multiplied
by the radius of the wheel, and divided by the
radius of the hollow cylinder which plays upon
the axle.
Thus it appears that the friction is greater
than the preponderating weight in the proportion
of the radius of the wheel to the radius of the
cylinder.
As, in the experiments to determine the fric-
tion of rolling, so here also each experiment
should be tried in both dishes, and the mean of
the results taken.
To determine whether the friction be a uni-
formly retarding force, a weight must be placed
in one of the dishes greater than that which is
necessary to overcome the friction. This will
cause the dish to descend with an accelerated
motion, and, by placing a graduatéd vertical
scale near it, the rate, of its acceleration may be
ascertained. If it be found that the spaces through
which it descends, in one, two, or three seconds,
&c., are as the numbers 1, 4, 9, &c.; in other
words, if the spaces be as the squares of the
times, the motion is uniformly accelerated.
Hence it may be inferred that the friction is a
uniformly retarding force.
By a series of experiments, conducted as we
have described, Coulomb found that, like the
other modifications of friction, the law of the pro-
portionality of the friction to the pressure ob-
tained also in this case, subject however to the
exception before mentioned, that in very great
pressures the friction is somewhat less in pro-
portion.
He also found that, as in the friction of slid-
ing, great advantage was gained by greasing the
surfaces. In general, fresh tallow diminishes
the friction by one-half. It increases as the
grease is wasted away. This effect is, however,
more slow than in the friction of sliding.
This species of friction is also a uniformly
retarding force, and is therefore independent of
the velocity.
Like the other species of friction, the quantity
of this depends on the quality of the surfaces. If
iron revolve in contact with brass, the friction is
one-seventh of the pressure. When both sur-
faces are wood, the friction is one-twelfth of the
pressure. - *
The friction of bodies turning on pivots seems
to come within the species we are now consider-
ing. This was also examined by Coulomb, and
a memoir on the subject was published by him
in the Memoirs of the French Academy in 1790.
A very succinct and clear account of this is given
by Dr. Gregory, in the second volume of his
Mechanics, from which we extract the following
particulars:— *
* Bodies which are made to turn upon pivots
are usually suspended by means of a cheek,
socket, or collar, of very hard matter. The collar
has its cavity of a conic form, and terminated at its
summit by a little concave segment, whose radius
of curvature is rery small. The point of the pivot
. 3 B 2
740
M E C H A N I C S.
which is sustained by this collar forms at its
summit a little convex surface, whose radius of
curvature should be still smaller than that of the
extremity of the cheek. Experience evinces that
the curvature of the bottom of the socket is irre-
gular, and that the friction of a collar of agate
on which a pivot turns is frequently five or six
times more considerable than the momentum of
friction of a well-polished plane of agate on which
the same pivot turns.
* These considerations induced M. Coulomb
to employ in the course of his experiments, not
a cheek or a socket, but a well-polished plane,
to support the body on the point of a pivot. To
prevent the body from sliding, he took care that
its centre of gravity should be very low, with re-
spect to the point of suspension: he then made
the body to whirl or spin about its pivot, by im-
pressing upon it a rotatory motion. By means
of a seconds watch, he observed exactly the time
employed by the body in making the first four
or five turns, and he thence deduced easily a
mean turn to determine the primitive velocity:
after this he counted the number of turns which
the body made before it stopped.
‘Coulomb took a glass bell of forty-eight lines
in diameter and sixty lines in height, which
weighed five ounces. He placed it on the point
of a pivot; and, after giving it successive degrees
of velocity about that pivot, he observed very
exactly the time that it employed to make the
first turn, which gave him for the mean velocity
that which answered to the half of such first turn.
He then estimated the number of turns made by
the bell before it stopped: the results were as
below—
* 1st Trial. The bell made one turn in 4", and
came to rest after 34% turns. .
motion.
* 2nd Trial. The bell made one turn in 64",
and stopped after 14% turns. -
* 3rd Trial. The bell made one turn in 11”,
and stoppped after 4% turns.
‘Now if b denote the primitive velocity, X
the space described between the commencement
and the end of the motion, A the constant mo–
º - 7.2
mentum of the retarding force; f* the sum of
(l,
the products of every particle H, by the square of .
its distance r from the axis of rotation, divided
by the quantity a, measuring the distance from
the axis of rotation to the point whose primitive
velocity is b, it is easy to find the following ana-
lytical expression for the constant momentum of
the vis retardatrix, viz.
b° 2pr”
2 X” a g
A =
“But, because in the three preceding trials
- .#
the same bell was employed, the quantity fºr
- b?
is the same : x must therefore be a constant
quantity if A be constant, and reciprocally. But
in each trial there was reckoned the time em-
ployed by the apparatus in performing an entire
revolution. The mean velocity, or the velocity
due to the half of each first revolution, will,
therefore, be measured by the circumference run
over. The space described up to the end of the
motion will be measured by the number of turns
run through from the instant where the mean
velocity was determined until the end of the
Thus, by computing from the data fur-
mished by the three trials, we may form the fol-
lowing table:
2
• e b
“1st Trial. One turn in 4", stops at 34% turns, whence results; = #1
2nd Trial. 64", . . 14% . . . . . = #:
3rd Trial. 11”, 4% . . . . . = #1
‘This experiment, then, shows unequivocally
b?
that the quantity T.’ and consequently the quan-
tity A which expresses the momentum of friction,
are constant quantities, whatever be the primitive
degree of velocity; and that, consequently, the
velocity has not any influence upon the resist-
ance due to the friction of pivots, which from
this experiment is necessarily proportional to a
function of the pressure.
“When this experiment is made in a vacuum,
a much less heavy body may be employed, and
of any form whatever, and the same result will be
obtained. -
“In other experiments, Coulomb bent a brass
wire of nine inches in length; the parallel branches
were twenty-four lines distant from one another:
the part of the wire curved in the form of a semi-
circle which joined the two branches was about
three inches löng: and the two vertical and
parallel branches were also each three inches'
long. To the extremity of each vertical branch
was attached by means of wax a piece of metal;
and there was fixed, in like manner, in the mid-
dle of the concave part of the wire, to serve for
the cheek or bush, a small well-polished plane
*
of different substances on which the ſriction o
the point of the pivot was to be determined:
finally, there was fixed to the summit of a sup-
port a little needle of tempered steel, and whose
point it was necessary to render more or less fine,
rounded, or obtuse, according to the nature of
the cheeks, and to the pressure which they were
to experience. The extremity of the needle first
used by Coulomb, appeared, when examined by
a microscope, to form a conic angle of 18° or 20°.
The friction of this needle against well-polished
planes of granite, agate, rock crystal, glass, and
tempered steel respectively, was tried; and the
result, taking in each experiment the mean quan-
2
tity represented by: (a quantity which was
always found to vary between very narrow limits),
gave the momentum of friction of the point of the
needle against the planes of granite, agate, &c.
respectively, in the ratio of the fractions whº gº,
#3, #5, #1: so that, the momentum of friction of
the plane of granite being represented by unity,
we shall have for the momentum of the friction
of rotation relative to the other substances as
below :-friction of granite, 1 ; of agate, 1-214;
of rock crystal, 1-313; of glass, 1777; of steel
2-257. -
M E C H A N I C S.
741
‘Coulomb likewise employed himself, during
these experiments, in determining the more or
less acute form which should be given to the
points of the pivots. To this end he caused to
be successively rounded into cones of greater or
less acuteness the extremity of a steel needle,
that it might thence appear whether the change
of figure had any influence upon the friction.
Thus he found that, under a certain charge, the
point of the pivot being shaped to 45°, the
2
quantity ; was, for granite, ºn ; agate, sº :
glass, ºn ; tempered steel, zºn.
‘Coulomb then gave to the point a more acute
form, so that the angle of the cone which ter-
minated it could not be more than 6° or 7°; and
he found, still retaining the same charge or
2
pressure as before, that the quantity ; was, for
agate, sº; glass, #3; tempered steel, sº-
, ‘Comparing, from these and other experi-
ments, the momentum of friction of rotation of
the point of different pivots against a plane of
2
agate, he found that the quantity 3. which varies
as that momentum, was, for a pivot of 45°, ºr ;
a pivot of 15° ºn ; a pivot of 6°, sº;
* After this, Coulomb varied the charge in his
experiments, and determined the relative mo-
mentum of friction of pivots under different
pressures. But, without going further into de-
tail, we may give the following as the principal
deductions from the whole. -
“1. That the friction of pivots is indepen-
dent of the velocities, being merely as a function
of the pressure.
“2. That the friction of granite is less than
that of glass.
“3. That the figure of the point of the pivot,
as to acuteness, affects the quantity of friction,
in such a manner that when we cause to whirl
upon the point of a needle, a body weighing
more than five or six drachms, the most advan-
tageous angle for that point appeared to be from
30° to 45°; under a less pressure, the angle
might be progressively diminished, without the
friction being perceptibly augmented ; it may
even without great inconvenience be reduced to
10° or 12° with good steel, when the charge
does not exceed 100 grains,—an important
consideration in the suspension of light bodie
upon cheeks or sockets.
“These rules may be useful to the makers of
chronometers.”
Mr. Anstice, the author of a valuable treatise
on wheel-carriages, very familiarly illustrates the
advantage of wheels over sledges; it is imme-
diately connected with the subject of friction, and
may be illustrated by reference to the following
considerations. i
1. A sledge, in sliding over a plane, suffers a
friction equivalent to the distance through which
it moves; but if we apply to it an axle, the cir-
cumference of which is six inches, and that of
the wheels eighteen feet, it is plain that, moving
the carriage eighteen feet over the plane, the
wheels will make but one revolution ; and as
there is no sliding of parts between the plane and
the wheels, but only a mere change of surface,
no friction can take place there, the whole being
transferred to the nave acting on the axle, so that
the only sliding of parts has been betwixt the in-
side of the nave and axle; which, if they fit one
another exactly, is no more than six inches: and
hence it is plain that the friction must be re-
duced in the proportion of 1 to 36. Another
advantage is also gained by having the surfaces
confined to such a small extent; by which means
they may be more easily kept smooth, and fitted
to each other. The only inconvenience is the
height of the wheel, which must in all cases be
added to that of the carriage itself.
It has been a matter of no little consideration,
whether the wheels of a carriage ought to be
small or large. Mr. Anstice observes, that, in
the overcoming of such obstacles as are commonly
met with in roads, wheels act as mechanical
powers, and therefore the size of the wheel must
be regulated upon the principles of these powers.
Thus, let the circle OTA GL, fig. 2, represent a
wheel of four feet diameter, placed on the level
PQ, and opposed in that line by the obstacle O,
which is supposed to be 7.03 inches in height;
the line in which the carriage is drawn being,
CT, parallel to the plane PQ. In this case the
effort applied to the carriage is communicated
to the nave of the wheel where it touches the
axle. This part, therefore, represents the part
of the lever to which the power is applied,
and is the point C in the figure. . As the turning
point is that where the wheel touches the obstacle
that must represent the fulcrum of the lever;
whence that arm of the lever will be represented
by CO, which may be supposed a spoke of the
wheel; and as the upright spoke C L is the line
which bears the whole weight from the axle, and
in which it is to be lifted; hence that part of
the circumference of the wheel which is between
the fulcrum and the upright spoke bearing on it
must represent the arm of the lever which is to
raise the weight. In this case neither the weight
nor the power act at right angles to their respec-
tive arms of the lever; so that we must represent
their powers by the imaginary lines MO and
O N. As the length of OM, therefore, is to that
of ON, so is the proportion required to the
weight to balance it on the obstacle, when rising
over it; and in this case the arms are equal : it
is plain that the powers must be so likewise.
Every obstacle, therefore, exceeding this height,
which is as 7.03 to 48, will require a power act-
ing parallel to the plane greater than the weight
drawn; and every obstacle whose height bears a
smaller proportion to that of the nave, must be
overcome by a smaller power.
Again, let a wheel of four feet diameter, be
represented by the circle in fig. 3, and supposed
to be moved along the plane PQ, and an obstacle
of twelve inches height be placed before it, the real
lever will then be represented by the lines LOC;
which, being reduced to the imaginary ones
M ON, shows that the power is greater than the
weight. By the same rule, if an obstacle of three
inches be placed in the way of a wheel, as in fig.
4; the power required to move the wheel will be
considerably less than the weight, though it is
plain that the proportion of power must always
742
M E C H A N I C S.
be according to the size of the wheel, the height
of the obstacle, and the direction in which the
carriage is drawn. For instance, if the line of
traction in fig. 4 be raised into the direction
CS, the power required to move the carriage
over it will be to the real weight as the line
CO is to the line O N ; and in consequence of
thus altering the direction we gain as much as
the length.of the line CO exceeds that of C N.
This view of the manner in which the wheels
of carriages act will serve to elucidate the ques-
tion, whether large or small wheels are prefera-
ble for carriages? Let the circle, fig. 5, represent
a wheel of two feet diameter, and the obstacle in
its way 7.03 inches in height, then will the true
lever be represented by the lines COL, to be
reduced to the imaginary ones M ON. In this
case, the power required to draw the carriage
must be to its weight as NO is to OM, which is
more than double, and thus the advantage of large
wheels over small ones is evident. In this,
however, as in all other cases where wheels act as
mechanical powers, we must remember, that the
same doctrine applies to them as to the powers
themselves when used in any other manner, viz.
that as much as we gain in power we lose in
time; and therefore, though a wheel of twice the
diameter may be raised over an obstacle of any
given height with twice the ease that would be
required for one of once the diameter; yet the
large wheel would require twice the time to move
over it that the small one does. -
, Hitherto we have considered the carriage as
being drawn in a direction parallel, or nearly so,
to the plane. on which the wheels move, which
line is supposed to be horizontal; but the case
will be different when we suppose them to move
upon an inclined plane; for then, even though
the line of traction be parallel to the ascending
plane, and though the wheels act as levers, we
shall find that the action of the weight will in-
crease with the power gained by the increase of
size in the wheels; and, consequently, that the
increased size of the latter will be of no far-
ther use than that of diminishing the friction,
in the same manner as is done upon horizontal
planes.
To illustrate this, suppose the larger circle in
fig. 6 to represent a wheel of four feet diameter,
and the smaller circle a wheel of only two, both
of which are made to ascend the inclined plane
H. M., by powers applied in the directions GT
and ES parallel to the elevation of the plane,
which is 45°; it will then be found, that by de-
scribing the lever, as in the former case, though
the arm of the lever to which the power is ap-
plied be double the length in the large wheel
that it is in the small, the other is augmented in
the same proportion. Neither will the powers
be augmented by varying the direction of the
lime of traction; for while these are kept parallel
to one another, their relative powers must always
keep the same proportion to one another. The rea-
son is obvious, viz. that when wheels of any di-
mension ascend or descend inclined planes of
any regular elevation, the fulcrum of the lever
contained in the wheels must be determined by
that part of the wheel which touches the plane,
*rd which, must always be of a proportionate
height both in large and small wheels. It is
otherwise, however, with the fulcrum marked
out by perpendicular or irregular obstacles upon
the plane itself; for large wheels will always
have the advantage over small wheels when these
are presented, for the reasons already given. In-
deed, when the wheel impinges perpendicularly
upon an obstacle as high as the line of traction,
it is plain that it cannot be drawn over it by any
power whatever, unless the direction of the latter
be altered.
From these considerations, Mr. Anstice draws
the following conclusions. 1. That in a carriage
placed upon a horizontal plane nothing more is
required to produce motion than to overcome the
friction which takes place between it and the
plane. 2. By the application of wheels to a
carriage, the friction is lessened in the proportion
of the diameters of the axles and hollow parts of
the naves to those of the wheels. 3. In the
draught of a carriage without wheels, up a regu-
lar plane ascent, the friction must not only be
overcome, but there is a power likewise to be ap-
plied sufficient to lift such a proportion of the
weight of the carriage as the perpendicular part
of the ascending plane bears to that portion of
the plane. 4. If wheels of any size be applied
to the carriage in such circumstances, they have
only the advantage of lessening friction ; for,
though they really act as levers, yet, as each arm
of the lever is lengthened in proportion to the
increase of size in the wheels, the power can be
no farther augmented than as the ascent may act
as a mechanical power for raising up the wheels,
carriage, &c., to the top. 5. Large wheels have
the advantage over small ones in overcoming
obstacles, because they act as levers in propor-
tion to their various sizes. 6. The line of trac-
tion, or that in the direction of which the carriage
is drawn, should always, if possible, be parallel
to that in which the plane lines; for, when this
is the case, the arm of the lever to which the
power is applied will bear the longest propor-
tion possible to the other. This always takes
place when the line of traction is perpendicular
to that spoke of the wheel which points to the
obstacle. As it may not always be possible,
however, to alter the direction of the line of trac-
tion to this position, it will be most proper to fix
upon some medium betwixt that which common-
ly occurs and that which requires the greatest
exertion to overcome the obstacle ; that is, be-
twixt a level line and one rising perpendicular
to the spoke of the wheel which points to the
obstacle it is likely to meet with. The greater
attention ought to be paid to this at last, that all
wheels, but especially small ones, are liable to
sink into the ground over which they pass, and
thus produce a constant obstacle to their own
progress. The line of traction, it must also be
observed, is not an imaginary one drawn from
that part of the animal to which the traces, or
chains are attached to the axle of the wheel, but
the real direction of the traces, to whatever part
of the carriage they are attached : for the effort
will be instantly communicated in the same di-
rection from one part of the carriage to all the
rest, by reason of the whole being fastened to-
gether and in one piece. -
M E C H A N I C S
743
Hitherto we have considered the whole weight
of the carriages as bearing perpendicularly
against the axles of the wheels; but as this can-
not be done in chairs, carts, and other carriages
having only two wheels, it will be necessary to
have their centres, or transverse lines of gravity,
as near the ground as possible. To understand
this, it must be premised, that the centre of gra-
vity is that point of any body which, if suspend-
ed, will keep all the parts of the body at rest, let
the body be placed in any situation we please.
Thus the centre of gravity in a wheel or circle is
the centre of the circumference, provided , the
matter of which it is composed be equally pon-
derous. In a square, whether superficial or
solid, the centre of gravity will be a point
equally distant from all its sides; so that, if the
substance be equally heavy, it will be impossible
to turn it into any position in which there will
not be as much matter on one side of the centre
as upon the other; and in like manner every
figure, however irregular, has some part round
which, if it be turned, as much matter will
always be upon one side as on the other.
If now any body be supported by a transverse
line passing, not through the centre of gravity
itself, either above or below it, the body can
only be kept in equipoise while that line remains
directly above or below the point; for if the body
is moved forwards, as in two-wheeled carriages
moving down hill, a greater part of the weight
will be thrown forwards over the line of suspen-
sior than what remains behind it; and, conse-
quently, this superfluous part must be borne by
the animal which draws it. In ascending any
height, just the reverse takes place; for thus a
portion of the weight is thrown backwards, and
will tend to lift up the animal altogether. The
consequence of this is, not only that the creature
must proceed with great pain, but that the fric-
tion on the nave and axle will be augmented by
laying upon them a part of the animal's weight
also. If the body be suspended above the cen-
tre of gravity, the effect, though the same in the
main, will be reversed in the ascent and descent
of the hill, as long as the body is firmly attached
to the shafts; but should the whole weight be
suspended under the axle, independent of the
shafts altogether, then it will always, whether
ascending, descending, or moving horizontally,
have the same effect as if hung directly by it.
A few illustrations of animal power must close
the present article, which will be resumed under
the heads of MoTIoM and MILLwork.
A horse draws with the greatest advantage
when the line of draught is not level with his
breast, but inclines upwards, making a small
angle with the horizontal plane.
A horse drawing a weight over a single pulley,
can draw 200lbs. for eight hours a day, and
walking at the rate of two miles and a half in an
hour, which is about three feet and a half in a
second; and, if the same horse be made to draw
240lbs., he can work but six hours a day, and can-
not go quite so fast. To this may be referred the
working of horses in all sorts of mills and water-
works, where we ought to know, as near as we
can, how much we make every horse draw, that
we may judge of what the effect will be, when
proper allowance shall have been made for all the
frictions and hindrances, before we can cause
any machine to be erected. '
When a horse draws in a mill or gin of any
kind, great care should be taken that the horse-
walk, or circle in which he moves, be large
enough in diameter, otherwise the horse cannot
exert all his strength ; for, in a small circle, the
tangent (in which the horse draws) deviates more
from the circle in which the horse is obliged to
go than in a larger circle. The horse-walk
should not be less than forty feet in diameter,
when there is room for it. In a walk of nine-
teen feet diameter it has been calculated that a
horse loses two-fifths of his strength.
The worst way of applying the force of a
horse is to make him carry or draw up hill; for,
if the hill be steep, three men will do more than
a horse; each man loaded with 100lbs. will
Imove up faster than a horse that is loaded with
300lbs. This is owing to the position of the
parts of a man's body, which are better adapted
for climbing than those of a horse.
As a horse, from the structure of his body, can
exert most strength in drawing almost horizon-
tally in a straight line, a man exerts the least
strength that way; as, for example, if a man
weighing 140lbs., walking by a river or canal
side, draws along a boat or barge, by means of a
rope coming over his shoulder, or otherwise
fastened to his body, he cannot draw above
twenty-seven pounds, or about ºth of what a horse
can draw in that case. Five men are about
equal in strength to one horse, and can with the
same ease push round the horizontal beam in a
forty feet walk; but three of the same men will
push round a beam in a nineteen feet walk,
which a horse (otherwise equal to five men) can
but draw round. -
A man turning a horizontal windlass, by a han-
dle or winch, should not have above thirty
pounds weight acting against him, if he is to
work ten hours a day, and raise the weight at
the rate of three feet and a half in a second.
This supposes, however, that the semi-diameter
of the windlass is equal to the distance from the
centre to the elbow of the handle ; for, if there
be a mechanical advantage, as there usually is,
by having the diameter of the axle on which the
rope winds four or five times less than the dia.
meter of the circle described by the hand, then
may the weight (taking in also the resistance, on
account of the friction and stiffness of the rope) be
four or five times greater than thirty pounds; that
is, so much as it rises slower than the hand moves.
In this operation, the effect of a man's force
varies in every part of the circle described by the
handle. The greatest force is, when a man pulls
the handle upwards from about the height of his
knees; and the least force when (the handle be-
ing at top) he thrusts from him horizontally; then
again the effect becomes greater as a man lays
on his weight to push down the handle; but that
action cannot be so great as when he pulls up,
because he lays on no more than the whole
weight of his body; whereas, in pulling, he can
exert his whole strength. Lastly, he bas but
MEC
MEC
744
small force to pull the handle towards him hori-
zontally, when at its lowest. -
Let us suppose a man of moderate strength to
weigh 140lbs., he may in the four principal
parts of pushing and pulling, in the whole cir-
cumference of motion, exert the following forces,
viz. in the strongest point a force equal to 160lbs. ;
in the weakest a force equal to twenty-seven
pounds; in the next strong point 130lbs.; and
in the last, or second weak point, thirty pounds.
Let us add all these forces together, which will
make 347; which divide by four, and we shall
have 86%lbs. for the weight that a man mightlift
by a winch, if he could exert his whole force con-
tinually, without stopping to take breath; but, as
that cannot be, the weight must return and
overpower, the next weak point, especially when
the handle moves slowly, as it must if a man
would exert his whole strength all round. Be-
sides, for raising such a weight, we must suppose
the man acting always along the tangent of the
circle of motion, which does not happen in the
operation. Then there must be a sufficient ve-
locity given, that the force applied at the strong
points may not be spent before the hand comes to
the weak ones, so that it is difficult for a man to
continue that irregular motion; and, therefore,
when there are no other advantages, the resist-
ance ought to be but thirty pounds. If a fly be
added to the windlass when the motion is pretty
quick, as about four or five feet in a second, a
man may for a little while act with a force of
eighty pounds, and work a whole day with a re-
sistance of forty pounds.
If two men work at the end of a roller or
windlass, as in drawing up coals or ore from a
mine, or water from a well, they may more
easily draw up seventy pounds (still supposing
the weight and power to have equal velocities)
than one man can thirty pounds, provided the
elbow of one of the handles be at right angles to
the other; for then one man will act at the
strongest point when the other acts at the weakest
point of the revolution; by which means the
two men will mutually and successively help
one another. The common way is to put on the
handles opposite to one another, which cannot
give the advantage above-mentioned, though
there is some little force gained even in that po-
sition, because one man, pulling while the other
thrusts, works at the strongest of the two weak
points, whilst the other works at the weakest,
and so helps him a little.
When a man carries a burden upon his back,
he exerts a great force very effectually, many
muscles at once being employed in that opera-
tion; the muscles of his neck, back, and loins,
keep his body and head in the proper position to
sustain the weight; those of his shoulders and
arms help to keep it in its place; and the mus-
cles of his legs and thighs raise the weight of all
the body and burden, as the man walks along.
In this way of working, three men do much
more than a horse, and two often do as much, as
may be observed in the daily labor of the Lon-
don porters. A porter will carry 200lbs., and
walk at the rate of three miles an hour; a coal-
heaver will carry 250lbs., but then he does not
go far with his load. Chairmen do not act with
the same muscles as porters; but, as they have
straps brought down from their shoulders to the
poles of the chair, the muscles of the loins and
back are concerned, and likewise the extensors
of the legs and thighs; two of them will walk
with 300lbs. (that is 150lbs. each) at the rate of
four miles an hour.
The last and most effectual way of a man's
exerting his strength, is in rowing a boat; he
there acts with more muscles than in any other
operation; and the weight of his body also assists
him. • *
MECHANICAL, in mathematics, denotes a con-
struction of some problem, by the assistance of
instruments, as the duplicature of the cube and
quadrature of the circle, in contradistinction to
that which is performed in a geometrical man-
ner.
MECHANICAL CURvE is a curve, according to
Descartes, which cannot be defined by any al-
gebraic equation; and so contradistinguished
from algebraic or geometrical curves. Leibnitz
and others call these mechanical curves transcen-
dental, and dissent from Descartes, in excluding
them from geometry. Leibnitz found a new
kind of transcendental equations, whereby these
curves are defined: but they do not continue
constantly the same in all points of the curve, as
algebraic ones do. -
MECHAIN (Peter Francis Andrew), a French.
mathematician and astronomer, was born at Laon
…in 1744, at which place his father exercised the
profession of an architect. He became a cor-
respondent of Lalande at a very early period of
his life; and in 1772 was invited to the depôt of
the marine in Paris, and subsequently to Ver-
sailles, where he acquired great reputation. He
calculated the orbit of the comet of 1774, and
discovered that of 1781. He was admitted in
1782 a member of the academy; and in 1790
discovered his eighth comet. In conjunction
with M. Delambre, he undertook, in 1792, the
measurement of the degrees of the meridian ;
and in 1793 completed that of the triangles,
between Perpignan and Barcelona. He died in
September 1805. -
MECHLIN, MechELN, old Fr. Malines, a
considerable town of the Netherlands, an arch-
bishop's see, and the capital of a district in the
province of Antwerp. It is divided into two
parts by the Dyle; it is well built for its age,
and the streets are broad; while the practice of
painting the fronts of the houses gives them a
fresh and clean appearance. The public square
called the piace d’armes, and the market place,
are worth notice. The most remarkable public
building is the cathedral, whose tower, though
not finished, is 350 feet in height, and affords a
delightful view of the town and environs. The
interior is elegant, and contains a number of good
paintings. Here are also an arsenal, town-house,
Franciscan monastery, and a large Beguiners
MEC
MEC
745
house, or asylum for 800 widows and elderly
women...The manufactures consist of fine Brabant
lace and linen, damask, silk and woollen stuffs,
leather, and hats. It has likewise considerable
breweries, and a brisk trade in buck—wheat. At
high water, vessels of considerable draught reach
the town from the Scheldt. Mechlin suffered
from the war in 1793 and 1794, but still more
from the stagnation of trade under Buonaparte.
In 1785 it is said to have had a population of
26,000. At present the number is rather below
20,000: Thirteen miles north-west of Louvain,
the same distance south by east of Antwerp, and
nearly the same north by east of Brussels.
MECHOACAN, MEchoAcANNA, in medicine,
called also white jalap, white rhubarb, and Ame-
rican scammony, a root, taking its name from a
province of Mexico, from whence it is brought
in thin transverse slices, like jalap, but larger and
whiter. Mechoacan yields scarcely one-sixth
part so much resin as jalap does. It is a species
of bind-weed.
Mechoacan, introduced about the year 1524,
was used as a purgative before jalap, though the
latter is now in more general use; yet mechoa-
can, being the milder and more gentle of the
two, is sometimes on that account preferable.
Boulduc found that it contains twelve times as
much salt as resin; but neither the saline nor re-
sinous extract purge so freely as the substance,
even though taken in larger doses, In the choice
of mechoacan, prefer those pieces which are the
brownest within, and whose substance is the
closest, and most compact.
MECKEL (John Frederick), a celebrated ana-
omist, was born at Wetzlar in 1714, and stu-
lied at Gottingen and Berlin. He returned to
he former university to receive his degree of
M. D., when he was appointed demonstrator of
the school of female accoucheurs; and in 1753
rofessor of midwifery. His reputation attracted
a multitude of foreigners to his lectures from
Strasburg and even from Paris. He quitted the
chair in 1755, and died September 18th, 1744, sur-
geon to the king of Prussia. He published,
De quinto pare Cerebri, 4to.; Diss. epist. de
Vasis Lymphaticis, glandulisque conglobatis,
1757, 4to., and other works.
MEcKEL (Philip Frederick Theodore), son of
the above, was brought up to his father's pro-
fession at Gottingen and Strasburg. Having been
professor of anatomy and surgery at Halle and
at Strasburg, he was in 1795 invited by Paul I.
to Petersburg, and nominated physician to the
empress, inspector of the hospitals of that city, and
privy-councillor. He died March 18th, 1803.
He was the author of numerous anatomical dis-
sertations; and a translation of Haller's Elements.
MECRLENBURG, a county on the south side
of Virginia, bounded north by lunenburg county,
east by Brunswick, south by North Carolina, and
west by Halifax and Charlotte counties. Popu-
lation 18,443. Slaves 10,264. Chief tow:
Boydton.
MECKLENBURG, a county in the south-west
art of New Carolina. Population 14,272.
Slaves 3494. Chief town, Charlotte.
MECKLENTBURG-SCHWERIN, a grand
duchy of Germany, bordering on the Baltic and
Holstein, is bounded on the east and south by
Mecklenburg-Strelitz and the kingdom of Prus- .
sia; and on the west by the southern extremity
of Denmark. The whole area is computed at
4800 English square miles, and its population
at 358,000 individuals. Mecklenburg has an
agreeable variety of gentle eminences and nume-
rous lakes, but is wholly destitute of mountains.
There are also several marshy districts, and
sandy tracts, scarcely susceptible of cultivation.
Here are likewise some large forests. The cli-
mate is cold and moist, but has lately been im-
proved by the progress of cultivation. The
forests have been by the same means reduced,
and in several places good roads are opened.
The inhabitants are principally employed in
agriculture: their chief exports are grain, wool,
sheep, and a large and strong breed of horses.
Schwerin, the capital, contains the usual resi-
dence of the grand duke. It is situated on the
western border of a lake, which almost surrounds
it ; the ducal palace standing on an island, and
communicating with the town by a draw-bridge.
Gustrow, the former residence of the dukes of
Mecklenburg-Gustrow, is situated on the river Ne-
bel, and is surrounded by a wall with six gates. It
is noted for its breweries and distilleries. Ros-
tock, a handsome town on the river on the Warne,
about ten miles from the Baltic, engrosses most
of the commerce of the duchy, exporting about
150,000 quarters of grain annually. Large vessels
load and unload at the mouth of the river. Wis-
mar, another chief port of Mecklenburg, stands
on a bay of the Baltic. It has one of the best
harbours on the southern shores of that sea.
The exports of this duchy consist of wheat,
rye, barley, oats, peas, and malt. The imports
of coffee, rum, sugar, tobacco, and salt, which is
an article in great request. The religion is chiefly
Lutheran. The government is hereditary; the
army is composed of about 4000 men, and the
annual revenue amounts to nearly £175,000. It
has no manufactures of consequence.
MECKLENBURG-STRELITZ, a grand
duchy of Germany, to the south-east of Mecklen-
burg-Schwerin. It is a flat country, full of lakes,
marshes, and sandy plains: which often render
the air very damp and cold. The whole of this
duchy occupies about 875 square miles, and has
72,000 inhabitants. This is more in proportion
than Mecklenburg-Schwerin; but the productions,
the employment of the people, the state of so-
ciety, and the profession of religion, are the same
in both. Strelitz, the chief town, is situation in
a marshy district, at the south-east of the duchy,
and contains, therefore, the duke's residence, the
public offices, and the houses of the principal
nobility. None of the other towns deserve
notice. The amount of the army, belonging to
this dukedom, is not more than 700, and the an-
nual revenue £70,000. t
MECON, a considerable river of Asia, which
rises in the mountains of Thibet, and has a
course of about 200 miles in Cambodia. It
falls into the 'sea by three mouths, after having
been joined by a canal with the Manam, or river
of Siam. The mouths assume the names of
Saigong, the Japanese River, and Onsequame or
Inconvenient.
MED
MED
746
MECO'NIUM, n. S. Gr. pyrovtov. Ex-
pressed juice of poppy; also the first excrement
of children.
Infants new-born have a mecomium, or sort of dark-
coloured excrement in the bowels. Arbuthnot.
ME/DAL, n.s. Fr. medaille, medaillon;
MEDAL LIC, adj. (Teut. medal; Ital. medag-
MEDAL'Lion, n.s. (lia; Lat, metallum. See
MED'ALLIST. below. An ancient coin,
or historic token ; a piece stamped in honor of
some remarkable performance: medallic is of
the nature of, or pertaining to, medals: medallions,
medals, not coins; see the extract from Addison:
medallist, an amateur or dealer in medals.
The Roman medals were their current money:
when an action deserved to be recorded on a coin it
was stampt, and issued out of the mint. Addison.
You will never, with all your medallick eloquence,
persuade Eugenius that it is better to have a pocket-
ful of Otho's than of Jacobus's. Id.
Medallions, in respect of the other coins, were the
same as modern medals in respect of modern nº.
- d.
‘As a medallist, you are not to look upon a cabinet
of medals as a treasure of money, but of knowledge.
Id. On Medals.
The same enthusiasm that dignifies a butterfly or
a medal, to the virtuoso and the antiquary, may con-
vert controversy into quixotism. Percival.
MEDAL denotes a piece of metal in the form
of coin, such as was either current money among
the ancients, or struck on any particular occa-
sion, to preserve to posterity the portrait of some
great person, or the memory of some illustrious
action. Scaliger derives the word from the Ara-
bic methalia; a sort of coin with a human head
upon it, But the opinion of Vossius is more
generally received; viz. that it comes from me-
tallum, metal; of which substance medals are
commonly made.
MEDALs. Under this title several encyclo-
paedists, both Scotch and English, have thought
proper to give a scientific dissertation on the
utility of medals in history and other sciences,
their preservation and value. We prefer that of
NUMISMATICs, which will conveniently embrace
the consideration of ancient coins also, and to
that article refer the reader.
MED'DLE, v. m. & v. a. R
MED'DLER, n.s. • Dan. and Swed.
MED'DLESOME, adj. $ meddele, meddela ;
Goth. medal, a medium. To interfere; inter-
pose, or intervene ; to interfere officiously; have
to do, followed by with : as a verb active, to
mingle; mix (obsolete): meddlesome is always
used in a bad or reproachful sense. *
Why should'st thou meddle to thy hurt?
2 Kings xiv. 10.
It is an honour for a man to cease from strife : but
every fool will be meddling. Prov. xx. 8.
He that had well yeon'd his lere,
Thus meddled his talk with many a teare.
Spenser.
A meddled state of the orders of the gospel, and
ceremonies of popery, is not the best way to banish
Belg. middelen ;
popery. Hooker.
For my part, I’ll not meddle nor make any farther.
Shakspeare.
Do not drive away such as bring the information,
as meddlers, but accept of them in good part.
- Bacon.
. With the power of it upon the spirits of men we
will only meddle. 1d. Natural History.
There is much deceit in probabilities; especially
when we meddle with spiritual matters. Bp. Hall.
How to distinguish between meddling innocently,
from being blameably meddlesome, is that hard task
which I am to undertake, but cannot hope thoroughly
to perform. * Barrow.
I have thus far been an upright judge, not meddling
with the design or disposition. - Dryden. ,
This may be applied to those that assume to them-
selves the merits of other men's services, meddlers,
boasters, and impertinents. L’Estrange.
The civil lawyers have pretended to determine
concerning the succession of princes; but, by our
author's principles, have meddled in a mátter that
belongs not to them. * Lucke.
This meddling priest longs to be found a fool.
Rowe.
What hast thou to do to meddle with the affairs of
my family 3 to dispose of my estate, old boy *
Arbuthnot.
Let me shake off the intrusive cares of day,
And lay the meddling senses all aside. Thomson.
MEDE (Joseph), a learned divine, born at
Borden, in Essex, in 1586, and educated at
Cambridge, where he took the degree of M. A.
in 1610. His first appearance as a writer was
an address to Dr. Andrews, then bishop of
Ely, in a Latin tract De Sanctitate Relativā,
which was highly approved of by that prelate.
He was not chosen fellow of his college till after
he had graduated, and even then not without the
assistance of his friend, bishop Andrews; for
Dr. Cary, then master of the college, suspected
that “he looked too much towards Geneva.’
Being made fellow, he became an eminent and
faithful tutor. He applied himself to the study
of history and antiquities; particularly those of
the Chaldeans, Egyptians, and other ancient na-
tions; tracing them as far as he could in their
oriental figurative expressions, and hierogly-
phics. He was also a curious and laborious
searcher into the antiquities relating to the
Jewish, Christian, and Mahometan religions.
In 1620 he refused the provostship of Trinity
College, Dublin, into which he had been elected
at the recommendation of archbishop Usher, his
particular friend; as he did also a second time,
in 1630. Though he had nothing but his fel-
lowship, and a college lecture, his charity was
great, and he devoted the tenth of his small in-
come to charitable uses. He died in 1638,
in his fifty-second year, having spent about
two-thirds of his time in college. His works
make one volume folio; his Comment on the
Apocalypse is much esteemed.”
MEDEA, in fabulous history, a celebrated
sorceress, daughter of Æetes, king of Colchis. .
Her mother's name, according to the more re-
ceived opinion of Hesiod and Hyginus, was
Idyia. She was the niece of Circe. When Ja-
son came to Colchis in quest of the golden fleece,
Medea became enamoured of him, and to her
well-directed labors the Argonauts owed their
preservation. Medea had an interview with her
lover in the temple of Hecate; where they swore
eternal fidelity. When Jason had overcome al.
difficulties, Medea embarked with the conquerors
for Greece. To stop the pursuit of her father
MED
MET)
747
she tore to pieces her brother Absyrtus, and left
his mangled limbs in the way through which
Fletes was to pass. When Jason reached Iol-
chos, his native country, the return and victories
of the Argonauts were celebrated with universal
rejoicings; but Æson, the father of Jason, was
unable to assist at the solemnity on account of
his age. Medea removed HEson's weakness, and
by drawing away the blood from his veins, and
filling them again with the juice of certain herbs,
she restored him to the vigor of youth. This
sudden change of Æson astonished the inhabi-
tants of Iolchos; and the daughters of Pelias
also wished to see their father restored to the
vigor of youth. Medea, to revenge the injuries
which her husband's family had suffered from
Pelias, increased their curiosity; and led them
to murder their father as preparatory to his re-
juvenescence, which she afterwards refused to
accomplish. This action incensed the people of
Iolchos; and Medea with her husband fled to
Corinth to avoid their resentment. Here they
lived ten years with mutual attachment, when
the love of Jason for Glauce, the king's daugh-
ter, interrupted their harmony, and Medea was
divorced. Medea revenged the infidelity of Ja-
son, by causing the death of Glauce, and the
destruction of her family. She also killed two
of her children in their father's presence; and,
when Jason attempted to punish her barbarity,
she fled through the air in a chariot drawn by
winged dragens. From Corinth she came to
Athens, wher, after she had undergone the pu-
rification of her murder, she married king
AEgeus, by whom she had a son called Medus.
Soon after, when Theseus wished to make him-
self known to his father, Medea, jealous of his
fame, and fearful of his power, attempted to
poison him at a feast. Her attempts, however,
failed of success, and the sight of the sword
which Theseus wore by his side convinced AEgeus
that the stranger, against whose life he had con-
spired, was his own son. The father and the
son were reconciled; and Medea, to avoid pun-
ishment, mounted her fiery chariot, and flew to
Colchis; where she was reconciled to Jason,
and where she died. After death she married
Achilles in the Elyisan fields, according to Si-
monides. AElian ascribes the murder of Mer-
merus and Pherus, the youngest of Jason's
children by Medea, to the Corinthians, who as-
sassinated them in the temple of Juno Acraea,
for which they were punished by a pestilence.
They afterwards engaged the poet Euripides for
five talents to write a tragedy, which represented
Medea as the cruel assassin of her own children.
MEDELPAD, a mountainous province of the
north of Sweden, between the Gulf of Bothnia
and Jamtland. It is 100 miles in length, and
fifty in breadth; but has only 32,000 inhabitants.
It is in general woody, but has some fertile val-
leys and fine lakes, and plenty of pasturage. The
woods abound in game, and the lakes and rivers
in fish. Sufficient corn is raised for the con-
sumption; and timber, flax, hemp, butter, poul-
try, and dried fish, are exported, Sundswall is
the only port.
MEDENBLIK, a town of the kingdom of the
Netherlands, in North Holland, and having a
good harbour on the Zuyder Zee. Population
2000. It is twenty-eight miles north by east of
Amsterdam. - g
MEDEOLA, climbing African asparagus, in
botany, a genus of the hexandria order, and
trigynia class of plants; natural order eleventh,
Sarmentaceae: CAL. none: Cor. sexpartite and
revoluted: the BERRY trispermous. Its characters
are these : the flower has no empalement; it
has six oblong oval petals, and six awl-shaped
stamina, terminated by incumbent summits, and
three-horned germina terminating the style; the
germina afterwards turn to a roundish trifid
berry with three cells, each containing one heart-
shaped seed. *
MEDFORD, a post town of Middlesex
county, Massachusetts, on Mystic River, four
miles north of Boston. It is a pleasant hand-
some town, and contains a boy's grammar-
school, and four distilleries. It has a consider-
able ship-building business, and manufactures
great quantities of bricks, leather, &c. The river
is navigable for vessels of considerable size to this
place, where it meets the Middlesex Canal.
MEDIA, the ancient seat of a powerful em-
pire, was bounded, agcording to Ptolemy, on the
north by part of the Caspian Sea ; south by
Persia, Susiana, and Assyria; east by Parthia
and Hyrcania; and west by Armenia Major. It
was anciently divided into several provinces, viz.
Tropatene, Charomithrene, Darites, Marciane,
Amariace, and Syro-Media. By a later division,
however, all these were reduced to two; the one
called Media Magna, the other Media Atropa-
tia, or simply Atropatene. Media Magna was,
bounded by Persia, Parthia, Hyrcania, the Hyr-
canian Sea, and Atropatene, and contained the
cities of Ecbatan, Laodicea, Apamea, Raga, Ra-
geia, or Ragea, &c. Atropatene lay between
the Caspian Mountains and the Caspian Sea.
This country originally took its name from
Madai, the third son of Japhel; as is plain from
Scripture, where the Medes are constantly called
Madai. Some derive their name from Medus,
the son of Jason and Medea; others from a city
called Media. Sextus Rufus tells that in his time
it was called Medena, and from others we learn
that it was also called Aria. The most authen-
tic history of the Medes is as follows:–They
lived in subjection to the Assyrians till the reign
of Sennacherib, when they threw off the yoke,
and lived for some time in a state of anarchy.
But about A.A. C. 699 Dejoces, who had excited
a revolt from Sennaccherib, being chosen king,
united the scattered tribes of the Medes, and,.
having applied himself to the civilisation of his
barbarous subjects, left the throne, to his son
Phraortes, after a reign of fifty-three years.
Phraortes, who was of a warlike and enterpris–
ing disposition, subdued almost all Upper Asia,
lying between Mount Taurus and the River.
Halys, which runs through Cappadocia into the
Euxine Sea. Elated with this good success he
invaded Assyria, which was greatly, weakened .
by the revolt of many nations which had fol-
lowed the example of the Medes. Nebuchado-
nosor, or Chyniladan, however, the reigning
prince, having assembled what forces he could,
engaged Phraortes, defeated, took him prisoner,
MED
MED
748
and put him to death; after which, entering
Media, he laid waste the country, took the me-
tropolis Ecbatan itself, and levelled it with
the ground. On the death of Phraortes his son
Cyaxares I. was placed on the throne. He was
no less valiant and enterprising than his father,
and was more successful against the Assyrians.
With the remains of that army which had been
defeated under his father, he not only drove the
conquerors out of Media, but obliged Chynila-
dan to shut himself up in Nineveh. To this place
he immediately laid siege ; but was obliged to
abandon the enterprise on account of an irrup-
tion of the Scythians into his own country. Cy-
axares engaged these new enemies with great
resolution; but was utterly defeated ; and the
conquerors over-ran not only all Media, but the
greater part of Upper Asia, extending their con-
quests into Syria, and as far as the confines of
Egypt. They continued masters of all this vast
tract of country for twenty-eight years, till at last
Media was delivered from their yoke by a
general massacre at the instigation of Cyaxares.
After this the Medes repossessed themselves of
the territories they had lost; and once more ex-
tended their frontiers to the Halys, their ancient
boundary on the west. After this they engaged
in a war with the Lydians; and on the conclu-
sion of it Cyaxares, having entered into a strict
alliance with Nebuchadnezzar king of Babylon,
returned in conjunction with the Babylonians
before Nineveh ; which they took and levelled
with the ground, putting most of the inhabitants
to the sword. After this victory the Babylonian
and Median empires seem to have continued in
alliance, till a little before the death of Nebu-
chadnezzar, when a war ensued, which was not
extinguished but by the dissolution of the Baby-
lonian empire. The Medes, under Astyages, the
son of Cyaxares I., withstood the power of the
Babylonian monarch ; and, under Cyrus and
Cyaxares II., utterly destroyed their empire by
the taking of BABYLoN. See that article. After
the death of Cyaxares the kingdom fell to Cyrus,
by whom the seat of the empire was transferred
to PERSIA. See that article.
MEDIASTINE, n.s. Fr. mediastine; Lat.
mediastinum. The firmbriated body about which
the guts are convolved. & -
None of the membranes which invest the inside of
the breast but may be the seat of this disease, the
mediastinc as well as the pleura. Arbuthnot on Diet.
MEDIASTINE, MEDIASTINUM, in anatomy, a
double membrane, formed by a duplicature of
the pleura; serving to divide the thorax and the
lungs into two parts, and to sustain the viscera,
and prevent their falling from one side of the
thorax to the other. See ANATOMY.
MEDIATE, v. n., v. a. & adj. W
ME'DIATELY, adv.
MEDIATION, n.s.
MEDIA/Tor,
MEDIATO'RIAL, adj.
From Lat.
medius. To in-
terpose; inter-
cede; be be-
$tween two: to
MEDIATO'RIALLY, adv. effect by medi-
MEDIA/TorSHIP, n.s. ation : medi-
MEDIATORY, adj. ate as an ad-
MEDIA/TRIx, n. s. J jective is, mid-
dle; interposed; intervened; and, in an obsolete
sense, acting as means: mediately, by a second-
ary cause: mediatrix is a female mediator;
Mediator, a scriptural title of the Lord Jesus
Christ. The sense of the other compounds fol-
lows that of mediate.
There is one God and one Mediator between God
and men, the man Christ Jesus. 1 Tim. ii. 5.
Noble offices thou may’st effect
Of mediation, after I am dead,
Between his greatness and thy other brethren.
Shakspeare.
God worketh all things amongst us mediately by
secondary means; the which means of our safety
being shipping and sea-forces, are to be esteemed as
his gifts, and then only available and beneficial
when he vouchsafeth his grace to use them aright.
- Raleigh's Essays.
The king sought unto them to compose those
troubles between him and his subjects; they accord-
ingly interposed their mediation in a round and
princely manner. Bacon.
You had found by experience the trouble of all
men's confluence, and for all matters to yourself, as
a mediator between them and their sovereign.
Id. Advice to Williers.
The most important care of a new king, was his
marriage for mediate establishment of the royal line.
Wottom.
As many sacrifices, so many mediators, plainly
seem to put Christ out of office. Bp. Hall.
Pestilent contagion is propagated immediately by
conversing with infected persons, and mediately by
pestilent seminaries propagated through the air.
* Harvey on Consumptions.
By being crowded, they exclude all other bodies
that before mediated between the parts of their body.
Digby.
The earl made many professions of his desire
to interpose, and mediate a good peace between the
nations. * * Clarendon.
Man's friend, his mediator, has designed,
Both ransom and redeemer voluntary. Milton.
I possess chemists and corpuscularians of advan-
tages by the confederacy I am mediating between
them. Boyle.
They styled a double step, the space from the ele-
vation of one foot to the same foot set down again,
mediated by a step of the other foot, a pace, equal to
five feet. Holder.
It is against the sense of the law to make saints or
angels to be mediators between God and them.
Stillingfleet.
The passions have their residence in the sensitive
appetite: for inasmuch as man is a compound of
flesh as well as spirit, the soul, during its abode in
the body, does all things by the mediation of these
passions. South’s Sermons. .
Anxious we hover in a mediate state,
Betwixt infinity and nothing. Prior.
All other effects of Christ's mediatorial office are
accounted for from the truth of his resurrection.
Fiddes's Sermons.
The corruption of manners in the world, we shall
find owing to some mediating schemes that offer to
comprehend the different interests of sin and religion.
ogers.
A mediator is considered two ways, by nature or
by office, as the fathers distinguish. He is a meli-
ator by nature, as partaking of both natures divine
and human ; and mediator by office, as transacting
matters between God and man. Waterland.
It is utterly inconceivable that inanimate brute
matter, without the mediation of some immaterial be-
ing, should operate upon other matter without mutual
COntact. Bentley.
M E D I C I. ."
749
MEDICI (John or Gioranne de), a wealthy
merchant of Venice, who died in 1428, having
first given that memorable charge to his sons, to
which Mr. Roscoe attributes all the future great-
ness of this remarkable family. He never ap-
pears to have solicited office, but was honored
with several distinguished appointments. “I feel,’
said he, on the occasion alluded to, “that I have
lived the time prescribed me. I die content;
leaving you, my sons, in affluence and health,
and in such a station that, while you follow my
example, you may live in your native place ho-
nored and respected. Nothing affords me more
pleasure than the reflection that my conduct has
not given offence to any one; but that, on the
contrary, I have endeavoured to serve all persons
to the best of my abilities. I advise you to do
the same. With respect to the honors of the
state, if you would live with security, accept
only such as are bestowed on you by the laws,
and the favor of your fellow-citizens; for it is the
exercise of that power which is obtained by vio-
lence, and not of that which is voluntarily con-
ferred, that occasions hatred and violence.’
MEDICI (Cosmo de), a citizen and merchant of
Florence, was the eldest son of the above, and
born in that city in 1389. At the period of his
father's death he was already well established,
and of the highest consideration among the mer-
chants of his native city. He had also taken a
considerable share in its public affairs. In 1414,
when Balthasar Cossa (John XXIII.) had been
elected pope, and was summoned to attend the
council of Constance, he chose Cosmo de Me-
dici, among other men of eminence, for one of
his associates. The authority enjoyed at Florence
by this distinguished individual and his family,
at this time, consisted rather in tacit influence
and acquiescence than in any prescribed form of
office or appointment. Their urbanity and kind-
ness to the superior ranks of the citizens, and
their unremitting attention to the interests and
wants of the lower classes, acquired them those
numerous and zealous partisans, whom they con-
sidered the best pledges for the continuance of
their power. The government was a republic,
guided by a council of ten and a chief executive
officer, called the Gonfaloniere, or standard bearer
chosen every two months. Such was the influence
of the Medici,that they generally assumed to them-
selves these first offices of the state, or nominated
such persons as they esteemed fit; always, however,
consulting the popular opinion. At length the
bad success of the war against Lucca gave occa-
sion to the rise of a party, headed by Rinaldo de'
Albizi, which, in 1433, after filling the magis-
tracy with their own creatures, ventured to seize
the person of Cosmo, and to proceed against him
judicially, alleging that his influence was dange-
rous to the state. He remained in prison several
days, in constant apprehension of violence, or
that his life might be attempted by poison; until
several princes and states of Italy interposed on
his behalf; and, in conclusion, he and several
members of his family were banished to Padua
for ten years. By the Venetian government he
was received with marked respect, and took up
his abode in the capital of that state. Within a
year Rinaldo himself was obliged to quit Flo-
rence, and Cosmo, being recalled, returned
amidst the loud acclamations of all ranks. The
gonfalomiere who had pronounced his sentence,
with a few others of that party, were put to
death. The choice of magistrates was now care-
fully confined to the partisans of the Medici,
and alliances formed with other powers for the
purpose of supporting and perpetuating their
system of government. From this period the life
of Cosmo was an almost uninterrupted series of
prosperity. The tranquillity of the republic,
and the satisfaction which he experienced in
the esteem and confidence of his fellow-citi-
zens, enabled him to indulge his propensity
to the promotion of science, and the patronage
and encouragement of all learned men. He as-
sembled at Florence some of the most celebrated
men of the age, and established an academy ex-
prèssly for the elucidation of the Platonic philo-
sophy, at the head of which he placed the famous
Marsilio Ficino. He collected from all parts
manuscripts of the Greek, Latin, and oriental
languages, the foundation of the Laurentian li-
brary, and gave every encouragement to the arts
of painting, sculpture, and architecture. He also
collected statues, vases, gems, and medals, mak-
ing all his treasures accessible to the curious and
the public.
In the latter period of his life Cosmo with-
drew, as much as possible, from the burden of
public affairs, to his seats at Careggi and Caffag-
giolo, where he cultivated his farms with success;
but his happiest hours were devoted to letters
and philosophy, and the society to which they
inclined him. He was usually accompanied in
these retreats, by Ficino, to whom, after having
been his protector, he became a pupil in the
study of the Platonic philosophy. His piety he
displayed, according to the fashion of the age,
by the munificent endowment of numerous reli-
gious foundations; and even erected a hospital
at Jerusalem for the relief of distressed pilgrims.
The spirit of his government was moderation;
and he never assumed a state beyond that of a
citizen. Being apprehensive that ambitious al-
liances would give rise to suspicions that he en-
tertained designs inimical to the freedom of
Florence, he chose to increase hisinterest among
the citizens by the marriage of his children into
the most distinguished families of the republic.
Piero, his eldest son, was married to Lucretia
Tornabuoni, by whom he had two sons, Lorenzo
and Giuliano. His immense wealth was not the
object of envy, because he chiefly expended it
upon the public; and there was scarcely a citi-
zen whom he had not some time obliged by
loans of money, never asking the repayment.
Parties were, however, a second time formed
in Florence hostile to the predominance of this
family. But Cosmo's popularity was not to be
shaken; and, while he withdrew from public busi-
ness, he retained the influence of his virtues.
He had lost his second son, Giovanni, on whom
he had placed his chief expectations; his eldest,
Piero, laboring under various bodily infirmi-
ties: so that he apprehended that at his own
death the splendor of the Medici would cease.
A short time before his death, as his attendants
were carrying him through the apartments of his
palace, he exclaimed “This is too large a house
for so small a family.’ His latter days were, how-
750
M E D I C I.
ever, cheered by his fellow-citizens, in a public
decree, conferring upon him the noble title of
Father of his Country, which was inscribed on
his tomb. He died, in the prospect of a happier
state, we are told, August 1st, 1464, at the age of
seventy-five years, deeply lamented by a vast
majority of his countrymen.
MEDICI (Lorenzo de), called The Magnificent,
was the grandson of Cosmo, and son of Piero de
Medici, by Lucretia Tornabuoni. He was born
January 1st, 1448, and was about sixteen years of
age when Cosmo died. In early life he exhibited
proofs of a superior mind, which was cultivated
by a very careful education, under the direction
of his mother, one of the most accomplished
women of her age. That turn of mind which
afterwards gave him a peculiar claim to the title
of ‘Magnificent' was also apparent in his youth.
Having received, as a present, a horse from
Sicily, he sent the donor, in return, a gift of far
greater value; and, on being reproved for his
profuseness, he remarked that there was nothing
so glorious as to overcome others in generosity.
He was not less addicted to active sports and
laborious exercises than to the studies of the
closet, and to polite literature. Tall in stature,
and robust in form, Lorenzo had in his person a
great appearance of strength; but from his birth
his sight was weak; his voice harsh; and he
was totally deprived of the sense of smell. At
the death of his distinguished grandfather it was
thought proper immediately to initiate him into
political life. He was accordingly sent to the
principal courts of Italy for the purpose of form-
ing a personal connexion with their rulers, and to
strengthen the interest of his family. In an in-
terview with Ferdinand of Naples he impressed
him with a high idea of his early wisdom; and the
prudence and vigor of his conduct at home were
instrumental in fully restoring the influence and
superiority of his house. In 1469 he married
Clarice, a daughter of the family of Orsini, and
in the same year Piero de Medici, his father,
died. Lorenzo immediately, at the request of
the citizens of Florence, took upon himself that
post of head of the republic which Cosmo and
Piero had successively occupied. On the acces-
sign of Sixtus IV. to the papacy, Lorenzo, with
other eminent citizens, were deputed to congratu-
late him on the part of the republic. He was
invested, on this occasion, with the office of
treasurer of the holy see. One of the first pub-
lic occurrences after this was a revolt of the in-
habitants of Volterra: by the recommendation of
Lorenzo, force was adopted, which ended in the
sack of that city, a circumstance he is said to
have much regreted. In 1472 he was the
means of re-establishing the academy of Pisa,
and took up his residence there for a consi-
derable time, contributing to it a large sum from
his private fortune. Attached to the Platomic
philosophy, he took an active part in the estab-
lishment of an academy for its promotion, and
instituted an annual festival in honor of the
memory of Plato. While thus advancing, in the
career of fame and prosperity, a tragical-incident
was very near depriving him of life; i.e. the
Conspiracy of the Pazzi, a numerous and distin-
quished family in Florence. The instigators of
this foul attempt, of which the object was the as-
sassination of Lorenzo and his hrother, were
pope Sixtus IV., and his nephew cardinal Riario:
the archbishop of Pisa being their principal
agent. Giacopo de Pazzi, the head of that
family, gave also his assistance. The atrocious
plan was to assassinate the two brothers, while
they were partaking of the hospitality of Lorenzo;
but the absence of Giuliano, through indisposi-
tion, obliged the conspirators to postpone the
event. On deliberation it was resolved that the
assassination should take place on the following
Sunday, at the elevation of the host, in the
church. - -
The murder of Giuliano was committed to
Francesco de Pazzi and Bernardo Bandini; that
of Lorenzo to the sole hand of Montesicco. This
office he had undertaken while he understood
that it was to be executed in a private dwelling,
but he shrunk from the idea of polluting a church
with such a crime. Two ecclesiastics were
therefore selected for the commission of the
deed In the month of April, 1478, the young
cardinal Riario, apostolic legate, a guest in the
palace of Lorenzo, proceeded to the church of
the Reharata, since called “Santa Maria del
Fiore,” where the victims were present. The con-
spirators took their stations, and waited with
impatience for the signal, when the bell rang—
the priest raised the consecrated wafer—the
people bowed before it, and at the same instant
Bandini plunged a dagger into the breast of
Giuliano. On receiving the wound, which was
fatal, he took a few steps and fell, when de Pazzi
rushed upon him with incredible fury, and
stabbed him in different parts of his body. Such
was the violence of his rage that he wounded
himself in the thigh. The priests who had un-
dertaken the assassination of Lorenzo were not
equally successful: they inflicted only a slight
wound, which roused rather than disabled him.
He instantly threw off his cloak, and, holding it
up as a shield, with his right hand drew his
sword, and repelled the assailants. Bandini
came up with his dagger streaming with the
blood of Giuliano, but was instantly struck down
by a servant. Lorenzo's friends in the mean
time assembled round him, and conducted him
home. A simultaneous attack on the palace of
government, by other conspirators, failed of suc-
cess, and the people attached to the Medici, col-
lecting in crowds, put to death or apprehended
the assassins. Signal and instant justice was in-
flicted on them. The archbishop of Pisa was
hanged out of the palace window in his robes,
and Giacapo de Pazzi, with one of his nephews,
shared a like fate. Lorenzo endeavoured to re-
strain the fury of the populace, and induce them
to commit to the magistrates the punishment of
the guilty. In the mean time the pope, inflamed
almost to madness by the defeat of his scheme, ex-
communicated Lorenzo and the magistrates, laid
an interdict upon the whole Florentine territory,
and, forming a league with the king of Naples,
prepared to invade it. Hostilites begaii, and
were carried on through two campaigns. At the
close of 1479 Lorenzo took the bold resolution
of paying a visit to one of these enemies, the
king of Naples, and, without any previous secu-
rity, trusted his liberty and life in his hands.
The monarch was struck with this heroic act,
M E D I C I.
751
-
which ended in a treaty of mutual defence and
friendship. Sixtus, however, persevered in war,
till a descent upon the coast of Italy by Maho-
met II. -
In the month of May, 1481, another attempt
was made to assassinate Lorenzo in a church,
but the plot was happily discovered, and the
agents were seized and executed. From this
time he generally appeared in public, surround-
ed with a guard of friends. But the death of
Sixtus IV. freed him from an adversary who
never ceased to bear him ill-will, and he was
able to secure himself a friend in Innocent VIII.
his successor. His political conduct, as head of
the Florentine republic, was chiefly directed to
the preservation of an equilibrium of power be-
tween the states of Italy.
Lorenzo also was distinguished both for the
encouragement of literature and the arts, and his
proficiency in Italian poetry. His works are
remarkable for vigor of imagination, accuracy
of judgment, and an elegance of style, which en-
title him, almost exclusively, to the appellation
of the “restorer of Italian literature.’ Some of
his pieces of the lighter kind became extremely
popular; and his regard to literature in general
was testified by the attention which he paid to
the Laurentinian library, and especially to the
enlargement of the collection of antiquities: for
this purpose he employed the services of learned
men in different parts of Italy, and particularly
Angelo Politiano. “I wish,' said he to him,
“that the diligence of Pico and yourself would
afford me such opportunities of purchasing books,
that I should be obliged even to pledge my fur-
niture to possess them.' Two journeys into the
east by Giovanni Lascar produced a great num-
ber of rare works. On his return from his second
expedition, he brought with him 200 MSS.,
many of which he had procured from a monas-
tery at Mount Athos; but this treasure did not
arrive till after the death of Lorenzo. On the
discovery of printing, Lorenzo was immediately
solicitous to avail himself of its advantages in
procuring editions of the best works of antiquity;
and, when the capture of Constantinople caused
the dispersion of many learned Greeks, he took
advantage of the circumstance to promote the
study of their language in Italy. “Succeeding
scholars,' observes Mr. Roscoe, ‘have been pro-
fuse of their acknowledgments to their great
patron, who first formed that establishment, from
which, to use their own classical figure, as from
the Trojan horse, so many illustrious champions
have sprung, and by means of which the know-
ledge of the Greek tongue was extended, not
only through all Italy, but through France, Spain,
Germany, and England; from all which countries
numerous pupils attended at Florence, who dif-
fused the learning they had there acquired
throughout the rest of Europe.” a - :
Lorenzo appropriated his gardens in Florence
to the establishment of an academy for the
antique, which he furnished with a profusion of
statues, busts, and other relics of art. The atten-
tion of the highest ranks was thus incited to
these pursuits; and that of the lower classes by
his liberality. To this institution, more than
any other circumstance, Mr. Roscoe attributes
the sudden and astonishing proficiency which,
last time, the interest of his conversation.
towards the close of the fifteenth century, was
evidently made in the arts, and which, commen-
cing at Florence, extended itself throughout
Europe. Here Michael Angelo Buonarotti first
imbibed that spirit which was destined to effect
a reformation in the arts; while the study of
architecture was encouraged by the numerous.
buildings which he erected, or induced others to
erect, in Florence and its vicinity.
Lorenzo, though of free and perhaps licentious
manners with respect to the female sex, was
nevertheless an affectionate and attentive father.
His eldest son Piero, designed for his successor,
was sent, at the agé of fourteen, to visit Rome.
This close connexion with the pontiff was with a
view to a favorite point of his ambition, the ele-
vation of his second son Giovanni to the cardi-
nalate, which, by incessant applications, he pre-
vailed upon the pope to confer upon Giovanni,
at the age of thirteen. “It was,’ says one of his
biographers, ‘a deserved consequence of this
prostitution of ecclesiastical honors, that this
cardinal, when arrived at the popedom, should,
by his levity and extravagance, have given
the immediate occasion to that defection from
the church of Rome which has so much reduced
her authority.’ Giuliano afterwards became
allied to the royal house of France, and obtained
the title of the duke of Nemours.
“Having,’ says he, “now obtained the object
of my cares, I trust I may be allowed to enjoy
the sweets of leisure, to share the reputation
of my fellow-citizens, and to exult in the glory
of my native place.” This prospect of relax-
ation and happiness he was not "destined to
realise. In 1488 he lost his excellent wife;
and in the year 1492 the gout, under which
he lahored, attacked him with such violence,
that, while the attention of his physicians
was employed in administering relief, he con-
tracted a slow fever, and sunk, before his attend-
ants suspected danger, into such a state of
debility, as precluded all hopes of recovery.
Having performed the offices of the church, he
had a private interview with his son Piero, with
whom he held a long and interesting conversation,
preserved by Mr. Roscoe, on the state of the re-
public, the situation of his family, &c. Having
composed himself, after his first interview at this
time with Politiano, he enquired with great kind-
ness why Pico of Mirandola had not once paid
him a visit during his sickness. Politiano apolo-
gised for his friend, by assuring Lorenzo that
he had only been deterred by the apprehension
that his presence might be troublesome. “On
the contrary,’ replied Lorenzo, “if his journey
from the city be not troublesome to him, I shall
rejoice to see him.” Pico came to share, for the
Lo-
renzo expressed his esteem for him in the most
affectionate terms, and then changed the subject
to lively topics; expressing, with some degree
of jocularity, his wishes that he could have ob-
tained a reprieve, until he could have completed
his library. The interview was scarcely termi-
nated, when the priest Savonarolo reminded him,
that it was his duty to bear death with fortitude,
‘with cheerfulness,' replied Lorenzo, “if such be
the will of God.' On taking a morsel of food,
and being asked how he relished it, “as a dying
752
M E I) I C I.
man always does,’ he said. Having affection-
ately embraced his friends, he became absorbed
in meditation, till the energies of life gradually
declining, and pressing to his lips a magnificent
crucifix, he calmly expired, in the forty-fourth
year of his age.
Mr. Roscoe sums up his character by de-
scribing him as “a man who may be selected
from all the characters of ancient and modern
history, as exhibiting the most remarkable in-
stance of depth of penetration, versatility of
talent, and comprehension of mind.—Of the
various occupations in which Lorenzo engaged,
there is not one in which he was not eminently
successful: but he was more particularly dis-
tinguished in those which justly hold the first
rank in human estimation. The facility with
which he turned from subjects of the highest im-
portance, to those of amusement and levity, sug-
gested to his countrymen the idea that he had
two distinct souls combined in one body. Even
his moral character seems to have partaken, in
some degree, of the same diversity; and his de-
votional poems are as ardent as his lighter pieces
are licentious. On all sides he touched the ex-
tremes of human character, and the powers of his
mind were only bounded by that impenetrable cir-
cle,'which prescribes the limits of human nature.”
MEDICI (Hypolitus de), natural son of Julian
de Medici by a lady of Urbino, was early re-
markable for the brilliancy of his wit and the
graces of his person. Pope Clement VII., his
Cousin, made him cardinal in 1529; sent him
as his legate into Germany to the court of Charles
V., and repôsed great confidence in him. He
was highly instrumental in raising Paul III. to
the papal see; but afterwards conspired against
him, on being refused the office of legate to An-
cona, which had been promised to him in the
conclave. His plot being discovered he fled,
and died at Itri in 1535, in his twenty-fourth
year, and was supposed to have been poisoned.
His house was an asylum for the unfortunate,
and often also for those who were guilty of the
the blackest crimes. He had a natural son
named Asdrubal de Medici, who was a knight of
Malta. He never put on the habit of cardinal,
except on occasions of public ceremony.
MEDICI (John de), on account of his bravery
and knowledge of military affairs, was surnamed
the Invincible. He was the son of John, or
Jourdain, de Medici. He first carried arms
under Laurence de Medici against the duke of
Urbino, and afterwards under pope Leo X. Upon
END OF
the death of Leo he entered into the service of
Francis I., which he quitted to follow the for-
tunes of Francis Sforza duke of Milan. When
Francis I. formed an alliance with the pope and
the Venetians against the emperor, he returned
to his service. He was wounded in the knee at
Governola by a musket-ball; and, being carried
to Mantua, died in 1526, aged twenty-eight. He
was above the middle stature, strong, and nervous.
His soldiers, to express their grief for his loss,
assumed a mourning dress and standards, which
procured them the name of the black band.
Cosmo the Great was his only son.
MEDICI (Alexander de), duke of Florence in
1530, a natural son of Laurence de Medici, sur-
named the Younger, nephew of pope Clement
VII. and duke of Urbino. He owed his eleva-
tion to the intrigues of his uncle, and to the arms
of Charles V., who, having made himself master
of Florence after an obstinate siege, conferred the
sovereignty of it on Alexander, and afterwards
gave him in marriage Margaret of Austria, his
natural daughter. According to the terms of
capitulation granted to the Florentines, the new
duke was to be only hereditary doge, and his au-
thority was tempered by councils; which left
them at least a shadow of their ancient liberty.
But Alexander, who felt himself supported by
the emperor and the pope, was no sooner in pos-
session of his new dignity, than he began to go-
vern like a tyrant. His excesses became at last
so intolerable that a conspiracy was formed
against him, and he was assasinated by his
relation Laurence de Medici, on the 6th of
January, 1537, in the twenty-sixth year of his
age. !
MEDICI (Cosmo de), surnamed the Great,
succeeded his relation Alexander after some
struggle with the Florentines, who failed in their
attempt to recover their liberty: but his govern-
ment was so mild and just that they hardly felt
the loss. He joined Charles V. against the
French, and as a reward for his services, the em-
peror, to the duchy of Tuscany, added Piom-
bino, the isle of Elba, and other states. Cosmo
soon after received from pope Pius IV. the title
of grand duke. He died in 1574, aged fifty-five,
after governing with equal wisdom and glory.
In 1562 he instituted the military order of St.
Stephen. His son, Francis-Mary, who died in
1587, was the father of Mary de Medici, the wife
of Henry the Great and of Ferdinand I., who
died in 1608.
VOL. XIII.
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